pF yguwh By ST ial egeds ETE Wejaleet? ‘ j “ on, ") ae | { ‘ ' papa tes Fey ay yo" inlet dathabe ter riba epi tetet 4 > Me Tits Pegs hae v2 gases at hus Satiaks Doped het at 1 fob oyeathy oh asst the y tele Votey ste? ; popes case taterls Vie hvety “er aaa iss AVI Cait? a ceed apie tat ean ease) oeishhad) barre pam ed 208 9% y a? aees rdiWedi ed} 2yres tab aoie commie y ‘. ‘ vehi gt fat * ~— 4 ' Thee gamit 4 4 Rabun epee rrergte eer *) ; Law pea oM eee PeleOappediel # 7 mvs Yes tna S Pole " ST spthatcese rope stat sail yeild sins : seat aaa? + perp ade M40) 8) ‘ Wer et eviball eb: sites ro ' scree) Drea ober ate rye jahancnesles : ’ hate bite rpaman 0g / Nada wat big oF \) hea ear eb tary 2 if) Sarre et epee yet ' aed 4 5? rE oe | ate Me UAE yas tee “ ‘al he Vi qei ep eter lt wet ert ue, agi paehollayebaapiad ile i teds! s eaeee Th eto ter ste pe jet ab Mane nae ob hae eee ee ob Caan Pasi i Sfp) 1a pha tae pity BES aged oar aes eet Ter Me err) "a at Oates vole sous tentyctd A H 4 re Vay benele to hta tamed amtaed wae var ts frre tes ot 1 Ahr) 90! yeas bats sepeh: MEM PEtgl | het ces er perl aAatahel tere ¢ Lee she tetahetat ane md oti sat 1] aihihad, aed aiaihi oye Pahoa peut Reh .*. eth Caehee # . hyhetey Det ah ake ha Aa OE bale Sates ae satel sa eniuat Li Agi’ yarn ee il sabbal aT hak eae? hey Me \igh as 4-504 EPIL eee rare ay eae A ypacmeed ecetas she ‘sand AVAL TRENY tes ctu se teas Nd epee a2 ee fs pas anh Da en ae Furs. 4 te ha reading Fy tnt as a s* | 4 Nesey iba ‘ ate shahe : ALES ' ; ' 7 ha itt , : ‘ fons nly L iy ’ i457 en eee 5 , : 1 4 ) ey CARER 4 : Phe pik aie tazaeege’ ecg ed ‘ i rf) 4, ieee Hog ; } h ; ing aad (ei 4! ad f si aa 4 met ends oq dine gerd a) ‘ i * 4 ‘ ‘ sas x fy . ‘ j 1A i v® 4 a: ‘ é ' ; z iim 4 eae . ‘ ’ e 4 ’ > fs < w 4% 3) re. het } i “ ‘ if: a) Heat rbd ahs 2 ageg sey wis wh be tice? Si ad eee se . 4:49 fisals Shece ah 2 pad} inte toad aahab eae? 4) dt sase ! rll + gan he 4) ie wate Pat? May 44 ob} pan eetent eeehit Fy awh ey rea) et dieiste i} { aay Perrcatay bid +8 EEC AL hp Ligyedi ed ve? rahe Tyee tlt ebay! sides Mire Pega ect A Shedeh Pat O PS Bad wee ws de beet prrpewer. 2. tid hades bre itis ae . . ats wa 4n3 tai Taped age ' , oad! Wee TF we’ r- are ' ayepi tet at x . - . ‘ ‘er Lame | J : Fh Coie ” ' “f Panne met . 4 , Sp ne ¢ 4 if ee wh ? + *)'§ i yo pera’ ' . reek ada? ilies iP ited ee e 4 ' i ta rh if sya y4; : i ' ‘ rir Aga.ay yt Nba gibs pelts | iat 5 ; «a ’ Y , vu rary thse: baer ten ter brags Nay 44) 79 Pm eo bt aed a a G Ades 5 4d hers land r! yogededs pagedt; * 19h? Mia aa } og , re Uta ee tep [lasbs reer ior, c itrcten teas ators ' . \ hed itd @ ; : ’ ' eeu ren Una joie asad : Godel apse re ‘ ‘ 5 ; \y) iad f teags i? Aperek) ip gaat bans 8 eee : i“ Jt 4 1? + roa ad ested Prcatttr Runs payeasgeesmeaee svt gover ag ate eee i / j ‘ ' mepereniirnt reir Leahy Ha sgdty of cent Hee to v4 akeee | Foti bae acoso : ‘ ‘ t eee ras poner ESMeU TY UU Lables bee a ae Oe) | whens ic : ; " F ‘ Peer er oT Tal bl siawaas eagaaraTaeti dss Eh adhd art be aaa Gasvaiae: aie wre say ewe Y , wy st bi bees Pieri ys weeds vie i odae® yuan woe vee ; ; Sear reagan at a ‘ wast 4) t F . +; Lepdt AO a voews iat > ae 43 : " Fy ATER! ),! STigevsae yt Bah daee pate bear stati 494 rt) r ,, ays (| Tug? | rpeud = Be! wb ie ay gheeee aeore 4a gqaidaee eit aN Fy ve ‘ , . ee 4 ' she ‘at olde beige hd gad eb Erh ee eee Tart Mined bet . d eat! , ‘ ory ; ii opted valine Mireseh svuitd at ; a eo » «+ ue 2°) Meee Oe et hyd. aa yi yest Reds oH) ‘| ia { siete: i: eee et y pet fi Sota ass) M wo akey dite vss ai aate hire A Tet oe wet rr sate -_ A BL” + h 2 KA Ores ABD PNG A enon were, Veesbevely Se seelS yyge ts Se yeure wv Vwww"’> bg = bey CESS ~Vyw" ~S aw GAA } GPOS /< OID SIDI wxevovet eee ce veway weenie, ¢€ 4 SIPS IM : ANIA ATA gee AN vutewY VA wwe wy ww we : ais : w* =eUus ba rey cre uiagreeeareewr es “We Werte “Wypaveevevn where page et: Cee cee cere Vw vouvis ‘wv dw NNW iyuae ree yi: os oF [ + ose Pest w AN SU SS Yer Uic sh were oh ps 7 idelahade od y y per rreseeneeye seveun vw ¥ Sd VDP 45 & FAS Oe ¥ Te ey Suttle. Wylie, ae Co evewens evry: hy Nua wy ey ~ w C LS SAK | os : wy . weddtgysltyy wr'y’Y ME Swe ASIA IIS aaaaeveeerie fever veges” “wives ppd hAAd AL |)” see err Vues: c UN — ~ Bone Ls ow owe ST = A wt ASTRA abld pe e WAS WOW ees: GIRIIAL ALS ddd abd 7 Yur ~ = yw < “2 PAY Nd “iw wis @ = wees vuure Nese twe vtuwvesiycsryyet =<. gyueveys viyw"e. im . ~~ omy i Aopahaek: a ow we oe by 1s Dee St Niet a i) Se ote Wee WuvnvICe cow vwse wun Cc ee rote Lee verity Ueuyyt ae w~ —— % As we ~t [= 2. ee ~ AN ail ad | i fed =. — Sr y¥_ — ow aly =a =8§=JOURNAL : WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 16, 1926 | oe Bot * BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucstiy GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AGNES CHASE DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. Stose BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices BOTANICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ERRATA Vol. 16, 1926 Page 88, 14th line from bottom; for ‘‘tendon’”’ read ‘‘tenon,’’ and, end of line, read “neatly”? for ‘‘nearly.”’ Page 88, 12th line from bottom, close ‘‘)’’ after “long’’ and insert ‘“‘,’’ after “‘branch.’’ Page 91, lines 9 and 10, change to read “‘it appeared that, after becoming loaded with the molecules, they could not pass.” Page 91, line 22, delete ‘‘which.”’ Page 91, 9th line from bottom, for ‘‘could”’ read ‘‘may.”’ Page 168, line next to last, change ‘‘maise”’ to ‘‘maize.”’ Page 284, line 2, change “‘Sasinto”’ to ‘‘Jacinto.”’ Page 433, line 2 of heading, change initial “‘T.”’ to “‘L.”’ Page 469, line 6, for ‘‘and Oligocene”’ read ‘‘an Oligocene.’’ No. 1 JASHINGTON ACADEMY ' OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewerr - S. J. Maucuiy GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS iL H. Apams 8. A. RoHwER _ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY _ BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY gE A. ovbMan G, W. Stross gi - BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices J. R. SwANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY tle KIER IASTp CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2eht ] Ip: — ur laps PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY d A N 1 i 19" ? 6 EXCEPT IN aga AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MON me ath “2% BY THE are: gee + ant WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Senn - My, Royan anp GuILFoRD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND re bs: Entered as Second Class Matter, Jontary 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNnAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: 1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; — (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALis issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be partly met by the author. Proof.—tIn order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices. Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover 50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00 100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50 150 2:20 4.30 5.20 6.50 3.00 200 2.50 4.80 5.75 7.00 3.50 250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00 An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page. Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi- nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscrintion per volume-@S, oo 600320 OU Se eek ous te $6 .00* Semi-monthly numbers, . 065.25 ice olics ewes pales bas sd ee ay dees nD eee 25 Monthly: nimibers..%6 or i iinet Sake ee ca kee oo eee te .50 Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. OC. European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 JANUARY 4, 1926 No. 1 VOLCANOLOGY.—The eruption of Santorini in 1925. H. S. WasHINGTON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. | The small island group of Santorini, among the southernmost islands of the Greek Archipelago, is well known through the monumental work of Fouqué,’ who described the island and its eruptions, especially that of 1866-70. I was able to study the present eruption during the 13th—20th of September last, in company with Prof. K. A. Ktenas, of the University of Athens and his assistant, Dr. P. Kokkoros. At the date of writing, three short notes on the early stages of the erup- tion, by Prof. Ktenas and others, have appeared.’ Since the explosion that formed the central lagoon in the original prehistoric voleano (Fig. 1), volcanic activity has been almost ex- clusively confined to a group of small islands in the center of the lagoon, the products of eruptions of different, and all historic, times (Fig. 2). The dates of the chief of these eruptions and the names given to the cones are as follows: Palaia Kaimeni,‘ 46 A. D.; Mikra Kaimeni, 1570 A. B.; Nea Kaimeni, 1707-1711 A. D.; and Giorgios Kaimeni, 1866-70. This last was in a feebly fumarolic state when I visited it in 1893. For the present voleano, Prof. Ktenas® has pro- posed the name Fouqué Kaimeni, in honor of the eminent French savant, and I gladly adopt his very appropriate name. After some feeble, apparently preliminary, earthquakes at the end 1 Received December 3, 1925. 2F. Fouqué, Santorin et ses Eruptions, Paris, 1879. 3K. A. Ktenas, C.R. Acad. Sci. 181: 376. 1925; Georgalas and Liatsikas, ditto, p. 425; Ktenas, ditto, p. 518. 4 Kaimeni (meaning burnt) is the modern Greek term for the voleanic cones. Palaia Kaimeni is not shown in Fig. 2. = Ktenas,' C. R. 18h: 377. 1925. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 1 of July and during the first nine days of August, the eruption began on August 11,° and the volcano has been in a continuous state of activity ” o ee s tax, Wh . xs =e = Egan e \ ee er dee in bas = * as = ~ 2 * te ‘ “er 5 * ~ : PA ¥ ° ’ ' a Fig. 1.—Map of the Santorini Group, prior to the eruption of 1925 ever since, or at least until October 27, according to a note kindly sent me by Prof. Ktenas. The initial center was submarine, in the strait 6 For some details as to the early stages I avail myself of the data in the three papers cited above, in addition to information obtained during my visit. JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 3 between Mikra Kaimeni and Nea Kaimeni, and apparently about half way between their craters (x in Fig. 2). An islet was formed and lava flows were poured out, which flowed east and north in the narrow NORD. A i. ee Bobote Mai : ca Fig. 2.—The central islands of Santorini (from Fouqué, Plate XXIX), showing Fouqué Kaimeni (IF. K.) and the two lava flows. September 19, 1925. channel, gradually filling it and rising several meters above the pre- vious water level. When I left September 20 the northern flow had practically ceased moving, but the eastern flow was slowly pushing out into the lagoon, and was still in motion on October 27. A small 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 lava flow also extended to the south, on the flat land east of the cone of Giorgios. The lava flows were of the usual Santorini type—loose agglomerate of large and small, angular blocks. An immediate evidence of flow was that these blocks would fall down or tumble over each other from time to time, as the more continuous lava flow, of which they formed the upper part, moved slowly onward. Where the flows entered the lagoon the water was very hot. Dr. Kokkoros measured temperatures up to 69°, and at places near the flows the water was apparently boiling, or almost so. Much steam was given off, and at times there was a rather strong odor of H.8 from the water. Near this part of the shore the lagoon water was colored bright yellow or orange, from the hydrolytic precipitation of iron hydroxide. The material of the lava flows and of the ejected blocks is a hyper- sthene andesite that in megascopic and microscopic appearance closely resembles the generality of the Santorini lavas, being dense, black, and highly vitreous. A chemical analysis by Miss Keyes shows that it contains 64.99 per cent of Si0., and that otherwise it is almost identical chemically with other lavas of Santorini, of different dates, that have been analysed.’ A description of the petrographical and chemical features must await a later publication, but attention should be called here to the very remarkable and almost unique constancy in. physical, modal, and chemical characters that the Santorini lavas exhibit, from the earliest times until the present day. A good view of Fouqué Kaimeni was to be had with binoculars from the town of Phira, about 2 miles east-northeast. From this point the spectacle at night was magnificent. Near-by views of the dome were to be had from the lagoon, although these were not very satisfactory. Attempts to see and study the eruption from the sum- mit of Nea Kaimeni and the north slope of Giorgios were frustrated by showers of stones, but finally on September 19 good view-points were found along the ridge of the easterly flow of Giorgios Kaimeni, about 500 meters from and about due south of the dome (S in Fig. 2). From this ridge on September 19, Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to form alow circular dome, estimated by me to be nearly 150 meters in di- ameter and about 50 meters high. During our stay its form changed continually, the summit being for a time flat and truncated, again 7Ci. H. S. Washington, C. R. XII Cong. Géol. Int., 235. 1914. 8 Ktenas (op. cit., 181: 520. 1925) estimates the diameter at not over 100-120 meters and the height at about 75 meters. According to him the height of the lava flow in the strait is 20-48 meters above sea level. There would seem to have been some ascensional movement at the east end since my departure. JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 5) regularly domal, and again asymmetrical, with an apex at the west side. The dome appeared to be formed of a carapace of solid lava, much cracked and fissured, a brilliant red incandescence being visible at night, but only rarely during the day. The cracks and fissures were constantly altering their position and, although we thought that the dome was a more or less continuous carapace, yet it is possible that it consisted mainly of a mass of loose, piled up lava blocks. No definite crater was visible. The dome rested upon a plateau formed by the earlier lava flows and, to judge from the observations made on September 19 and from Ktenas’ map, the center of activity had shifted, from its initial site in the strait, to a point a couple of hundred meters to the south, that is, onto the previously existing shore terrace. A battery of white-vapored fumaroles was in constant activity at the top of the east slope of Nea Kaimeni. The voleanic activity of Fouqué Kaimeni was continuous but ir- regularly pulsatory in intensity, and there were at least three kinds of eruption, one being practically uninterrupted, while the other two were intermittent. (1). From the north end of the Fouqué dome there rose almost continuously a vertical column of white or yellowish vapor, thin at the base and gradually expanding, that attained heights of about 200 meters or more. ‘This gave rise to a loud hissing noise and was unac- companied by the ejection of stones or ash. Another similar blast of white steam issued, with less force but with intermittent suddenness, from the southeast side of the dome, being projected upward at an angle of rather less than 45° from the horizontal. (2). The most violent explosions were dominantly of Mercalli’s vuleanian type, although there was, at times, some admixture of the strombolian. ‘These spectacular ejections took place from or near the summit of the dome, but apparently not from a fixed point or crater. ‘They occurred at irregular intervals, and consisted of a suc- cession of huge puffs, generally accompanied by aloud and deep roar. Some were practically noiseless. The successive puffs, as at many ‘other volcanoes, formed a thick column, of the usual ‘‘cauliflower”’ type, that attained varied heights, from 500 to 2000 meters and more, gradually thinning out and drifting to leeward at still greater heights. These cauliflower columns were white to dark gray in color, apparently composed very largely of water vapor, highly charged with gray lapilli, sand, and fine ash. There was a scarcely perceptible odor of H.S at about 500 meters to leeward. The emission of the cauliflower columns was generally accompanied by the violent ejection of many solid blocks of lava, that attained heights of 200-300 meters, and often 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 much more. ‘The stones were scattered in all directions and to con- siderable distances, some being found by us near the small harbor of St. George, about 600 meters to the west. It was reported that some had fallen on the shallow former anchorage, the ‘‘Banko,”’ about one kilometer to the east, so that this was abandoned by shipping. In daylight most of the ejected stones appeared black, only a few being dull red; but at night they were brilliantly red, forming a magnificent spectacle, as has been said. These blocks varied much in size, from that of one’s fist to lengths of 50, 60, or more centimeters. On impact with the ground they broke up, and there was further cracking from the strains set up as the glass cooled. We found no rounded bombs nor other masses evidently ejected in a fluid condition, nor were there any bread crust bombs. We could see no electrical discharges in the columns, either by day or by night. (3). The third kind of explosion was most unusual—indeed, I can recall no record in the literature of anything exactly like it, although something similar appears to have occurred at Giorgios in April, 1866,° and the eruption of Novarupta, near Katmai in Alaska!° may have presented some analogous features. ‘The probable cause of the phenomenon will be discussed in a subsequent paper. As studied with the glass from Phira at night, the foot of the dome of Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to be often partly surrounded by a thin ring» of bright red incandescense, evidently an encircling crevice. Occasion- ally an outer brilliant concentric crevice was visible here and there. These crevices were not evident in the daytime from our viewpoint on September 19, but at intervals there issued from the site of the crevice, at the foot of the dome on the west and southwest sides, a semicircular or quarter-circular series or battery of narrow jets of white or light gray vapor. These jets always exploded simultaneously and formed a crown around the dome. They were approximately equidistant from each other, and not far apart—possibly not more than 10 to 20 meters. They reached altitudes of only about 50 or 100 meters, possibly a trifle more. It seemed that the emission of these series of jets usually preceded the great vulcanian explosions, or were at least coincident with them. I would venture to suggest that the technical term coronet be used for this type of volcanic explosion. At night, from Phira, a few flames were to be seen playing over the dome. These were mostly bluish, but some were yellow or red. They were not visible in the daylight from points near the dome. ® Fouqué, op. cit., p. 75. 10 Cf. C..N. Fenner, Jour. Geol. 28: 588. 1920; and Tech. Papers Nat. Geogr. Soc., Katmai Series, 1: 55. 1928. JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 7 The inhabitants of Phira and the other towns were somewhat panicky, fearing serious damage to buildings from the volcano or from earthquakes. In our opinion there is scarcely a possibility of danger that the towns on Thera and Therasia will suffer serious damage from the voleano, and probably not from earthquakes, although the vine- yards may be damaged from falling ash, especially when the vines begin to burgeon in the spring. As to the future, it appears to be probable, from analogy with other recent eruptions at Santorini, that the eruption of Fouqué will be of considerable duration—at least one year and probably several years. ATOMIC PHYSICS.—WNote on the LyLy, levels of the atoms Si, P, S, Cl. Samurt K. Auiison. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.! : Many investigators have made measurements of the energy levels of atoms by means of experiments on the photo-electric effect of the radiations given off by these atoms when they are excited by various means. ‘This method is particularly useful in the region between the softest X-rays which can be studied by crystalline diffraction and the shortest wave-lengths in the ultra violet which can be studied with gratings as in the experiments of Millikan. In some cases it has been possible to compare the energy level values obtained by these photo-electric methods with those obtainable by the ordinary methods of X-ray spectroscopy, either directly, or by appli- cation of the combination principle. In the cases in which it has been possible to carry out such comparisons, it has often been found that no convincing agreements could be obtained. For instance, the meas- urements by Rollefson? of some critical potentials of iron which he ascribes to the L and M series are difficult to reconcile with the recent measurement of the La and 8 lines of iron by Siegbahn and Thoraeus.? It is the purpose of this note to call attention to the fact that recent X-ray measurements by Ray‘ and Backlin,® together with the older measurements of Lindh*:? make possible a rather rigid comparison between the two experimental methods for obtaining the Ly and Li limits of Si, P,S, and Cl. The experiments of these investigators 1 Received December 1, 1925. 2 Rollefson, Phys. Rev. 23: 35. 1924. 3 Siegbahn and Thoraeus, Arkiv. f. Mat. Astr. Fys. 18: No. 24. 1924. See also Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.), p. 238. 4Ray, Phil. Mag. 50: 505. 1925. ’ Bicklin, Zs. f. Phys. 33: 547. 1925. 6 Lindh, Diss. Lund. (1923.) 7 Lindh, Zs. f. Phys. 31: 210. 1925. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 make it clear that the energy levels of these light atoms depend in value on the particular chemical combination in which the atom is involved. From their results it is now possible to calculate the values of the Ly In levels of these atoms in different chemical combinations. | TABLE 1.—\ AND v/R VALUES FOR Kaps AND Kane ELEMENT COMPOUND UX.U ym v/R Kai A, v/R Kaz Si0, O007 25. 1Saaceo 7106.83. 128.224 14 Si ee | : Si Gol; 135.38 7109.17 128.182 P05 5751.5 158.44 6141.71 148.374 1 BNE 7 ANTS A EAS BNE TLE) ARE Peed 5767.4 158.00 6144.43 148.308 2 MSO, 4987.9 182.70 5358.50 170.061 || 5360.90 169.984 16 See ee |e eee | ree S 5008.8 181.93 5360.90 169.984 |} 5363.90 169.889 NaClo, 4369.4 208.56 (4715) (193.3) 17 Cl ae) a EE ee KCl 4382.9 207.92 4718.21 193.1389 | 4721.18 193.017 The result of such a calculation is shown in the tables. The wavelengths have been obtained from the following sources. The K, critical absorption wave-lengths of the compounds of P, 8, Cl, as well as of the elements themselves, are taken from the disserta- tion’ of Lindh. The value for the K, limit of S10, and Si was obtained by Lindh at a later date.’ The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka doublet of Si, P in P.O;, and of the Ka, line of Cl in KCl have been taken from the early measurements of Hjalmar.® : Recently Backlin® has measured the doublet separation of these lines for Si and P in various compounds but apparently no new ab- solute measurements of the wave-lengths have been made. ‘The wave- lengths of the Ka doublet in sulfur and sulfates (MSO.) have been taken from the work of Ray. The wave-length of the Ka, line of Cl in KCl is obtained from Ka, by the recent measurement of Backlin® of the doublet separation. The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka doublet in SiO, and red P have been obtained from the old measure-— ments of Hjalmar on Si and P.O;, by means of the results of Backlin® on the shift of these lines with varying chemical combination. A hypothetical wave-length for the unresolved Ka doublet in Cl in NaClO, has been inserted on the assumption that a shift of the doublet 8 Hjalmar, Phil. Mag. 41: 675. 1921. JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 9 of the same order of magnitude as found by Backlin between the lower and highest valences of Si, P, and S occurs. Due to this assumption an error of as much as 1 volt may be introduced into the Ly Ly; levels of Clin NaClO, in Table 3. Vv TABLE 2.—— VALUES OF L LEVELS R ELEMENT 5 COMPOUND Ly Lit Si0, 7.63 14 Si Si 7.20 P30; 10.07 15 P ier SEIT ST Feed 9.69 MSO, 1 agp 12.64 168 2 See ee S 12.04 11.95 NaCloO, L573) t7 Cl KCl 14.90 14.78 TABLE 3.—L LEVELS IN VOLTS Joti Sakae CRITICAL JoNTBAmION VOLTAGE Element Compound | oe i Compound er S102 103.4 14 Si Si $7.5 SiH, 98 = 2 P30; 136.4 ie Pred [eS PH; 128 = 2 MSO, 172.3 a2 168 N) 163.1 161.9 HS 163 = 1 NaClO, (207) 17 Cl ee : KCl 201.8 200.2 HCl 203 = 1 Holweck? has made measurements of the L;; Ly, energy levels of the elements Si, P, S, Cl by an ingenious method which differs con- siderably from the usual photo-electric methods. It is essentially a measurement of the critical ionisation potential of gaseous com- pounds of these elements by increasing the highest frequency in a beam 9 Holweck, Compt. rend. 180: 658. 1925. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 of X-rays partially absorbed in an ionisation chamber filled with a gaseous compound of the element in question until a sudden increase in the ion current through the chamber shows that a critical frequency has been reached. ‘The skillful technique which enables this method to be applied to very soft X-rays has been described by Holweck. In this work the gaseous compounds SiH., PH;, H.S, and HCl were used. The results for the Ly, Ly limits of $i, P, 8, Cl in these compounds are given in Table 3, and are there to be compared with the values obtained from X-ray data for other compounds. Such a comparison has been indicated by Turner.!° The X-ray data available at that time indicated a discrepancy between the results of Holweck and X-ray predictions, but it will be seen that the present agreement is good. It is evident from Table 3 that the X-ray data indicate an energy difference in volts between the LyLy, levels of these atoms in their highest and lower valencies which is greater than the experimental error which Holweck ascribes to his measurements, and in fact his data agree well with the lower valencies (in $i, P, S with the elements them- selves) and disagree definitely with the higher valency values. The necessity of taking account of the particular chemical com- pound involved in seeking agreement between data in this region has been emphasized by Siegbahn." The agreement between Holweck’s measurements on the hydrides and the X-ray values for the free elements in the case of Si, P, 8, indicates that the difference between the energy level values of the hydrides and those of the free element is much less than that between those of the free element and its higher ‘‘positive’’ valence compounds with oxygen. Such a result is perhaps not at variance with modern chemical ideas as to the type of linkage in these compounds. SUMMARY By application of the combination principle it is possible to calculate the energy values of the L,, Ly, levels in the atoms Si, P, 8, Cl in various compounds from recent X-ray data. ‘The resulting values are compared with a determination of these levels in the hydrides of these atoms which was carried out by Holweck by photo-electric methods. The results show that for Si, P, S these levels have very nearly the same energy in the hydrides as in the elementary substance itself, but that in the higher oxides of these elements there is an ap- preciable difference in this respect between the element and oxide. 10 Turner, Phys. Rev. 26: 148. 1925. (Footnote p. 145.) 11 Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.) p. 241. JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 11 BOTANY.—A new circumneutral soil prickly-pear from the Middle Atlantic States. Epcgar T. Wurrry, Bureau of Chemistry. Jn the course of studies upon the relation between soil reaction and the distribution of native plants, the prickly-pears of the north- eastern states have received some attention, and evidence has been found that, instead of the single species listed by Britton and Rose,? there are actually at least four species represented in this region. One of these appears to have been hitherto unrecognized, and the name Opuntia calcicola is here proposed for it, in reference to its frequent growth on calcareous rocks. ‘The differences between them may now be considered. AcID-SoIL SPECIES Opuntia compressa.—The most widespread of these prickly-pears is the one long known as Opuntia vulgaris Miller, now believed to be more correctly designated as Opuntia opuntia (L.) Karsten under codes permitting dupli- cate binomials, or preferably as O. compressa (Salisbury) Macbride. The center of distribution of this species appears to be in the Piedmont of Virginia and adjoining states; it ranges southward to an as yet unknown distance—possibly though not certainly into the Applachian Plateau prov- ince in Alabama—and northward into the Appalachian Valley province of central New York state, the northern Coastal Plain in New Jersey, and the New England Upland in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In all of these regions it grows in rocky or sandy soil which shows a distinctly or often a strongly acid reaction (subacid to mediacid). This is a prostrate plant with fibrous roots; the jointsare orbicular to oblong, averaging 8 to 10 cm. long, rather thick in proportion to their length (except in shaded situations, when they may become much elongated and thinned) and in color (following Ridgway’s Color Standards) dull grayish green-yellow, either ‘‘jade green” (27’’ k) or adjacent hues; the leaves are 4 to 5 mm. long, and more or less appressed; slender brown and white-banded spines, about 0.8 mm. thick and 2 cm. long, are occasionally present, one or rarely two to an areole; the numerous glochids are pale dull orange-yellow, near ‘‘deep colonial buff”’ (21’’b); the flowers are pure yellow (‘lemon yellow’, 23), and about 7 cm. in diameter, with 8 or 10 petals; the fruit is obovoid, 3 to 4 em. long and 1.5 to 2.0 cm. in diameter at the top, more than twice as long as wide only exceptionally in crowded situations; and the seeds are 4 to 5 mm. broad, with a prominent roundish keel. Opuntia pollardiz.—Though usually recorded as limited to the southern states, this species actually extends at least as far north as eastern Maryland and Delaware, if not into New Jersey, growing typically in the subacid to mediacid Coastal Plain sands. It is distinguished from the preceding by having sweet-potato-like thickenings on its roots; thick and stubby joints of 1 Britton and Rose, The Cactaceae 1: 127. 1919. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 somewhat more bluish green color (near ‘‘cress green”’, 29’’k) ; more spreading leaves; stouter spines 1.5 to 2 mm. thick and 2 to 4 cm. long; and seeds having an even thicker keel. CIRCUMNEUTRAL-SOIL SPECIES Opuntia humifusa.—Though sometimes included under Opuntia compressa, the plant from west of the Appalachian Mountains, ranging over the Interior Low Plateau and Central Lowland provinces, from Tennessee to Illinois and Ohio, has several features which distinguish it. It appears to be limited to limestone rock ledges and calcareous gravel. It grows more erect, with larger and relatively thinner joints, usually bearing a glaucous coating, so that their color is near “deep dull yellow green” (31’’k), although old joints from which the glaucous coating has disappeared may be similar in hue to those of O. compressa; the areoles are fewer and more widely spaced; the leaves are longer and more spreading; 3 to 5 cm. spines are frequently de- veloped; the glochids are strikingly different, being orange-brown in color, near “‘ferruginous” (9/1) when fresh, becoming ‘‘tawny”’ (13/1) with age; the flowers often have a red center, owing to a triangular blotch of orange-red (“scarlet,”’ 5) at the base of each petal; and the fruit is normally longer in proportion to its width. | Opuntia calcicola Wherry, sp. nov.—Growing on limestone and in other circumneutral soils in the Appalachian Valley and adjacent portions of other provinces, there is another type of prickly pear, which lies in many respects intermediate between O. compressa and O. humifusa yet seems sufficiently distinct from either to justify its separation. Its characters are as follows: Planis ascending, with fibrous roots. Joints oblong to obovate, mostly from 7 to 21 cm. long, 4 to 8 cm. wide, and 5 to 9 mm. thick; color a dull grayish yellow-green, ranging from about ‘‘chromium green” (31/1) on young joints bearing more or less glaucous coating, to ‘‘krénbergs green” (25’’k) on oldones. Areolesfew and widely spaced. Leaves spreading, early deciduous, 6 to 8 mm. long and 1.5 mm. thick, dull green-yellow, around ‘‘mignonette green” (25’1), toward the tip often of a dull orange-brown, such as “‘sayal brown” (15’1) or asimilar color. Spines none, except for a few small whitish ones on seedling plants. Glochids numerous, pale grayish orange-yellow approximating to ‘‘chamois’” (19’’b). Wool similar in hue to glochids, but paler, near “cartridge buff’ (19’’f). Flowers numerous, 7 to 10 cm. broad, opening during June; petals 10 to 14, pure yellow (“lemon yellow,” 23). Stamens about 150, 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long; filaments somewhat more orange- colored than petals, often ‘“‘lemon chrome” (21); anthers pale whitish yellow, “Gvory yellow” (21’’f). Style 1.8 to 2.2 cm. long, more or less yellow-colored; stigma lobes 3 mm. long, yellowish gray. Fruit slender obovoid, normally 3.5 to 4.5 em. long by 1.2 to 1.5 cm. wide at the top, thus three times as long as thick; on ripening becoming dull grayish red, “hay’s maroon” (1’m) and adjacent colors; seeds 4.5 to 5 mm. in diameter, 2.5 to 3 mm. thick, with an acute-edged keel rather less prominent than in its relatives, in color grayish orange-yellow, near ‘‘clay color” (17”’). As the type locality may be designated an occurrence on the west side of the JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 13 B. & O. R. R. tracks, a short distance north of Bolivar, Jefferson County, West Virginia. Type specimens, collected here on June 9, 1925, have been deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium (no. 1,242,156, type) and the New York Botanical Garden. The photograph reproduced as figure 1 was taken at that time and place, and brings out the lack of spines and the long fruit. This plant has been thus far observed at the following localities: On lime- stone at two places about 2 km. (1.5 miles) north of Luray (in one locality covering several acres) and at Overall, Page County, Virginia; on brown shale (Devonian) at several places in the vicinity of Moorefield, Hardy County, Fig. 1. Opuntia calcicola Wherry, new species West Virginia; on shaly limestone along B. & O. R. R., at Martinsburg, Berke- ley County, West Virginia; on dolomitic limestone near Bolivar, Jefferson Co., West Virginia (type locality); on red shale (Triassic) 6 km. (4 miles) south-southwest of Poolesville, Montgomery County, Maryland; and on limestone near Mechanicsburg, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania. Soil reaction ranging from specific acidity 10 to specific alkalinity 10, thus typi- cally circumneutral. In the report on the Living Flora of West Virginia by Millspaugh, published by the state in 1913, the occurrence at Moorefield is referred to in the tabulation (p. 309) as Opuntia Opuntia, but in the intro- duction (p. 15) as the western Opuntia polyacantha; as the latter species, true 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 to its name, bears numerous spines, while the West Virginia plant has none at all, this was a curious case of misidentification. Opuntia calcicola differs, then, from its relative, O. compressa, in often grow- ing on limestone, or in any case on rocks yielding circumneutral soils, in being more upstanding in habit, in having longer and relatively thinner joints of somewhat more bluish coior, in the areoles being wide-spaced, and in lacking spines. ‘The flowers are similar in color but larger, and the fruit is normally decidedly longer in proportion to its thickness, the seeds having a more acute and less prominent keel. Even allowing for some variation in these respects shown by the widespread O. compressa, the distinctness of the two seems evident. After the aspect of these plants is once in mind, as a result of ob- serving them at one or two typical localities, it is possible to tell which is represented in a given colony from a considerable distance, and this may be regarded as a final criterion of the separateness of the species. BOTANY.—WNew plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus. Pau C. STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum. The nine species of plants here described as new form part of a large and interesting collection made in the State of Chiapas, Mexico, in 1925 by Mr. C. A. Purpus. Mr. Purpus’ Mexican collections are too well known to need comment. Many of the new species found in them were described by the late Townshend 8. Brandegee in a ~ series of papers entitled ‘‘Plantae Mexicanae Purpusianae,” the last of which was issued in 1924.” Neea chiapensis Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets terete, pale brownish, minutely and densely grayish-puberulent at first but quickly glabrate; leaves opposite, or the upper verticillate, the petioles slender, 1.2—3.cm. long, glabrate, the blades elliptic or broadly elliptic, 7.5-15 em. long, 4.5—7 em. wide, abruptly acute or acuminate, at’ base acutish or abruptly acute, rarely rounded, thin, glabrous, the lateral nerves very slender, about 7 on each side, arcuate, laxly and irregularly anastomosing near the margin; pistillate inflorescence few-flowered, on a slender peduncle 5 em. long; fruit elliptic-oblong, 18 mm. long, 9 mm. thick, the stone com- pressed, coarsely costate. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,246, collected in a ravine in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 271). No. 414, from the same locality, is perhaps referable here, but in this the leaves are much smaller. The fruit is immature. All the Central American species of Neea are closely related. This one is similar in most respects to N. psychotrioides Donn. Smith, but in that the leaves are relatively narrower and shorter-petioled, and the fruit only half as large. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 10: 403-421. JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 15 Zanthoxylum tenuipes Standl., sp. nov. E, Branchlets unarmed or bearing stout broad-based prickles 1 cm. long; petioles terete, 2-3 cm. long; leaves odd-pinnate, the rachis setulose-hirtellous, the leaflets 5-9, opposite or the lower sometimes alternate, sessile or nearly so, ovate to oblong-elliptic, 3.5-6 cm. long, 1.5-38 cm. wide, acute or obtuse, thin, remotely and very shallowly glandular-crenate or subentire, deep green and somewhat lustrous above, paler beneath, sparsely setulose-hirtellous on both surfaces; inflorescences, axillary, lax, few-flowered, paniculate, much shorter than the leaves, slender-pedunculate, the branches very slender, sparsely setulose, the pedicels almost filiform, 6-8 mm. long, glabrous; follicle 1,very oblique, produced at base, glabrous, coarsely glandular-punctate, 5mm. long; seeds black and shining, 4 mm. long, sharp-edged. Type in the U: 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,237, collected in rocky 2ulch in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, July, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 126). Perhaps related to Z. mollissimum (Engler) P. Wilson, but easily recog- nized by the very long and slender pedicels and scant pubescence. Buddleia purpusii Standl., sp. nov. Branches quadrangular, densely stellate-tomentose, the tomentum loose, whitish or fulvescent; leaves sessile, lanceolate, 6—-8.5 cm. long, 1.7—3 cm. wide, attenuate to an acute apex, cuneate at base, finely serrate-dentate with acute teeth, entire toward the base, green above, gland-dotted and rather finely stellate-tomentose, the venation impressed, beneath densely tomentose with a tomentum of loose whitish hairs; flowers sessile in dense few-flowered heads, the heads spicate, the spikes panicled; spikes 2-5 cm. long, about 8 mm. thick, . ‘sessile, interrupted below, dense and continuous above, often branched; calyx densely stellate-tomentose, the lobes 1-1.5 mm. long, narrowly triangu- lar; corolla densely tomentose outside, 2mm. long, the lobes ovate-triangular, obtuse; capsule densely tomentose, equaling the calyx lobes. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,235, collected along creek near Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 160). Jacquemontia mollissima Standl., sp. nov. Woody vine, the stems red-brown, with few large pale lenticels, when young densely stellate-tomentose with lax spreading hairs; petioles 3-7 mm. long; leaf blades ovate or oval-ovate, 1.5-8 em. long, 1-2 em. wide, acute to rounded at apex, sometimes apiculate, rounded or subcordate at base, above densely stellate-pilose, the hairs very slender, long, and soft, with few rays, _ beneath densely tomentose with long soft whitish hairs; flowers few, solitary or fasciculate in the leaf axils, the pedicels 2-3 mm. long; sepals 3-3.5 mm. long, oval or rounded, rounded at apex, the outer ones densely tomentose; corolla (probably white) 8-10 mm. long, glabrous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,236, collected on ae 2a at Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus no. 47). | In general appearance this plant suggests J. nodiflora (Desr.) Don, but in that the sepals are glabrous, and the tomentum of the leaves fine and close. Columnea purpusii Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, the branches very stout, pale brownish or ochrace- ous, leafy near the tips, sparsely pilose with appressed or ascending hairs; 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 petioles 4-8 mm. long, densely villous-pilose with ascending, septate, whitish or purplish hairs; leaf blades narrowly elliptic-oblong or lance-oblong, 4-9.5 em. long, 1-2 cm. wide, acute or acuminate, at base obliquely acute, glabrous above, beneath paler, sparsely setose-pilose along the nerves with pale appressed hairs, sometimes with a few appressed hairs between the nerves, the lateral nerves 3 or 4 on each side, ascending at an acute angle; flowers solitary in the leaf axils, the pedicels 4-12 mm. long, villous-pilose; calyx lobes narrowly lanceo- late, rounded at base, 16-18 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, attenuate to an acute apex, ciliate, sparsely appressed-pilose outside, entire; corolla bright red, rather densely shorter-villous, the tube 4.5-5 cm. long, 7-9 mm. broad in the throat, the upper lip 2.5-38 em. long, straight, the lower lip 1.5 em. long, linear- lanceolate, recurved, the lateral lobes about 1 cm. long, obtuse; anther sacs 2am. lone: Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,240, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 239). No. 96 from the same locality also represents the species. Only three species of Columnea have been reported from Mexico. C. flava Mart. & Gal. has yellow flowers. C. erythrophoea Decaisne is closely related to C. purpusii, but has cordate and dentate, rose-colored calyx lobes. C. schiedeana Schlecht. is distinguished from the present plant by its spotted corolla and copiously pubescent leaves. Columnea stenophylla Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, the branches reddish or pale brownish, when young pilose with stiff, appressed or ascending, septate hairs; petioles stout, 3-5 mm. long, pilose; leaf blades linear-lanceolate to linear, 6—9.5 em. long, 0.5-1.5 cm. wide, long-attenuate, obliquely acute at base, glabrous above, beneath paler, sparsely pilose with very slender, long, appressed, lustrous hairs, the lateral nerves inconspicuous; pedicels axillary, solitary, 4-8 mm. long, pilose with ascending hairs; calyx lobes lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 15-18 mm. long, 2.5-5 mm. wide, long-attenuate, rounded at base, entire, green, densely appressed-pilose with very slender, whitish, multiseptate hairs; corolla bright red, densely villous with very long, slender, spreading, red hairs, the tube 4.5 cm. long, 9 mm. wide in the throat, the upper lip broadly oblong, rounded at apex, 3 cm. long, 1.3 cm. wide, the lower lip triangular-oblong, 1.5 cm. long, acutish, the lateral lobes obtuse, 1-1.5 em. long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 567513, collected at Finca Irlanda, Chiapas, Mexico, June, 1914, by C. A. Purpus (no. 7206). Collected also at Cafetal Copalito, Oaxaca, May, 1917, by Blas P. Reko (no. 3894). A relative of C. purpusii but distinguished by the narrow leaves and the long pubescence of the corolla. The species of Columnea are among the most beautiful plants of tropical America because of the large, brightly colored (usually red) flowers. Only a few species reach the mountains of southern Mexico, but in Costa Rica the genus attains probably its greatest development, and the number of species occurring there is very large. Hillia chiapensis Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, glabrous throughout; stipules oblong to obovate, 3-4 mm. long, rounded at apex, caducous; petioles 2 mm. long or less; leaf JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 17 blades elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 9-14 mm. long, 4-7 mm. wide, rounded at apex, obtuse or acutish at base, fleshy, the lateral nerves inconspicuous, ascending at very acute angle; capsule subsessile, 17-22 mm. long, the valves after dehiscence 3-4 mm. wide. _ Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,244, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 262). Of the three other species of Hillia known from North America, only H. tetrandra Swartz could be confused with this Mexican plant. That species is much larger in all its parts, and I have no doubt that the Chiapas plant, although represented only by incomplete material, is specifically distinct. Psychotria chlorobotrya Standl., sp. nov. Branches green, subterete, glabrous, smooth; stipules distinct, green, herbaceous, persistent, glabrous, broadly triangular-ovate, 5 mm. long, bilo- bate to the middle, the lobes acute; petioles slender, 1.5—-4.5 cm. long, remotely and minutely puberulent or glabrous; leaf blades narrowly elliptic to lance- elliptic or oblanceolate, 8-23 cm. long, 2-7 cm. wide, long-acuminate, acute at base or usually long-attenuate, thin, bright green above and glabrous, be- neath slightly paler, glabrous or along the nerves sparsely and obscurely puberulent, the lateral nerves 12-16 pairs, divergent at an angle of 45° or more, arcuate, obscurely anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence ter- minal, cymose-paniculate, dense, many-flowered, the peduncles 2-3 cm. long, puberulent, the panicles 1.5-4.5 cm. long, the flowers in dense headlike cymes © on puberulent peduncles 1 cm. long or shorter; bracts ovate, green, obtuse or acute, 5-8 mm. long; bractlets broadly ovate to obovate, obtuse, green, glabrous or nearly so, much exceeding the calyx; calyx about 2 mm. long, 5- lobate, the lobes about 1 mm. long, ovate or deltoid, obtuse or acute, unequal, green, glabrous; corolla salverform, 4 mm. long (not fully developed), gla- brous, with short obtuse lobes. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,242, collectedin damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, May, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 104). No. 83, from the same locality, also is referable here. The species is well marked among those of Mexico by the large green bractlets, which nearly conceal the flowers. Psychotria phoeniciana Standl., sp. nov. Branches subterete, glabrous; stipules persistent, intrapetiolar, bilobate, united, the sheath 3 mm. long, the lobes obliquely ovate or triangular, acute, glabrous; petioles slender, 2.5—5 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-lanceo- late to ovate-lanceolate, 10-17 cm. long, 3.5-4.5 cm. wide, acuminate, cuneate- acute at base or sometimes abruptly acute, thin, glabrous, slightly paler beneath, the lateral nerves about 17 pairs, divergent at an angle of about 60°, arcuate, laxly anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence terminal, glabrous, the penduncle 15 cm. long, curved, the flowers very numerous, corymbose- _paniculate, the panicle much branched, 10 cm. long, 15 cm. broad, the pedicels slender, 10-15 mm. long; bracts triangular, acute, 1-2.5 mm. long, the bract- lets minute; calyx limb scarcely 1 mm. long, 5-lobed to the middle, the lobes ovate, obtuse, glabrous; fruit oval, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. thick, 10-costate, the nutlets concave and sulcate on the inner face. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,247, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, “May, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 316). _ Although not marked bya any outstanding characters, unless it be the large inflorescence and long pedicels, this plant seems distinct from any Psychotria of Mexico or Central America that is known to the writer. ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Colombia. THos. E. Snyper, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The seven new termites described in this paper were collected by Dr. W. M. Mann, of this Bureau, in the winter and spring of 1924, and by Mr. F. Neverman, of Costa Rica, late in 1924 and in 1925; a portion of this material has already been described.! In addition to descriptions of the new species, new geographical distribution records of known termites based on these collections are given. Most of the new species represent ‘‘powder-post”’ termites or poten- tial house termites, and may become of economic importance. ‘The writer uses the term powder-post termites for certain groups in the family Kalotermitidae; the impressed pellets of finely digested, ex- creted wood fall from wood infested by these termites and reveal their presence. Such termites must be rigidly excluded and guarded against by Federal quarantines; they are likely to be introduced in furniture, and become cosmopolitan in distribution. Kalotermes (Cryptotermes) brevis Walker occurs from Florida in the United States to the West Indies, Central and South America, and South Africa. Powder-post termites live in hard dry wood and are difficult to collect, hence, since they are not conspicuous, many new species are being found when specially sought after by such excellent collectors as Dr. Mann and Mr. Neverman. No single specimen was definitely designated as a holotype; since the specific descriptions were made from a series, these specimens are cotypes. Family KALOTERMITIDAE Kalotermes (Rugitermes) costaricensis, new species Winged adult—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown), smooth, shining, longer than broad, sides almost parallel, rounded posteriorly, with fairly dense long hairs. Postclypeus white, tinged with yellow, short but broad. Labrum light yellow-brown, broader than long, broadly rounded to 1 Snyper, T. E.: New American termites. This Journau 15: 152-162. 1925. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 19 nearly straight at apex, with long hairs. Eye black, not round, fairly large and projecting, separated from lateral margin of head by a distance greater than the diameter of an eye. Ocellus hyaline, projecting, suboval, at an oblique angle to eye, from which it is separated by a distance equal to the long diameter of the ocellus. Antenna light yellow-brown, whitish towards apex, with 17 to 20 aencates segments bead-like, or wedge-shaped, but becoming longer and broader toward apex; with long hairs; third segment longer than or subequal to second, but longer than fourth segment; last segment narrow, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not twice as broad as long, broadest at middle, roundly and shallowly concave both anteriorly and posteriorly; sides round, narrowed posteriorly, with scattered long hairs and denser short hairs. Wings smoky dark brown, coarsely punctate. In forewing, median vein uniting almost directly with the radial sector; radial sector close to and parallel, and with seven branches to costal vein, first four long and oblique, others short; cubitus running parallel to radial sector, above middle of wing, to: apex, with 11 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; subcostal veln uniting with costa before middle of wing; seven irregular to crescentic transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. In hind wing, median vein lacking; radial sector with two long and two short branches to costal vein; cubitus running to apex of wing with 10 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing: subcostal vein uniting with costa at about middle of wing; five irregular transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. Wing scale as lcng as pronotum. Legs dark brown to fuscous (tarsi lighter), elongate, slender, hairs long. Abdomen with tergites golden-yellow; tergites with fairly dense and fairly long hairs near base of each; cerci fairly elongate and prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 11.5-12.25 mm.; length of entire dedlated adult, 9-10 mm.; length of head (to tip labrum), 2.1 mm.; length of pronotum (where longest not at median line), 1.2 mm.; length of forewing, 8 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.5 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame- ter), 0.37 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 1.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 2.05 mm.; width of forewing, 2.5 mm. Soldier.—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown, darker anteriorly and lighter posteriorly), cylindrical, markedly broadest anteriorly, sides slightly concave, with scattered long hairs, very dense on frontal slope or epicranial suture, where there is a median depression or groove. Eye spot hyaline, prominent, reniform, parallel to antennal socket. Gula about half as wide at middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles black, base reddish-brown, broad at base, tips more slender, but fairly broad, pointed and incurved; left mandible with two fairly large sharp pointed marginal teeth on apical third, a small pointed tooth, a molar in the middle and a small blunt tooth near the base; right mandible with two large pointed marginal teeth, one in middle, the lower nearer the base; edge of right mandible roughened between apex and first tooth (Fig. 1). Antenna yellow-brown to castaneous (lighter towards apex); with 15 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment dark, markedly subclavate, longer than . second or fourth segments; fourth segment about half as long as second; last segment elongate, slender, spatulate. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not quite twice as broad as long, broadest slightly anterior to middle; anterior margin broadly and roundly 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 concave; generally convex posteriorly except at middle where shallowly Sree ai sides narrowed posteriorly; pronotum with dense, fairly long airs. In some specimens, meso- and meta-nota with short wing pads. : Legs tinged with yellow; femora markedly swollen; three dark-colored spines at apex of tibiae. Abdomen with tergites yellow to light yellow-brown; a row of fairly long hairs at base of each; cerci fairly elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 10-12.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 5.25 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 3.5mm.; length of left mandible, 1.8 mm.; length of pronotum, 1.45 mm.; AN i VM New species of Kalotermes. Mandibles of soldiers showing marginal teeth. (Camera lucida, high power.) Fig. 1.—Kalotermes (Rugitermzs) costaricensis Snyder Fig. 2.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum Snyder Fig. 3.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae Snyder length of hind tibia, 1.2 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 2.1 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 2 mm.; width of pro- notum, 2.8 mm. Type locality Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with nymphs of the sexual form at the type locality on January 22, 1925, by Mr. F. Neverman in dead hardwood of Manic. Co-types, winged adult.—Cat. No. 28655, U. S.. N. M.; co-morphotypes, soldier. The winged sexual adults of K. (R.) costaricensis are large and bicolored; and the soldier is also large. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum, new species Winged adult—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and below . eyes) smooth, shining, longer than broad, elongate, sub-oval, rounded pos- teriorly, a V-shaped marking at epicranial suture, with scattered, fairly long hairs. Eyes black, not round, but little projecting, separated from lower JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 21 margin of head by a distance less than the short diameter of an eye. Ocelli hyaline, suboval, close to eye. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 12 segments, with long hairs; third seg- ment subclavate, slender, longer than second or fourth segments; fourth segment bead-like; from fourth on segments becoming longer and broader toward apex; last segment elongate, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum same color as head, shallowly concave anteriorly; posterior margin convex except for median emargination; sides narrow posteriorly; pronotum with scattered, long hairs. Wings smoky, costal area darker (brown); tissue coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein closeto and paralleltosubcosta; cubitus nearly in center of wing branching to apex, with about 11 to 12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median branching from subcosta near base of wing. Legs yellow (femora darker), slender, elongate; pulvillus present; legs with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, a row of leas hairs at base of each; cerci short, broad at base; styli present. M easurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 5.8-6.2 mm.; length of entire dedlated adult, 3.6 to 3.7 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip of labrum), 1.05 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5-0.6 mm.; length of forewing, 4.24.3 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.75-0.8 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame- ter), 0.25 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.7 mm.; width of forewing, 1.4 mm. Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge) to piceous on front (paler posteriorly), in profile head slightly concave in middle, short, cylindrical, front vertical to slightly projecting (overhanging) dorsally; head constricted (narrowed) dorsally at front, front scooped out; head with deep V-shaped median suture, lobes elevated, broadly rounded, and markedly roughened (tuberculate); head with transverse rows of long hairs anteriorly and in middle. ee spot not distinct, suboval. Gula blackish, not much narrowed in middle. Mandibles blackish, short, broad at base, but pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with two pointed marginal teeth near apex and a broad ie. “ middle; right mandible with two sharp-pointed teeth in middle ig. 2 Antenna SElloie browns with 10 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment narrow, short, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin deeply and roundly con- cave, roughened, with minute serrations or denticules; anterior corners high; posterior margin straight, except for median, round emargination; sides angularly narrow posteriorly. Presternal processes dark colored. Legs tinged with yellow; femora swollen; two chitinized spines and a spur at base of fore tibiae. Abdomen with tergites yellowish, with a row of long haars at base of each; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 3.8—4.7 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.55-1.75 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 1.2-1.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.6 mm.; length of pronotum, 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 0.55-0.6 mm.; length of hind tibiae, 0.6 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 0.85—1 mm.; - width ¢ of head (posteriorly), 1-1.1 mm.: ; height of head at middle, 0.9-1. mm.; - width of pronotum, 0.9—-1 mm. Type locality. —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with nymphs at the type locality by F. Neverman on May 15, 1925, in heartwood. i. Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28656, U. 8. N. M.; co-morphotypes, winged adult. Kalotermes. (C.) asperatum is smaller than either K. (Calcaritermes) emminens Snyder and recessifrons Snyder from Colombia or guatemalae Snyder from Guatemala and Costa Rica. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae, new species Winged adult——Head very dark castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge), (lighter below the eyes and anteriorly), smooth, shining, longer than broad, | (broadly suboval), rounded posteriorly, with few scattered short hairs, and a row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance about equal to half the short diame- ter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, very close to eye. Antenna yellow-brown near base, whitish with yellow tinge towards apex, with 13 segments; segments wedge-shaped to bead-like, becoming longer and broader toward apex; with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than fourth segment but approximately subequal to second; last segment elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin broadly roundly emargi- nate (shallowly concave); anterior corners high; sides roundly narrow towards posterior margin, which is nearly straight; short hairs on anterior margin; a row of long hairs just posteriorly to middle and on posterior margin. Wings dusky brown (smoky), costal veins darker; membrane coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close and parallel to subcostal vein; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex with about 12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin; in hind wing, median originates from subcosta near apex. Legs with coxae and femora dark castaneous-brown; tibiae and tarsi white with yellow tinge; legs slender and elongate. Abdomen with tergites dark castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci fairly prominent; styli present. Measurement.—Length of entire winged adult, 8-8.25 mm.; length of entire dealated adult, 5 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip labrum), 1.4— 1.45 mm. ; ‘length of pronotum, 0.7 mm.; length of forewing, 5.75 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.1 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.275 mm. ; - width of head (at eyes), 1.15-1.2 mm.; ; width of pronotum, 1-1.05 mm.; - width of fore- wing, 1.8 mm. Soldier—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and darker—to piceous—at anterior margin), elongate, cylindrical, thick, wider posteriorly than anteriorly, concave (dorsally) in middle in profile; head longer ventrally (2.40 mm.)—projecting to post-clypeus—than dorsally (2.25 mm.), where vertical; epicranial suture concave (hollowed out); head lobed medianly, a broad U-shaped cleft or suture, lobes but slightly roughened: head with Aiea scattered long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval, separated from antennal socket by a distance equal to its long diameter. Gula narrowed in middle. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 23 Mandibles piceous, broad at base, sharp-pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with three sharp-pointed marginal teeth, two near apical third, the other, larger tooth near middle; right mandible with two large pointed teeth near middle (fig. 3). Antenna light on. mere near base (lighter anteriorly), with 12 seg- ments; segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment short, slender, suboval. Pronotum castaneous-brown (margins darker), similar in shape to that of K. (C.) emarginicollis Snyder, but not quite so emarginate posteriorly, with scattered long hairs. Legs tinged with yellow (femora darker and swollen); fore tibiae with spur. Abdomen with tergites dirty white, tinged with yellow, a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci small; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 6.5—-7.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 3 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 2.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 1 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.8-0.9 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 1.5 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.4-1.5 mm.; width of pronotum, 1.5 mm. Type locality —Mixco, Guatemala. Described from a series of winged adults collected with soldiers and nymphs at the type locality in May, 1924, by D. W. M. Mann. Other specimens of this termite (winged adults and soldiers) collected at Estrella, Costa Rica, in April, 1924, by Mann and soldiers at Bananito on April 20, 1925, by F. Neverman. Co-type, soldier.—Cat. No. 28657 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes winged adult. The soldier of K. (C.) guatemalae is similar to that of K. (C.) emarginicollis Snyder from Panama, but it is darker colored, larger, and has a wider head and a longer, and less deeply emarginate pronotum. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) thompsonae, new species Winged adult—Head yellow-brown or light castaneous-brown (slightly immature), shining, sides parallel, approximately suboval, with scattered short hairs and row of longer hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, pro- jecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than long diameter of eye; ocellus hyaline, suboval, close to and at an oblique angle to eye. Antenna light yellow-brown at base, yellow at apex, with 13 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments; last segment elongate, narrow, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly and roundly concave anteriorly; posterior margin nearly straight; sides angularly narrow posteriorly; margins with scattered short and long hairs. Wings hyaline (slightly immature) costal area yellow-brown; membrane coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex of wing; with 11-12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median origi- nating from subcosta near base. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Legs yellow, elongate, slender, pulvillus present, hairs long. Abdomen with tergites light yellow-brown, a row of long hairs at base of each tergite; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 7-7.5 mm.; length of entire deailated adult, 4.3-4.6 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip of la- brum), 1.15-1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5—-0.55 mm.; length of forewing, 5.4mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.7 mm.; diameter of eye (long diam.), 0.25 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.9 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.85 mm.; width of fore- wing, 1.5 mm. The winged adult of K. (C.) thompsonae is lighter colored and smaller than either zmminens Snyder or recessifrons Snyder from Colombia. Soldier—Head castaneous to piceous on front, and yellow posteriorly, semicylindrical, nearly straight in profile, longer ventrally than dorsally; front of head with oblique slope, ventrally, seen from front, more or less shallowly concave, only slight outlines of a rim about median suture, which is broad, shallow, and V-shaped, lobes rounded and slightly roughened, with scattered short hairs anteriorly and a row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye spot indistinct. Gula narrowest at middle (where broadest in K. (C.) recesszfrons Snyder from Colombia). Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth at apical third, another in middle; right with two larger pointed marginal teeth near middle. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment ring- like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, semi-elliptical. Pronotum light yellow-brown (margins darker), short, nearly twice as broad as long; anterior margin broadly, roundly concave; anterior corners high; posterior margin shallowly concave in center; sides nearly straight, narrow posteriorly; pronotum with but few scattered short hairs and a row of longer hairs posteriorly. Presternal processes dark (yellow-brown). Legs yellow, femora swollen, spur on fore tibiae. ‘ Abdomen with tergites tinged with yellow, with a row of long hairs; cerci short. _ Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.8 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin ven- trally), 1.5 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.55 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.9 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 0.95 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.9 mm. Type locality— Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and a soldier collected with nymphs at the type locality on May 29, 1925, by F. Neverman in dead dry wood of standing tree. Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28658 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes winged adult. The soldier of K. (C.) thompsonae has a shorter, more pointed mandible than in recessifrons Snyder and a shorter pronotum; it is smaller than emar- ginicollis Snyder from Panama. Named in honor of the late Dr. C. B. Thompson of Wellesley College. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 25 Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) marlatti, new species Winged adult—Head lght castaneous-brown, punctate, shining, sides parallel; head suboval, with scattered long hairs. Eye black, not round, projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than the diameter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, close and at an oblique angle to eye. Antenna yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments bead-like, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, slightly longer than second or fourth segment; last segment elongate, subellip- tical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly; anterior corners high; straight at posterior margins; sides angularly narrowed posteriorly; pronotum with scattered long hairs. _ Wings dusky with golden tinge (costal area yellow-brown); tissue coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex, with about 12 branches or sub- branches to lower margin; in hindwing, median originating from subcosta near base (at about basal fourth of wing). Legs yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 6.2 mm.; length of entire deadlated adult, 4.5 mm.; length of head (posterior margins to tip of labrum), 0.9 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.45 mm.; length of forewing, 4.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.6 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.225 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.65 mm.; width of forewing, 1.2mm. The winged adult of A. (G.) marlatt: is hghter colored than that of barbourt Snyder of Panama. Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (darker—piceous—anteriorly and lighter posteriorly), slightly concave in middle in profile, slightly longer ventrally than dorsally, markedly narrowed or constricted dorsally at front, front darker, nearly vertical, a deep U-shaped median suture, lobes darker, raised and slightly roughened; head with two transverse rows of long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, suboval. Gula narrowed at middle. Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, sharp and incurved at apex; left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth on apical third, another near middle; right mandible with two larger, pointed teeth near middle. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 10-11 segments, segments wedge- shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment small, ring-like; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly, nearly straight at posterior margin, anterior corners high, sides narrow poste- riorly, margins with long hairs. Presternal processes light yellow-brown. Legs yellowish, femora swollen, three castaneous chitinized spines at base of fore tibiae; legs with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites dirty gray-white with yellowish tinge, with a row of long hairs on each; cerci fairly elongate. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4.25 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.65 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 1.25 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.5 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.75 mm.; width of 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 head posteriorly, 0.85 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.8 mm. Type locality —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a winged adult and a soldier collected at the type locality by F. Neverman, February 1, 1925, in hardwood of Mant. Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28659 U. S. N. M.; co-morphotype, winged adult. The soldier of K. (G.) marlattz is smaller than that of angustus Snyder of Panama; is close to barbourz Snyder but the head is not so high, and the marginal teeth on the left mandibles are sharp pointed and not molar, and also the pronotum is of slightly different shape. Named in honor of Dr. C. L. Marlatt of the Federal Horticultural Board who carefully guards the United States against importation of foreign termites. Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) nevermani, new species Soldier.—Head light yellow, darker (yellow-brown) anteriorly, longer than broad, cylindrical, only slightly broader posteriorly than anteriorly, front obliquely, angularly sloping, a broad, rounded suture medianly, margins of lobes rounded, but slightly roughened, slightly elevated; head with several transverse rows of long hairs. Eyespot hyaline, large, suboval. Gula elong- ate, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles dark reddish-brown to piceous at tips, broad, narrowed, pointed and incurved at tips; left mandible with one pointed marginal tooth near apex, a molar with sharp point anteriorly and broader molar; right mandible with sharp-pointed tooth near middle and molar about as in K. (G.) —— Snyder. Antenna light yellow, (darker near base), w:th 10 to 12 segments, usually 11, segments becoming longer and broader (wedge-shaped) toward apex, with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), broadly and shallowly concave an- teriorly, posterior margin nearly straight, anterior corners high, sides angu- larly narrowed posteriorly; hairs scattered, and long. Presternal processes yellow. Legs whitish, tinged with yellow, femora swollen, with long hairs. Abdomen oray-white, with a row of long hairs at the base of each tergite, cerci fairly elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5—6.25 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.5-2.7 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.8— 1.9 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.95 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.6—0.7 mm.; length; of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head (dorsally) anteriorly, 1.2 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.25 mm.; height of head in middle, 1.2 mm.; width of pronotum, I-1.05 mm. Type-locality—Western slope of the volcano Irazt, at 1500 meters, Costa Rica. Described from three soldiers, collected with nymphs at the type locality by F. Neverman on February 22, 1925, in a dry stump. Co-type, soldiers —Cat. No. 28660 U.S. N. M. Kalotermes (G.) nevermani is close to K. (G.) suturzs Snyder, also from Costa Rica, but is larger and has more segments to the antenna; the winged adult is unknown. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES | 27. Family TERMITIDAE Capritermes ( Neocapritermes) longinotus, new species Soldier.—Head yellow to pale yellow-brown, darker anteriorly and on sides, with a distinct dark median line running from posterior margin to epicranial suture, sides nearly parallel, but head broader posteriorly than anteriorly, rounded posteriorly, with fairly dense long hairs, especially anteriorly. Labrum of same color as head, elongate and faintly trilobed, broad at apex, narrowed in middle, long hairs on median lobe. Gula elongate, slender, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles black, twisted, asymmetrical; left mandible longer than right. Antenna yellow, with 16 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, longest in middle; with long hairs; third segment shorter than second, but approximately subequal to fourth segment, or slightly shorter; segments becoming markedly longer from seventh to twelfth segments, then becoming shorter; last sezment elongate, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum white with tinge of yellow, darker on anterior margin, very elongate anteriorly, high (saddle-shaped), and markedly roundly emarginate, hairs dense, and long. . Legs tinged with yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs. Abdomen dirty white, tinged with yellow; tergites with fairly dense long yellow hairs; cerci not elongate. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 7.75-8 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 4.6 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 2.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 2.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.85 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.25 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 1.8 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.4 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.2 mm.; width of pronotum: 1.05 mm. Type locality.—Rio Frio, Colombia. Described from four soldiers collected with workers by Dr. W. M. Mann in February, 1924, at the type locality. Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28661, U.S. N. M. Capritermes (N.) longinotus is a very small species with a narrow head and a very long pronotum, which is markedly roundly, emarginate anteriorly; the winged adult is unknown. LIST OF KNOWN OR DESCRIBED TERMITES COLLECTED BY MANN AND NEVERMAN IN GUATEMALA, COSTA RICA AND COLOMBIA Family KALOTERMITIDAE Cryptotermes dudleyz Banks. Costa Rica:—San Jose, May 5, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (winged adults flying at light in house) Family RHINOTERMITIDAE Coptotermes niger Snyder Guatemala, Bobas; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Costa Rica, Colombiana; March, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Hamburg Farm, Feb., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers); June 2, 1925 (winged soldiers and workers). Bananito, April 20, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Prorhinotermes molinot Snyder Costa Rica, Parisiana Ranch; Feb. 6, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers in rotten log). Family TERMITIDAE Cornitermes acignathus Silvestri | CotomsiaA, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Armitermes chagresi Snyder Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) columbicus Holmgren Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) rotundatus Holmgren CotomstA, Rio Frio; March, 1924, Dr. W M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes (Obtusitermes) panamae Snyder Cotomsra, Rio frio; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (two ‘types of soldiers and workers). Amutermes beaumonti Banks GUATEMALA, Mixcc; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Microcerotermes exiguus Hagen CoLomBia, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (queen, soldiers and workers). SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The following lectures have been given in the Carnegie Institution’s series since the last record in this JouRNAL: November 24, Dr. Arraur L. Day of the Geophysical Laboratory, The Santa Barbara earthquake; December 1, Dr. Haraup U. SverprRupP of Captain Amundsen’s “Maud” Arctic-Drift Expedition, cooperating with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, The scientific work of the ““Maud” expedition, 1922-1925; December 8, Dr. ARTHUR 8. Kine of the Mount Wilson Observatory, Laboratory methods of analysing spectra, with application to atomic structure. Ernest F. BurcuHarp of the U. 8. Geological Survey has returned from a trip across South America from the Pacific to the Atlantic Coast, having examined iron-ore deposits in Misiones Territory and in Catamarea Prov- ince for the Argentine Government. On his return journey he visited the principal iron and manganese-ore deposits in central Minas Geraes, Brazil. T. S. Loverine has been appointed Junior Scientist in the Geological Survey. The 1925 exhibition of current scientific work of the Carnegie Institution of Washington held during December 11 to 14 was attended by over 2,300 visitors. The exhibits shown may be classed into four groups: (1) Original materials or photographs of such materials on which research work was done; (2) methods, especially instrumental, for solving such problems; (3) models and simple experiments illustrating the principles on which a re- search problem is based; (4) tables, graphs, models, and other means of presenting results obtained by research work. ee a Saar 3 _ The e Philosophical Society. y 12. Tae AcaDEMyY, be ey: 13. The ee Boge OnrorwaL Pappas | Voleanology.—The eruption a Santorini in 1925. H. 8. Ws Atomic Physics.—Note on the Loli levels of oe, atoms a ; ALLISON. «0.205. s eee e eve ee sce ses sae teneteea deer entice Botany.—A new micvuuentral soil ariuklocaene foi the J Epear T. Wahine ene 2 Botany.—New plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus Entomology.—New termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica, E. SNYDER, .50 12-50) cite eves he chats eeveoetspceces \ Scrmntirie NovEs AND NEWS ¥. Jct. csc. cease ewe el ue Oe Recording abe ee W. D, aoe Coast and Ge ode Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Pee VeliG January 19, 1926 No. 2 = ——« JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY ee OF SCIENC 1 AAN:25.1926 # Se 2 BOARD OF EDITORS ‘A : oe Qe gO D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy pink : CHASE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams 8. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLDMAN G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F, Gricas J. R. SwANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royau AND GUILFORD AVES. BaLTIMORE, MarYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the 3 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for eh in Section 1193, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences kb This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: 1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) — short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afliliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALis issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or — the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the JourNat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. ~ Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References — - should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate — the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered serially and submitted'on a separate manuscript page. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be partly met by the author. Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors *- unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Reprints—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices. Copies 4pp. 8pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. ' Cover 50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55. $3.25 $2.00 100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50 150 2.20 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00 200 2-50 4.80 5.75 7.00 3.50 250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00 An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page. Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi- nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume ts. 20.060 Co cob a ae saeuesveume’ eve ot See Semi-monthily. Numbers. 65 ss OE ek ats eae op ee eee Boe oe 25 Monthly nmbers, 35. Fe ie as as Stes es See ee ee ae -50 Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,"’ and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Hxchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy ee ee a Me, ey Ee ke a 8 Re ae ot a ee sks |S te oe 2 .- Ge JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 16 JANUARY 19, 1926 No. 2 GEODESY.—The deflection of the vertical in Porto Rico. WtILLIAM Bowie, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Island masses furnish numerous cases of large deflections of the vertical by which the distribution of densities in the earth’s crust may be studied. A notable case is in the island of Porto Rico in the West Indies. Astronomic latitude stations on the south and the north coasts are connected by triangulation. ‘The difference in the astro- nomic latitudes is 35’ 36’’.00 while the difference in the latitude of the astronomic stations as derived from the distance between them obtained by triangulation is 34’ 40’’.20. The difference between these two values is 55’’.80, or about one statute mile. This value is the relative deflection of the vertical. Since the plumb line at each of the stations is attracted by the island mass and repelled by the deficiency of mass in the space occupied by water in the Atlantic Ocean or in the Caribbean Sea, it is certain the direction of the plumb line at each station is affected. TABLE 1.—Isostatic REDucTIONS oF Two STATIONS IN Porto Ricc: EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY AND COMPENSATION EFFECT OF TO DEPTHS OF STATION TOPOGRA- PEPE cergis eames
|
: \
i$ eee
| 2!
y
==
(1) (2)
ae
l
SI
QI
ae Ys
; | :
|
(4) (5)
Figs. 1, 2, 3,4 and 5. Atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton and Watt
be observed and sketched with some accuracy. Five typical curves
are shown in the figures. Most of these appear to be aperiodic, though
some are feebly oscillatory.
In figure 3 it is seen that there are minute oscillations superposed
on the main curve. It will be noted that the period of the main oscilla-
tion is, in all cases, of: audio frequency; and Eckersley has pointed
out recently that the relatively prolonged impulses of Watt and Apple-
ton can not account for the observed intensity of the atmospherics
144 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 103: 84. 1923.
16 Hlectrician (London), 93: 150. 1924.
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2
ordinarily experienced in radio reception. He suggests that possibly
the ripples, such as are shown in figure 3, may be the actual atmos-
pheric waves. Mr. Watt in the symposium ‘cited accepts this view
and adds that more recent experiments in Egypt and elsewhere in the
tropics show that there the fine ripple structure is much more common
and of much greater amplitude than in England. Professor Appleton,
on the other hand, holds that the low-frequency wave forms shown in
the figures are capable of producing the observed disturbances at all
wave lengths by shock excitation.
In conclusion, the differences of opinion mentioned in this paper
show that there is still much to be done before the sources of the dis-
turbances are identified with certainty. While many of the atmos-
pherics undoubtedly come from thunderstorms, many appear to come
from regions where no such storms are occurring. It is also believed
that even in thunderstorms some of the heaviest disturbances do not
come from the lightning itself, but the nature of these non-luminous
sources of such great power is still a matter of conjecture.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
| 923D MEETING
The 923d meeting—the first meeting following the summer intermission—
was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, October
3, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:15 with
33 persons in attendance.
Program: 8. P. Fmerausson. Meteorology of the total solar eclipse of Janu-
ary 24, 1925. (Illustrated by lantern slides). The circumstances of the total
eclipse of January, 1925 were, in one respect, most favorable for the study of
the very small, temporary disturbance of the atmosphere caused by the
shadow. The path crossed a region abounding in easily-accessible sites for
observing-stations and instruments capable of indicating the small changes
of condition to be expected were available at several observatories in and near
the path. On the unfavorable side, even near the coast of Connecticut and
Rhode Island, totality occurred only two hours after sunrise, the altitude of
the sun was below 20°, and the probabilities were that the effects would be
small, at best, and negligible west of the 75th meridian. Furthermore, in
January, in this region, the variability of the weather and its storminess at-
tains the annual maximum—conditions likely to obscure the small effect
probable.
Through the courtesy of W. G. Fors of Wesleyan University, in providing
facilities for the exposure of instruments during the eclipse, the author ob-
tained continuous records of atmospheric pressure and the direction of the
JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 47
wind, observations of the kind,direction, velocity, position, and density of
clouds and attempted the measurement of shadow-bands. The wide scales
of the automatic instruments permitted readings of pressure to 0.03 millibar
and of the direction of the wind to 2° of azimuth, at intervals of two minutes.
The observations of clouds were made at irregular intervals, usually of three
to seven minutes. To these data have been added observations of tem-
perature with an Assmann psychrometer at Wesleyan, records from Draper
anemoscopes at Central Park, New York, and Blue Hill Observatory, Massa-
chusetts, and observations of temperature and wind at New London, Con-
necticut, and Westerly, Rhode Island, for which, respectively, the author is
indebted to W. I. MitHam, J. H. Scarr, ALEXANDER McApIE and C. F.
BROOKS.
The weather on the day of the eclipse was unusually favorable for all ob-
servations, but very uncomfortable; a severe cold wave prevailed and the
temperature ranged between —25° and —15°C. The data referred to have
been compared with normals or averages of each element (1) for all conditions
at the time of year and (2) for the conditions prevailing on the day of the
eclipse. The more important results may be summarized ‘as follows: The
fall of temperature of 1°.9C. (slightly more than one half that occurring during
average conditions) did not begin until within 30 minutes of totality and the
rate of fall at first was very slow; the lowest temperature occurred about
ten minutes after totality.
The change of pressure was so small that it may be submerged in irregular
fluctuations, of which many occurred during the 12 hours preceding the
eclipse. It is possible, however, that the fall of only 0.4 millibar beginning
30 minutes after totality was caused by the shadow, for, under the conditions
prevailing, retardation of all effects is to be expected.
At stations in Connecticut the usual calm and irregular changes of the wind
occurred during totality, followed by an increase of velocity and a reversal of
the direction after totality, indicating a tendency to blow toward the region
of lowest temperature and pressure. Similar tendencies were noticeable in the
record at New York, but at Blue Hill the velocity was too high and too
variable for the detection of the very small eclipse-effect.
A slight decrease in the amount of the alto-cumulus clouds is believed by
some observers to be due to the shadow. There was a fall followed by a de-
cided increase in the velocity of the clouds, and the changes of direction in-
dicated a tendency of the air at their level (estimated at 2000 metres above
sea-level) to move toward the region of lowest pressure; these results confirm:
the first observations of this effect during the eclipse of May, 1918.
The shadow-bands, on first appearance, were a mass of fine, bright lines in
‘rapid irregular motion lengthwise as well as laterally; on second appearance
the bands were more definitely outlined, but in both instances precise measure-
ments were impossible. There was a general movement, nearly parallel to the
path of the shadow, at a rate of between one and two meters a second.
Observations, accumulated mostly since 1900, indicate that these bands
probably occur chiefly, perhaps only, during the mixing of masses of air having
different densities or temperatures, the necessary contrasts of density being
maintained to an appreciable degree only during the rapid decrease and in-
crease of temperature immediately before and following totality. The gen-
eral movement or drift of the bands appears to be more closely related to that
of the eclipse-wind than to the natural wind prevailing at any level. (Author’s
abstract.)
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2
Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Pawziine, Curtis,
HuMPHREYS, and PRIEST.
C. Moon: A method of comparing the relative frequencies of a tuning fork
and a pendulum. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An experimental arrange-
ment was described for measuring the relative frequencies of a tuning fork
and a pendulum by the well-known method of coincidences. The frequency
of the fork must be very near an exact multiple of that of the pendulum.
A series of flashes of twice the frequency of the fork is obtained by the
device used by Curtis and Duncan. The light from the slit in the vanes
carried by the prongs of the fork is reflected directly into a telescope by two
mirrors placed side by side, one attached directly to the pendulum and the
other to the pendulum support. The flash images of the slit from the fixed
mirror appear superposed at the same place in the telescopic field, those from
the moving mirror being separated into a series of lines which appear in the
field at each forward and backward swing of the pendulum. For convenience
a crude auxiliary pendulum is used to intercept the light source during the
backward swing of the pendulum, so that only one series of images are seen
for each complete oscillation of the standard pendulum. If the fork fre-
quency is an exact multiple, say N times that of the pendulum, then the
image of the first flash, the (2N + 1)th, the (4N + 1)th... . ete., will
always appear at the same place in the telescopic field. Since the multiple
relation will not be exactly fulfilled, there will be a slight progression of suc-
cessive images and at regular intervals coincidences will occur between one of
the lines from the moving mirror and the line from the fixed mirror.
The time interval between two successive coincidences can be measured
with a stop watch. It represents the time required for the fork to gain or lose
one-half of a vibration on the pendulum. ‘This interval known, the relative
frequencies can be readily computed.
The method has been applied to a 100-cycle fork driven by a vacuum tube
and a standard Coast Survey gravity pendulum. With the fork adjusted so
that coincidences occurred at about 20 second intervals, the time of a single
coincidence may be measured with an error of 5 per cent. This causes an
error of approximately one part in 100,000 in the relative frequencies. By
measuring five consecutive coincidences, the error can be reduced to two parts
per million. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Swick, HUMPHREYS,
Curtis, Hey and Prisst.
O24TH MEETING
The 924th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on
Saturday evening, October 17, 1925. The meeting was called to order by
President FLEMING at 8:16 with 55 persons in attendance.
Program: L. B. TuckERMAN. We see things which are not there. (Illus-
trated by lantern slides.)
If the carbon copy of a typewritten sheet is placed in register over the
original and then rotated slightly, a series of concentric circles is seen. When
the carbon copy is displaced vertically the circles shift horizontally, the center
of the circles always lying at the point of coincidence of the two copies. This
effect must have been seen many times, but only one stenographer was found
who has recognized the character of the pattern seen. Similar results are
obtained from any irregular pattern. An example is a doubly printed photo-
graph, the negative being slightly rotated between the two exposures. An-
JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 49
other example is a trail photograph of circumpolar stars. The phenomenon
is familiar to astronomers who match star photographs in detecting comets or
asteroids or in determining proper motion of stars. The illusion is caused by
the fact that in looking at objects we mentally complete the patterns which
are suggested by the geometrical arrangement presented. A multitude of
similar illusions are known and are effectively used by artists. (Author’s
abstract.)
Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hryu, Stimson, SToK-
LEY, PRrEST and FERGUSSON.
Puitiep P. QuayLE: Single spark photography and its application to some
problems in ballistics. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An apparatus was
described for obtaining shadow pictures of objects in rapid motion by a
properly timed illuminating spark. The general principle involved is not new
but the means for carrying it out are believed to be unique and considerably
more effective than any hitherto described. The apparatus is so arranged
that the illuminating spark occurs when the object to be photographed is be-
tween it and the photographic plate. There results an ordinary shadow of
opaque objects, such as bullets, and inhomogeneities due to sound waves and .
turbulence of the air give distinctive patterns owing to refraction effects.
In the illustrative photographs presented are to be found some striking sound
wave phenomena. i
The photographs were presented primarily to illustrate the usefulness of the
method but they give interesting and important information concerning the
gas leakage in a revolver, the acceleration of projectiles outside the muzzle,
the so-called stringing effect in shot shells and many other phenomena at-
tending the discharge of firearms. Other characteristics of the photographs ,
were pointed out and in part explained. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed: by Messrs. Hreyi, LAportE, HawK-
ESWORTH, Breit, TUCKERMAN, WRIGHT and others.
Q25TH MEETING
The 925th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on
Saturday evening, October 31, 1925. The meeting was called to order by
President FLEMING at 8:17 with 33 persons in attendance.
Program: N. E. Dorsry: A thunderbolt and its results. (Illustrated by
lantern slides.) The nature of the damage which was done when lightning
struck a tulip tree was described, and the more interesting features were illus-
trated by lantern slides. The tree was an interior one of a small, isolated
group surrounding the frame church at Annapolis Junction, Md. In the
group were several others of the same kind and of the same height (47 feet)
as that struck. The most exposed of the tulip trees is about 55 feet high, and
the tower of the church is 56 feet high and only 30 feet from the tree which
was struck. Neither of these were damaged in the least. Furthermore, the
tree was struck within nine feet of the ground. A segment on the northwest
side of the tree was splintered, and sections were torn from it; the larger, un-
splintered portion of the trunk was split and bowed apart; the blazed area
extended only to a height of 27 feet, and the split extended only a short dis-
tance higher. Above that, the trunk was undamaged; the lower thirty inches
of the trunk was not split. On a large section torn from the tree was a limb
of which the overgrown portion had been broken squarely across the grain,
and had been pulled from the trunk as a tenon might be pulled from a mortise.
This break could have been produced only by a longitudinal pull. Along the
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2
western edge of the splintered segment, and, as nearly as could be determined,
in the plane bounding the splintered segment, were four small isolated holes
burned through the bark. The hole next to the top extended into the wood
for about two inches; and for most of its length it was about the size of the
lead of a pencil. The topmost and largest hole was eight feet from the ground;
thé wood around it was badly torn, and much of it was lost. These four holes
mark the spots in which the tree was struck; they pass straight through the
sap-wood, which was not seriously damaged. The plane defined by them
passes between, and close to, two trees exactly similar to the one struck.
Everything indicates that the path of the stroke was essentially uninfluenced
by the local field near the ground. The stroke appears to have been of the
nature of a free electrical charge travelling, under its own momentum, along a
line determined by conditions in the clouds. It was suggested that such a
stroke may be closely akin to, and perhaps may actually be, an intense, con-
centrated beam of cathode rays. It was pointed out that the production of
such a beam is not inconsistent with what we know of the conditions in a
thundercloud and it was shown that such a suggestion serves to correlate in a
logical manner all the prominent effects observed. That the suggestion in-
volves assumptions of which the validity can not at present be demonstrated,
was admitted. (Auwthor’s abstract.) | |
Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wuitr, HUMPHREYS,
PAWLING, Bowre, and others.
Ropert H. Gautt: Touch as a substitute for hearing in the interpretation
and control of speech. (Illustrated by achart.) Thisis a report of psychologi-
cal experiments that are being conducted in Washington under the auspices of
the National Research Council. The problem is to determine (1) whether
tactual sensation can be made a sufficiently fine means of discrimination to
enable one to distinguish the forms of speech and to interpret them, and (2)
whether tactual sensation,can be successfully employed as sufficient cues to
aid in the control of speech—particularly the speech of semi-mutes.
The author employs for his purpose a telephone-like instrument and an
amplifier. Each observer (fifteen approximately totally deaf persons) holds
a receiver of the instrument in his hand. As many as six sit as observers simul-
taneously. Each one can feel the words of the experimenter upon the palm
of his hand or upon a finger tip, depending upon how the receiver is held.
Theoretically no two words feel alike and no two sentences feel alike.
Charts are presented showing the progress of learning sentences, vowel
qualities and isolated words. The most successful subjects, working from
October 8, 1924, to November 25, 1924, became able to identify, with over
90 per cent of complete accuracy, ten sentences of six monosyllabic words
each. They practiced but 25 minutes daily, five days each week. Subse-
quently the same subjects in the course of three weeks attained a like degree
of accuracy in identifying the long vowels. From June 11 to July 8, 1925,
four observers, practicing three half-hour periods daily, five days weekly,
attained a fair degree of accuracy 1n identifying 58 words.
In the course of this period selections from the 58 words were employed
from day to day to form new sentences that had never before been felt as
sentences. The subjects were given an opportunity to interpret the sentences
by their feel if they could. One hundred and seventeen such sentences were
used in this manner. From the four subjects there were 468 reports; 225 of
these were correct word for word; 131 more were correct in sense.
During the summer period referred to, 103 groups of homophonous words
JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 51
(words that are alike from a lip-reader’s point of view, such as “‘aim, ape’’)
were chosen as stimuli to determine how nicely those of a group could be dis-
tinguished by touch. There were groups of two words, three words, etc.,
up to ten. The members of each group are supposed to look alike. Asa mat-
ter of fact in many instances the members of a group can be distinguished
by vision in our experimental situation. Only 50 of the 131 groups are made
up of truly homophonous words according to the author’s findings. Among
the 131 groups there are but seven in which the subjects distinguished better
by lip-reading than by touch. In one instance the two methods produced a
tie. Ordinarily touch proved to be by far superior to lip-reading inrelation
to these groups of words.
The author applied the tactual method to the improvement of the voice
of asemi-mute. He was made to feel the experimenter’s voice upon his hand;
thereupon he undertook to reproduce the feel by applying his own voice to a
transmitter that duplicated the one operated by the experimenter. Thus the
subject improved the pitch and syllabication of his words. It was found
possible to employ several subjects simultaneously in this experiment. In
that situation members of the group criticised their companion who was
trying to copy the experimenter’s voice. This practice stimulated interest,
and furthermore, the subject with the receiver was aided thereby to discover
the tactual criteria for vocal control. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. The paper was. discussed by Messrs. HawkKESWORTH,
HumpuHRreys, Gipson, Bowir, Merwin and others. President FLEMING on
behalf of the Society thanked Professor Gattr for his interesting paper.
On request by the President, Major Bowis presented an informal report on
the computations of the gravity observations done under a grant from the
Society. Five stations in the Southern Pacific were completed and the results
will appear in an early issue of the JouURNAL.!
926TH MEETING
The 926th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on
Saturday evening, November 14, 1925. The meeting was called to order by
President FLEMING at 8:19 with 55 persons in attendance.
Program: L. V. JUDSON: Geodetic instruments from the viewpoint of the
physicist. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The instruments particularly re-
ferred to are the base line tapes and apparatus for their test; also theodolites
and instruments for testing their angular graduations. The design of appara-
tus used for testing base lines shows striking differences in the different
countries. The apparatus used at the Bureau of Standards for testing base-
line tapes is both simple and accurate.
The need of extensive investigations in the field of precise graduations of
circles was emphasized, and a view of an apparatus for this purpose was
shown. It was pointed out that the modern geodetic instrument must em-
body all the improvements which the physicist can apply, and that funda-
mental investigations were necessary as a preliminary to advances in design.
As an example of the investigation of 50-meter invar base line tapes which
is being carried on at the Bureau of Standards the question of the effect of
concentrated loads upon the distance between the terminal graduations of the
tape was taken up in some detail. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bowirm and Hopason.
W.L. Humpureys: An unusual display of mammato-cumulus. (Illustrated
1See this JouRNAL 15: 445-450. 1925.
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2
by lantern slides.) The mammato-cumulus cloud, also called pocky-cloud,
festoon-cloud, sack-cloud, and other more or less descriptive names, is a sheet —
of cloud with numerous, thick-set, hemispherical pendants. This peculiar
feature appears to be the result of an overflowing sheet of potentially cold air,
dropping down slightly at numerous places and forming cloud as it goes. This
phenomenon is most frequent in connection with thunderstorms, and some-
times is well developed in association with a tornado.
Two pictures were shown of an exceptionally fine example of the mammato-
cumulus, obtained at Ashland, Ky., on the afternoon of July 3, 1925, just
preceding a heavy but not intense local thunderstorm. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Major Bow1n.
Paut R. Heyu: Perpetual motion in the Twentieth Century. Prior to the
recognition of the principle of the conservation of energy it was believed that
perpetual motion was impossible, but every proposed device of this character
had to be examined on its own merits, and the special reason for its failure to
work pointed out. The establishment of the principle of the conservation of
energy made this unnecessary; all such devices could be dismissed as violating
this general principle.
Very soon the question was raised as to whether there could not be a
perpetual motion of a second kind; that is, whether it was not possible under
some circumstances for heat to run up hill. Maxwetu showed in the early
seventies that the second law of thermodynamics could be set aside by the
interposition of intelligence; BoLrzMaNN and PLANCK later showed that the
basis of the second law was one of probability merely, and that actual depar-
tures from this law on a microscopic scale must be expected to occur contin-
ually and spontaneously.
In 1900 LippMaNN suggested two perpetual motion devices based on this
principle, and in 1907 SvEDBERG proposed others. In 1912 SmMoLucHOWsKI
pointed out a general principle which, as he supposed, rendered these devices
inoperative. The speaker showed that SMoLUCHOWSKI was in error in the
application of this principle and that the devices of LippMANN and of SvED-
BERG must be regarded as valid on a molecular scale. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, HAWKESWORTH,
Breit, ADAMS, TUCKERMAN and others.
H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. —
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of F. E. Wright on January 5.
H.S. WASHINGTON described the methods now being used in Italy to obtain
potassium salts, alum, and pure silica from leucite which is extracted me-
chanically from certain leucitic lavas in the central Italian volcanic region,
There was also a general discussion, led by W. T. ScuatteRand C. §.
Ross, on What is a magma? From the discussion it appears that current
usage of the word is not uniform, the stress being laid by different writers
upon such different qualities as (1) high temperature, (2) liquidity, (3) location
in a reservoir, (4) action as a source of lava or ore-bearing solutions, (5) pos-
session of dissolved water in various percentages.
q
‘
,
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*
Thursday, January 21. Tue AcApDrEmy.
Saturday, January 23. The Philosophical Society.
- Wednesday, January 27. The Geological Society.
“Saturday, January 30. The Biological Society.
_- Tuesday, February 2. The Botanical Society.
Thursday, February 4. The Entomological Society.
*The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.
tives. Rivaons M. aie eee Co ee
Paleontology —Two new Pleistocene mastodons. OLIvER P. 5
teeta ee: oO
The Philosophical Society 7" a cA ; "
Scrmnrivic Norms anp NEWS ..-ceecceeeceeeeceeesseeeeeeecees
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY —
President: Grorce K. Burcsss, Bureau of Standards. Bo
Corresponding Seoal ala Francis B. SinsBen, Bureau of
Vol. 16 Fresruary 4, 1926 | No, 3
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
D.¥F. Hewerr &. J. MavucHiy Aanres CHASE
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams 8, A. Ronwser
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GoLpMAN G, W. Stosz
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R. F. Grices J. R. SwANTON
BOTANICAL SGCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
EB. WICHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mr. Roryau AND GUILFORD AVES.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
ientered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aimsto
resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. Tothisend it publishes: —
{1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) —
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4)
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALisissued
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond tocalendar years. Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Mee
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author.
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Reprints:—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices. —
Copies 4pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. f Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 2.25 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 Bip 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints.
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. ’
The rate of Subscription per volume ts....... aoc esbaveweeeews Shem ican e's ex, ee
Semi-monthly numbers... 0... occ nse sdb eedws wet sss cans wan cede see tere
Monthly numberes 2 o.c.0 sc >; sown os nies cole aga 2 bea 2 bs oe Sancca te ee
Remtttances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JourNAtL does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Won; 16) - FEBRUARY 4, 1926 No. 3
ENTOMOLOGY .—Entomological taxonomy: tis aims and failures.
1. From a Taxonomic Viewpoint. 8. A. RoHwer, Bureau of
Entomology
When the idea of this symposium occurred to the chairman of the
Communication Committee, it is very probable that he had recently
seen some paper of a “taxonomic”’ nature which seemed to be lacking
in a number of desired features. Otherwise the symposium would
probably have been given a different subtitle, for I doubt very much
the propriety of the use of the word “‘failures.”” The strongest idea
it was intended to convey was ‘“‘shortcomings.”’ Be that as it may,
we have accepted the subject for discussion and I think it is one we
may well discuss. The science of Biology has made remarkable
strides in the last twenty years. It has had opened before it many
lines of investigation which were heretofore unknown. |
Some of these new studies have gained such popularity that their
patrons have thought so well of themselves and the importance
of their investigations that they have coined new ‘‘ologies’’ to separate
themselves from the other workers. All this time taxonomy has con-
tinued and has attracted the attention of only afew. More recently,
however, the pendulum has swung back and today the classifier is
held in more esteem. ‘The time seems to be passing when it will be
necessary to apologize for the fact that one is a taxonomist. This
returning into the good graces will not last long unless the students of
taxonomy avail themselves of the materials which have been gathered
by investigators in related fields, for taxonomy can not be a deaf and
dumb science and still live. For this reason it seems desirable to
discuss the aims of taxonomy, and as we consider these perhaps we
may in our reflection see some shortcomings.
1 Papers presented at the 373d meeting of the Entomological Society of Washing-
ton, held March 5, 1925.
53)
54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
Before getting too far into the subject it will be well to accept, at
least for the moment, a definition of taxonomy; and while we may not
all agree, I venture the following for consideration. Taxonomy con-
sists of the grouping of organisms in a phylogenetic manner after a
consideration of all of their characters and characteristics.
Accepting such a broad definition, the taxonomist must base his
classification not only on external morphology but he must also call
to his aid anatomy, physiology, embryology, cytology, ecology,
paleontology, and distribution; in fact, he must consider his organism
not by itself alone, but he must understand its function and its place
in relation to other organisms past and present. To do all this is no
small task, and to say that, isnot all. If in entomology we were dealing
with a limited number of forms and if these forms had such habits as
to permit a detailed study of them, the task would be of sufficient
magnitude. But when we consider that conservatively estimated
there are about 640,920 described insects, and that this represents
perhaps less than one-tenth of the forms which actually exist, and
that for most of these 640,920 forms, we know only a few cabinet
specimens of adults and nothing concerning their habits, the task
becomes stupendous. It is very probable that this very fact has
caused the taxonomist to become so deeply involved in the details
that he has lost sight of other allied ‘‘ologies,’”’ and thus received
such criticisms as ‘‘Oh! he is only a narrow taxonomist.”’ But let us not
stop with these apologies. We grant the magnitude of the task and
we admit also that some very good results have apparently been
obtained by a careful comparison of morphology. If good results
have been accomplished by a study of parts, how much better the
results will be if we consider the whole.
But let us go back and consider briefly some of the various lines of
investigation a taxonomist should be familiar with and include in his
consideration when making a phylogenetic grouping. I imagined I
saw a shaking of the head when I suggested paleontology—I hope
not. Yet most taxonomic entomologists ignore the fossils. So much
are they forgotten that many times they are not cataloged. Such an
attitude can not be defended by any scientific excuse. Where would be
the classifications and the fundamental results derived from them in
mammalogy had the fossils been thrown aside because there were too
many recent things to describe?
When I used the word “anatomy” a short while ago [ meant to
restrict the use of the word somewhat, and had in mind more a con-
sideration of the internal softer organs. So little is known concerning
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 55
these in insects that not much can be said, yet when more is known and
_ their function better understood, I venture the suggestion that the
taxonomist will find valuable evidence to refute or uphold his major
groupings. Of embryology and cytology little can be said, yet both
of these lines of investigation will furnish valuable aids to a true
phylogenetic arrangement. Distribution if studied carefully will
often prove of great aid. When I hear discussions of so-called dis-
- continuous distribution, the first thought that comes to my mind is,
how about the true relationships? Perhaps many of the examples of
discontinuous distribution are due to faulty taxonomy. If there is
anything in this thought then a study of distribution may help the
taxonomist to see some of the weak points of his classification; hence
it is a line of study the taxonomist should consider. And there is also —
the converse, for a study of distribution may just as well tend to show
relationships.
In including ecology in the list of fields from which the taxonomist
must expect aid, I have ventured to use a comprehensive definition of
the word “ecology,” and I have therefore included under this head the
information usually listed by taxonomists under such headings as
“host,” “‘habitat,” and ‘“‘habits.’”? Taxonomists have long paid con-
siderable attention to the host and host plants, and to a lesser extent
have they considered the habitat and habits. The consideration of
these points is of importance, and when we get the phylogenetic point
of view it becomes more so. We cannot logically expect that groups
which have complex host relationships and specialized habits will
give rise to groups with simple host relationships and generalized
habits. Such may be the case. Cases of reversion are known, but a
classification which indicated that this was true might well be carefully
and critically examined before it is pronounced as having been made
along phylogenetic lines.
We have considered only very briefly some of the points but before
my time is completely gone, I want to include a word about nomen-
clature, the bug-bear of most taxonomists. I said ‘most’? and I
believe advisedly because there are some who have in my opinion so
completely forgotten the true significance of nomenclature as to be in
the position of trying to put the cart before the horse. My apprecia-
tion for the standardization of names, the application of general rules
and suggestions on procedure is very great. In fact I fully appreciate
nomenclature, so much so that I have been guilty of doing nomencla-
torial things. But I have not as yet forgotten, and I trust I never shall
forget, that nomenclature, as we entomologists use the word, is only a
56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
handmaid to zoology. Nomenclature deals with names, not animals.
I venture the guess that less than ten per cent of the changes in the
names of insects are due to nomenclature. Most of them are due to a
change in the conceptions of groups. In other words, they are made
for zoological reasons. It must be so. The classification of insects
must change. New facts are before us every day. We apply these in
our taxonomic work and we change the name of some little insect or
other. Such a change is not due to nomenclature. But I have almost
forgotten why I brought up this handmaid to taxonomy. No taxono-
mist likes to change names but no taxonomic work, however sound
from a phylogenetic point of view, can stand for a long period of
usefulness unless its author carefully considers the nomenclature of
the group. It is essential that entomologists agree on. names, and if
all taxonomic workers hasten to establish the landmarks by which
group names may be recognized, fewer changes will be necessary and
their work will be of a more permanent nature. The establishment
of genotypes for all genera and especially those on which supergeneric
names are founded is important, and to a very large extent this must
be done by the taxonomist.
In our definition we said taxonomy was the grouping of organisms
and this presupposes there are organisms to be grouped. So a study
of taxonomy must first await the accumulation of materials. A
taxonomist without a collection is as bad off as the man at sea without.
water and the one with a small collection is perhaps, as far as real
progress is concerned, worse off. If proper taxonomic work can be
done only when all factors are considered then to work in a taxonomic
way over only an incomplete assemblage of specimens can not produce
good results. Jn almost every group in insects we have examples of
poorly constructed classifications because of an examination of an in-
adequate number of specimens. We must not discourage the collecting
instinct in the taxonomist. On the other hand we should lend him all
encouragement. We should place at his disposal for study all the
material of his group. He should have material from all regions and
in sufficient abundance for him to study the variation of individuals.
This need for collections imposes an obligation on the taxonomist
as well as those who foster his work. It makes it necessary for him to
care for these collections; they must be arranged in a careful, orderly
manner; they must be labelled. The taxonomist must leave to his
science and posterity evidence from which he made his conclusions.
There must be no doubt about the fact that certain specimens were
seen. The taxonomist has therefore devised a method by which his
\
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 57
co-workers and successors can know what he was talking about. He
- calls certain specimens types. But this is not enough; he forms con-
ceptions about other workers’ groups and he must leave evidences of
the limits of his conception. Here many workers are negligent. They
do not tell us definitely about these. The aim of all taxonomists
should be to leave the evidences of their work in such good order as to
leave no doubt in the minds of other workers on what their conclusions
were founded. In short the taxonomist should care for his collec-
tions and arrange and label them so as to aid, not hinder, other
investigators. Jam sure all of you could cite many shortcomings here.
Another aim of taxonomists is large libraries. The taxonomist
must know what others have done. In a field as vast as entomology
this is of the greatest importance. It is impossible for one worker
to know all. It is imperative that he know what has been done
before. Large libraries must also be considered a necessary aid to —
taxonomic work. Sut libraries are of but little use unless one knows
what is in them and where to find it, so indices are necessary. In
view of the rapidity with which work is being published, these indices
must be up to date to be of real service. While in a certain sense one
can hardly say these libraries and indices are aims to taxonomic
entomology, we must admit they are aims of taxonomic entomologists,
and you all will agree it would fill a large volume to list the short-
comings because of their lack.
Summing up briefly, the aim of taxonomic entomology should be
the phylogenetic classification of insects based on all available evi-
dence, such evidence to include a consideration of anatomy, mor-
phology, embryology, cytology, physiology, paleontology, ecology and
distribution. If such are the aims of taxonomy then we have only to
examine our literature to see how completely we have met them.
Such a consideration of the literature would probably make many
feel that there had been many shortcomings. Of course there have.
But many of them are due to the magnitude of the task and some of
them are due to the changing viewpoint.
I hope the viewpoint may continue to change, that taxonomists
will continue to include in their papers more and more information
concerning all the characters and characteristics of the insects they
treat. Many taxonomists have much of this information at their
command and use it consciously or unconsciously in forming their
classifications. Let us urge them to include more of it in their papers
so they may be storehouses of information to other workers. By
doing so their usefulness will greatly increase and they will rise in the
esteem of workers in allied fields.
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3
2. From AN Economic Virwpornt. A. C. Baker, Bureau of
Entomology
I have been asked to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology
to economic entomology and the failures of the former in this relation-
ship. Such a request in itself indicates the failure I shall mention.
Perhaps, however, it is not a failure. Perhaps it is merely a circum-
stance incident to growth.
Lest I be misunderstood I wish to distinguish clearly between the
science of insect life and those practices in the art of agriculture which
concern themselves with insects and with which entomologists as
agricultural advisors have much to do. This dual function of the
entomologist, as advisor and as discoverer, has confused certain
practices of the art with the science that underlies them. I presume
that I am not expected to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology
to the art of agriculture.
Since this symposium is on taxonomy it may be well at the outset to
delimit the different fields that are often confused with taxonomy by
reason of the fact that taxonomists work in them. We must dis-
tinguish taxonomy, classification, and nomenclature. Taxonomy, as
its name implies, is not concerned with the arrangement as such but
with the reasons and causes back of that arrangement, with the under-
lying principles. Classification, on the other hand, constitutes the
arrangement itself. Thus the same taxonomy may be employed in
a classification of a family of Hemiptera or in that of a family of
Hymenoptera. Nomenclature, again, is a subject which is concerned
with the correct names for the units in a classification. It deals neither
with the methods back of the classification nor with the classification
itself. Thus we have nomenclature as a result of classification and
classification as a result of taxonomy. In this relationship taxonomy
is basic. |
As I see it, there are three types of taxonomic entomology today,
and these three types recapitulate the three stages in its growth.
The first is the accumulative type. Here the main interest centers
on the collection. The aim is to complete the series, to amass material.
Species are described. These are carefully placed away, perhaps
according to some accepted classification, and other species are
described. Of this type I shall have little to say for the reason that it
concerns itself very little with taxonomy as I understand it. In many
cases even the classification is already a fixed conception. The author
merely adds to the nomenclature of that classification in the naming
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 59)
of species not already included. In regard to this type, however,
-I shall say one thing. It might be of enormous advantage. As it
stands today its devotees are interested in individual groups. They
pick these from the population and ignore the others. But in.a study
of the accumulative type the interest should lie in the equilibrium of
the population. It is better to know the workings of a field than the
disconnected items of a world. |
The second type is the morphological one. Here the main interest
centers on structure. Dissection is not uncommon and an attempt is
made to reconstruct the relationships by means of the structures
studied. Phylogenetic trees therefore are the mode and theoretical
discussions are common. ‘There may even develop a voluminous
literature on the interpretation that should be placed on the veins of
the wings or the spines of the legs. Most taxonomic entomology
today is of this type. Perhaps it is so of necessity. While I realize
the valuable contributions that have been made from this viewpoint
and the great handicaps under which brilliant men have labored in
this field, I can not help feeling that this type of taxonomy has one
decided fault. The structure is the primary concept and in concen-
tration upon it the entomologist is apt to lose sight of his real goal.
The broader visioned taxonomists of the morphological school, how-
ever, are alive to this danger. Hence they constantly discuss and
write about the suitability of characters. They talk of natural
characters and of artificial characters, but they do not tell us how one
character can be more natural or more artificial than another.
The third type is the biotic one. Here the main interest centers on
the insect alive rather than on its dead body. The taxonomic labora-
tory is no longer an orderly array of dead insects. It is a dynamic
world of living things. In its fullest realization this type requires some
departure from the usually accepted ideas. Side by side with the
collection will be, not only the morphological laboratory, but the
insectary where the insects may be studied alive. And beyond all
this there will be the outdoors. The taxonomist will once again
become the naturalist, but with this difference he will have at his
command a great store of modern technical methods.
The biotic type of taxonomy will not only change the work, the
publications too will change. They will be appreciated. A mono-
graph of a genus will no longer lie uncut upon the shelf. It will become
a live book full of interest for the biologist, the agriculturist and
the physician. It will be used and its author will receive the credit
he deserves.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3.
60
l snyy uo si[Vy Bopninn
SSOUI JO $3003 — - snyy Wo sT[Vy stydeoyl
Turydepeyy] oqII.—uoKyeIoossy snyy
B1901U0'T
snsov}e1O
IOITpoUB[OULY
SUIN}S IOP[V adv ; .
sjuvjd jo syooyy YsV snjTydi01g j s]jes rejdog B][O1}OOH)
é ysy “CNL, LUN eral eer ses rejdog Seay
XB[IUIG a[dey snjrydro01do0eN ‘i S]jvs-opnosd rvjdog unydisy
‘I % s]jvs rejdog eddedAyovg
TulIydwo1g sqi1y..—uoryv1ioo0ssy spoom dueq i g[[es aedog ejjoddedAypeg
é ses rejdog BLOX[IMpPLO}A
sjue
i} gies 1ejdog siydvus0y
a SP eae Ave é SCE peuEh Sqiey fo syooy s]jvs 1eidog snsrydureg
Aq popue}}e s00yY Pie BIuats][N, TuIstydureg 9qiip—uorjer1ossy rejdog
syue
&q popueyye sjyooy j BOTOOL) j sy[es WIT BIYSBIGOr)
SJUB JO SISON VINBYSIG UO S][VX) | snyop vied SOSsvId JO S}OOTY S][B@s UW erodoAIq
sjue : SOSSVIS JO S}OOYY S][@s WY BINIUBI}OT,
jO sjsou puUBv 8sj00Y CINBYSIG UO S]{[B) e][os1ydureg 5 S][es UTA CIG1OOL)
y BINV4SIq UO S][B+) einouo{dy SOSSBIS JO SOO S][Vs Uy eydojon
8jUe syzueyd S][Vs
jo sjsou puv $003 VINBISTG UO S][Vy Sp10q Apoo fo sjyooxy | -opnosd Jo sijes wy eulosolly
IUIPIOY VqI1[.—UOT}VIDOSsYW BIOBISIG _ TUIPVWOSOlIy IqI1[—UOl}eID0Sssy WI
aSVHd AUVAGNOOUS aSvHd AYVWIad SONGS aSVHd AYVGNOOdS aSvVHd AAVWIAd SAND
81001 94} 0} ATjensn ‘sqioy 10 S901} 04 Sulpeistu puv sood} UO S][Vs-opnoesd JO s[[vs SulMI0Y
AVNILVWOSOINY ATINVATAG FO NOILVOIMISSVIO—'T A'TAV.L
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 61
Most work today is associated with the evolutionary viewpoint.
_ As taxonomists, however, we have conceived of morphologic evolu-
tion. We have concentrated upon supposed species. But if there is
an evolution it is the entire environmental complex that evolves.
Things change only in relation to other things. Perhaps I can make
myself clear by saying that taxonomy should concern itself with
events more, with supposed things less, with the quantitative record
of conditions all the time. Our enthronement of type specimens is an
admission of the failure of our taxonomic method.
I may be pardoned if I refer to the group on which I have worked
the most, the aphids. My excuse is that I know this group the best.
Five years ago I presented a classification of this family. That classi-
fication was woefully inadequate. In order to illustrate the taxonomy
employed, however, I am showing a tabulation of one subfamily, the
Eriosomatinae (Table 1). It will be noted that an attempt was first
made to determine something of the living insects. Host relation
was selected by reason of the fact that the insects are peculiarly phyto-
phagus. The selection thus of one factor is admittedly weak. For
as it is, the total association evolves so that it is the assemblage of
factors that must picture the events. One factor however appears
at times to be almost a master one and to reflect the others. On this
possibility we have chosen host relation in this subfamily. The
primary phase of the life cycle was accepted as fundamental for reasons
that are obvious.
It will be noted that certain associations at once become evident,
such as the Elm Association, the Poplar Association, and the Pistacia
Association. The insects falling in these associations were again
segregated, using type species and the habits of type species as a
basis. The list of genera falling in the Elm Association reveals
certain morphological characters common to all species and peculiar to
the genera in this Association. These characters therefore distinguish
the tribe. A similar examination of the forms in the Poplar Associa-
tion shows other characters peculiar to these genera and common to
them. ‘The correct diagnosis of the tribe Pemphigini therefore be-
comes evident. And so the examination proceeds throughout all of
the associations. In the end we have tribal descriptions which reflect
not only structures common to the insects falling therein, but life
habits which are equally common to them—a classification of the
animals alive. | |
‘ It will be urged by some that taxonomic studies of this kind deal
altogether with secondary things, that structure is basic. But if we
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
accept evolution surely it is activity that is basic. Unrelated forms
- may of course show similar habits but such forms would segregate
earlier on other biotic factors.
But aside from this question the economic value of the taxonomy
employed will be clear if we look for a moment at the Tribe Fordini.
Species of the genus Forda are common in this country on the roots of
plants and in ants’ nests. Considerable study has been given to the
species, and occasional revisions or partial revisions have been pub-
lished. But these revisions left us in much the same state as we were
before, for the reason that the investigators worked from the morpho-
logical viewpoint. More supposed species were described, but this
‘only meant, at bottom, a more complete catalogue of our ignorance,
for the work was all done on the incomplete secondary phases of the
life cycles. The workers did not conceive of the Pistacia Association.
Had they done so they would have realized that the key to the genus
on this continent lay only in Texas and southward, and that years
might be spent on the secondary northern remnants of these Pistacia
forms without any real advance in knowledge.
A similar picture of this very kind is the history of the study of the
woolly apple aphis, Hrisoma lanigerum. For a hundred years men
tried to solve the life history of this economic insect. Medals and
prizes were offered for its solution. Years of research and large sums
of money were spent without result.
A glance at the biotic arrangement on the screen will show how
simple the solution becomes; and it is equally simple in other instances.
When we find another species of Hriosoma as a pest on pear roots we
turn at once to the elms. When-we find still another very injurious
to the roots of gooseberries we turn once more to the elms. Still
another species is abundant on the roots of service berry and once
again we take our way to the elms.
Another example may be given. When a Pemphigus is discovered
as a pest of the beet fields we can turn at once to the poplars for its
complete cycle. In another, region the poplar segregated does not
exist but the beets are nevertheless attacked. So we find a different
poplar with a different Pemphigus migrating to the beets as before.
Still another species is a pest of crucifers, and turning to the poplars
we can determine its identity and the economic factors involved.
Time will not permit me to follow the argument further, but I shall
give one word in regard to the reception this work has had. My
paper in 1920 did not give completely my taxonomy. For obvious
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 63
reasons I contented myself with a classification—with tabulating and
discussing the characters resulting from the taxonomic study. Never-
theless a thorough student might discover the method in the back-
ground. Such a student is Professor Albert Tullgren of Sweden.
In 1925 he referred to my classification in the following words:
“One of the most important and in parts most interesting systematic work
on aphids that has been published in the last ten years is A. C. Baker’s Generic
Classification of the Hemipterous family Aphididae. Baker presents, often
in 2, very alluring manner an entirely new system for the Aphididae and bases
it on reasoning which often has a very convincing effect. He divides the
entire family into 4 sub-families, Aphidinae, Mindarinae, Eriosomatinae
and Hormaphidinae which are among themselves almost equal although the
Aphidinae and the other three subfamilies are derived from two different ori-
- gins of the hypothetical stem. The reasons given for this separation into 4
subfamilies do not appear to me, however, to be entirely free of criticism and
I deem it therefore more cautious for the present to consider the three last
groups as one subfamily.”
And again he says:
“Baker divided his subfamily Eriosomatinae into five different groups, Erio-
somatini, Pemphigini, Malaphini, Prociphilini and Fordini. If one studies
closely the characteristics of differentiation one finds that he derived the
same first of all from the biological differences of the generic elements. And
one can not help thinking that he put a higher value on these characteristics
than on the morphological ones. For this reason presumably he has arrived
at the peculiar conclusion, according to my opinion, that the Pemphigini and
the Prociphilini represent two different branches of the stem which are about
equal to the Eriosomatini.”’
I have cited Tullgren because I know him to be a scholar. Perhaps
he is right. I forsee the day, however, when the taxonomist will not
be set apart from the economic entomologist, when the collector will
concentrate on true samples of the population, when the morphologist
will consider function as important as form, and when all life history
studies will be made by taxonomists of the biotic school. When that
day comes there will be only one type of entomology. It will be
economic. Its aim will be to understand and to express with mathe-
matical exactness the laws and principles underlying the elements, the
contacts and the inter-relations of the insect world. We are fast
approaching the saturation point of our population and the day may
not be far distant when we shall be pressed for that understanding.
64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
3. FRom AN EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINT. E. D. Bau, Department of
Agriculture
Taxonomy in its highest development, as I conceive it, is an explana-
tion of the actual relationship of existing forms of life to each other.
Although of necessity expressed in a linear series it should be an
arrangement of the existing branches of the tree of life into groups
according to their derivation and into a series showing inter-relation-
ship of the groups. In the major branches of both botany and zoology,
taxonomy has already approached this idea. When it comes to the
lesser divisions and more obscure relationships it is still far from
certain of its foundations and is undergoing a gradual evolution as new
- discoveries in fossil forms are made and new interpretations of rela-
tionships in living species are established. ‘Taxonomy, then, in its
ideals is an interpretation of evolution, one of the most profoundly
interesting and profitable fields of biological research.
Taxonomy in its lowest expression is merely an enumeration of a
group of individuals. Enumerating individuals for taxing purposes
was man’s earliest effort and from this the science received its name.
Some taxonomy has not materially advanced above this level. Let
us illustrate: It would be possible to classify an indefinite number of
wooden blocks of different shapes so that each one of a given group
would fall into a definite category. The primary division might easily
be (A) long blocks; (AA) short blocks; and (B and BB) under each one
might be blocks with right angles and blocks without right angles, and
so on indefinitely, and when you finished your task you would have a
classification for taxing purposes only. It certainly would not be of
value for any other purpose. You could take a saw and in a few min-
utes change a given block so that it would go into an entirely different
classification. Your classification was therefore entirely artificial
and empirical. On the other hand, you might have classified your
blocks into hard woods and soft woods. You might have gone further
and classified your soft woods with reference to certain structures
which would have separated the coniferous from the deciduous forms,
and continued this segregation to a completion of the group. Such a
classification could not be altered by any use of a saw. The block of
wood would fall-into its correct classification regardless of what was
done to it. In other words, it would have been a classification rather
than an enumeration. In many of our taxonomic efforts, especially
where working with a very small representation of a group or with
little knowledge of ancestral forms, our classifications may be very
FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 65
little better than the long and short sticks of wood, but if we attempt
to make a rational classification and follow it as far as our knowledge
at the moment permits, correcting it from time to time as our knowl-
edge increases, we are doing the best we can and following the path
of the evolution of all knowledge.
There existed for a long period a large school of morphologists who
openly ignored and belittled taxonomy. Happily that day is passing.
I remember working in a laboratory for a year with an earnest and
conscientious young man who was working industriously tracing the
development of the lateral line and its sense organs in an embryo
of a salamander. I was at the same time working on the evolution
(taxonomy if you please) of a certain group of leafhoppers and we used
to have frequent arguments as to the value of taxonomy, a value he
did not at that time recognize. When, however, he had his work
completed and was preparing it for publication he suddenly discovered
that there were other genera of salamanders and that the references
which he had been consulting were all about a certain common species.
Not knowing that there were other genera he had failed to look up
these references until his work was completed, and then he found a
large volume of morphological work which indicated that there were
wide variations in the embryonic development of the three groups,
and the poor fellow did not know to which group his original sala-
mander belonged. ‘That was a quarter of a century ago and as far
_as I am aware he has never been able to name his salamander or pub-
lish his results.
Most of you are familiar with the classical case of the entomologist
who worked on the spermatogenesis of a certain species of insect or
thought he did. He had the species in the wrong genus, worked up
the wrong literature, found that it did not agree with the determina-
tions made by European workers, wrote a strong criticism of their
work only to have his material re-investigated and the discovery made
that he had been wrong in his taxonomy and wrong in his morphology.
Although not belonging to the genus, it did agree in the morphological
changes.
There have been taxonomists who were equally indifferent to the
biological and morphological relations of their work. All insects with
long spines were placed in the group as against those with short
spines. All dark insects were segregated from the light ones, entirely
ignoring the fact that the length of spines or the color might easily be
adaptations to certain food plants or environment and have occurred
independently in groups of widely separated ancestry.
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | VOL. 16, No.3
Evolution does not take place in structure alone or in function
alone. Variations in animals take place in all lines, in structure, in
function, in habit. It is only when we consider all of the factors in
their relation to each other that we arrive at a true concept of the
path of evolution. |
The teaching of economic entomology has departed widely from
that of the related sciences. ‘The major portion of our textbooks has
dealt with apple insects, corn insects, cotton insects, and the like.
The student has a large amount of miscellaneous information of
detailed life history and remedial measures centered around a certain
crop plant and its environment. Instead he should obtain a thorough
understanding of the fundamentals of insect biology so that if he
meets a new pest he can apply his fundamental knowledge, and in a
majority of cases have a fairly definite idea of the methods to use in
control. Instead of getting the details of the 17-year locust in con-
nection with the apple he may well learn that the Cicadidae as a
group spend a long larval period in the earth, that their resemblance
to an army tank is not accidental but an adaptation to that environ-
ment. He can then learn that the wireworms as a group also have a
long larval period, that in general they have a definite relationship to
weed growth or known cultivated crops, and even when he meets an
exception to this general rule it will be noted as an exception only to
emphasize the fundamental importance of the general adaptation.
On the other hand, when he is studying the leaf-feeding forms he will
readily realize that short larval periods are absolutely essential to
the preservation of the species and will marvel at the many modifica-
tions which nature has worked out to adapt insects to the particular
favorable period for this larval appearance. Such a course in ento-
mology will train him to think and arouse his interest and enthusiasm,
while the other course will be largely a training in memory and the
mastery of definite details rather than the working out of principles
and the development of theories.
In conclusion I would say that every entomologist should study
taxonomy. In fact I would go further—that every entomologist
should be a taxonomist in some group, large or small. If every
economic worker would carry the responsibility for working out some
small unit of our classification he would find it a wonderful stimulus to
further development, as well as a broadening influence that would give
him a wider series of contacts which would be of value. The aggre-
gate of such small contributions would rapidly advance our knowledge
of many little known groups, and if he selected his own economic group
/
FEB: 4, 1926 -ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 67
for consideration it might easily change his whole viewpoint of the
- economic relations. |
In the same way I believe every taxonomist should be deeply
interested in and a student of the biology of his group, that as far as
possible he should work with living material, and that in every case
at least one or more species should be studied in large numbers, and
thus develop the normal range of variation and adaptation within the
species. In this way the systematist would be much clearer in his
concept of what constitutes a species and be much more sympathetic
with those who are struggling with biologic forms. In a number of
fields it is becoming impossible to ignore the fact that there exist
definite and fixed biologic forms which. we can not, as yet at least,
recognize by ordinary taxonomic characters.
Taxonomy as a whole has already reached a position where many
divergent lines of proof can be brought to bear, all of which indicates
that our major conclusions with reference to the evolution of our
- groups are accurate. A study of the parasites of the higher animals,
for instance, shows a parallel development with that of the hosts. It
shows that the parasites have differentiated as the hosts have differ-
entiated. There are internal parasites and external ones; each one of
these can be subdivided into different groups, and when the same
evolutionary detail can be worked out for all of the groups each one
will tend to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of the others. The
writer was much interested a few years ago in checking up with Dr.
W. D. Pierce on the classification of the Stylops in relation to the
classification of the Jassidae and Fulgoridae that they parasitized.
The Jassidae as a group are primitive with a certain number of special-
ized lines. The Fulgoridae as a group are highly specialized with
only a few primitive lines. Dr. Pierce’s classification of the Stylops
indicated that the same relationship held with reference to the para-
sites. When taxonomy is approached from this standpoint it becomes
one of the most valuable forms of biological study and can be recom-.
mended as part of the training of every entomologist and a part of the
life work of a much larger number than at present.
>
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
398TH MEETING
The 398th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 7, 1925, President
STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active
membership of F. E. WuHITE.
Program: Dr. Lauer Kocu, Chief of the Danish Explorations, who spent
six years in northern Greenland, addressed the Society on The geology of
Greenland: (1) Physiography and glaciology, (2) Structural geology and stratig-
raphy.
399TH MEETING
The 399th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 28, 1925, Presi-
dent STEPHENSON presiding.
Program: Prof. FrepERIcK J. Pack of the University of Utah gE
the Society on Scenic aspects of Utah geology.
Hueu D. Missr: Erosion in San Juan Canyon, Utah. The enna of
San Juan River extends west across a high arid region in southeastern Utah
and joins the Glen Canyon of Colorado River near the southern boundary of
the State. It reveals a magnificent geologic structure section possessing the
same dimensions as the canyon, as much as half a mile high and 133 miles
long. The rocks aggregate a thickness of 5000 feet and consist of limestone,
sandstone, and shale, ranging in age from Pennsylvanian to Jurassic. Most of
the rocks are red beds and, since soil is scanty and rock ledges abound, red is
the predominating color in any landscape view. The rock strata have been
flexed into a broad gentle arch, but neither the arch nor the minor structural
features, such as anticlines, synclines, monoclines, faults and joints, have
influenced the course of the river.
The present crooked course of the river in the canyon is a striking example
of an entrenched meandering stream. Such a course may have been devel-
oped on a former cover of Tertiary sediments or on a peneplain, fragments of
which stand near and above the walls. The peneplain is possibly of Pleisto-
cene age, and the canyon cutting therefore apparently began in Pleistocene
time. The cutting was rapid but did not continue uniformly as there were a
few short pauses when the river was graded and deposited gravel which now
floors benches of small area on the walls.
Rock debris, consisting of sand, gravel and boulders, forms the bed of the
river and attains a depth of perhaps 100 feet or more. But it is presumably
absent in a few of the rapids that are produced by inclined Jedges of hard rock
which cross the channel. Long stretches of the canyon, where the debris is
deepest, present the peculiar example of an alluvial stream flowing between
close walls of solid rock, but much of the debris is apparently moved by high
floods that take place many years apart.
San Juan River carries an unusually large quantity of debris for streams in
the United States and it is one of the chief contributors of mud to Colorado
River. The water is always muddy, but during flood stages the river is actu-
ally a river of mud; and according to samples taken by Pierce it occasionally
carries by volume three times as much silt as water. The heavy load of debris
carried during floods causes a peculiar kind of waves known as sand waves.
FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 69
These waves attain a height of about 7 feet and resemble those thrown up by
- astern-wheel river steamboat. They travel upstream, in marked contrast to
other kinds of waves that are stationery and also to waves that travel down-
stream.
If the proposed storage and power projects on San Juan and Colorado
rivers are carried to completion the river, on reaching the heads of the reser-
voirs, will change its work from erosion to deposition. An important ques-
tion concerning the reservoirs is, How soon will they be filled with rock
debris? ‘The answer to this question remains for the future, because the data
available at present are not sufficient for making an estimate of the total load
of debris that is carried each year by the San Juan and discharged into the
Colorado. (Author’s abstract.)
400TH MEETING
The 400th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 11, 1925,
President STEPHENSON presiding.
Program: GEORGE P. MrrRRILL: Early American geologists and their work.
(illustrated with lantern slides.)
Davip WHITE: Geologic factors affecting and possibly controlling Pleistocene
ice sheet development in North America. A review of the physiographic and
continental changes following middle Tertiary and Pliocene times can not
fail to strengthen the idea that the movements of the Pleistocene ice sheets in
North America, if not their origin itself, were determined mainly if not wholly
by terrestrial factors. It appears more than possible that not only the regu-
lation but the creation also of those ice caps will find adequate explanation
in changes of level of the land, great reduction of the epicontinental seas,
especially in the temperate and higher latitudes, the expansion of the con-
_tinental surfaces, the corresponding differences in sub-oceanic topography,
and the changes in ocean currents, air currents, rainfall and temperatures
consequent to the changes in the land and water.
Among the conditions particularly to be taken into account are the emer-
gence of the continents and the uplift of the higher land masses essentially to
the maximum in the course of the post-Tertiary diastrophic revolution which
probably is stillin progress. Not only are the continental shelves in general
unusually exposed, but the epicontinental seas, great stabilizers of continen-
tal climates, are in general greatly restricted. The Tertiary seas have largely
receded.
The conclusion appears justified that the Laurentian shield embracing the
Hudson Bay region was a broad plateau at the close of Tertiary time. Its
drainage is an interesting and profitable study. No marine late Cretaceous,
no marine Tertiary of any sort, lie on it in some ancient valley or flank it
short of the Arctic coast, a great distance to the northwest. It was a land
surface on which, in what is now the Arctic British-American Archipelago,
fresh-water Tertiary basins existed during late Eocene or Miocene time,
with climatic temperatures and rainfall favorable to the growth of temperate
arboreal vegetation nearly to the 80th parallel. Within this region the so-
called Arctic Miocene flora spread from Alaska through the Arctic islands,
central Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Franz Joseph Land and Siberia,
plainly indicating a subsequent climatic revolution that could not take place
without critical changes of landandsea. The post-Tertiary revolution lifted
the northern lands much higher even than they arenow. Anelevation of 300
feet, which may well have taken place, would now close Bering Strait, and a
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
rise of 1200 or 1800 feet in the sea bottom around the north Atlantic would
essentially connect up northeastern Europe and northwesternAsia through the
islands very nearly to Greenland, leaving narrow and relatively shallow
straits. Impressive geographical changes would follow an uplift of 750 feet.
The mapping of the sea bottom in this region yields evidence in support of
such changes and plant and animal distribution predicate recurrent uplifts or
deformations sufficient to permit intercontinental migration of land animals
and plants.
The geologic profession is too prone to close its notebook as soon as its
feet are wet by tidal salt water. Not only its consecutive constructive
thought, but its geological observations too often stop at tide level. The
submerged beaches are not less interesting and significant than those so enthu-
siastically traced around the exposed lands; they may be as numerous and
span even greater intervals. The topography and tectonics of the seas, soon
to be traced by sonic sounding, are essential portions of the field of geology..
The geologic history of the sub-oceanic regions is a subject for study insepa-
rable from that of the land.
The northern Rocky Mountains have been shown to be progressive in
growth. ‘They were relatively low at the close of Tertiary time, so as to per-
mit comparatively free transit of moisture-laden winds from the northern
Pacific (possibly abnormally warm and moist if Bering Strait was temporarily
closed) across to the elevated Laurentian plateau where, due either to post-
Tertiary increase in elevation or changes in Arctic climate, the snow and ice
of winter might have gained upon the melting capacity of summer’s warmth,
with consequent development and spread of the glacial ice sheet. Rise of the
surface of the ice sheet itself naturally accelerated both the arrest of moisture
and, through increased altitude, the lowering of mean temperature.
The strangulation of the north Atlantic and Bering Straits would conduce to
great Arctic frigidity, with consequent marked effects on the climates of the
northern lands.
Under loading of the ice sheet the shield should in due time have sunk iso-
statically, presumably with concomitant elevation to a minor extent of the
land in portions of the peripheral zone, a procedure fairly well established for
the Labrador sheet. Rasmussen reports shore terraces up to an elevation
of over 1300 feet on Bylot Island and above 550 feet on Melville Island.
Depression of the surface of the region to lower elevations would tend to raise
the mean temperature, while retarded temporary elevation of the western
border rim which, at maximum extension embraced the foothills, at least, of
the Rocky Mountains, could only have cut off a portion of the moisture
driven inward from the Pacific. ‘Thus, conditions of reduced precipitation,
especially in winter, and lowering of the land, should bring a check in the
growth of the ice and reverse the annual increment of winter ice precipitation
to annual gain of thaw, which, in due time, automatically would accelerate
itself, with the lowering of the ice surface and the uncovering of the land mass.
It may do no violence to facts yet observed to assume that the Hudson Bay
region has been depressed and uplifted more than once since the development
of the first ice sheet. Submerged beaches may alternate in time with some of
the raised beaches between which the period of exposure of the land is so
commonly distributed.
It is important, however, to note that the ultimate or concomitant moun-
tain-building movement is marked by the final progressive uplift of the
Rocky Mountain region, in the course of which morainal deposits on the
flank of the mountains were raised to an elevation of around 4500 feet, as has
FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY “¢ |
been noted by Alden. That the termination of Laurentian glaciation may
have resulted both from the subsidence of Laurentian land itself on the one
hand, and, on the other, the straining of moisture from the warm humid winds
drifting from the north Pacific against the risen mountains, with consequent
reduction of winter precipitation in the shield province, is indicated by the
-known elevation of the Rockies during this time, the evident depression of
what is now the Archipelago region of British America, and the absence of all
marine deposits of Mesozoic or Tertiary age in the entire Hudson Bay basin.
This basin is to be viewed as now in the process of isostatic uplift, with slow
emptying out of Hudson Bay. An elevation of 300 feet will drain the greater
part of the Bay; 1200 feet will dry it. Irregularity of the movement, which
was retarded as compared with the more prompt rebound of about 1000
feet in a portion of the Labrador-New England region, is geologically nor-
mal. The configuration of the basin, the strand deposits, and the presence of
Pleistocene marine fossils at an elevation of 600 feet in the Hudson Bay depres-
sion show that the land has rebounded to a certain extent, though the Bay is
not yet emptied and its floor is almost certainly many hundreds of feet below
its maximum post-Tertiary elevation. Similarly, marine terraces have been
noted by P.S. Smith along the north Atlantic coast and by Koch in northern
Greenland at elevations of around 700 feet above tide. ~The argument pred-
icates a continued rise of the Hudson Bay area but does not depend upon it.
The great depression of this region is indicated also by the relatively recent
(Pleistocene?) diversion of drainage in the western slope from north-south
systems eastward into Hudson Bay.
In Eurasia changes of differential elevation and configuration of the land
have received much attention, even on the part of biogeographers, but the
possible consequent effects on the areas, depths, temperatures, densities and
currents of the seas, and the joint effects on radiation, distribution of cyclonic
centers and other climatic factors affecting the land do not seem to have
engaged the close consideration that they deserve.
Obviously, outward movements of the continental shore lines, with closing
(partial at least) of Arctic connections, which may tentatively be assumed to
have occurred, and the assured existence of extensive ice sheets in the north-
ern hemisphere could not fail, through their effects on water and air currents,
to affect prevailing winds and weather in the subtropical and even the tropical
areas, and, by disturbance of the equilibrium, in the Equatorial belt, with
diversion of atmospheric currents, may well have affected the normal drift of
warm air into the Antarctic zone. This is probable, regardless of the certain
effects of post-Tertiary Andean uplift. If true it would favor the develop-
ment of climatic cold and ice in the Antarctic regions contemporaneously, or
nearly contemporaneously, with the growth of glacial sheets and extreme
cold in the north. It will be recalled that Arctic mammals were driven into
the lower Mississippi valley, while many indigenous plants and animals,
including the horse, were exterminated.
The premises outlined above suggest factors possibly explanatory both of
shifting in the areas of ice expansion and of some features of Cordilleran
glaciation. ‘The elevation of the interior region of North America in late
Tertiary time, with the consequent expulsion of the sea from the Central
region and even from the Mississippi embayment, taken in conjunction with
the low stand of the Rocky Mountains at the earliest stage of the Pleistocene,
would be favorable for the great extension of the earliest glaciation, Nebras-
kan and Kansan, to more southern limits in the Great Plains region. On the
other hand, the growth of the Rocky Mountains from the south, with increas-
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
ing interference with transit of wind-borne humidity to that region, must have
restrained the expansion of the later ice caps in that direction without cor-
responding effect on the spread of the northeastern sheets.
Similarly, the widespread glaciation of the Sierras while the Coast Ranges
were relatively low contrasts strongly with the relatively restricted extent of
the later glaciation at a time when the Coast Ranges were much more fully -
developed. Mountain growth to the west and consequent interference with
precipitation on the Sierras may have terminated glaciation in this region,
just as in the north, though, on the other hand, it is left to the glacialist and
the climatologist to determine whether ice erowth i in the Sierra regions was
not dominated by the causes and the growth itself of the great Laurentian
sheets.
The.author does not deny the possible effects of astronomical phenomena
on earth climate. - Variation in solar radiation, even for short periods like the
three years of deficiency just past, may cause notable changes in ocean cur-
rents and air currents, with consequent marked effects on climate that may
be felt in most unexpected quarters, once the approximate climatic equilib-
rium is disturbed, and by shifting and producing “‘highs”’ and ‘‘lows” of at-
mospheric pressure may touch off earthquakes, influence volcanic action, and
if continued sufficiently long may cause isostatic adjustment. Pleistocene
glaciation may, in his belief, largely if not wholly be explained by terrestrial
rather than astronomical changes. At least the geologist should not look
unto the heavens for help in the solution of his problem before he has duly
and most earnestly considered all the facts already within his reach. The
object of this presentation is to stimulate study of the questions here specu-
latively set forth. The more important evidence has to do with continental
exposure, elevation, and configuration, Quaternary mountain building, elimi-
nation or reduction of epicontinental seas, migration of shore lines, strangula-
tion of Arctic circulation, great changes in currents and temperatures of water
and air, and changes in season and amount of precipitation.
The problem is one demanding the attention not only of the geologist, but
of the oceanographer and the meteorologist, as well as the geographer. Its
best solution can not be reached without their closest cooperation. When the
causes of glaciation in Pleistocene time are determined it will be in order to
consider the glaciations of earlier epochs. (Author’s abstract.)
AQIST MEETING
The 401st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 25, 1925, Presi-
dent STEPHENSON presiding. ‘The Secretary announced the resignation from
active membership of J. B. Epy.
Program: C. D. Waucott: Robson Peak section. (Illustrated with lan-
tern slides.) |
R. 8. Bassuter: The stratigraphic use of conodonts. (Illustrated with lan-
tern slides.) Certain Paleozoic formations particularly black shales, are
often crowded with tooth-like fossils averaging a millimeter in diameter,
resembling in part microscopic sharks’ teeth. In 1856 a monograph upon
Russian examples of these fossils was published by Pander who termed them
‘“‘conodonts.’’ Since then the systematic position of the conodonts has been
much in question and little work of systematic value has been published upon
them partly because it was believed that these structures were too variable
to be of stratigraphic value. A detailed study of the ample collections of
conodonts in the U.S. National Museum by E. O. Ulrich and the writer has
FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 73
/
resulted in a classification of the group, which, if not entirely natural, has
proved very useful in correlation. ‘The work has also convinced us that the
conodonts are the teeth of primitive fishes of perhaps several distinct groups
and that the supposed great variability of structure in the same species does
not exist. The conodonts show a marked evolution from simple undenticu-
lated teeth in the Ordovician to complex forms with a main cusp and com-
plicated denticulation in the Mississippian. Their value as horizon markers
was proved particularly in working out the correlation of the Devonian and
Mississippian black shales in the Eastern part of the United States, identical
faunas having been found scattered over a wide range of country. (Author’s
abstract.)
Wo. C. ALpEN: Glaciation and physiography of Wind River Mountains,
Wyoming. Remnants of several finely developed sets of gravel-capped, cut
terraces ranging from 15 or 30 feet to 1500 feet above the streams indicate
successive notable stages of still-stand and stream planation alternating
with stages of regional uplift. ‘These have been described by Blackwelder,
Westgate, and Branson and others. The Lenore terrace 15 to 30 feet above
the streams is generally confined between the lines of bluffs. The moraines
of the last, the Pinedale (or Wisconsin) stage of glaciation, extend’ down onto
the Lenore terrace.
One to two hundred feet above the Lenore terrace is the Circle terrace.
The moraines of the next older, or Bull Lake stage of glaciation, extend down
- onto but not below the Circle terrace. Some notable shifts in the locations of
streams and valleys took place after the Bull Lake stage (which may cor-
respond to the Iowan stage of the Keewatin ice sheet) and prior to the Pine-
dale stage. The Circle terrace seems to correspond to the main, or lower
level of the second set of terraces throughout the Yellowstone drainage basin.
There are scattered remnants of much more eroded higher and older sets of
terraces some of which may correspond to the higher level of the second set of
terraces on the Yellowstone of early Pleistocene age.
The highest tablelands 1000 to 1500 feet above the streams, represented by
the top of Table Mountain near Lander, are remnants of a vast gravelly
alluvial piedmont terrace (the Table Mountain plain). This is believed to
have been completed in Pliocene time and to be the correlative of Meeteetse
terrace in Big Horn Basin and of the Flaxville and associated terraces of
Montana. The much-weathered deposits of big boulders capping Table
Mountain and other remnants are believed (in part at least) to have been
deposited by mountain glaciers on the Table Mountain piedmont terrace
before it was much dissected. This is probably as old as, or older than,
Blackwelder’s ‘‘Buffalo drift’’ of the Wind River and Teton Mountain region.
It is probably the correlative of similar deposits of early Pleistocene age on
high mesas at the east front of Big Horn Mountains, and of the oldest moun-
tain glacier drift (Nebraskan) on the highest benchlands in the region of
Glacier National Park.
Several thousand feet above the Table Mountain remnants is the sum-
mit peneplain or plateau on Wind River Mountains, the product of Black-
welder’s Fremont cycle of erosion. In the opinion of the writer this is older
than Pliocene, possibly Miocene or Oligocene. Notable regional uplifts
followed both the development of this peneplain and that of the Table Moun-
tain plain. The latter uplift probably closed the Tertiary, brought on the
first mountain glaciation, and started the streams to dissecting the Table
Mountain plain or piedmont terrace. These correlations are, as yet, tenta-
tive. (Author’s abstract.)
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
402D MEETING
The 402d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 11, 1925, President
STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active
membership of R. L. Faris.
Program: KX. T. Auten: Further evidence of the nature of hot springs.
(Illustrated by lantern slides.) Drilling for natural steam as a source of
power has been in progress for some time at a place called ‘‘The Geysers,”’
Sonoma County, California. ‘‘The Geysers’’ are situated in the St. Helena
Mt. Range. The hot areas in this locality extend along the side of a narrow
canyon, occurring at intervals for a distance of about six miles. No igneous
rocks, lava or volcanic ejecta have been discovered in the immediate neigh-
borhood; the rocks are sandstones, shales, serpentines, schists, and other
metamorphics. At The Geysers sandstone is. encountered by drilling at a
depth often less than 100 feet from the surface. The temperature close to
the surface is very generally near 100°C.. As cracks are cut by the drill
the steam flow increases and the temperature rises rapidly—25°C. or more
per 100 ft. in the upper strata, and measurements show that water could not
penetrate to any considerable depth without being vaporized. Small hot
springs often of high mineral concentration are frequent. Their maximum
temperature reaches about 98°C.—the boiling point of water for the eleva-
tion. The mineral matter in the springs is chiefly sulphate and acid sulphate
of ammonium and magnesium, or in the alkaline springs carbonate, bicarbon- .
ate and sulphate. The evidence shows that the volatile matter is derived
from the volcanic gases which are escaping from springs and fumaroles. ‘The
non-volatile matter is derived from the serpentine and other metamorphic
rocks and of the area. That it comes from rocks near the surface is supported
by the fact that surface water can not penetrate deeply and fresh pyrite in
the sandstone drillings shows that oxidation also extends only to shallow
depths.
The phenomena of The Geysers are best accounted for on the assumption
that superheated steam and other volcanic gases are ascending from a hot
batholith through a deep crack in the overlying strata; that the steam is
heating surface water by condensation, and the gases, hydrogen sulphide and
carbon dioxide through logical chemical changes are decomposing the super-
ficial rocks. (Author’s abstract.)
W. 4H. Brapuey: An interpretation of the Green River formation. (Illus-
trated by lantern slides.) The field observations on the Green River forma-
tion and study of the microfossils of the oil shale together with the appli-
cation of the principles of limnology to the interpretation of these lake beds
indicate the following trend in the formation’s geologic history.
The Green River lakes were initiated, by gentle downwarping of the basin
floors, as large and relatively stable though quite shallow fresh water lakes in
which flourished an abundant flora and an active fauna. Limy shale, oolitic
limestone, sandstone, and a small amount of low grade oil shale were
deposited in the lakes of this stage.
The lakes of the second stage were still shallower and under climatic influ-
ence repeatedly filled and evaporated either partially or completely. At the
beginning of the cycle they may be pictured as broad sheets of clear and fresh
or moderately alkaline water, but at the close of the cycle, after a long, hot,
dry season, as a large number of disconnected ponds of various sizes and vari-
ous degrees of alkalinity. Plankton organisms, mostly algae and Protozoa,
thrived in these ephemeral ponds and reduction in volume not only greatly
FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 75
concentrated those already present, but also stimulated a vastly greater pro-
duction of them by reason of the stagnation and corresponding rise in tempera-
tures of the water. Active putrefaction, probably also assisted by the activ-
ity of saprophytic fungi, protozoans, various round worms, and minute
crustaceans reduced the dead organisms to a nearly structureless jelly.
Organic acids resulting from the putrefaction together with the increas-
ing content of dissolved mineral salts finally became effective toxins and the
ooze became an almost perfectly antiseptic medium. This structureless,
semifluid organic ooze with its occluded algae, fungi, protozoa, pollen, and
spores together with various proportions of finely divided mineral matter was
then covered by the deposits of the next cycle and subsequently lithified into
oil shale.
The closing phase of Green River deposition was characterized by strongly
alkaline lakes, probably playa-like, in the wet muds of which considerable
glauberite crystallized out. The conditions of deposition of this third phase
were evidently too unfavorable for the growth and accumulation of large
quantities of microorganisms and only an insignificant amount of oil shale
resulted. A period of vigorous stream abrasion terminated the alkaline
playa phase and was followed by the deposition of stream channel sands and
fluviatile clay which now make up the top of the Green River formation.
(Author’s abstract.)
Kirk Bryan: Recent deposits of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, in relation to
the life of the pre-historic peoples of Pueblo Bonto. (Illustrated by lantern
slides.) The part of the valley of Chaco River known as Chaco canyon lies
on the southern border of San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and is about 12
miles long, from 1 to 3 miles wide, and 200 to 400 feet deep. Theruins of 13
large communal houses stand on the canyon floor and the adjacent cliffs and
with numerous smaller ruins testify to the flourishing civilization that once
existed in this now desolate region. Pueblo Bonito, the largest of these ruins,
is now being excavated by an expedition under Neil M. Judd, organized and
supported by the National Geographic Society. The geologic work here
recorded in a preliminary statement was done at the instance of Mr. Judd and
at the expense of the Society. |
The flat floor of Chaco Canyon is marked by a relatively recent gully in
which the floods of Chaco River are now wholly confined. This gully, or
arroyo, is now fron 150 to 450 feet wide and 30 feet deep at Pueblo Bonito.
In 1877 it was 40 to 60 feet wide and 16 feet deep. An exploring expedition
in 1849 makes no mention of an arroyo and it therefore seems likely that the
arroyo was initiated at about the same time as the similar gullies in other
southwestern canyons, i.e., since the year 1870.
The alluvial deposits that form the floor of the canyon are of unknown
thickness, but the upper 30 feet is well exposed in the walls of the arroyo.
The sand, silt, ‘‘adobe,” and gravel of this valley fill are all characteristic of
deposition in muddy floods similar to those of the present ephemeral stream
and give no evidence that the Canyon ever had a perennial water course.
The agriculture of the prehistoric peoples was, therefore, not carried on by
irrigation with living water but probably by the methods of floodwater farm-
ing—a system still in use in the region.
Relics of man, in the form of hearths, bone-fragments, potsherds, etc., are
found to a depth of 21 feet. The zone from 4 to 6 feet below the surface con-
tains the remains of the people who built the large ruins and was therefore
deposited in the Pueblo period. The zone from 6 to 21 feet contains the relics
76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3
of pre-Pueblo peoples. In addition to this normal relation showing a transi-
tion in the type of human culture with the progress of alluviation of the valley,
there is a buried channel containing potsherds of the latest type known in
Pueblo Bonito. The buried channel is from 15 to 18 feet deep and has been
traced a total distance of 1500 feet. It was evidently formed and refilled
either very late in the occupancy of Pueblo Bonito or shortly after its aban-
donment, and represents a post-Bonito or post-Pueblo period.
If this buried channel represents a period of erosion followed by a period of
sedimentation intervening between the period of alluviation that formed the
main valley fill and the present period of erosion which began in 1870, very
important consequences result. The formation of the channel would have
so reduced the agricultural area subject to floodwater farming as to furnish an
approximate cause for the abandonment of Pueblo Bonito. The refill of
the channel would have restored the flood plain to a condition nearly like its
original condition and thus would have provided conditions suitable for the
expansion of the Navajo tribe in the years before and since the Spanish
conquest.
Further investigation is planned for the purpose of tracing this buried
channel and further unravelling the history of the valley fill. Since, however,
the various members of the complex mass of otherwise similar sediments
contain potsherds of characteristic type, the problem can be attacked by
ordinary stratigraphic methods in which potsherds take the place of fossils.
(Author’s abstract.)
403D MEETING
The 403d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 25, 1925, Vice-
President HEWETT presiding.
Program: W. T. SCHALLER: Genesis of lithium pegmatites. (Illustrated
with lantern slides.) Studies in the field and laboratory of the lithium peg-
matites of southern California and laboratory studies of similar specimens
from other localities have shown that these pegmatites as now composed are
not original crystallizations from a magma but are a hydrothermal replace-
ments of a much simpler, earlier formed, magmatic rock free from any
lithium minerals. In the California field graphic granite was the earlier rock
replaced, the well-defined texture of graphic granite serving as a “‘key’’ for the
determination of the replacement:processes. In volume percentage, albite is
the chief mineral replacing both the microcline and quartz of the graphic
granite. Other stages of the replacement show that the albite was later
replaced by lithium minerals. The well known rubellite and lepidolite speci-
mens were shown to have been originally graphic granite. Other pegmatitic
minerals accompanying the albitic and lithium mineralic replacements include
muscovite, biotite, garnet, black tourmaline, beryl, columbite, etc. The
original pegmatitic magma was therefore not rich in the so-called mineralizers,
all of which were introduced later in the hydrothermal replacement processes.
The formation of some of these minerals in bands and the formation of crystal
lined cavities are likewise due to the replacement processes. (Author’s
abstract.)
FRANK L. Huss: Oélites. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) Some odlites
from Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, were turned over to the speaker for
study. They were formed through the precipitation of calcium carbonate in
small pools under stalactites, the drip from which stirred the water of the pools,
FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 77
so that precipitating lime carbonate was keptin motion. It was shown by
other examples, including calcium carbonate odlites, formed in boiling sugar
_ refuse; nickel odlites formed from gas in the regular production of nickel by the
Mond carbony] process; sulphur odlites formed in crater lakes from sulphurous
gases bubbling through the water; hailstones apparently formed through the
precipitation of ice from gaseous H,O; and odlites formed in Great Salt Lake
from calcium carbonate brought down by streams, that the same principle
governed the formation of all these different types of odlites, that is, that
many solids precipitated in a moving fluid take on an odlitic form, and it is
therefore unnecessary to call on the aid of bacteria or other more or less
mysterious agencies to explain the formation of odlites. Calcite, hematite,
phosphorite and odlites have apparently all been formed in the same way.
(Author’s abstract.)
W.P. Wooprine: Miocene climate of tropical America. (Illustrated with
lantern slides.) At the close of Miocene time many genera of marine
animals suddenly disappeared in the Caribbean Sea and adjoining waters of
the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. Most of these genera that are now
living are found in the warm waters of the eastern Pacific and some are con-
fined to the tropical western Pacific. Therefore it seems probable that in its
physical features the Miocene Caribbean Sea resembled the present tropical
Pacific. Among the mollusks characteristically tropical families such as the
Terebridae, Conidae, Cancellariidae, Mitridae, Columbellidae, Cypraeidae
and Arcidae had a much richer representation in the Miocene Caribbean
Sea than in the present Caribbean Sea. The whole Miocene Caribbean
fauna had a more tropical aspect than the living fauna.
Perhaps the most significant feature accounting for the change in the Carib-
bean Sea and the extinction there of Pacific genera lies in the closing of the
channels that extended across Panama and Costa Rica during Miocene and
earlier Tertiary time. The problem of the effect of these channels on oceanic
circulation can hardly be avoided even though available data may be too
meager to attempt to evaluateits significance. All geologists who are familiar
with Central America agree that the channels were open during at least parts
of Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene time and were closed after middle Miocene
time. Some geologists believe that water from the Caribbean Sea was trans-
ferred into the Pacific across the Central American channels. It seems more
probable that the slightly higher mean sea level in the Pacific.and the much
greater tidal range on the Pacific side of Central America would cause a move-
ment in the opposite direction, carrying into the Caribbean Sea water having
the same temperature, salinity, and food supply as Pacific water, and offering
a means of transporting pelagiclarvae. Asthe Tertiary faunas of the Pacific
coast of Central America and northern South America are being studied, it is
becoming apparent that, at least so far as the mollusks are concerned, many
of the Pacific genera that have disappeared in the Caribbean Sea were autoch-
thonous in the eastern Pacific. They moved into the Caribbean Sea as
temporary migrants and remained there only as long as the channels were
open. ‘This explanation is far from satisfactory when an attempt is made to
apply it to genera that were established in the Caribbean Sea during the long
period from Eocene to Miocene and even spread as far north as the southeast
coast of the United States. It is purely speculative, but it seems to offer a
reasonable basis to account for the striking change in the Caribbean fauna—
a change caused by the elimination or impoverisbment of genera and families
that are characteristically tropical. (Author’s abstract.)
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL 16, No. 3
404TH MEETING
The 404th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club April 8, 1925, Vice-presi-
dent Burts presiding.
Program: J. B. Mertiz, Jr.: The Paleozoic geology of interior Alaska.
The oldest rocks in Alaska comprise a group of rocks, known collectively as
the Birch Creek Schist, which crop out typically in the valley of Tanana
River, in interior Alaska. These consist essentially of quartz-mica schist of
sedimentary origin, together with orthogneiss and metamorphosed basic
igneous rocks. ‘The schist is of pre-Ordovician and probably of pre-Cam-
brian age. The included metamorphic igneous rocks may be in part of early
Paleozoic age.
Overlying unconformably the Birch Creek Schist in its type locality is a
great thickness of slate and metamorphosed arkose, known as the Tatalina
group, in the upper part of which occur lower Ordovician fossils; and at the
very top of the Tatalina group is found a formation of metamorphosed basal-
tic lavas, in the tuffs of which late middle Ordovician fossils occur. To the
eastward, along the international boundary, rocks which are believed to be
stratigraphically equivalent to the Tatalina group contain fossils ranging in
age from middle Cambrian to upper Ordovician; while to the southward and
southwestward, both Utica and Richmond horizons in the upper Ordovician
have been recognized, the former being essentially an argillaceous and the
latter a limestone formation.
Lower Silurian rocks have not been found in the interior of Alaska, but
middle Silurian rocks are widespread and form one of the best known hori-
zon markers in the Paleozoic section. The type locality is in Brooks Range,
of northern Alaska, where a middle Silurian limestone about 6000 feet thick,
extends for more than 500 miles from east to west across the Territory. oe as x) Wee NO meres we
Ligne ee |
C (+ ee “a Weel hoe ie
where wu, u, u, have the values in terms of u, u, u, given in
Equation (5).
It should be noted that the transformation equations for velocities
also form a group of one-parameter transformations. They may be
derived from the differential equations
by integration, with the initial conditions that when
Oey a
then Un = Up
u, =u
FEB. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 85
The most general distribution of velocities that remain invariant to
the special relativity transformation are determined by the partial
differential equations:
of x Of Me OK ca
tag ee on
Onion 4a of
Se ce Ot me AC eR
OF. # afi. 1 of
Sas We i ae a
Ti:
ct — ‘i
epee il Cee Uan8)
This gives a velocity X-component for any assigned point of space,
and any instant. The substitution of u, in the second and third
equations and the integration thereof results in values for u, and u;
in terms of 2, y, 2, t.
III
Accelerations are transformed by the special theory of relativity as
follows:
dx
dx, i" di
dy VU,
Catt lye di 1 C2 d2x
De meet A eee CaN ae Oe ee
dt, P (1 ie my @ (1 a = di
dz vu,
d22; di? G
wee
di? VU, \2 Vib, Vee
oe) ee)
86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
These relations may be easily derived thus:
0D i a
da? d dz, ce
— eee
os
C
du, d?z
dx, dt di?
Similarly:
age
Gil UU
deyi, adeday ( (: 2 y
Git >) den dies: dt;
dy ea
d’y; Ms di? i e Siar
dies) | VU, \2 VU, \3
ee oe) e (1 - se
22,
; ‘ d
Likewise for dea
These equations for the transformation of accelerations are con-
tained in the differential equations:
dw,’ dw,’ dw,
Tsim / / Grae
3 U, W; 2 U, Wy, + W, Uy -~2-Uu, w+ wae
from which they result by integration with the initial conditions
that when
6orv = 0,
then
We == 1B
Wy. = UW,
/
LD Ta
dx,
Here w,’ = —— ete
_ dt,
FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 87
In a future paper, the writer hopes to develop the consequences of
- these abstract formulae to the concrete relations and phenomena
occurring in mechanics, astronomy, and electricity.
I beg to acknowledge the inspiration of my sister Ella in this work.
METEOROLOGY.—A lightning stroke. N. ERNEst Dorsery.
~ The detailed examination of a tree (height 47 feet, girth near ground
49 inches) which had recently been struck by lightning brought to light
a number of facts! which do not readily conform to the usual ideas
regarding the nature of a lightning stroke. Some of the more strik-
ing are these: (1) The tree was surrounded by the following objects,
each about half the height of the tree distant from it: To the north-
west was a tower which was 2 higher than the tree; a tree of essentially
its own height was to the southwest, another to the south and a third
to the southeast; a tree about half as high was to the west and another
to the north of east. Though surrounded in this manner, it was
struck at an altitude of less than $ its height. At about twice its
height distant, and on the other side of the building with the tower,
was a tree of the same kind, about 2 taller than the one which was
struck. This was in a far more exposed position, but it was not dam-
aged in the least. The building was not damaged, neither was another
tree of the same kind, of nearly the same height, and about twice its
height distant, although it was far more exposed than the one which
was struck. (2) Other than by mechanical tearing, the bark and sap-
wood suffered only minor and very local damage, although one side of
the tree was blown to pieces, and the unsplintered portion of the trunk
was split. (3) The splintering extended to only a little more than half
the height of the tree; the split reached the same height, but did not
extend to the ground. (4) Along the apex of the blaze, which was
about 4 inches from the bark and not at the center of the tree, there
was a column of fibers which were quite completely shredded. This
column extended from the roots to a point above the top of the split;
it closely followed the grain of the tree. At all places, except one, it
was separated from the bark by unshredded wood. ‘The one place
where it communicated with the bark was on the upper side of a minor
branch, 15 inches above the top of the split. There, very near the
trunk, was a small hole where the wood had been blown outwards and
1 For a detailed account of the observations, see Monthly Weather Review, Novem-
ber, 1925.
88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
the bark blown off. From this hole, a small tuft of shredded wood was
projecting; the hole had been blown so empty that, by means of a
No. 26 copper wire, it could be probed to a depth of 4 inches. (5)
Along one edge of the splintered section there were four small spots
where the bark had been charred. At three of them the bark had
been perforated. The wood, back of the highest and largest spot,
was so completely splintered that little could be learned regarding
the nature of the hole; it appeared to have been nearly horizontal.
A short distance beneath the bark there was a column of shredded
fibers, then a region of little or no shredding, and then the shredded
fibers at the apex of the blaze. The next hole, about a foot lower,
could be quite satisfactorily reconstructed from the material available.
Shortly after entering the trunk, it was scarcely larger in section than
the lead of an ordinary pencil. It extended 2 inches beyond the bark,
was inclined to the vertical by about 50°, and lay very nearly in the
plane bounding that side of the splintered section. The third hole,
which was about a foot lower than the second, merely penetrated the
bark; it seemed to be inclined to the vertical by about 28°, but, on
account of its short length, it was not possible to determine the angle
with certainty. (6) Only one large section was torn from the tree.
This section bore several branches; not far from its center, it was
broken and bent, and the fibers were crumpled and crushed in such a
way as to show that the lower portion had been forced violently into
the upper. This occurred before the section left the tree. Attached
to the lower portion, was a branch which, within the trunk, had been
broken squarely across the grain, and pulled from the trunk as a
tendon might be pulled from a mortise. And this was done so nearly
that the fibers were not bent and that a sliver (one inch wide, 4 inch
thick, and 4 inches long, which was split from the branch) was left
attached to the trunk and undamaged. Two inches of this sliver
projected free from the undamaged portion of the trunk and had
been pulled out of the section bearing the limb. Such a break could
have been produced only by a longitudinal tension which was quite
closely parallel to the fibers in the plane of cleavage between the sliver
and the branch. In passing up and around the branch, the fibers of
the trunk bend outward at the sides of the branch and then inward to
the point where they meet above the branch. ‘Thus, above the branch
and at a certain depth within the trunk, the fibers are almost perpen-
dicular to the plane of cleavage between the sliver and the branch;
and a little nearer to the surface the overhang is still greater, so that
FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 89
they form almost an inverted cup. This branch lay just within the
western boundary of the column of shredded fibers. A small part of
the column passed to the west and the remainder to the east of the
branch; the two portions reunited above the branch, where the fibers
are inclined and cupped, as just described. ‘The shredded fibers lay
in the boundary between the torn out section and the standing trunk.
Even a casual observer would have noticed that the center of vio-
lence was not over 10 feet from the ground, and there seems no room
for doubt that the main discharge which caused the damage passed
through the charred spots, of which the largest and highest was only
8 ft. 3in. from the ground. Situated as the tree was, it seems certain
that, prior to the advent of the stroke, the local field at these points
could not have been essentially greater than that at many neighbor-
ing points; and must have been far less than that at the top of the
tree, and still less than that at the top of the tower, or at the top of the
exposed trees mentioned.
Also, it is difficult to believe that the electrical senipih of the air
along the narrow paths leading to the holes differed from that else-
where sufficiently to more than offset the reduced field at these lower
levels. And surely the conductivity of the fibers which were shredded
was not significantly greater than that of those surrounding them,
and must have been appreciably less than that of the sap-wood, which
was undamaged.
The widely accepted belief that the path of the flash deinindds at
each point either with the direction of the antecedent local field,
or with the antecedent line of minimum electrical strength, or with a
compromise between these two, appears to be entirely incompatible
with these observations. In many ways, the observations suggest
_ that we are here concerned, not with ordinary conduction, in which the
carriers of the electricity drift slowly and follow the direction of the
local field, but rather with a mighty rush of carriers—with something
analogous to the well-known cathode stream.
And this is fully in accord with the observation made by Sir J. J.
Thomson at the beginning of this century, that a spark does not occur
until, at some point, the field is sufficiently intense to confer upon an
electron, in the interval between its encounters with the molecules, a
velocity sufficient to enable it to dislodge an electron from the mole-
cule with which it collides. Then, if there were no mutual repulsion
between the several free electrons, and if the positive residues were
removed so rapidly as to keep the field constant, a swarm of electrons
90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
would result. The swarm would be elongated in the direction of the
field, and the number of electrons in the swarm would increase expo-
nentially with the length of the path. After the first encounter there
would be two electrons, after the tenth there would be over a thou-
sand, after the 60th there would be over 1018 electrons; which represents
a gross charge of over 1/8 coulomb. For electrons moving with only
a moderate velocity, 60 encounters will occur in a distance of about
40 microns. Owing to the mutual repulsion of the electrons, the
swarm will tend to spread in all directions, but more especially in the
direction of its motion; it will draw out into a dart. The leading elec-
trons will be subjected to the repulsion of the trailing ones, as well as
to the field arising from other causes, and hence their acceleration will
be augmented. ‘They will gain energy at the expense of the trailing
electrons. Instead of a very great number of electrons moving at a
moderate velocity, there will be a much smaller number moving with
a correspondingly greater velocity. At velocities exceeding a certain
value, the amount of energy an electron expends per unit length of
path decreases as the velocity increases; consequently, at these veloci-
ties a weaker field will suffice to maintain the velocity. Once started
with sufficient velocity, such a dart can continue to travel with
unabated energy although the field is weak and, with a progressive
reduction in energy, it can travel even in an opposing field. At high
velocities, approaching that of light, the mutual fore-and-aft repulsion
of the electrons is greatly reduced, and the effect of the attendant mag-
netic field (attraction of parallel currents) in great measure compen-
sates the lateral repulsion. At these velocities the dart may be
relatively compact. A high speed dart possesses a very considerable
amount of momentum, and can strike a correspondingly powerful
blow.
At low velocities, the path of a dart will coincide at each point quite
closely with the direction of the local field existing antecedently to
its arrival; as the velocity is increased, it will travel more and more
under its own momentum, ignoring the local field. A high speed
dart does not seek out a tree to strike, but merely collides with it. It
makes no difference whether the tree is exposed or not; whether it is
struck at the top or at the roots is merely a question of how it happens
to be situated with reference to the path of the dart. ‘True, the direc-
tion of the path just before collision will undoubtedly be modified by
the presence of the tree, but the extent of the modification will be
slight if the velocity of the dart is great. Where it collides, small
FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 91
holes will be burned. Without other damage, the electrons will
_ penetrate the trunk until their velocity is so reduced that they can
become attached to the molecules composing the contents and walls
of the cells; then their velocity abruptly decreases, and their progress
becomes much more difficult. As their velocity is reduced, so is the
magnetic field produced by their motion, and they are left more
and more completely subjected to the full force of their mutual elec-
trostatic repulsion, which urges them in all directions. In the partic-
ular tree studied, it appeared that the molecules were so crowded
that they could not pass transversely to the grain without actually
punching out the fibers ahead of them (as at the hole in the
branch 15 inches above the split), but along the grain in the direc-
tion of the flow of the sap they could pass with a certain amount of
freedom and in so passing the fibers were shredded. ‘The longer the
column over which the charged molecules are spread, the more pro-
nouncedly longitudinal will be the resultant stress. If they can not
pass across the grain, the tree will be splintered. The center of vio-
lence will be at the level of the entrance of the charge, and from this
level the extent of the damage will decrease in both directions. In
their passage up the fibers, in the case here considered, they encoun-
tered the overhanging fibers above the branch which was broken
squarely across the grain, and which subjected them to a stress nor-
mal to their direction; this tore out the branch and drove upward the
section of trunk containing it. Or, if it is preferred, we may say that
a charge accumulated on these fibers, and was subjected to the repul-
sion of the charges which lay below them. Only a relatively small
charge is needed to account for this damage. If there were only 1/600
coulomb on these fibers, and only twice as much at a point 30 cm.
below it, the mutual repulsion would amount to more than the weight
of 50 tons. ‘This is more than ten times the longitudinal force required
to tear apart a seasoned white oak rod having the same sectional area
as the square break. Estimates of the amount of charge which could
be involved in a lightning stroke run as high as tens and hundreds of
coulombs, but what proportion of this is carried by the dart itself is
not known.
If, while driving along the grain, the loaded electrons come suff-
ciently near the surface, the strength of the wood will be insufficient
to stand the strain and the wood will be blown out and, through the
opening so made, some of the shredded fibers will be ejected. Such
was the case at the blow-out mentioned and also in the roots. Only
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
two of the latter showed damage, and in each case the center of dam-
age was a single slender column of fibers. Where this came too near
the surface a split occurred and the borders of the split were more or
less shredded.
It seems that the observations which we have been considering can,
on the basis of the present electron theory, be logically correlated with
one another and with other well known facts by assuming that the
stroke is initiated by a high speed dart of electrons. This delivers
its entire charge practically at once, and is followed, along the ionized
trail left by the dart, by a current of the usual type. This current will
continue until there is such an equalization of potential that no more
can flow, or until the negative carriers have become exhausted. If the
conditions are such that at any point of the path, especially near the
cloud, the field is sufficient to impart to the positive residues a veloc-
ity which enables them to dislodge electrons by collision, there will be
a continuing supply of electrons until that condition ceases to exist.
Scattered throughout the atmosphere, below the cloud as well as
in and above it, are regions in which the atmosphere is electrically
charged; some are charged positively, others negatively. All are
drifting under the action of the electric field, and are being carried
hither and thither by the wind. Between two such regions, oppositely
charged and suitably placed, the electrical field will be much greater
than if these regions were uncharged. In such a place the dart may
originate and acquire the velocity requisite for its continuance in the
weaker, undisturbed field. The intensity of the field required to pro-
duce a dart depends in some measure upon the velocity with which
the electron enters the field.
The dart which we have been considering traveled towards the
ground. Obviously, under other conditions, a dart might originate
at the ground and travel in the reverse direction. It would originate
where the field is intense, as at the top of an elevated object. The
dart itself would do no damage; the damage, if any, would arise from
the current of positive residues. Like other charged gas molecules,
these move relatively slowly and possess but little momentum, but on
account of their great number they may convey a great current.
They will not penetrate deeply into the trunk of a tree, but will pass
mainly along the well conducting sap-wood, that will bear the brunt of
the damage. Lightning strokes possessing these characteristics are
well known.
In neither case is the stroke the result of the cloud discharging to
earth, though the cloud does become discharged as a result of the
FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 93
stroke. That, however, is purely an incidental and a subsequent
effect. The negative charge of the dart is assembled along the path;
the remainder of the charge involved in the stroke comes from the
- ionization produced by the dart. The charges in the cloud are, prob-
ably in large part, neutralized in situ, either by the spreading of the
delivered charge by its own mutual repulsion, or by the dissemination
of the ions by the wind. It is distinctly an after effect of the spark.
Such seems to be the essential nature of a lightning stroke. There is
first a rush of electrons, which blazes the path, then, along this con-
ducting path, flows a more leisurely conduction current of the usual
type. Under certain conditions, perhaps usually, this conduction
current will convey a far larger quantity of electricity than is carried
by the dart of electrons. The direction in which the dart flies is in a
very real sense the direction of the stroke—the direction in which it
is delivered. ‘The effects produced where the stroke starts differ quite
characteristically from those produced where it ends.
PHOTOGRAPHY.—Photography for the field geologist. Eiot BLAcK- |
WELDER. Stanford University.
GENERAL
Nearly every field geologist carries a camera; but it is a common
experience at the end of the season to find that pictures taken of some
of the most important subjects were failures and that a much larger
number were neither as distinct nor as bright as they should have
been. ‘This is due to the fact that the taking of good photographs
under all sorts of conditions is an art understood by but few users of
the camera. Success in it requires a comprehension of certain facts
and principles and close attention to the necessary details. The
accuracy of photographs as records of field conditions makes them a
valuable supplement to the usual notes, maps and sketches; and there-
fore it is advisable for every geologist to inform himself to such an
extent that he may be able to take good photographs under nearly
all possible conditions. As a result of some twenty-five years of more
or less painful efforts to reach such proficiency, the writer ventures to
offer the younger geologist a few suggestions that may improve his
results. In general the difficulties are not the same as those which
confront the professional studio photographer, and so these remarks
_ apply more particularly to field work.!
1A paper of interest in this connection is Stereoscopic Photography in Geological
Field Work, by F. E. Wright. This Journat 14: 63-72. 1924.
94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 4
EQUIPMENT
Good results should not be expected without good equipment.
The small pocket camera is not capable of giving photographs of much
use to the geologist, except for nearby objects under favorable light
conditions. Therefore he will do well to provide himself with a more
elaborate camera, equipped with a ground glass for focussing, and as
large as he can reasonably carry. The 5 xX 7 inch size is one of the
most satisfactory, but in some kinds of work a smaller camera may be
all that circumstances permit.
One of the most important things is to get the best convertible lens
and shutter that can be obtained. After trying various lenses, the
writer finds that the Goertz Dagor type gives the sharpest detail;
but some prefer other convertible lenses, such as the Zeiss Protar or
Tessar, the Bausch and Lomb, or the Cooke lenses. One of the best
shutters is the Compound; but there are others in the same class. It
is advisable to have a lens consisting of two elements, one of which
‘can be removed to permit using a long focus for telephoto views.
For this purpose it is necessary that the camera have a rather long
bellows.
To record the picture one now has considerable range of choice.
Glass plates are perhaps the best means, but their fragility and weight
are serious disadvantages in the field. Fortunately, cut films, which
are free from such defects, give almost equally good results. Roll-
films and film-packs are distinctly inferior on account of their slight
tendency to curvature, so that they seldom give as sharp images as
plates. Nevertheless, they are tempting because of their greater
convenience, and they may well be used for photographs of minor
import or those in which minute detail is not required.
Various kinds of cut films may now be obtained for different purposes.
For moving objects, or for taking views from trains or from windy
stations, rapid films, such as Eastman ‘‘Portrait Super-Speed”’ film,
may be required; but the results are usually not as good as those
obtained with slower films. For general work within one or two
miles of the camera, and where it is not important to bring out the
more unusual colors, Eastman ‘‘Commercial Ortho” and other equiva-
lent films are satisfactory. For distant mountain pictures with more
or less blue haze, or for any pictures in which colors need to be especi-
ally differentiated, the writer finds nothing equal to ‘‘Panchromatic”’
films. In fact, he has found nothing else that will give even tolera-
bly satisfactory results in photographing desert mountain scenery,
FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 95
where the blue haze is nearly always in evidence. The only disad-
- vantages to using Panchromatic films are their slightly greater cost,
and the fact that they must be loaded and developed in darkness.
Ray-filters, or color screens, are indispensable for many geologic
photographs. It is best to carry several kinds for different purposes.
The function of the ray-filter is to equalize the rays of various photic
intensities and thus to give truer color-values. A suitable filter is
particularly important for the purpose of counteracting the effects of
the blue and violet rays which predominate in the light coming from
distant mountains. In photographing ordinary landscapes with Com-
mercial Ortho films, the author has found the Wratten K-1 filter (made
by the Eastman Kodak Company) satisfactory. When using Pan-
chromatic films on distant mountains or desert. scenes, best results
have been obtained with the G filter of the same series,—a rather deep
orange-colored glass. Even better results are given by using a red
filter, but this requires about five times as much exposure, and that is a
serious disadvantage when the wind is blowing. Various smaller
ray-filters for pocket cameras are on the market.
Sharp definition of the details in a photograph depends partly upon
accurate focussing of the lens and partly upon the stability of the
camera. If ascaleis used for focussing, it is advisable to test the scale
carefully before going into the field, and it is also necessary for the
operator to be sure of the distance to be covered in each photograph.
In general, it is probably best to focus on the ground glass every time,
and for this purpose it is desirable to carry a black cloth to shut out the
light.
Beginners seldom realize the importance of stability of the camera.
It is true that very rapid exposures, such as zy of a second, may be
taken from a moving train or when a violent wind is blowing; but ordi-
nary snapshots, even with an exposure of sr of a second, generally
show the effects of slight movement. With the slower.films and ray-
filters, it is necessary to use a solid support, such as a tripod. While
the ordinary tubular metal tripod is better than none, and may be
satisfactory in calm weather, it is not stable enough for ordinary con-
ditions. It is much better to use a fairly heavy wooden tripod of the
type that can be folded into a small space.
It is now possible to obtain for the tripod head a ball-and-socket
joint attachment that facilitates the photographing of objects on the
ground or in other awkward positions. However, for a heavy camera
it may be necessary to have such an attachment specially reinforced
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
to overcome vibration. Still better, one can use the tilting tops that
are now obtainable; they are screwed on the top of the usual tripod.
One of the most important problems confronting the photographer
is that of the length of exposure to be given when taking the picture.
Since this varies with the latitude, altitude, sky conditions, climate,
nature of subject, time of year, hour of day, distance from subject,
shadows, etc., it is really a very complex problem. To facilitate the
necessary calculations, it is almost essential to use some kind of expo-
sure meter. Of these there are now many types on the market. The
writer has obtained best results with the Harrold exposure meter, and
finds it compact, durable, and easy to operate. Only the most experi-
enced photographer can afford to depend upon judgment or memory,
when it comes to estimating the length of exposure required in a given
case, except where all of the various conditions are what may be called
normal.
TAKING THE PICTURE
It is well to remember that the camera is not capable of giving every-
thing that the human eye can see. In order to show topographic
details, the light must be favorable. Since it is the small shadows that
bring these details into prominence, it is best to take the picture from
such a position that the sun’s rays are nearly at right angles to the line
of sight. For the same reason, photographs taken within two hours
of sunrise or sunset show the greatest detail in mountain slopes,
because the shadows are longer then than at noon.
Timing the exposure is perhaps the most acute problem at the mo-
ment of taking the picture. Exposure meters are usually devised for
the conditions which prevail in the populous part of the eastern
United States. For other regions certain allowances must be made.
For example, in the western plateaus and mountains, at elevations of
about 5000 feet, it is found necessary to reduce the time to one-half
that which is indicated by the exposure meter. Above 10,000 feet,
it should be reduced to one-third. On the deserts of the southwestern
states, similar reductions should be made at much lower altitudes,—
2000 and 6000 feet respectively. Few people realize how important
the factor of distance is, in this respect. Ata distance of 2 to 3 miles,
the time should be further reduced about 10 per cent; and for 25 or
more miles, about 50 per cent, as compared with nearby objects. Itis
often impracticable to obtain a good image of both the near and the
distant objects; but suitable films and ray-filters, with carefully calcu-
FEB. 19, 1926 - BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 97
lated exposures, will give fair results that are impossible without
- them.
In order to photograph very light-colored objects, such as desert
plains, quartzite outcrops, sand dunes, snowy peaks, and lakes, it is
necessary further to reduce the time of exposure by 25 per cent to 75
per cent, according to the degree of reflection of light from the surface
In question. One must acquire by experience an intuitive perception
of the light-reflecting properties of the various subjects to be photo-
graphed.
There is another correction which is nearly always overlooked, but
which is rather important when taking photographs at early or late
hours in certain parts of the country. It should be remembered that
the exposure-meter has been designed for correct time, i.e., solar time,
but that our watches generally give ‘‘standard time.” It therefore
happens that if one is situated near the boundary between two stand-
ard time zones, his watch is in error as much as half an hour with refer-
ence to solar time.
In order to obtain contrast in the larger outlines of the picture, it
is better to under-expose the film a little. On the other hand, to obtain
detail in smaller objects, especially within a few feet of the camera, it
is better to over-expose somewhat. For example, a dissected moun-
tain slope some miles away would show best in the former case, and a
rock specimen photographed in the laboratory would need the latter.
FINISHING THE FILMS
Developing and printing are important operations. They should
be performed only by experts who are instructed in advance regarding
the general nature of the photographs that have been taken and the
kind of negatives especially desired. It is unwise to entrust such
matters to the ordinary drug-store agency, or even to the average town
photographer. It is best to seek out a qualified, experienced photog-
rapher, explain one’s problem to him, and then send him all the films,
even though it sometimes involves more or less delay. It is especially
important never to let a careless or inexperienced person either load or
develop the highly sensitive Panchromatic films. ©
aes
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
927TH MEETING
The 927th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on
Saturday evening, November 28, 1925. The meeting was called to order by
President FLEMING at 8:15 with 46 persons in attendance.
Program: G. Breit and M. A. Tuve. Radio evidence of the existence of the
Kennelly-Heaviside Layer. (Presented by Mr. Breit and illustrated with
lantern slides.) A method of testing for the existence of the Kennelly-
Heaviside Layer has been described by the authors (see Journal Terrestrial
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, March, 1925). This method has
given a definite indication of the existence of the layer. The transmission
took place from Bellevue, Anacostia, as well as other stations. The layer is
found to have different reflecting powers for different wave-lengths. Its
properties change rapidly with time. Frequently it is capable of sending down
more than one wave. This appears to be especially true in the afternoon and
at night. The effective height of the layer is not quite constant but varies.
It is generally in the neighborhood of 100 miles. The wave returned from the
layer is differently polarized from the wave traveling along the ground.
Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. WHITE, HUND, LAPORTE,
Bauer, GisH, Curtis, MoHLER and WENNER.
V. E. Wuitman. Studies in the electrification of dust clouds. (Illustrated
with lantern slides.) Dust clouds were formed by blowing various pure
chemical substances through tubes and the net electric charge imparted de-
termined as a function of the composition of the dust, tube material, area of
contact between the dust and the tube in being blown out of the tube, velocity
with which the dust moves through the tube, and the length of the path of the
dust through the tube. An apparatus was described with which photographic
records of the paths of particles are obtained. Such photographs show the
presence of positive, negative, and neutral particles in all dust clouds, even
of very pure substances. The ratio of positive to negative electrification in a
cloud is found to change as the larger particles in the cloud settle out, but
evidence is obtained which contradicts the hypothesis that the large par-
ticles carry an opposite charge from the small particles in a given cloud. The
paper closed with a few remarks bearing on the relation of the present ex-
perimental data to the concept of a tribo-electric series. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, TUCKERMAN
and SILSBEE.
928TH MEETING
The 928th meeting, constituting the 55th annual meeting, was heid in the
Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, December 12, 1925. It was called to
order by Vice-President. AwLT at 8:16, with 37 persons present.
The report of the Treasurer showed total receipts, $3828.44; disburse-
ments, $2974.70, leaving a balance of $353.74. The report of the secretaries
showed that 18 meetings were held during the year, several in conjunction
with other societies.
The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, W1LLIAM
FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 99
Bowtg; Vice-Presidenis, J. P. AvutT and Paut R. Hey; Treasurer, W. D.
LAMBERT; Corresponding Secretary, H. L. DryDEN; Members-at-Large, General
~ Committee, G. Breit and EK. W. Woouarp.
At the conclusion of the business meeting Dr. Witiram H. Datu addressed
the Society on Some recollections of the founding of the Philosophical Society.
The address was highly appreciated, the presiding officer voiced the senti-
ments of al! present in thanking Dr. Datu for his address. Following Dr.
Datw’s address Prof. James H. Gore and Dr. Witi1am H. Hoimess also
spoke on the early days of the Philosophical Society.
H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary.
THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
681ST MEETING
The 68lst meeting of the Biological Society was held in the assembly
hall of the Cosmos Club, October 24, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHwER
in the chair and 51 persons present. W. F. Rusery, Geological Survey, was
elected to membership.
VERNON Batury described the effects of fire in a ee muskrats in
marshes in J.ouisiana. Many muskrat houses are burned and dozens of the
animals are sometimes found dead. In places where extensive fires occur, it
is estimated that thousands of muskrats may be killed.
J. N. Ross reported that plans are being made for a 5,000 acre arboretum
with a prospective endowment of $20,000,000 near Los Angeles, California.
A. A. DoouiTTLe described examining a cat found in poor condition. It
proved to be heavily infested with tape worms of a species usually met with
in man.
S. A. RoHwrrR announced the recent death of a member, Dr. W. D.
Hunter of the Bureau of Entomology, in El Paso, Texas. Dr. HunrTEr,
who had been in charge of important work in Texas for some years, was for-
merly active in entomological and other biological work in Washington.
P. B. JoHNSON referred to observations on viscachas recently living in the
National Zoological Park. After a heavy rain a young one of a more bluish
color than older animals was seen nestling close against the body of an adult
male, presumably for warmth.
VERNON Barry, Biological Survey: T’wo years’ progress in beaver farming.
—Two beaver colonies established in 1923 in northern Michigan, where the
animals are thriving and increasing in a satisfactory manner, were described.
From one fully enclosed area one of the beavers escaped by digging under the
fence when their dam raised the water above the bottom wires, but in a short
time returned and was admitted to the inclosure with its companions. In
the other colony, where only a drift fence had been built across the creek
below them, a few of the beavers had crossed to the head of a neighboring
creek and a second colony was established. This can be controlied by another
short section of fence across the creek and meadow below. Both colonies are
in excellent location for beaver farms.
The importance of feeding beaver when the food supply near the shores
is exhausted was emphasized and lantern slides of some of those caught in
Mr. Bailey’s improved beaver trap were shown. (Author’s abstract.)
AcGnes Cuass, Bureau of Plant Industry: Hunting grasses in Brazil—
The speaker spent 7 months in Brazil, visiting the states of Pernambuco,
Alagoas, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and Sao Paulo. The sertdo
100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
of both Pernambuco and Bahia was badly overgrazed. A trip was made to
Paulo Alfonso Falls in Rio Sao Francisco. The falls, which are 81 meters
high in all, form a stupendous cascade, not a straight fall. The region is a
rocky desert with very little vegetation. In January Mrs. Chase botanized
in the region about Rio de Janeiro and with a party from the Jardim Botanico
visited Itatiaia, the peak of which, Agulhas Negras, was until recently
believed to be the highest point in Brazil. Its altitude is now in dispute.
On the ascent through tropical jungie a group of monkeys was seen. Above
timber line grasses were abundant. About three months were spent in Minas
Geraes, the highland campos of this state being especially rich in grasses.
Serra de Cipd, 150 kilometers northwest of Bello Horizonte, yielded the best
results of the entire trip. Three weeks were spent in the vicinity of Vicosa
in the eastern part of Minas Geraes, where Dr. P. H. Rolfs is building up a
school of agriculture for the state. With Dr. Rolfs and his daughter a trip
was made to Serra da Gramma, and later with Miss Rolfs to Serra de Caparaé.
The highest peak of this range, Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters, disputes with
Agulhas Negras the place for highest point in Brazil. The party ascended
Pontéo Crystal, 2798 meters, instead of Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters in
altitude, but the botanical results were probably as good as if the higher
peak had been attained. A last trip into highland campos was made to
Campos de Jordao, Sao Paulo. (Author’s abstract.)
682D MEETING
The 682d meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club,
November 7, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHwer in the chair and 59
persons present. FRANK THONE, Science Service, Washington, D. C., J. K.
STRECKER, Baylor University, Waco, Tex., and Grorez M. Linp, Fort
Collins, Colo., were elected to membership. oie
H. C. OBERHOLSER referred to the establishment of the Upper Mississippi
River Wild Life and Fish Refuge by Act of Congress providing for the pur-
chase of over 300,000 acres of overflowed lands along the Mississippi River
from Rock Island, Il., to Wabasha, Minn. A sum of $1,500,000 has been set
aside, a part of which is now available for the acquisition of lands by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture through the Biological Survey, which in cooperation
with the Bureau of Fisheries will administer the area. Attention was directed
to the high value of this great refuge, the object of which is to conserve recrea-
tional and economic'resources in the interest of all the people.
VERNON BaILEY mentioned seeing a woodchuck near Washington and
requested that members report any similar observations, with dates, with a
view to securing more definite information relative to the length of the hiber-
nation period of this animal in the District of Columbia.
F. C. LIncoLn reported seeing a woodchuck about a month ago near White’s
Ferry, Va. Its actions were unusual as it came running down the road and
passed close between him and a companion before finally turning off into the
brush.
L. O. Howarp, Bureau of Entomology: Something about the salt marsh
mosquito problem.—The speaker described the biology of the most prominent
salt-water mosquitoes, namely Culex sollicitans and Culex taeniorhynchus,
showing that in spite of his own efforts to learn the life histories of these
species, they were not understood until a very thorough investigation had been
made by the late Dr. John B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey
(and former Secretary of the Biological Society of Washington), and his
FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 101
associates in 1902. He then spoke of the extraordinary work that has been
done by the State of New Jersey along its whole ocean front in draining and
diking the marshes so as to prevent the breeding of these mosquitves which
were for years the dominant mosquitoes of New Jersey and which had given
that State its mosquito reputation. Both forms fly for great distances, and
in the summer may be found 40 miles from the coast.
The speaker mentioned other salt-marsh work which had been done on
Staten Island, in Connecticut and, to a slight extent, in Florida; and then
proceeded to tell about the great scourge of mosquitoes along the Gulf coast
of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama during the past season, which had
aroused sreat excitement among the owners of 7 property in these regions and
had caused them to organize a survey of mosquito conditions which eventually
may bring about a large-scale effort to drain the marsh breeding places. The
speaker pointed out that this would be an enormous undertaking. He showed
that, of the approximately 12,000 square miles of salt marsh on the
whole of the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts of the United States, more than _
6,000 square miles are included in the State of Louisiana. Complete
and successful work will probably cost an enormous sum of money, but the
value of the reclaimed land, to say nothing of the abatement of the mosquito
scourge, will undoubtedly make such work well worth while. (Author’s
abstract. ')
E. A. GotpMAN, Biological Survey: Over-browsing by Kaibab deer.—
The deer inhabit the Kaibab Plateau on the north side of the Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River, embracing an area set aside as the Grand Canyon
National Game Preserve in 1906, and a part of the territory now included in
Grand Canyon National Park. There is little migration from the area and,
under protection from hunters and partial protection from predatory animals,
the deer have increased to numbers estimated by some at more than 30,000.
The forage producing capacity of the area is being progressively reduced by
over-browsing until it has reached a point where many deer are threatened
with starvation.
In addition to the wide-spread destruction of shrubs favored by deer,
forest trees, especially reproduction of aspen, yellow pine, pinyon, white fir,
spruce and juniper are being seriously injured or killed. The critical situa-
tion that has arisen emphasizes the importance of regulating the numbers of
game on limited areas in accordance with the forage supply, as a general
conservation measure. The Grand Canyon National Game Preserve, with
boundaries nearly identical with those of the Kaibab National Forest is
under the administrative control of the Forest Service which is seeking a
solution of the many-sided problem. (Author’s abstract.)
683D MEETING
The 683d meeting of the Society was held in the assembly hall of the Cos-
mos Club November 21, 1925 at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHWER in
the chair and 120 persons present. Dr. F. H. CoirrTENDEN and Miss MaBeu
CoxLcorpD were elected to membership.
T.S. Patmer, Biological Survey: Report on the recent meeting of the Ameri-
can Ornithologists’ Union, New York.—The speaker gave an account of the
annual meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union heid in New York
City in November, referring especially to the exhibition of the bird paintings
and to the widespread membership of the Union. Mention was made of
the next meeting of the Union, to be held in Ottawa, which will be the first
meeting held outside the United States.
-
+
102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
W. C. Henpverson, Biological Survey: When the elk come down.—Of the
two large herds of elk now in existence in the United States, the principal
herd is that i in the Jackson Hole region in Wyoming. Under the protection
afforded it, the herd is increasing rapidly i in numbers and to such an extent that
the greatest problem connected with its preservation is that of providing
sufficient food in winter. The only solution that seems practicable is that
of keeping down the numbers by more extensive hunting in the open season.
The speaker showed slides illustrating the herd and in conclusion gave a mov-
ing picture film, prepared by the Biological Survey, showing the way in which
elk are killed by poachers for the sake of the teeth.
H. C. OBERHOoLsER, Biological Survey: Birds on the Farallon Islands,
California.—The speaker described the Islands and showed moving pictures
illustrating the murres, guillemots, cormorants, gulls, and petrels, which make
up the bird life. The most abundant birds are the murres, whose numbers
are estimated at about 20,000.
H. C. Ospernouser: The bird reservations of Louisiana.—The speaker
showed films illustrating the bird refuges on small sandy islands off the coast
of Louisiana, which are populated principally by laughing gulls and royal
terns, together with a much smaller number of shore birds, such as willets.
684TH MEETING
The 684th regular meeting of the Biological Society was held in the
assembly hall of the Cosmos Club December 5, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with
President RoHweEr in the chair and 48 persons present. Dr. D. N. SHon-
MAKER was elected to membership.
L. D. Miner reported the observation of a black-billed cuckoo feeding on
caterpillars along the canal in the vicinity of Washington on 28 October.
A. 8. Hircucock spoke of the close relationship between the floras of the
northeastern United States and northeastern Asia and added another to the
already long list of identities in the two floras, Brachyelytrum erectum. ‘This
is a common grass in the northeastern United States, and was recently found
by him in a collection sent from China.
W. B. Greevey, Forest Service: The proposed changes in the boundaries
of Yellowstone National Park in relation to wild life (llustrated).—The speaker
discussed the existent National Forests and National Parks with special refer-
ence to the proposed enlargement of the boundaries of Yellowstone National
Park to include the rest of the Yellowstone River basin, most of the Grand
Tetons, and the winter range of the Jackson Hole elk herd. With the other
members of the coordinating committee appointed at the recent Conference
on Outdoor Recreation called by President Coolidge, he made a trip through
the area during the past summer. The paradise of wild life found in the
vicinity of Bridger Lake was described, with illustrations of the scenery and of
the bear, elk, moose, mule deer, bighorn, and other large mammals. The
problem of providing winter food for the Jackson Hole elk herd still awaits
solution. The speaker proposed the restriction of the herd by hunting to
about 15,000 as the only way to prevent the starvation of large numbers of
elk in bad winters. The additions proposed to Yellowstone Park follow ~
natural drainage lines instead of the present artificial boundaries, and small
additions on the northwest and northeast sides and a larger one on the south-
east, with some restriction of boundary on other sides. The coordinating
committee has recommended that the Grand Tetons area be preserved in a
completely wild state as a National Park.
FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 103
The paper was discussed by 8. T. Matusr, who accompanied Col. GREELEY
as a member of the coordinating committee. He reported that the Hopi
Ranch north of the Yellowstone had recently been purchased from a privately
raised fund and will be used as a shelter for antelope in winter.
T. H. Kearney, Bureau of Plant Industry: Pollination in cotton (llus-
trated).—Cotton plants are adapted for both close and cross-fertilization.
Close fertilization is desired by plant breeders to preserve the purity of selected
‘strains, and insect pollination must be prevented. Experiments show that
insect pollination is much more effective at Sacaton than near Phoenix,
Arizona, owing to the greater comparative abundance of insects, especially
honey bees. Few natural hybrids occur, even if both Egyptian and upland
cotton are grown close together, owing to the fact that the bulk of the pollen
grains on the stigmas are found to be self pollen. Selective fertilization—the
greater effectiveness of like pollen than of an equal amount of unlike—also
tends to prevent the formation of hybrids. Hybrids in the F, generation are
uniform and intermediate in most characters, but in F, the characters break
up badly. Strict inbreeding for seven generations has produced no bad
effect.
685TH MEETING
The 685th regular and 46th annual meeting was held in the lecture hall
of the Cosmos Club December 19, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHWER
in the chair and 24 persons present. The minutes of the previous Annual
Meeting were read and approved. New members elected: C. DENLEY, G.
B. Grant, O. J. Muri.
The annual reports of the Corresponding Secretary, the Recording Secre-
tary, the Treasurer, and the Publication Committee were read and ordered
placed on file. T.S. Patmer, for the Board of Investing Trustees, presented -
an informal report showing that the George Washington Memorial Fund
amounts to $600, that there is about $1500 in the Publication Fund, and the
sum of $430 is due the Publication Fund from the General Fund. F.C. Lin-
COLN gave a sketch of the history of the George Washington Memorial Fund.
The election of officers then took place, resulting as follows:
President, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Vice-Presidents, E. A. GoLpMAN, A. WET-
mMoRE, C. E. Cuamstuiss, H. H. T. Jackson; Recording Secretary, S. F. BLAKE;
Corresponding Secretary, T. E. SnypER; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members of
Council, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, C. W. Stites, A. A. DooitTtie, B.
H. Swauss. President-elect H. C. OBERHOLSER was nominated as a Vice-
President of the Washington Academy of Sciences to represent the Biological
Society. On motion of Dr. STILEs a rising vote of thanks was given S. A.
RouweERr for his efficient service in the presidential chair.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
376TH MEETING
The 376th meeting was held in Room 43 of the New National Museum,
Thursday, June 4, 1925, with President R. A. CusHMaAN in the chair and 17
persons present. THomas R. CHAMBERLAIN of the Bureau of Entomology,
Salt Lake City, Utah, was elected to membership.
_ Program: C.’H. Ricwarpson: Some aspects of insect physiology. —Certain
aspects of physiology as applied to insects were presented briefly. General
physiology has suffered a one-sided development largely because the higher
104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4
vertebrates, particularly man, have been the subjects of most of the investi-
gations. Digestion in insects was compared with that in the vertebrates,
and with a few exceptions was shown to present no unusual features. Absorp-
tion from the alimentary tract and from the malpighian tubules was discussed
and the need for more studies on permeability was emphasized. — oe (11)
1 Oey /
A, = by = 7 Ya — Yon) > 5 Yn T Yn) (12)
and from (8) and (10)
ay —i75 (Gq 2 (13)
bs = x2 (bo — Yn + y's) (14)
As an example we may take the values of 1000q. for material in
course of reduction in this laboratory. Up to 57 years these are fitted
with? :
y = 6.795105
which at 57 years has an ordinate of 13.449, and a slope of 0.287 per
year, while from 63 years up they are fitted with?
y = 264 — 1132 + 14.40? — 0.4823
which at 63 years has an ordinate of 26.236, and a slope of 4.541 per
year.
Therefore n = 3,
ao = bo = $ (26.236 + 18.449) — # (4.541 — 0.287)
|=
19.843 — 3.191 = Seep
a; = b, = 2 (26.236 313449) = 2 (er ae
— 4262 = 2.414 =) ee
ay = 4 (10,652 = 13.449" 35 9287) = a oen2
col col
be = 4% (16.652 — 26.236 + 3 X 4.541) = + 0.4488
2 These equations are taken with origin at 25 years and with a five-year interval
for the x unit.
a ee a ee rn ete)
MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 143
The ordinates for the different years are therefore as shown in
Table 1.
: TABLE 1.—OrRpDINATES
YEAR z 10009,
o7 —3 13.45
58 —2 14.00
59 | —1 15.06
60 0 16.65
61 +1 18.95
62 +2 22.14
63 +3 26.24
SPECTROSCOPY .—Are spectrum regularities for ruthenuum.’ W. F.
MEGGERS AND Otto Laporte, Bureau of Standards.
In a preliminary note on this subject the authors described? under-
_ water-spark observations which led to the identification of the lowest
term in the ruthenium spectrum. ‘This was a 5-fold term with separa-
tions 392.2, 621.7, 900.9, 1190.8 cm.~, which from analogy with the
structure of the iron spectrum was regarded as a quintet-D term. The
lack of Zeeman-effect data for the identification of absolute quantum
- numbers was deprecated and it was announced that new observations
were being made in coéperation with Prof. B. E. Moore of the Uni-
versity of Nebraska. ‘The untimely death of Professor Moore inter-
rupted these experiments, but the kind offer of Prof. H. H. Marvin to
continue them finally put us in possession of some data. Meanwhile
L. A. Sommer in Gé6ttingen has also observed? some Zeeman patterns
for ruthenium lines, and has indicated that the lowest term is in reality
a quintet-F term, requiring that all our quantum numbers be in-
creased by one unit. This has been confirmed by our own measure-
ments, some of which appear in Table 2. The purpose of this paper
is to make this correction and to extend the analysis of the are spec-
trum of ruthenium. )
There are presented in Table 1 eighteen multiplets which have been
selected as representative of quintet, triplet, and inter-system com-
binations. The notation‘ here employed is that which is now in
1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the Depart-
ment of Commerce.
' 2 Science, 61: 635. 1925.
3 Die Naturwissenschaften, 13: 840. 1925.
* Astrophys. Journ., 61: 60. 1925.
|
144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6
TABLE 1.—MULTIPLETS IN THE Ru I Spectrum
BR s....- LOO. 8ai.< Bg t....900.9.2,, gs G27, 5B 392.2 SR
5D, 3799. 34(8)a 3979. 44(5) 4127.46(3)
26312.9 25122.1 24291.2
1194.0
5D; 3798.90(8)a 3983.55(4) 4032.21(3)
26316.0 25415.2 24793.3
‘
969.2 |
5D» 3790.50(10)a 3882.00(3) 3942.06(3) :
26374.3 25752.6 25360.3
652.9
5D, 3786.05(10)a 3843.07(3) :
26405.3 26013. 4 :
451.1
‘Dy | 3777.58 (3)a
26464. 5
SF,’ | 3728.03(10R)a 3901.24(4)
26816.2 25625.6
1198.7
5F, | 3568.47(1) —- 3726.93(10R)a 3856.39(3)
_-(28015.2 26824. 1 25923.7
875.5
5B,’ 3609.10(2) 3730.44(4)a 3819.04(4)
27699.9 26798.9 26177.2
536.9.
5F,’ 3657.17(2) - 8742.29(10)a 3798.06 (3)
27335.8 26714.0 26321.8
266.2
oF, 3705.36(2) 3760.03(4) 4
26980. 3 26588 .0
Buy
ee
MAR. 19, 1926
SRE loU.o OR,
5Ge *3498.95(50R)a
28571.8
1707.9
Ten 3301.59(8)a
30279.7
— 388.8
en 3344. 53 (8)
29891 .0
646.2
1163.2
1372.5
TABLE 1—Continued.
*3436.74(30R)a
29089 .0
3483. 32 (4)
28700. 1
3406. 59 (2)
29346. 5
3348. 69 (2)
29853. 8
900.9
MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES
Ss ( 62157
3596. 17(20)a
27799.4
3514. 50(3)a
28445.4
3463. 14(8)
28867. 2
3452.91(3)
28952.8
3319. 52(1)
30116.2
145
5B, 392.2 SPY
3593.03 (20)a
27823. 7
1
3539.37 (4)a 3589.23 (5)a
28245.5 27853.2
3528.70(5)
28331.0
3389. 50(3) 3435.20(3)
29494. 5 29102.1
3238.77 (2) 3280. 46(3)
30867.0 30474.7
30348. 3
3294.13(10)a
3428. 65(4)a
29157.7
3204.04 (2)
31201.6
3037.96(5)a
28256. 9
3299. 34(2)
30300. 4
3216. 61 (3)
31080. 6
3368. 45(8)a
29678.8
(?) 3325.00(3)
30458. 8 30066. 6
146
SH dl 90.8
8Gs (?)
28495.2
1395.9
8Ga 3304. 81 (2)
30250. 2
1962.0
3G;
a
‘=D, 5309. 26 (20)
18829.8
1194.0
5D, 4992.73(7)
20023. 6
969.2
sf,’ 5171.02 (40)
19333.2
1198.7
oR! 4869. 16 (25)
-|20531.7
875.5
oP,’ 4669. 96(8)
21407.5
536.9
1092.6
TABLE 1—Continued.
5K, 900.9 oF’,
3661.34(6)a
27304.6
3440. 22(3) 3550. 28 (3)
29059. 6 28158.8
3260. 36(5)a
30662. 6 29761.5
5D’, 608.2 sD’,
5636. 23 (35)
17737.5
5280.81 (4) 5456. 13(8)
18931.2 18322.9
5026. 17(8) 5184.72 (2)
19890.3 19282.1
5014. 95(8)
19934.8
5142.76(8)
-19439.4
4921.08(12) 5072.97(7)
20315. 1 19706.8
4794.38(4) 4938. 43 (10)
20851.9 20243.7
4874.33 (3)
20509.9
621.7
3359.09 (5)a
436.6
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6
5, 392.2 oF
3430.77 (5)a
29139.7
‘Dp ? 5D"o
5304. 85(7)
18845. 5
5127.25(5) (?)
19498.2 (?)
5011.22(9)
19949. 7
5047. 30(6)
19807. 1
4980.35(9)
20073.3 (2)
MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 147
TABLE 1—Continued.
‘1D’, 1092.6 5D’; 608.2 *D’, 436.6 sD, 2 Sa
5G,
1707.9
5G; 4385. 40(4)
22796. 6
—388.8
5G, (?) 4690. 11(5)
22407.9 21315.5
646.2
5G; | 4336.42(2) 4552.10(5) 4681. 79(10)
23054.0 21961.7 21353.4
421.8
5G. 4466.34(1) 4591. 11(6) (?)
22383.4 2175.2 21338.6
5P, — 727.1 ea 1029.2 =
sDy 5699.06 (20)
17541.9
1194.0
5D, 5335. 92(10) 5136. 55(25)
18735.7 19462.9
969.2
5D, 5076.07 (5) 4895. 28(6) 5155. 12(12)
19694. 8 20422..2 19392.8
652.9
‘D, 4743.66 (1) 4987. 25(5)
21074.9 20045.5
451.1
je “3 4877.41(3)
20496.7
148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6
TABLE 1—Continued.
SPs — 727.1 SP, 1029.2 bP,
oF,
1198.7
5h,’ 5195.01 (10)
19243.9
875.5
5F 3’ 4968.87 (7) 4795.57 (6)
20119.7 20846. 8
536.9
by,’ 4839.75(4) 4675.19(1) 4911.58(3)
20656. 5 21383.5 20354. 4
266.2
sy)’ 4617.66(3) 4848.17 (2)
21650.0 20620.6
5G,
1707 9
oR
— 388.8
5G, 4733.47 (12)
21120.3
646.2
5G; 4593.08 (1) 4444 .50(3)
21765.8 22493 .4
421.8
5G. 4505. 64(1) 4362.71(1) 4567.92(1)
22188.2 22915.1 21885.7
TABLE 1—Continuea.
1539.4 af,
4354. 14(5)
22960. 2
4144.18(10)
24123.4
4490. 22 (3)
22264.4
4112.76(8)
24307. 8
3984.86(10) —
25087 .9
973.4
MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES
3K,
4546.93 (1)
21986.7
4318.43 (3)
23150.0
4076.75(8)
24522.5
4284. 34(5)
23334. 3
4145.75(8)
24114.3
149
_- '"'-——- OOoOoOoono—w—ooo??*9@"@”'_—_—__— oO———— ns ww — es
Pe : 5 ON se
MAR. 19, 1926
sR,
sD; 4080. 63 (20)
24499 .2
1163.2
s—D,
1372.5
3D,
shy’ 4199.91(10)a
23803.3
2043.6
3H,’ 3867. 82(8)
25847.1
730.0
3F,’
8G; 4554. 52 (50) a
21950. 1
1755.0
en 4217. 28(5)
23705.3
1602.6
8G, 3950. 22 (3)
25307.9
4510. 12(8)
22166.2
4206.02 (5)
23768.8
4385.66(4) -
22795. 2
150
1194.0
969.2
652.9
451.1
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6
sf,
5057. 33 (30)
19767.8
4769.30 (9)
20961. 6
4931.72 (0)
20271.3
4656. 42 (3)
21469. 7
4473. 92(4)
29345.5
TABLE 1—Continued.
3H’, 973.4
5484. 33 (10)
18228.7
5147. 24(10)
19422.5
4905.01 (4)
20381. 7
5015.99 (0)
19930. 7
4804. 87 (8)
20806. 4
4684.02 (10)
21343. 2
aR,
5418. 85(6)
18449.0
5151.06(8)
19408. 1
4983.44(4)
20060. 9
5040.74(6)
19833. 3
4907. 88(8)
20369.8
4844. 54(9)
20636.0
MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 151
TABLE 1—Concluded.
“Bis 1539.4 sh, 973.4 aF,
4212.08(10)
23734.6
4282.20(2) 4584. 45(30)
93346.0 21806. 8
4166. 88(3) 3 (?) 4654. 31(10)
23992. 1 22452.9 21479.5
4370.42 (2) 4564. 69 (5)
22874.7 21901. 2
common use for the symbolical description of regularities in line
spectra except that the letters 8, P, D, F, G are understood to corre-
spond to / values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, respectively, / representing the quantized
sum of the & values of all the individual electrons. The spectral
term symbols are shown at the margins together with the separations
of the sub-levels. Wave lengths in air, intensity estimates (in paren-
theses) and wave numbers in vacuum represent the spectral data,
the measurements of Kayser® being used from the ultraviolet to 4500A
and those of Meggers® for the longer waves. Because of the larger
scale of intensities given by Exner and Haschek’ their estimates have
been quoted instead of Kayser’s. Lines which we have observed as
absorbed in under-water-spark spectra are marked a; the raves ultimes
are indicated by asterisks. The present grouping of the higher levels
depends, in a few cases, on the rules for spectral line intensities and
separations of sub-levels, and since it has been shown that these rules
are frequently violated in spectra of the heavier atoms it may be neces-
sary to revise some of the higher level groups when more conclusive
data are available.
N
<
#
;
i
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 16 Aprin 4, 1926 No. 7
CHEMISTRY.—The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl isothio-
hydantoin. RaymMonp M. Hann and Kuare 8. MARKLEY,!
George Washington University. (Communicated by Epear T.
WHERRY. )
In continuing the series of researches upon rhodanic acids now
being pursued in this University it became a matter of interest to
study, comparatively, the reactions of compounds possessing an
analogous constitution. Rhodanic acids are the cyclic anhydrides
of the dithio-carbamo glycollic acids and may be considered as 2-thio-
3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (I), while the isothiohydantoins are
cyclic anhydrides of substituted thiohydantoic acids and may be >
classed as 2-imino-3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (II). The close
similarity in structure of these compounds has led us to prepare a
a. LOGS 7S
De ats YC = NH
Ve did aan)
O=C N ee AES
R R
(I) (II)
number of derivatives of 2-phenyl-imino-3-phenyl-4-thiazolidone.?
Dipheny! isothiohydantoin or 2-imino-pheny]-3-pheny]-4-thiazolidone
has been prepared by Lange,? and further studied by Lange and
Liebermann,‘ who showed that its reduction with alcoholic potassium
1 Presented before the meeting of the American Chemical Society, Los Angeles,
California, Aug. 3-8, 1925.
* Numbering is according to the recommendation of Bogert and ABRAHAMSON
(Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 826. 1922) taking the sulfur atom as 1.
8 LANGE. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879.
4 Lance and LirBeERMANN. Ann. Chem. 207: 123. 1881; see also ANDREASCH. Ber.
Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12: 1835. 1879.
169
:
.
{
;
>
170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
hydroxide yielded thioglycollic acid and diphenylthiourea. This
decomposition and other substantiating facts led them to revise the
original structure proposed by Lange (1)
| CH
H.C——N _ -H,C—S
E vere.
| sts | >C = NGH: |
0 = C——_N O=C Nae
CoH CoH
(I) (IT)
and substitute the pseudo-thiohydantoin structure (II).
The later structure includes the S-CH:-CO linkage which has been
pointed out by various workers to be a very reactive grouping. Among
the compounds which react with the methylene hydrogen in such a
combination may be mentioned the aldehydes,’ isatin,® formamidines,’
alloxan,® phthalic anhydride,® and phenanthraquinone.*°
The present paper describes the preparation and properties of a series
of aldehyde condensation products of diphenyl isothiohydantoin.
EXPERIMENTAL
Diphenyl rsothiohydantoin..1—The parent substance was prepared
from diphenylthiourea and monochloracetic acid according to the
method of Lange."2 The yield calculated on the basis of diphenyl-
thiourea used, was 60 per cent of theory.
3.5-Dichloro-salicylic aldehyde.—Twenty grams of salicylic aldehyde
was dissolved in 80 grams of glacial acetic acid and a stream of dry
chlorine allowed to bubble through the solution as it was gently
heated on the steam bath. Following saturation with the halogen
the solution was cooled and a stream ‘of cold water added to cause
precipitation of the substituted compound. After filtering by suction
the derivative was recrystallized from dilute alcohol. The yield was
25.3 grams.
’ WHEELER and JAMIESON. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 25: 366. 1903.
5 Hitt and Henze. Ibid. 46: 2806. 1924.
7Darns and STEPHENSON. Ibid. 38:1841. 1916.
8’ ButscHEeR. Monats. fiir Chemie 32:9, 1911.
°Kucera. Ibid. 35:137. 1914.
10 Hann. Unpublished results.
11 This substance has been prepared by Dixon and Tarytor (Journ. Chem. Soc. London ~
101:561. 1912) from n-phenyl-v-carbethoxy phenylthiourea and chloroacetyl chloride.
2Lance. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879.
CHO H,C———8 oe:
-L | »C=NCH— | SONC:Hs + HO
C N C N
| C.H; {| CHEE
O O
APR. 4, 1925 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES AEE
8-M ethoxy-4-hydroxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde.—V anillin was dissolved
in glacial acetic acid and a small amount of fused sodium acetate
‘added. Dried chlorine was then lead in, substitution taking place
with rise in temperature of the solution and evolution of a slight
amount of hydrochloric acid gas. As the reaction continued brilliant
colorless crystals separated. Following saturation the crystal meal
was filtered off and recrystallized from glacial acetic acid. The
ehloro-vanillin crystallizes in the tetragonal system and melts at
164-5°C. | |
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-nitro benzaldehyde.—Vanillin was nitrated in
the cold with fuming nitric acid according to the directions of Bentley."
The nitrated compound may be separated from small amounts of side
reaction products by recrystallization from alcohol.
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-bromo benzaldehyde-—Vanillin was bromi-
nated according to Dakin’s" directions, the bromo-aldehyde separat-
ing in pure condition from the reaction mixture.
Aldehyde condensation products
§-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Dissolved 3 grams of di-
phenyl isothiohydantoin and 1.2 grams of benzaldehyde in 25 ce. of
glacial acetic acid and after adding 5 grams of fused sodium acetate
refluxed the mixture for 23 hours. After cooling an excess of water was
added to the reaction mixture, the precipitated condensation product
was filtered off, recrystallized from acetic acid and analyzed. The
yield was 3.6 grams. Theory 3.98 grams. The reaction was
as follows:
5-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin is a solid, crystallizing in
brilliant platelike crystals of a slight yellow color. It melts at 215-6°C.
(cor.).
13 BENTLEY. Amer. Chem. Journ. 24:172. 1900.
144 Dakin. Amer. Chem. Journ. 42:477. 1909.
172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7 .
Analysts (Boric acid method)
0.2095 gm. consumed 16.3 ce. ai acid, equivalent to
7.78% N. Theory for C..H;,0ON,S is 7.86% N.
5-(e-Nitro-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The substitution
of o-nitro-benzaldehyde for benzaldehyde gave the nitro homologue
of the substituted hydantoin. This crystallized in crystalline aggre-
gates of a yellow brown color which gave a yellow powder when crushed.
The derivative dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with produc-
tion of a brilliant red color. When heated in a capillary tube it melts
at 196-7°C. (cor.).
Analysis (Salacyl-Sulfonic acid method)
0.1128 gm. consumed 8.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
10.80% N. Theory for C2.H,;,03N38 is 10.47% N.
5-Cinnamal-2,3-diphenyl isothtohydantoin.—This derivative was pre-
pared exactly as that preceding, using 1.5 gms. (theory 1.48 gms.)
of cinnamic aldehyde and 3 gms. of thiazolidone. The compound
separated from the boiling reaction mixture. It was filtered off from
the hot solution, washed with hot glacial acetic acid and dried. ‘The
yield was quantitative. This condensation product separates in
brilliant yellow needles, which are slightly soluble in hot glacial acetic
acid and almost insoluble in other organic solvents. It melts at
225-6°C. (cor.) to a clear red oil.
Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)
0.1264 gm. consumed 6.4 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
7.09% N. Theory for.C.,H;,ON.S is 7.33 ZN.
5-Furfural-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Three grams of the cyclic
ketone, 1.1 (1.07 theory) gm. of furfural, 5 gms. of fused acetate and
25 cc. of glacial acetic acid were heated at the boiling point under
reflux condenser for 2 hours. To the cold solution an excess of water
was added when the furfurilidene derivative separated in brown
needles. These were filtered by suction, washed repeatedly with water
and recrystallized from acetic acid. Heated in a capillary tube they
melted at 221—2°C. (cor.) to a black tar-like mass.
15 MARKLEY and Hann, Journ. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem. 8: 455. 1925.
APR. 4, 1926 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES 173
Analysis (Boric acid method)
0.2050 gm. consumed 16.65 ce. acid, equivalent to
N
14.01
8.12% N. Theory for CoH yO.N;S is 8.09% N.
5-Salicylal-2, 3-diphenylrsothiohydantoin.—Three grams of thiohydan-
toin and an excess of salicylic aldehyde (theory 1.386 gms.) were heated
with 5 gms. of fused sodium acetate and 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid.
After 20 minutes an orange crystalline compound separated out, but
the heating was prolonged for two hours to insure complete reaction.
After cooling the mass was treated with water, filtered, dried and
recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in yellow acicular
needles which dissolve in concentrated H.SO, to give a deep red color.
Heated in a capillary tube it melts at 249-50°C. (cor.) to a clear red
oil,
Analysts (Boric acid method)
i — acid, equivalent to
7.538% N. Theory for C2:H;,0.N;8 is 7.58% N
§-(8, 5-Dichloro-salicylal)-2, 3-diphenyl tsothiohydantoin.—This com-
pound results as a product of the condensation of 2.5 (2.13 theory)
ems. of chlorinated aldehyde and 3 gms. of the cyclic thiazolidone.
After purification by several recrystallizations from acetic acid it
separated in yellow needles which melted at 234-5°C. (cor.).
0.2006 gms. consumed 15.1 cc.
Analysis (Boric acid method)
0.2006 gms. consumed 12.6 cc. acid, equivalent to
N
14.01
6.28% N. Theory for C..H.O.N.CI1.S is 6.35% N
5-(3,4-Dihydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—When a so-
lution of protocatechuic aldehyde (1.72 gms.) and diphenyl isothio-
hydantoin (8 gms.) were heated in 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid, this
product precipitated after one hour. It was filtered off by suction,
washed with hot acetic acid and upon drying was obtained as a brilliant
microcrystalline powder of light brown color. It does not melt below
300°C.
Analysts (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)
0.1458 gms. consumed 7.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
6.73% N. Theory for C22H,,0;N:5 is 7.22% N
174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
5-(8-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—If an
excess of vanillin be heated in the presence of a dehydrating agent
with diphenyl isothiohydantoin, the elements of water are eliminated
and the vanillal compound is obtained. ‘This crystallizes in yellow
shining leaflets which melt at 250-1°C. (cor.) to a clear yellow oil.
Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)
0.1205 gms. consumed 5.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
6.68% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03N3S is 6.97% N.
&-(8-Chloro-vanillal)-2, 3-diphenyl isothiohydantein.—Chloro-vanillin
(2.1 gms.) and diphenyl] isothiohydantoin (3 gms.) were heated in the
presence of acetic acid and sodium acetate for a period of 8 hours.
After standing overnight the solid which separated was filtered off and
recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in fluffy crystalline
masses of yellow needles which melt with decomposition at 132-4°C.
(cor.).
Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)
0.1115 gms. consumed 4.8 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
6.08% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03;N.SCI is 6.41% N.
§-(8-Nitro-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—This compound
was precipitated as a yellow microcrystalline powder by addition of
water to a heated reaction mixture containing its constituents in
molecular proportion. It melts slowly and with decomposition at
100-2°C.
Analysis (Salicyl-sulphonic acid method)
0.1155 gms. consumed 7.5 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
9.10% N. Theory for C.;Hi,0;N38 is 9.40% N.
§-(5-Bromo-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The brominated
3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzal condensation product was prepared by
the general method, given above. It separates from acetic acid as a
yellow brown powder which fails to melt sharply, some decomposi-
tion beginning at 100°C. and incipient formation of a black tar results
as the temperature is raised.
Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)
0.1186 gms. consumed 5.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to
5.91% N. Theory for C.3H,,0;NSBr is 5.82% N.
APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 175
SUMMARY
Dipheny! isothiohydantoin has been condensed with benzaldehyde,
o-nitro-benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde, -furfural, salicylic aldehyde,
3,5 dichloro salicylic aldehyde, protocatechuic aldehyde, vanillin,
chloro-vanillin, nitro-vanillin and bromo-vanillin, and the condensation
products analyzed and described.
- GEOLOGY.—WNote on the occurrence of the Choptank formation in the
Nomint Cliffs, Va... WENDELL C. MansFietp, U. S. Geological
Survey. (Communicated by L. W. STEPHENSON.)
The Choptank formation, the middle formation of the Chesapeake
group of the Maryland Miocene, was recognized in the Nomini Cliffs,
Westmoreland County, Va., by Shattuck? in 1904. He says: “In
the Nomini Cliffs, Virginia, it [the Choptank formation] is present
as a 50-foot bed between the Calvert formation below and the St.
Mary’s formation above.”
In 1906 Clark and Mailler,? discussing the occurrence of the Cy ocak
in Virginia, stated: ‘This formation is- prominently exposed in
southern Maryland and Virginia, outcropping in a nearly complete
section in the Nomini Bluffs on the Potomac River.”
In the same year Shattuck and Miller‘ reiterated the earlier state-
ment of Shattuck as to the occurrence of the Choptank in the Nomini
Cliffs.
In 1912, however, Clark and Miller® referred the entire Miocene
portion of the section at Nomini Cliffs to the Calvert formation,
recognizing neither the Choptank nor the St. Marys formation in that
exposure. They wrote:
‘““The deposits hitherto described as Choptank in the Nomini Bluffs are now
known, from a more exhaustive study of both the stratigraphy and paleon-
tology, to belong to the Calvert formation. Itis possible that the Choptank
may be represented, as it gradually thins out, in the low country lying be-
tween the known outcrops of the Calvert and St. Mary’s formations but
buried beneath the cover of Pleistocene formations.”
The purpose of this note is to confirm the presence of the Choptank
formation in the section at Nomini Cliffs, as originally interpreted
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey.
2 SHattuck, G. B., Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene Text, pp. LX XIX-LXXX, 1904.
3 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitumr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 2: 18, 1906.
4SuHattuck, G. B., and Mitusr, B. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, St. Marys
folio (No. 136), Md.-Va., p. 3, col. 2, 1906.
5 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 4: 140-141, 1912.
176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7
by Shattuck, and also to indicate the occurrence of the basal portion
of the overlying St. Marys formation.
The Choptank formation in Maryland, according to Maryland
Geological Survey Text, 1904,° is subdivided into five zones, which are
numbered 16 to 20, inclusive. Zones 17 and 19 are very fossiliferous,
corresponding respectively to ‘“‘zone e” and ‘“‘zone f”’ of Harris,’ while
zones 16, 18 and 20 are either without fossils or sparingly fossiliferous.
A comparison of the stratigraphic sequence, lithologic character, and
faunal contents of the beds exposed in the Calvert Cliffs, Maryland,
with those in the Nomini Cliffs and elsewhere in Virginia, seems to
show conclusively that the Choptank formation is represented in the
Nomini Cliffs. One section in the Calvert Cliffs very closely dupli-
cates the section in one part of the Nomini Cliffs. The Maryland and
Virginia sections are given below.
Section about 13 miles below Flag Pond, Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, Maryland
By W. C. MANSFIELD and W. P. PoPENOoE
Approximate
: thickness
Pleistocene: . Feet
Sand and gravel........ cy gore eleldue trace he tart ata 30-40
Miocene:
St. Marys formation:
Drab plastic clay (gone 22)... 250. 15
Clean fine-grained sand, 3 feet, underlain by dark gray
slightly sandy semi-plastic clay, with a few fossil im-
pressions (zone 21)..... Detecsdeces ae 18
Choptank formation:
Bluish sandy clay, with a 1-foot layer of indurated fossilifer-
ous sand at top containing the following species:
Pedalion maxillata (Deshayes), Pecten madisonius Say,
Asaphis centenaria (Conrad), Metis biplicata Conrad,
Discinisca lugubris (Conrad), Schizoporella doverensis
Ulrich and Bassler® (zone 20)... . 32... a. aoe eee 20
Light brown very fossiliferous sand with an indurated sand-
stone layer, about 2 feet thick, at the top, carrying many
individuals of Pecten madisonius Say (zonel9)....... 10-12
Bluish poorly fossiliferous sandy clay (zone 18).............. 8-10
Dark gray very fossiliferous sand (zone 17), exposed......... ib
The subdivisions in the preceding section are separated into zones
believed to correspond approximately to those designated in the
Maryland Geological Survey Miocene Text, 1904.
§ Op. cit., pp. LX X XI-LX XXII.
7 Harris, G. D., Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: ser. III, pp. 21-31, 1893.
8 Identified by Dr. Ray S. Basstsmr, of the U.S. National Museum.
APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 177
Section of Nomini Cliffs, right bank of Potomac River, Va., about 13 miles from
lower end of Cliffs
By W. C. MANSFIELD
Approximate
; thickness.
Pleistocene: Feet
Reddish clive samcandmravel 2, in which some of the alumina is replaced by boric oxide.
In view of, this possibility it is of interest to contrast the powder
patterns of these two compounds. ‘Tracings of their photographs are
shown in Figure 2. They clearly have no obvious relation to one
another.
Powder photographs have also been studied from samples of dumor- -
tierite heated for 4 hours at various temperatures. Spacing measure-
- ments upon them are stated in Table 4, their tracings are to be found
in Figure 3. The principal lines of these photographs are seen to be
essentially identical with the principal lines in the patterns of either
Dumortierite
2
Q
E
J
=
Mullite
<«—— Intensity
Fig. 2.—Tracings of the positions of the principal powder lines of dumortierite and of
mullite. The lengths of the lines in this diagram are roughly proportional to the relative
intensities of the corresponding reflections.
dumortierite or mullite. The measurements upon these photographs
are not absolute determinations of spacings but were obtained by
_ taking three or four conspicuous lines on each film as standard and
establishing the relation of other lines to them. Such a simple pro-
cedure is sufficient for the present purposes.
Since dumortierite loses boric oxide and water at temperatures far
below those at which the mullite pattern is observed it might be
expected either that the dumortierite pattern itself would change as a
result of these heatings, or that an amorphous material would appear
as an intermediate stage in the decomposition of dumortierite. Small
differences in relative intensities between the patterns of natural
dumortierite and of this mineral after heating to 1100° and 1150°
186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
appear to exist but the data of Table 4 show no well-defined altera-—
tions in the observed spacings. These diffraction observations thus
prove that the structure of dumortierite remains essentially unchanged
after heating for 4 hours at 950° and 1100°C. and that mullite is the
chief product arising from heating dumortierite to 1200° or 1500°C.
TABLE 4.—Spactine Data ON DUMORTIERITE DECOMPOSED AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
SPACINGS AND APPROXIMATE INTENSITIES
ORIGIN OF
LINE
950° 1100° 1150° 1180° 1200° 1500°
D m| 5.914 5. 82A a — a
D ae Ween 5.00 ae Panty: ae
D f | 4:33 4.42 ae oe an
D foe ei88 3.90 = — ss
D m | 3.48 3.49A 3.47 mea a ss
M pas — (3.411)A| (3.411)A] (3.411)A] s
D 3.25 3.25 nos
D m | (2.918) |. (2.918) 4 (2.998), | {2-98 “a+ a
M —— —— — |\ 2.88 2.88 f
D,M ff 2.68 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.72 f
M =“ mess = 2.53 2.53 2.54 m
M hap REED aie = ses 2.29 2.28 f
a m | 2.20 2.21 2.21 | (2.197) | (2.197) | @.197) | m
M a a = apne 2.11 2.12 f
D s | (2.089) | (2.089) | (2.089) | \2.08 ai te
D f 1.93 1.93 1.92 1.93 mee ae
M — = = — 1.88 ff
M —_ — — iy 1.83 ff
M —— = 1.70 1.70 1.70 m
D ff 1.67 a ae _—
D ff 1.62 = ab =
M — ee — 1.60 1.59 1.59 f
D f 1.55 1.54 1.54 une ats anes
M a — —— | (1.518) ©] (1.518)) 4 (@e50s) eee
D s | (1.460) | (4.460) | (4.460) | 1.46
M ee eee _ 1.42 1.43 1.43 f
D,M m| 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.33 1.33
D f 1.29 1.29 1.30 see uae —
M anes ios a 6 (1.260) | (1.260) | m
Note: In the first column of this table D and M refer to dumortierite and to mullite
respectively. The patterns of dumortierite decomposed at 1200° and at 1500° are prac-
tically those of mullite ;!! the spacings of the principal lines of dumortierite are given in
Table 3. Absences of reflections are indicated by bars; vacancies (as for instance for the
long spacing lines in the 1100° column) do not mean the absence of these lines. Stand-
ard lines are enclosed in parentheses.
11 J.T. Norton. Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 401 (1925); L. Navras and W. P. Davey,
Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 640 (1925); R. W. G. Wycxorr, J. W. Greta and N. L. Bowen,
Amer. Journ. Sci. (in press).
———S a
Apr. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 187
The pattern of this mineral heated at 1150° is to be interpreted as that
of dumortierite with a small amount of admixed mullite; the photo-
‘graph arising from the 1150-80° heating shows mainly mullite with
some undecomposed dumortierite. The patterns of these high tem-
perature products are somewhat weaker than those of unchanged
1150 —'1180°
Fig. 3.—Tracings showing the positions and the approximate relative intensities of
the principal lines observed in the powder photographs of dumortierite heated at
various temperatures.
dumortierite, but they do not show the intense blackening which
should be found if any considerable portion of the sample had become
amorphous.
DUMORTIERITE AS A REFRACTORY
Dumortierite is to be regarded favorably as a basis for refractory
bodies, and, on account of its higher Al.O; content, as having some
188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
advantages over the silicates of composition Al,03;-SiO., namely,
sillimanite, andalusite, and cyanite. Indeed, dumortierite may, for
refractory purposes, be looked upon as having the formula which was,
by mistake, originally assigned to it, namely, 4Al,03-3S10., and its
thermal behavior may be read off from the alumina-silica diagram.
Though some liquid is formed at 1545° the amount (4 per cent) is
considerably less than that formed with sillimanite, andalusite, or
cyanite (14 per cent) so that failure under load at that temperature
should be much less notable. With further rise of temperature in-
crease in the amount of liquid is very slow until about 1700°, where it
amounts for the 4:3 mixture to about 6 per cent. The liquid then
increases more rapidly until at 1810° it amounts to about 18 per cent.
The 4:3 mixture has therefore only a slightly greater amount of liquid
at 1810° than the 1:1 mixture has at 1545°, though, in the latter case,
the liquid is much more viscous. At 1810° the 4:3 mixture is abruptly
transformed from mullite with a little liquid (18 per cent) to corundum
with much liquid (nearly 70 per cent) and all its refractory power
must there disappear.
In so far as dumortierite approaches the theortical composition
represented by the formula 8A1,0;-6Si0,-B,03-H.O its behavior at
high temperatures should approach that outlined above. If it is
really somewhat variable in composition, and especially if the ratio of
alumina to silica may in some examples be not so great then these
examples will not be quite so refractory.
OBSERVATIONS ON DUMORTIERITE FROM NEVADA
In addition to the very pure dumortierite from Arizona, dumor-
tierite from the Rochester Mining District, Nevada, was examined.”
None of this dumortierite is free from foreign matter which is almost
exclusively muscovite. Two classes of material were treated, the one
a select specimen with 3 or 4 per cent muscovite, the other, with about
20 per cent muscovite, which appears to represent the general run of
material there available. At lower temperatures decomposition of
the dumortierite into mullite and silica takes place in exactly the same
way as in the Arizona mineral. Even at high temperatures the speci-
men with only a little mica did not show any significant departure in
behavior from the purer Arizona mineral. In the specimen with the
greater amount of mica, however, definite sintering begins at a lower
12 This material was kindly supplied by Ernest E. Fatrpanxks, Bureau of Mines
Reno, Nevada.
APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 189
temperature. The formation of some liquid is in fact apparent at
1500°, and at 1550° the amount of liquid is definitely greater than that
in the specimen with only a little mica. “Both give a pure white prod-
uct even when definite partial melting has occurred. In this respect
the pale-colored dumortierite from Nevada differs from the deep-blue
Arizona mineral which, as we have seen, gives a slightly colored product
when carried to temperatures where some formation of liquid occurs.
No observations on the loss of weight were made on the Nevada
~ dumortierite.
SUMMARY
The dissociation of dumortierite, 8Al,03;-6Si10.-B.03;-H.O, at
high temperatures has been studied and it is found that decomposition
of the crystals occurs with formation of mullite, 3A1,.03-28i0., and a
little excess material. The first definite evidence of a change is
obtained at 950°, but the products of decomposition are recognizable
by their microscopic and X-ray characters only at higher tempera-
tures.
X-ray diffraction photographs (powder method) have been made of
dumortierite and of its decomposition products as obtained at various
temperatures. The results of measurements of the lines of these
photographs are given in Tables 3 and 4 and Figures 2 and 3.
Formation of a little liquid with definite sintering occurs first at
1550°. Determination of the loss on ignition shows that B.O; and
H,O are completely expelled at 1500° in 4.5 hours and almost com-
pletely in a much shorter time. At such temperatures, then, the
product of decomposition is mullite with a little free silica, and the
fact that liquid first appears at 155C° is due to melting at the eutectic
between mullite and SiO, (1545°).. The mineral thus behaves for all
practical purposes as a simple mixture of alumina and silica, nearly,
if not actually, in the proportion 4A1,03-38i0.2, and its thermal be-
havior can be read off directly from the alumina-silica diagram, Fig. 1.
190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7
ENTOMOLOGY.—The_ occurrence of Phlebotomus in Panama.)
RAYMOND C, SHANNON, Bureau of Entomology. (Communi-
cated by 8. A. RoHWER.)
The members of the genus Phlebotomus form one of the best known —
groups (Psychodidae) of bloodsucking Diptera. Particularly is this
true in certain southern European, Asiatic, and African countries
where, owing to the fact that certain species are carriers of disease and
others are suspected to be, a rather thorough investigation has been
made of their habits, distribution, and classification.
The American species have yet to undergo such an intensive investi-
gation, for only twelve have been described, and these mostly from
South America. Several species have been suspected of carrying
disease, there being considerable evidence to show that P. verrucarum
Townsend is the vector of verruga fever in Peru, while both P. brumptz
and P. intermedius are suspected of being transmitters of American
leishmaniasis. :
There are as yet no published records of the occurrence of Phle-
botomus in Panama. However, in 1911, Mr. August Busck collected
two females at Cabima, Panama. These were tentatively determined
by Knab as “P. squamiventris L. & N.” and “U. rostrans Summers,”
respectively.
In 1923, the writer collected a number of specimens, at three locali-
tiesin Panama. ‘The first were taken in the month of May in the day-
time by means of sweeping with a net at the bases of large coipu
trees growing in the midst of an uncut forest area located near Cano
Saddle, on one of the back arms of Gatun Lake. A number of females
and one male were secured in this manner. In June and July, while
the writer was investigating the mosquito fauna of Barro Colorado
Island, in Gatun Lake, at that time a wholly uninhabited and nearly
virgin forest area, he again encountered Phiebotomus. The midges
were attracted by the camp light (a gasoline lantern) and rested upon
objects well within the range of the light. They bit rather frequently,
the bite being distinctly sharper than an ordinary mosquito bite.
Towards morning they would leave the light and hide themselves
1 An excellent summary of our knowledge of the species of Phlébotomus has been
published by F. LarroussE, Htude Systematique et Médicale des Phlébotomes, 1921, pp.
1-106.
Fig. 1.—Male terminalia of Phlebotomus panamensis Snn. Fig. 2.—Male terminalia
of P. vexator Coq. Fig. 3.—Female terminalia of P. panamensis Snn. Fig. 4.—Female
terminalia of P. vexator Cog. Fig. 5.—Female terminalia of P. cruciatus Coq.
APR. 4, 1926 SHANNON: OCCURRENCE OF PHLEBOTOMUS 191
ee
oo \\N
te Saas ae
a oS Nh Yi.
) WLAN WAg
ar SIPEG DIB er
P. vexator Coq. 3
Fi od Ppanamensis Onn. fe)
FP cruciatus Coq. 9
Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; see page 190 for description
192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
away for the day. Only females were taken. At Porto Bello,
Panama, the writer collected a single female in a cave-like dungeon in
one of the old Spanish forts in the city. The dungeons were inhabited
both by bats and snakes; either, or both probably, serve as hosts for
the midges.
It would seem from the above abeaaione that man is not a normal
host for these bloodsucking midges; and, in the writer’s experience,
no ill effects were felt from their bite.
All of the collections of Phlebotomus from Panama proved to belong
to a single new species, which is here described.
Phlebotomus panamensis, new species
Description of male and female.—Very similar in general appearance
to other species of Phlebotomus. Integument pale yellow; antennae
sixteen-jointed; palpi apparently four-jointed, the basal joint well
fused with the second, the relative lengths of the joints (considering
the two basal joints as one and the first joint) are 1: 0.90: 0.15: 0.25.
All of the body pile long and erect. Subcosta ending free at about the
basal third of the wing; distance between tips of R, and Rz greater
than distance between tips of R. and M;; petiole of upper forked cell a
little more than half the length of R»; petiole of lower forked cell is
to the upper branch of the cell as 3:5
Male clasper: Four spines present, arangedee in a double group; =
terminal spine the longest. Other genitalic characters are shown in
the figure. Apparently eight abdominal segments are present, the
seventh and eighth appear to be telescoped into the sixth.
Female terminalia: The cerci, or terminal lobes, and the ventral
lobes of three species before me, P. panamensis, P. cruciatus, and P.
vexator show certain differences which may aid in distinguishing these
species in this sex. (See figures 3, 4, and 5.) P. cruciatus has much
larger terminal lobes than have the other two species, and they are
more than twice as long as broad and more finely setulose; in P.
panamensis the terminal lobes are subquadrate, except that the lower
distal corner is obtusely produced; in P. vexator the terminal lobes are
similar to those of P. panamensis, except that they are somewhat
larger.
The key to the American species, based on male genitalia, given by
Larrouse, shows that P. longipalpis Lutz & Neiva (Brazil) may be the
nearest ally, among the known species, to P. panamensis. The
terminal palpal joint in that species is longer than any of the preceding
APR. 4, 1926 SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 193
joints, whereas in P. panamensis, the last joint is much shorter than
the antepenultimate joint.
Type locality—Cano Saddle, Canal Zone, Panama.
Type.—Cat. no. 28726, U.S. N. M.
Male type, female allotype, Cano Saddle, Canal Zone; eight female
paratypes, Cano Saddle, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Porto
Bello, May—August, 1923, collected by R. C. Shannon; Cabima,
Panama, May 22, 1911, collected by A. Busck.
ANTHROPOLOGY .—The_ subjectwe element in magic. JOHN R.
SWANTON, Smithsonian Institution.!
The theory that religion originated in animism, belief in souls
resident in or associated with plants, animals, natural and artificial
objects, was, as is well known, propounded by E. B. Tylor more than
fifty years ago; and, as is also well known, J. G. Frazer later set up an
opposing theory to the effect that animistic beliefs were secondary,
having sprung from an earlier stage in which men’s minds were
dominated by magic. Frazer’s hypothesis has been repeatedly and
thoroughly grilled by leading British and American anthropologists
such as Lang, Marett, Goldenweiser, and Lowie, al! of whom take issue
with the learned author, and in general it may be said that there is no
tangible proof for the evolutionary succession for which Frazer con-
tended. However, his critics have not found it altogether easy to
place magic and religion in their proper mutual relations.
Magical practices seem to be accomplished in three ways, (1) through
spirit intermediaries whose coéperation can not be counted upon with
certainty, (2) through spirit intermediaries who are absolutely gov-
erned by the magician—or perhaps rather by the magical incantation,
or (3) without spirit intermediaries. The first of these is generally
conceded to belong in very large measure in the province of religion,
while the second is usually classed as magical. But since the theoreti-
cal control over spirits exercised by a worker in magic varies greatly
it is difficult to draw a sharp line between practices belonging to these
two classes. The conception of spirit helpers is certainly furnished by
religion, and where their services are absolutely constrained we may
perhaps say that we have a magic-religion complex with magic
- dominant.
Practices of the third type are, of course, those most typical of
magic as distinguished from religion, but when we come to concrete
1 Received February 19, 1926.
194. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 7
examples the anthropomorphizing urge is so great that it is difficult
to be sure that they are entirely sterilized of the religious element.
And, having apparently segregated cases of true magic, are we sure
that what we have left is anything more than the effect of a theory of
causation differing in no respect from hypotheses involving purely
natural phenomena? Indeed primitive man frequently applies terms
generally reserved for the supernatural to purely natural occurrences.
There are people with little or no superstition in their make up who
believe that mind may communicate with mind directly over wide
spaces. If it should turn out that they are right, the primitive
magician who attempts to benefit or injure at a distance by mental
action would deserve so much the more credit. Should we then class
his efforts as magical or scientific? But that is not all. Granted
that they are magical and supernormal from our point of view, are
they from his? Lowie well says: “But the residue [of native lorel,
which we are obliged to reject when testing it in the light of our knowl-
edge, does not, for that reason, belong to a different category from a
psychological point of view. . . . . In so far as [primitive man]
observes and reasons without enveloping his menial operations with
the atmosphere of supernaturalism he is none the less a scientist or at
least a precursor of science because of his errors, for mistakes from
sheer ignorance are committed by our greatest thinkers.’’? Not only
so, but some of our greatest thinkers, Kepler for instance, hit upon
cardinal scientific truths while their minds were enveloped in “the
atmosphere of supernaturalism’”’ and therefore the atmosphere of
supernaturalism becomes a rather insecure determinant of the distinc-
tion between magic and science.
But whether or not any of the scientific attitude attaches to magical
practices and superstitions of related character numbers of them per-
form subjective services, or supposed services, of another kind which go
far toward explaining their existence and their persistence. I mean
simply this, that the act in question keeps a desired end in view, or at
least serves to exclude from the thoughts an undesired and hence
unpleasant end. When, for instance, the Zulu chews a bit of wood
“in order, by this symbolic act, to soften the heart of the man he wants
to buy oxen from, or of the woman he wants for his wife,’ the pro-
ceeding at least suggests and keeps before his mind the accomplish-
ment of something agreeable. In view of the unexplored character of
2 KR. H. Lown, Primitive Religion, p. 148.
3 EK. B. Tytor, Primitive Culture, 1: 118 (quoted from Grout, Zulu-land).
APR. 4,1926 | SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 195
much of the mental life even a civilized man might, under similar
circumstances, think that perhaps his rite would be of some avail, and
in the grade of development to which the Zulu belongs such a sugges-
tion would be tenfold more powerful. At least, if timidity, remote-
ness from the persons in question, or other causes prevented the per-
former from taking more effective action, such a bit of imitative magic
would furnish an outlet for his unsatisfied mental strivings.
Similarly, when the wizard endeavors to injure or kill an enemy by
making an image of him and mistreating it in various ways, his efforts
will ordinarily be without direct avail. Still, the desired end may be
accomplished by the effect of these activities on the equally super-
stitious mind of his victim, and in any case the act serves to feed the
spirit of hatred which the magician entertains, helps him to “nurse
his wrath,’ and thus performs a service, although a perverted one, to
the doer. The same argument applies in the case of hunting charms,
war medicines, mascots, etc. They suggest success, help to keep up
the spirit of the owner or owners, and hence actually add to their
courage and feeling of competency. Even the possession of a rabbit’s
foot may have an exhilarating effect on a highly educated gentleman of
our own times which he would be ashamed to admit. Faced with an
uncertain future of infinite possibilities, and recognizing that unknown
laws are at work about him, the bewildered individual tends to grasp
at anything which suggests a happy outcome and, at least, something
associated in his mind with success. This may be a thing purely
individual, as in the wearing of a particular scarf-pin, or a certain
dress, or the carrying of a sketch as in instances cited by Tozzer,’ or
it may be something which his group or associates have come to hold
in such esteem. Cases of the latter kind are the rabbit’s foot just
mentioned, the mascot of the college or the athletic team, or the
palladium of a tribe. When in doubt or perplexity, man tends to lean
on his fellows or his group, and when the group has come to associate
good or ill fortune with this, that, or the other object, it is the easiest
thing in the world to resolve the perplexity by accepting the group
superstition. This, of course, applies to group ideas of all kinds,
whether or not of the nature of charms. ‘‘Of course,’ we say, “we
are not superstitious,’’ but we do not know how to meet the present
emergency, the use of a rabbit’s foot or a particular amulet is an
ancient and widely spread custom, and that fact argues that ‘‘there
must be something in it,” and anyhow “it can do no harm.”
4 A.M. Tozzzr, Social Origins and Social Continwities, pp. 242-266. 1925.
196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
A personal experience may help along the thought at this point.
When a boy the writer used to dress in a room heated by an airtight
stove. Before brushing his hair he was in the habit of wetting the
hairbrush at the washstand, and as this was on the opposite side
of the room from the mirror, he was obliged to pass the stove going
and coming. As he passed the stove on his way back he fell into the
habit of flirting a little water off of his brush upon it in order to hear
the sizzle. But, after this little custom had been kept up for some
time, he one day determined he would omit the ceremony, and he was
straightway conscious of a distinct sense of discomfort, while the
thought flashed through his mind from nowhere in particular, “Sup-
posing bad luck should follow the omission.” Evidently the cause
of the discomfort was the breaking of a partially established habit,
a discomfort of the kind that compelled old Dr. Johnson to go back
and strike any fence post he had omitted hitting with his cane. ‘The
thought consequent on the discomfort may have had a religious origin;
it was perhaps a vague attempt to interpret in religious terms an
unpleasant sensation which was purely psychological, the distaste of
the organism toward any interference in a customary exercise.
In most cases such superstitions probably do “do harm,’ because
life is too short to clutter it up with useless formulas. The mental
machinery will register impressions based on sound reasoning as
readily as meaningless imitations of what our neighbors do or our
ancestors have done, and our time should be devoted to the former
occupation.
However, there are suggestions connected directly with magic which
are beneficial, even though they may be irrational. There is no ques-
tion that certain sights and sounds have an alleviating effect on the
sick. Some perhaps serve merely as counter irritants to remove the
mind from its immediate troubles, but others are of a kind to turn the
flow of the patient’s thoughts strongly to a happy outcome. When a
Haida woman was about to give birth, it was customary to let an eel
slide down to her feet inside of her clothing, the slippery nature of the
creature and the direction it took indicting easy parturition, and a
similar suggestion was involved in many magical practices on this and
other occasions. If a patient strongly believed that the pain in his
arm was due to a witch arrow and the doctor could seem to suck this
out and actually show it to him, the alleviation of the apparent symp-
toms was probable and their actual alleviation in certain cases more
than likely.
APR. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 197
The Chickasaw attempted to cure by a powerful use of group sug-
gestion. The entire neighborhood would be summoned to the house
_ of the sick person, a fire lighted east of the main doorway, which was
always toward that quarter as being the good luck direction, little
canes adorned with ribbons, images, and other objects properly con-
jured by the doctor, were stuck in the ground near the fire, and all of
the guests danced about between the fire and the house while the sick
man himself sat in the doorway looking on, or was supported by
others in that position. The vigorous actions of the dancers were
supposed to energize the patient and ‘‘dance away” his malady. In
other words he was made the focus of a powerful assembly of sugges-
tions, composed of all kinds of good luck signs, the concentrated belief
of his neighbors, and their display of energy which he was taught
to think was working upon his indisposition.
The elaboration of the charm, mascot, fetish, palladium, or cere-
monial in order to suggest more intensely the end to which it was
believed to lead would of course be thought to increase the possibility
of attainment, but it would certainly make the desire more vivid and
in the same measure increase the subjective satisfaction of the magician
and his friends. Hence such efforts cannot be said to have been
entirely unserviceable although in many cases they were socially
undesirable. It is perhaps worth considering whether this motive
may not have acted as a powerful stimulus in the evolution of the arts.
My conclusion is that, whatever religious element may attach to.
magic, it is to be explained mainly by reference to immediate psycho-
logical processes, particularly those of the magician himself.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
929TH MEETING
The 929th meeting, the first of the year 1926, was held in the Cosmos
Club auditorium on Saturday evening, January 9, 1926. The meeting was
called to order at 8:31 by President Bowie with 67 persons present. The
address of the evening was given by the retiring president, J. A. FLEMING, on
The magnetic and electric survey of the earth; its physical and cosmical bearings
and development. It appears in full in an early issue of the JourNaAL. (This
JOURNAL, 16: 109-132, 1926.) .
930TH MEETING
The 930th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on
Saturday evening, January 23, 1926. The meeting was called to order by
President Bowie at 8:15 with 49 persons in attendance. |
198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7
Program: E. O. Hutspurt: The propagation of radio waves over the earth.
—In this paper a quantitative theory of the propagation of radio waves
over the earth is presented. Larmor’s theory of refraction due to the elec-
trons of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer does not explain the “skip distances”
for short radio waves (regions of silence around the transmitter which Taylor’s
measurements showed to be 175, 400, 700, and 1300 miles in radius in the
daytime, averaged over the year, for waves of 40, 32, 21 and 16 meters,
respectively, and which are surrounded by zones of strong signals). The
range as a function of wave-length shows a minimum for about 200 meters
which suggests the introduction of a critical frequency term. lf the effect
of the magnetic field of the earth on the motion of the electrons is taken into
account, as suggested by Appleton and by Nichols and Schelleng, the modifica-
tion a the Larmor theory necessary to fit it to the experimental facts is
secured.
The upper atmosphere is assumed to contain N free electrons per cubic -
centimeter, and neglecting absorption the dispersion equations are worked
out for various modes of polarization of the radio waves. Then the skip
distances are computed, making various. assumptions as to the electron
density distribution. (a) Reflection theory. As a first approximation the
layer is taken to be sharply separated from the un-ionized lower atmosphere.
At this layer total reflection occurs in accordance with Snell’s law. (b) Re-
fraction theory. The following distributions are considered: (1) Density
increasing linearly with the height h, beginning at a certain height ho; (2)
Density proportional to h?; (8) Density proportional to e*; (4) Density
proportional to h}/”. Comparison with the experimental skip distances
shows good agreement, and indicates that the radio waves which just reach
the edge of the zone beyond are refracted around a curved path, reaching
in the daytime a maximum height of from 97 miles (case 1, ho = 21 miles,
and case 2) to 149 miles (case 3). At this height the electron density comes
out close to 10° electrons per cubic centimeter. At night the electron density
gradient is less and the height is greater.
These conclusions agree with physical conceptions from other evidence.
From the dispersion equations it follows that for waves of 60 to 200 meters,
total reflection may occur from the electron layers at all angles of incidence. .
From this result, combined with interference between various modes of
polarization of the radio rays, a detailed qualitative explanation of many
fading phenomena is presented. Further conclusions are: That the ions
in the atmosphere have little effect in comparison with the electrons; that for
longer waves the Larmor theory is correct; that short waves are propagated
long distances by refraction in the upper atmosphere and reflection at the
surface of the earth, not by earth-bound waves; that waves below 14 meters
can not be efficiently used for long distance terrestrial communication, but
appear to offer a possibility of interplanetary communication. (Author’s
abstract.)
J.H. Service: Recent results with radio-acoustic ranging. (Illustrated with
lantern slides.) The radio-acoustic method of position finding was taken
up by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in the fall of 1923. The introduction
to the paper reviews briefly the construction and operation of the original
apparatus and the procedure originally followed, involving stopping the
ship, firing a bomb in the water alongside and recording the time. Sound
energy from the bomb travels through the water to hydrophones at two or
more shore stations. The reception of sound at a given shore station, by
means of amplifier and relays, causes a characteristic radio signal to be sent
APR. 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199
out from that station, which is received aboard the ship and timed. Time
of travel of sound energy and thence distance to each station is thus obtained.
The following improvements have been made during the past two years:
‘Design of a special bomb for great distances, more efficient procedure in
hydrophone and cable installation and recovery, the obtaining of fixes without
reduction of the speed of the survey ship, elimination of stray hydrophone
ences, automatic shore station operation and improved methods of
plotting.
The method has been shown to be practical for distances between ship
and shore station up to 200 miles (unless unfavorable bottom conditions
_ intervene), and gives a location for the ship with a maximum distance error
_ varying from some 75 meters to somewhat less than a mile as the distance
between ship and shore stations increases from 10 miles to 200 miles. A
shore station will function automatically for over a week of continuous opera-
tion without attention.
Some of the problems awaiting solution are: obtaining a more suitable
hydrophone cable, the modification of the apparatus to permit the use for
short distances of a sound source more convenient than explosions, the
development of a sound receiver better than a microphone, and modification
of the apparatus so as to make possible the detection of sound energy trans-
mitted across unfavorable bottom conditions.
The use of the method has brought to light strong evidence to indicate
that the sound energy from bomb to hydrophone is transmitted largely by
means of multiple reflections between the surface andthe bottom. (Author’s
abstract.)
H. A. Marmer, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The annual party of the Pick and Hammer Club was held on March 6.
Among the former members of the U. S. Geological Survey present were:
RaLtepH ARNOLD, petroleum engineer of Pasadena, California; Epwarp
SAMPSON of Princeton University; and K. C. Hna.p.
Mrs. Nora DowELL STEARNS resigned from the Water Resources Branch
of the U. 8. Geological Survey on March 1.
The following members of the U. 8. Geological Survey expect to attend
the International Geological Congress in Madrid, Spain, May 24-31: H. G.
FrrGuson, M. I. Gotpman, G. M. Hatt, D. F. Hewert, and E. O. ULRicH.
Mrs. Ferguson, Mrs. Goldman, and Mrs. Hewett will also be members of the
party. Most of the geologists will attend one or more of the geological
excursions to regions of especial interest in Spain and northern Africa. Mr.
Hewett left Washington March 12, and will make several geologic investiga-
tions in Greece, Italy, and Sardinia before the congress. Mr. GOLDMAN
leaves on April 15, Mr. Ferauson April 24, and Mr. Utricu May 12.
ARTHUR KEITH is on leave from the U. S. Geological Survey for the two
months beginning March 17, to give a course of lectures on Structural geology
of North America at the University of Texas, at Austin.
RosBeErt T. Boot will be succeeded April 1, 1926, by RicHarp H. GopparRp
as observer-in-charge of the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory (Peru) of the
200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No.7
Carnegie Institution of Washington. Mr. Booth will return to Washington
across South America via the Amazon as a member of the special expedition
of Messrs. Dauut and RAMBERG.
Davip Wurtz, W. C. MENDENHALL, W. T. THoM, Jr., L. W. STEPHENSON,
H. D. Miser, C. H. Dans, H. W. Hoots, N. W. Bass, and J. D. NortHop
of the United States Geological Survey attended the annual meeting of the
Petroleum Geologists at Dallas, Texas, on March 25, 26, and 27.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*
Tuesday, April 6. The Botanical Society.
Thursday, April 8. The Chemical Society.
Saturday, April10. The Biological Society.
Thursday, April15. Joint meeting of the Acapremy and the Philo-
sophical society.
Saturday, April 17. The Philosophical Society. Program:
H. L. DrypEn: Measurement of the performance of desk electric fans.
W. W. Cosientz: Impressions of the Sumatra eclipse expedition.
The Helminthological Society.
* The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.
CONTENTS |
ie ath at | Ontarwan Parans
Ghetusiry: —The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl
foo
Mineralogy.—A pubtoeonhey and aay ae of a, thermal
dumortierite. We BowEN and R. Ww. G. Wrexorr. .. By
*
| Proceepines:
; + I i bs
he : 7 ys Nip
The Philosophical ee
a
Vol. 16 | APRIL 19, 1926 No. 8
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
D. F. Hewett . S. J. Maucuiy
A@anrss CHAsy
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTEY
tae ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams
S. A. Ronwsr
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E,. A. GoLtpMAN G. W. Strosz
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R. F. Griaes
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
J. R. Swanton
ANTHROPOLOGIGAL SOCIETY
E. WiIcHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mr. Royat anp GuILFoRD AVES,
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this endit publishes:
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
short notes of current scientfiic literature published in or emanating from Washington;
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journat is issu
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author.
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 2.29 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 5/78 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. pes:
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume 18......cccccececcccccecevcnceccucesces $6 .00*
Semi-monthiy numbers. (oo ook oe salts sm awe be done ens eae eh) eee .25
Monthly mum beray eo og oo iis aos en's site b cme Gee idan Sls ks pla ore See ane .50
Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C,
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JourNnaL does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 16 Apri 19, 1926 | No. 8
PHYSICS.—D7vffraction by a grating. G. Breit. Department Ter-
restrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
It is known that Frauenhofer interference phenomena may be ex-
plained by means of Duane’s hypothesis? of the transfer of momenta
in quanta. According to this explanation, only momenta of amount
h a
= may be transferred laterally to a plane grating if a is the grating
space. For low intensities of incident radiation the amount of light
diffracted into a given order is proportional to the intensity of the
incident light. This suggests that the action of a grating is similar
to that which would exist if we had simple collisions between light
quanta and the grating. However, a consideration of black body
equilibrium shows that this is not the case and that the grating is
similar in its action to an atom. It seems almost obvious that the
actions of a resonator and of a grating are very similar because a con-
ducting rod of a given length forms a transition step between the two.
It is known that the relative intensities of various orders in the
diffraction pattern of a grating may be varied within wide limits.
This shows that for theoretical purposes we may require that a grat-
ing reflecting only within one order should be in proper equilibrium
with black body radiation. We postulate that the mean kinetic
energy of each degree of freedom of the translational motion should
be =, where k is Boltzmann’s constant and 7' the absolute tempera-
ture. Whenever a quantum is diffracted by the grating, it acquires a
1 Received March 9, 1926.
2Duane. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., May, 1923.
Compton. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 9: 359.
EpsteInN and ERRENFEST. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 10: 133.
Breit, G. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 9: 238-246, 1923.
201
202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 —
h h
momentum laterally of amount = me 5 where 6 = = We further
simplify the consideration by supposing that the material of the
grating is selectively reflecting at a frequency v. [This may be shown
to be equivalent to assuming that its reflection curve is arbitrary.|
SNe yy. i :
We have then that Einstein’s? coefficient _ 1s proportional to rm
p(v), where p(v)dy is the energy density in the frequency range dp.
Einstein‘ showed that if black body radiation is referred to a frame
of reference moving with velocity v, then in a direction making an
angle » with the direction of motion the energy density is to within
the first order of v
p(v) + : cosy (> - — 3 o())
If we suppose now that the diffraction in various directions is deter-
mined entirely by the number of hitting quanta and if each element
of the grating is capable only of ordinary reflection, Einstein’s coefh-
Op
cient #& is proportional to v Seite 3 p(v). , Hence in order that the
equation
A2
— = 2RkT
i
(Einstein loc cit. 125, form. 12) be satisfied we must have
17-0 o(]
i ale Stone ee (1)
p\ Op Ov
With Planck’s form of the radiation law this is clearly impossible
(though the Rayleigh Jeans approximation satisfies the above re-
quirement). Hence here just as in the case of atoms (Einstein
loc. cit.) and free electrons: the influence of the presence of radiation
on diffraction probabilities must be taken into account. The above-
mentioned papers and the paper by Einstein and Ehrenfest® indicate
how this is to be done. According to the generalization of Einstein
and Ehrenfest, Pauli’s result may be interpreted to give the proba-
bility of scattering as the product of two independent probabilities:
(a) The probability of absorption, (b) the probability of re-emission.
3 Einstein. Zeits. Physik 18: 121, 1917.
4 Toc. cit.
’Pauui. Zeits. Physik 18: 272, 1923.
6 HINSTEIN and EuRENFEST. Zeits. Physik 19: 301, 1923.
APR. 19, 1926 BREIT: DIFFRACTION BY A GRATING 203
For the case of a heavy grating we may simply suppose then that the
resultant probability of scattering is such as though the grating were
capable of absorbing and emitting as an atom does.
_ Similar indications are given by the Doppler effect. Schroedinger
showed that the Doppler effect may be understood in quantum theory
by considering an absorbing and an emitting atom and by bringing
into the discussion the changes in the energy of the quantum due to
the recoil actions of the atoms. It is clear, therefore, that if a grating
‘is treated as a generalized atom Schroedinger’s reasoning will apply
and all required conditions will be satisfied. If, however, the purely
mechanistic point of view be taken, a difficulty is encountered at
once in considering the diffraction by a moving grating. If, for ex-
ample, the grating be moving with a velocity v towards the incident
light and if the the incidence be normal, the angle of diffraction in
the frame of the grating should be 6’ given by
asin 6’ = ny’
where }’ is the wavelength of the incident light in the frame of the
grating. If the grating be stationary
asin@ = nd
Thus
sin 6’ v
- aw ee 2
sin @ Cc ( y
On the other hand, if the mechanism of diffraction were always that of
imparting the same amount of momentum laterally to the grating as
measured in the stationary frame, another angle 6’’ would result for
the diffraction. ‘This is easily shown to be such that
sin 6” v
- = 1 — -—eosé (3)
Sin 6 C
(To within first powers of ai
c
The disagreement of (2) and (3) shows that the assumption underlying
(3) is not valid.
It may be suggested that the grating and the photographic plate
should be looked upon as a complex atom. From a purely formal
point of view the absorption by such an atom can be calculated by the
Correspondence Principle. Similarly for its emission. We consider
the latter first. The point of Duane’s idea is from this point of view
that in addition to the quantum numbers of the emitting atom one
204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
may speak also of a quantum number of the grating, and that diffrac-
tion in various directions is given by different changes in that quantum
number. This quantum number according to Duane is the momentum
of the grating divided by h. Appealing as this picture of Duane’s
seems to be, it seems necessary to apply it only for phenomena of our
complex atom within itself.
BOTANY.—WNew Piperaceae from South America and Mexico. Wit-
LIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois. (Communicated by
BoP. Karaire:)
Among specimens of South American and Mexican Piperaceae
recently submitted to me by the United States National Museum
for study the following new species and varieties were found:
Piper austro-mexicanum, sp. nov.
A shrub?; twigs somewhat zig-zag; flowering internodes rather thick and
short (3 X 15-30 mm.), granular-scrabrous and rather persistently upcurved-
hirsute; leaves elliptic-oblong, subacuminate, rounded at base with one side
somewhat shorter, moderate (4-5 X 12-15 cm.), pinnately nerved from below
about the middle, the nerves about 6 X 2, scabrous, the lower surface ap-
pressed-hairy, somewhat bullate in age; petiole short (scarcely 5 + 3mm.),
upcurved-hirsute, not winged; spikes opposite the leaves, 3-4 50-60 mm.;
peduncle scarcely 10 mm. long, gray-hirsute; bracts rounded-subpeltate,
gray-ciliate; flowers sessile, perfect.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,370, collected at Mon-
serrate, Chiapas, southern Cordillera of Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus
(no. 35).
Piper eglandulosum, sp. nov.
A shrub?; glabrous; flowering internodes long and slender; leaves ovate-
elliptic, caudate, equally or subunequally acute at base, 6.5-7 & 15-16 cm.,
pinnately nerved nearly throughout, the nerves some 10-12 X 2, drying
papery and glossy brown; petiole about 1 cm. long, winged at base; spikes
opposite the leaves, 4-5 X 70-80 mm.; peduncle rather stout, 7 mm. long;
bracts inconspicuous; flowers sessile, perfect.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,280,811, collected at Carapas,
Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 14).
Piper fenianum, sp. nov.
A shrub?; flowering internodes crisp-pubescent, rather slender and short
(2-3 em.); leaves elliptic-lanceolate, subacuminate, acute at base, small
(2 xX 4.54.5 X 7cm.), palmately 5- or the larger obscurely 7-nerved, glabrous
above, crisp-hairy beneath; petiole very short (scarcely 5 mm.) and slender,
crisp-pubescent; spikes opposite the leaves, 2-3 < 60-75 mm.; peduncle
crisp-hairy, short (scarcely 10 mm.); bracts subspatulate, ciliate and some-
what pubescent; flowers perfect, sessile; berries oblong-ovoid, sulcate, glab-
rous; stigmas 3, sessile.
apr. 19, 1926 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 205
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,377, collected at Hacienda
Fenix, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus
(no. 386).
Piper martensianum interior, var. nov.
A form with more lance-ovate leaves becoming 5-8 X 13 cm.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,374, collected at Mon-
serrate, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus
(no. 172). Purpus 148 is also this.
Piper purpusianum, sp. nov.
A shrub?; glabrous; twigs zig-zag; flowering internodes rather slender,
moderately elongated (3-4 cm.); leaves elongated-lanceolate, subfalcately
attenuate, subequilaterally rounded below or acute at the very base, moderate
(3.5 X 15-5 X 21 cm.), pinnately nerved from below the upper fourth, the
strongly upcurved nerves 5-9 X 2, somewhat bullulate in age, paler beneath;
petiole rather short (10-20 mm.), winged to the blade; spikes opposite the
leaves, small (4 * 20 mm.), with sterile apex scarcely 1 X 10 mm.; peduncle
slender and short (scarcely 10 mm.); bracts lunately concave, glabrcus;
flowers sessile, perfect.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,376, collected at Hacienda
Fenix, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus
(no. 196).
Piper zarumanum, sp. nov.
A forking shrub, 2m. tall; flowering internodes rather slender and elongated,
appressed- or crisp-pubescent; leaves lanceolate or lance-elliptic, somewhat
acuminate, subacute at base, small (scarcely 1.75 X 5.5 cm.), pinnately
or submultiple-nerved from below the middle, the nerves 4 X 2, minutely
appressed-pubescent or scabrid on both sides; petiole 3 mm. long, appressed-
pubescent, winged at base; spikes opposite the leaves, 3 X 30-50 mm.;
peduncle 7 mm. long, crisp-pubescent; bracts triangular-subpeltate, ciliate
| ean ; flowers sessile, perfect; berries depressed-globose; stigmas 3, small,
sessile.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,222, collected between
La Chorita and Portovelo (gold mine near Zaruma), Province Oro, Ecuador,
alt. 1000-2000 meters, August 28, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21178).
Peperomia carapasana, sp. nov.
A rather tall but slender and straggling glabrous herb; stem scarcely 2
cm. thick; leaves characteristically 3 at a node, lance-elliptic, gradually acute
at both ends, moderately large (2.5-4.5 X 9.5-13 cm.), 3- or obscurely
5-nerved, drying thin and translucent; petiole 10-15 mm. long, slender;
spikes terminal, filiform (2 < 90-140 mm.), densely flowered; peduncle 15
mm. long; bracts round-peltate; berries ovoid-acute with pseudo-cupule;
stigma apical.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,868, collected at Carapas,
Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 114).
-Peperomia choritana Trelease, sp. nov.
A small essentially glabrous herb, repent on logs; stem slender (1 mm.);
leaves alternate, round to elliptic, rounded at both ends or the longer acute
206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8
at base, 7 X 7-12 mm., drying thick and yellowish with the simple midnerve
evident beneath, somewhat revolute, minutely ciliolate upwards, obscurely
pale-granular beneath; petiole scarcely 3 mm. long; spikes terminal, 1 & 40—
50 mm., somewhat openly subannularly flowered; peduncle filiform, 5-10 mm.
long; bracts round-peltate; ovary ovoid, pointed; stigma subapical.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,212, collected between
La Chorita and Portovelo (gold mine near Zaruma), Province Oro, Ecuador,
alt. 1000-2000 meters, August 28, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21162).
Peperomia enantiostachya distachya, var. nov.
A slender repent and rooting form with ovate-acuminate leaves 2.5 X 5.5
em., filiform petioles 1-2.5 cm. long, and very small spikes (in fruit searcely
1 X 15 mm.) paired on a filiform 1-bracted common peduncle 2 em. long, the
individual peduncles scarcely half this length; berries ovoid, obliquely long-
beaked, the stigma at base of the beak.
Type i in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,197 659, collected at Palmera,
Rio Pastaza, between Bafios and Mera, Ecuador, alt. 1200 meters, in 1924,
by Ge Hk H. Tate (no. 672).
Peperomia omnicola oblanceolata, var. nov.
A moderate short-stemmed subsimple subprostrate herb; stem rather thick
(4mm.), crisp-pubescent; leaves alternate, oblong-oblanceolate, sharp-acumi-
nate, acute at base, moderately large (5-6 15-17 cm.), sparsely appressed-
hairy above, crisp-pubescent beneath especially on the midrib, rather faintly
pinnately nerved; petiole 1-2.5 cm. long, crisp-hairy; spikes: 2-4 nearly
sessile at each node of an open terminal panicle some 15 X 25 em., filiform
(1 X 100-150mm.); common peduncle (3-4 cm.) and axis of panicle softly
crisp-pubescent; bracts round-peltate; ovary ovoid, impressed; stigma sub-
apical.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,197,654, collected at Palmera,
' Rio Pastaza, between Bafios and Mera, ‘Ecuador, ‘alt. 1200 meters, in 1924,
by G. H. H. Tate (no. 667).
Peperomia ppucu-ppucu, sp. nov.
A moderately small (subprostrate?) glabrous herb rooting from many
nodes; leaves crowded, about 3 at a node, round-elliptic, rounded at both
ends, often emarginulate, drying opaque and without evident nerves, about
10 X 10 mm.; petiole short (2 mm.); spikes terminal, about 2 X 6 mm.
rather closely flowered with anastomosing ridges; peduncle short (5 mm.);
bracts round-peltate, rather large; berries ovoid-attenuate, with pseudo-
cupule; stigma apical. :
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,231,071, collected at Ollan-
taytambo, Urubamba, Peru, alt. 2800 meters, in 1925, by F. L. Herrera
(no. 802).
Peperomia stelecophila glabrata, var. nov.
A moderately small repent herb, on logs, rooting from many nodes; stem
rather slender (2-3 mm.), glabrous; leaves alternate, ovate, acuminate,
peltate distinctly within the rounded base, 2.5 X 4.5 cm. (? or larger), dull,
leathery, obscurely multiple-nerved, appressed-hairy around the margin;
petiole 3 cm. long, glabrous; spikes axillary (? or also terminating lateral!
APR. 19, 1926 PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 207
branches), 3 X 80-90 mm., closely subannularly flowered; peduncle 25 mm.
long, bracted near the middle; bracts round-peltate; berries oblong, truncate
_ with stout spreading beak; stigma on the truncated apex.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,573, collected between
Banos and Cashurco, Valley of Rio Pastaza, Province Tungurahua, Ecuador,
alt. 1300-1800 meters, September 25, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21886).
Peperomia subanomala, sp. nov.
A rather small erect branching herb; stem slender (1-2 mm.) rather long-
hairy but glabrescent except about the nodes; leaves opposite, elliptic, sub-
acute at both ends, rather small (7 X 14-10 X 20 mm.), slightly pubescent
on the nerves above, somewhat revolute, densely long-hairy beneath, ob-
scurely 3-nerved, firm and opaque; petiole short (2 mm.), hairy or sub-
glabrescent; spikes terminal and axillary, moderately small (1 X 30 mm.),
rather closely flowered; peduncle 5 mm. long, glabrous; bracts round-peltate;
ovary ovoid, impressed; stigma subapical.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no, 1,197,533, collected at Ambato,
Province Tungurahua, Ecuador, alt. 2500 meters, in 1924, by G. H. H. Tate
(no. 542).
Peperomia sukbccencava, sp. nov.
A moderately small more or less cespitose simple erect arboricolous herb;
stem rather slender (scarcely 2 mm.), at first puberulent or glabrous; leaves
about 3 at a node, round-elliptic or obovate, rounded at both ends or the
base subacute, very fleshy, drying thick with hyaline margin and not ob-
viously nerved, 10 X 10-15 mm., somewhat pubescent to quite glabrous;
petiole short (3 mm.) and thick, granular-puberulent or glabrous; inflores-
cence unknown.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,467, collected between
Cuenca and Huigra, Provinces Azuay and Cafiar, Ecuador, alt. 2700-3000:
meters, September 12-13, 1923, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 21686).
Peperomia tequendamana, sp. nov.
An ascending moderately small more or less branched herb; stem moderate
(2-3 mm.) with short internodes, rusty crisp-villous; leaves alternate (? ex-
ceptionally opposite), broadly elliptic or ovate-elliptic, obtuse at both ends
or abruptly blunt-acuminate, moderate (1.5 *K 2-2 X* 4 em.), 5-nerved,
appressed-hairy on both faces, granular beneath; petiole very short (2 mm.),
hairy; spikes terminal and axillary, 2 X 60 mm., rather loosely subverti-
cillately flowered; peduncle about 10 mm. long, from sparsely crisp-pubescent
glabrescent; bracts round-peltate; ovary impressed, ovoid, obtuse; stigma
subapical.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no, 1,198,754, collected at Tequen-
dama Falls, near Bogotdé, Dept. Cundinamarca, Colombia, September 1909,
by Brother Ariste Joseph (no. B-92).
BOTAN Y.—On Gyranthera and Bombacopsis, with a key to the Amert-
can genera of Bombacaceae. H. Pirtrer, Caracas, Venezuela.
In his recent revision of the Bombacaceae,! Mr. R. C. Bakhuizen
van den Brink has confessed himself unable to place my genus Gyran-
1 Revisio Bombacaceavum, in Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, Ser. III, 6: 161-232;
pl. 26-38. 1924.
208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8
Fig. 1—Flowers of Gyranthera: A-C, general views showing details of the petals;
D, calyx; E, anther with the connective stipitate and auriculate at the base, long
awned at the apex. All about 3 dia.
APR. 19, 1926 PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 209
thera, described in 1914 from specimens of the Panaman species.? In
19213 I published a second species, Gyranthera caribensis, in a paper
in which I gave all the additional details necessary to characterize the
new genus definitely, and to place it rightly among the Bombacaceae.
If the author had consulted this paper, presumably accessible to him,
the description of the fruit alone would have convinced him that
Gyranthera really belongs to the Bombacaceae, and further that it is
not to be associated with Chorisia.
In order better to establish the status of Gyranthera as a valid
genus, its description is given here again, emended and amplified
so as to show more clearly the characters which differentiate it.
The illustrations, reduced to one-half natural size, show the principal
features of the flower and fruit.
DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS GYRANTHERA PITTIER (1914)
Flores regulares vel leviter zygomorphi. Calyx coriaceus, tubulosus,
caducus, plus minusve regulariter 2 vel 3-lobulatus, lobulis perbrevibus,
integris bicuspidatisve, in aestivatione valvatis. Petala 5, laciniata, crassa,
basi, tubo stamineo adnata, prefloratione contorta. ‘Tubus stamineus teres
vel sulcatus, elongatus, gracilis, longe exsertus, apice versus staminodiis
lineari-filiformibus plus minusve sparsis appendiculatus; filamenta 5, crassa,
antheris permultis, vermiformibus, dithecis obsita; thecae transverse septatae;
connectivum basi subsessile vel distincte stipitatum, apice emarginatum
ongeque mucronatum; pollinis granula pallide flava, laeves, diminuta.
Ovarium superum, sessile, 5-carpidiatum, 5-loculare; ovula transversa,
anatropa, angulo interno locularum affixa; stylus filiformis, stamina longior,
stigmate breviter 5-fido. Capsula plus minusve fusiformis, unilocularis,
coriacea vel subligriosa; dehiscentia loculicida. Semina numerosa, alata,
albuminosa; embryo leviter curvatus.
Arbores sylvarum panamensium et venezuelensium, altae, deciduae,
inermes. Folia alterna, 3-7-digitata, longe petiolata, foliolis integris, petiolu-
latis. Flores magni, albi, ebracteati, in panniculas terminales, unilaterales,
dispositi.
From this description it will be seen that Gyranthera differs funda-
mentally from Chorisia in its capsule, in which the ovarian cell-walls
have been almost completely ob’iterated; in the shape and disposition
of the winged seeds; and especially in the general structure and ap-
pearance of the flower. The same conclusion may be more quickly
reached by comparing plate 40 of volume 12, part 3, of Martius’s
Flora brasiliensis with the illustrations added to this article. The
affinities of the new genus are evidently with the Matisiae,—I
would say with Quararibea and Ochroma with regard to the floral
2 Malvales novae panamenses, in Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 18: 318. 1914.
3 Acerca del genero Gyranthera Pittier, in Bol. Com. Ind. Venezuela 13: 417-433.
1921.
. . ~~ f
210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
structure, and with Bernoullia as to the fruits. But our plant differs
from all three in its digitate leaves and from each in particular by
decidedly aberrant characteristics, such as the presence of staminodes
disposed in two more or less regular whorls, each staminode simple
or bifurcated in the upper whorl, bifid or trifid in the lower whorl.
The arrangement of the seeds also is remarkable and sui generis:
while in Bernoullia, the wings are simply turned upward at the base
and downward at the apex of each cell of the capsule, in Gyranthera
they are so placed in the single cell that two consecutive wings of the
lower seeds are separated by the wing of one of the upper ones. This
is neatly shown in figure B, of the accompanying Fig. 2.
The above description is far from perfect. The arrangement of
the anthers, on account of their peculiar gelatinous consistency when
fresh, has not yet been sufficiently elucidated. The fruit of the
Panaman species is not known. But it seems that there can be no
doubt as to the validity of the genus and its place in the classification,
somewhere between Quararibea and Bernoullia.
Mr. Bakhuizen van den Brink also ignores the genus Bombacopsis,
published by me in 1916, based on Pachira Fendlert.4 I am quite
aware that any botanist who is reduced to mere herbarium speci-
mens or scanty descriptions upon which to base his judgment may
hesitate to accept any further splitting of the genera Bombax and
Pachira. Schumann himself even went so far as to unite these two
last groups into a single one, Bombaz, thus going back to the Linnean
generic concept. This, however, has not generally been accepted,
and most botanists admit that there is at least a decided difference
between the two groups. ‘They are as a matter of fact separated by
fundamental differences in the fruit and seed, and by no small struc-
tural details of the flowers. Without going farther into details, let
us recall the presence or absence of wool in the fruit and the considera-
ble size of the seeds of Pachira as compared with those of Bombar.
In the course of my explorations in Panama, my attention was
drawn to two striking trees, originally placed among the species of
Pachira, the one by Seemann under the name of P. Fendleri, the
other by Bentham as P. sesstlis, and transferred to Bombax by subse-
quent authors. The flowers of these two trees look exactly like minia-
tures of those of the genus Pachira and, as the fruits had not then
been described, both botanists were to a certain extent justified in
the generic place assigned to these species. But when the fruits
became known, they proved to have the structure of those of Bombar,
4Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 159-163, pl. 64-75. 1916
APR. 19, 1926 - PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 211
Fig. 2—Fruit of Gyranthera: A, capsule before dehiscence; B, part of open capsule
showing arrangement of seeds; C, detached seeds, one open to show details of embryo.
Same reduction as in Fig. 1.
212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
with small seeds imbedded in the wool depending from the pericarp.
That is to say, these trees, on account of their fruits, do not belong to
Pachira nor, because of the characteristics of the flowers, to Bombaz.
In other words, they belong neither to Bombax nor Pachira. The
simplest solution was, then, to create an intermediary genus, and this
is what I did under the name Bombacopsis.
As a general rule, I do not believe in the multiplication of generic
names at the expense of well-established groups, but that there are
cases when the necessity of the division becomes more and more
obvious. ‘Two good instances have attracted my attention in the
course of an experience of nearly forty years in neotropical botany.
I refer to the genera Pithecolobium and Cassia. When one comes
to know the species of the first by daily observation, ordinary com-
mon sense leads one to separate them into several groups. There is
certainly no macroscopic likeness between a Prthecolobium of the
unguts-catt group and the rain-tree (P. saman Benth.); and again, it
is difficult to see the direct parental connection of the latter with the
sections Caulanthon and Chloroleucon as created by Bentham.
I think that Merrill was right when he proposed to make Pitheco-
lobium saman the type of the distinct genus Samanea,* and so I have
followed him in naming several recently described species. Britton
and Rose are now trying to effect an analogous division in the com-
pound genus Cassia, and it is to be hoped that their views will be
accepted, at least along general lines. These same authors, however,
have not always been very moderate in their views. Few botanists,
I think, would agree to accept their extreme splitting of certain
genera of Cactaceae, in which each section has been proposed as a
genus.
To return to Bombacopsis, let us repeat that in this group the flower,
notwithstanding its likeness to that of Pachira, differs markedly in
its size, in the longer and narrower calyx, in the number and branching
of the stamens, as well as in the wool-bearing fruit and the smaller
dimensions of the seeds. On the other hand, if the fruit compares
with that of Bombaxz in its general characteristics, the dehiscence is
apical with the valves, coriaceous or at least thin, adhering to the
receptacle, while in Bombazx these valves are woody and thick and
detach themselves piece after piece from the fruit. The flowers, also,
have at most 200 stamens and often not more than 75, while up to
1400 have been counted in some individual Bombazx flowers.
These are the more distinctive botanical features which separate
5 This JOURNAL 6: 47. 1916.
APR. 19,1926 — PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 213
the three genera. But in the field nobody would confuse a Bombazx
tree, with its relatively short, thick or ventricose trunk, nor a middle-
sized, leafy Pachira, with the often enormous individuals of Bomba-
copsis, with its straight column or trunk and sparsely leaved crown
towering among the highest in the forest. In Pachira and Bombaz
the wood is white and soft and the bark smooth; in Bombacopsis the
core of the former is reddish and much harder, and the bark, rough
and rimose, is often covered with numerous, stout aculei. More
- details and many illustrations will be found in the place of the original
description.
As is natural, I have expanded on the two genera Gyranthera and
-'Bombacopsis, because, as my own creations, I had their defense very
much at heart. It seems almost impossible not to recognize the va-
lidity of Gyranthera; and as to Bombacopsis, which I find necessary as
a transitory link between Bombax and Pachira, its acceptance depends
mainly upon whether the two latter genera remain separated, as
seems best, or whether the view of Schumann is to be maintained.
Most American botanists adopt the former view and so does Urban in
his Symbolae Antillanae* and Mr. Backhuizen in his ‘‘Revisio.”’
In the latter we note the presence of genus Montezuma, as ‘‘arbor
mexicana.” As shown by Standley and Urban’ as early as 1921,
the species probably was never found in Mexico and is identical with
the Porto Rican Thespesia grandiflora, the type of Urban’s new genus
Maga. Montezuma is recognized as belonging to the Malvaceae and
must be dropped from the Bombacaceae. On the other hand, Back-
huizen does not mention Spirotheca, separated from Ceiba prior to
1924 by Ulbrich,® who also described in October of that year another
Austro-American genus Septotheca.®
As known today, the American genera of the Bombacaceae may be
tentatively keyed as follows:
Fruit capsular, dehiscent, large, 5-celled or, in one case 1-celled on account
of the disappearance of the walls; calyx caducous; seeds numerous.
Seeds round and smooth, exalate; leaves digitate or, in one case, palmate
( Bombacineae)
Seeds large (1.5 cm. in diam. or more), imbedded in the fleshy dissepi-
ments of the endocarp; flowers large and long (up to 35 cm.);
stamens numerous; filaments repeatedly dichotomous; leaves
ee re re re ee UR ee 1. Pachira
§ Vol. 8, page 427.
7 Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Mus. Berlin 7: 543. 1921.
8 Ibid. 6: 160. 1914.
9Tbid. 9: 128. 1924.
214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 |
Seeds small (not over 1 cm. in diam.), surrounded by wool derived from
the endocarp.
Fertile stamens numerous, the upper part of the filaments free, simple
or bifurcated, without appendices or staminodes.
Flowers slender and long (up to 15 cm.); stamens 75-200; capsule
ovoid or pentagonous 18 cm. long or less. ...2. Bombacopsis
Flowers thick and short, the stamens very numerous (up to 1400);
capsule fusiform, 15 cm. long ormore............3. Bombax
Fertile stamens 5 or 10, more or less adnate; staminodes sometimes
present.
Stamens 5, the upper part of the filaments free.
Calyx 3-5-lobed; anthers simple, certain species with stami-
TLOGES 2 5s viesinie, a vite stlowe- 004 sae. ghey 6/2 loop ye oer 4. Ceiba
Calyx truncate; anthers double; no staminodes....5. Spzrotheca
Stamens with the filaments completely adnate.
Anthers 10, straight; gynophor with a cuff-like whorl of 5-bifid
staminodes; leaves digitate................. 6. Chorisia
Anthers 5, vermiform; no _ staminodes; leaves palmate-
lobedins® 2c. . oe ec 6 ok an ee eee 7. Ochroma
Seeds winged; calyx more or less regularly 2—5-lobed; leaves digitate
(Gyranthereae).
Capsule 1-celled, with 8-12 seeds in all; staminal tube closed nearly to
the apex; anthers vermiform; staminodes present... .8. Gyranthera
Capsule 5-celled, with 8-12 seeds in each cell; staminal tube split open
almost from the base; anthers short, oblong; no staminodes.
9. Bernoullia
Fruit drupaceous, samaroid or capsular, but small; seeds 1-5; calyx mostly
persistent; stamens mostly adnate, the anthers 1-celled; leaves simple,
trinerved (Matiszae).
Stamens united in 5 bundles; fruit samaroid.......... 10. Cavanillesia
Stamens united in a single tube.
Staminal tube very short, the upper part of the filaments free and
bearing a simple anther; fruit capsular.
Calyx truncate; filaments evenly thin.................. 11. Hampea
Calyx 5-partite; filaments thicker toward the apex... .12. Catostemma
Staminal tube long, more or less deeply 5-partite at the apex, this
covered with sessile anthers.
Staminal tube with 5 apical teeth; anthers 30-40; fruit subcapsular.
13. Quararibea
Staminal tube 5-branched at the apex.
Anthers 6-12, ovate-oblong, undivided; feng drupaceous.
14. Matisia
Anthers more numerous, vermiform, irregularly divided into
several cells. 0.25 6.2 a ee ee 5. Septotheca
APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 215
BOTAN Y.—WNew South American Verbesininae.’ 8S. F. Buaxz, Bureau
of Plant Industry.
Of the thirteen new species of South American Verbesininae de-
seribed in this paper, seven are based on specimens from the exten-
sive collections made in northern Peru by J. Francis Macbride and
William Featherstone on the Capt. Marshall Field expeditions sent
out by the Field Museum of Chicago. Three of the others are from
a small collection made by G. H. H. Tate, of the American Museum
of Natural History, in the mountains of northeastern Venezuela, and
one is from the Colombian collections of Dr. F. W. Pennell. The
two remaining species are based on old specimens in the Kew Her-
barium, collected by William Purdie and A. Mathews in Colombia
and Peru respectively, and lent the writer for study by the Director
of Kew Gardens, Dr. A. W. Hill.
Jaegeria axillaris Blake, sp. nov.
Small glabrous herb, repent at base; leaves lance-elliptic, connate-clasping,
serrulate; heads small, solitary, axillary,on peduncles shorter than the leaves;
rays 5, usually shorter than the narrowed tips of the phyllaries.
-Perennial (?), 15 em. long or less, light green, simple or sparsely branched,
repent below, the tips apparently ascending; internodes 3 to 30 mm. long;
leaves opposite, lance-elliptic, 1.2 to 1.8 cm. long, 3 to 7 mm. wide, narrowed
to the callous obtuse apex, cuneate-rounded and connate at base, remotely
serrulate with blunt callous teeth or subentire, 3-pli- or 5-plinerved and reti-
culate (the veins conspicuous in transmitted light); peduncles slender, erect,
3 to 10 mm. long; heads 3.5 to 4 mm. high, 2.5 to 4.5 mm. wide; phyllaries 5,
lance-ovate (in their natural position) , with subherbaceous 8 to 5-nerved body,
glabrous dorsally, hirsute on the sides, and thin scarious ciliate margins
infolded about the achenes, abruptly contracted above, and more or less 3-
lobate, the central lobe subherbaceous, triangular, acuminate to an obtuse
apex, erect to spreading, 1 to 1.5 mm. long; rays 5, light yellow, fertile,
essentially glabrous, the tube 0.4 mm. long, the lamina suborbicular, 1.2 mm.
long and wide, 3-dentate, 3 to 5-nerved; disk flowers 8, their corollas pale
yellow, sparsely pilose on tube, 4 or 5-toothed, 1.5 mm. long (tube 0.4 mm.,
throat campanulate, 0.8 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.8 mm.); pales broad, abruptly
short-pointed, erose above, about 7-nerved, 3.5 mm. long; ray achenes oblong,
2.2 mm. long, obcompressed, blackish, glabrous, bearing a callous half-collar
0.1 mm. high at apex; disk achenes compressed or subquadrangular, 2.2 mm.
long, blackish, glabrous, bearing a very short apical collar.
Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected in -
wet meadowsouthwest of LasCruces, Bogotd, Dept. Cundinamarca, Colombia,
alt. 2600-2700 meters, September 24-25, 1917, by F. W. Pennell (no. 2171).
Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,042,157.
When the internodes are short and the leaves crowded the plant is sugges-
tive of Aphanactis jamesoniana Wedd. in appearance.
1 Received March 9, 1926.
216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8
Aphanactis villosa Blake, sp. nov.
Cespitose perennial, densely flavescent-villous; leaves crowded, narrowly
elliptic, entire, 3-nerved; peduncles becoming 2 cm. long; phyllaries densely
villous at least above. !
Stems several, prostrate or ascending, 6 cm. long or less, branched, slender,
densely fiavescent-villous; internodes at first very short, becoming 4 to 12
mm. long; leaves opposite, sessile, contracted into sheathing, scarious,
glabrate or glabrescent, connate bases, obtusely callous-tipped, 3 to 5-
plinerved, thickish, the lower up to 13 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, the middle
and upper smaller, elliptic or elliptic-spatulate, 4 to 9 mm. long, 1.5 to 2.5
mm. wide, all densely flavescent-villous; heads subglobose, about 3.5 mm.
high and thick, solitary, axillary and terminal, in anthesis subsessile, the
peduncles in age becoming 2 cm. long, naked or bearing a leafy bract; phyl-
laries 6, about 2-seriate, appressed, the outermost one shorter, ovate, acutish,
2.8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, 5-nerved, subherbaceous except for the slightly
indurated base, densely villous and ciliate, the next 4 equal, broadly oval,
obtuse, 3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, with similar texture and pubescence, the
inmost one oblong, 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, pilose along middle, searious-
margined, not ciliate, erose at tip; receptacular pales aristiform-subulate,
about 2.5 mm. long, 0.2 mm. wide toward base, glabrous, 1-nerved; pistillate
corollas 5, greenish yellow, densely long-villous on tube, sparsely so on limb,
barely surpassing the involucre, 2.2 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., lamina erect,
cuneate, 3-toothed, 0.7 mm. long and about as wide); disk corollas 3 or 4,
greenish yellow, densely long-villous on tube, glabrous above, 4 or 5-toothed,
1.8 mm. long (tube 0.7 mm., throat shghtly broader, 0.7 mm., teeth deltoid,
0.4 mm.); ray achenes obovoid-oblong, 1.4 mm. long, plump, biconvex,
slightly obcompressed, obscurely about 5-angled, glabrous, fuscous, epappose;
disk achenes obovoid or elliptic-oblong, 1.2 to 1.5 mm. long, somewhat com-
pressed, about 4-angled, multistriatulate, glabrous, epappose.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534867, collected on
grassy subalpine slopes at Chasqui, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, April 10, 1923, by
J. F. Macbride (no. 3297). Duplicate in the U. 8. National Herbarium,
no. 1,191,489. |
Readily distinguished by its dense pubescence and at length elongate
peduncles. The genus, of which only one species has hitherto been described,
has not previously been known south of Ecuador.
Montanoa lehmannii (Hieron.) Blake.
Eriocoma (Montanoa) lehmannii Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 19: 54. 1894.
Related to Montanoa quadrangularis Schultz Bip. In M. lehmannia
the leaves are densely prominulous-reticulate beneath, and the fruiting
pales are provided at the retuse apex with a comparatively short and stout
cusp about 0.5 mm. long. In M. quadrangularis the leaves are not densely
_ prominulous-reticulate beneath, and the retuse fruiting pales have a slender,
longer cusp, usually 1 to 1.6mm. long. Specimens collected by M. T. Dawe
(no. 700) in the Kew Herbarium show that the “‘arboloco”’ recently described
by him? as an important source of timber and wood for billiard cues in
Colombia is M. lehmannii and not M. moritziana Schultz Bip., as which his
specimens were identified at Kew. The latter name, which has never been
published with a description, belongs in the synonymy of M. quadrangularis.
2See Recorp, Tropical Woods 2: 13. 1925.
APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 217
A photograph and fragments of a specimen in the Kew Herbarium of Lehmann
7480, type collection of EL. lehmannii, are now in the National Herbarium.
Viguiera leptodonta Blake, sp. nov.
Section Diplostichis; herb; stem loosely sordid-pilose; leaves opposite,
ovate, slender-petioled, hirsute-pilose; heads small, several or numerous in
terminal cymose panicles; involucre strigillose, 5 mm. high; achenes sparsely
hispidulous; pappus of 2 awns and usually 4 narrow squamellae.
Stem subterete (3 to 4.5 mm. thick), 65 cm. high and more, probably lax
or sprawling, branched, striate, white-pithy, loosely and rather densely
pilose with dull white, several-celled, spreading hairs, glabrescent below;
internodes 4 to 14.5 cm. long; leaves opposite essentially throughout; petioles
slender, naked, densely hirsute-pilose, glabrescent, 1 to 2.5 cm. long; blades
ovate, 6 to 11.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 6.5 cm. wide, acuminate, somewhat falcate, at
base broadly rounded to cuneate-rounded, crenate-serrate practically through-
out (teeth depressed, 3 to 4 per cm., the apiculate tips about 0.5 mm. long),
membranous, above dark green, evenly but not densely hirsute with some-
what antrorse-curved white hairs with small tuberculate bases, beneath slightly
lighter green, evenly but not densely hirsute-pilose on surface with spreading
scarcely tuberculate-based hairs, densely so along the veins, tripli- or quintu-
plinerved essentially from base and loosely prominulose-reticulate; panicles
terminating stem and branches, usually ternately divided, 3.5 to 7 cm. wide,
about 15-headed, the principal branches subtended by somewhat reduced
leaves, the other bracts filiform, 7 mm. long or less, the chief branches pu-
bescent like the stem, the pedicels densely appressed-pubescent, 4 to 15 mm.
long; heads 1.5 to 2 cm. wide; disk at first cylindric-oblong, becoming sub-
globose in fruit, in flower 8 to 10 mm. high, 5 to 7 mm. thick, in fruit about
1 em. thick; involucre 2-seriate, equal or slightly unequal, 4.5 to 5 mm. high,
the phyllaries 10, lanceolate or lance-ovate (1 to 1.5 mm. wide), sharply
acuminate, subherbaceous, blackish green, densely strigillose, the outer with
somewhat divergent tips; rays 8, yellow, neutral, pilose on tube and on nerves
of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 2-denticulate, 10 mm.
long, 3 mm. wide, 7-nerved; disk flowers about 21, their corollas yellow,
finely hispidulous throughout, short-hirsute on teeth, 6.5 mm. long (tube
1.3 mm., throat cylindric, 4.3 mm., teeth ovate, 0.9 mm.); pales acute, mu-
cronulate, blackish green with scarious margins, hispidulous along middle,
7 mm. long; ray achenes (inane) trigonous, hispidulous, epappose; disk
achenes obovate, strongly compressed, sparsely hispidulous especially above,
3 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide; awns 2, slender, subequal, denticulate below, 4
mm. long; squamellae lanceolate, acute, lacerate, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, a pair at
base of each awn and often | or 2 much smaller ones on one side between them.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,823, collected along dry
trail at Carapas, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, in 1925, by G. H.
H. Tate (no. 27). Additional specimen, with same data, collected under
Poo ALA...
The only species of Viguiera hitherto known from Venezuela is V. mu-
cronata Blake, to which and to V. anomala Blake, of Colombia, V. leptodonta
is most closely related. In V. mucronata the stem hairs are all or mostly
appressed, the achenes densely silky-pilose, the squamellae 4, broad and
rounded, covering the whole apex of achene, and the disk corollas much
shorter. In V. anomala the stem pubescence is denser and more sordid,
the heads are narrower and fewer-flowered, and the acheneis glabrous. The
name of the new species refers to the slender apiculations of the leaf-teeth.
218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8
Viguiera pusilla astephana Blake, var. nov.
Achenes glabrous, epappose; otherwise as in the typical form.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534812 (in part), collected
in loose soil on slopes, Yanano, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 1830 meters,
May 18-16, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3750 in part). Duplicate in the
U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,191,464 (in part).
The sheet in the Field Museum bears 3 specimens, one with the pappus
and pubescent achene of Vzgwiera pusilla (A. Gray) Blake, the others pre-
cisely similar except for the glabrous, epappose achenes. The National
Herbarium sheet bears one specimen of each form. ‘The plant is of particular
interest from the fact that no epappose form has hitherto been known in the
large section Paradosa, including nearly half the species of the genus.
Viguiera macbridei Blake, sp. nov.
Series Aureae; stems stout, very leafy, densely and canescently spreading-
pilose; leaves alternate, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, short-petioled,
revolute-margined, bullate above, densely and canescently pilose-tomentose
beneath; heads several or numerous, cymose-panicled, medium-sized; involucre
eraduate, 7 to 9 mm. high, hispid-pilose.
Herb, 1.3 to 1.6 m. high, several-stemmed; stems strict, subterete (4 to 8
mm. thick), striatulate, pithy, glabrate below, above densely pilose or hirsute-
pilose with spreading or loosely reflexed white hairs 2 to 4 mm. long, with
small tuberculate bases, and between them appressed- or ascending-pilose
with shorter hairs; internodes mostly 3 to 10 mm. long; leaves alternate
(except perhaps at extreme base); petioles stout, naked, 1 to 2 mm. long,
densely hispid-pilose like the stem; blades narrow-lanceolate or linear-lanceo-
late, 5 to 6.5 em. long, 5 to 13 mm. wide, acuminate, cuneate or rounded at
base, subentire, strongly revolute-margined, subcoriaceous, above dark
green, shining in age, harshly pilose-hispid with tuberculate-based antrorse
hairs, beneath densely and canescently pilose-tomentose (the costa glabrate
except for the persistent tuberculate hair-bases), triplinerved and with
numerous pairs of lateral veins, these impressed above, mostly concealed
beneath by the tomentum; heads about 2.8 cm. wide, 5 to 16 at apex of stem,
terminal and on 1 to 4-headed axillary branches 5 to 15 cm. long, bearing
reduced leaves, the pedicels or peduncles 4 cm. long or less; disk subglobose,
1 to 1.5 em. high, 1 to 1.8 em. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 7 to 9
mm. high, the phyllaries oblong-ovate to oblong (2 to 3 mm. wide), acute,
appressed or with short spreading tips (glabrous inside), blackish green and
subherbaceous with paler, more indurate base, I-ribbed, densely hispid-
pilose and ciliate with subappressed partly deciduous hairs with persistent
tuberculate bases; receptacle rounded; rays about 8, golden yellow, neutral,
pubescent on tube and nerves of back, the tube 1.38 mm. long, the lamina .
oval, 16 mm. long, 7.5 mm. wide, 3-denticulate, 12 or 13-nerved; disk flowers
very numerous, their corollas yellow, pubescent chiefly on tube, base of
throat, and back of teeth, 5.2 to 6.2 mm long (tube 1.2 to 1.8 mm., throat
cylindric, 2.8 to 3.2 mm., teeth ovate, papillose-margined, 1 to 1.2 mm.);
pales acute, carinate, blackish green and hispidulous above, 9 mm. long; ray
achenes (inane) trigonous, with a pappus of about 6 lacerate squamellae up
to 1.2 mm. long; disk achenes obovate-oblong, compressed, blackish, rather
sparsely subappressed-pilose, 4 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide; awns 2, slender,
hispidulous, very unequal, 1.8 to 3 mm. long; squamellae of each side of achene
connate into a lacerate scale 1 mm. long.
APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 219
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 535145, collected on steep
rocky western grasslands, Huacachi, near Mufia, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru,
alt. about 1980 meters, May 20—June 1, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no.
_ 4078). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,191,485.
A very distinct species of the Subseries Euaureae, related to Viguwiera
sodiroi (Hieron.) Blake and V. mollis Griseb., of Ecuador and Argentina
respectively, but distinguished from both by its Naas lanceolate leaves,
as well as by other characters.
Helianthus acuminatus Blake, sp. nov.
Shrub; young branches densely griseous-pilose; leaves opposite, ovate,
slender-petioled, acuminate, rounded at base, subentire, densely griseous-
tomentose beneath; heads rather large; involucre about 13 mm. high, of
oblong, acute or acuminate, cinerascent-puberulous and sparsely pilose
phyllaries; disk corollas yellow or yellowish throughout.
Apparently tall; stem stout (up to 6 mm. thick), subterete, striatulate,
glabrous or slabrate, with mostly opposite branches; young branches very
densely pilose, almost tomentose, with mostly spreading whitish or griseous
hairs with small tuberculate bases; internodes of main stem 6 to 10 cm. long,
of the young leafy branches 1 to 2 cm.; leaves opposite practically throughout
except in the inflorescence; petioles 0.8 to 1.8 em. long, slender, densely pilose-
subtomentose; blades ovate, 4 to 7 cm. long, 2.8 to 4.8 cm. wide, falcate-
acuminate, at ‘base broadly rounded, subtruncate, or subcordate, very shortly
or not at all decurrent on the petiole, obscurely serrulate (teeth 4 to 5 per cm.)
or subentire, firm, above green or blackish green, densely and rather softly
short-pilose with ‘antrorse, shining hairs with small glandular-tuberculate
bases, beneath densely and softly griseous-tomentose, triplinerved essentially
from base; heads about 3.8 cm. wide, axillary and terminal, 1 to 5 toward
tips of stem and branches, on stout upwardly somewhat thickened spreading-
pilose peduncles 1 to 14 em. long; disk subglobose, 1.3 to 1.5 em. high, 1.2
to 2 em. thick; involucre about 4-seriate, graduate, 1.2 to 1.4 cm. high, the
phyllaries oblong (2.8 to, in age, 5.5 mm. wide), acute or acuminate, blackish
green, obscurely herbaceous above, the inner with loose tips, all densely and °
cinerascently appressed-puberulous and pilosulous, somewhat pilose above,
glabrescent in age, about 3-nerved; rays 14 or more, yellow, neutral, pubescent
on tube and nerves of back, the tube 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong-elliptic,
2-dentate, 2 cm. long,6 mm. wide; disk corollas yellow throughout or greenish
on the teeth, pilosulous chiefly toward base of tube, along nerves above, and
on teeth, 7.5 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., throat cylindric, 5.2 mm., teeth deltoid,
0.8mm.) ; pales acute, usually mucronulate, pilosulous chiefly along the narrow
keel above, 11 mm. long; achenes oblong-obovate, compressed, blackish,
glabrous, 3.8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; awns 2, lanceolate, hispidulous-ciliolate,
caducous, 3 mm. long; rays achenes (inane) with 2 less caducous, lacerate
squamellae 1 mm. long.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518863, collected on open,
moist, rocky slope at Tomaiquichua, a pueblo three miles below Ambo,
Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2590 meters, September 19, 1922, by J. F.
Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 2429). Duplicate in U. 8. National
Herbarium, no. 1,198,894.
Allied to Helianthus grandiceps Blake, of Ecuador, which has alternate
leaves with cuneate or rounded-cuneate base, more definitely toothed, and
with the lateral nerves arising distinctly above the base, and longer involucre;
220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
also to H. jelskii Hieron., of Peru, in which the leaves are much thicker, and
densely ochroleucous-lanate-tomentose and lacunose-reticulate beneath.
Helianthus discolor Blake, sp. nov.
Shrub; branches appressed-pilose, glabrate or glabrescent; leaves opposite
below, alternate above, often with axillary fascicles, linear-lanceolate or linear,
3.8 cm. long or less, greenish and strigose above, beneath white-tomentose;
heads solitary at tips of stem and branches, medium-sized; involucre 9 mm.
high, of lanceolate or lance-oblong, cinereously appressed-pubescent phyl-
laries, only their extreme tips loose; disk corollas yellow, with fuscescent
teeth.
Stems in clumps from a caudex, 40 cm. long and more, slender (2.5 mm.
thick or less), alternate-branched, gray-barked, glabrate; branches thinly
appressed-pilose, somewhat glandular, and toward the nodes often tubercu-
late-hispid; petioles pilose, 1.5 mm. long or less; blades of the principal
leaves 2.3 to 3.8 cm. long, 4 to 6 mm. wide, usually acuminate to an obtuse
apex, cuneate at base, somewhat falcate, entire or subentire, revolute-margined,
subcoriaceous, above dull green, rather densely strigose to sparsely hispidulous
with glandular-tuberculate-based hairs, somewhat glabrescent, beneath
densely and loosely white-tomentose, triplinerved near base and feather-
veined, the veins impressed above, evident beneath through the tomentum
in age; leaves of the fascicles linear, about 1.5 em. long, 1.5 mm. wide, or |
smaller; peduncles terminating stem and branches, 3 to 7 cm. long, naked or
few-bracted, sordid-pilose and sparsely hispid below the heads; heads 3.5 cm.
wide or less; disk hemispheric, 9 to (fruit) 14 mm. high, 1 to (fruit) 2 cm.
thick (as pressed); involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 8 to 9 mm. high, the
phyllaries lanceolate or oblong (outer) to oblong-lanceolate (the inner 1.5
to 2.5 mm. wide), appressed or (especially the outer) with spreading tips,
the outer subherbaceous essentially throughout, densely appressed-pilose
and somewhat hirsute, the others indurate and blackish below and there nearly
glabrous except for the hirsute-ciliate margin, with shorter or longer obtuse to
acutish herbaceous tips, these densely appressed-pilose, more or less ciliate,
and somewhat glandular; rays about 9, yellow, neutral, pubescent on tube and
on nerves of back, glandular between them, the tube 1 mm. long, the lamina
oblong, 2-toothed, about 10-nerved, 15 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; disk corollas
puberulous on lower part of tube, on nerves above, and on teeth, 7.3 mm. long
(tube 1.2 mm., throat cylindric, 5mm., teeth ovate, 1.1 mm.); pales acuminate,
often mucronulate, blackish above along costa, hispidulous above along keel
and ciliolate, about 9 mm. long; achenes oblong-obovate, compressed,
glabrous, 3.38 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; awns 2, linear-subulate, hispidulous,
caducous, about 2 mm. long.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518724, collected on
eastern side of canyon at Llata, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2135
meters, August 21, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 2240).
Duplicate in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,892. .
Allied to Helianthus microphyllus H. B. K. and H. subniveus Blake (H.
_ niveus Hieron., not Brandeg.). In the former the involucre is only 5 mm.
high, with oblong, apically tomentose phyllaries; in the latter it is 1 em. long,
and densely niveo-tomentose.
Helianthus senex Blake, sp. nov.
Shrub; branches canescently long-villous, glabrescent; leaves mostly
APR. 19, 1926 | BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 221
opposite, broadly ovate, serrulate, petioled, cinereous-pilose above, densely
white-tomentose beneath; heads ‘medium-sized, solitary on axillary and
terminal peduncles; involucre 8 mm. high, graduate, the phyllaries oblong, ob-
- tuse, canescent-tomentose especially above; disk corollas yellow throughout.
Shrub 1 meter high, growing in clumps; stem stout (4 to 7 mm. thick),
with opposite or alternate branches, terete, in age glabrate and conspicuously
lenticellate; branches very densely long-villous with loosely spreading or
reflexed white hairs 2 to 3 mm. long and with slightly enlarged bases, glabres-
cent, striatulate; internodes mostly 0.5 to 2.5 cm. long; leaves chiefly opposite,
alternate above on the flowering branches; petioles stout, 5 to 15 mm. long,
unmargined, densely pilose-tomentose; blades ovate, the larger 5 to 6.5 cm.
long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, acute, broadly rounded at base and very shortly decur-
rent on the petiole, serrulate or crenate-serrulate above the entire base
(teeth about 4 per cm.), thick-herbaceous, above densely cinereous-pilose
with mostly spreading hairs with small glandular-tuberculate bases, beneath
very densely and softly white-tomentose, triplinerved from near the base,
the principal veins at first impressed, later prominulous above, beneath at
length evident beneath the tomentum; branch leaves often smaller, yellowish
above; peduncles axillary and terminal, 2 to 5 toward tips of branches,
normally 1-headed, spreading-pilose, glabrescent, naked or few-bracted, 2
to 8 em. long; heads 2 cm. wide; disk subglobose, 1 to 1.8 em. high, 8 to 15
mm. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 7 to 8 mm. high, the phyllaries
appressed or with very short spreading tips, oblong (1.8 to 2 mm. wide) or
the outer oblong-ovate, obtuse, with indurated, blackish, pale-margined,
glabrate (in the inner nearly glabrous) base and shorter, densely pilose-
tomentose, herbaceous apex; rays about 8, small, yellow, neutral, pilose on
tube and on nerves of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic-oblong,
5 to 10 mm. long, 2 to 4 mm. wide, 3 or 4-denticulate, 9-nerved, sometimes
bearing at base 2 appendages suggesting abortive stamens; disk corollas
sparsely hispidulous chiefly on nerves above and on teeth, 6.3 mm. long
(tube 1.3 mm., throat cylindric, 4.5 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.56 mm.); pales
acute or acutish, callous-apiculate, not keeled, pilose and ciliate above, 11 mm.
long or less; achenes oblong, compressed, blackish, glabrous, 3.5 mm. long,
13: mm. wide: awns 2, linear-lanceolate, hispidulous-serrulate, caducous,
3 mm. long.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518,077, collected on
canyon slope at Mito, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2745 meters, July
8-22, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1572). Duplicate
in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,884.
Nearest Helianthus imbaburensis Hieron., of Ecuador, which has alternate,
acuminate, entire leaves and shorter sub-2-seriate involucre of more densely
and uniformly pilose-tomentose phyllaries.
Helianthus viridior Blake, sp. nov.
Shrub, much branched, very leafy; branches appressed-pilose, glabrate;
leaves chiefly alternate, lanceolate, short-petioled, subentire, appressed-
subsericeous when young, soon glabrescent and green on both sides; heads
medium-sized, solitary; involucre 1 cm. high, of lanceolate or lance-ovate
acuminate phyllaries, densely pilose above; disk corollas with fuscous teeth.
Stem terete (5 mm. thick), gray-barked, lenticellate, glabrous, apparently
procumbent, 30 cm. long and more, sending out numerous mostly simple or
subsimple alternate ascending branches nearly or quite as long; young
222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 |
branches warty, not densely appressed-pilose, the older gray-barked, glabrate
or glabrescent; internodes on the older portions mostly 1 to 5 mm. long, on
the younger mostly 1 to 2.5 cm.; leaves opposite at base of branches, alter-
nate above; petioles slender, naked, appressed- or erectish-pilose, 3 to 8 mm.
long; blades lanceolate, 3 to 4.3 em. long, 5 to 13 mm. wide, acuminate to
acutish, callous-apiculate, cuneate at base, entire or obscurely serrulate
mostly above the middle, rather thin, triplinerved above the base, scarcely
reticulate, above at first canescently subsericeous-pilose with appressed hairs,
soon glabrescent, green, and evenly appressed- or antrorse-pilose (the hairs
with scarcely enlarged glandular bases), beneath at first densely and can-
escently appressed-silky-pilose, soon green and loosely antrorse-pilose, usually
narrowly revolute on margin; peduncles solitary, terminating stem and
branches, 1-headed, appressed-pilose, naked or few-bracteate, 3.5 to 5 cm.
long; heads about 3 cm. wide; disk subglobose, 1 to 1.3 em. high and thick;
involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 8 to 11 mm. high, the phyllaries lanceolate
or linear-lanceolate (outer) to lance-ovate, mostly acuminate, with short
callous blackish tips, rather densely and loosely pilose on their exposed
portions and ciliate, appressed or with rather loose tips, the outermost
subherbaceous and blackish green throughout, the others pale and multi-
vittate below, with mostly longer blackish green tips; rays about 9, neutral,
yellow, linear-elliptic, 9 to 12-nerved, 2 or 3-denticulate, pilose on tube and
sparsely so on principal nerves of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina
about 15 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide; disk corollas numerous, yellow with
fuscous teeth, sparsely pilosulous on tube and back of teeth, 6 mm. long
(tube 1 mm., throat cylindric, 4.3 mm., teeth triangular, acute, 0.7 mm.)
pales acuminate, blackish above, sparsely pilose chiefly above, somewhat
glandular on the sides, about 8 mm. long; infertile ovaries of the ray with a
pappus of 2 or 3 lacerate squamellae 0.5 mm. long; disk achenes oblong,
compressed, blackish, glabrous, 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; pappus of 2
caducous, lanceolate-acuminate, hispidulous-ciliolate awns 3 mm. long.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 517591, collected in crev-
ices of a vertical limestone cliff at Tarma, Dept. Junin, Peru, alt. about 3965
meters, June 1-6, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1070).
Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,869.
Readily distinguished from the other Andean species by its lanceolate,
glabrescent leaves.
Perymenium featherstonei Blake, sp. nov. |
Shrub; branches strigillose; leaves lance-ovate, slender-petioled, acuminate,
rounded at base, crenate-serrate, bullate and green above, densely griseous-
tomentose beneath; heads small, slender-peduncled, in small cymes; in-
volucre 5 mm. high, of broadly ovate, obtuse, strigillose phyllaries.
“Tree-shrub, 1.3 to 2.3 m. high, rather open but very erect,’”’ with opposite
branches; stem subterete (3 to 6 mm. thick above), striatulate, lenticellate,
glabrate, brownish or dark gray; internodes 1.5 to 6.5 cm. long; leaves
opposite; petioles slender, naked, sulcate above, strigillose, appressed-pilose
above, 5 to 12 mm. long; blades 5 to 8 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, crenate-
serrate from above the short entire base to apex (teeth rounded, subequal,
4 to 5 per cm.), narrowly revolute-margined, subcoriaceous, above dull green,
densely and harshly tuberculate-hispidulous with subappressed hairs, strongly
bullate, beneath densely and rather softly griseously or cinereously pilose-
tomentose except on the 3 chief nerves (these strigose), triplinerved 2 to 4mm.
APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 223
above base and reticulate, the veins and veinlets impressed above, the chief
ones prominent beneath, the others mostly concealed by the tomentum;
heads in cymes of 2 to 5 at tips of branches, subtended by reduced leaves, the
pedicels angulate, strigillose, usually 1.5 to 4.5 em. long; disk (in old fruit)
subglobose, 6 to 7mm. high, 7 to 9 mm. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate,
4 to 5.5 mm. high, appressed, the phyllaries broadly ovate or orbicular-ovate,
obtuse, obscurely and shortly subherbaceous at apex, otherwise pale and
indurated, strigillose and finely ciliolate; rays not seen; disk corollas (im-
perfect) about 3.2 mm. long; pales acutish to acuminate, narrow, strongly
l-ribbed, minutely hispidulous on keel, about 6 mm. long; ray achenes
trigonous, hispidulous on angles and at apex, their pappus of 20 unequal,
hispidulous, deciduous awns 1 to 1.8 mm. long; disk achenes obovoid-obleng,
2.5 to 3.2 1am. long, 1.5 mm. wide, biconvex, biauriculate at apex, narrowly
whitish-margined, finely hispidulous especially on margin and at apex, fuscous,
finely papillate, their pappus of 2 slender hispidulous awns 2.5 to 2.8 mm.
long, on the angles, and about 12 similar shorter awns 1 mm. long or less,
all deciduous.
Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 517839, collected in river
canyon at Cabello, a hacienda 14.5 km. above Huertas, Dept. Junin, Peru, alt.
2440 meters, June 25, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1329).
Duplicate in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,875.
Allied to Perymenium serratum Blake, of the Province of Chachapoyas,
which has a much larger involucre, 9 to 10 mm. high.
Pappobolus cinerascens Blake, sp. Nov.
Branches slender, cinerascent-pilosulous and sparsely pilose; leaves
lance-ovate, subentire, green and rough above, densely cinereous-pilose
beneath; heads 2 or 3, terminal, medium-sized; involucre cinerascent-puberu-
lous and somewhat pilose, graduate, of lance-ovate acuminate phyllaries with
reflexed herbaceous tips.
Herb (?); branches slender (2 mm. thick), simple, subterete, striatulate,
pithy, densely cinerascent-pilosulous with chiefly spreading or reflexed
hairs and sparsely spreading-pilose; internodes 4.5 to 7 cm. long; leaves
opposite throughout, or those subtending the peduncles alternate; petioles
naked, densely spreading-pilosulous and long-pilose, 4 to 13 mm. long;
blades lance-ovate or lanceolate, 6 to 8 cm. long, 1.7 to 2.5 em. wide, acu-
minate, falcate, at base cuneate or rounded, entire or obscurely and remotely
serrulate, very narrowly revolute-margined, above blackish green, densely
and harshly hirsutulous and hirsute with curved hairs with persistent tu-
berculate bases, maculate in age, beneath densely and softly subtomentose-
pilose with antrorse hairs, triplinerved 1 to 2 mm. above base, the chief veins
usually impressed above, prominulous beneath; heads 4 to 4.5 cm. wide, in
terminal cymes of 2 or 3, the peduncles slender, naked or with a single
bract, pubescent like the stem, 2 to 8.5 em. long; disk depressed-subglobose,
1.2 cm. high, 1.5 to 2.3 em. wide (as pressed) ; involucre 4 to 5-seriate, gradu-
ate, 7 to 9 mm. high, the phyllaries lance-ovate or lanceolate (1.5 to2.5 mm.
wide), with blackish green, ribbed and vittate base and longer to shorter,
reflexed, acuminate, somewhat involute, callous-tipped, herbaceous apex,
densely cinereous-puberulous (inside and outside) on their exposed surface,
tuberculate-hispidulous above, more or less pilose dorsally above, ciliolate;
rays 18 or more, yellow, neutral, pilosulous on tube and nerves of back, the
tube slender, 2 mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 2.4 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, 9-
224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8
nerved, 2-dentate; disk flowers very numerous, their corollas yellow, fuscescent
on teeth, puberulous on nerves of throat and on teeth, 6.7 mm. long (tube
1.5 mm., throat slender-funnelform, 4.2 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); ray
achenes (inane) with a caducous pappus of about 14 linear-lanceolate spinu-
lose-serrulate unequal paleaceous awns 1.2 to 1.8 mm. long; disk achenes
obovate-oblong, very strongly compressed, fuscous, glabrous, striatulate,
4 mm. long, 1.5mm. wide, their pappus of about 16 caducous awns like those
of the ray achenes, 1.8 to 2.8 mm. long, those on the angles the longest.
Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of Chachapoyas,
Peru, in 1836, by A. Mathews. Photograph and fragment of type in U. 8.
National Herbarium; duplicate in British Museum.
Allied to Pappobolus mollicomus Blake, also from Chachapoyas, with duph-
cate types of which (in Kew Herbarium and British Museum) it has been
possible to compareit. InP. mollicomus the pubescence of stemand peduncles
is much longer, being composed of long, spreading, tuberculate-based hairs,
and the phyllaries are broader (3 to 4.5 mm. wide) and densely canescent-
pilose, with longer spreading herbaceous tips. Pappobolus macranthus
Blake, the type of the genus, is distinguished from the two other species by
its usually broader, definitely serrate leaves, which are griseous- rather than
canescent- or cinereous-pubescent beneath. It wasdescribed from Mufia,
Peru (wrongly “Bolivia” in the original description), and has been collected
at Mito, Peru, 1922, by Macbride and Featherstone (no. 1384, a smaller-
headed form than the original) and at Chaglia, Peru, 1923, by Macbride
(no. 3646). All three localities are in the Department of Hudnuco.
Oyedaea maculata Blake, sp. nov. |
Shrub; branches densely scabrous-hispidulous; leaves oval or ovate-oval,
acute, rounded at base, serrulate, very rough on both sides, triplinerved,
short-petioled; heads medium-sized, 1 or 2 at tips of branches and in upper
axils, short-peduncled; involucre 9 mm. high, of oblong, acuminate, herba-
ceous-tipped, scarcely spreading phyllaries.
Stem stout (5 mm. thick), striate, brownish, densely incurved- or ap-
pressed-hispidulous with tuberculate-based persistent hairs; internodes
5 to 20 mm. long; leaves opposite; petioles broad, densely tuberculate-hispidu-
lous, 2 to 4 mm. long; blades 3.5 to 5 em. long, 1.7 to 2.7 em. wide, sparsely
serrulate above the middle (teeth 3 to 5 pairs, 3 to 6 mm. apart), narrowly
revolute-margined, firm and subcoriaceous, above brownish green, somewhat
shining, evenly hispidulous with curved hairs with tuberculate or glandular-
tuberculate persistent bases, beneath duller brownish green, evenly but not
densely short-hispid on surface with spreading or slightly incurved hairs
with small tuberculate bases, antrorse-hispid along the nerves, rather defi-
nitely triplinerved within 3 to 6 mm. of base (the lateral pair reaching slightly
above middle of leaf) and with 6 to 8 other pairs of principal lateral nerves of
which 1 or 2 are conspicuously stronger than the others, the nerves and veins
impressed above, prominent or prominulous beneath; peduncles 1-headed,
solitary, terminal and in the upper axils, pubescent like the stem, 6 to 12
mm. long; heads 3.8 cm. wide or less; disk hemispheric, 1 to 1.3 em. high, 1.2
to 1.5 em. thick (as pressed); involucre 8 to 10 mm. high, 3-seriate, slightly
or scarcely graduate, the phyllaries oblong (2 to 2.5 mm. wide), erect or with
slightly spreading tips, acuminate, callous-tipped, the outermost herbaceous
throughout, rather sparsely tuberculate and short-hispid, 1-nerved, the others
with pale, indurate, more or less hispidulous-ciliate, otherwise nearly glabrous
APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 225
base, and subequal, glandular-tuberculate, sparsely hispidulous and hispid
herbaceous tips; rays about 11, yellow, neutral, hispidulous on tube and back,
the tube 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong-elliptic, bidentate, up to 2 cm. long,
5 mm. wide, about 11-nerved; disk corollas yellow, essentially glabrous except
for the finely hispidulous teeth, 7 mm. long (tube 2 mm., throat cylindric-
funnelform, 4.2 mm., teeth ovate, 0.8 mm.); pales acuminate, keeled, hispidu-
lous on the slightly greenish apex, about 9 mm. long; disk achenes obovate-
oblong, compressed, biconvex, 4.5 mm. long, 2.2 mm. wide, fuscous, 2-winged
(wings thick, about 0.3 mm. wide, hispidulous on margin), very sparsely
strigillose; awns 2, very unequal, hispidulous, 1.8 to 4 mm. long; squamellae
acute, unequal, lacerate, united below, 0.8 mm. long or less.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,911, collected on the sub-
paramo, Cerro de Turumiquire, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 2975 meters, in
1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 232). Additional specimen, with the same
data, collected under no. 233.
Related to Oyedaea wedelioides (Klatt) Blake, of Peru, and O. jahnii
Blake, of the Province of Mérida, Venezuela. In the former the leaves are
decidedly larger and borne on petioles 4 to 15 mm. long, the heads are several
or numerous and cymose-panicled, and the phyllaries have spreading tips. In
the latter the leaves are ovate or lance-ovate and much larger, and the heads
are larger, solitary, and longer-peduncled.
Verbesina tatei Blake, sp. nov.
Section Saubinetia; stem stout, pithy, leafy, densely lanate-tomentose;
leaves alternate, large, elliptic-oval, acute or acuminate at each end, repand-
serrulate, stout-petioled, rough above, densely sordid-pilose beneath; heads
medium-sized, yellow, radiate, many-flowered, numerous in a rounded
terminal panicle; involucre about 8 mm. high, of oblong, obtuse, sordid-
pilosulous phyllaries; rays about 5 mm. long.
Shrub or large herb; stem subterete, 8 mm. thick above, glabrate and
yellowish brown below, densely lanate-tomentose above with dirty-white
hairs; internodes about 1 cm. long; petioles 2 to 3 mm. thick, narrowly
grooved beneath, densely lanate-tomentose, margined above the decurrent
leaf base, the naked portion 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long; blades 12 to 20.5 cm. long,
4.5 to 8.5 em. wide, thick-pergamentaceous, repand-serrulate above the
entire cuneate base (teeth small, obtuse, 2to 5mm. apart), above dark green,
evenly hirsutulous on surface with antrorse-curved hairs with small glandular-
tuberculate persistent bases, hirsute-pilose along costa and chief veins,
beneath brownish green, densely and rather softly ochroleucous-pilose on
surface with curved hairs, very densely so on chief veins, featherveined, the
chief lateral veins about 11 pairs, like the stout costa prominent beneath,
the veinlets prominulous beneath, mostly impressed above; heads 1.8 cm.
wide, about 32, on axillary and terminal peduncles, in a rounded panicle 11 cm.
wide, about equaled by the leaves, the bracts small, the pedicels stout, 1.5
to 3 ecm. long, densely sordid-pilose; disk subglobose, 1 em. high, 1.3 em.
thick; involucre 3 to 4seriate, graduate, 7 to 8 mm. high, appressed, the
phyllaries oblong or the outermost ovate-oblong (1.5 to 3 mm. wide), obtuse,
dark green, subherbaceous with (especially the inner) narrow pale margins,
1-nerved, sordid-pilosulous especially along costa and margin; rays 9 to 12,
slightly exceeding disk, yellow, pistillate and bearing imperfect anthers,
pilose on tube and nerves of back, 8.5 mm. long (including tube), 3 to 4mm.
wide; disk flowers about 75, their corollas yellow, pilose on tube and teeth
226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
with several-celled acuminate hairs, glabrous on throat, 6 mm. long (tube
1.3 mm., throat subcylindric, 3.7 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); pales pilose on
the narrow keel and margin and on the yellowish, somewhat spreading or re-
curved, subscarious obtuse apex, about 7.5 mm. long; immature disk achenes
obovate, compressed, scarcely winged, ciliate, sparsely pubescent above, 2.8
mm. long; awns, 2, subequal, stout, trigonous, hispidulous on keel, 4.5 mm.
long. . |
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,946, collected on an ex-
posed ridge, Cerro de Turumiquire, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 1830 meters,
in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 350).
In pubescence, foliage, and inflorescence this species is strikingly like
Verbesina crassiramea Blake of Colombia, amember of the Section Lipactinia
with discoid, 5 to 14-flowered heads. Its closest ally, however, is the long-
doubtful V. humboldtiz Spreng. (V. helianthoides H. B. K., not Michx.)
of Colombia. In the latter the stem is ascending-pilose to spreading-pilosu-
lous, the internodes are longer, the petioles margined nearly to base, the
leaves less densely and softly pubescent beneath, the heads much larger, the
rays longer and apparently white, the phyllaries of the somewhat longer
involucre distinctly broader, and the pales essentially glabrous (except for the
more or less ciliate margin) on the thin acute or acuminate tip.
Verbesina humboldtiz Spreng. was left among the doubtful species by
Robinson and Greenman in their revision of the genus. It was described
(as V. helianthoides H. B. K.) from ‘‘Regno Quitensi?,’”’ and is represented
in the Paris Herbarium by at least two sheets of the original material.
Hieronymus at first’ referred to it Lehmann 7481 from Colombia, but later+
described this as a new species, V. lehmannii, distinguishing it from V.
humboldtit by several supposed differential characters derived from the
original description of the latter. During the summer of 1925 I examined
the type material of V. helianthoides H. B. K. at Paris and a specimen of
Lehmann 7481 at Kew, and, through the courtesy of the curators of these
herbaria, obtained photographs and small fragments of both specimens. Study
of these shows that Hieronymus’ species can not be maintained as distinct
from V. humboldtu. Triana 1381, from Bogota, alt. 2,300 meters, which I
have on loan from the British Museum and the Kew Herbarium, belongs to
the same species. The position of V. humboldtiz 1s somewhat difficult to
settle satisfactorily. So far as the size of the rays indicates, it might be
placed as a small-flowered Verbesinaria (as was done by Hieronymus) or a
large-flowered Saubinetia (in the Paris specimens I recorded the rays as only
7 mm. long), but their white color would refer it rather to Ochractinia in
Robinson and Greenman’s treatment. One or two species of Saubinetia
(particularly V. semidecurrens Kuntze, of which V. soratae Schultz Bip. is a
synonym) are now known to have white rays, however, and the best position
for V. humboldtiz is probably in this group among the species numbered 68
to 79 in Robinson and Greenman’s treatment, from all of which it is distinct.
In three heads of Verbesina tatez examined the rays were all intermediate
in form and structure between normal rays and disk corollas, being hermaph-
rodite and imperfectly ligulate. The short proper tube, at the apex of
which are inserted the very unequal, nearly free, and non-polliniferous sta-
mens, is continued into a funnelform throat shorter than the proper lamina.
The latter is equally or unequally 3-toothed, and sometimes bears a large
3 Bot. Jahrb. ENGLER 19: 54. 1894.
4 Bot. Jahrb. ENGLER 28: 612. 1901.
, APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 227
lateral lobe and a much smaller one, or the other two segments of the corolla
are represented by two small and unsymetrically placed teeth on one side
_ of the apex of the throat. The style branches bear elongate hispidulous
sterile appendages. Although the condition is doubtless abnormal, and not
characteristic of the species, it is of interest as showing how easy is the
transition from the tubular 5-toothed disk corolla, the theoretical type of the
asteraceous corolla, to the 3-toothed pistillate ligule.
Verbesina oligactis Blake, sp. nov.
Section Ochractinia; tall; stem wingless, densely spreading-pilose with
yellowish hairs; leaves alternate, large, oblong-elliptic, acuminate at each
end, obscurely denticulate, tuberculate-pilosulous above, densely short-
pilose beneath especially along the veins, short-petioled; heads small, very
numerous, white, in a large terminal panicle, sessile or short-pedicelled; rays
1 or 2, disk flowers 11 to 13.
Tall herb (?); stem stout (6 mm. thick above), striate-angulate, pithy,
densely spreading-pilose with yellowish-white hairs about 1 mm. long;
internodes about 1 cm. long; petioles stout, densely pubescent like the stem,
the unmargined portion 3 to 5 mm. long; blades 20 to 25 cm. long, 4 to 7 cm.
wide, long-cuneate at base, remotely denticulate with small blunt callous
teeth (0.3 mm. high, 3 to 8 mm. apart), papery, above dull green, evenly
antrorse-pilosulous with yellowish-white hairs with glandular-tuberculate
persistent bases, densely short-pilose along costa, beneath densely griseous-
or flavescent-pilose along the chief veins with spreading several-celled hairs,
less densely so on all the veins and veinlets, featherveined, the chief lateral
veins 10to012 pairs, rather prominent beneath, the chief veinlets prominulous;
panicle terminal, flattish, very many-headed, 20 cm. wide, pubescent like
the stem, the bracts small (mostly 3.5 cm. long or less), definitely serrulate
* with dark callous teeth, the pedicels usually 2mm. long or less, sometimes up
- to 6 mm.; heads 6 to 8mm. wide; disk obovoid, 4.5 to 6 mm. high, 3 to 4.5
mm. thick; involucre 2-seriate, unequal,3 mm. high, the phyllaries few, lance-
oblong or oblong (about 1 mm. wide), obtuse, appressed, thickened and sub-
herbaceous at base, with longer, thinner, submembranous, pale tip, loosely
and rather sparsely pilosulous and ciliolate; rays 1 or 2, white, pistillate, the
tube pilose, 1.5 mm. long, the lamina oblong, 4.8 mm. long, 2mm. wide, nearly
glabrous, 3-denticulate, 7-nerved; disk flowers 11 to 13, their corollas white,
blackish green below the teeth, pilose on tube and throat, glabrous on teeth,
4 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat cylindric-funnelform, 2.5 mm., teeth ovate,
papillose-margined, 0.5 mm.); pales submembranous, blackish green with
subscarious margins, pilosulous, ciliate above, subtruncate or with short
blunt erect or slightly spreading glabrous apiculation, about 5 mm. long; disk
achenes (immature) ciliate, pilose especially above, narrowly winged, 2.8 mm.
long; awns 2, unequal, hispidulous, 2.2 to 2.7 mm. long.
Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected at San Miguel, Sierra Nevada of
Santa Marta, Colombia, November 1844, by William Purdie. Photograph
and fragments i moles: National Herbarium.
A member of the Verbesina punctata group, nearest V. synethes Blake, also
a Colombian species, which has thicker heads, containing 8 rays and about 29
disk flowers, borne on pedicels 7 to 14 mm. long. Similar also to V. callac-
atensis Hieron., of the Section Lipactinia, in which the heads sometimes bear
asmany as 3 very smallrays. In that species the petioles are always auricu-
late at base, the heads are considerably larger, and the involucre is densely
pubescent.
228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—Preliminary note on proposed changes in
the constants of the Austin-Cohen transmission formula.’ L. W.
Austin. Laboratory for special Radio Transmission Research.
(Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the Ameri-
can Section of the International Union of Scientific Radio
Telegraphy.)
It has been known for a number of years that the Austin-Cohen
transmission formula, while satisfactory for moderate distances and
wave lengths, gives values at 6000 km which are only about one-half
of those observed, and that at 12000 km the ratio appears to be about
one to four.
Our original formula? for daylight signals over salt water of 1910-
1914, was written
hI Grim:
HS W220 “aaa cae é (volts km. amp.)
where u = se The constants in wu were determined empiri-
cally from shunted telephone observations for distances up to 2000
km and frequencies between 1000 ke (A = 300 m) and 80 ke (A =
3750 m).
Naturally I have been desirous of bringing the formula into better —
agreement with the observations. Acting on the advice of some of
my European colleagues in the URSI, I have given up the idea of
altering the Hertzian portion of the formula since this is the portion
that rests on a theoretical basis, and have given attention only to
possible changes in the values of the constants of the exponential term.
These can easily be arranged so as to give excellent agreement for
limited ranges of wave length and distance, but in order to give the
formula a general character, it should be at least approximately
accurate for all frequencies between f = 1000 kc (A = 300 m) and
127e Ow = "25000 mm): 7
During recent years a very considerable amount of experimental
data on signal field strength has been collected. Long series of trans-
atlantic observations have been taken by the American Telephone &
Telegraph Company, The Radio Corporation of America, The Marconi
1 Published by Permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U.S.
Department of Commerce.
2 Bureau of Standards Bulletin VII; 315. 1911. Reprint 159; and XI; 69. 1914.
Reprint 226.
APR. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: AUSTIN-COHEN TRANSMISSION FORMULA 229
Company, the French Army at Meudon, near Paris, and the Bureau
of Standards. The Marconi Company has also collected a vast
amount of experimental reception data from various transmitting
stations during the voyages of the 8. S. Dorset from England to New
Zealand (February and March, 1922) by way of the Panama Canal,
and of the 8. 8. Boonah from Australia to England (June, July,
August, 1923) through the Suez Canal. In addition, the Indian Post
Office made field intensity measurements at Karachi, India, on
several of the European high-power stations from November, 1921,
to January, 1923. |
All this material now makesit possible to determine the variations
of field intensity with varying wave length and distance with some
degree of certainty. The relative value of the different series of
observations of course differs widely. ‘Those in which the same sta-
tions are observed regularly over one or more years are naturally the
most valuable. ‘Those which have been taken during the voyages of
ships, while important, may show large variations during different
parts of the voyage, since in general only one observation is taken at
any given distance from the transmitting station, and the results
can at best represent the conditions during only limited portions of
the year. 7
The use of much of the experimental material for deriving a for-
mula which must by definition hold for an all water path is compli-
cated by the fact that in most cases of long distance transmission the
waves pass for a considerable distance over land. For example, the
shortest great circle distance between Nauen, Germany, and Wash-
ington is roughly twenty-five per cent land, Rocky Point to London
twenty per cent, Buenos Aires to Washington more than fifty per
cent, while from Karachi, India, to the European transmitting sta-
tions nearly the whole path is over land.
The question of the relative land and water attenuation in radio
transmission is not at all settled. It is generally agreed that for wave
lengths below 5000 m, land attentuation is much greater than that
over water, and it seems probable that there is considerable, though
decreasing, land effect from 5000 m up to at least 15000 m. The
amount of this effect naturally depends upon the character of the
land traversed, and especially on conditions in the neighborhood of
the transmitting and receiving stations. Observations at Washing-
ton covering more than two years indicate that signals from Bolinas,
California, near San Francisco f = 22.9 ke (A = 13100 m) have prac-
tically the same attenuation as over water, if the reported effective
230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8
height of the station is correct. On the other hand, a much more
limited number of observations in Washington on San Diego, and in
San Diego on the east coast stations indicate nearly twice the water
attenuation. This may_be due to local conditions near San Diego
as this has always been thought by operators to be less favorable for
radio work than San Francisco. |
Notwithstanding these uncertainties, it has seemed worth while
to make use of the accumulated data for obtaining at least tentative
constants for a new formula. Up to the present a value of u =
0.0014d
r0-6
varied as more and better observational data are obtained. Table 1
seems to give fairly satisfactory results. This may be slightly
TABLE 1.—Ratio or NEw Aanp OLD VALUES OF e-%
d km
\ km =
500 1000 2000 4000 6000 12000
0.3 0.93 0.86 0.72
0.5 1.00 1.00 1.00
{<0 1.05 Lola i. 22
2.0 1.07 1.14 1731
3.0 £06 1.15 1.33 ViTG
5.0 1.32 172 2.25
10.0 : vst 1.62 2.09 4.40
16.0 1.55 1.94 3.75
24.0 1.80 3-2)
gives the ratio of the new to the old values of e~* at various wave
lengths and distances, and Table 2 shows a collection of observed
intensity values from various sources which are in good, or fairly
good, agreement with those calculated according to the revised for-
mula. The observations at Cliffwood and New Southgate? were
taken by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and those
at Karachi by the Indian Post Office.‘
The series at San Diego*® was taken by the Bureau of Standards,
while the Marion and Nauen observations on the S. 8. Dorset and
Boonah* by the Marconi Company represent the averages taken
from the observation curves of the two ships, one in March, 1922 and
the other in July, 1923. Bordeaux changed its wave length from 23400
m to 19000 m, at about the time the Boonah sailed from Australia,
3 Bell System Technical Journal 4: 459. 1925.
4London Elec. 91: 164. 1923.
‘This JOURNAL 15: 139, 1925.
6 Jour. I. E. E. (London) 638: 933. 1925.
APR. 19, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 231
and this change resulted in such an increase in the efficiency of the
station that the observations on the two ships could not be fairly
compared.
TABLE 2.—Some CaLcULATED AND OBSERVED FIELD INTENSITIES
E aie
SENDING STATION RECEIVING STATION 2 2
Saree spies
Deen ee. (ro
Nauen Cliffwood, N. J. 23.8] 12.6 | 6350/44 |42 1922-1923
Marion New Southgate, /25.8) 11.6 | 5280/40 [53 1923-1924
Eng.
Rome Karachi, India 28.0] 10.7 | 5230/24 |20 Nov, 1921, “to
Bordeaux Karachi, India 12.8} 23.4 | 5900/60 {68 Jan., 1923
Ste. Assise Bureau of Stds. 20.6) 14.5 | 6150/53 |48 1923
Bordeaux Bureau of Stds. 12.8] 23.4 | 6160/67 {71 1922
Buenos Aires Bureau of Stds. 23.6) 12.7 | 8300/30 (37 1924
Cavite, P. I. San Diego, Cal. 19.3} 15.5 | 11800} 2.7) 2.0) Aug. 28-Sept. 22,
1924
Marion S. S. Dorset and 95 8) 11 a 8000}11 {12 March, 1922, and
| Boonah “|| 12000} 2.7] 3 July, 1923
Nauen S. 8. Dorset and 93 8| 12 al 8000/21 |22 pee 1922, and
Boonah “ |} 12000] 5.4) 5.5]{ July, 1923
Bordeaux S. S. Dorset ore - 8000/37 |33 || March, 1922
“|| 12000]/13 [10
In a later paper the rest of the available data, both favorable and
unfavorable to the formula, will be discussed.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
On behalf of the American Geographical Society, presentations were made
of the Cullum Geographical Medal to Dr. Harvny C. Hayus, the Charles P.
Daly Medal to Brig. Gen. Davip L. Brarnarp at a joint, meeting of the
AcADEMY, Philosophical Society, and the Biological Society, on April 15.
Professor ERNEST CoueEn, Director of the Vant’ Hoff Laboratory, Univer-
sity of Utrecht, will address a joint meeting of the AcapEMy and several of
its affiliated societies in the near future.
The following scientists will be in Washington; Dr. Rurus L. GREEN,
Professor of mathematics at Leland Stanford University, from April 24 to 30;
Dr. Witt1am McPuHeErson, professor of chemistry and dean of the graduate
school of Ohio State University, from April 22 to 25; and Dr. E. L. NicHous:
of Ithaca, N. Y., from April 21 to May 16. All may be addressed at the
Cosmos Club.
fi i
ar
Abe i > ae
oH aR
ro ay
a
—
ae
> om,
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*
Tuesday, April 20. The Anthropological Society.
Saturday, April 24. The Biological Society.
Wednesday, April 28. The Geological Society.
Saturday, May 1. The Philosophical Society. Program:
W. J. Peters: The twenty-seven day interval in earth currents.
K. O. Huntsvrt: The spectrum of hydrogen in the stars and in the laboratory.
Tuesday, May 4. The Botanical Society.
* The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.
CONTENTS
- OnraiNaL PaPERs |
BOPP enag.
Botany. New Pipereaeue from South Vraericd and Mexico.
oe * - Botany.—On Gyranthera and Bombacopsis with a key to the
| ee iy ee Bombaencese. Hi: Prrramiy oodles get ok see
athe 3 Botany.—New South American Verbesininae. S. F. ‘Buaxg, :
Radiotelegraphy .—Preliminary note on proposed changes in
Austin-Cohen transmission formula. as We AUSTIN. - fee
President: Gaoaes K. Bees Bureau of Standards © x
Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiusBzx, Bureau of
Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Su
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. __
Vol. 16 May 4, 1926 No. 9
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuny
Aanres CHASE
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwer
PHILOSGPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GotpMAN G. W. Stosz
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R, F. Griaes J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOG!IGAL SOCIETY
E. WicHuERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ; A ~~
| EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBE Lo qusontnn waST) TP
. BY THE >
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ¥ “JUN - 21926 *
Mr. Rorat anp GuiLForp AVES. Var, eo
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND ONat MUS a
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to ~
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. Tothisendit publishes: ©
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) __
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; —
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journat is issued
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. | |
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors : they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate a
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page. 0
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author.
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 225 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 5.75 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 fees |) 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. .
The rate of Subscription per volume 18....6..0i. occ ctcadsnveccscesdcuu apes . $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers............. (ERb aes dicles tees sewers aaa .25
Monthly nimibers... 3.025 -50003 an Se os Sis Sane e 1 bee a te he ee fs ae
Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’”’ and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JourNnat does not exchange with other publications. __
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 16 May 4, 1926 No. 9
SEISMOLOGY .—A symposium on earthquakes.!
1. SeEismoLogy—A Retrospect. F. A. Tonporr, Seismological
Observatory, Georgetown University.
Astronomers and geophysicists are generally agreed that the planet-
ary mote on which mankind breathes and moves bespeaks an evolution
of a nebulous mass, but the physics of this transmutation is a matter
of very persistent dispute with them. Again they evaluate the time
of this transformation into the hundreds of millions of years, but their
bases of calculation are as diversified as the astounding figures arrived
at. These are some of the uncertainties of geology, a science very
pertinently christened by someone as the Benjamin. Undoubted,
however, it does appear that from the very first incrustations of our
globe, fretful apparently at its very existence, the earth gave way to
expressions of this anxiety in repeated quiverings. The story, then, of
earthquake phenomena is undeniably very ancient. Once people
began to tenant our sphere and reckoned time set itself to filing away
for posterity items in the archives of the past, its computers were
made aware that the flooring beneath their feet was running away from |
them. Rightly might we expect records to advise us when all of this
first happened. Instinctively we turn to the inspired writings, but
only to meet with much disappointment. True it is that there we find
earthquakes referred to. ‘This under two general connections. First:
they may be predicted in prophetical or apocalyptic literature, in
which case it is not always certain whether the literal ‘‘earth quake”
or simply some commotion (moral, social, or physical) is represented
by the figure “earthquake.”’ Secondly: a few times earthquakes are
mentioned as historical facts. Referred to without historical record,
1 Papers presented at the 933d meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington,
March 6, 1926.
233
234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
or even certainly literal use of the word, we find the word ‘‘earth-
quake,” in Hebrew ra’ash, in Isaiah, chapter 29, verse 6, and in Eze-
kiel, chapter 3, verses 12-13, chapter 37, verse 7, and chapter 38,
verse 19. In the New Testament, where the word appears as “seis-
mos,” we find this in Matthew, chapter 24, verse 7, Mark, chapter 13,
Sete 8, and Luke, chapter 21, verse 11.
In the Apocalypse, or hpaaies known Revelation of St. John the
Divine, there are five mentions of the word, each prophetic and none
certainly literal. As an historical record: In the Book of Kings we
read: “earthquake with fire,’ lightning is probably here referred to.
Again in Amos, where the year is not determinable with any accuracy.
It is unfortunate that the times in the Old Testament are so equivocal.
As regards the earthquake at Horeb, witnessed by Elias and chronicled
in the third book of Kings, the 19th chapter, the 12th verse, the pas-
sage reads: “And after the earthquake a fire (usual word for lightning).”
This took place in the reign of Achab, and, at least, three years after its
inception. It is to be noted that the chronologies of the Kings differ
by margins of fifty years or even more at the hands of various com-
puters, but the more reliable date for the reign of Achab most probably
reached from 873 to 854 B.C. ‘This, therefore, is one of the oldest,
if not the oldest scriptural record available in this connection. Others
are chronicled to have taken place between the years 789 to 738 and
781 and 743. : |
It may not be uninteresting for me to mention in this connection
that the earthquake accompanying the crucifixion and resurrection
would have occurred in the spring (probably) of 28, 29, or 30 A.D.
Again the earth shocks felt by the prisoners at Philippi may be as-
signed, with strong probability, to the year 51 A.D., though from late
50-52 A.D. would be the extreme margins. Before quitting this
subject I feel obligated to mention the incident recorded in Numbers,
chapter 16, verses 29-34. The engulfing of the rebels, as narrated
here, by the fissure of the earth is not explicitly connected with any
of the current expressions for “earthquakes;”’ but, on the other hand, |
it need not have been of a supernatural character, and if not, it would
be most likely referable to a local earthquake or accompanied thereby.
In which case this quake would antedate the above. It is to be noted
however that the date here would have to be read with a margin of at
least a century and one half.
Little wonder, once a people were witness to one of these nerve-rack-
ing experiences, that they would make it the topic of their table talk.
What they wanted to know was, what it all meant and particularly
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 235
curious were they to ascertain when it was likely to reoccur. So the
wiser of the communities set themselves up as shock detectors, soon
to realize that in the category of sensitive mechanisms, the human
body is wholly unreliable. Man, as often as he recognized his short-
coming in the physical world, invoked the machine. Accordingly we
read in the Chinese Annals: “‘In the first year of Yoka, 136 A.D., a
Chinese, Choko by name, a smith by trade, hammered out of a lump
Fig. 1.—First seismoscope, by Choko, 136, A.D.
of copper an instrument to which he or some one of his admirers gave
the name of seismoscope (Fig. 1). The tale goes on to say: ‘‘Once
upon a time a dragon dropped its ball without any earthquake having
been observed, and the people, therefore, thought the instrument of
no use, but after two or three days a notice came saying that a shock
had taken place at Rosei. Hearing of this, those who doubted the
use of the instrument began to believe init again. After this ingenious
236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
instrument had been invented, the Chinese government wisely ap-
pointed a secretary to make observations on earthquakes.” Passing
strange it is that in the history of scientific development there seems
to have been a stagnation persisting from the very earliest findings
till deep into the middle ages. ‘Two striking instances are electricity
and magnetism. Add to these investigations in earth shocks. For
from the time of our Chinese friend till 1703 not one advance had been
made instrumentally. Then it was that a French priest, De Haute
Feuille, featured the first improvement (Fig. 2). Not only did he
claim for his device a greater sensitivity than that of Choko, because
Fig. 2.—De Haute Feuille’s modification of Choko’s seismoscope, 1703.
of the substitution of mercury for the metal spheres but also the
additional asset of rating the intensity of the quake in terms of the
displaced fluid.
It might be instructive to indicate all of the contraptions for record-
ing tremors carrying us from what I might style the period of qualita-
tive study of earthquakes into the quantitative, but time prevents.
Close to the end of the last century a band of English geologists,
amongst whom I may mention such names as Milne, Ewing, Perry,
Knott, and Gray, made their way to Japan and there, in collaboration
with the Japanese geophysicists, put together the first of the scientific
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 237
seismographs. Ewing is accredited with the first horizontal seismo-
_ graph in 1879. The stationary mass of this machine was 25 kg. and
the length of the suspension 6.8 meters. Just one year later Gray
announced his vertical instrument. Short functionings of these in-
struments early made it apparent that the earth’s autographs were
vitiated by a tendency of the swinging mass to take up its own natural
period of oscillation, a condition which becomes very exaggerated
where the period of the earthquake vibrations approximate that of the
pendular mass. Wegener, an associate of Gray, first took notice of
this. Gray very promptly attacked the problem of eliminating these
vitiating elements and this through friction. Rood, an American
geologist, first applied liquid damping. Toepler followed with air
damping, a method quite popular even today. Galitzin’s latest inter-
ference is magnetic. Possibly this is the most efficient. Brassart,
in 1886, gave to science the first double component machine. This
was of the heavy pendulum type. A very marked departure in earth-
quake instrument construction dates back to 1892 when Milne showed
that a heavy mass is not an essential feature of an efficient seismom-
eter. In 1894, on the suggestion of the same Milne, the photographic
sheet became a close competitor of the sooted parchment. Galitzin’s
magnetic registration and Wood-Anderson’s torsion pedulum close the
story of the earthquake instruments to date.
Investigations into the transmission of earth movements through
the earth’s capsule were first launched by Young. His was the mind
that suggested that the propagation was akin to that of sound waves
in air. Gay-Lussae concurred. In 1846 Mallet first put the trans-
verse waves into competition, though he by no means made it clear
that two types of undulations were distinct, to wit the longitudinal
and transversal, or compressional and distortional. This was re-
served for Wertheim. Miuilne, following his instrumental findings,
placed a definite imprimatur on these interpretations. Wiechert, in
1899, first read out of grams the reflected longitudinal wave and
Zoeppritz first the transversal waves once reflected. Wiechert seems
to have first diagnosed the long or Raleigh waves which many years -
antecedently Ewing had mistaken for the transversal. Seismologists
have not as yet bequeathed us all the wealth of the gram.
Following the complete identification of these elastic undulations,
the seismologist, knowing what he was after, had to establish their
running record. To Wiechert and Zoeppritz credit is due for the first
reliable time curves, reading up to 12,000 kilometers, though earlier
attempts at these had been made by Schmidt, Milne, Benndorf, and
238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
Oldham. In 1912 Wegener edited charts for distances in excess of
11,000 kilometers. Others followed in quick succession. These by
Gutenberg, Meisner, Mohorovicic and Angenheister. There is still a
readiness on the part of geophysicists to accept even more reliable
tables. One might suspect that attempts at fixing the exact centers
of quakes were very early. Far from it. Mallet appears to have
been the first to establish the geography of these happenings from iso-
seismal lines. Where reliable observers are available, this method still
qualifies. No further back than 1911 did Milne work out his first
group of epicenters covering quakes between the years 1899-1903,
on the basis of triangulation. A second group appeared in 1912 span-
ning the years 1904-1909. The work then fell to the lot of Turner
who published centers for 1911 and 1912. Strassburg pledged itself
to the work in 1918 but due to the world war the results are now some
four years in arrears.
Every people seem to have had a secret formula for solving the
problem of earthquake occurrences. One or other may be mentioned.
The ancient Greeks held resentful Zeus responsible for these visitations.
The Babylonians attempted to read their wherefore in the stars. The
inhabitants of the West Carolinian Islands fancied they heard in them
the stampeding of giant animals against the earth’s crust. Others
deciphered them as the rappings of warning spooks. Over against
these unique, not to say, grotesque ravings, we have the more reserved
interpretations of the older philosophers. Pythagoras, 580 B.C.,
attributed earthquakes to underground fires therein anticipating
voleanic earthquake history. Metrodorus, a pupil of Democritus,
460 B.C., made a guess at a theory which pressed. hard in on the pre-
vailing theory of today. He said: One mass of the earth may sink,
following gravity, while another has to rise to maintain equilibration.
Epicurus, 341 B.C., favored the notion, afterwards sponsored by Ger-
mans, that the ground water dissolved out certain geological materials
and that the overhanging dome, for want of support, collapsed.
Aristotle, 384 B.C., conceived earth tremors to be brought about
by the attempted escape of air imprisoned within subterranean cavi-
ties. Cardano, mathematician and philosopher, about the middle
of the 16th century, looking on the earth’s interior as one gigantic
crucible, saw therein sulphur, bitumen, and saltpeter chemically inter-
acting and the energy liberated causing havoc to the abutting walls
of the laboratory. Alexander von Humbolt orthodoxly observed that
though there were earthquakes usually connected with volcanic erup-
tions, such were distinctly in the minority as compared with the
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 239
devastating quakes of history. He conceived, therefore, the volcanoes
_to be safety-valves for the pent-up gases imprisoned within the earth.
A return here to the Aristotelian doctrine. Here I must mention
Mallet, an English inventor of machines of war. When in 1857 a
destructive quake razed the kingdom of Naples, he applied to the Royal
- Society for a grant for research along this quake. As he was deemed
qualified for such studies because of his familiarity with explosives,
the allotment was made with the result that the bookshelves of the
seismo ogists were graced with two new volumes, entitled ‘‘The Neapol-
itan Earthquake.’ This in 1857. Mallet, so we read in these tomes,
agreeing with Aristotle on the fundamentals of his theory, applied
thereto the findings of the Dutch physicist, Huygens, on the travel of
harmonic disturbances in different media. With these embellishments
Mallet christens the theory the centrum theory. For the first time,
too, we meet with the terms, now bywords w:.th the seismologists,
centrum, epicenter. About fifty years was to be its lifetime. The
great quake in the Neo Valley, Japan, 1890, set geologists to doubting
it. Photographs taken of the territory showing macroseismal move-
ments indicated fractures running for miles across the country and that
along these seams of rupture the land had seesawed, rising in one point
to a maximum height of eight feet, while in some places, though neither
side had been raised or lowered in reference to the other, the two sides
had slipped by each other in opposite directions. Six years following
this catastrophe there occurred the heavy quake in Assam. Three
fractures were located in a study of a restricted portion of the affected
area and a vertical displacement of thirty-five feet. Oldham published
a memoir in which he contended that one plane of fracture was clearly
a thrust on a plane of low angle to the horizon. In 1906 Tarr and.
Martin contributed an article to the Bulletin of the Geological Society
of American in which they showed that following the severe quake of
September, 1899 in Yukutat Bay, there were marked depressions in
the coast line and elevations on land amounting to 16 meters. This
they attributed to mountain growth with vertical adjustments between
the large blocks within a fault mosaic. In 1907 Mr. Willard Johnson
made a field survey of the Owens Valley quake of 1872 and for the
first time an accurate map was prepared of a fault network suffering
adjustment at the time of earth movements. With such imprimaturs
the so-called tectonic theory of earthquake has grown until today
it is a dogma of the seismic school.
The researches of the past half century and particularly of the past
decade have dowered seismology with a wealth of information. These
240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
investigations have been stimulated through such agencies as the
British Association Seismology Committee, the International Seismo-
logical Society, with headquarters in Strassburg, the Imperial Earth--
quake Investigations Committee, Tokio, Japan, the Seismological
Society of America, and the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Besides, the several governments the world over have lent most liberal
encouragement to this work. Most recently have our own United
States officially authorized seismological researches and designated
the Coast and Geodetic Survey to execute them. The authorities
have so auspiciously inaugurated this new activity that it is quite
apparent that our country in the very near future will add many more
interesting pages to the history of this most important of the sciences.
2. OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS IN Sxrrsmotocy. N. H. Heck, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The outstanding problem in seismology is to develop a future worthy
of the past. ‘There might appear to be no reason to feel any doubt,
and yet such a future will not be assured without special effort. A few
days ago I read a review of the art conditions in various countries
which was rather critical of present conditions. The critic overlooked
the fact that probably many of the men who would have been the out-
standing or arriving artists now were killed or wounded in the war. —
- The same thing would appear to apply to seismologists especially in
the countries which were most active before the war.
I do not intend to discuss details but only the outstanding points
in the various problems which are now occupying the attention. of
seismologists. Each subject could be the basis for several papers.
An apparently simple problem is one which many seismologists
have given up in despair and yet which apparently cannot be dispensed
with,—the determination of isoseismal lines through appraisal of
intensity by observers. This, of course, applies only to earthquakes
whose effects are felt or visible.
The elements of the problem include: inability of the average man
to tell his experiences accurately, especially when disturbed; difficulty
in securing proper distribution of competent observers; actual changes
in effects from place to place, as between rock and alluvial land;
disagreement between two observers at the same place; and difficulties
in adopting a scale of intensity which will fit all the observations.
The solution is necessary, as in most cases there is no other practical
means for determining the area disturbed and distribution of the in-
May 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 241
tensity. At present the effort is to get the largest possible number of
competent persons to report; the Coast and Geodetic Survey has
adopted a form which guides the reply, but which leaves it free for the
observer to state his own impressions. He is not asked to estimate the
intensity. It has been proposed to form special local organizations
in earthquake regions for the purpose of making accurate reports.
The Weather Bureau has taken an active part in this work in the past,
and is continuing to do so. With the best possible results, the prob-
lem is much like that of plotting magnetic lines for a region of magnetic
disturbance, though with good judgment reasonably satisfactory re-
sults are obtainable.
It has been made clear that instrumental development is the neces-
sary background. Adoption of good instruments in this country is
most important. The Wood-Anderson seismometer seems to give con-
siderable promise as a teleseismic instrument, and the test now being
made under observatory conditions at the Coast and Geodetic mag-
netic observatory at Tucson, Arizona, is likely to be productive of
much benefit.
Most of you have had occasion to use apparatus in which an es-
sential feature is the uniform rotation of a cylinder. This was not well
accomplished in many of the best European types of instruments.
The need for such apparatus developed during the war and it is now
possible to have rotation of any desired accuracy. The problem is
now to secure the result with minimum cost and minimum complica-
tion of apparatus. It will be seen that this matter of accurate time
is vital to many parts of the study. Assoon as an entirely satisfactory
apparatus of low cost is developed for the Wood-Anderson instrument,
it is going to be possible to have widespread distribution of good
seismographs.
One of the outstanding needs is the operation of vertical instru-
ments. Such records are indispensable, but at present there is no
suitable instrument which can be operated with a moderate degree of
attention. Father Tondorf is making a wonderful contribution at
Georgetown University by operating his Galitzin vertical, but he will
admit that it is a difficult instrument to install, operate and keep in
order. Until we have more vertical instruments, certain urgently
needed studies must be postponed. :
Assume that we have satisfactory instruments, what are we going
to get out of them? The results that we are going to get depend both
on ability to interpret the seismogram and to completely develop the
underlying theory. A great deal of work has been done on both of
242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
these problems during the present century. Just as in every field of
science, as the significance of various phases has been established on
apparently good evidence, there have been some who have refused
to accept the conclusions and have forced the accumulation of evidence
till it was overwhelming. This is a proper course, though in every
case the critics should be those who are themselves making contribu-
tions to seismology.
The P and S waves are now generally accepted as having definite
significance, but Wiechert, as recently as 1903, had difficulty in secur-
ing the acceptance of the S wave as a transverse wave following nearly,
if not quite the same path as the longitudinal P wave. It took much
study to develop and recognize the various reflected waves and this
process is still going on. The complications of the subject can be
readily recognized when it is considered that at each reflecting surface
there are really five possibilities, in case the approaching wave strikes
the surface obliquely, though all of them do not occur in every case.
Suppose the incident wave is longitudinal. There may then be a
reflected longitudinal and a reflected transverse, each taking a different
path; also a transmitted longitudinal and transverse, each taking a
different path. There will also be Rayleigh waves transmitted along
the surface. ‘Though ordinarily in the case of the surface, not more
than three reflections have been recognized, the possible number of
reflected waves is very great and certain series may appear under some
conditions and another set under others. It is evident that this is a
problem worthy of the best efforts of seismologists. Though it is far
from being fully solved, it is significant of the new spirit in this country
that-Dr. James B. Macelwane, head of the Jesuit Seismological As-
sociation, is at present engaged in preparing tables which extend the
work of Klotz, Visser, Gutenburg and others so that we may take into
account a large number of phases. He is preparing convenient tables
to make this possible. The method is to determine the approximate
distance of epicenter, then enter the tables and take out the time of
arrival of the phases given. Then make an independent study of the
seismogram and set down the phases observed. There should, with
good records, be an agreement of perhaps eighty per cent of the phases
when the correct distance has been adopted. This makes it possible
to obtain much greater distances accurately than the previous tables
permitted. The unidentified twenty per cent of the phases may be
either non-existent or not yet identified. This shows the need for
further investigation.
The tables cover average conditions. At some stations average
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 243
conditions do not give good agreement. ‘This seems to be unques-
tionably true of the records obtained at the Honolulu Magnetic ob-
servatory. An investigation is in progress to establish this fact be-
yond argument and discuss possible explanations. In general, waves
reach this station considerably in advance of the time required by any
existing theory.
Long waves, though the most impressive parts of the seismogram,
are less important for obtaining distance than for determining inten-
sity. They are extremely complex and have only in part responded to
mathematical treatment. A mathematical physicist has an ample
field for his effort.
To obtain the intensity of the ground movement, it is necessary to
obtain from the seismogram the acceleration and the intensity. De-
termination of the acceleration, which is the factor needed by design-
ers of structures and which may be also used in placing isoseismal
lines, is an essential operation. ‘The acceleration can be obtained from
the period and the amplitude. With well-designed seismographs the
period of the recorded wave is practically equal to that of the earth
wave, but the instrument, for practical reasons, is designed to give a
much greater amplitude than that of the earth’s movement. ‘The
magnification is calculated from the period of the earth wave and in-
strumental constants, and the amplitude of the earth movement may
thus be known. With an undamped seismograph magnification
cannot be determined when the period is the same or nearly the same
as the natural period of the instrument on account of resonance.
This is a frequent occurrence in the case of the long wave.
The theory of wave transmission has been investigated mathemat-
ically in quite a thorough manner but parts, even of the generally ac-
cepted theories, do not satisfy all seismologists and there is a vast
amount of debatable ground for future investigation.
A knowledge of the direction of the earth vibrations (in three di-
mensions) is necessary to determine depth of focus. The problem of
maximum depth of focus, as well as depth of a given earthquake, is
naturally one of great interest.
The establishment of isostasy would seem to make it necessary that
all earthquakes should occur above the depth of compensation. Ge-
odesists are therefore interested in more accurate determinations of
depth of focus. This will require more accurate timing of arrival of
phases than heretofore and the recording apparatus developed by
Wood and Anderson will help to solve this problem. The stations
now being established by the Carnegie Institution in California should
244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
give valuable evidence on this question of depth, the only possible
difficulty being that most of the earthquakes there are probably rela-
tively shallow, as evidenced by the effect on the surface of the earth.
Certain phases appear on seismograms which‘can be explained only
on the assumption that there are reflecting layers at the depth of 60
kilometers and 2900 kilometers, respectively. These layers are
established beyond a doubt and there is good evidence for other such
layers. The 2900 kilometer layer is also arrived at by other methods,
such as those used in the studies of the Geophysical Laboratory. The
physical significance of these surfaces of discontinuity afford an in-
teresting problem in physics.
The phenomenon of crustal creep seems to be established for regions
such as California where earthquakes are known to be of not infre-
quent occurrence. The measurement of the amount of change of
positions both horizontally and vertically by geodetic methods has
now been carried to the point where the determination of the manner
in which strains develop and are released may be possible.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey is, by the nature of its other work,
especially attracted to consideration of the submarine earthquake.
Its accurate surveys along our coasts are going to make it possible to
determine accurately the changes due to earthquakes. An important
illustration of this has been recently found in investigation of the rec-
ords. In 1914 an accurate survey was made by modern methods of a
shoal near the Cuyo Islands, Sulu Sea, Philippine Islands. Eighteen
months later it was found that part of the shoal had dropped through
at least 100 feet. An earthquake was recorded about halfway between
the two surveys. This is probably the only case where change has
been proved by comparison of two modern hydrographic surveys,
each of the same standard and with control of positions by high-grade
triangulation determination of the objects used. ‘The details of this
case are of more interest to geologists, but there is a definite relation
between such cases and the broad questions of geophysics.
I have left a number of important problems unmentioned, but
- believe that I have described enough of the problems to show the great
field of investigation that is open to the seismologist, which will not
only be of scientific value but will have a direct bearing on the solution
of some very practical problems of preservation of lite and property.
May 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 245
3. EARTHQUAKES FROM THE IsostTaTic VIEWPOINT. WILLIAM Bowlz,
U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
In attacking problems relating to the structure of the earth’s crust
and the processes which change surface features, it is desirable that
all available data be used. One of the earth problems awaiting
solution which is receiving a great deal of attention to-day is the earth-
quake. ‘The data resulting from the isostatic investigations should
prove of value in studying this phenomenon.
It is not possible, in this short paper, to cover the subject of isostasy.
What is known of that condition of the earth’s crust is set forth in
many reports and papers, readily available, which have appeared in
recent years. Here we need merely accept isostasy as a scientific
principle and see what is its probable relation to those processes which
are at work within the earth to rupture rock and cause the tremors
known as earthquakes.
The isostatic investigations seem to indicate very clearly that the
depth to which the isostatic compensation extends is about 60 miles
below sea level. ‘That depth is not a fixed one, always the same in
different places. ‘The derived depth of 60 miles from geodetic data is
an average one. ‘The compensation, in some places, may extend to a
greater depth and at others may not reach so deep below the outer
surface of the earth.
It has been shown, with some degree. of exactness, that the com-
pensation of topographic features is a somewhat local phenomenon,
but it is uncertain as to whether or not the compensation extends hori-
zontally 25, 50, or some other number of miles from the feature. A
test of whether or not strictly local or regionally distributed compensa-
tion most nearly eliminates the isostatic anomalies was reported on in
Special Publication No. 10 of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Regional distribution, out to a distance of about 37 miles from topo-
graphic features, eliminated the anomalies about as well as strictly
local compensation. When the compensation was distributed region-
- ally to a distance of about 104 miles from the topographic feature, the
anomalies were larger, on an average, than for the other methods of
distribution.
A test was made to show the mass of a topographic feature which
might escape isostatic adjustment.! The results seem to indicate
that any topographic feature, having an average thickness of 3000
feet and a radius of about 18 miles is, at least largely, compensated.
1 See p. 34, Special Publication No. 99, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
The crust below all classes of topography, whether high, low or
intermediate in elevation, is in isostatic equilibrium. This is true
for the various geological formations, whether old, recent or inter-
mediate. The isostatic test has been made for a number of regions;
these include the whole of the United States, southern Canada, the
Mackenzie River Valley in Canada, Holland, western Siberia, the
Alps, India, the Solomon Islands and their vicinity, and Spain. In
every case the crust beneath the geodetic stations used has been found
to be closely in equilibrium. We are justified I think from the results
of these tests in predicting that tests in other regions will show that
the crust beneath them is also in isostatic equilibrium.
All mountain systems existing to-day occupy areas which previous
to the uplifts were areas of heavy sedimentation. How can an area
that was once low, subjected to 10,000 feet or more of sediments and,
presumably, in isostatic equilibrium (for all sedimentary areas to-day
are in that condition) become an area of uplift, with an average height
of topography of a mile or more, with the crust below still in isostatic
equilibrium? The mountain mass is not an extra load on the sub-
crustal base beneath the mountain area. If it were so, surely this con-
dition would be detected by the deflections of the vertical and the
values of gravity at stations in the vicinity of the mountains.
There are two ways in which a mountain system can be formed in a
sedimentary area and still not have the mass as an extra load. One
is to have the crust of the earth thicken beneath the mountain area
with roots projecting into subcrustal space. These roots would just
balance, by their deficiency in density, the mass that forms above sea
level. This is what is called the ‘‘roots of mountains theory,” ad-
vanced by Osmond Fisher a number of years ago. Fisher was fol-
lowing the equilibrium ideas of Airy.
The second method would be to have a decrease in the density of the
crustal material beneath the sediments, resulting in an increase in the
volume. ‘The material would tend to expand in all directions but it
could not go down nor would it be able to push sidewise to any extent.
The line of least resistance would be upward and this is the direction
in which the material goes. This latter theory is based on the idea of
Pratt:
One of these theories must be true, but which one no one knows.
But the indications seem to be that the Pratt idea is much the stronger
of the two. The “roots of mountains” theory has a number of weak
points which have not been cleared away by its advocates. I strongly
advocate the Pratt idea and the statements made in this paper are
based on it.
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 247
We seem to be left, then, with the earth’s crust, approximately 60
miles in thickness, in almost perfect isostatic equilibrium. - The topo-
graphic features are compensated by deficiencies or excesses of density
in the crustal material in the vicinity of the features. This compen-
sation may extend horizontally to a distance of 20, 30, or possibly some
greater number of miles, from the feature, but it is probable that the
regional distribution of density does not extend out as far as 100 miles
from a topographic feature. A topographic feature, having dimensions
equivalent to 3000 feet in average thickness, with a radius of 18 miles
is at least largely compensated. ‘The mountain systems occupy areas
_ which in a previous period had been subjected to heavy sedimentation.
Those areas of heavy sedimentation were along the margins of oceans
or of inland seas.
We have, in the above, information and data of great importance
in the study of earthquakes but we have additional information which
must be’considered. ‘This is that the isostatic condition of the earth’s
crust is probably maintained while tremendous loads of material are
shifted over the earth’s surface. The rate of erosion in the United
States is such that one foot, on the average, would be denuded from the
3,000,000 square miles of our area in 9000 years. This is a rate of half
a mile of erosion in 20,000,000 or 30,000,000 years. ‘The average
elevation of the United States is about 2500 feet and at the above rate
most of this mass would be denuded in a comparatively short time.
But we must remember that, as erosion takes place, the isostatic equi-
librium is not permanently disturbed. If 1000 feet of material were
eroded from an area, undoubtedly the original crust below would be
lighter than it had been before, but the pendulums and deflection of the
vertical stations do not show that an area of rapid erosion is out of
equilibrium. We must conclude that, as the material is eroded from
the surface, there is a transfer of subcrustal material into the crustal |
space to offset the erosion. We do not know the density of the sub-
crustal material but it is reasonable to assume that it is 10 per cent
or more denser than the surface material which is approximately 2.7.
In any event, in order to base-level an area, it would be necessary to
erode from it several times as much material as appeared in the original
mountain mass. Under the influence of erosion, the crustal material
below is brought into higher and, presumably, colder regions.. This
coming up of the crust undoubtedly results in fractures in the crustal
materials and especially in the cold rock near the surface, thus causing
earthquakes. It is probable that this process was involved in. the
earthquake in Montana during the summer of 1925.
248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
As material is laid down along the margins of an ocean or an inland
sea, the crust below sinks under the added weight, but it would appear —
that only a moderate amount of sediments could be laid down in shal-
low water in any particular region because of differences in density of
the sedimentary material and the subcrustal material. It is probable
that the subcrustal material is at least 20 per cent denser than the un-
consolidated sediments. We have, however, evidence of many thou-
sands of feet of sediments having been laid down in shallow water.
We must, therefore, conclude that there is a sinking of the crustal
material, independent of the weight of sediments. .
An analysis of the situation leads us to believe that this independent .
sinking is due to cooling off of the crustal material which was uplifted
during a prior period of erosion. As was mentioned earlier, the crustal
material below an erosion area rises to colder regions. Eventually
that material will cool down to the temperature normal to those new
places; then some physical or chemical reaction probably takes place
which contracts the crustal material which had been uplifted. A sink-
ing of the surface would take place, due to this contraction, and a
synclinorium would be formed into which sediments are deposited.
Does it not appear, therefore, that any area that is receiving or has
received great masses of sediment all laid down in shallow waters,
was previously a mountain area, or at least one of high elevation, from
which much material had been eroded?
As the material of the crust which had been carried upward during
erosion contracts, the contraction would tend to take place in all
directions. This would probably make rifts within the contracting
material and between that material and the unaffected crust to the
sides, but the crustal material is not strong enough to maintain a rift
extending to a great depth (what depth we do not know). It would
appear, therefore, that there would be a horizontal movement to fill
any deep rifts that might have opened. It would seem probable that
there would be some slow movement of material, resulting in distortion
without fracture, but it seems logical to assume that some of the con-
traction would result in rifting and that this would give rise to earth-
quakes. As the sediments are laid down on the crust the weight of
this added material will push down the crustal material beneath it.
This will force aside subcrustal material equal in mass to the added
weight. In addition to the earthquakes due to independent sinking,
it would seem to be most probable that earthquakes in sedimentary
areas are also caused by the weight of sediments pressing the crust
down. Some of the pressing down from the weight of the sediments
_ may 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 249
will take place so slowly that the crustal material will yield to the
stresses without fracture. At times, however, the sediments will
accumulate more rapidly than the ability of the crust to assume new
shapes and forms without rupture or crushing. In these cases the
material will be strained beyond the elastic limit and a break will
occur, causing an earthquake. It is probable that about one-fifth
of the lowering of the base of the sediments is due to the contraction
of the crust below, and four-fifths to the sinking caused by the weight
of the sediments.
As the sediments are laid down along the margins of an ocean or an
inland sea and the crust sinks beneath, the crustal material will be car-
ried down into hotter regions. The sediments in some cases are as
much as five or more miles in thickness and it is reasonable to suppose
that the crustal material beneath these sediments will be carried down
approximately an equal amount. When the material assumes the
temperature of its new position, there will be a chemical or physical
reaction, or a combination of the two, which will expand the crustal
material. There will also be the ordinary thermal expansion. It is
possible that the mountains and plateaus are formed by the expansion
of the crustal material below them. In fact, it is most probable that
this is true if the Pratt equilibrium idea is the correct one.
In the process of uplift to form the mountain system, cubical ex-
pansion would tend to operate, but the material cannot go down nor
sidewise, therefore the movement is upward. ‘There would be much
crushing of material during upward movement and in the confining of
the movement to a single direction. Much of the distortion of strata
and the horizontal displacement as observed in an uplifted area may
be merely incidents to the vertical movement. In any event this
- expansion of material to cause mountains or plateaus will undoubtedly
rupture rock near the surface and give us earthquakes.
There are other earthquakes than those mentioned above. These
are caused by the explosions occurring in the vicinity of volcanoes.
These earthquakes, as a rule, are not very heavy ones.
With isostasy established as a scientific principle, we are forced to
conclude that the subcrustal material is plastic to long continued
stresses or, at least, that it has very low residual rigidity. It would
therefore seem to be most probable that the subcrustal material would
yield without fracture to the stresses resulting from shifting of loads
on the earth’s surface. This leads us to believe that the earthquake
must be a phenomenon confined to crustal material. Since the crust is
approximately 60 miles in thickness, we should not expect the epi-
250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
centers of earthquakes to be at a greater depth than 60 miles below
sea level. The late Prof. Omori, the famous seismologist of Japan,
made a statement in one of his papers that he had not located any
epicenters at a greater depth than about 27 kilometers. This fits
in with the isostatic principle. The determination of depths of epi-
centers is a subject which is receiving a great deal of attention by
seismologists and we shall look forward with interest to the results
obtained by their studies.
Conclustons: Based on what has been said above, we must postulate
that we have several causes of earthquakes. Since the theory of
isostasy has been proved and may now be called the principle of
isostasy, we must not ignore the equilibrium of the earth’s crust in
earthquake studies. It seems probable that the isostatic equilibrium
of the crust has obtained throughout the sedimentary age of the earth.
Earthquakes are, apparently, due (on the isostatic principle) to the
maintenance of isostatic equilibrium during erosion and sedimenta-
tion, the expansion of the crustal material which has been thrust down-
ward under sedimentation into hotter spaces, and the contraction of
the crustal material which has been pushed upward into colder spaces
under areas of erosion. These would appear to be the major causes of
earthquakes. In addition, there are the volcanic earthquakes of more
or less local character and of minor importance.
4, DIFFICULTIES IN THE Strupy oF LocaL EARTH MovVEMENTS.
ArTHUR L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory.
In 1905 I was sent officially to England to confer with Sir John
Milne in regard to some contemplated developments in the study of
earth movements, and visited him at that time at his place at Shide
on the Isle of Wight, where he had a number of seismographs set up
and operating. He was then of course nearing the close of his career.
Milne, at that time, was a gentleman farmer by environment, and
had become the world’s foremost student of seismology through the
pursuit of his chief avocation. He intimated that it was a gentleman’s
privilege to choose his pleasures as he wished, and this was his choice.
I was shown his equipment with much enthusiasm. Without ex-
planatory preface he told me then and there the cause of two-thirds
of the recorded earthquakes, namely, spiders in the instrument case.
A little later Mr. Gutenberg, who stands in the very front rank of
seismologists today, was able to explain a portion of the remaining ones. |
It appears that in the great laboratory at Gottingen which has become
MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 251
familiar to you all through the work of Wiechert, earthquakes were
at one time of frequent occurrence whenever a certain outside window
was open. They did not persist when it was closed.
Notwithstanding these historic episodes, or perhaps occasionally
because of them, the study of earthquakes is a thoroughly serious
business, as all of those distinguished men who have sought to ap-
proach the subject quantitatively have discovered, whether the search
be directed to the causes of local earthquakes or to the constitution
of the earth’s interior mass.
It is quite possible by the use of these refined methods, which have
been described to you so clearly by Father Tondorf, to pick up earth
vibrations of many different vibration periods beginning as low as
from four to seven or eight-tenths of a second. ‘These short waves
form a class by themselves, which was first seriously studied by the
Gottingen group and originally ascribed by them to the waves of the
North Sea. One early difficulty lay in the fact that the direction in
which the sea lay was not always the direction from which these waves
had come according to the seismograph record. Afterward Guten-
berg became interested, as most of you know, to try to fix upon some
other natural phenomenon which might prove adequate to explain
these short-wave disturbances. He studied the relation between the
movements indicated by his instruments and the beating of the waves
upon the rock-bound coast of Norway, the varying barometric pressure,
the wind-velocity of the storms which visited the region, and finally
with different varieties of traffic at various distances. In general
these discussions, which came out some ten years ago and were very
generally participated in by the seismologists at work at that time,
established the fact that probably all of these causes have some share
in the so-called short group of waves, but the actual share of each of
them was not then and is not now established. It is probably true
that the waves of the sea had some share in these short-wave dis-
turbances because the instruments set up on the Island of Helgoland
in the North Sea plainly show such impulses of appropriate period.
There has also been for many years a very well-equipped laboratory
upon one of the Islands of the Samoan group where earth movements
of period appropriate to the sea waves have been recorded. Never-
theless the matter is not cleared up and disturbing movements of
unknown origin still pursue the student of short-period earth move-
ments, i.e., of local earthquakes.
In California we have on the west coast a mountain range (the
Coast Range) which geologically is quite unstable, and has been
252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
likened by Lawson to a door which rises and falls on a hinge (the
Sierra Nevada mountains); which has swung below the sea at least a
mile and above the sea by an amount equal to its present elevation,
five or six different times in the course of its geologic history, as is
evidenced by alternate depositions of marine sediments and the sand
and clay accumulations from surface erosion. Out of the geologic
history of the region therefore we know that tectonic forces have
lately been and probably still are locally active,—this is one of the
chief reasons why the Carnegie Institution has selected it for the earth-
quake studies now in progress there. It is not a region like a voleanic
centre in which occur only local earthquakes which are felt but a short
distance away, but it is a region of frequent and powerful local move-
ment. The epicenter of the 1906 earthquake extended over 190 miles
of land, and probably more of ocean floor, as you undoubtedly recall.
Likewise the Santa Barbara earthquake of the past summer, though
local in point of damage to buildings, was complicated and possibly
far reaching in its effect upon geologic structures. Its source has been
traced to two faults, one of which is perpendicular, at the base of the
Santa Ynez Mountains, the other is a thrust fault from the direc-
tion of the sea. The two intersected at a comparatively narrow angle
within which stood the more thickly settled portion of the city of
Santa Barbara. Both active faults have been located by investigation
since the earthquake. Weare therefore confronting here local tectonic
movements of considerable severity and complication and may expect
others.
There is one other limitation which confronts the student of local
earth movements which is neither attributable to spiders nor to air
draughts, to sea waves nor to storms, there are great differences in the
kind of crustal movement recorded, which vary with the sort of foun-
dation the instrument happens to be standing on. The most convinc-
ing illustration of it is to be found in the fact that the greatest destruc-
tion always occurs on filled land. Reid has developed a theory of the
movement of masses of alluvium contained in a rigid bowl to which
forces are applied from without. It is contained in the second volume
of the Report of the California Earthquake Commission published by
the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1908. In illustration of
this Professor Rogers of Stanford University, during his study of the
1906 earthquake, built a box a meter or more long and half as wide,
filled it with wet sand and attached it by a horizontal crank shaft to a
wheel, so as to be shaken to and fro with a measured period and am-
plitude, in order.to see what relation the movement of the sand might
may 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 253
bear to the movement of the box containing it.!. This relative move-
ment is best shown by Rogers’ curves, reproduced in Fig. 1, but the
amplitude of movement of the sand was always greater than that of
the containing vessel, usually about twice as great, and was relatively
much greater when its water content was increased. It is usual to
interpret this observation by pointing out the danger to all structures
erected on filled or unconsolidated or water-soaked ground. It might
be equally pertinent to recognize its bearing upon attempts to
interpret seismograph movements recorded at points similarly
exposed. With the study of local earthquakes particularly is coupled
the need for full geological knowledge of the region and its ground-
Fig. 1.—Upper curve represents actual movement of the sand. Lower curve repre-
sents actual movement of the containing box.
water relations lest the earth-wave itself may have suffered unsus-
pected distortion somewhere between epicentre and instrument.
There are even many seismometers which for one reason or another do
not rest upon igneous-rock foundations and contrariwise few earth-
quakes have their origin in homogeneous igneous rock.
There is a similar situation in the application of the Rossi-Forel
Scale and the determination of isoseismal lines which perhaps found
expression in some of the difficulties which Commander Heck has just
portrayed to you. Such an arbitrary scale of intensities may be worth
1, J. Rocers in Report of the California Earthquake Commission (A. C. Lawson,
Chairman), Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 87, 1: 326, 1908.
254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
much or little, according to the experience of the man who applies it.
A chimney on a hillside, or in a valley adjacent, will suffer quite differ-
ently in the same earth movement. Indeed at Santa Barbara the
destruction in the plain at State Street was rated at IX or X, Rossi-
Forel, while the hillside, no more than two or three city blocks distant,
showed no damage which could be rated higher than V or VI, even
though located between the same portions of the active faults and
somewhat nearer to one of them (Santa Ynez) than is State Street.
Such crude classification partakes but little of a quantitative character
and seismograph tracings are frequently subject to similar limita-
tions, particularly in the records of local earthquakes. .
These, very briefly, are difficulties which stand in the path ck the
student of local earth movements, and at the very beginning of the
path, other and greater ones wait beyond.
GEOPHYSICS—Pressures in planetary atmospheres.1. P. G. Nut-
TING, U. 8S. Geological Survey.
The total normal pressure (weight) of any single component of a
planetary crust or atmosphere is proportional to its mass and inde-
pendent of its physical state or chemical associations. The distribu-
tion of that pressure is not. Completely vaporized at high tempera-
tures it exerts a uniform pressure over the planet’s surface but when
partly fluid or solid or when not entirely dissociated from other sub-
stances not completely vaporized its pressure may be largely localized.
It seems worth while to examine such conditions in some detail, par-
ticularly as to their bearing on the isostasy of the surface. Many
numerical data on vapor pressures and solubilities are lacking but the
argument is fairly simple.
Take the case of water on the earth for example. The critical
temperature is about 374°C. and the critical pressure 217.8 atmos-
pheres, pressures being expressed in atmospheres and temperatures
in °C. onthe absolute scale (Data of Holborn 1919). The water of the
earth covers 70.82 per cent of its surface of 196,950,000 sq. miles to a
mean depth of 3681 meters or 2.287 miles (Data supplied by U. 8.
Coast Survey 1926). The waters of rivers, lakes, the atmosphere,
polar ice, ground waters and combined waters are quite negligible
by comparison. The oceans therefore contain sufficient water to '
cover the entire earth to a uniform depth of 2607 meters. At tem-
peratures exceeding 374°C. all waters must be atmospheric and con-
* Received March 21, 1926.
MAY 4, 1926 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 255
tribute a fixed amount, 252.3 atmospheres, to the pressure uniformly
distributed over the surface. This is considerably in excess of the
critical pressure (217.8 atm.) of water.
The vital point in isostasy is that at 374°C. 13.7 per cent of the water
was deposited as fluid upon the earth’s surface, 86.3 per cent remaining
in the air. This fluid suddenly deposited amounted to sufficient to
cover the entire earth to a depth of 357 meters or 1171 feet. Local
pressures (at the lowest point) may well have amounted to 3000 feet
or more of water. This discontinuity in pressure was pointed out and
discussed in a paper by the writer in Science, October 6, 1911. Not
alone as regards isostasy but chemically and geologically, this abrupt
precipitation of a seventh of the earth’s water at such an elevated
temperature and tremendous pressure must have been the greatest
epoch marking point in the earth’s geologic history. Had there been
TABLE 1.—PRECIPITATION AND PRESSURES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
Ue haba PRESSURE dP(atm.) dP/P A gies re PER CENT
a ATMOSPHERES dT (deg.) aT/T (METERS) PRECIPITATED
0 273 0.006025 | 0.000447 20.25 100
50 323 0.1217 0.00605 16.057 100
100 373 1.000 0.0358 13.353 100
150 423 4.698 0.1272 11.452 38.21 99.53
200 473 15.34 0.3237 9.981 148.2 94.2
250 523 39.24 0.666 8.876 395.2 §4.8
300 573 84.80 1.210 8.176 865.9 66.6
300 623 163.21 2.000 7.634 1676 30.7
370 643 207.5 2.513 7.788 2234 14.3
374 647 217.8 wie ngs brats ol ine PAO 14.1
14 per cent less water on the earth, there would have been no such
great discontinuity in the earth’s life.
With the exception of a few metals, all minerals (even quartz)
give way before water at or near its critical temperature and pressure.
The first solid crust to form, namely the carbides freezing? at 4600 to
4900°, could last but a short time while the oxides, forming at lower
temperatures, would rapidly become hydrated and attack each other.
Solution and erosion would proceed at enormous rates.
At temperatures below 374° precipitation rapidly increases with
lowering of (mean annual) temperatures as shown in Table 1. For
example at 300°C. the water is 2 precipitated as fluid on the earth’s
surface while the remainder, equivalent to a column 865.9 meters high,
is vaporized and constitutes over 98 per cent of the pressure of the
2 Wittiam R. Mott. Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc., p. 255, 1918.
256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9
atmosphere. Some writers have wrongly assumed that at tempera-
tures just above 100°C. the oceans would have all left the earth. Such
is far from being the case. Even at 200°C. only 6 per cent of the water
would be vaporized.
Pressure due to other components than water vapor and the per-
manent gases considered above would lower the proportion of water
vaporized given in the table. However very few substances (mercury,
’ sulphur, CO., SO. . . . ) have a vapor pressure as high even as one
atmosphere at 374° and these are either too scarce to need considera-
tion or are locked up in compounds of still lower vapor or dissociation
pressures.
When the water was all vaporized the atmosphere was of course
very much deeper than at present, water vapor extending out perhaps
1000 miles or ~ the earth’s radius. Although heavily blanketed by
material of low heat conductivity, conditions were favorable for steep
thermal gradients in the outer layers and therefore for copious local
(high level) precipitation. It is very doubtful whether such rain ever
reached the surface. The thermal gradient from poles to equator
was probably slightly less than at present.
Water has been chosen as an example because of its abundance and
the simplicity of its behavior. Nearly complete data of high precision .
are available and anyone with a knowledge of elementary physics
can rough out the problem. The molecular weight of water differs
but little from that of the nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere so there is but
little tendency to segregation. Nor are there other abundant sub-
stances having closely related thermal properties to complicatematters.
Next to be considered are the oxides of iron (7 per cent), aluminum
(15 per cent) and silicon 60 per cent of the earth’s crust 10 miles deep
according to F. W. Clarke as compared with 7 per cent for water.
Both $10, and Al,O3 reach a vapor pressure of about one atmosphere
at about 2200°C. with dissociation into oxygen and metal already in
an advanced stage. It appears highly probable that these oxides are
completely dissociated at temperatures far below those at which any
considerable fraction would be vaporized. At high temperatures
therefore we have to consider not fused and vaporized oxides but
oxygen and fused metals with their vapors. Since the mass of the
oxygen is about 7 times that of the water present on the earth,
atmospheric pressure at 3000 to 3500° would be about 2000 atmos-
pheres or 15 tons per square inch. Oxygen would reside at all levels
since there would be but little tendency to segregate. The heavy
metallic vapors (of Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca and Na) on the other hand would
may 4, 1926 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 207
tend to remain largely near the surface on account of their higher
molecular weights. In this temperature region (3000-3500°) gases and
vapors also become ionized by thermal agitation and therefore self
luminous and good radiators of short wave radiation. This would
tend to equalize temperatures by more rapid heat exchange. ‘There
was no precipitation of fluids from the outer cooler portions of the
atmosphere upon the surface of the earth.
In summary, the history of the earth and of other planets of similar
composition may be thus sketched out on a temperature rather than
a time scale.
1. At 5000° and above. No solids present. Atmospheric pressure
20 to 30 tons per square inch. The atmosphere over 90 per cent
oxygen with water vapor and free hydrogen in the outer layers and
metallic vapors near the surface.
2. 4800 to 4600°. First solid crust formed consisting of metallic
carbides, probably in thin scattered patches. Atmosphere as above.
3. 4600 to 3000°. But little variation in conditions. Luminosity
decreasing rapidly with temperature. A few more carbides became
solid. Practically no other compounds in any state except liquid
alloys. ,
4. 3000 to 2000°. ‘This is the great period of oxydation. Hydrogen
and the more abundant metals first form stable oxides. All or nearly
all in a molten condition with only water vaporized to a large extent.
Atmospheric pressure drops from about 20 to about 3 tons per
square inch due to removal of nearly all the free oxygen from the gase-
ous state. But for the protective action of the superficial layer of
oxides formed but very little oxygen would have been left. The
amount of water formed limited by the amount of hydrogen present.
5. 2000 to 400°. This wide range like 3, was one of many minor
changes but with little outstanding. A thick crust of oxides chiefly
silica and silicates is being formed with some chlorides and sulphides.
The original scanty patchy crust of metallic carbides probably deeply
buried by silicate minerals. Water still all vaporized and not effective
for hydration of surface minerals.
6. 374°. One seventh of the water precipitated to the surface as
fluid. Atmospheric pressure dropping abruptly from 3700 to 3200
pounds per square inch. This water (sufficient to cover the entire
earth 1170 feet deep) would accumulate in the lowest levels probably
half a mile deep.
7. 374 to 300°. This is the period of hydration, solution, erosion,
chemical changes and mineral formation, all proceeding at a rate
258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 16, No. 9
difficult of conception. Metallic oxides are hydrated to acids and
alkalis in enormous quantities. All forms of silica and silicates are
soluble and play a major réle (in a minor key). Carbides are of course
decomposed wherever water can reach them, the final result pre-
sumably being carbon dioxide. Within this temperature range the
ocean increased to 4 times its initial, and 2 its present volume. Tor-
rential rains of almost red hot water at very high pressures changed
whole landscapes over night. Sedimentation miles in thickness was
a matter of but a few years instead of aeons as at present.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
931ST MEETING
The 931st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening,
February 6th, 1926. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President
Heyl at 8:15 with 50 persons in attendance.
Byron E. Exuprep: Physical observations on hearing and deafness.
Helmholtz stated that the mechanical problem which the apparatus within
the drum of the ear had to solve was to transform a motion of great
amplitude and little force, such as impinges on the drumskin, into motion
of small amplitude and great force such as had to be communicated to the
fluid of the labyrinth. Were this the only problem the ear of the bird would
best serve the purpose as it provides the simplest mechanism:—that of the
large and small diaphragm connected by a single rigid member. ‘The ossic-
ular arrangement is Nature’s device for slow moving animals. It serves
the further purpose and solves another problem of regulating the force im-
parted to the labyrinthian fluid.
The human drum apparatus may be considered to function as a variable
transformer. In normal hearing there is accommodation for varying force
of air wave vibration. This accommodation or adjustment for reception is
explained by the functioning of the tensor tympani muscle in response to
the indicating nerves of the external layer of the drumhead.
Failure in accommodation of the muscle control is emphasized as the prob-
able cause of ordinary deafness uncomplicated by disease. Otosclerosis is
suggested as a more probable result of deafness than its cause. Movable
joints in the human system consigned to extended temporary inaction become
sclerosed.
A minimum of force of air wave vibration is required for hearing in a normal
person and greater force for one of defective hearing. The drumskin collects
the resultant force of many air wave vibrations which are transmitted to the
ossicles as a compound mechanical vibration to become in the perilymph
varying pressures in liquid where analysis takes place into the simple vibra-
tions which afford the sense of hearing.
Certain sustained noise vibrations furnish the force required for many deaf
persons. Ordinary speech combines with these noise vibrations and is heard.
may 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 259
The force vibration may be one of inaudible frequency and effect the same
result. If the force waves are too strong, then the deaf ear, by accommoda-
tion protects itself against this force and the ability to hear normal voice is
lessened. The compounded vibration is evidently diminished in force. This
explains the difficulty experienced with normal hearing under noise
conditions.
If a substantially sinusoidal air wave vibration of suitable force is furnished
certain deaf people experience sustained hearing ability for hours after a few
minutes exposure to the wave. Continued daily use has evidenced a cumula-
tive effect in many cases where regular use of the instrument for several
months has been resorted to, the period of better hearing extending from a
few hours after the primary application of the wave to several days after the
later ones.
Investigation shows that a comparatively few congenitally deaf are without
some degree of hearing. It has hkewise been demonstrated that most con-
genital deafness is due to defects of the middle ear. The results of a large
scale test conducted at a public deaf mute institution have demonstrated that
greatly increased hearing can be developed by the application of the peculiar
wave vibration of this invention.
The theory is advanced that human infants are born protected against
inner ear reception of vibration and it is suggested that abnormal protection
may be attributed as the cause of many case of congenital deafness.
(Author’s abstract.)
H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Ore Deposits Club met at the Geological Survey on March 26 to
discuss informal contributions on the subject of Field methods and equipment.
At the regular meeting of the Columbia Historical Society on April 20
Dr. Epcar T. WHERRY gave an illustrated lecture on Wild flower cultivation.
The regular April meeting of the Petrologists’ Club, held at the Geological
Survey on April 6, was devoted to a discussion of The réle of water in magmas.
The discussion was opened by G. W. Morey of the Geophysical Laboratory.
The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on March 27.
E. F. BurcuHarp outlined his visits to iron and manganese ore deposits in
several South America countries, and J. T. SrtncEwaup of Johns Hopkins
University described his 1925 exploration of the headwaters of the Amazon
in Peru.
Dr. J. G. THomson of the London School of Tropical Medicine, exchange
Professor with Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md., visited
laboratories of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Plant
Industry, and attended the 95th meeting of the Helminthological Sy of
Washington, Saturday night, April 18, 1926.
J. E. SANDERS, JR., magnetic observer of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, cabled his arrival on April 22, at Cotonou, Dahomey, after a success-
ful series of magnetic observations along the Niger River in French West
Africa.
260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 16, NO. 9
Dr. A. C. Lawson has been appointed to represent the American Geo-
physical Union at the Fourteenth International Geological Congress, at
Madrid, May 26-30, 1926.
Amundsen’s ship Maud was recently purchased by the Hudson’s Bay
Company and renamed the baymaud. She is to be used near Boothia Felix.
Joun Linpsay has been appointed delegate from the Carnegie Institution
of Washington to the Pan-American Congress at Panama City, June 18-25,
1926. .
Dr. C. G. Apgpot, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has
just returned from a six months journey to Algeria, Baluchistan, and South-
west Africa for the purpose of selecting a location for a solar observatory to
measure the variations of the sun. This project is under the auspices of the
National Geographic Society which is supplying the funds for erecting and
maintaining the observatory for four years.
Dr. Apsot has chosen Mt. Brukkaros, altitude 5200 feet, situated about 60
miles to the northwest of Keetmanshoop, Southwest Africa. The rainfall in
this region averages 34 inches a year; the clearness is extraordinary, and the
prospects for fair observing weather are regarded by him as superb.
> =
a ie
hich
Res 3
a
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*
Saturday, May 8. The Biological Society.
Wednesday, May 12. The Geological Society.
Thursday, May 13. The Chemical Society. Program:
G. W. Morey: The constitution of glass.
Saturday, May 15. The Philosophical Society. Program:
Joun C. Mzerriam: The meaning of evolution in individual experience.
Saturday, May 15. The Helminthological Society.
Saturday, May 29. _ _— Joint meeting of the Acaprmy, the Chemical Society,
and the Philosophical Society. Program:
Ernst Couen: The alleged constancy of our physico-chemical constants.
* The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month,
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS if é ae .
Seismology.—A symposium on earthquakes... ...........0.2.cceeesesccaees
1. Seismology.—A retrospect. FE. A. Toston: i ere trae ath
2. Outstanding problems in seismology. WH Rien 925 ee Nes tr tees
3. Earthquakes from the isostatic viewpoint. Wi~L1am Bowie...
4, Difficulties in the study of local earth movements. ArTHuR L.
Geophysics.—Pressures in planetary atmospheres. P. G. NurrTina@..
-_
PROCEEDINGS
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY —
President: fines Kk. Baneeee: Bureau of Siniade: Sues
Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. StuspeE, Bureau of Stand:
Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Ceadenie Survey.
Vol. 16 May 19, 1926 No. 10
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy Aanes CHAsB
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwzr
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosr
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY
R. F. Gricaes J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, WIcHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mt. Rorant AND GUILFORD AVES.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
eT BY Lee
NSO TT
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 1 oe
This JourNnatL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to — ae
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. Tothisendit publishes:
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; —
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) =
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALisissued
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumescorres ond to calendar years. Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or === |
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. ma te
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References =
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate —
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures - =
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be ==
partly met by the author. . :
Proof.—Iin order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested.‘ It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy isfollowed. ~ iy
Authors’ Reprinis.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be fa nat
Copies 4 pp 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 £390 '<< 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 225 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 5.76 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi- - ze
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscrtption per volime tS. 6.2% 6 a ss wou ws Wek ee wes eee ee $6.00*
Semi-monthly. numMBeTS. as oss oki ewe Mask ca gas Cae R Ue hae ee .25
Monthiy numbersss Sacks ci hs awe Sie oh wa Pee ee ees Peres
Remitiances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’”’ and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JourNnaAt does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 16 May 19, 1926 No. 10
GEODESY.—Gravity work at the second meeting of the International
Geodetic and Geophysical Union... EMMANUELE SOLER, Royal
University of Padua. (Communicated by W. D. LamBErr.)
The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, which was
formed after the war for the purpose of promoting and coérdinating
investigations in geodesy and geophysics, held its first meeting at Rome
in May, 1922. At this meeting there was but little discussion of
gravity work.
The writer presented a note: The establishment of an international
gravity net (Sullo stabslimente di una rete gravimetrica internazionale)
which was published in the Bulletin Géodésique (No. 2, April, 1923),
issued by the Section of Geodesy of the Union, and was intrusted with
the duty of drawing up an international report on determinations of
gravity between 1912 and 1922 and also some account of those made
in 1922-24. This report, which is now in press and which contains
600 determinations of gravity made in this period, and also an account
of the work in 1922-24, were presented at the Madrid meeting.
The facts brought out by the report, both in regard to the variety of
instruments and in regard to certain diversities in the methods of
observation and calculation prevailing in the various countries, brought
home to the Section of Geodesy of the Union the necessity of ap-
pointing an international Committee on Gravity? to consider the vari-
ous questions raised in the report and to establish general rules for
coordinating gravity work.
In the first place the Committee recognized the difficulty of pre-
1 Translated from the Memorve della Societad Astronomica Italiana, Vol. III, New
Series, by W. D. Lampert, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
2The Committee was. as follows: E. Soler, Chairman; other members, Bowie,
Perrier, Neithammer, Lenox, Conyngham, Matsuyame; A. Vening Meinesz, Secretary
261
262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
scribing a single type of instrument for determining gravity, since it
would be only unwillingly that the various countries would give up the
instruments made in their own machine shops, or devised by their own
geodesists. Instead of this, the committee deemed it desirable to
recommend uniform standards both for the work of observation itself,
and more especially for computing the precision of the resulting de-
terminations of gravity; these standards can be applied whatever may
be the pendulum apparatus used and whatever the method by which
time is determined, whether astronomically or by radiotelegraphy.
The rules for the conduct of observational work deal especially with
the following matters: (1) the desirability of continual verification
of the constancy of the pendulums, a matter which may be tested by
returning them frequently to the national base station, or to some other
connected with the latter by determinations of great accuracy; (2)
the method of arranging the pendulum observations with reference to
determinations of time, and the limits of admissible error, which will
vary with the importance of the station considered.
In regard to the computation of the precision of the results, on the
proposal of Meinesz and of Niethammer it was recommended that
account be taken: (1) of accidental errors of the period of the pen-
dulums, as deduced from the values of the period of oscillation ob-
served at a single station; (2) of the errors in the period which are
constant at a single station but which vary from one station to another
according to the laws of accidental error; (3) of errors more or less
systematic in nature. For each of the above classes the errors in-
tended to be included were specified. |
The committee laid down certain criteria to be applied in the rather
troublesome computation of the so-called topographic correction,? to
be applied to correct the observed period of oscillation, for the effect
of matter lying above the geoid and extending to a distance of 40 km.
at least from the station.
It was voted to proceed with the correction, and this with all at-
tainable precision, of certain national base stations, particularly of
those neighboring countries which are members of the Union, that is,
at the present time: Madrid, Paris, DeBilt, Proviantgaarden (Copen-
hagen), Uccle, Cambridge, Basel and Padua; some of these stations
are not included in the international gravity net adjusted by Borrass
3 [This is the topographic correction (Gelindereduktion) of Borrass’s reports on grav-
ity. It is applied because the topography above the geoid is conceived as condensed
upon the latter to form a surface layer of density proportional to the elevation. It is
not the correction for the topography in isostatic calculations.—Translator.]
MAY 19, 1926 SOLER: INTERNATIONAL GRAVITY WORK 263
in 1909. This connection when made and the adjustment of the result-
ing net will form a supplement to Borrass’s work.
The Committee again expressed the opinion that theoretical gravity
should be calculated by Helmert’s formula of 1901.
In this way and by means of the standards referred to above, which
are given in full in the minutes of the Committee soon to be published,‘
conclusions were reached on some of the most interesting problems
encountered in measuring gravity.
With regard next to the much-debated question of isostasy it was
deemed desirable to have the values of gravity corrected not only by
the classic methods of reduction of Faye® and of Bouguer, but also by
the isostatic method, according to the methods proposed by Hayford
and Bowie. At the instance of the committee on gravity the Section
of Geodesy voted that those countries which might not desire, or
might be unable, to establish an office for computations of this sort
might apply to the U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Survey which, after
suitable financial arrangements had been made, would perform the
computations for the gravity determinations made by the countries
in question.
This decision has the advantage of opening the way to a knowledge of
the so-called depth of compensation in various parts of the world by
means of uniform methods of calculation and therefore of increasing
the value of the conclusions that may be derived from this knowledge.
To complete the chronicle of the discussions on gravity at Madrid
let me mention two important communications.
The first one referred to certain fundamental changes which might
be introduced into gravity apparatus. General Ferrié and Colonel
_ Perrier presented some remarks regarding a method which is being
tested at Paris by the Service Géographique de l’Armée. In this
method gravity is determined by means of special light waves emitted
during the fall of a body.
Bowie referred to an apparatus of Michelson’s® still in the experi-
4 A brief summary of the deliberations of the committee is published in the Bulletin
Géodésique, No. 4, (1924).
5 [Faye’s reduction = free-air reduction. Mr. G. R. Putnam has applied the term
Faye reduction to a method, also used by Faye, in which the Bouguer reduction is applied
to the topography between the level of the station and the ‘‘general level of the sur-
rounding country”’ and the free-air method to the vertical distance between the general
level and sea level.— Translator. |
6 Cf. W. Bowig, Isostatic Investigations and Data for Gravity Stations in the United
States established since 1915. (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special pub. No. 99,
Washington, 1924).
264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
mental stage at Washington, with which gravity is determined by
measuring with the interferometer the flexure produced by a weight
applied to a quartz fiber and suitably arranged on the fiber itself.
The second interesting communication was made by Vening Meinesz
and dealt with the determination of gravity at sea.
Meinesz, who had studied in Holland a way of eliminating the effect
upon the oscillations of the pendulum of those small movements of the
ground, which are quite noticeable in that region, by means of a method
based on the simultaneous swinging of several pendulums, believed that
the same method could be applied to eliminate the effect of the motion
of a vessel situated at some little depth below the surface of the sea,
and that therefore it could be used in a submarine submerged toa
depth of about 10 meters below the surface.
He used for the purpose a Stiickrath outfit of four pendulums in
the Dutch submarine KII and during the voyage of this vessel from
Holland to Java he made determinations at 26 stations, some in
harbors and some in mid-ocean.
The results, which are published in a note, Observations de pendule
sur la mer, Delft, 1923, and were presented at Madrid, although pro-
visional are very important.’ ‘The Section of Geodesy therefore ex-
pressed the hope that all nations having navies might be willing to
repeat these investigations.
e *k *k *f
Thus has been summarized in outline the work pertaining to gravity
that was accomplished at Madrid, work which, as is evident, fared far
better than the work done at Rome during the first meeting. So
without going into discussions of new forms of gravity apparatus which
are not yet well known and which may perhaps displace the pendulum,
it may be said that the decisions reached regarding the methods of
observation and of computation are certainly such as to ensure greater
homogeneity in gravity work and greater rigor, and thus to make the
results lend themselves more readily to geophysical inferences.
At this point I should like to emphasize the subject of the connection
[Professor Soler may perhaps have confused the brief reference to MicHELSON’s ap-
paratus in Special Pub. No. 99 with an oral account of the apparatus devised by Dr. F. E.
Wright of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In
Michelson’s apparatus the deflections of a small cantilever beam of quartz are measured
with an interferometer; in Wright’s apparatus the distortion of a coil spring made of
quartz and loaded with a weight is measured on a graduated circle —Translator. |
7 Mernzsz has informed me that he is making modifications in the instruments used
in the first voyage.
MAY 19, 1926 SOLER: INTERNATIONAL GRAVITY WORK 265
of this work with geophysics. Without dwelling upon the ever-
glorious traditions of geodesy, it is certain that in all countries there
has been accumulated an enormous mass of geodetic data.
This does not represent, however, merely a necessity of the past.
The lively and interesting discussions in the Section of Geodesy at
Madrid regarding the choice of an international ellipsoid of reference
prove that this is a question of present-day interest. And it is a
question that involves not merely theoretical necessity but also practi-
cal convenience.
It is well known theoretically that, whatever ellipsoid may be chosen
to represent the earth’s surface, there are always deviations of the
latter from the geoid. It remains for geodetic research to determine
these deviations in the best way, to deduce from them the curvature of
the geoid and to give some idea as to the possible effect of these devia-
tions on the determination of gravity.
But the practical point of view is no less important, since by the
choice of a convenient ellipsoid the connections between the triangula-
tions of adjoining states are made more certain, the results of leveling
are rendered more valuable, and the solution of the various problems
of a practical nature more simple. This ellipsoid should fulfil the
following conditions: (1) the local deflections should be reduced to
small amounts; (2) it should have only small deviations from the geoid;
(3) it should be possible to pass by small changes of the semiaxes from
this ellipsoid to the several regional ellipsoids used in various countries
for their triangulations. ‘The subject of a suitable ellipsoid is there-
fore not exhausted by classical investigations and always leaves open
the way to further studies, which likewise have a practical bearing.
The fact that in investigating this ellipsoid of reference the results of
astronomic methods were combined with more modern results from
measurements of gravity is one of the many strong claims to dis-
tinction of the illustrious Helmert, who in 1901 calculated an ellipsoid
from determinations of gravity known up to that time. This same
ellipsoid now serves and will continue to serve, as has previously been
mentioned, for the calculation of the theoretical values of gravity.
Thus the geodesists are applying to their fundamental—and in-
exhaustible—problem methods ever more and more modern, and these
methods depend on results, like those of gravity determinations, which,
along with others depending on determinations of longitude differences,
latitude variations, and so forth, make up an aggregate of work which
the geodesists, in addition to that done for their own special purposes,
are making available for geophysical research. It is certain that this
266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
work will go on being continually increased, discussed and modernized;
but is likewise certain that it cannot be of use in geophysical problems
unless serious steps are taken to secure the needful coérdination.
Permit me to say here that as regards this codrdination little has been
accomplished so far by the International Union. At Madrid, as I
happen to know, there was a meeting between certain delegates of the
Section of Geodesy and the Section of Oceanography; from this re-
sulted the decision to establish institutions for the study of earth tides
in connection with oceanic tides. Certainly this is an important
decision and one which may lead to interesting results in which geodetic
investigations (leveling, etc.) may be combined with geophysical ones.
Another meeting was held of the delegates of the Section of Geodesy
and the Section of Meteorology and of Seismology, but as far as I
recall, without practical results. All this is not very much.
The variety of problems is well known for which geophysics needs
geodetic connections and in some countries, such as the United States,
through the work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, these connections
exist and geodetic investigation with its application to problems of a
geophysical nature goes on increasing. It is enough to mention the
masterly investigations of Hayford and Bowie on isostasy. It is
therefore to be hoped that it may be possible to establish within the
Union closer relations between the various sections.
But, particularly as regards our own country, it is well to repeat
the wish so competently expressed by Senator Volterra in his Presi-
dential address before the Academy of the Lincei at its meeting of
June 1, 1924, to the effect that not only should the National Commit-
tees take steps to unify by appropriate means the investigations of the
various branches of the Union, but that institutions should also be
established among us of a practical and experimental character, in-
stitutions which might bring about the necessary progress and the
coordination needed in the various problems which bind together
geodesy and geophysics.
Royal University of Padua.
January, 1925.
CHEMISTRY.—Chemistry as a branch of mathematics: Leason H.
Apams. Geophysical Laboratory.
In selecting a title for this address, I have chosen ‘‘Chemistry as a
branch of mathematics” in order that the title itself might emphasize
1 Address of retiring President of the Chemical Society of Washington, January 14,
1926.
MAY 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 267
one of the important aspects of chemistry. It is my purpose to discuss
some of the points of contact between chemistry and mathematics
and to direct attention to the necessity of making more use of mathe-
matical methods in chemical investigation.
Let us begin with a brief review of the origin and early history of
chemistry, in order that we may better observe the place which it oc-
cupies among the other sciences and the general trend of chemical
thought.
Alchemy. Chemistry had its origin in the ancient art, alchemy,
which was first developed by the Alexandrian Greeks early in the
Christian era. According to an old legend it was founded by the
Egyptian god Hermes. For this reason the early alchemists were said
to practice the hermetic art, and when they filled vessels with various
‘mixtures and closed them up they placed on them the seal of Hermes,
from which arose the term “hermetically sealed.’ The first well-
authenticated event in the history of alchemy was the decree issued by
the Roman emperor Diocletian in 290 A.D. ordering the destruction of
certain books which contained, among other things, various recipes for
making alloys simulating gold and silver and used in the manufacture
of ¢heap jewelry.
It seems that originally these processes, which were kept secret by
the priests, deceived only the outsiders, but that eventually the adepts
succeeded also in deceiving themselves into believing that they could
turn base metals, such as lead, into gold. This hope and belief fur-
nished the incentive for chemical investigation—of a certain kind—
extending over many centuries, first by the Greeks and Egyptians and
later by the Arab and Roman alchemists. The development of al-
chemy took place along the theoretical as well as the experimental side,
and if their experiments were few and inconclusive, their theories were
numerous and detailed, as found in the abundant literature of al-
chemy. Many of these theories were founded on the idea of a prima
materia, a single primitive matter of which all substances were com-
posed. Other theorists, however, were more liberal as to the number
of fundamental elements. Thus many adhered to Aristotle’s system
whereby the fundamental elements were earth, air, fire and water,
while in the works of Basil Valentine sulfur, mercury, and salt were
assumed to be the constituents of all metals. Perhaps the most
interesting explanation of the genesis of metals is found in the writings
of Vincent of Beauvais who held that there are four spirits—mercury,
sulfur, arsenic, and sal ammoniac—and six bodies—gold, silver, cop-
per, tin, lead, and iron. The metals are formed as follows: ‘‘Pure
268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
white mercury, fixed by virtue of white non-corrosive sulfur, engenders
in mines a matter which fusion changes into silver, and united to pure
clear red sulfur it forms gold while with various kinds of impure mer-
cury and sulfur the other bodies were produced.”
Such was alchemy. ‘The properties of a number of substances were
known in a general way, but in more than a thousand years the al-
chemists had made but little progress beyond the knowledge and
beliefs of the early Greeks and Egyptians.
The beginnings of chemistry as a science. Alchemy came to an end,
to be replaced by what we now call chemistry, at the time (from 1600
to 1700 A.D.) when the idea of the transmutation of the elements died
out. Although little real progress was made and although the main
activities were in the line of industrial chemistry rather than in funda-
mental research, yet there were a large number of cultured men willing -
and eager to extend their knowledge of the properties and composition
of all substances. Their failure to do so—except in a very limited
way—is not to be attributed to a lack of brain-power or to an unwil-
lingness to spend much time and effort on the subject, but rather to an
inability to proceed along the right course. It is remarkable that the
science of geometry had been well developed before even the earliest
beginnings of alchemy—so well developed that today we have in
common use a textbook, Euclid’s Geometry, which is nearly 2000 years.
old. The ancients were fully capable of proceeding along the lines of
pure logic, but they had no facility for properly combining hypothesis
and experiment. Real progress did not come until they could pre-
serve the proper balance between theory and observation.
Modern chemistry began in the period from 1700 to 1800. Its origin
is inseparably connected with the names: Dalton, Boyle, Lavoisier,
Priestly, Scheel, Cavendish, Bertholet. One of the first evidences of
the real beginning of chemistry was the development of symbols and
formulae. The alchemists were accustomed to represent the known
metals by certain astronomical signs, namely those for the sun and 7
planets. Thus O JOC 216 }© stood for gold, silver, copper, iron,
tin, antimony, lead and mercury respectively. Since this provided
for only 8 elements, Bergman added certain arbitrary symbols to the
list: ODQ 5 foo OW + GO O AV V which stood for zinc, man-
ganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, platinum, metal, acid, alkali,
salt, phlogiston, water, and alcohol. Dalton used a new and more
consistent set of characters; for example, OD@@@®OOO repre-
sented, in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, potas-
MAY 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 269
slum, sodium and oxygen. Finally Berzelius replaced the geometric
signs with the letters now used.
Mathematical notation. The use of characters to represent elements
s the first indication of a mathematical trend in chemistry. For the
essence of every branch of mathematics is a set of symbols which
represent quantities, qualities, and operations. Thus, the symbol
AB may represent the length of a line extending from a point A to a
point B, or the direction of the line (say, northwest), or the result ob-
tained by multiplying a number A by a number B. In mathematics
a set of symbols enables us to write a kind of shorthand whereby a
statement concerning the relation between a number of quantities and
requiring many complete sentences can be condensed into a few strokes
of the pen. For example, the following collection of symbols (a + 6)?
= a? + 2ab + 6b? is the equivalent of the statement that: |
When one number is added to another number and when the sum is multi-
plied by itself the number obtained by this operation is identical with that
obtained by multiplying the first number by itself and then adding twice the
product of the two numbers and adding also the product obtained by multi-
plying the second number by itself.
To take an extreme case, the expression R,%,, well known in a
certain branch of mathematics, stands for a set of expressions? which
would require many hours to state completely in plain English. Ina
similar but less striking manner every chemical equation is a statement
in mathematical language of a number of facts concerning certain
‘ elements and compounds, and the difficulty of writing or speaking
about chemical subjects without having recourse to the conventional
symbolism can well be imagined.
To return to the history of chemistry: having been started in the
right direction by the great hypotheses of Dalton and of Avogadro,
the science developed steadily and ever more rapidly. The century
that has just passed has seen chemists increase in number from perhaps
a few dozen to tens of thousands; it has seen a vast accumulation of
information concerning the properties and composition and reactions
of substances; it has seen chemistry transformed from a mere hobby to
a great branch of science and an indispensable factor in the world’s
most important industries. During this period workers in the field
of chemistry were so occupied with measurement, with analysis and
with synthesis that theory lagged far behind experiment. A great
mass of uncoodrdinated and apparently unrelated data accumulated
2 This is the Riemann curvature tensor; used in the theory of relativity.
270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
and by its very magnitude and unwieldly character forced the develop-
ment of theories or laws to harmonize and simplify the known facts.
Chemistry was thus driven slowly and inevitably into mathematical-
physical channels.
Abstract reasoning. Let us now consider the two ways in which we
may look at chemical problems. People may be divided rather sharply
into two classes depending on their ability to view things in the ab-
stract. One class has no difficulty in visualizing the meaning of sym-
bols and in forming a mental picture from an equation. The other
class finds it difficult or impossible to do this and prefers the written
word or sentence rather than a symbol which stands for it. All equa-
tions are poison to these people. We have here a difference of tem-
perament rather than training. Each class has its own mode of think-
ing and its own method of attacking problems. The one typeisfound .
more often among the physicists; the other among chemists. It seems
that in schools and colleges too little allowance is made for this condi-
tion. The kind of mathematics customarily employed in physics
presents very great difficulties to most students of chemistry. How-
ever, to teach ‘Functions of a Complex Variable” to an unwilling
chemist is no more foolish than to eliminate mathematics entirely from
his course of study. Actually the amount of pure mathematics re-
quired in most branches of chemistry is small. Elementary calculus |
is as far as most need go, but what is more important than any specific
mathematical subject is to have a certain type of mental training, a
mental training requisite for a proper understanding of the physical
meaning of a formula. Most people realize that geometry is not
taught to high school students because they are likely to have any
practical use for the relation between the exterior angles of triangles,
but rather because geometrical demonstrations teach them to think
straight and to proceed in a logical manner whenever they attack
any problem.
Mathematics is an abstract science while chemistry is essentially a
concrete science, but progress in any branch of science will be most
rapid when it makes full use of the tools which the mathematician has
provided. ‘This is more evident in physical chemistry than in organic
chemistry or biochemistry, but because of the inherently greater dif-
ficulties these parts of chemistry have not developed so far. Already,
however, the methods of physical chemistry are being made use of in
nearly every branch of chemistry and, a start having been made, it is
to be expected that much of the apparent aversion to mathematical
methods will gradually disappear.
May 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 271
Let us now consider a few examples of the mathematical aspects of
chemical investigation—first a brief description of the elementary
mathematical devices which are of most general use, and second a
mention of certain branches of chemistry which are most intelligible
when allowed to speak in mathematical language.
The graphical representation of data. In nearly all kinds of investi-
gation, it is necessary to measure something, and if one of the measured
quantities depends solely on one other quantity it is common practice
to plot a curve. ‘Order and regularity are more readily and clearly
recognized when exhibited to the eye in a picture than when they are
presented to the mind in any other manner.”’ However, it is seldom
that the full possibilities of graphical representation are realized. In
many instances it is advantageous to plot one quantity against the
logarithm of the other quantity. This can be done either by finding
the logarithms and then plotting in the ordinary manner, or, more
directly, by the use of special coérdinate paper with a logarithmic
scale. By this means, curves having a logarithmic or exponential
shape? become straight lines, or nearly so, and a straight line, of course,
is much easier to draw and is more useful for extrapolation. In other
cases it is convenient to use a double logarithmic scale*—so-called
log-log paper.
Still more important for the chemist is a peculiar scale in which the
logarithm of one quantity is plotted against the reciprocal of the other.
This is almost indispensable when dealing with vapor pressures or with
equilibrium constants, and it is very surprising to observe the large
number of those in chemical work who are not familiar with this
procedure.
The deviation curve is a valuable aid in plotting certain kinds of data.
It is difficult to plot data accurate to one part in one thousand on a
sheet of reasonable size. But by plotting the differences between the
observed points and some arbitrary line which approximately fits the
data, it is possible to obtain a satisfactory representation on a small
sheet of codrdinate paper and to show irregularities which are invisible
on the ordinary plot. |
Selection of an equation. This brings us to one of our most common
difficulties—the selection of an equation to represent a given set of
data. ‘To this goal there is no royal road. It requires the use of the
3 That is, curves approximately represented by the equation y = ab*, where x and y
are the variables.
4 This makes a straight line of the function x? = by-.
272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10
simple mathematical devices which have been provided for us, com-
bined with as much common-sense and experience as we can bring
to bear on the problem. In general, the best procedure is as follows:
First, it is advantageous to familiarize oneself with the appearance
of a number of the simpler types of curves. Several of these’ may
be plotted on a convenient scale and kept for reference. Then,
having plotted the data in question, we compare with the reference
curves the shape of the curve so obtained, and if one is found which
resembles the experimental curve we use this as a clue in replotting the
data so that nearly a straight line is obtained. If satisfactory, we then
use the graph to determine all but one of the constants of the equation
and calculate the remaining constant from the equation and the data.
A more elegant method for determining the constant of the chosen
equation is to use the method of least squares. This is a good plan—
for those who can do it. Nearly as good results are obtained b -
averaging the points in groups so as to obtain as many “average points”
as there are constants in the equation and then solving directly for the
constant.
As a last resort, when all other methods fail, the data may be fitted
to a power series
y=Ast+ Be + Ce’ + De +.
using enough terms to make the curve fit the data to a sufficient
approximation. ‘This is the most common method and the least
satisfactory.
What has been said so far refers to the case of two variables only.
With three variables (for example, P, V, and T) graphical representa-
tion requires the construction of a solid model, or the drawing of con-
tours on a plane, while with four variables the case is hopeless unless
one is clever enough to draw a projection of a four-dimensional sur-
face on a three-dimensional solid. |
The Phase Rule, and chemical thermodynamics. “ %
Oy : ™
ih ph neg 3 am
ey Le
ie sp a
.
sel, Gaia. Wiican Ea Seaiheey ee fe
Chemistry.—Chemistry as a —— of mathematics. : “Taso
ayes, 2 ae
PROCEEDINGS |
The AQADEMY... is.) ens sdcutnn case tories sa Geeta aaa
The Philosophical Soehaty es a ea
SCIENTIFIC NorEes AND NEWS... seeseeseeeeesesses seers
Con aenaas arenas Francis B. SILSBEE, Bureau of , Stan
opr aniod es chk W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Geodetic
Vol. 16
4
oe,
JUNE 4, 1926
JOURNAL
OF THE
No. 11
“WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
D. F. Hewett
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
L. H. ApamMs
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GOLDMAN
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R. F. Grieas
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. J. Maucuiy
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
E. WICHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
BY THE
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Ny
S. A. Ronwzr
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
G. W. Stross
GBROLOGICAL SOCIETY
J. R. Swanton
ANTHROPOLOGIGAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mt, Royran anp GUILFORD AVES.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Authorized on July 3, 1918.
v ‘
So
Rape
n Neos ; =a ~
a Lael lig sj. &
e
JUN 4 1926
BOS
TRY
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917.
~
Aanes Cuasm®>~
Hite Ge.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims ta
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. Tothisendit publishes: _
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the eee (2) a
short notes of current scientific literature published in or eens from Washington; —
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; i
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNAL is issu
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond tocalendar years. Prompt —
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the, mals
issue of the JourNnat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. os
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page. :
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text ficures oes
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be =
partly met by the author. he
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors: a x
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. a 8
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices. mf
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 Dil 4.30 5.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50: . 4.80 ey f° 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints — ey
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript,
The rate of Subscription per volume i8......cccccccccecceccecs tile Evite sees oo
Semi-monthiy numberg: ii. skis oo ou Waid Src wa Sees steak ae owe ce) eee
Monthly mumbersis oos6 oo is oes os aa Race er eis 0b wos oe ee ret) i
Remitiances should be made payer’ to ‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’’ and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic aoe Washington, D.C,
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JouRNAL does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |
Vou. 16 June 4, 1926 No. 11
GEODESY.—The equilibrium theory of the earth’s crust. GEORGE
R. Putnam. Washington, D. C.
It is now generally accepted that the crust, or outer portion of
the earth, is in a condition of equilibrium, called isostasy. Under
the great and continuous pressures exerted, the solid materials of
which the crust is composed act to some extent as if they were plastic,
and elevations are, so to speak, floated and depressions sunk by the
relatively lighter or heavier materials of which they are composed
or by which they are underlaid. I became interested in this subject
over 30 years ago. So much has been written about isostasy since,
that I would not feel justified in again recurring to this early work,
were it not that, because of the way in which it was published, there
has been some misapprehension regarding it.
The early work referred to was the measurement of the relative
force of gravity made by me in 1894 and 1895 at 34 stations in the
United States, and the statements of the results for these and other
stations published in 1895 and 1896.1. The field work was for the
most part planned by Mendenhall, then head of the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, and was the first extensive use of the portable pendu-
lum apparatus developed under his direction, largely by E. G. Fischer.
The stations were systematically distributed across the continent, at
points well suited to bring out the general facts as to crustal condi-
tions, including a station on the summit of Pikes Peak. I had the
assistance of Charles Mendenhall, now of Wisconsin University, on
the mountain part of this work.
While the task assigned me was to make the observations, in putting
the results into shape, with reduction to sea level by the then cus-
1PuTnaM. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Report for 1894, Appendix No. 1, pages 9-37.
1895. Phil. Soc. Washington Bulletin 13: 31-56. 1895. Amer. Jour. of Sci. 1: 186-
192. March, 1896.
285
286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
tomary methods, one on the theory of a rigid crust, and the other a
crude application of isostasy, I was impressed by the significance of
this series, and by the fact that those two methods both signally
failed to remove all the large anomalies, and that therefore neither
gave clear evidence as to crustal conditions.
The idea of isostasy had been expressed by Airy in 1855, and by
Pratt in 1859, as an explanation of anomalies in plumb line deflections
in India, and was also advanced to account for the anomalies in gravity
results from pendulum observations in India in 1865. In 1880
the French astronomer Faye? suggested that while elevations in
general are in a condition of equilibrium, the gravity results would
be more harmonious if certain features of moderate size were allowed
for as supported loads, and he gave as illustrations the Great Pyramid
of Egypt, a single hill or mountain, and the ‘“‘pillar’’ of an oceanic
island. He did not however apply this idea.
The so-called free air reduction was an attempt to apply a compen-
sation correction to gravity observations by ignoring the attraction
of all material above sea level. A comparison in 1895 of the result-
ing anomalies, with the topographic situations of the stations showed
a striking relationship, with large positive anomalies where the sta-
tions were above the average elevation, and the reverse for stations
below. So I applied a leveling off process, estimating the average
elevation of the country about each station within an arbitrarily
assumed radius of 100 miles, and then allowing for the attraction of
the mass between the station elevation and the average elevation,
subtractive or additive as the station was above or below the average.
This in effect applied approximately an isostatic compensation suf-
ficient for the average elevation of the region about a station, in-
stead of for the station elevation itself. In application it simply
added another term to the free air reduction. On the idea of isostasy,
this was a logical procedure, as the trouble with the free air reduc-
tion was that it ignored the fact that gravity at any station is ap-
preciably affected not only by the compensation immediately be- |
neath that station but by the resultant effect of the compensation of
the surrounding area for some distance, and in regions where the
2 Faye. C. R. Acad. Sci. 90: 1443. 1880. Because of the suggestion in this paper
of allowing for certain supported loads, in 1895 I used the term Faye reduction. FAYE
however never applied the idea or developed a formula. To avoid confusion which has
arisen, and also because the reduction I developed is not dependent on the idea of sup-
ported loads, I have since called it the average elevation reduction, as it adds to the
free aid reduction formula a term to allow for isostatic compensation for the average
elevation of the region about a station.
JUNE 4, 1926 PUTNAM: EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF THE EARTH CRUST 287
- point of observation was much above or below the average elevation
the resulting over or under compensation was shown by the large
free air residuals. In this investigation I used 67 stations, including
previous determinations in several continents, and island stations in
two oceans, a group of stations exceptionally well placed to throw
light on isostasy. Quantitatively the method was effective, as for
the first time in gravity reductions, the large residuals disappeared.
In 1909, after having tested the theory of isostasy by means of
deflection of the vertical data, Hayford made an important advance
by developing a method of reducing observations of the force of gravity
taking account for the first time of the curvature of the earth’s sur-
face and of the compensation of all the topography of the earth.’
He assumed a condition of perfect local isostasy, a depth of compen-
sation derived from his deflection investigations and uniform vertical
distribution of compensation. He reached important conclusions by
comparisons of the anomalies with those of older methods. In this
work he used 72 gravity stations, 56 of which are in the United States.
The investigations were later greatly extended by him and by Bowie.
They constitute the most thorough investigation that has been made
of the bearing of gravity observations on the condition of the earth’s
crust, and they yielded gravity residuals which are probably more
significant than any heretofore.
But it developed that the 1895 dicta had given anomalies on
the average approximately as small as the later more rigid work.
The reason for this was explained later. The investigations of Hay-
ford and Bowie‘ have indicated that there is practically no difference
between the average anomalies based on an assumption of perfect
local isostasy and those based on an assumption of regional compen-
sation, which implies some local rigidity, to a radius of 37 miles from
the station, and it is not shown that the same may not be true for a
somewhat larger radius. For an area included within a radius of
104 miles they concluded that there is a marked advantage for local
isostasy. While there is probably close isostatic adjustment for
areas smaller than this, the average anomaly differences are still
rather small even to the radius of 104 miles, and there is a little
additional evidence in favor of regional compensation to this limit,
as for example that derived from neighboring pairs of stations.’
* HayFrorD. Report, International Geodetic Association, App. A: 365. 1909.
4 HayrorD and Bowie. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Spec. Pub. 10: 98-102. 1912,
Bowie. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Spec. Pub. 40: 85-92. 1917.
5 Putnam. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33: 299-301. 1922.
288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
Therefore the results of the method used in 1895, which was equiva-
lent to applying approximately an adjustment to each station to
compensate for the average elevation of the surrounding region, are
not affected by whether local features are considered as regionally
supported loads or not. Within the limits of the approximations
used the results should be similar to those by the Hayford method.
TABLE 1—Comparison oF Gravity ANOMALIES
ANOMALIES, g OBSERVED,
LESS g COMPUTED
AVERAGE
ELE-
STATION ata VAriOn gene
= a=
VATION ee Bouguer| Free air ee Hayjord
reduc- | reduc- | reduc- | TE@UC-
MELES tion tion tion Ae
Putnam,
1895
meters | meters dyne dyne dyne ‘Hee
Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian) Coastal
TOMO We sie Sic ae ee oe bade 10 0/-++0 .023}-+0 .024!-+-0 .023}+0 .039
Deer Park, Md. Allegheny Mts. ridge.. 770 479|—0 .045|-++-0 .032|-++0 .003}+0 .010
ithaca Ns ¥) Wakemwerions). 3.0 5-500 247 345| —0.055|} —0 .031|—0.021|—0 .023
Denver, Colo, Western plateau......... 1,638} 2,212}—0.207;—0.048}+0.008]—0.016
Pikes Peak. Rocky Mt. summit........ 4,293] 2,258}—0.231/+0.234/+-0 .014)+0.021
Grand Junction, Colo. Rocky Mt. valley} 1,398} 2,251|—0.184|—0.044|+-0 .041|+-0 .024
Norris Basin, Wyo. Rocky Mt. region..| 2,276} 2,137|—0.197|+0.038]-+-0 .024/++0 .021
Salt Lake City, Utah. Western plateau. .| 1,322| 1i,894)—0.171)/—0.045/+0.010/+0.010
Mt. Hamilton, Calif. Coast mountain
SLL ONL Re OA AE SER ae Ge RRA RLS 1,282 80] —0 .031|}-++0 .093] —0 .022|—0 .003
San Francisco, Calif. Pacific Coast..... 114) —280}—0.009/—0.028]—0.039]—0.023
Seattle, Wash. Coastal region.......... 74 530/—0'.127|—0.135|—@2071)—0 gs
Juneau, Alaska. Coastal valley......... 5 800] —0 .039|—0 .047| + 0.046} + 0.037
St. Georges, Bermuda. Atlantic Island. 2|—2,400/+ 0.225}+ 0.214} 0.029) | 0.020
Saint Paul Island, Alaska. Bering Sea
SPT eset ee cee Netter a eM 2 ecg 12} —60/+0.041/+0.032/+ 0.034} 0.000
Honolulu, Hawaii. Pacific Island, coast. 6/—1,930}+ 0.202/+ 0.192}|—0.002| + 0.054
Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Pacific Island,
SUMAN 3: eae ty eee ae Crees Asi eed 3, 981}—1,670 + 0.252/+ 0.630)-++0 .076| +4 0.185
For 42 stations, range of anomalies...................- 0.507| 0.765) 0.147} 0.278
Mean: resardless of ssiem tiie) a dese eee he 0.104; 0.068} 0.025} 0.024
For 25 United States stations, range of anomalies....... 0.278) 0.316} 0.086} 0.062
Men, regardless of sles 0 sae te ee nt 0.117} 0.039} 0.018) 0.014
They do agree, on the average, to a degree which is rather unexpected
when the generalizations of the 1895 reductions are considered, but
as I pointed out, the methods of computation were too approximate
for the individual residuals to have much significance. For the most
part, however, they show the same trend as the Hayford anomalies.
Table 1 illustrates the foregoing by comparison of anomalies for
stations significantly located, using the four reduction methods.
JUNE 4, 1926 PUTNAM: EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF THE EARTH CRUST 289
The summary at the end includes all stations for which a direct
comparison of original results could be made. A full comparison,
and explanation of the reductions, were published in 1922.6 Most
weight should be given to the United States stations, and these show
a small but appreciable advantage for the 1912 results.
The 1895 investigation included 15 oceanic island stations in the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and Bering Sea, and for these the weight
of surrounding sea water, as well as the configuration of the sea bottom,
was taken into account in computing the compensation due to average
elevations.’ The results for these oceanic island stations were in
good conformity with those for the continental stations.
At the time, I stated® that the 1895 results indicated ‘‘that local
topographical irregularities’ are ‘‘maintained by the partial rigidity
of the earth’s crust,’’ and I meant, by this, features of the order of a
single mountain, as suggested by Faye. I did not conclude that
mountain systems or larger continental areas are upheld, and I did not
use the words “mountain ranges,’ which in this connection are
ambiguous. ‘The 1895 results furnished strong evidence of the exist-
ence of isostasy to a fairly close but not determined limit, but it has
since developed that they did not furnish proof as to the support of
local features. The results with the Hayford reduction method give
very strong evidence of the correctness, to a close limit, of the theory
of isostasy, but as shown above, for areas of 37 miles radius, or pos-
sibly larger, they give indeterminate results as between regional
and local compensation. Such a feature as a single mountain would
generally fall within an area of this size, and thus the gravity investi-
gations do not determine whether a mountain is regionally sup-
ported or locally compensated. A mountain is in general undoubt-
edly compensated, but it is probable that through partial rigidity the
compensation is distributed beyond the area of the base, as a part of
the compensation of the surrounding region; the method of distribu-
tion is, for obvious reasons, difficult to detect with the pendulum.
Visible evidence on the surface of the earth shows that the strength
of its materials is sufficient to maintain for long periods nearly vertical
rock walls of great height. It is highly improbable that there is
such a condition of compensation below the surface as to support
locally and separately the rock walls and the contiguous valleys of
the Glacier Park region, for example, or the gorge and the side walls
of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado.
6 Putnam. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33: 291-299. 1922.
™Putnam. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rep. 1894, App. No. 1; 26-29. 1895.
8 PurnaM. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rep. 1894, App. No. 1; 25. 1895.
290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
At the request of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Gilbert, a well-known geologist, took part in the 1894 work
by making a geological examination of some of the stations, and he
also later discussed the results with respect to isostasy.2 His com-
putations and conclusions were quite independent of mine, and I
had no responsibility for them. While convinced of general isostasy,
his conclusions as to the extent of regionally supported features were
much broader than anything suggested by me, and in fact his dis-
cussion rather disregarded my warning that “it is probable that no
particular significance attaches to these residuals remaining,’ and the
fact also that I attached no significance to the arbitrarily selected
radius for the average elevation about the station. His work, how-
ever, had the valuable effect of pointing the way to the interest of the
gravity results to geology. Gilbert in a later paper!® completely dis-
carded his deductions of 1895, and I refer to them now only because
the conclusions he discarded have inadvertently been ascribed to me.1!
Their publication at the same time without comment is explained
by the state of knowledge at the time, and inexperience on my part.
Hayford wrote me a letter, March 11, 1922, which I would not quote
but for its quite direct bearing on the purpose of this note. Referring
to my paper of 1922," he says: ‘‘In general I am fully in accord with
it. It seems to me that what you did was to reach a close approxi-
mation, in 1895, to correct conclusions, based on evidence that con-
vinced you but which did not at that time fully convince others.
The fact that later, and much more abundant, evidence treated much
more rigorously gives conclusions in such close agreement with those
reached by you, emphasizes the validity of your work, and also
strengthens the conclusions from the later work.”
I have pointed out the superiority of the recent methods. ‘The
1895 investigations, however, arrived at a fairly close approximation
to the same results by a very simple computation method." Be-
® GILBERT. Phil. Soc. Washington Bulletin 13: 61-75. 1895.
10 GILBERT. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 85-C. 1913.
11 BowrE. Bull. Geodesique, 6: 2. Memoir of Hayford. 1925. Scientific Monthly,
22 (OG:
In these two references there has been some misapprehension in stating my views,
ascribable to the earlier manner of publication.
122 PuTNAM. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33; 287-302. 1922.
13 National Research Council. International Critical Tables. 1: 1926. Swick,
Variation of Gravity with Elevation, page 402. Under ‘‘more exact methods” for com-
puting the value of the acceleration of gravity at a point on the earth’s surface, the
average elevation method, similar to the formula developed in 1895, is given as follows:
“In mountainous country, the computed value will be practically as close to the true
JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 291
sides their interest historically, they have also a value, as mentioned
by Hayford, in showing that similar conclusions as to general crustal
conditions are reached by a quite different method of computation,
and in indicating how a combination of approximate assumptions
may yield results on the average quite close to those of the more
elaborate method. There may be a tendency to take more literally
even than their authors intend the truth of combinations of assump-
tions, the probability of which may appear to be indicated by the
smallness of averages. For example, it is fairly obvious that there is
no sharply defined depth of compensation, that the depth in which
there is some compensation effect varies in different regions, and that
there is not a uniform vertical distribution of compensation, these
being assumptions that were made for mathematical convenience.
An impressive fact as to the earth is that all the varied features of
its so-called crust are in a fairly close state of equilibrium, and a con-
clusive proof of this fact has been furnished by the study of the
oscillations of the pendulum.
PETROLOGY.—Rocks of Eastern China.1 H. 8S. WasHINGTON and
Mary G. Kryss, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution
of Washington.
INTRODUCTION
Attention has previously been called to the paucity of our knowl-
edge of the chemistry of the igneous rocks of China.? Of the igneous
rocks of that country—with an area of one-half that of the United
States—only about 25 analyses have been published, and few of these
are of good quality and of fresh rock. In order partially to supply
this deficiency, Dr. L. F. Yih, Director of the Geological Survey of
China, at the request of the senior author, kindly sent him 24 speci-
mens of the igneous rocks of eastern China from the Survey collec-
tions. For this kindness and courtesy we would express our hearty
thanks.
value as in flat country if an additional term is added to the right hand side of equation
(1) (free air reduction), to take account of the elevation of the place above or below the
general level of the topography within a radius of, say, approximately 160 km. For
every 10 m. the place in question is above the general level, this term amounts to 0.001 .
em. /sec.?, and for every 10 m. below the general level, it amounts to —0.001 cm. /sec.?.
In computing the height of a coast station above the general level, the water must be
considered replaced by an equal mass of rock, of average surface density, resting on the
bottom of the ocean.’’
1 Received May 6, 1926. ;
2 CLARKE and WasHINGTON, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 127: 66. 1924.
292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
The present paper aims only at giving petrographical descriptions
and chemical analyses of the specimens at our disposal, the descrip-
tions having been written by the senior and the analyses made by
the junior author.
Literature. The literature on the petrography of China is not
abundant. Of the more general works, that of Pumpelly? need not
be considered, as it antedates the use of the microscope. Von Rich-
thofen‘ in general names the rocks only from field observations, and
he gives no detailed petrographical descriptions. Blackwelder® con-
tributes a chapter on the rocks collected in northern and central China
by the Carnegie Expedition of 1903-4, with many petrographical
descriptions but without analyses. The rocks collected in north-
western and central China by the Futterer-Holderer Expedition of
1898 have been described by Andree and Schwartzmann, with a
few chemical analyses. Deprat’ gives many descriptions, with some
good analyses, of the rocks of Yunnan in southwestern China. Koch?
describes the rocks of northern China collected by the Szechenyi
Expedition, but without analyses.
Shorter papers are those by: Pabst,? who describes rocks of Kiangsi.
used in porcelain manufacture; Schwerdt,!° who describes von Rich-
thofen’s specimens from Shantung and Liautung; Steuer," who gives
a few brief descriptions of granites from Kansu and Shensi; Lévy and
Lacroix,!? who describe rocks from southern China; Rinne," with good
descriptions of rocks from around Kiau Chow in Shantung; Wong,”
who deals with the petrography of Hsi Shan, west of Peking, in Chihli,
Yih, describing the geology; and Norin,! who gives a good description
of a syenitic area in western Shansi, some of the rocks of which we
have analysed.
3 PUMPELLY, Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl., 15, 1867.
4 Von RICHTHOFEN, China, 2, 1882.
5 BLACKWELDER, in Willis, Walcott, et al., Research in China, Carnegie Inst. Publ.
No. 54: 1 (2). 357-476, 1907.
6 FuTTERER, Durch Asien, 2, part 2, passim, 1909; 3, part 4, 61-116, 1911.
7 Dreprat, Mem. Serv. Géol. Indochine, No. 1 (1), 1912.
8 Kocu, in Wiss. Ergeb. Reise Graf Bela Szechenyi, 3: 364. 1899.
9 Passt, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 32: 223. 1880.
10 ScHWERDT, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 38: 198. 1886.
11 StevuER, Neu. Jahrb. Beil. Band 10: 478. 1895.
22 Lévy and Lacrorx, C. R. Acad. Sei., 180: 211. 1900.
13 RINNE, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 56: 122. 1904.
14 Wonca, in Yih, Mem. Geol. Surv. China, No.1:32. 1920.
15 NoRIN, Bull. Geol. Surv. China, No. 3:45. 1921.
JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 293
PETROGRAPHY
Alaskite. The best specimen of alaskite is one from Chow Kow
Tien, in Hsi Shan (Western Hills), in Chihli, a granite from which,
poor in quartz, is described by Wong. Our specimen is white, rather
fine-grained, composed almost wholly of white orthoclase and less
quartz, with very few scales of biotite and small, opaque, black grains.
In thin section the feldspar is seen to be uniformly a slightly turbid,
untwinned soda-orthoclase, with abundant quartz, the texture being
granitic. The very rare, small biotites are light yellow; there are
some small, elongated crystals of colorless titanite, (mentioned by
Wong as common in granite); a few magnetite grains, but no pyrox-
ene. The black, apparently opaque grains, under high powers, are
slightly transparent on thin edges, with a dark red color and marked
pleochroism: they are referred to one of the sodic amphiboles, aenig-
matite or cossyrite. Much altered specimens that appear to be
alaskite, are those from Ma Shan, Chao Yuan Hsien,!* Shantung,
which is reddish and porphyritic, and may be the tsingtauite of Rinne
or the rhyolite porphyry of Blackwelder; from Ssu Tze Shan, Hunan;
and from Ki Ling An, Fan Chang Hsien, Anhui (Ngan Hwei), which
is aplitic.
The chemical analysis (No. 1 of Table 1) is that of a somewhat
sodic alaskite, with almost equal amounts of the orthoclase and al-
bite molecules. The small quantity of sodium metasilicate shown in
the norm obviously belongs, with the normative acmite and diopside,
to the sodic hornblende;!? while the small percentages of normative
rutile and wollastonite go to form the titanite. The rock is clearly
of sodic affinities.
Granite. Various kinds of granite are very abundant in China.
Two specimens were studied. A biotite granite from Lai Yang Hsien,
Hunan, is fine-grained, made up of white feldspar, quartz, and small
biotites. ‘The thin section shows a typically granitic texture. The |
feldspar is dominantly untwinned orthoclase, with less, finely twinned
oligoclase; they and the quartz grains inclose a few small crystals of
colorless titanite; the thickish tables of pale brownish biotite are
fresh and clear. ‘There are a few magnetite grains, but neither pyrox-
ene nor amphibole is present. The chemical analysis of this speci-
men (No. 2 of Table 1) calls for no special remark, except that all the
16 Hsien = district. Shan = mountain.
17 'This has been shown for the lavas of Pantelleria (Washington, Jour. Geol., 22: 22.
1914).
294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
normative hypersthene must enter biotite and, with the necessary
amount of orthoclase and a little of the magnetite and ilmenite, thus
forms about 15 per cent of this mica.
TABLE 1—Rocks or Eastern CuHina*
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) . (6) CC)
BIOs ues. xh fp. 10 65.63 63.93 63.65 62.72 61.05. 54.18
AlsOhy: eee. 12.95 14.69 16.86 13757 12.70 16.49 16.11
Fe.O3...... 0.60 roo 2.78 0.64 Teo TOL 3:02
HeOv.. se 0.60 3.01 p22 1.68 17 3.97 4.68
MeO. oassek 022 1.58 0.67 3.61 3.44 3.00 5.00
Care: 0.66 DOT 4.33 Do 4.85 5. ol 8.40
NasO een 6 4.90 O20 5.42 4.90 HAS 3.09 3.92
KeQark. Y: bite 4.56 Deas Seto 3.43 o06 iss
FO Ane 0.36 0.55 0.54 0.43 0.43 0.53 0.03
H,0O-..... 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.03 On12 none 0.01
Ope eras 1.26 2205 aly 1.80 Ba 7 1.67 2:02
bt cath tay Nanaia ned: n.d. none 0.02 n.d. n.d. nid:
1g Oa 0.05 0.19 0.37 Oe 0.45 0.14 Of?
Sawered se eee n.d. ib... 0.03 0.05 n.d. n.d. n.d.
CreOneees: n.d. 1. none 0.01 Wade n.d. n.d.
Nin@ a. 0.01 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.08
Ba@siae o n.d. n.d. 0.09 0.08 mids n.d. nid.
100.47 99 .92 99.80 99.58 99.42 100.10 99.50
Norms
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Oh Fe ea is 25.02 20.70 - 15.66 9.54 9.12 13.20 4.20
Cite os rig ee 34.47 Dio2A4: 13.34 21.68 20 .02 20.57 7.78
Ao te 33.54 2125 45.59 41.39 44 54 26.20 33.01
pa Ban ae tere — 11.95 15.29 4.17 ple 20.85 22°52
ANGhe Mase 1.85 — — — — — —
TING Ra ot a 134 — — — — —
De eae 1.30 1.76 2.59 15.98 Lane 4.94 14.52
Hee eae = 4.36 0.50 1.60 1.30 8.94 8.02
Wik Ee a” 0.70 — — — — — =
NU re aaa Sa — 1.86 4.18 0.46 — 1.39 5.34
LG ene stan P22 3.95 Pa s4183 5200 a20D 3.19 3.80
ele eee ee — — 0.32 1.28
UU er : 0.64 -- — ~- 2 — —-
Ammen} — 0.34 . 0.34 0.34 S02 0.34 0.34
(1) Alaskite, I1”.4.1.3. Chow Kow Tien, Hsi Shan, Chihli.
(2) Biotite granite, I(II).4.2”.3. Lai Yang Hsien, Hunan.
(3) Augite granite, I(IJ).4”.2”.4. Shang Ch’ien Pu, Wu An Hsien, Honan..
(4) Quartz syenite porphyry, II.(4)5.1(2).”4. Chin Ling Ch’in, Shantung.
(5) Quartz syenite porphyry, II.(4)5.1.4. Tien Shan, Ih Tu Hsien, Shantung.
(6) Granodiorite, II.4”.3.3”. Hsiao Chi Sheh, Lung Jen Hsien, Fukien.
(7) Andesine andesite, II”.5.3.4”.. Hsi Ma Ho, Mongolia.
* Mary G. Keyss, analyst.
JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 295
A specimen from near Shang Ch’ien Pu, Wu An Hsien, Honan, is
an augite granite porphyry. This is light gray, with small (24 mm.)
phenocrysts of dull, slightly pink feldspar and small prisms of black
augite in a very fine-grained but phaneric groundmass. Microscopi-
cally, the phenocrysts of orthoclase are fairly euhedral, stout crystals,
with rough outlines and somewhat turbid in the interior. A few
phenocrysts of oligoclase also occur. ‘The rough prisms of augite are
of a pale, slightly greenish, yellow. ‘The fine-grained groundmass is
typically granitic. Magnetite grains are few, and there is no biotite,
amphibole, or titanite. The chemical analysis (No. 3 of Table 1)
shows that the rock is decidedly sodic and that the amount of quartz
is not large.
Quartz syenite porphyry. Two specimens that fall here come from
Chin Lin Ch’in and from Tien Shan, Jh Tu Hsien, both in Shantung.
They resemble each other so closely in all respects that the two locali-
ties probably are near each other or belong to the same petrographic
district. They are fine-grained, aplitic-looking rocks, with small
phenocrysts of white feldspar and some of black augite, in a very
fine-grained, phaneric groundmass. Both specimens contain small
dark xenoliths of pyroxenite. The thin sections show short, thick
tables of fresh, considerably twinned microcline, with little quartz.
The augite phenocrysts form stoutish, ragged prismoids, of a pale,
brownish yellow color, and are not very fresh. The groundmass is
granitic, composed of some quartz and more turbid feldspar. Neither
specimen contains biotite, amphibole, or magnetite grains, but in
that from Ih Tu Hsien there are some small crystals of colorless
titanite. ‘The chemical analyses of the two specimens (Nos. 4 and 5
of Table 1) are much alike and show that the feldspar is a sodic micro-
cline or a potassic albite.
Biotite granodiorite. Only one specimen, from the southeasterly
province of Fukien, represents this rock, but it would appear to be
fairly abundant in eastern China, to judge from the descriptions by
Koch and by Blackwelder. The rock is rather fine-grained, with
granitic texture, made up of much fresh feldspar, many small scales
of black biotite, and a little quartz. The microscope shows that the
abundant feldspar is in part multiply twinned andesine, about Ab;Ang,
with less untwinned orthoclase. The thick tables of rather dark
brown biotite carry no inclusions; there are few crystals of light yel-
lowish augite, slightly altered, but no amphibole. Grains of magnetite,
some of them arranged in branching aggregates of octahedra, also
occur. ‘The chemical analysis (No.6 of Table 1) is distinctly quartz
296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
monzonitic in character, with a marked sodic tendency—hence the
name granodiorite rather than quartz monzonite, following Lindgren
and Iddings.
‘“Basalt.”’ Three specimens of basaltic lavas were studied by us,
two of which proved to be olivine basalt and the third andesine ande-
site, using the nomenclature proposed by Iddings,!% and adopted by
one of us for the Hawaiian rocks.!®° According to this scheme, in the
andesites the normative feldspars are dominant over the femic miner-
als, while in the basalts the amounts of each group are about equal.
An andesite or a basalt may or may not contain modal olivine.
An olivine basalt from T’ang Shan, Ch’i Shia Hsien, Shantung, is
black, densely aphanitic and wholly aphyric. The thin section shows
rather numerous, small, equant, microphenocrysts of fresh olivine,
in a very fine-grained groundmass, made up of grains of magnetite
and smaller granules of colorless augite in a colorless glass base.
Feldspar is almost wholly lacking and must be occult in the glass base.
No analysis was made of this basalt. Basalts, of this and other
kinds, would appear to be rather plentiful in the peninsula of Shan-
tung, according to the descriptions by von Richthofen, Schwerdt,
Rinne, and Blackwelder.
A basalt from Hsueh Hau Shan, Tsing Ching Hsien, Chihli, is
medium gray, aphanitic and aphyric, with a few, small, irregular vesi-
cles of the aa form. It is apparently not quite fresh, and was not
analysed. Microphenocrysts of olivine are fewer than in the pre-
ceding specimen and they are all considerably altered to a yellow sub-
stance. The microgroundmass contains many small, thin laths of
andesine, grains of magnetite, and granules and minute prismoids of
colorless augite, in a colorless glass base. It is possible that this
“basalt” is strictly an andesine andesite, as is that next to be described.
There is one specimen of “basalt’’ from Hsi Ma Ho, Mongolia, a
river which we cannot find on the maps available, but which is pre-
sumably near the Chihli border. Von Richthofen (pp. 381, 389,
739) states that in eastern Mongolia there are extensive flows of
““basalt,’’ which here, as in Shantung, are said to overlie ‘“trachytes”’
and ‘‘rhyolites.’”’ Our specimen is medium gray, almost aphanitic,
except for very small feldspar laths in a dense gray groundmass.
There are numerous, small, irregularly angular cavities, which con-
tain small tables of labradorite. The microtexture is intersertal, the
rock being made up of rather thick, much twinned, plates of andesine,
18 Tppines, Igneous Rocks, 2: 21. 1913.
19 WASHINGTON, Amer. Jour. Sci., 5: 469. 1923.
JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 297
about Ab;An,, some small and altered, roundish grains of olivine, and
fewer of fresh, pale gray augite. No magnetite grains are present,
but there is considerable interstitial, dusty, brownish glass. ‘The
chemical analysis (No. 7 of Table 1) is that of an andesite, rather than
of a basalt, in the usual acceptation of the terms. Its norm shows
some excess S102, as is true of many such rocks, in spite of the modal
presence of olivine, which belongs presumably to an early stage of
crystallization, in accord with the so-called Bowen-Andersen effect.?°
Syenite area of Shanst. At Tzu Chin Shan, in western Shansi,
Lat. 38°14’ N. and Lon. 110° 51’ E., is an area of syenitic rocks, which
have been described by Norin,?! who, however, gives no analyses of
them. ‘The igneous body is regarded by Norin as a laccolith. The
igneous rocks are: “trachy-andesite’’ (phyric hornblende mon-
zonite?), augite syenite, nephelite syenite, and aegirite-nephelite
syenite, with tinguaitic dikes; a volcanic neck of brecciated syenite,
cemented ‘‘trachyte,”’ has broken through at one side. Our specimens
are of augite syenite, nephelite syenite, and leucite tinguaite.
The augite syenite is fine-grained, showing many small prismoids
and grains of black pyroxene scattered through finely granular al-
kalic feldspar. The thin section shows that the texture is granitic, and
that the rock is composed very largely of untwinned, slightly turbid,
anorthoclase, with less, somewhat tabular, finely twinned albite or
oligoclase-albite. There is very little nephelite, mostly as small
rounded grains, included in the feldspars. The pyroxene forms sub-
hedral prismoids, which are pale yellowish brown, with a slightly
greenish tinge. It is faintly pleochroic, from pale olive green to pale
greenish yellow, with extinction angles up to 40°, and apparently
contains a small percentage of the acmite molecule. There are fewer
small, rounded and mostly equant grains of a dark red, almost opaque,
hornblende, some of which are included in the augite. In our speci-
men they are so opaque that little definite can be said of them, except
that they are a sodic hornblende which closely resembles that which
is present in the alaskite of Chihli. According to Norin, the horn-
blende is monoclinic, with an extinction angle of 10°-12°, and he re-
fers it to barkevikite, which, however, in our experience is usually
- much lighter in color and less reddish. Norin states that titanite
“occurs abundantly,’’ but none of this mineral was observed in our
section, nor did we note any magnetite grains, which Norin mentions
as also occurring. ‘The chemical analysis of our specimen is given in
20 BOwEN and ANDERSEN, Amer. Jour. Sci., 37: 487. 1914.
21 Norin, Bull. Geol. Surv. China, No. 3:45. 1921.
298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
TABLE 2.—Rocks oF SHANSI
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
as. aur oe vhs 55.38 56.40 jae 50.00 51.93 52.91
A 8 Pewee 15.47 19.74 18.71 20 .03 20 .29 19.49
Fe2Q3....... Stk 215 4.60 0.98 3.59 4.78
i) SS ae 3.46 1.04 0.56 3.98 1.20 2.05
1 @ Ae 2.20 0 jee! 0.03 0.69 0.22 0.29
Cats Ore: 6.65 2.93 i a 3.41 1:65°° Sea
NasQitin.c% 4.77 ae 5.43 8.28 8.49 Vole
0 Pek eae Seale 12.42 12.64 8.44 9.81 7.88
H3O-+....:: 0.36 Or33 0.78 1.50 0.99 119
H.O-....... 0.03 0.28 0.07 0.10 0.10 nid:
ot ALG OR nari 1.96 t52 1.61 0.99 0.20 none
PGs. een 0.36 0.14 none 0.21 0.06 trace
SOpt nea ce Da. n.d. 0.25 mad. 0.67 n.d.
Gs ip ae Uae ned: md. 0.14 trace 0.70 4 ie'5
WENOE 2! 2 Ont 0.08 0.13 0.50 trace 0.44
Be Osi used n.d. nea. 0.01 none 0.09 n.d.
99 .63 99.99 99 .82* 99.877 100 .58t 100 .25§
Norms
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Opie er ice. 30.02 70.06 33.92 28.91 31.97 46.70
SA eed Wi 34.06 —= — -—— — 14.15
Na ais te es 5.84 4.45 _— — — —
Gs Se eee — 2562 31.83 16.13 20 .28 —
Newt 3.41 WES 13.62 30.39 26.98 22.42
Mle aaah — — 0.23 — 117 0.82
Mpa ce eet — — 0.43 — 1.14 —
INOS Nao cae — — 13.40 DUG 10.63 —
INS iekeee hohe: == — 0.49 2.56 0.12 —
Depa tie. gs. 11.88 1.08 — 12.94 4.77 Dame s
Wiss ae ee 3.83 Ses) Dea = 1.16 3.83
Oe a de == <= = [25 —_
Mite eon. Oe — — — — 6.96
sees te hes ce 3.80 Va N33 1 52 1es2 0.46 ==
AI ea a Deak — — — —_—
1 Bk Gene : — 0.40 0.80 -— a= —
U2 Gb lier pega 1.01 0.34 — 0.67 — —
(1) Augite syenite, I1.5.(1)2.8”. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shamsi. Kryss analyst.
(2) Nephelite syenite, I(II).6.1”.2. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shansi. KEyzs an-
alyst.
(3) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, II.7.1.2. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shansi. KryEs
analyst.
(4) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, I1.7(8).1.8. Beemerville, New Jersey. Wourr analyst.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 99, 577, 1917.
(5) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, "II.7(8).1.8. Bearpaw Mts., Montana. Sroxzs analyst.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper. 99, 577, 1917.
(6) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, (I)I1.6.1.3(4). Magnet cove, Arkansas. WILLIAMS an-
alyst. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 99, 553, 1917.
* Includes ZrO». none, Cr.O; none.
7 Includes CO, 0.22, FeS, 0.54.
t Includes CO, 0.25, F 0.27, SrO 0.07.
§ Includes S 0.52, X 0.48, SrO 0.09.
JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 299
No. 1 of Table 2. Some of the normative ilmenite presumably exists
in the sodic hornblende, which is usually rather high in titanium.
The nephelite syenite of the area is regarded by Norin as intermediate
between the augite syenite and the aegirite-nephelite syenite. Ac-
cording to him, the nephelite syenite is very variable in character,
both texturally and modally, and he thinks that these syenites are
schliere-like “‘differentiation products from the augite syenite magma.”’
Our specimen appears to differ from what Norin describes as “‘a rep-
resentative type.’’ It is pale gray and somewhat phyric, showing
thick-tabular phenocrysts of alkali feldspar, in a medium-grained,
granitic-textured base, composed of gray feldspar, some flesh-colored
nephelite, irregular spots of a black mineral with sub-metallie luster,
and a few small scales of biotite. The thin section shows no features
of special interest as regards the feldspar, which is a slightly turbid
anorthoclase, and the much less abundant nephelite, the latter being
fresh. None of the pyroxene, mentioned by Norin, appears in our
sections, but there is a little brown biotite. Norin mentions that
biotite is abundant when pyroxene is subordinate and vice versa.
The megascopically black areas resolve themselves, in thin section,
into clusters of small grains of a yellow-brown, isotropic mineral,
with high refractive index; this is evidently the spinel spoken of by
Norin. We could detect no titanite, which Norin says is abundant.
The results of the chemical analysis of our specimen are shown in No. 2
of Table 2. This is remarkable for the high content in alkalies, es-
pecially in potash; giving rise to a small amount of normative leucite,
which is taken up by the modal nephelite. The subrang, [.6.1.2,
in which the rock falls, is as yet unrepresented by any analysis, so
that this subrang, 1.6.1.2, may be named shansose.
As we have no specimens of the aegirite syenite or of the “‘trachy-
andesite,” the reader is referred to Norin’s paper for descriptions of
them.
Pseudoleucite tunguarte. Our specimen of this, the only represen-
tative of the many kinds of (mostly tinguaitic) dikes in the area,
belongs to Norin’s first type of “leucite tinguaite porphyry.” It
shows rounded or sub-angular phenocrysts of pseudoleucite, up to
1.5 cm. in diameter, in a greenish black, densely aphanitic ground-
mass. It can be seen by the naked eye that the pseudoleucites are
composed of two minerals, a finely granular, grayish white fe!dspar,
and pale flesh-colored nephelite, the latter occurring mostly in the
interior of the crystal aggregate. Under the microscope, the large
pseudoleucites show the usual aggregate of orthoclase and rather
300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
less nephelite grains. No leucite could be detected, although Norin
notes the presence in his specimens of a clear, colorless, isotropic
mineral, with low refractive index, which he thinks is analcite, but
which may be leucite. In the pseudoleucites are needles of aegirite
and a few bundles of slender needles of natrolite. The holocrystal-
line groundmass is made up of very small anhedral grains of ortho-
clase and nephelite, irregularly sprinkled with very slender needles of
aegirite, which are so thin that the individuals appear to be black,
although the more crowded, felt-like areas show a greenish tinge.
No sodic hornblende was seen nor was there found any of the sodalite
group of minerals, although the chemical analysis indicates that very
small amounts of some of these are present, as they are in other
pseudoleucite tinguaites.
The chemical analysis (No. 3 of Table 2) shows about the same very
high percentage of KO as does the nephelite syenite, but with less
SiO. and twice as much Na.O. As there is no, or at most very little,
modal leucite, the normative leucite is to be considered as split up,
forming modal orthoclase and potassic nephelite, in accordance with
Bowen’s interpretation of the composition of nephelite, based on
laboratory study of the end members.” The high Fe,O; is connected
with the abundant aegirite, into which enters also the small amount
of sodium metasilicate shown in the norm.
The Chinese rock closely resembles, modally and _ texturally,
the pseudoleucite tinguaites of Bear Paw Mountains, Montana,”
and of Beemerville, New Jersey.** The analyses of these two
(Nos. 4 and 5 of Table 2) are much like that of the Chinese rock,
except for the higher K,O and lower Na.O of the last. All three are
also alike in that their norms show notable amounts of the leucite
molecule, although no modal leucite is discernible in thin sections.
The Chinese tinguaite falls in the subrang II.7.1.2, while the other
two are in I1.7.1.3. All three have a little sodium metasilicate in
the norm. It may be recalled that both Pirsson and Wolff were cog-
nizant of this excess of Na.O over that needed for albite, nephelite,
and acmite. Pirsson attributed this, in great part, to sodalite and
nosean, which are present in the rock; but Wolff found difficulty in
explaining it, as the New Jersey rock contains no sodalite, so that he
somewhat doubtfully assigned it to aegirite. The pseudoleucite
tinguaite of Magnet Cove” is also similar to these three modally and
22 BOWEN, Amer. Jour. Sci., 43: 115. 1917.
23 WEED and Pirsson, Amer. Jour. Sci., 2: 194. 1896.
24 WoLFF, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 38: 273. 1902.
25 J. F. Wiuurams, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Arkansas, 2: 267. 1891.
JUNE 4, 1926 MACLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 301
texturally, but its analysis (No. 6 of Table 2) shows slightly higher
SiO, and lower Na.O and K.O, so that the norm contains none of the
leucite molecule, and no leucite is present in the rock. All the known
pseudoleucite tinguaites are connected with nephelite syenite and
similar rocks, some of which they much resemble chemically, as the
Chinese tinguaite resembles the accompanying nephelite syenite.
Summary. The specimens at our command are too few to give a
very satisfactory idea of the general characters of the magma under-
lying eastern China, but the results of their study, taken in connec-
tion with the descriptions by others, allow us to form a general notion.
The igneous rocks of the region are mostly granitic and granodioritic,
true dioritic and gabbroic rocks being rare, and syenitic rocks even
rarer. The common occurrence of effusive basalt, much of it with
-andesine, and of andesite (the “‘trachyte’’ of Richthofen and others),
with some rhyolite, and the apparent absence of alkalic trachyte,
phonolite, and tephritic lavas, also indicates that. the general magma
is decidedly silicic and of distinctly medium composition. Although
many of the plutonic rocks have a decidedly sodic cast, yet the oc-
currence of nephelite syenite and other such very sodic rocks appears
to be exceptional; they being known only in Shansi and in southern
China, as has been noted by Lévy and Lacroix. In connection with
this latter occurrence it may be noted that the jadeite of Upper Burma
is regarded by Bleeck?* as a metamorphosed nephelite syenite, as was
suggested earlier by Pirsson2’ for the jadeite of Tibet.
ETHNOLOGY.— Piscataway royalty: a study in stone age government
and inheritance rulings! W. C. MacLrop, Wharton School,
University of Pennsylvania. (Communicated by Jonn R.
SWANTON.)
1. THE PISCATAWAY OVERLORDSHIP
The Piscataway were an Algonkian tribe or nation whose village
was located originally in Maryland, at the junction of Tinker’s and
Piscataway Creeks, some fifteen miles south of the present city of
Washington. The name Piscataway is also used to denominate the
group of tribes, each with its own head chief or ‘‘king,’”’ over which the
“king’”’ of the Piscataway tribe ruled as overlord or ‘‘emperor.” The
Piscataway overlordship or ‘‘empire’’ embraced lands stretching for
aS BLEECK, Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 36: 254. 1907.
27 Prrsson, Amer. Jour. Sci., (4), 1: 401. 1896.
1 Received April 15, 1926.
302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
130 miles from east to west in the Potomac River valley, north of the
river; south of the river was the domain of Powhatan, ‘‘emperor”
of the tidewater Virginia tribes.2, About 1634 under the Piscataway
overlordship were the tribes—and their kings—called Chingwawataick,
Nangemaick, Mattowomans, Potopaco, Sacayo, and Pangayo. An
archival note of 1666 would indicate the inclusion, at least at that
date, of the Mibibiwomans and Masquetend; and also, but certainly
very doubtfully, of the Anacostia of the District of Columbia and the
Nanticoke groups, the Choptico and Doags. The Anacostia in 1631
were noted as being under the protection of the tribes of the upper
reaches of the Potomac River, and warring on the Potomac tribe;
the “protectors” of the Potomac tribe were also warring on the
Piscataway.? But by 1666 there had been a serious decline in the
native population, and some adjustment of sovereignties and alliances.
By 1666, moreover, the same delegate, Mattabone, represented both
the Piscataway tribe and the Sacayo tribe in conference with the
English, which suggests that the Sacayo were losing their tribal iden-
tity; at this time the Pangayo and the Chingwawataick appear to
have coalesced.
The Piscataway empire was clearly organised much after the
pattern of that of Powhatan. Each tribe was constituted of a village
and its suburbs or hamlets, under a tribal king who was subordinate
to the king of the ranking tribe.
The Piscataway organization appears to have been no neeaunle
formation. In 1660 representatives of the component tribes explained
for the benefit of the governor of the province or colony of Maryland
in conference that their first emperor had come from the Eastern
Shore of Maryland, historically Nanticoke country, thirteen genera-
tions before. That this first emperor had ruled over all the tribes or
villages of what in 1660 was the colony of Maryland (the tidewater).
They named “every town separately;”’ but the Proceedings of Council
does not make record of the list. It is implied that then the Nanti-
cokes were subject to the Piscataway emperor; and it is stated that
in that day the historic enemies of the Piscataway,—the Potomac and
the Susquehannock,—were subject to the Piscataway.t This last
statement we may imagine may be mere boast on the part of the
Piscataway. Thirteen generations would carry the Piscataway gene-
ology back to perhaps 1540 A.D.
2 See Brinton, Walam Olum, pp. 226-227.
3 FLEET, pp. 25, 30; Smitru, General History, Book 4: 377, 378.
4 Council of December 20, 1660.
JUNE 4, 1926 MACLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT . 303
In 1639 the English Jesuits arrived in Maryland to missionize the
Indians, under the patronage of Lord Baltimore. In that year they
established a mission at the ‘‘metropolis of Pascatoe,”’ the town of
the Piscataway tribe; but in 1642, due to the war of aggression by the
Susquehannocks, they had to move their station down river to Poto-
paco. Father White was the head of the Jesuit mission. As we shall
see it is likely that the missionaries had some influence in the politics
of the natives. Further European influence came shortly when the
Piscataway agreed with the colonial government that their native
political offices should require ratification by the colonial governor
in order to be valid.
2. MATRILINEAL INHERITANCE. OF OFFICE
Piscataway inheritance appears to have been similar to that ob-
taining in Powhatan’s empire south of the river.
Powhatan, emperor of the tidewater Virginia tribes, in the course
of an address to John Smith, said that the heirs to his imperial office
in order of preference according to native law were (1) his three
brothers, (2) his two sisters, (3) the daughters of his two sisters.
Apparently his two sisters had no sons, for John Smith writes that
sisters’ sons were preferred to sisters’ daughters. Powhatan em-
phasized the fact that primogeniture also was the rule; an elder brother
succeeded in preference to a younger brother; but preference was for
male heirs, so that a younger brother would follow his elder brother
before any sister of the brother could succeed. Our data on the
Piscataway is not so explicit, but nevertheless indicates that exactly
the same rulings held; and it furthermore shows us that a sisier’s
daughter, even though only a child, would be preferred in succession to
chiefship before any cousin of the former incumbent. These matrilineal,
primogenitural rulings apparently were general among the tribes of
the southeast of North America, and are exactly similar to the inheri-
tance preferences prevalent among the mother-sib tribes of north-
western North America, save in the case perhaps of the Tahltan of
the plateau who seem to have preferred male cousins to sister’s
daughters.®
6 Smitu, Relation, pp. 52, 115; and Description, p. 165. Smits adds that office never
descends to heirs of the brothers of the incumbent. Compare Anonymous, A Relation
of Maryland, p. 84, 1635. MacLrop, Natchez Political Evolution; Aspects of Northwest
Coast Social Organisation; and Lawson, Carolina, p. 318. Morice (p. 142) notes
among the Carrier Indians of the Northwestern plateau, that if there are no brothers,
sisters, or sisters’ children to succeed to the chiefship, the nephew, or even the niece
of the mother of the deceased, that is, a cousin on the mother’s side, might succeed.
304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
The first “emperor” of the Piscataway line, circa 1540 A.D., was
succeeded by his brothers, in turn, and the last of these was succeeded
by a sister’s son of the eldest brother, ‘‘and so on, from brother to
brother, and for want of such, to a sister’s son,”’ on down to the period
of the arrival of the English circa 1600.6 The ruling sovereign when
the English arrived was Kittamaqund. ‘This emperor had slain his
brother Wannas,” to the end that he might enjoy the crown by the
right of their succession, brother always succeeding brother till they all
be dead.’’?
Among the other tribes of the upper Chesapeake region and of the
eastern shore we have a number of annotations referring to boy kings
and emperors, with regents acting for them pending their maturity;
and notes also of queens or female rulers.®
3. THE QUESTION OF THE SIB
We must now emphasize the fact that for the Piscataway (as for
their neighbors) we have recorded virtually no note of wnheritance
rulings save those applying to the office of king or civil head chief, and
that matrilineal inheritance of the chiefship is not in itself evidence
for matrilineal inheritance of property, nor of the existence of the
mother-sib. Among the Chitimacha of Louisiana it is found associ-
ated with the father-sib; and among the Yuchi who formerly dwelt on
the plateau back of Virginia, it is associated with the mother-sib,
but also with patrilineal societies; while among the Natchez it is
associated with a form of patrilineal inheritance of rank.
The presence of matrilineal chiefship, however, indicates, in all like-
lihood, at least the influence of the mother-sib. The north-eastern
Sioux of the Virginia highlands and plateau apparently possessed the
mother-sib. Of these plateau peoples Lederer noted in 1671 that:
From four women, viz., Pash, Sepoy, Askarin, and Maraskarin, they derive
the race of mankind; which they therefore divide into four tribes, distin-
guished under these several names. They very religiously observe the de-
grees of marriage, which they limit not to distance of kindred, but difference
of tribes, which are continued in the issue of the females; now, for two of the
same tribe to match, is abhorred as incest, and punished with great severity.
Their places of burial they divide into four quarters, assigning to every tribe
6 Council of December 20, 1660.
7 Council of May, 1662; compare above.
8 Compare, for example, WHITE, Brief Relation, p. 41; Jeswit Letters, pp. 124-125,
136; and above.
JUNE 4, 1926 MaAcLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 305
one; for, to mingle their bodies, even when dead, they hold wicked and
ominous.?®
This is clearly an attempt by one not trained in ethnology to describe
the mother-sib. To the northeastern and southeastern Siouan, the
Algonkian of the tidewater were indebted for much of their material
and social culture and it may be that the mother-sib had been
borrowed.
4. HISTORICAL DATA ON THE PISCATAWAY DYNASTY
In 1640 the Piscataway emperor was Kittamaqund. In that year
he and his family were converted to Catholicism by the Jesuits. In
1641 Kittamagqund died. Subsequently an Indian delegation to the
English authorities stated that he had ‘“‘died without brother or sister,
and appointed his daughter to be queen.” This daughter was a
Catholic, one of two daughters of the deceased emperor; she was his
favorite daughter. The Indians refused to assent to this breaking of
_ the matrilineal rule of inheritance of office.'°
From the time of this event, in the history of the first emperor to
rule during the period of European influence, there appears to have
been frequent irregularity in the inheritance of the office. To make
this more comprehensible we will first outline something of the chro-
nology, as it appears in the archival records."
9 The quotation is from LEDERER, p. 8.
On the inheritance of property we have a note by eeeelie included in John Smith’s
compilations. The note very likely refers to Potomac River tribes. SpPELMAN describes
death and burial and then observes: ‘‘What goods the party leaveth is divided among
his wives and children. But his house he giveth to the wife he liketh best, for life;
after her death, unto what child he most loveth.’’ This indicates patrilineal or bi-
lateral property inheritance (ARBER’s edition of SMITH; SPELMAN, p. CX).
On the possibility of the sib: An observer included in Smith’s works noted for the
Accohannock of the Eastern Shore that ‘‘In their marriages, they observe a large dis-
tance, as well in affinity as consanguinity.’’ Properly affinity refers to relationship by
marriage, but an observer without understanding of the sib may have misunderstood
sib relationship for affinity. (Smitu, General History, p. 355.)
On the “‘significance of matrilineal chiefship’’ see MacLzEop, Chiefship, 1923. On the
significance of Lederer’s note for the sociology of the Sioux of the Plains compare
Swanton, New Light. On the general cultural relationships of eastern Siouan groups
and the eastern Algonkian see Speck, Hthnological Position.
10 Council of May, 1662; and Letters of the Jesuits, p. 126. In these letters, sur-
prisingly enough, for the year 1641 we read of this daughter as “‘the young empress’”’
(pp. 182, 135-136); and it is in these also that we read of the wife and two sons of ‘‘the
Tayac,’’ Tayac being the native term for emperor, and referring to Kittamaqund, very
likely.
11 The extermination of family lines by disease was no doubt disturbing inheritance
at this period (compare MacLeop, Chiefship, p. 497). Still, we read, (Council of
December 20, 1660) that the first emperor was succeeded by his brother ‘‘since he died
without issue.”’ This “‘since’’ however is very clearly a misunderstanding on the part
of the interpreter. (My italics.)
306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
1. UrraProINGASSENEM:” the first emperor, circa 1540 A.D.
2. QUORENASSEM® cot) ac brother of the foregoing, circa 1550 A.D.
Eleven unrecorded emperors follow, then:
14. KITTAMAQUND:...... died, 1641. This emperor had slain his elder
brother Wannas, (also spelled Uwamno) in order
to secure himself the throne. Kittamaqund
died without ‘awful heirs,’—that is, brother,
sister, or sisters’ children. He wanted his
daughter to succeed him, but the tribe refused
this. Instead they chose as his successor™
15. WEGEUCASSO?... 5.4). (spelled also Wahocasso, and Walmcasso), who
was a descendant of one of the brothers of the
first emperor, Uttapoingassenem, who had suc-
ceeded to Uttapoingassenem’s office. Weghu-
casso died in 1658.11 He was apparently himself
without heirs for he was succeeded by another
16. UTTAPOINGASSENEM:. another descendant of one of the ancient em-
perors. This Uttapoingassenem died in 1662,
after a short reign of four years. He was suc-
ceeded by
17. WANNASAPAPIN:..... who is reported as the son of the Wannas who
} should have succeeded before Kittamaqund but
who was slain by his brother, who succeeded
instead. Wannasapapin died within one year,
in 1663.18 He was succeeded by
1S. NATPTOWASSO?. 22. who was the son of Weghucasso (no. 15, above);
Nattowasso changed his name and took that of
his father, Weghucasso. Nattowasso dzed circa
GTO! .
The Weghucasso, who succeeded Kittamaqund, the native coun-
cellors told the governor of Maryland, was descended “from one of
the brothers of the first emperor, which one, they knew not.” Upon
his death, Weghucasso “appointed” another “‘descendant of one of
the first kings’? to succeed himself.!8 This is rather puzzling; suc-
12 Council of May, 1662, and Jeswit Letters, p. 123; and references cited above.
He was called Uttapoingassenem ‘‘inasmuch as he did, as it were, embrace and cover
them all,’’ that is, rule over all the tribes of Maryland. See Council of December 20,
1660.
13 Councils of December 20, 1660, and May, 1662, p. 45.
14 Council of February, 1658.
15 Council of May, 1662.
16 Council of June, 1663.
17 Councils of May, 1662, and of June, 1670, p. 289.
18 Councils of December 20, 1660, and of May, 1662, p. 453.
The title for king among the Piscataway we do not know; the title for emperor was
Tayac, cognate with Nanticoke Tallak, head chief. In the 1660 council we read con-
cerning Uttapoingassem II, successor to Weghucasso, that he was to be called Jan Jan
Wizous, ‘‘which, in their language, signifies a true king, and [they] would not suffer
us to call him Towzin, which is the style [title] they give to the sons of their kings;”’
and the narrative continues to explain that sons may never inherit their father’s office.
JUNE 4, 1926 MacLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 307-
cession to office by descendants of the deceased encumbant’s brothers 1s not
matrilineal. And succession by Weghucasso’s son and by Wannas’
son, is frankly patrilineal, just as was the succession of himself by his
daughter determined on by Weghucasso’s predecessor, Kittamaqund.
5. A PUZZLING ROYAL WEDDING
In the case of Nattowasso a puzzling situation is presented which,
if it is ever wholly unravelled, will no doubt serve to illuminate social
organisation in this region.
Nattowasso was a mere boy, eleven years old, when he succeeded.
He died when he was about eighteen. Remembering Kittamaqund’s
killing of his brother, and the short one-year reign of Wannasapapin,
son of the murdered Wannas and predecessor of the son of Weghucasso,
we may suspect a quarrel for the office of emperor, especially so in
view of the fact that on ratifying the Indian’s choice of their boy em-
peror the colonial governor significantly then charged the Indians
that they should not presume to wrong him upon any pretense either
by poisoning of him or by other indirect ways.!* This may be com-
pared with the note by Lawson for the Carolinas, that a chief’s heirs
were his sister’s sons; but that occasionally a ruler would disapprove
of his heir apparent; therefore: “Sometimes they poison the heir to
make way for another, which is not seldom done, when they do not
approve of the youth that is to succeed them. The king himself is
generally the chief doctor in this cure.” ?°
In explaining their choice of Nattowasso, and of a further desire of
heirs, the Indians said that:
In times past there were two families living at Piscatoway, out of which
two families their kings were chosen; the one being the family of Wannys,
the other the family of Wahocasso, of which Wahocasso this Nattowasso
descended, he being his eldest son as aforesaid. Further, the Indians show
that there is a daughter of the family of Wannys now living at Piscataway,
and about the same age as this youth now elected by them.*!
Does the use of Towzin indicate something of the Natchez plan of giving a certain rank
to the sons of kings? (On Tayac as the term for ‘“‘emperor’’ as distinct from mere
“king,” see Jesuit Letters, p. 125, and A Relation of Maryland, 1635, p. 84.)
Since we have, as to inheritance rules, compared the Southeast to the Northwest,
we may note something in the Northwest comparable to this giving of title to sons of a
chief in a matrilineal order. Moricer says of the ‘‘Toenezas,’’ or chiefs of the Carrier
Indians, whose office descended matrilineally, that ‘their rank . . . . was shared in
by their children, who were called ‘‘oezkezas.’’—Morics, p. 142. (My italics.)
19 Council of June, 1663, p. 481.
20 Lawson: Carolinas, p. 318.
*1 Council of June, 1663, p. 481.
308 JOURNAL OF THE. WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
They state that they intend to marry these two child representatives
of the two regal families, that of Wannas and that of Weghucasso;
the boy, a son of a former emperor in the matrilineal line, to the girl,
who is apparently a sister of the last emperor, Wannasapapin; the
marriage is to be consummated as soon as the children are of ‘mature
years.” They also explain here that they intend to change the name
of Nattowasso to Weghucasso, ‘“‘after his father’s name.” The
governor postponed his decision ‘‘concerning the uniting of these two
families.”
At the council in which eventually, seven years later, we hear of the
death of the boy emperor, Nattowasso, we hear, incidentally, facts
which indicate clearly that the king of Nanjemaick has been suc-
ceeded by his own son, one Necutahainon, suggesting that inheritance
was tending toward the patrilineal even among the kingly offices of
the tribes, as well as in the office of overlord or emperor.
NOTES ON SYNONYMY
NANGEMAICK appears sometimes as Nangemy, and Nangenaick; ANa-
cosT1a, aS Analostan, Anacostaub, Nacostanck, Nacochtank, Nacostines,
and Nazatica; Sacayo, as Zachaiah; Poropaco, as Portobacco, Portobackes;
CHINGWAWATAICK, as Chingwaters, Chingwawaters, Chingweatyke; Pis-
CATAWAY, as Pascatoe. The Piscataway were also known by a name of
different root, spelled or transliterated variously as Ganawagas, Ganaweses,
Kanawhas, and Conoys.
In early days under the emperor Kittamaqund the Piscataway village was;
by the English, called, after him, Kittamaqundi. At the same time the
emperor’s name was sometimes spelled by some of the English, Chitomachen.
Chitomachen and Kittamaqundi are the same Algonkian name transliterated
differently. Brinton thought erroneously that Chitomachen was a personal
name, the name of the emperor, and Kittamaqund was a place name, the
name of the Piscatoway capital. Translating the two names into English,
after ‘‘discovering”’ the Algonkian roots behind them, he got two remark-
ably different translations! ‘This is a warning against reckless translation of
Algonkian words which have been hopelessly corrupted in English trans-
literation; local historical enthusiasts should take notice.
WORKS REFERRED TO
Brinton, D. G., The Walum Olum: or The Lenape and Their Legends, 1883.
FLEET, Journal, 1631; reprinted in Neiu1, E. D., Founders of Maryland, 1876.
Hiuton, Relation of Florida; reprinted in Forp#£, Tracts, vol. 4.
Lawson, Joun, History of Carolina, 1714, reprinted 1860. .
LEDERER, JoHN, Narrative, 1671; English translation and reprint, 1900. (Reprinted
also in ALvorD and Bipgoop, Trans-Allegheny Explorations.)
Letters of the Jesuits, see under Relation.
Mac Leon, W. C., On the Significance of Matrilineal Chiefship, American Anthropologist,
1923. Natchez Political Evolution, Ibid., 1924. Certain Aspects of Northwest
Coast and of Algonkian Social Organisation, 1924 Proceedings of the Inter-
national Congresses of Americanists.
JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 309
Mooney, J., Indian Tribes of the District of Columbia, American Anthropologist, 1889.
Morice, Fr. A. G., The Western Dénés, 1888-1889 Proceedings of the Canadian Institute.
Proceedings of Council, Archives of Maryland.
ProvupritT, 8. V., Ancient Village Sites and Aboriginal Workshops in the District of Colum-
bia, American Anthropologist, 1889.
Relation of Maryland, Anonymous, 1635; in Original Narratives of Early American
History: Maryland. Letters of the Jeswitsin Maryland: Selections: in Ibid.
Fr. A. Wu1Te: Relatio Itineris, Translation in Ibid.
Speck, F. G., Hihnological Position of the Southeastern Algonkian, American Anthropol-
ogist, 1923.
Swanton, J. R., New Light on the Early History of the Siouan Peoples, Proceedings of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, 1923.
Wuite, see Relation, etc.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
686TH MEETING
The 686th meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club
January 16, 1926 at 8 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 103
persons present. The President announced the membership of the following
committees: Committee on Publications, C. W. RicHMonD, CHAIRMAN,
J.H. Rinny, G.S. Minuer, Jr.; Committee on Communications, W. R. Maxon,
CHAIRMAN, 8. A. RoHwer, V. Bartey. ‘The President referred to the recent
death of W. E. Sarrorp and to his many services to the Society.
O. J. Murin, Biological Survey: On the trail of the big brown bear in Alaska.
—Two species of bear, Ursus gyas and Ursus kidderz, inhabit the Alaska Pen-
insula throughout its length and are also plentiful on Unimak Island, which
is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. Ursus gyas is probably
the largest of the brown bears, with the possible exception of the form on
Kodiak Island. Hence this is the largest carnivorous mammal in the world.
The Aleutian Range, which follows closely the Pacific side of the Peninsula,
is the natural home of this bear, the lava beds and other rugged portions of
the mountains furnishing ideal retreats for hibernation in the winter. The
bears emerge from winter quarters probably in the latter part of April or the
first part of May and spend the spring season high in the mountains, where
they feed largely on grass, roots, and ground squirrels. They appear to
prefer the lofty ledges and snow patches on which to lie and doze during the
day. Late in June they begin to go to the lowlands and in July are found
congregated about the salmon streams where these fish are coming up to
spawn. During the summer the salmon form an important item on their
bill of fare. In going to and from favorite feeding places the bears have
worn deep trails across the tundra and over the marshes. ‘These are interest-
ing indications of the presence of the bears and are often used by travelers.
(Author’s abstract.)—The subject was discussed by C. H. Merriam, who
mentioned Dr. T. H. BEAn’s experience with these bears in Alaska; also by
C. W. Stites, who spoke of a form of pernicious anaemia occurring in man
from the eating of salmon. A very similar disease is found in the bear, and
it is possible that the bear acts as a reservoir for the germs of this disease.
310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
C. E. Cuamstiss, Bureau of Plant Industry: An wnused southern wild food
plant.—There is a large acreage of wild rice (Zizania palustris) on the Atlantic
Coastal Plain which supplies food for millions of wild ducks and many other
marsh-loving birds. In this area this grass grows on the mud flats and low
marsh land that border the tidal streams above brackish water. The seed
of this plant should be gathered by the seedsmen of these southern States
to supply the needs of the southern hunter, who at present can obtain seed
only of the northern species of wild rice (Zizania aquatica). The hunter
buys this seed at 80 cents per pound to sow in localities remote from tidal
marshes to attract wild ducks and to supply them with one of their favorite
foods. The northern species matures too early in the southern states to
serve as shelter for game birds, and in this section it is also less productive
than the southern species.
Besides supplying food for our game birds, this southern wild plant should
also be used as a source of food for man. The aborigines of the Coastal
Plain of the South Atlantic States probably never used this plant, or the value
of wild rice seed as a food would have been brought to the attention of the
early explorers to this coast, as it was to the first Europeans who went into
the region of the upper Mississippi Valley. Here the white man found that
among certain Indian tribes the seed of Zizania aquatica was one of the
principal articles of diet. We are today indebted to the descendants of these
Indians for the nutritious and very palatable parched wild rice that is obtain-
able from our leading grocers and for the seed that is sought by hunters in
every section of the United States. (Author’s abstract.)
J. W. GipLey, National Museum: Fossil man associated with the mammoth
in Florida: New evidence of the antiquity of man in America.—The published
reviews and opinions expressed by various authorities regarding the dis-
coveries, a few years ago near Vero, Florida, reported by Dr. E. H. SELLARDs,
were reviewed. These show a wide difference of opinion between the anthro-
pologists and paleontologists regarding the contemporaniety of early man
with a Pleistocene fauna in Florida, the former believing that the association
of material as reported by Sellards is an unnatural one. Discoveries near
Melbourne, about 40 miles north of Vero, made by the Amherst-Smithsonian
Expedition of last summer seem to refute this, and to confirm in general
Sellard’s views regarding the general geology of the region and of the associa-
tion of remains of man with those of a Pleistocene fauna, which he considered
a natural one. Three important localities were examined in the Melbourne
district, all showing similar conditions of deposition and geologic position.
The Vero district was also revisited. The general conclusions reached as a
result of the Amherst-Smithsonian Expedition are that the human remains
located belong to the geologic levels in which they were found, and are not the
result of later inclusions from the surface through human burials or otherwise;
that the human bones and artifacts represent a people contemporaneous with
the mammoths and mastodons with whose remains they were found asso-
ciated, but that the general geologic conditions as interpreted suggest a
relatively recent date, either late Pleistocene or even post-Pleistocene, for the
extinction of the last survivor of the Pleistocene fauna in the south. (Author’s
abstract.)—The subject was discussed by N. M. Jupp, who stated that the
human remains described cannot be more than 2,000 years old, basing his
remarks on the similarity existing between these remains and those known
from the Mississippi Valley. C.H. Mxrrrtam considered that the evidence
now available made it clear that man was in existence in Florida in the Pleisto-
cene, or else that the mammoth and associated mammals lived on into the
present age.
JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY dll
687TH MEETING
The 687th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 30, 1926 at 8:10
_p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 106 persons present.
New members elected: W. H. Batu, H. L. Stropparp.
T. S. PatmMEeR made an announcement of the Sixth International Ornitho-
logical Congress, to be held at Copenhagen May 24-29. This is the first held
since 1910.
HERBERT W. Branpt, Cleveland: A naturalist in Alaska (illustrated).—
With representatives of the Biological Survey and the Field Museum, the
speaker spent the spring of 1925 in Alaska in the study of the native birds
and mammals. Leaving Nenana on March 21, they travelled 800 miles by
dog team down the Yukon and established headquarters at Hooper Bay in
late April, after 40 days’ travel. The Esquimaux of that region are a very
primitive race, having almost no contact with whites. Their clothing is
made entirely from the skins of birds, and they subsist on fish, birds and eggs,
and seal. They are very fond of tea and tobacco. They are very accurate
observers of birds, and base their names for them almost entirely on their
calls and songs.
About the middle of May the snow began to disappear, and soon spring
arrived, heralded by the geese. The first eggs (those of Western Sandpiper)
were found on May 26, and soon birds were nesting freely. Birds were
abundant, and all those collected were very fat. Many sing on the wing,
but the song period is short, lasting only a week or 10 days. The different
groups of birds observ ed—geese, ducks, sandpipers, plover, cranes, ptar-
migan, jaegers, gulls, and others—were described and illustrated by colored
slides. lt was a “lemming year,’ and snowy owls remained to feed upon
them and nest. They lay 6 to 9 eggs, at intervals of 2 or 3 days, and begin
to incubate at once, so that the young in a nest present all stages of growth.
The earliest nester is the Alaskan Jay, which lays from February to April,
when the temperature is far below zero.
A. 8. Hrrcucock, Bureau of Plant Industry: The grasses of Alaska: their
distribution and relationship (illustrated) —Alaska has four main physio-
graphic areas: (1) The forested area of southeastern Alaska, which extends
along the coast about to Kodiak Island, characterized by high rainfall and
moderate temperatures; (2) interior Alaska including the valley of the Yukon
and its tributaries west to the Yukon delta, characterized by sparse rainfall,
extremes of temperature and rather open forests on the lower land; (3) the
treeless region of west Alaska, including the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian
Islands and most of the Seward Peninsula, consisting on the lower levels
Fay of tundra; and (4) Arctic Alaska, including the drainage into the Arctic
cean.
Many species of grasses have a wide distribution outside of Alaska. Sev-
eral Arctic species are circumpolar; the species of southeast Alaska often
extend south to the Puget Sound region; the species of the interior extend over
Canada and southward in the Rocky Mountains. Several species found in
the lowlands of Alaska extend southward in the mountains and in the United
States are alpine plants. Trisetum spicatum is common near sea level in
Alaska and the circumpolar area, but as an alpine plant extends southward
in the mountains through North America into the high Andes, and finally
in Terra del Fuego descends to the lowlands again; in the eastern hemisphere
it extends south to the Himalayas, Tasmania, and the Antarctic regions.
Calamagrostis canadensis is a common marsh species in the northern United
States; in Alaska it is the dominant grass of the interior. As in all northern
312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11
countries the grasses are chiefly of the tribes Festuceae, Agrostideae, Aveneae,
and Hordeae; while the great tribes Paniceae, Andropogoneae, and Chlorideae
are not represented or scarcely so.
An anomalous case of distribution is shown by Sphenopholis obtusata,
which is abundant around Tanana Hot Springs below Fairbanks. Here is an
area of several acres where the soil is kept warm by numerous hot springs.
At this spot are found many plants of regions far to the south and not other-
wise known from Alaska. The nearest known locality for the grass men-
tioned, south British Columbia, is about 1500 miles to the southeast.
(Author’s abstract.)
688TH MEETING
The 688th regular meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos
Club February 13, 1926 at 8:05 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair
and 63 persons present. New member: F. A. VARRELMAN.
A. WETMORE reported that the long-eared owl which was common 30 or 40
years ago 1s now rare in this vicinity. In company with Messrs. McAtee
and Preble, he found a dead bird near here about five years ago. A specimen
collected in January of this year by E. B. Marshall of Laurel has recently
been sent to the Museum. This bird collects in small bands in the winter,
and is decidedly unsuspicious. Its growing scarcity is no doubt due i its
being shot by hunters.
A. 8. HiTcHcock gave an account of the life of Aimé Bonpland, who accom-
panied HuMBo.LpT on his South American and Mexican trip.
C. W. Stites and M. B. Orteman, U. 8S. Public Health Service: An
attempt to untangle man and the higher apes.—The nomenclature of Man, the
African Chimpanzees, the Malayan Orang-utans, the Barbary Ape, and the
Macaques, is an extremely confused status, not only in general literature
but also (except for Homo sapiens) in that of systematic mammalogy, medical
zoology, bacteriology, and public health. Specialists in mammalogy have
referred the complications to the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature for special action under ‘‘Suspension of the Rules,” but the
data submitted were not complete. The present article reviews the subject
from 1551 to date, and the conclusion is reached that the premises present
not only a very confused condition in systematic zoology but also one which
potentially involves the loss of human life because of the danger of erroneous
application of experimental data in bacteriological and serological literature.
According to our interpretation of the International Rules: (a) the correct
specific name of the chimpanzee is satyrus Linn., 1758; (b) under one inter-
pretation Simia 1758 is the correct generic name for the chimpanzee, while
Macaca 1799 is the generic name for the Barbary ape, and Sizlenus 1820 is the
generic name for the macaques (not including the Barbary ape); (c) under
another interpretation, Simia 1758 should be used for the Barbary ape,
while the chimpanzee should be known either as Theranthropus 1828 (a sale
catalogue name) or as Chimpansee 1831; (d) Pongo pygmaeus 1760 is the
correct name for the Malayan orang-utan now usually known as Sima
satyrus.
Obviously, the case must be reopened by the International Commission to.
decide between (b) and (c) at least.
The confusion of Simia, Sima satyrus, and Pithecus, is so extreme in
systematic zoology and in medical publications that we despair of any out-
look to make their use uniform and we are persuaded that zoologists should
not assume the responsibility for what might result in bacteriological, sero-
logical, and public health work, if these cases are judged solely as questions
JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 313
to be settled under the Law of Priority. We agree with specialists in mam-
malogy that an application of the rules will ‘produce greater confusion than
uniformity,” but we hold that the proposition advanced by the mammalogists
’ would result in preserving ambiguous names and would not meet the de-
siderata for public health laboratories.
We offer an alternative proposition which appears to us to obviate all
chances of ambiguity, namely, that (1-5) under the “Plenary Power” lodged
in the International Commission—
1. The technical systematic names Szmia, Simia satyrus, and Pithecus be
declared suppressed and as eliminated from further use in connection with
any genus or species in zoology;
2. Theranthropus 1828 be suppressed, because of inevitable difference of
opinion as to its availability;
3. Chimpansee 1831 be adopted as official generic name for the African
Chimpanzees, and the name be included in the “Official List.”’
4. The specific name chimpanse 1856 be declared type species of Chim-
pansee 1831,—thus giving a tautonymic combination similar to Gorilla
gorilla.
5. The generic name Macaca 1799, type inuus = sylvanus 1758, be de-
clared valid and be inserted in the Official List of Generic Names.
6. Finally, that the generic name Pongo 1799, type borneo= pygmaeus 1760,
be inserted in the list of Official Names as correct name for the Malayan
orang-utans under the Rules.
In analyzing the causes of the confusion in zoological nomenclature,
the primary and most important factor, in our opinion, is the lack of proper
instruction in the principles and practices of nomenclature (1.e., the Grammar
of Science). Students too often have to flounder around amid a chaos of
technical names without being told why these names are used or how to use
them. The remedy consists in teaching the Grammar of Science to persons
who later have to speak and write the Language of Science. (Author’s
abstract.)—Discussed by C. H. Merriam and T. 8. PALMER.
K. R. Kaumpacnu, Biological Survey: Blackbirds vs. rice in Louisiana.—
This paper reviews a season’s work devoted to a study of an interesting
problem in economic ornithology. Blackbirds, particularly Agelazus phoeni-
ceus subsp. and Megaquiscalus m. macrourus, exact a more or less regular
annual toll from the rice grower situated near the southern border of the
rice area. This damage often becomes serious for farmers close to the coastal
marshes, necessitating protective or control measures. Work carried out
from the end of April to the end of September indicated that successful control
work could not be carried out during that period of food abundance. Addi-
tional work is planned for March and April of this year when better results
against the troublesome local race of blackbirds is expected. Migrants from
the north, present on the Gulf Coast in great numbers during late fall and
winter, do not enter so forcibly into the problem of rice damage, which is
most ‘pronounced during the ‘milk’ and “dough” stages of the crop.
(Author’s abstract.)
689TH MEETING
The 689th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 27, 1926 at
8:10 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 53 persons present.
New members elected: Stuart T. Danrortu, F. C. Horrss, Pau H.
OEHSER.
The Secretary read the report of the Committee on Constitution and By-
314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ Vol. 16, No. 11
laws, to be acted on by the Society four weeks later. The report was discussed
by the President.
C. W. Gitmorg, National Museum: Remarks on fossil tracks from the Grand
Canyon (illustrated).—The speaker described a trip to the Grand Canyon,
Arizona, undertaken for the duel purpose of ‘securing a collection of fossil
tracks for the U. S. National Museum, and of preparing an exhibit of the
tracks in situ for the National Park Service. The tracks occur in the Cocon-
ino sandstone (Permian), at a level more than 1,000 feet below the present
rim of the Canyon wall, where the famous Hermit trail crosses the sandstone
on its descent into Hermit Basin. Both of the above-mentioned projects -
were successfully carried out, a collection of slabs of footprints some 1.700
pounds in weight was secured for the National collections, and a track-
covered area several hundred square feet in extent was uncovered by the
side of the trail to form a permanent exhibit of the tracks as they occur in
nature. It was pointed out that all of these tracks are found on the inclined
surface which make up the strong cross-bedding of the sandstone, and that
with one exception all of the bundreds of tracks and trails observed were
headed up the slope. No satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been
obtained. It was pointed out that the Ichnite fauna of the Coconino sand-
stone as now known consists of 8 genera and 10 species, representing both
vertebrate and invertebrate animals. All of the vertebrates were quad-
rupedal in gait, and all were relatively small, probably representing the two
classes Reptilia and Amphibia. No skeletal remains have yet been found
in the Coconino sandstone, consequently no direct evidence can be offered
as to the makers of any of these tracks. (Awthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Davip Wuitz, who referred to the recent calculations of the
age of the earth based on the rate of atomic disintegration of radio active
minerals. According to these calculations, the age of Permian deposits is
put at 450,000,000 to 600,000,000 years and of some Precambrian rocks at
1,500,000, 000 years.
Waxpo L. Scumipt, National Museum: Col'ecting invertebrates in South
America (illustrated).—The speaker spent six months, from August, 1925, to
January, 1926, in a field study of the South American crustacean fauna,
under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship administered by the Smith-
sonian Institution. This bequest was made by the late Mrs. Viremia
Purpy Bacon, of Detroit, in memory of her son to enable studies to be made
of the fauna of countries other than the United States.
Nearly three months were spent collecting along the Brazilian coast, in the
vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and southward. Stations were established at
Santos, Ilha Sao Sebastiéo, where in company with Dr. H. LUEDERWALDT
of the Museu Paulista at S40 Paulo, a most profitable ten days field work was
spent, Paranagua, Sao Francisco ‘and Florianopolis. One trip was made
inland to Castro, in the State of Paranda, for the purpose of obtaining speci-
mens of a carcinological rarity, Aeglea intermedia, which here was found to
occur in great abundance. Blumenau in the State of Santa Catharina, long
the home of Fritz Mueller, was also visited. Here are yet to be found the
‘““primitive’’ microscopes with which he made all of his wonderful microscopic
observations. At the Museu Paulista, in Sao Paulo, their very considerable
and valuable collection of unidentified crustacea was lent for further labor-
atory study in Washington. The collections of the Brazilian National
Museum were examined while at Rio de Janeiro.
In Uruguay about seven weeks were spent, chiefly at Montevideo, and in
trips with the steam trawlers working out of that port. Calls were made at
JUNE 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 315
Puerto La Paloma, Maldonado, and Barro de Santa Lucia. At Montevideo,
the Instituto de Pesca maintains a well equipped fisheries laboratory. The
National Museum, in view of the wealth of that country, where the American
dollar is at a discount, should have a new independent building instead of
being housed in a portion of the Teatro Solis building.
At Buenos Aires the first year’s field work was brought to conclusion with
an examination of the extensive crustacean collections here brought together
by the Buenos Aires Museum. Permission was granted to take a selected.
series back to Washington. The excellence of the collections of these forms
is in a measure due to a system of subsidizing fishermen, and providing them
with suitable collecting kits. A visit was also paid to the famous museum at
La Plata where, in addition to their marvelous exhibit of fossil vertebrates,
other zoological collections are maintained. Here too, the carcinological
collections were most generously tendered for study in Washington.
(Author’s abstract.) |
S. F. Buaks, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Dr. JOHANNES ScumiptT, Director of the Carlsberg Physiological Labora-
tory will give an address under the joint auspices of the AcapEmy, the Smith-
sonian Institution, the Carnegie Institution, and the Biological Society at the
National Museum on Friday, June 4, on the Danish oceanographical expe-
ditions: eel investigations. The address will be illustrated by film and
lantern slides.
At a meeting of the American Institute of Chemists, held in New York
on May 8, Dr. Witi1am Buvum of the Bureau of Standards was awarded the
Institute’s first annual medal for ‘‘Distinguished Service in Governmental
Work.” Dr. C. E. Munror made the presentation address. Dr. Bium
responded with an address on Science for humanity’s sake.
Professor H. H. Bartuett, Director of the Botanical Garden of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, visited the Grass Herbarium to identify some fragments
- of grasses and other economic plants excavated from Graeco-Roman sites in
Egypt by Professor A. E. Boax, of the University of Michigan. Professor
BarTLETT has been appointed honorary collaborator of the Smithsonian
Institution and will collect in Formosa and Sumatra on behalf of the two
institutions mentioned.
GS OF THE ACADEMY AND
2
under the joint auspices of the AcapEmy, Smithso-
Danish oceanographical expeditions—eel investigations.
Thy
the meeti 128 of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
the th d the twenty-seventh day of each month,
os” > — + SS eee ee tec e.g
Bs Fea Nd eS Me
7 f ~ AX aby we
ste
s ‘a ™ ie?
A ee ew
ae
9 A Ss
wy
ORIGINAL Soe |
President: GEORGE K. Burasss, Bureau of Standards. :
Corresponding gietase FRANCIS B. SILsBEE, Bureau of
. a Aree
ty Et eb
Meera
Vol. 16 JUNE 19, 1926 No. 12
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuiy
AGNES CHasE
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwzr
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stose
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R, F. Griaes J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, WIcHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MO
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mt. Royran aND GUILFORD AVES.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
-AWSONIAK INS
Guns Meni
BEY oe \
w JUN22 jo2g x)
4
of
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
ee
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To thisend it publishes:
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNaL is issue
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author.
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. is
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Copies 4 pp 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 2.25 4.30. 5225 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 5:75 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription: per volume 8) 64 oc css weenie des a exnina ma anee wseee 96.00%
Senii-Mronthly mum ers. sei koa kb ab ae vk Oe 6 bean es sive oe a eager 7
Monthy. Biumberas es oo 8og kas aiic Os Sec dee bes > ss pe eels yo eee ee |
Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications. >
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
|
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 16 JUNE 19, 1926 No. 12
STATISTICS.—The frequency distribution of scientific productinty.
ALFRED J. LoTKA. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New
York. |
It would be of interest to determine, if possible, the part which men
of different calibre contribute to the progress of science.
Considering first simple volume of production, a count was made of
the number of names, in the decennial index of Chemical Abstracts
1907-1916, against which appeared 1, 2,3... . entries. Names
of firms (e.g. Aktiengesellschaft, etc.) were omitted from reckoning,
since they represent the output, not of a single individual, but of an
unknown number of persons. The letters A and B of the alphabet
only were covered. ‘These were treated both separately and in the
- aggregate, with the results shown in the table and in figures 1 and 2
below.
A similar process was also applied to the name index of Auerbach’s
Geschichtstafeln der Physik (J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1910) which cover
the entire range of history up to and including the year 1900. In this
case we obtain a measure not merely of volume of productivity, but
account is taken, in some degree, also of quality, since only the out-
standing contributions find a place in this little volume, with its 110
pages of tabular text. The figures and relations thus obtained are
shown in the table and in figures 1 and 2.
On plotting the frequencies of persons having made 1, 2, 3.
contributions, against these numbers 1,2,3. . . . of contributions,
both variables on a logarithmic scale, it is found that in each case the |
points are rather closely scattered about an essentially straight line
having a slope of approximately two to one. The approach to this
ratio is particularly close in the case of the data taken from Auerbach’s
317
318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12.
TABLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTIVITY
i
| NUMBER OF PERSONS MAKING STATED
NUMBER OF CONTRIBUTIONS
NUMBER
OF
CONTRIBU-
TIONS
n
| Letter Letter
A B
Chemical Abstracts
Total | 1,543 | 5,348 | 6,891
1 890 | 3,101
2 230 | 829
3 ft | 92882
4 58 | 229
5 A, 248
6 42 89
7 20 93
8 24 61
9 21 43
10 15 50
11 9 32
12 11 36
13 26
14 21
15 18
16 20
17 14
18 14
19 14
20
21
22
23
24
i)
~j
SOrFOoOorFOQOOOFRWOONNNFRWORRNOTOWH Kh RW A OE
eS WOWrH RSH OWWWWaIDwaNIID SO pm RP CO CS OO
3,991
1,059
493
287
184
131
113
85
64
65
41
47
32
28
21
24
18
—
BPNWRRFRrOR DW WNT OO CO OO © OC OO
Auer-
bach’s
tables
entire
alphabet
CSCOOCOOFOCOOFOOCOOFOOFONWOWFOOFWwWaOaArR RN ON &D
Observed
B
57.68 | 57.98
14.91 | 15.50
7.19 | 7.14
3.76 | 4.28
Ze GO, ed
Zeke 1.66
130) aA
1.56 1.14
1367) "O:80
0.97 0.93
04:58.) 0260
0.71 0.67
0.39 | 0.49
0.45 | 0.39
0.19 0.34
OF26) | NOow,
0.26°) 0.26
0.32 | 0.26
0.19 | 0.26
0.39 | 0.15
— One
OSs Only
O:2602 0507
0.26 | 0.07
— 0.17
OOF Orit
0.06] 0.18
0.13} 0.15
OFS Oe
0.138 | 0.09
— 0.06
a 0.06
0.19 | 0.06
0.06 | 0.06
— 0.02
= 0.02
0.06 | 0.06
ra 0.06
0.06 | 0.02
— 0.02
Chemical Abstracts
A’-+ Bo) Ae
SN es ee
PER CENT OF TOTAL
Com-
puted!
57.92 | 56.69
15.37 | 15.32
7.15) ae
4.16 | 4.14
2.67 | 2072
1.90 | a2
1.64 | 1.44
1.23 | v2
0.93 | 0.90
0.94 | 0.73
0.59 | 0.61
0.68 | 0.52
0.46 | 0.45
0:41 S039
0.30 | 0.34
0.35 |} 0.30
0.26 | 0.27
0.28 | 0.24
0.25; 0.22
0.20; 0.20
0.13 | 0.18
0.16)" Oz
0.12 | Oma
0.12; 0.14
0.13 | O.f8
0.135 |> O22
0.12: Oral
0.15 | 0.11
0.12°)* 0210
0.10.) (0209
0.04
0.04
0.09
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.01
Ob-
served
Auerbach’s tables
Com-
puted?
Entire alphabet
59.17
15.40
9.58
3.77
2.49
2d
1.43
1.43
0.45
0.53
0.45
0.53
0.30
0.30
0.38
0.23
0.23
60.79
15.20
6.75
3.80
2.43
1.69
1.24
0.95
0.75
0.61
0.50
0.42
0.36
0.31
0.27
0.24
0.21
JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 319
TABLE 1—ContTINveED.
NUMBER OF PERSONS MAKING STATED
PER CENT 4
NUMBER OF CONTRIBUTIONS Se One:
NUMBER Dae Ta ei ss oo Le eee
OF Chemical Abstracts Auerbach’s tables
oS ape Chemical Abstracts UC areata os ee rce gt
ical tables Observed reir Pac ae eee
entire pA as ers Ce
veer Peter 5A B a eae A B A+B | A+B | Entire alphabet
42 0 2 2 0 — 0.04 0.03
43 0 0 0 0 — == ==
44 0 3 3 0 — 0.06 0.04
45 0 4 4 0 — 0.07 0.06
46 A 1 2 0} 6.06 | 0.02;|' 0.08
47 OF 3 3 o| — 0.06 | 0.04
48 0 0 0 2 -- — —
49 0 ft 1 —- 0.02 0.01
50 Tf if Zz, 0.06 0.02 0.03
51 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01
52 0 Z, Z, — 0.04 |} 0.03
an 0 2 2h — 0.04! 0.03
54 0 2 a —- 0.04 0.03
ne Zz, iL 3 0.13 0.02 0.04
56 0 0 0 — — —
57 0 1 1 = 0.02 | 0.01
58 0 1 il — 0.02 0.01
59-60 0 0 0 —_— — —
61 0 2 2 —- 0.04 | 0.038
62-65 0 0 0 == — —
66 0 1 1 — 0.02} 0.01
67 0 0 0 — = —
68 0 2 2 — 0.04} 0.03
69-72 0 0 0 — — —
cle 0 1 1 ~- 0.02 0.01
74-77 0 0 0 — — —
78 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01
79 0 0 0 — —_ —
80 t 0 if 0.06 — 0.01
81-83 0 0 0 — — —
84 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01
85-94 0 0 0 — — —
95 0 { 1 —_— 0.02 0.01
96-106 0 0 0 — — —
107 1 0 t 0.06 = 0.01
108 0 0 0 — — —
109 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01
110-113 0 0 0 —_— — —
114 0 il 1 — 0.02 0.01
115-345 0 0 0 — — —
346 1 0 al 0.06 = 0.01
1 According to f = 56.69/n1:888,
? According to f = 600/z?n?.
320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
tables. Determined by least squares, the slope of the curve to Auer-
bach’s data, as determined from the first 17 points,: was found to be
2.021 + 0.017. Similarly, the slope for the data in the Chemical
Abstracts, letters A and B jointly, as determined from the first thirty
points, came out as 1.888 + 0.007. ‘The general formula for the rela-
tion thus found to exist between the peyeney y of persons making x
contributions is
sy = const (1)
For the special case that n = 2 (inverse square law of scientific pro-
ductivity) the value of the constant in (1) is found as follows:
c
I= LP (2)
c
4 Oe 92 (3)
¢
# 1 1 1)
zy-c(h+atat.. . Shoeteeee ) she
=¢2 : (6)
1 v ;
I 2
=O% (7)
be ely (8)
« Use il
But, since y is a frequency, the summation > y gives unity.
1
Then finally
f= 2 (9)
6
= 9.87 (10)
= 0.6079 or 60.79 per cent (11)
1 Beyond this point fluctuations become excessive owing to the limited number of
persons in the sample.
* See, for example, K. Knopp, Theorie und Anwendung der unendlichen Reihen: 239,
1924 or J. L. Cootiper, Mathematical Theory of Probability: 22,1925. For method of
summation when exponent is fractiona], see WHITTAKER and Ropinson Calculus of
Observations: 136, 1924. Exponent 1.888 thus gives the value c = 0.5669 appearing at
the top of ninth column in Table 1.
JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 321
Thus, according to the inverse square law, the proportion of all
contributors who contribute a single item should be just over 60 per
cent. In the cases here examined the actual proportion of this class
to the whole was 59.2 per cent in Auerbach’s data (1325 contributors),
57.7 per cent in the Chemical Abstracts under initial A (1548 contribu-
tors) 57.98 under letter B (5348 contributors) and 57.9 under letters A
and B daly (6891 contributors).
50
wm
ro)
3 A0 Auerbach's Historical Tables
< ==== Chemical Abstracts
ae
0 ay seceeeeee Inverse Square Law oh Ga
2)
G 30
O
c
oO
10 oo a alk el a
fee =
1 2 5 9 10
Be of to:
Fig. 1—Frequency diagram showing per cent of authors mentioned once, twice,
etc., in Auerbach’s Geschichtstafeln der Physik, entire alphabet, and in the decennial
index of Chemical Abstracts 1907-1916, letters A and B. The dotted line indicates
frequencies computed according to the inverse square law.
100 ’
os in eel ee a eee |
ae ea
Seciuiiiii @
60> |
ee GE PoE DEEPER,
1S awe eS MAGUGGIAIIAI
30
Seen Carentan aii fl
AT |
mm) |
DE
PEI a one NAMROGNOIIGI LT
aie cic tN EECA
See A
CEEEENS ST
ee
S|
Ba rc Red 031
Sesmmemae el
a ee
I
" ol
aD
.
5 678910 15 i S
Se of Mentions
Percent of Authors
Fig. 2.—Logarithmic frequency diagram showing number of authors mentioned once,
twice, etc., in Auerbach’s tables (points indicated by crosses), and in Chemical Ab-
stracts, letters A and B (points indicated by circles). The fully drawn line indicates
points given by inverse square law, exponent = 2; the line of dashes corresponds to
exponent 1.89.
322
JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 323
Frequency distributions of the general type (1) have a wide range of
applicability to a variety of phenomena,’ and the mere form of such a
distribution throws little or no light on the underlying physical rela-
tions. The fact that the exponent has, in the examples shown,
approximately the value 2 enables us to state the result in the following
simple form:
In the cases examined it is found that the number of persons making
2 contributions is about one-fourth of those making one; the number
making 3 contributions is about one-ninth, etc.; the number making n
contributions is about - of those making one;* and the proportion, of
all contributors, that make a single contribution, is about 60 per cent.
The fact that two such widely different sources as Chemical Ab-
stracts (listing practically all current work in chemistry over a ten
year period) and Auerbach’s tables (listing selected important con-
tributions only, in physics, for all historical time) give very similar
results, seems somewhat remarkable. It would be interesting to
extend this study to such a work as Darmstaedter’s Handbuch der
Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik. Unfortu-
nately the index of this work does not indicate multiple entries of the
same year under one author’s name, but distinguishes only separately
dated entries. It would therefore be necessary in each case to refer to
the text. On the other hand the work could be abridged by restrict-
ing the inquiry to one or two letters of the alphabet, as was here ore
in the case of the Chemical Abstracts.
3 Compare especially Corrapo Grint, Biblioteca dell’ Economista, ser. 5a, 20: Indici dz
concentrazione e di dipendenza. See also the Report of Commission of Housing and
Regional Planning, State of New York, Jan. 11, 1926: 59-73; and Income in the United
States, by W. I. Kine and others; 2: 344 et seq. 1922.
4C,. J. Wiuuts’ conclusions aes ae the mechanism of evolution, inferred as they
are from the occurrence of curves of this type in the relation between neers of species
and genera, seem for this reason to carry little conviction. See A. J. Lotxa, Physical:
Biology: 311. 1925.
5 Fortunately, however, there are somewhat more persons of very great productivity
than would be expected under thissimple law. The very high figures (e.g., Abderhalden,
346 contributions in ten years) should perhaps be considered separately, since they are
not the product of one person unassisted. Joint contributions have in all cases been
credited to the senior author only.
324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 .
GEOLOGY.—Geology of the Guanténamo Basin, Cuba. N. H.
Darton, U. 8. Geological Survey..
During the Spring of 1916 I had the opportunity to examine the
Guaso Valley and some of the surrounding ridges in the central part
of Oriente District, Cuba, in the general vicinity of Guantanamo.
The purpose of my visit was to ascertain the prospects for artesian
water desired for irrigation by one of the large sugar companies and
for this it was necessary to determine the stratigraphic succession and
structure of the region. As there is nothing on record regarding these
features and I also obtained some important paleontologic data it is
believed that the results will be of interest. It was supposed that
much of the area was covered by a tropical jungle but I found that
exposures were extensive and while roads were not good, nearly all
points could be reached easily on horse.
TOPOGRAPHY
As shown in the map, figure 1, the Guantanamo basin is a broad
valley sloping to the south where it is flooded by tide water of the Bay
of Guantanamo and the Ensefiada de Joa. The valley heads to the
north in a high ridge called Sierra Guaso and is bordered on the east
by Sierra Maquay? and in part on the west, by Sierra Cafiada. It is
about 25 miles long and 15 miles wide. Much of the area is smooth
or gently undulating but to the northward there are low terraced
ridges between the shallow valleys of the streams. These streams head
in the highlands to the north and northwest and flow south in nearly
parallel courses to tide water. Guantanamo River, which rises far
to the northwest, flows across the southeastern corner of the basin and
empties into Guantdnamo Bay near its mouth. The streams nearly
all have steep banks 5 to 40 feet high, and most of them are deepening
their channels into the rocks. But little alluvium is being deposited
excepting in the bays and estuaries below tide water level.
THE ROCKS
General succession.—The oldest formation in the region consists of
schists and other crystalline rocks which constitute the ridge on the
sea shore at the Naval Station and the central and northern part of
Sierra Guaso. I did not study these rocks but they appear to be simi-
t Received May 11, 1926.
2 Named from shells and not from the Maguey plant.
325
GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN
DARTON
JUNE 19, 1926
a:
Ny ALS
p= age eee
52 {% | io,
sae Tepe
= eS 1 ;
\ i ; . nN SS ; Nees ;
eee OA NS Sk ] \
ea Vee ail “i NN Nn ae gers
TK par tee oA te eu <
| =) \ ease % R | ‘ Ns ‘ \
See el
DAA NSC rt 14 hes |
E- - sy i ~ ‘ fe ‘ 1 ;
Uh APS SS NO
em ON
a) et 4, We 1m ON 3}
pis | CME MU
AN } oi foe | Mi, “An! oe AT reper y,
ee a a iy ere
H | a A: D | yp | ey ee i, eo
Fe yi a a ae lal OAS geese
lt ' '
eX ! OS | i (| thon : baci, (}
oX ee ch le alll a ' gl le SI Poa
B NEN ys, \ : Se A | ) | ; ey wey a
‘ ( Ni (os 9 cs
) ( Mae des, se YY NX ‘ : ‘us on Ay
ly) \ | Femi Soe Vy NA ey
y, \| | (re eel
UA Gea aa a
Coa ea aN hes 2
oe ae |
~ SSM
eee
ake
= 7 7 |
a" ee ae ae:
Cal he iy, “se
Vn ys
WALA
RiO Jaiho
s
: fe
oat good
Oe ee Ea WA
v
isi
we
=
x
»
imenera
wCa
: Miles :
2
~ any)
AC ay
(
v\
\
th
°
ious sources, Wi
iled from var
anamo region comp
—Sketch map of the Guantd
1
Fig.
additions by N. H. Darton.
326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
lar to those in the Santiago de Cuba region and in the ridge on the
north side of the island. It seems possible that they may be of pre-
— =
————
one
=
Tae ae
me — |
yee.
\\s
ray = 7 Ss EAA Stee
= Ss SS SE Sse rae
PS a a a er neo et ER EE
= T= = == area ree SE ee ote Pee
Soe EAE Saye ts eae oe nea ee cosa ene eas , a Cees
—— —- eon
«NW.
Sierra Canada
SSS S
—
=
=
y) les
Scale: horizontal (eee es
A, from north to south from Sierra Guaso to the Carribean
Sea.
Cambrian age but I have no
evidence to offer on this
point. |
Sierra Guaso and Sierra
Cafiada consist of limestone
of Eocene age, several hun-
dred feet thick, apparently
lying on the schists, ete. and
dipping under the basin at a
moderate angle as shown in
the sections in figure 2.
This limestone is overlain by
4000 feet or more of shale,
Sierra Maquay, the high
ridge north of San Antonio,
and the mesa region on both
sides of the valley of the
Rio Yateras. The general
relations of these formations
are shown in figure 2. Ter-
race deposits of Quaternary
i i in part sandy and including '
| i i 2 thin members of slabby sand-
ill Ms stone, which underlies most
Hh of the Guantanamo basin.
! : To the south at Caimanera
We | and Boqueron this shale in-
| = onal i ie = ¢ eludes thick deposits of brec-
| | i = o cia and conglomerate, which
i it | W ie § = appear to overlap to the
Ht eiil Ss a 2 £ south on the schists at the
H < i oe ae Z 2 € Naval Station.
i atl “4 | va Se < The thick shale series
Le o ve a = grades up into a succession
Wi ii ae & 2 of limestones, sandstones,
if Hi t 2 Me <£ and shales, 1000 feet or more
/ * i § 2% thick which constitute the
sg
5 e
BE
% §
=
=
3
age occur in the Guantdénamo basin and along the sea margin are ter-
races of coral, one very persistent one, the ‘‘Seboruco,” extending to
tide level.
JUNE 19, 1926 DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN 327
The Guaso limestone.—The principal limestone of the region consti-
tutes the cuesta of Sierra Guaso. The most notable exposure is at
the mouth of the cavern through which the Rio Guaso comes out of
the ridge where there is a canyon with vertical walls 150 feet high
consisting of a practically continuous body of massive, light bluish-
gray limestone. A few impure beds are included, and at the mouth of
the cavern a few feet of underlying buff sandstone are exposed. The
dip here and all along the ridge is to the south at a low angle. I
traveled through the cavern and made a trip northward part way
across the sierra, but did not have opportunity to go to the crystalline
rocks, which I learned were in its higher central part. In a trip
through Cima to Rio Yateras about 10 miles northeast of Jamaica, I
passed along the slope of the Sierra Guaso and found that the river
comes through it in a deep gorge. In the flats along the stream are
great quantities of bowlders of crystalline schists and intrusive rocks
of many kinds, derived from the body which underlies the limestone.
I collected fossils from the Guaso limestone at several places, which
have been determined by Cushman and Vaughan.? The following
were obtained from strata high in the limestone succession on the slope
of Sierra Guaso northeast of Guanténamo (Loc. 7666 USGS).
Conulites americana (Cushman)
Discocyclina cubensis (Cushman) Vaughan
Asteriacites subtaramellei (Cushman) Vaughan
Lepidocyclina subraulinii (Cushman)
Carpenteria proteus (Cushman)
Linderina sp.
According to Vaughan this fauna is ‘‘clearly Eocene, probably upper
Kocene”’ a horizon which is widespread in Cuba and Haiti and appar-
ently also present in Santo Domingo. |
Guantanamo shale——The thick series of shale underlying the Guan-
tanamo basin undoubtedly overlies the Guaso limestone and grades up
into the series of limestones, sandstones, and shales constituting Sierra
Maquay. This shale outcrops extensively throughout the basin for
there is but little cover of surficial deposits. There are high bluffs of it
along the Rio Guaso in the eastern part of Guantanamo, and there are
3 J. A. Cusuman, Fossil foraminifera from the West Indies: Carnegie Instn., Pub. 291.
21-71, pls. 1-15, 1919.
, The American species of Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina: U. S. Geol.
Survey Prof. Paper 125: 39-105, pls. 7-35, 1920.
T. W. Vaucuan, American and European Tertiary larger foraminifera: Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bull. 35: 785-822, pls. 30-36, 1925.
328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
many exposures of it along other streams. Apparently it extends far
northwest up the Rio Bano Valley and westward, for I noted it along
the railroad to San Luis, and to Jiguani where the underlying limestone
comes up. Shale of the same character also outcrops at Antilla.
The formation is well exposed in the wide flats about the Ensefiada de
Joa, notably near Glorieta and on the railroad cuts south of that place
toward Boqueron.
The relations of this formation to the Guaso limestone were
examined north of Guaso, near Cima, and at the foot of Sierra Cafiada.
At all of these places there is perfect conformity, but an abrupt change
from limestone to shale. Superposition of the latter is evident
throughout.
<—N.
Sie
wae G
P80 oy huang
y) SS Ry e < Cry Sig, 4
y / So ro poy, ng ala Piedra
. } aw’ ip Sees. J
Mil reg IOS y . a
Cra = S=— == <= = —— SSS SS ==Es =
“3 neg ines SS =
ta Sp SS SS Se SS =|
Ory Ti seas SSS Shale, gray
Seale 1 mile Je Loey Dp SS ——
== SS ites Sea, SS SS SS
ce 2 OS ee eee
(Fig. 3.—Section from Sierra Guaso southeastward through La Piedra.
The thickness of the Guantdénamo shale is about 4,000 feet, judging
by width of outcrops and scattered dip determinations. In a section
passing through Guantanamo, as shown in Section B, figure 2, the
dips average from 6 to 10 degrees in the western part of the basin and
about 5 degrees in the eastern part. Near Cima, however, where the
dips are about 10 to 12 degrees, the thickness either is considerably
less, some of the beds are cut off by a fault, or the base of the overlying
formation begins at a lower horizon. ‘The diminished thickness is
shown in figure 3. The predominant material of the formation is
brownish-gray shale in large part somewhat sandy and soft. Thin
beds of brown to dirty gray sandstone occur at intervals, and thin beds
of limestone appear at various horizons, especially near the middle of
the formation. Some of the sandstone members are conspicuous in
the town of Guantanamo and others at a lower horizon outcrop exten-
sively on the east bank of the Rio Jaibo a few miles west of Guanta-
namo. A 10-foot bed of coarse arkose was noted 4 miles southeast of
Guantanamo underlying fine-grained sandy limestone and underlain
by dark shale with thin layers of limestone. The dip here is N. E.
70°. Other thin beds of limestone are conspicuous about Jamaica and
in the bed of Rio Guaso in the northwestern part of Guantanamo.
JUNE 19, 1926 DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN 329
In general the material of the formation becomes finer grained to the
north. The clay of this shale is the cause of the very muddy condition
of the basin during the rainy season when most of the roads become
impassable for vehicles.
Some foraminifera were found in thin limestone lenses in the lower
part of this formation at Cima northeast of Jamaica and in upper
beds on the north slope of La Piedra. The latter were determined as
follows by Cushman.‘ ©
Lepidocyclina schlumbergeri (Lemoine and Douvillé)
Lepidocyclina marginata (Michelotti)
Lepidocyclina sumatrensis (H. B. Brady)
Carpenteria americana (Cushman)
The specimen of Lepidocyclina morgani included in his list came from
Jigue de la Argolla and Vaughan® on reéxamination of the collection
believes that L. marginata and L. sumatrensis also came from other
localities. Vaughan states that the name JL. dilatata of Michelotti
has priority over L. schlumbergeri and he finds that the genus is also
represented in the collection by a new stellate species, soon to be
described, and several other species. He adds to the list the following:
Orbulina? Sp.
Globergerina sp.
Amphistegina sp.
Heterostegina sp.
and a coral
Orbicella imperatoris (Vaughan)
Vaughan states that this fauna is either Oligocene, probably high Oligo-
cene, or very low Miocene. An Aquitanian age is not improbable.
Tiie coral Orbicella imperatoris indicates a high horizon. However,
the fauna is a new one for the West Indies and it is probably for that
reason that so few of the species can be identified.
Conglomerate of Boqueron and Caimanera.—The ridge and bluffs
at Boqueron and Caimanera consist of a thick deposit of coarse dark
conglomerate that appears to be in the midst of the shale series. The
Boqueron ridge shows about 50 feet of the rock in thick irregular beds,
most of it loosely cemented, and dipping 8. E. at angles varying from
78° to 10°. Bowlders from 1 to 3 inches in diameter predominate ‘and
they consist of quartzite and a considerable variety of diorites and
other igneous rocks. Most of them are round, but some are angular
4 Op. eit, Prof. Paper 125.
> Personal communication.
330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
and subangular. The following section shows the relations at this
place.
Fig. 4.—Section of bluff at Boqueron on Guanténamo Bay, Cuba.
A bench or terrace on the west slope of the conglomerate ridge is
occupied by an uplifted coral reef, but below this a dark sandy shale
outcrops showing that the conglomerate is underlain by this material.
Not far east of Boqueron are shales and sandstones which doubtless
overlie the conglomerate and constitute the slopes of the west side of
the southern extension of the Sierra Maquay. These shales are ex-
posed in the deep railroad cuts along the bay shore between Boqueron
and Glorieta.
The conglomerate in the bluff at Caimanera, across the bay from
Boqueron, is similar to the rock at the latter place and apparently
part of the same deposit. The beds here dip north at an angle of 8
degrees, with strike toward Boqueron. At one locality in the southern
part of Caimanera the conglomerate is seen to be underlain by sandy
shale as at Boqueron. Possibly the conglomerate extends under the
low land to the west, but I did not have opportunity to trace it. It is
my belief that the deposit marks the course of a stream which flowed
across the region when the muds constituting the shale that now
underlies the basin were being deposited.
A somewhat similar conglomerate was reported in a 1400-foot bor-
ing a mile and a half south of Boqueron sunk for water in 1906 at the
first location of the U. 8. Naval Station. The record was as follows:
The first 141 feet was reported as mostly conglomerate some of which
was termed “shale conglomerate” or “slate conglomerate.” Next
below are 300 feet of shales with several thin beds of conglomerate,
some of which are reported as “sand conglomerate’ and “‘lime con-
glomerate.”’ Below 441 feet all was shale, of which the lower 90 feet
were of lighter tint. A trace of coal was mentioned at 273 feet.
As the dip is to the east and northeast in this vicinity the beds in this
hole doubtless underlie the conglomerate exposed at Boqueron and
Caimanera. The relation to the strata in the region farther south
is not known because the structure was not ascertained. Shale out-
crops on the east side of Hospital Key, with dip 8. 20°, and the rocks
JUNE 19, 1926
DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN
331
about the U. 8. Naval Station dip north, facts which indicate a shallow
syncline to the south with a low anticline between Hospital Key and
the 1400 foot boring.
Maquay formation: The prominent ridge
known as Sierra Maquay consists of a suc-
cession of sandstones and limestones over-
lying the Guantanamo shale. These strata
also constitute La Piedra and the ridge of
which that feature is a part and they occupy
a wide area in the high mesas and ridges
east of Rio Yateras. There is considerable
shale between the harder strata and appar-
ently the succession of beds varies consider-
ably from place to place. A basal member
of about 40 feet of soft massive sandstone,
with many hard layers 6 to 12 inches thick,
appears in the lower slopes east of San An-
tonio and is well exposed in a railroad cut
about one-half mile east of that plazita. Next
above are softer sandstones with intercalated
beds of shale and limestone which extend
south along the western front of Sierra
Maquay and northwestward to La Piedra to-
ward which they rise on a low dip. On the
trail passing through the gap in Sierra
Maquay east of Glorieta I found 400 feet or
more of the light-gray massive shales extend-
ing far up the slope to a thick cap of the gray
slabby sandstones including thin beds of lime-
stones, at the top of the ridge. ‘These beds
dip east at a low angle and constitute the
cuesta that slopes down toward Rio Yateras.
The valley of this fine stream is a deep one
with high mesas of Maquay formation on its
Shale 2'shale cong!” 80° =a =
Shale, light 10°
Conglomerate, shaleksand5I' |= =
Shale 34'
Conglomerate As
Shale light Sthin’sd.congls’ 538° =
Shale hard. 2 conals. vee
Shale 66°
Conglomerate, shales lime, 4’ =
Rhale a ; =
pp domete attest 1 rae
Shal@, 37°
Conglomerate. 3°
Shale. 42’
Conglomerate. 3*
Shale, 869°
mi
Me
| |
it
|
|
i
i
i
Shale, | ight-gray, 90°
\
5
Fig. 5.—Record of deep
boring 13 miles south of Bo-
queron, Cuba.
east side and it becomes a canyon a short distance south of the point
at which the trail reaches it east of Glorieta.
At a locality called El Jigue de la Argolla about 2 miles northeast
of San Antonio fossil echinoids, called ‘‘estrellas’” by the people, have
been obtained by Mr. Charles Ramsden of Guantdnamo.
Some of
332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
these kindly furnished by Mr. Ramsden have been determined as
follows by Dr. Jackson :°
EKchinolampas anguillae (Cotteau)
Clypeaster concavus (Cotteau)
Clypeaster placentoides, new species
The first two of these species were noted by Vaughan in Anguilla and
they have also been reported from Antigua, in beds regarded as middle
Oligocene and lower Miocene and while ‘‘the evidence is incon-
clusive’? Vaughan is inclined to regard the echini at El Jigue de la
Argolla as lower Miocene probably near the Anguilla horizon and the
same as that on the north slope of La Piedra.
An echinoid obtained by Mr. Ramsden from Mount Toro, north-
west of Guantanamo is a new species of Clypeaster. Another speci-
men collected by Mr. Ramsden from high on the slope of the valley of
the Rio Yateras, 21 miles northeast of Guantdnamo, has been described
by Jackson as a new species Cardiaster cubensis, and for some unac-
countable reason assigned to the Cretaceous.® It is probable, however,
that the strata at that locality are either upper Oligocene or lower
Miocene.
STRUCTURE
Most of the data obtained as to structure of the region are set forth
in the cross sections and the descriptions of the strata. ‘The general
structure is a wide syncline opening to the east. Various minor undu-
lations were noted but their relations could not be worked out in the
limited time at my disposal.
PETROLEUM
No traces of petroleum were observed. While the prospects are
not encouraging, some of the sandstone members in the lower part of
the 300 feet or more of the Guantanamo shale might possibly contain
this material.
§’R. T. Jackson, Fossil Echini of the West Indies: Carnegie Instn., Pub. 306, 1922.
7 Personal communication from manuscript in preparation.
8 R. T. JAcKSON, op. cit., pp. 5, 12, 69-70, G. Steranin1, Relations between American
and European Tertiary Echinoid faunas: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 35: 845-846, 1925, ques-
tions this assignment to the Cretaceous and suggests that the age is Miocene.
JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS 333
ARTESIAN WATER
It seems unlikely that the sandstone members in the shale series
under Guantdnamo basin contain any large amount of water that
would rise to or above the surface. These members are thin, mostly
muddy and have very small outcrop areas but it is possible that in
some places they might afford alocal supply. It seems likely however,
that there is some chance for water in the conglomerate near the
Naval Station. where the coarse deposits probably abut against the
schists. It is also possible that if the 1400-foot hole south of Boqueron
had been deeper it might have reached coarse beds containing water.
BOTANY.—WNew species of cotton plants from Sonora and Sinaloa,
Mexico. O. F. Cook and J. W. Hupsarp, Bureau of Plant
Industry.?
A brief visit was made in December, 1925, to northwestern Mexico
to study the native cottons and rubber-producing plants. In the
vicinity of Guaymas two localities were visited where Gossypium
_davidsoni grew in abundance along dry washes and in open shrubby
vegetation, much as Thurberia grows in Arizona. Also several forms
of the native door-yard cottons were obtained at Guaymas and in
the Yaqui Valley, at Esperanza, Cocorit, and Cajeme.
Most of the data regarding the native cottons were obtained at Los
Mochis, Sinaloa, between San Blas and Topolobampo. Several of
the native species had been collected and a small planting made at
Los Mochis by Dr. W. W. Morrill, formerly State Entomologist of
Arizona, and more recently engaged in agricultural investigations in
Mexico. Dr. Morrill had observed a wide range of differences among
the native cottons, and invited us to make a botanical study of the
collection that he had grown at Los Mochis. Also he suggested that
we stop at Guaymas and in the Yaqui Valley, to see the other types of
native cottons that he had noted in those districts.
The classification of the species of Gossypium presents several
difficulties that are not apparent on the surface, but are more appre-
ciated as wider knowledge and experience are gained. One of the chief
difficulties is that the cotton plants and their relatives have a protean
flexibility of response to different conditions of growth. Such changes
of characters often extend beyond any reasonable prospect of associat-
ing the members of the same progeny, if the origin of the seed is not
1 Received May 5, 1926.
334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
definitely known. ‘The size of the plants, the habits of growth, the
forms, textures and surfaces of the leaves and involucral bracts; the
sizes and shapes of the bolls, numbers of locks, and even the seed and
lint characters, have been profoundly altered in some of the cottons
brought from tropical countries, when planted for the first time in the
United States.
Other difficulties in classification arise from differences of age and of
seasonal or cultural conditions, complicated also by the variability and
diversity that are usually to be found in the leaves and other organs of
the same individual plant. The juvenile leaves are different from the
adult leaves, the stalk leaves different from the branch leaves, and the
sun leaves different from the shade leaves. ‘Thus a very wide range of
sizes, forms and textures of leaves, bracts, and bolls, may be found on
any large plant. Yet with side by side comparisons of living plants
and judicious selection of material, it becomes possible to recognize and
formulate contrasting characters. Without such comparisons the
characters remain too indefinite and intangible to be used for purposes
of diagnosis.
Much of the herbarium material of Gossypium has been sasemnialee:
with no recognition or purpose of showing the distinctive characters of
the species, and the association of such material into species is largely
speculative or arbitrary. The usual herbarium specimen is a part of
a fruiting branch with a flower, but showing little of the range of
characters, even of the leaves and involucres. ‘The characters of the
fresh unopened bolls, which afford some of the most distinctive fea-
tures, are difficult to preserve, and usually disappear in the dried
specimens.
Finally, the task of classification is complicated by the wealth of
plant types, whether species, varieties, or hybrids, of which it is neces-
sary to take account. Missionaries and traders have carried cotton
seed to remote regions, so that many of the primitive tribes have
obtained commercial cottons which now are variously hybridized with
the native kinds. In addition to the principal commercial species and
their numerous varieties, there undoubtedly are hundreds, if not
thousands, of appreciably different forms of cotton in cultivation
among the primitive tropical peoples of both hemispheres.
The conditions of existence for cotton plants no doubt were pro-
foundly changed during the agricultura! period of human development,
in prehistoric times. With the spread of the primitive agricultural
people over the tropical world, the forest areas were restricted and the
JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS 3390
species of cotton that previously had been isolated were brought
together and allowed to hybridize.
From the fact that cotton is not tolerant of shade, it may be inferred
that the species were limited in their natural distribution to dry
districts where other vegetation was sparse and open, either because
the soil was too rocky or too sandy, or because the rainfall was too .
limited or too irregular to support large trees or a dense growth of
forest. ‘There may have been many separate areas where different
wild species of cotton existed, and a few may still exist under conditions
of natural isolation, like other wild plants.
How many species there were, before the agricultural period, it may
be impossible to determine, or to establish definitely the original asso-
ciations of the characters. The recognition of species necessarily is
provisional in our present state of knowledge, but at least the differ-
ences that exist should be recognized, and the out-standing peculiarities
that appear in the cotton plants of different regions should be recorded,
as affording the best prospect of associating the characters correctly.
Although most of the West-Mexican cottons are to be associated
with Watt’s Section IV on account of the smooth seed, other charac-
ters are remote from those of the Sea Island series. These differences
include the presence of distinct angular teeth on the calyx, in some
cases produced into slender points, that may even project beyond the
buds.
Another departure from the Sea Island series is in the form of the
leaves, with the auricles very large, the sinus often completely closed
and the lobes overlapping. In these respects there may be more
affinity with some of the species of Watt’s Section III, species with
fuzzy seed and free bracts. Yet these Mexican cottons may be asso-
ciated with the Sea Island series in the broadest sense, since their seeds
are fuzzy only at the base and their bracts are somewhat united.
KEY TO MEXICAN COTTONS
Outer nectaries located on the pedicel, below the receptacle, forming a
narrow groove on a longitudinal ridge; large leaves of uprights with
broad flat lobes, the margins often distinctly undulate
Gossyprum hypadenum
Outer nectaries located on the receptacle, in the sinus of the bracts; leaf-
margins not undulate.
Involucres open at the angles, the bracts small, oval, narrowed at the
base, not auricled; pedicels swollen at the base, often slender,
attaining more than 3 times the length of the mature bolls;
fruiting branches short, usually of 1 or 2 slender internodes
Gossypium patens
336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 —
Involucres usually closed at the angles; bracts cordate, auricled or
expanded at the base, below the point of attachment; pedicels
stout and short, seldom exceeding the length of the boll.
Bolls flat-sided, square or pyramidal, with no oil-glands over the
sutures; the locks held compactly in the open bolls by
numerous fibers attached to the carpel walls
Gossypium contextum
Bolls rounded in section; oil-glands not interrupted over the
sutures; the cotton not held in the open bolls by fibers
attached to the carpel walls
Plants producing a vegetative and a fruiting branch from most
of the nodes on the upper part of the stalk; these vegeta-
tive branches horizontal, bearing many short fruiting
branches; flowers white with large red _ petal-spots;
bolls smooth, oblong-elliptic with a short abrupt
nea le 2 as Caer eS aii ee ee Gossypium dicladum
Vegetative branches confined to lower nodes, large and ascend-
ing as secondary stalks; flowers white, with no petal-
spots; bolls distinctly pitted, conic-ovoid, with a long
OCUANANOLE DOLE 8b sos a ora pl Gossypium morrilli
Gossypium hypadenum, new species
Plants with strong, upright shoots attaining a height of about 10 feet in
the first season. Very young stems and margins of the bracts slightly
pilose, but all adult parts appearing entirely naked.
Leaves of rather thin papery texture, light green, glabrescent, deeply
cordate and auricled, entire or with 3 to 5 broadly triangular lobes, with
long acuminate points, side lobes usually very short, often represented only
by a tooth; callus red, even on young leaves; petioles held in erect or strongly
ascending positions and at smaller angles to the blade than in other cot-
tons; upper side of petiole with a sharp median crest or angle, more dis-
tinct on the upper pulvinus, but running well down. Leaves of the up-
right shoots attaining large size, with the margins undulate, or ruffled,
contrasting with the flat surface; length of blade on midrib 17 em., on the
auricles 22 cm., width 24 cm., petiole 24 cm.; auricles very large, often
overlapping. Leaf nectaries usually 3, those on midveins much farther
‘up, often twice as far as those on the veins of the forelobes; stipules large
and persistent.
Involucral bracts large, flat, deeply cordate and auricled, with 7 to 9
large, gradually tapering teeth, longer than the body of the bract; auricles
regularly united on the margins at base almost to their full width; color
of bracts light fresh green, sometimes reddened on the exposed side; bract-
lets not found; outer nectaries, along narrow groove, simulating leaf nectaries,
and located far down on a ridge of the pedicel, rather than in a depression of
the receptacle; inner nectaries broadly triangular; no distinct swelling of the
receptacle around the end of the pedicel as in the usual cotton types, where
the nectaries usually are placed, but a gradual tapering down from the
bolls, more like Gossypium davidsonii; calyx with long slender teeth, tailed,
often exceeding the bud.
Flowers pale yellow, with no petal spots; stamens relatively few, with
rather long filaments, anthers brownish, pollen very pale; stigma only
slightly exserted.
JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS BBA
Bolls rather small, elliptical, acuminate, 3-locked, with a band free of
oil-glands along each suture, most of the oil glands being close to the fis-
sures.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,604, collected at Los
Mochis, Sinaloa, Dec. 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard.
Gossypium patens, new species
A large branching shrub or small tree about 12 feet high, with trunk 3
or 4 inches in diameter. Fruiting branches short, practically one-jointed,
’ the other joints very slender and seldom producing bolls. Usually the
second joints diverge very strongly from the direction of the first on account
of the swollen base of the pedicel.
Leaf forms showing a wide range of diversity; the large leaves of rather
heavy texture, several inches across, of broad Upland forms; small leaves
having distinct, somewhat attenuate lobes, suggesting Durango or Acala;
also many simple, entire, subcordate leaves much like those of Gossypium
davidsonii; petioles relatively short on the large leaves; stipules of vegeta-
tive branches long, linear, those of fruiting branches much shorter and
broader.
Involucres small and open, the bracts oval, distinctly narrowed at base,
flared at the angles; teeth 5 to 7, well forward, often none below the middle;
bractlets usually present, double involucres of frequent occurrence; outer
nectaries distinct, but small and uncolored, forming deep, round or short
elliptic depressions in the strongly inflated surface of the receptacle; inner
nectaries transverse, located in very deep grooves; pedicels often very
long, 3 or 4 times the length of the boll, and with the base swollen as in
Thurberia; some of the short pedicels much thicker than the internodes
of the fruiting branches; calyx lobes with long attenuate tips often exceed-
ing the bud, all five lobes tailed or only 3, with the others sharply angled.
Flowers white, no petal spots; stigma well exserted.
Bolls small, subrotund, abruptly apiculate, 2, 3, and 4 locked, usually 3;
fissure deeply marked below, even in green bolls, extending completely to
the receptacle; ripe open boll 3.5 cm. across, with beak about 5 mm. long,
very distinct in dried state; seeds 4 or 5 in each lock.
Seed small, black, naked, except a small tuft of brown fuzz at beak; lint
sparse, fine, silky, more than 1 inch in length, commonly }.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,601, collected at Guay-
mas, Sonora, Dec. 8, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard.
Gossypium contextum, new species
A robust, spreading, bushy plant, with rather strong short-jointed stalks,
hirsute branches and dense foliage.
Leaves heavy, deep green, densely pilose, entire or 3 to 5 lobed, deeply
cordate and auricled, sinus often closed; an occasional tooth on the midlobe,
or on the basal curves; leaves of the upright shoots attaining large size
with very large auricles, often overlapping widely; length of blade on the
midrib 20 cm., on the auricle 25 cm., width 27 cm., petiole 24 cm.; nectaries
usually 3, even on rather small leaves; stipules present, but not prominent.
Involucral bracts deeply cordate, with long teeth, auricles united at the
base; bractlets of common occurrence, often 3 together, usually 3 or 4 to an
involucre; calyx with long triangular lobes, sometimes with tails as long
as the bud.
338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
Bolls of medium size, short and flat sided, pyramidal or square, with a
short abrupt tip; oil-glands not present on a broad light green band over the
suture; 3 or 4 locks, with 5 to 7 seed per lock.
Seed dark brown, smooth, with yellowish brown fuzz at base; lint rather
sparse, from three-fourths to seven-eighths inches long, easily pulled from
the seed, but strongly held in the locks by numerous fibers attached to the
carpel walls.
Type in the U. S. National Hee bawium, no. 1,209,602, collected at Los
Mochis, Sinaloa, December 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard.
On account of the numerous fibers attached to the walls of the carpels;
the open bolls of this species have a distinctive appearance, with the locks
not emerging from the carpels, but somewhat drawn down from the open-
ing and remaining a compact mass. ‘This is in striking contrast with the
behavior of the cotton in the open bolls of other species. In some cottons
the locks remain in place, on account of the rough elastic fibre which “‘fluffs”’
and holds together. In other species the locks fall out soon after the bolls
open, or the seeds separate gradually.
Gossypium dicladum, new species
A large, upright, densely foliated plant, with woody stems and hirsute
leaves and branches, producing small horizontal vegetative branches from
most of the joints to near the top of the plants, from the same nodes with
the normal fruiting branches, and of about the same size, bearing bolls on
small secondary fruiting branches, usually of 1 or 2 joints.
Leaves of medium size, cordate, entire or 3 to 5 lobed, with large fore-
lobes nearly equal to the midlobe; length of blade on midvein 12 cm., on
auricle 15 cm., width 18 cm., petiole 13 cm., extra teeth occasional on basal
lobes, none on midlobe; auricles ample, often overlapping; texture rather
heavy, brittle; nectaries usually one, near the base; stipules prominent and
persistent on the young shoots.
Involucral bracts large, cordate, with rather large teeth, the auricles
regularly united on the margins below to almost their full width; nectaries
usually present; receptacles prominent and distinct; calyx with short sharp
pointed lobes, but not tailed.
Flowers large, white, opening widely, with very large dark red spots on
the claws of the petals; stamens numerous; anthers pale; stigma barely pre-
truding beyond the staminal column.
Bolls oblong-elliptic, apiculate, 3 and 4 locked; oil-glands large and scat-
tering; no distinct sutural bands without oil-glands.
Seed large, black, naked, except a tuft of greenish fuzz at beak; lint
sparse, three-fourths to seven-eighths inches in length.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,605, collected at Los
Mochis, Sinaloa, December 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard.
The double branching habit, with a vegetative branch and a fruiting
branch produced together from the upper nodes of the stalks, is a consistent
and characteristic feature not previously recognized in any of the “tree”
cottons. The greater tendency to produce vegetative branches is apparent
even where the branches are very small, with only two or three leaves, but
commonly they have several joints and produce bolls on short secondary
fruiting branches. The vegetative branch as a whole is about the same size
as the primary fruiting branch of the same node. A similar tendency to
JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 339
produce two branches from the same node of the stalk has been recog-
nized in the Kehchi cotton of eastern Guatemala.’
Gossypium morrilli, new species
Tall plants bearing numerous long, short-jointed, fruiting branches with
10 to 12 nodes, often maturing bolls at each node, and frequently two bolls
from the same node. Some plants very hairy, others notably less, but all
distinctly pilose on new growth.
Leaves large dark green, of thin texture, with very broad lobes, strongly
up-folded at the sinus; auricles ample, often overlapping on the large leaves;
teeth occasionally on midlobes, forelobes and base; length of blade of large
leaf, on midrib 15 cm., on auricle 22 cm., width 21 cm., petiole 18 cm.;
leaf nectaries 3, even on rather small leaves; stipules rather large.
Involucral bracts broad, distinctly cordate at base, with inner margins
united; bractlets occasionally present; pedicels short, triangular in cross
section, but not sharply angled; receptacle distinct, but not much swollen
around nectaries; outer nectaries often quite large, usually longer than
broad, sometimes narrowed to a short groove; calyx lobes sharp-pointed,
often tailed.
Flowers white, of very delicate texture; petals with hyaline areas around
the yellow oil glands; stamens with long filaments; stigma slightly exserted.
Bolls small, conic-ovoid, with a long acuminate point, mostly with 3
locks, but often with 4; oil glands large and scattering, not interrupted on
sutural bands.
Seed very small, black, naked except a small tuft of greenish brown fuzz
at base; lint sparse, about 8 inches in length.
This species was obtained by Dr. Morrill from sand-dunes near the coast
of southern Sonora in the Yaqui-Valley district.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,603, collected Dec.
16, 1925, from a plant grown at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, by O. F. Cook and
J. W. Hubbard.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
935TH MEETING
The 935th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening,
March 20th, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bow1z
at 8:15 p.m. with 75 persons in attendance.
The program of the evening consisted of an address by Professor Max
Born of the University at Géttingen, on New methods in the quantum
theory.
The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantum mechanics, which since 1915 has been
used successfully to find the energy and radiation of an atomic system
with not more than one electron, is exposed to the objection that it operates
with unobservable quantities such as size of the electron orbit, orbital
frequency (which is not equal to the frequency of the emitted light), and
2 See Weevil-resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant, Bur. Pl. Ind. Bull. 88: 20. 1906.
340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12
especially the coordinates p;, q, of the electron at a certain time t. A
generalized quantum mechanics has been proposed by Heisenberg, attempt- —
ing to give up this unsatisfactory union of classical mechanics, quantum
conditions, and correspondence principle and to replace it by a unique
quantum kinematics of discrete energy levels.
That the place of the coordinates pz, q, of the moving electrons is taken
by matrices of Hermitian type was shown by the speaker in the following
way: The Fourier series for the coordinates of the old theory
q, = Ag D, == Bales
are replaced by two-dimensional schemes:
(1) Age A3\er ae
sree’ A(22) AQ) 6" a
i s ABLE” Age" “AG3)
|
|
or in condensed form:
ee (A (mn) mn) and D, ie (B(mn) er")
The coefficients A (mn) are the amplitudes of the wave emitted when the sys-
tem is jumping from state m to state n, and v(mn) is the frequency of this
jump, which obeys Ritz’s combination principles:
v(mn) = v(mk) + v(kn)
For the product of two of such schemes we and, since no new frequencies
must appear in the exponent:
Mo (C(mn) me)
where
C(mn) = ~ A(mk) B(kn)
This is the well-known law of matrix multiplication.
Hamilton’s equations must now be written in matrix form:
dp, oH da, oH
dt oe Oq,,’ dt si OP,
while Sommerfeld’s quantum conditions
i dq = mh
have to be replaced by
JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 341
h
ea a een a
P, 9; — 4D, = 93 PD; PB, — P,P, = 9; 4, 4, — 4,9, = 9,
1 being the unit matrix whose diagonal terms are equal to unity while all
others are zero. |
The general theory of perturbation based on this idea is free from any
convergence difficulties, which previously made the application of classical
theory of perturbation very ambiguous and questionable.
The speaker then discussed a possible extension of this theory, namely,
to replace the matrix calculus by a still more general operator calculus.
(Abstract by O. Laporte.) The address was discussed by Messrs. HAwKEs-
WorRTH, LarortH, HeRZFELD, and Breit, and at the close Professor BoRN
~ was tendered a rising vote of thanks.
936TH MEETING
The 936th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening,
April 3, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bowle at
8:15, with 45 persons in attendance.
The program for the evening consisted of a paper on Recent developments
in the theory of periodic systems of the elements, by Dr. Orro Laporte, and
was illustrated with lantern slides. The paper was discussed by Messrs.
HAWKESWORTH and TUCKERMAN.
_ Bohr’s and Stoner’s assignment of total and azimuthal quantum numbers
n and k respectively to the electrons of the atoms was discussed with the
object of showing that various chemical, physical and spectroscopic evi-
dences suggest subdivision of the ordinary period of eight elements (e.g.
Li—Ne, Na—A) into two subgroups of two and six elements; that is, we
assume a subshell to be closed with Be, Mg, Zn, etc. Spectroscopic facts
show that the electrons belonging to this shell of two have k = 1 whereas
from B to Ne or Al to A, etc., six electrons with k = 2 are bound until the
shell is closed again in the rare gases. The apparent irregularity of the
first period consisting of but two elements H and He now vanishes immedi-
ately, since in H and He two 1:electrons are bound, the first period should be »
_compared with the other groups of two and in writing down the periodic chart
He must be placed in the second column together with Be, Mg, Zn, Cd,
Hg. The thus asserted similarity of the spectrum of He with those of the
alkaline earths actually exists. This viewpoint furthermore asserts the
inequality of the four valency bonds of the carbon atom, since two of its
electrons are bound in 2:, and two in 2 orbits. This fact, although spectro-
scopically verified in C and the homologous elements Ti, Ge, Sn, still waits
for its proof in chemistry.
Of the 18 electrons of A, two are bound in 1,, 2 in 2,, 6 in 2., 2 in 3,1, and
6 in 35. The occurrence of the ten high melting point metals is thus ac-
counted for by the completion of a shell of 10 electrons of 33 type and like-
wise the occurrence of the palladium and platinum metals by 10 electrons
of 4; and 5; character respectively. Similarly the occurrence of 14 rare
earths means the binding of fourteen 4,electrons. It was pointed out that it
is unjustified to write the last three elements Th, Ux, U into the fourth, fifth
and sixth columns. One should rather expect here the beginning of a second
342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12>
rare earth group, characterized by the binding of 5, electrons. Whether or
not this viewpoint is justified must be decided by investigating their optical
and x-ray spectra.
It was finally illustrated how the cabalistic regularity of the periodic
system which is contained in the scheme
2 = 2= 2.1?
2+6 = 8 = 2.2?
2+6-+10 = 18 = 2.3?
2+6+104+14 = 32 = 2.4
is explained by means of Pauli’s exclusion principle which states that if with
one n; electron the atom is capable of assuming N different orientations in a
magnetic field, with two equivalent n; electrons it can not assume N? but
only N (N—1)/1.2 orientations, with three N (V—1) (N—2)/1.2.3, ete. It
thus follows that a shell of n; electrons just contains 2 (2k—1) elements which
furnishes the above given scheme. (Author’s abstract.)
937TH MEETING
The 937th meeting was a special meeting held jointly with the WaAsx-
INGTON ACADEMY of ScrENCES and the Biological Survey at the Cosmos
Club on Thursday evening, April 15, 1926. The meeting was called to
order by President Burexss of the AcapEmMy at 8:15, with about 100 per-
sons in attendance.
On behalf of the American Geographical Society Major Gen. SALTZMAN
presented the Charles P. Daly Medal to Brigadier General Davip
L. Brarnarp, and Captain CrosLEy presented the Cullom Geographical
Medal to Dr. Harvrny C. Hayrs. Major General GREELEY was present
and spoke in appreciation of the attainments of General Bratinarp. The
recipients accepted the medals with appropriate words of thanks.
The address of the evening was given by Dr. Pau, R. Hryt, on Visions
and dreams of a scientific man.
H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
690TH MEETING
The 690th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club
13 March, 1926, at 8:00 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and
68 persons present. New member elected: Joun P. Homan.
T. S. PatmMer reported the death of the female Brazilian cardinal (Paro-
aria cristata) which has spent the winter in the vicinity of the Department
of Agriculture and on the Smithsonian grounds. ‘The bird first appeared
in September and has been fed regularly through the winter by many people.
It was found in a weakened condition and put in a cage, where it died on
24 February. An examination of the body showed filaria and staphylo-’
coccus. The only previous record of a bird living here for several months
in the wild state is that reported several years by Dr. P. Barrscu. A.
WeEtTMOoRE spoke of his experience with the bird in Argentina. It ranges
south to Buenos Aires, which is not as cold as Washington, although snow
sometimes occurs. It is common in the Chaco, and highly esteemed as a
cage bird. F.C. Lincoun reported that one was captured last fall in a bird
trap at Indianapolis by a bird bander, who thought it might be a cross be-
tween a cardinal and a rose-breasted grosbeak.
JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 343
PauL BartscH reported that the mockingbird that has appeared at his
bird feeding-counter for several years has returned this winter and eats
suet for the first time.
JoHN C. Puiuies: Introducing foreign and American birds into new
localities (illustrated by specimens).—Birds introduced into new regions
show several types of response to the new environment. (1) They may
disappear at once (some game birds and European song birds); (2) they
may nest the first season, then quickly or gradually die out without nesting
again (Hungarian partridge in the eastern States); (3) they may have a
long period of only local success (European goldfinch in Massachusetts and
eastern New York, skylark on Long Island and Vancouver Island); (4)
they may propagate rapidly and spread into new territory (California
partridge in Australia), with increase in size of broods and apparent im-
munity from natural enemies, but usually ultimately disappear; (5) they
may become thoroughly naturalized (English sparrow and starling).
The history of bird importation in this country is little known before the
’50’s. Cagebird fanciers, particularly near Cincinnati, New York, and
Portland, Oregon, and sportsmen have been the two most important agencies
in introduction.
Among introduced game birds, all the west American species introduced
in the East have failed, as has the Egyptian quail, which bred for one season,
and disappeared. Valley quail, plumed quail, and Hungarian partridge
have succeeded in the northwestern United States and Canada. Black-
cock and capercaillie have failed in the eastern States and Canada. Sev-
eral tropical species have recently been introduced on Sapelo Island, Georgia.
The chachalaca has flourished, but the ocellated turkey has not. Guinea-
fowl, introduced in the West Indies 200 years ago, have run wild and become
a good game bird. (Author’s abstract.)
PauL BartscH, National Museum: Some experiences: with the birds of the
Dry Tortugas (illustrated).—The Tortugas are 68 miles southwest of Key
West. This group constitutes one of the National bird reservations and is
particularly interesting because here we find the only colony of Sooty and
Noddy Terns breeding on the American Coast. Bird Key, a small sandy
island only a few feet above sea level, some 400 feet in length and 200 feet in
width, harbors annually no less than 30,000 of the Sooty and Noddy Terns.
These birds have been breeding here for a long time. They were visited
in 1832 by Audubon, and have been the object of attention from naturalists
ever since. The Sooty Tern probably breeds there today as it did when first
discovered, but the Noddy has undergone a tremendous change in nesting
habits in the last decade, owing to the fact that several recent hurricanes
have denuded the island of its woody vegetation. When Dr. Bartscu
first visited the group 14 years ago, the Noddy Tern bred in the Bay Cedars
which formed an abundant thicket on this Key, and since their destruction
they have been forced to abandon this mode of nesting, being slowly forced
to the ground by the dying and breaking off of the dead branches of these
shrubs. The birds, which were at first tree nesters, now cling to anything
that suggests wood, branches of the old stubs of the Bay Cedars or the
little branches on the ground pulled together to form a nest. The old
boards from a wrecked house, being wood, in part satisfy the craving for
a woody nesting site, and where these elements are wanting the Noddy has
at last come to use a mere hollow, just as does the Sooty.
344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 .
It has been an interesting change, which, while gradual during the last
14 years, may, nevertheless, be considered a rather abrupt transition from
a tree building type to a ground nester. With this change in nesting habit
has come a decided diminution in the numbers of the Noddy, while the
Sooty has maintained itself in the usual number.
It is interesting to note that in the single palm tree standing on the
island today, the Noddies are breeding in numbers in the axils of the leaves
high above the ground.
The Biological Survey has now planted several hundred coconut palms
on the island. Most of them are doing well and will furnish, it is hoped,
adequate nesting site, as well as shelter from the glaring rays of the sun,
to the young birds of both species.
All these transition changes of nesting were illustrated with lantern
slides, as well as the home life of both species, likewise of other visiting
water birds, such as large numbers of Man-o’-war, and three species of
Boobies. Dr. Barrscu also showed pictures of the breeding colonies of
Roseate Terns on Long Key, and of the Common Tern colony on Bush Key,
and of some of the other visiting birds, such as waders and herons. He
mentioned that so far he had recorded 136 birds from the group, most of
which, of course, are spring and fall migrants. (Author’s abstract.)
S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Dr. ArTHuUR L. Day is at present engaged in investigations in California
as chairman of the Advisory Committee of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington on seismology.
Dr. W.S. Apams, Director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, was
in Washington during the early part of June, on his return from New York,
where the degree of doctor of science had been conferred upon him by the
Columbia University.
Mr. W. C. Parkinson of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington left New York June 10 for the Huancayo
Magnetic Observatory in Peru, where he will act as consultant in the instal-
lation of earth-current recording devices.
A lecture on World migration as illustrated by the distribution of the redwood
tree, was given by Ralph W. Chaney at the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, on May 25, 1926.
bes of thin ath ddddiotioa will on this if
th and se sucterant be orig oe
f
oa
7 5 F
ied
F
“
it t
ak :
i
‘
2
id
is ‘
~
*
j
4
£4 ,
:
i
ie alc
7
,
et
‘ :
‘
$ P
",
a .
‘ EF
< frets
“) Aah
2 ,
4
{ A
MWe
5
:
j
ed ay
ed
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS
Statistics.—The frequency distribution of scientific productivity. Atrrep J.
TAOPIEA eis os vce cies bari ea le bie Bia BR eel aad ia Wrote cee ata a aee onan 4 a Saute: Wa ofall Camano 317
Geology.—Geology of the Guanté4namo Basin, Cuba. N. H. Darron,........... 324
Botany.—New species of cotton plants from Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. O. F.
Coox and J. W. AUBBARD Ls) soe ee se Ca 333
PROCEEDINGS
The Philosophical Society. 22.0302. . ea Ses ie tide 6 Sleuag ciene ee ee oe 339
The Biological Society. soi. So ees oa als ce oo ein ed ops soe eee ee 342
Screntiric Nores AND: NEWS 2.300. Cece ee 344
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: GrorcE K. Buresss, Bureau of Standards.
Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Strspex, Bureau of Standards,
Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
JuLy 19, 1926 No. 13
ees
SUwial
—' lily Vj me
JUL 211926 x
JOURNA
uy
OF THE 4
af
TONAL MUSED
OF SCIENCES ©
Bat
pipes
7 cg Oy
BA
BOARD OF EDITORS
' Dz. ¥F. Hewerr S. J. Mauceiy Acnes CHasz
«GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L. H. Apams S. A, Ronwer
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GotpMAN G. W. Strosr
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY
R. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, WIcHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mr. Royan aNnp GUILFORD AVES.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JournAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington, Tothisendit publishes: ©
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4)
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouURNAL is issued
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumescorres ond to calendar years, Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the JourNnat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page. we
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author. ;
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. |
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Copies 4 pp 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 tne 20. 4.30 9.25 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 540 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. |
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per Volume ts..o cies Se obo oc ame neeeeneee v eiche'e 0.00"
Semi-monthly numbe®ss. o.oo ee bv ore eos ace acess a> oe tae -20
Monthly numbers.ct fob Se ee ks Ses ee ees visccs vulwn we Giese es eee eon ai t}
Remitiances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,’”’ and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges.—The Journat does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
JOURNAL
OF THE )
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 16 ) JuLy 19, 1926 No. 18
GEOLOGY.—WNotes on the igneous rocks of the northeast West Indies
and on the geology of the Island of Anguilla... THomas WAYLAND
VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Cali-
fornia.
The following paper consists of notes on a collection of igneous rocks
I made in the West Indies in 1914, with determinations of the different
rock specimens by the late Prof. J. P. Iddings, and of supplemental
notes on the geology of the Island of Anguilla.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND A FEW ASSOCIATED SEDIMENTS FROM THE LEEWARD
AND VIRGIN ISLANDS
Before Professor Iddings’ lamented death he examined and identi-
fied for me all the samples of igneous rocks I collected in the West
Indies in 1914. After his death that collection and other specimens
were sent to Dr. E. O. Hovey, who was making a general study of the
voleanic rocks of the eastern West Indies. Since Doctor Hovey died
before completing his investigations, it appears desirable to publish
an annotated list of the rocks with Professor Iddings’ determinations.
The only explanatory remark needed seems to be regarding L. I. 56,
58, and 60, from St. Bartholomew. The contact of the rock repre-
sented by these samples with the St. Bartholomew limestone was not
seen. ‘The presence below the St. Bartholomew limestone of pebbles
(L. I. 54) of rock similar to the rock referred to by the numbers just
* mentioned suggests an age greater than that of the limestone, but L. I.
64, 65, and 66 represent rock obviously intruded into the limestone.
The geologic ages of the formation mentioned in the column headed
“Geologic Occurrence” are as follows: Antigua formation, upper and
middle Oligocene; St. Bartholomew, upper Eocene; Anguilla forma-
tion, lower Miocene.
1 Received June 15, 1926.
345
346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List or Rocks FROM THE NORTHEASTERN WEST INDIES.
LOCALITY
(FIELD)
NUMBER
STATION
NUM-
BER
NAME OF ROCK
By J. PP; Topimes
LOCALITY
Altered dacite| Antigua, Rat Island,
Eh Se
i 1e38
1a is
. 47
. 00
. os!
6882
6883
6884
6885
or rhyolite
Basalt
Dacite tuff
Dacite tuff
Holocrystal-
line andes-
ite
Altered andes-
ite, brecci-
ated
Possibly mi-
crocrypto-
crystalline
silica
Altered an-
desite
north side, alt. 30-40
ft.
Antigua, N. 18°F. from
Langford Mill on
slope of first ridge to
the north towards
Crosby’s Mill
Antigua, eastern slope
of hill at Bethesda
Church, head of Wil-
loughby Bay
Antigua, north of All
Saints Bridge, 42 miles
from St. John
' Antigua, summit of
Drew’s Hill
Antigua, Drew’s Hill 110
ft. below the-summit
Antigua, top of Gray’s
Hill
-Antigua, northeast foot
of Montero Hill
Altered basalt} Antigua, between Orange
Altered daci-
tic rock
Much altered
andesitic
tuff
Andesitic tuff
Altered an-
desitic glass
Altered tuff
Valley and Church
Bay, behind first hill
back from the shore
Antigua, west side of
Burnfoot Hill
Antigua, English Harbor
Village, east side of
Falmouth Harbor
Antigua, Falmouth Har-
bor, slope of Monk’s
Hill, alt. about 100 ft.
Same locality as L. I.
56b, but on top of the
hill
Antigua, west and south
slope of Monk’s Hill
VOL. 16.N@s tas
DETERMINATIONS
GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE
Bedded tuff, older than
the Antigua formation
Intrusive into the An-
tigua formation
Bedded tuff, older than
the Antigua formation
Older than the Antigua
formation
Younger than the An-
tigua formation
Younger than the Anti-
gua formation
Bedded rock occurring
with the bedded tuff;
older than the Antigua
formation
Not definitely ascer-
tained, probably
younger than the An-
tigua formation
Not definitely ascer-
tained, probably
younger than the Anti-
gua formation
Appears to be younger
than the Antigua for-
mation
Not definitely
tained
ascer-
Younger than the Anti-
gua formation
Overlies L. I. 56b, there-
fore younger —
Unconformably overlies
water-bedded tuff
JULY 19, 1926
VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES
347
LOCALITY
(FIELD)
NUMBER
STATION
NUM-
BER
NAME OF ROCK
- LOCALITY
ea aeeoooeoeouououoeoeOoeoeoeoeoeoeoeoaoaoioawaviwaioiwvw
Be 60!
6886
Altered an-
desitic glass
Antigua, Barnabas
a EOS
OG
. 584
soo
6896
6898
6899
6900
6901
6906
6908
6909
6910
6911
6912
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Holocrystal-
line pyrox-
ene andesite
Altered py-
roxene
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Holocrystal-
line pyrox-
ene andesite
Altered an-
desite
Micro-quartz
diorite or
holocrystal-
line quartz-
pyroxene
andesite
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Altered
aphanitic
dacite?
Altered apha-
nitic da-
cite? Simi-
lan to Lt.
70
St. Barts, spur s.e. side
of Anse Ecaille Bay;
alt. 120 ft.
St. Barts, northwest end
of point on which Ft.
Gustaf stands, alt.
about 20 ft.
St. Barts, above Ballast
Bay; alt. 430 ft.
St. Barts, slope of divide
‘between Carasol and
Flammand bays, Car-
asol Bay side; alt. 210
ft.
St. Barts, between Cara-
sol and Flammand
bays, Caraso! Bay side
of divide; alt. 100 ft.
St. Barts, south slope of
divide up from Caraso!
Bay, alt. 130 ft.
St. Barts, northwest side
of head of Galet Bay;
alt. 140 ft.
St. Barts, head of Mari-
got Bay; just above
sea level
St. Barts, east end of
island; Tortue bear-
ing N. 15°E., Grand
Fond Mountain bear-
ing 8. 55°W.
St. Barts, Grand Fond
Bay; alt. 60 ft.
St. Barts, south slope of
La Croix Mountain
St. Barts, Brim Moun-
tain, north slope
GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE
Seems to belong to the
tuffs older than the
Antigua formation
Pebbles from conglomer-
ate interbedded with
St. Bartholomew lime-
stone
Not definitely ascer-
tained; seems. older
than Eocene St. Bar-
tholomew limestone
Probably the same as
Ae 56"
Apparently intruded in-
to the St. Barthol-
omew limestone
Seems to be older than
the St. Bartholomew
limestone
Apparently the same as
: Wee (7
Intruded into St. Bar-
tholomew limestone.
The same as intrusion
L. I. 64
Not ascertained
Not ascertained
Not ascertained
Not ascertained
Not ascertained
348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LOCALITY
(FIELD)
NUMBER
STATION
NUM-
BER
NAME OF ROCK
LOCALITY
—_————— | | |
6913 |Altered an-
PR Be 9c
I.-E.-72?
. 73
. 74
ae |
LO
. 84
s0
. 89
. 90
. 92
. 93
6914
6916
6917
6920
6922
6927
6931
6932
6955
6956
6957
6959
desite or
dacitic tuff
Altered daci-
tic ? tuff
Altered an-
desitic tuff
Altered an-
desitic tuff
Altered mica-
bearing an-
desite
Dacite
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Altered py-
roxene an-
desite
Altered an-
desite, pos-
sibly dacite
Altered tuff
Laminated
sediment
Holocrystal-
line dacite
Micro-quartz-
dacite or
ho!ocrystal-
line pyrox-
ene andesite
St. Barts, L’Orient
Point; the basal bed
St. Barts, L’Orient
Point; bed next above
Tae. D725
St. Barts, L’Orient Bay,
base of point on west
side
St. Barts, L’Orient Bay,
east half, south side
of bay
St. Barts, Gouverneur
Bay, west cove
St. Barts, volcanic peak,
east side of Gouverneur
Bay
St. Barts, Anse Lézard,
boulder in volcanic
agglomerate and con-
glomerate
St. Barts, south of south-
east corner of Bay
Flammand, n.e. side
of main divide of the
island
St. Barts, col between
St. Jean and Chau-
vette bays
St. Martin, south of Red
Hill, near Simson Bay
St. Martin, Petite
Ecaille Bay, west of
North Point
St. Martin, Grande
Ecaille Bay, south of
North Point
St. Martin, west side of
head of Cul de Sac
Bay, Well’s lodge
VoL. 16, No. 13°
GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE
Underlies L. I. 72b
Overlain by St. Bartho-
lomew limestone
Underlies St. Bartholo-
mew limestone
Underlies St. Bartholo-
mew limestone
Intruded as dike into St.
Bartholomew lime-
stone
Younger than St. Bar-
tholomew limestone.
Compare with L. I.
70 and L. I. 71
Appears to lie below the
Bartholomew lime-
stone
Intruded into the St.
Bartholomew lime-
stone ;
Probably younger than
the St. Bartholomew
limestone. Compare
this with i, Ie7@, i. 1.
71, and L. 1.79. Seems
to me (T. W. V.) the
same as L. I. 71 and
Loe
Post-Miocene
Probably Cretaceous
Post-Cretaceous
Post-Cretaceous
JULY 19, 1926
LOCALITY
(FIELD)
NUMBER
STATION
NUM-
BER
VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES
NAME OF ROCK
LOCALITY
6961
BOT 95
. 108
. 109
2 110
pelt
. 113
. 114
. 102
Finer grained,
like L. I. 93
Fine-grained
granite or
quartz mon-
zonite
Banded meta-
morphosed
sediment
Fine-grained
quartz dior-
ite
Altered an-
desite
Altered an-
desite
Altered an-
desitic tuff
Altered basalt
Pyroxene an-
desite
Pyroxene an-
desite
Altered an-
desitic tuff
Altered an-
desite
St. Martin, head of Orient
Bay, Orient Bay side
of divide between it
and Grand Case Bay;
from a pit
St. Martin, east side of
Grand Bay, southwest
foot of peak 634 ft. high
Same locality as L. I. 108
Same locality as L. I. 108
St. Martin, east side of
Ft. Amsterdam Hill
St. Martin, Philipsburg-
Marigot road, neck of
land at southeast cor-
ner of Marigot Bay
St. Martin, Philipsburg-
Marigot road; out of
well east of Simpson
Lagoon
Anguilla Crocus Bay,
Pelican Point
Anguilla, Road Bay,
north side, near west-
ern end of point of
land on N. side of bay
St. Kitts, Brimstone Hill
N. side; alt. 360 and
460 ft.
St. Kitts, 22 mi. from
Rasseterre on road to
Old Road
St. Croix, Frederiksted,
Fort Catarhina Hill
St. Thomas, 3 mi. S. E. of
Frederiksberg, half way
between F redericks-
berg and Flag Hill
349
GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE
Post-Cretaceous
Post-Cretaceous; in-
truded into L. I. 109
Probably Cretaceous:
intruded by L. I. 108
Intruded into sediment
i. ~k’ 109:° specimén
taken back from con-
tacts Ak. «Ts “108 the
dike form of this rock
Intruded into sediments
probably of Cretaceous
aze
Not observed, probably
post-Cretaceous
Unconformably overlain
by the Anguilla forma-
tion
Unconformably overlain
by the Anguilla forma-
tion
Probably post-Pleisto-
cene in age
Broken from a large
boulder; geologic rela-
tions not observed
Apparently overlain by
hard limestone.
Not observed. This
rock is mapped as
‘‘bluebeach”’ by Cleve
2Jn this limestone are included pieces resembling L.I.5. The limestone seems to be
of Middle Oligocene age.
350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13 -
A considerable volume of literature is now available on the igneous
rocks of the West Indies. Papers by Hégbom,? Calkins,? Earle,*
Fittke,’ and Burbank,‘ are listed below, but these references do not
exhaust the literature. I made in the Virgin Islands of the United
States a considerable collection of igneous rocks which were examined
by Mr. Clyde P. Ross of the U. 8. Geological Survey but no report was
finished for publication. I have published a few notes on these rocks
in the papers cited below.’ I collected all the kinds of rocks mentioned
by Mr. Earle in his paper on the Virgin Islands except pegmatite.
No review of present knowledge West Indian igneous rocks can be
attempted in this article, but a few general remarks may be made.
One of the striking features of the West Indian rocks is the persistence
of rocks of the diorite-andesite group, with or without free quartz,
virtually throughout all the known geologic ages. They extend from
the probably Paleozoic Daguilla diorite schist of the Isle of Pines? to
the modern andesitic lavas of St. Kitts. A striking feature of the
rocks is the almost complete absence of potash feldspars. This is only
corroboration of what Hégbom has so well expressed in his paper.
The only rocks among those I collected and listed above which contains
potash in a notable amount is my L. I. 109, on the east side of Grande
Bay, St. Martin.
More basic rocks are also well developed in the West Indies; peri-
2 Héaspom, A. G., Zur Petrographie der kleinen Antillen. Geol. Inst. Upsala Bull.,
6: (pt. 2), 214-232, pls. 9, 10, 1905.
3 CaLKIns, F. C., Metamorphic and igneous rocks, in Geol. Reconn. Dominican
Repub., by T. W. Vaughan and others, Geol. Surv. Dominican Repub., Mem., 1: 83-88,
1921. Also in Spanish edition. a
4Earute, K. W., Report on the geology of Antigua, Govt. Printing Office, Leeward
Ids., 1923. 28 pp.
, The geology of the British Virgin Islands, Geol. Mag., 61: 339-351, 1924.
, Reports on the geology of St. Kitis-Nevis, B. W. I., and the geology of An-
guilla, N. W. I., Published by the Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. Pp. 50.
5 Firrxe, C. R., The geology of the Humacao District, Porto Rico, N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Ids., 2: (pt. 2) 117-197, text-figs., and
map, 1924. (Much other information has been published by the N. Y. Acad. Sei., see
bibliography of this paper.)
6 BURBANK, W.S., Igneous rocks, Geology of the Republic of Haiti, by W. P. Woodring
and others, pp. 260-330, 1924. Repub. Haiti, Dept. Public Works. Also in French
edition.
7VauGcuHAN, T. W., Stratigraphy of the Virgin Islands of the United States, etc., THIs
JOURNAL 13: 303-317, 1923. (In the bibliography at the end of this paper I failed to
list the very important paper by Professor Hégbom, for which see foot-note 2 of this
paper.) A sketch of the history of igneous activity in the northern and north-eastern West
Indies, Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Australia, 1923, Proc., 1: 851-55, 1925.
8 Hayzs, C. W., Report on a geological reconnoissance of Cuba, Rept. of the Military
Governor for 1901, p. 115, 1902.
JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES dol
dotites, usually metamorphosed into serpentine, gabbro, and several.
kinds of basalts are known.
Regarding the igneous rocks of Anguilla, Mr. Earle says:
The igneous rocks forming the basement beds of Anguilla and Dog Island
do not differ essentially from those forming the foundations of St. Kitts
and Antigua to the south and are all parts of the Antillean “province” as
distinct from the very different suite of igneous rocks forming the Virgin
Island “‘province.”’
As regards the similarity of the mode of occurrence of the igneous
rocks in Anguilla to those in Antigua Mr. Earle is right, but there are
andesites and dacites of probably Triassic or Jurassic age in Haiti;
andesites and andesitic tuffs of Cretaceous age occur in St. Thomas.
and probably in St. Croix; and andesitic tuffs are interbedded with
Eocene sediments in St. Bartholomew. In Cuba, in the Province of
Santa Clara, quartz diorite underlies Upper Cretaceous sediments;
dioritic rocks are intruded into Cretaceous sediment in St. Thomas,
Culebra, Vieques, and elsewhere; in St. Bartholomew holocrystalline
andesite is both older and younger than the Eocene sediments; in
Haiti quartz diorite is intruded into Eocene sediments. Igneous rocks
of the chemical composition indicated extend in age from pre-Creta-
ceous to present time in the West Indies. Gabbro and basalt have
about the same geologic range but do not occupy so large areas.
Peridotite and serpentine are extensively present in Cuba, the Domini-
can Republic, and Porto Rico, and are present in the republic of Haiti.
They are mostly of Mesozoic age.
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGUILLA
Some months ago I received a copy of Mr. Kenneth W. Earle’s
paper entitled ‘‘The Geology of Anguilla, B. W. I.,’’2 in which he says
that he does not understand a generalized, composite section I pub-
lished!* of the exposures adjacent to Crocus Bay and he disagrees with
my statement that the Anguilla formation rests on igneous rock at
Crocus Bay.
My original characterization of the Anguilla formation is as follows:
Anguilla formation. This formation is uppermost Oligocene, if the Aquitan-
ian of Europe is correctly referred to the Oligocene. In the opinion
of some paleontologists it would be classified as earliest Miocene. It is
paleontologically characterized by certain Foraminifera, described by J. A.
9 Published by the Crown Agents for the Colonies, 4, Millbank, London, S. W. 1,
- without date. .
100.8. Nat. Mus. Bull., 103: 262, 1919.
U Turis JOURNAL, 8: 271, 1918.
352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13.
Cushman in a report not yet published; by numerous species of corals,
among which are the genera Stylophora, Stylocoenia, Antillia, Orbicella,
Siderastrea, and Goniopora; by echinoids described by Guppy or by Cotteau,
among which are Echinolampas semiorbis Guppy, E. lycopersicus Cotteau,
and Agassizia clever Cotteau; and by a number of species of Mollusca, de-
scribed in manuscript by C. W. Cooke. The Mollusca include Amusiwm
lyon Gabb and Orthaulax pugnax (Heilprin). I obtained no specimens of
Lepidocyclina in Anguilla. The type exposure is along the southeast and
south shore of Crocus Bay. The material consists of calcareous clay, argil-
laceous limestone, and more or less pure limestone. The formation uncon-
formably overlies basic igneous rock.
Mrs. Burdon reprinted the paragraph quoted above, accompanied
by a few notes I gave her on Anguilla, in her useful little volume
entitled ““A Handbook of St. Kitts-Nevis, a Presidency of the Leeward
Islands Colony, containing information for residents and visitors
concerning the Islands of St. Christopher or St. Kitts, Nevis and
Anguilla,’’!
The description of the generalized section mentioned above which
I published reads as follows:
GEOLOGIC SEcTION AT Crocus Bay, ANGUILLA
3. Hard cavernous limestone, with few or no corals................0.+20+e-e: 60 feet
2. More or less argillaceous limestone with some beds of harder, purer lime-
stone; contains fossil corals from bottom to top, some coral heads as much
as 2 feet in diameter; this member subdivisible into subordinate beds, about. 200 feet
1. Yellow and brownish clay underlain by dark blue-black clay, or by sandstone
and conglomerate of igneous material, overlying basic igneous rock (ex-
posed at‘ Pelican’ Point)! ..5 e024 ald oe ee os eee 5 feet
I have discussed some of the geological features of Anguilla in other
papers listed below."
12 Published by authority of the Government of St. Kitts-Nevis by the Crown Agents
for the Colonies. London, The West India Committee, 1920, see pp. 232, 233.
13 The platforms of barrier coral reefs, Amer. Geogr. Soc. Bull., 46: 427-428, 1914.
Studies of the stratigraphic geology, etc., of several of the smaller West Indian Islands,
Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Yearbook for 1914, pp. 18, 14, 1915.
Some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward
Islands and their bearing on the coral reef problem, THis JOURNAL, 6: 61, 62, 1916. Ab-
stract in Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 27: 44, 1916.
Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rico, etc., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
103: 209, 262, 276, 277, 1919; The biologic character and geologic correlation of the sedi-
mentary formations of Panama, Ibid., p. 585. .
Correlation of the Tertiary formations of Central America and the West Indies, First
Pan-Pacific Sci. Congress Proc., Bishop Mus. Special Pub., pp. 832, 833, 1921.
Stratigraphic significance of the West Indian species of fossil Echini, Carnegie Inst.
Washington, Pub., 306: 113, 114, 1922.
Criteria and status of correlation and classification of Tertiary deposits, Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull., 35: 733, 1924; American and European Tertiary larger foraminifera, 1bid.,
803.
JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES 353
During 1914 I spent nearly two months in geological field work in
the northeastern West Indies and I was in Anguilla from February 28
until March 8. While on the island I made careful studies of the
exposures along and near the shores of Crocus Bay and less detailed
studies of very nearly the entire island, but I did not visit the outlying
islands, Some of these were viewed through field glasses and Mr.
Carter Rey gave me a number of notes on them. Since the ex-
posures in Anguilla, especially those in the vicinity of Crocus and
Road Bays, are of much importance in the study of the West Indian.
Tertiary formations, it seems desirable to present more detail than
has hitherto been published. :
No general description of the physical features of the Island will
be given here, since such descriptions are available in several papers,
the earliest with which I am acquainted being ‘‘Reports on the Geology
of Jamaica’? by Sawkins and others, 1869. The description in the
British Admiralty’s ‘‘West India Pilot,’ vol. 2, pp. 289-296 is good.
The general map of Anguilla I have used is chart no. 1834 of the Hydro-
graphic Office, U. 8. Navy, which is based on a British Survey made in
1847 and subsequent small corrections. A detailed chart of Crocus
Bay is published as one of several harbor charts on chart no. 371a of the
Hydrographic Office, U. 8S. Navy. This chart is based on British
surveys made in 1846, corrected to 1883.
Crocus Bay lies on the northwest side of Anguilla between two points
of land of which the more southern projects farther west than the one
at the north. The extreme distance across the harbor opening is
about 1.9 sea miles. ‘The maximum distance from a line between the
seaward ends of the bounding points to the bay shore is about 0.8 sea
mile. The bay is open toward the west. The end of the northern
point is known as Flat Cap. The sea between slopes gradually from a
depth of 9 fathoms in the outer part of the bay to the shore.
The highest land adjacent to Crocus Bay is at the Customhouse,.
whose altitude is 218 feet above sea level. From Valley Postoffice,
where the bay extends farthest into the land, there is a gradual slope to
sea level from an altitude of about 140 feet. Most of the slopes around.
the bay are steep, even precipitous. The Customhouse stands only
about 800 feet back from the water’s edge according to the chart, the
slope there being almost 1 foot in 4 feet.
The following description of the section exposed between the
Customhouse and the water’s edge at Crocus Bay is a composite,
354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13°
since all of the section could not be seen in one continuous bluff face
or slope. The lower 6 beds were examined along the foot of the bluff
and in its northeastern part on the south side of the slope from Valley
Postoffice to the shore of the bay. Ata height of about 90 feet above
sea level the line of the section. was shifted southward to a steep-faced
bluff which rises to a height of about 185 feet above sea level. Several
aneroid barometer readings gave the height of the top of the bluff
above sea level as between 175 and 200 feet, which is too low, the actual
height by the chart being 218 feet. A correction has, therefore, been
applied to the aneroid readings in order to make the thickness of the
beds equal the height of the bluff. The measurements are only
approximate. ‘The exposures along the southeast shore of the Bay are
nearly along the strike of the beds, which is southwestward; the dip is
southeastward, at an angle of perhaps 10°—precise measurement is
not practicable.
DESCRIPTION OF SECTION ON THE SOUTHEAST SHORE OF Crocus Bay, NEAR VALLEY
PosToFFICE (THICKNESSES ONLY APPROXIMATE)
Thickness
an feet
8. Limestone, massive, hard, exposed at the Customhouse, 218 feet above sea level;
overlies the coralliferous limestone and marls exposed below.
7. Limestone, yellowish, argillaceous, with interbedded harder limestone which
forms discontinuous beds or bands. A large number of corals and some echi-
noids were collected from exposures equivalent in stratigraphic position to the
upper half of this part of the section, field no. L. I. 96 (1914). About 40 ft..
above the base of this division corals, three species of echinoids, Amusium,
Spondylus, etc., were collected field no. L. I. 100c (1914)...................... 130
6. Limestone, harder, but with considerable clay, colored yellowish to red with
Oxides Of IFOM. 0.2... sds ga eseg mapeinise cies ee se) 2 ee 12
5. Limestone, more argillaceous, zones of nodular limestone in clay; many corals,
some excellently preserved, part of collection field no. L. I. 100b (1914)........ 30
4. Limestone, harder, base of the EHchinolampas semiorbis bed, corals abundant,
part of collection field no. L. 1. 1006 (1914) ...220 2... J. ne eee Le,
3. Yellowish calcareous clay and yellowish argillaceous limestone. Much of the
more calcareous parts form more or less nodular bands embedded in more ar-
gillaceous matrix. Fossils are abundant in this part of the section: ‘“‘Orbit-
olites,’’ Miogypsina antillea, Stylophora, Orbicella (heads 2 ft. in diameter),
Goniopora (heads 2 ft. in diameter), Porites, some echinoids, Ostrea, Pecten,
Spondylus, Turritella, etc. In some places Miogypsina antillea makes up most
of the rock. Collection field no. L. I. 100 (1914) mostly from the lower part;
field no. L. IT. 100a (1914) solely from lower 10 ft. of this division.............. 30
2. Yellowish, brownish, and chocolate-covered clay......:../.....922e eee 3
1. Base of bluff. Blue-black clay in which lignite and amber have been found.
This corresponds to the bed immediately overlying the volcanic sandstone and
conglomerate and andesitic tuff on the north side of the bay.................. 2
Total thickness, approximately.... 219
JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES 3990.
On the north shore of Little Harbor, northern part of Crocus Bay,
near Flat Cap Point, there is the following exposure:
Section, LirrteE Harspor, Crocus Bay
Thickness
in feet
3. Hard, massive, cavernous limestone, many caves, some 50 ft. in depth. From a
pit in one of them Mr. Carter Rey collected specimens of Amblyrhiza........... 60.
MEITAALeO. CalGATGOlS SAMOStONE.... Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 25: 128. 1919.
JULY 19, 1926 KILLIP: A GENUS OF PASSIFLORACEAE 367
1. Tetrastylis ovalis (Vell.) Killip, comb. nov.
Passiflora ovalis Vell. Fl. Flumin. 9: pl. 75. 1827: (figure only); M.
Roemer, Fam. Nat. Syn. 2: 168. 1846.
Passiflora silvestris Mast. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 131: 620. pl. 127. 1872,
not Passiflora silvestris Vell.
Tetrastylis montana Barb. Rodr. Rev. Engenharia 4: 260. 1882.
Woody vine; glabrous throughout; stems terete, longitudinally sulcate,
suberose below; stipules setaceous, 8 to 10 mm. long, soon deciduous; petioles
2.5 to 4 em. long, biglandular at base, the glands orbicular, about 1.5 mm. in
diameter, sessile; leaves elliptic or elliptic-oblong, 6 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 5.5
em. wide, not lobed, abruptly acuminate at apex, acutish at base, entire,
usually cartilaginous at margin, l-nerved (principal secondary nerves 7 or 8
pairs, arcuate), conspicuously reticulate-veined, coriaceous, sublustrous;
flowers in axillary racemes up to 75 cm. long, the peduncles short, about 1 em.
long, stout, 2-flowered, the pedicels 1.5 to 4 cm. long, articulate above middle ;
bracts and bractlets setaceous, 1 to 2 mm. long, soon deciduous; flower tube
3 to 5 mm. long; sepals oblong, 2.5 to 3 cm. long, 0.5 to 0.7 cm. wide, obtuse,
ecorniculate, subcoriaceous, dull red without (when dry), paler within,
longitudinally streaked with red; petals oblong or lance-oblong, 1.5 to 2 cm.
long, 0.3 to 0.6 mm. wide, obtuse, membranous, whitish, longitudinally
streaked with red both without and within; corona filaments narrowly liguili-
form, in 2 series, the outer about 1 cm. long, the inner half as long; operculum
membranous, closely plicate, incurved, crispate; limen annular, fleshy; gyno-
phore about 2 cm. long; ovary oblong; fruit (according to Velloso) oblong,
about 10 cm. long, 6 cm. wide; seeds obovate, truncate at apex.
Specimens examined (all Brazil):
Rio de Janeiro, Glaziou 7859 (Paris, Berlin, Copenhagen), 3269 (Berlin,
Copenhagen), 14854 (Paris, Berlin, Geneva, Kew, Copenhagen), 14873
(Paris); Peckholt 7 (Berlin); De Moura 503 (Berlin). Bahia, Blanchet
1708 (British Museum). Without definite locality, St. Hilaire 1689
(Paris).
The nomenclature pertaining to this species is somewhat involved. Vel-
loso’s figure was unaccompanied by any description or explanatory notes,
and under the rules of nomenclature does not constitute valid publication.
Roemer, however, in his elaborate monograph of Passifloraceae, gives a de-
tailed description of Velloso’s plate, and the species must be considered to
date from this publication in 1846. Masters’ treatment of the species in the
Flora Brasiliensis® is a curious one. Here species no. 77 is given as “‘Passi-
flora silvestris Vell.’’ and Velloso’s plate 74, bearing this name, is cited.
The description which Masters then gives of this species applies in general,
however, to Velloso’s plate 75 (P. ovalis), and the figure with which Masters
illustrates ‘‘Passiflora silvestris’ (plate 127) agrees almost exactly with
Velloso’s P. ovalis, and bears no resemblance to the plate of P. silvestris of
Velloso. The inflorescence as shown by Masters’ plate is an elongate raceme
with 2-flowered peduncles, and the leaves are narrowed at the base, with the
petioles biglandular. The detailed enlargement of the flowers shows four
styles but a stracght gynophore with the staminal structure as in true Pass?-
6131; 620. pl. 127. 1872.
368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13
flora. This conventionalized flower sketch I believe was made from two
different plants, one true Tetrastylis ovalis, the other some unknown species
of Passiflora of the Granadilla relationship. This solution is also suggested
by the specimens which Masters cites under his ‘‘Passiflora silvestris.”’? The
first mentioned is “Velloso,” the specimen not being seen by Masters. The
second is “Luschnath.” -This specimen I did not see at any of the European
herbaria visited, and at Kew it is represented only by a sketch of the flower,
This has three styles and a straight gynophore. Accompanying the sketch
is a note by Masters ‘“‘P. sylvestris St. Hil.?”” The third specimen cited is
“Prov. Minas Geraés, St. Hilaire 1689.”’ This specimen, which IJ saw at Paris,
is Tetrastylis ovalis.
Finally, as to “Passiflora ovalis Vell.” Masters merely lists this among
certain doubtful species, stating that only a fruiting specimen was figured.
The identity of Passiflora silvestris Vell. (plate 74) I have not fully estab-
lished. It represents a plant closely related to Passiflora jileki Wawra
if not that species.
2. Tetrastylis lobata Killip, sp. nov.
Stem stout, triangular, grooved, glabrous; stipules in pairs, semi-ovate,
5 to 15 mm. long, 3 to 8 mm. wide, aristate, entire; petioles 3 to 8 em. long,
canaliculate above, hispidulous, bearing near middle 2 subsessile saucer-
shaped glands, a second pair occasionally present at base of blade, the glands
1 to 2 mm. in diameter; leaves 10 to 15 cm. long (along midnerve), 12 to 20
cm. wide (between apices of lateral lobes), 3-lobed half to two-thirds the length
of the blade (lobes variable, oblong, oblong-lanceolate, or broadly ovate-
lanceolate, 2.5 to 6 cm. wide, acuminate or acute), cordate, 3-nerved, entire
or shghtly undulate, membranous, dark green and minutely hispidulous
with hooked hairs above, glabrous, (occasionally slightly scabrous), and
mottled with dull dark red beneath; peduncles solitary or in pairs, 2 to 3.5
em. long, glabrous or sparingly hispidulous; bracts setaceous, 2 to 3 mm.
long, borne on lower half of peduncle; flowers 3.5 to 6 em. wide, the tube
patelliform, about 3 mm. long; sepals oblong-lanceolate, 1.5 to 2.5 em. long,
0.4 to 0.8 cm. wide, sparingly hispidulous and green without, glabrate and
white, or pale rose, streaked longitudinally with violet within, terminating
in a horn about 2 mm. long; petals ovate-lanceolate, 0.8 to 1.5 em. long,
0.5 to 0.7 em. wide, obtuse, streaked longitudinally with violet on both
faces; corona filaments in a single series, filiform, narrowly ligulate, 1 to 2 em.
long; operculum membranaceous, deep red, strongly plicate, incurved up to
5mm. high, minutely denticulate; nectar ring annular, less than 0.5 mm. high;
limen membraneous, 1 to 2 mm. high, incurved, crenulate; gynophore about
1 em. long; stamens united to within 3 mm. of their tips, forming a mem-
branous androecium, the upper portion free from the gynophore, about
2.5 mm. long, the lower portion closely sheathing the gynophore; ovary nar-
rowly ovoid, obtuse, tapering at base, glabrous; styles clavate, 4.5 mm. long,
recurved; stigmas saucer-shaped; fruit obovoid, about 10 cm. long, 3 cm. in
diameter, green, white-spotted; seeds obovate.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,085, collected at La
Hondura, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1200-1500 meters,
March 9, 1926, by Paul C. Standley (no. 51917).
JULY 19, 1926 MICHELSON: PRINCIPLES OF ALGONQUIAN LANGUAGES 369
Additional specimens examined (all Costa Rica) :
Finca de Chirripé, Plains of Zent, altitude 200 meters, Pitter 16055
(U.S. N. M., Brit. Mus.), 16100 (Brit. Mus.). Tuilardn, altitude 750
meters, Valerio 14 (U.S. N. M.). Vicinity of Orosi, Province of Cart-
ago, Pittter 16026 (U.S. N. M.); Standley 39673, 39720, 39793. Santa
Maria de Dota Province of San José, Standley 41796. El Muiieco, on
Rio Navarro, Province of Cartago, Standley 51389. La Estrella, Prov-
ince of Cartago, Standley 39352. Quebrada Serena, southeast of
Tilaran, Province of Guanacaste, Standley 46140 (all U. S. N. M.).
Two of these specimens (P2ttzer 16055 and Valerio 14), have leaves less
deeply lobed than are those of the type, and the pubescence is rather denser.
The general appearance of Standley’s 46149 is quite different, the leaves
drying a lighter green and the lateral lobes being much reduced. The flowers
of all of the specimens here cited seem the same, and the differences in vege-
tative characters are no greater than in many species of the family.
This plant is not to be confused with Ceratosepalum micranthum Oersted?
(later reduced to Passiflora ceratosepala Mast.). Ceratosepalum was segre-
gated from Passiflora mainly on the basis of horned sepals. Among several
specimens of Passifloraceae sent me by the Universitetets Botaniske Museum,
Copenhagen, for study were two sheets labeled ‘“‘Ceratosepalum”’ in Oersted’s
handwriting, which evidently are type material of Ceratosepalum micranthum.
They prove to be Passiflora adenopoda DC., a fairly common species ranging
from Mexico to northwestern South America.
ANTHROPOLOGY. The fundamental principles of Algonquian
languages... TRUMAN MicHELSON, Bureau of American Eth-
nology. |
The grammatical processes are prefixing, suffixing, reduplication of
various types, vocalic change, and composition. All objects are class-
ified as animate and inanimate. Singular and plural are distinguished;
as also the first person plural exclusive and inclusive; difference and
identity of third persons are carefully kept apart by grammatical
devices. In the verb there are frequently two stems, and sometimes
more. Of these those which under no circumstances can occur in the
initial position are very few in number. When two stems, both of
which can occur in the initial position, are combined in a single com-
pound, it is quite conventional as to which precedes or follows. The
phonetic changes resulting from such combinations are relatively few
and are of a simple character. It should be noted that a number of
stems indicating parts of the body occur in the second position only.
7 OERSTED, Rech. Fl. Amer. Centr. 18. pl. 17. 1863.
1 Summary of an address given before Section L of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, January 3, 1925. Received May 26, 1926.
|
370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13
And it should be stated that the auxiliaries are few in number and
occur in the second position only, and frequently are entirely distinct
according to whether the subject is animate or inanimate. The num-
ber of moods is very great. The subject pronouns of the independent
mood are clearly related to, and in some cases are identical with, the
possessive pronouns, and are partly prefixed, partly suffixed, partly
both. Some of the objective pronouns of the independent mood are
the same as some of the subordinate moods, and are suffixed. The
inclusive form in this mood (and others) is clearly related to the second
person plural. The forms of the independent mood with the third
person animate, singular and plural, as subjects and the first and second
person singular, the inclusive and exclusive, and the second person
plural as objects are really passives in construction. All the pro-
nouns of the subordinate moods are invariably suffixed. The objec-
tive pronouns are largely the same in the various subordinate moods
while several of the subjective pronouns are fundamentally different.
Yet in many cases the objective and subjective pronouns are so fused,
and at times even modal elements with them, that analysis into the
constituent elements is not possible. A participial is formed by
changing the stem vowel of the first vowel of the initial stem; the
pronominal elements in this case are obviously derived from other
sources with but slight changes. The complexities of this mood,
however, have not been thus far adequately treated. The following
voices are distinguished: active, middle, passive, reflexive, and
reciprocal. The last two are formed by special suffixes, but the ordi-
nary intransitive verbal pronouns are used. Atleast two passives are
common, one where the agent is either expressed or understood, the
other where the agent is not expressed and is indefinite. ‘The pro-
nominal elements of the last, in the case of the independent mode, are
allied partially to the ordinary intransitive verbal pronouns. Other
passives apparently exist, but their exact function is not accurately
known. One appears to be very indefinite and to occur only with an
indefinite subject. Every active, middle, and passive verb (with a
few exceptions) requires an instrumental particle showing by what the
action was done, e.g., by the hand, by the foot, by heat, by cutting,
etc. The middle voice employs the ordinary intransitive verbal
pronouns with these particles. From what has been said it is clear
that in some Algonquian languages the verbal pronominal elements
theoretically must run into the thousands. These instrumental
particles are comparatively few in number (in Fox about forty), and
JULY 19, 1926 _ PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 371
usually differ in form according to whether the logical object is animate
or inanimate; in the case of the middle voice the subject (animate or,
rarely, inanimate) determines the choice. It should be noted that
often these particles are purely formal, having lost their original
significance; in such cases it must be known by rote as to which sets
go with any given verbal stem. The instrumental particles can be
combined with initial stems, and follow them if there is no second
stem; if there is a second stem (whether wholly non-initial or one that
may occur in the initial position in another verbal compound), they
follow this. The typical Algonquian verb in subordinate moods would
be: first stem, second stem, instrumental particle, objective pronoun,
subjective pronoun, modal element.: Temporal relations in some dia-
lects are expressed by what for convenience may be termed prefixes,
though there are indications that some are strictly not these, in others
by combining initial stems. Reduplication of various types occurs, to
express ideas of intensity, duration, distribution. When the whole
stem is not reduplicated, a longi of the first syllable of the initial stem
(which alone can be reduplicated) is replaced by 4; under similar con-
ditions 6 also by 4. ‘The structure of nouns follows the general ar-
rangement of verbs, but there are some suffixes with generic meanings.
_ It may be added that abstract nouns are extremely common. A gen-
eral, vocative, locative, and obviative (and in some dialects a sur-
obviative) case are distinguished. ‘The independent pronouns are
patently related to the possessive pronouns. The demonstrative
pronouns express such ideas as near and visible, removed but visible,
past time, etc. What has been said above applies especially to the
Eastern-Central dialects; Blackfoot and Arapaho have specialized in
opposite directions; so we may be sure that neither presents a primitive
Algonquian grammar. Secondary phonetic changes and some special-
izations have in some instances obliterated the principles enunciated
above in certain of the Eastern dialects; but in almost all cases we
may show by comparative methods what originally existed.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES —
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
938TH MEETING
The 938th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening,
April 17, 1926. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President AULT
at 8:15, with 32 persons in attendance.
The program for the evening consisted of two papers. The first by H.
372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13
L. DrypEN was on the Measurement of the performance of desk fans, and
was discussed by Messrs. Breit, Dickinson, PAwLING, TUCKERMAN and
HUMPHREYS.
The common method of measuring the output of desk and bracket type
electric fans consists in the measurement of the velocity distribution along
one or more diameters by means of a Pitot tube and inclined gauge or
equivalent device, the results being integrated to give the total volume of
air flowing. These measurements were shown to be subject to a systematic
error due to the angular inclination of the airflow to the Pitot tube. A
general description was given of the type of airflow and of the principles in-
volved in the cooling action of the fan. Various quantities which have been
suggested as measures of the output were discussed, including volume per
unit time, momentum per unit time, and energy per unit time. As a result
the momentum per unit time was suggested as the best criterion of cooling
power since (1) it is sensibly constant at all distances from the fan; (2) it is
a satisfactory compromise between several theoretical considerations; and
(3) it is readily and accurately measurable by the thrust reaction on the
fan. Methods of measurement of the thrust were described and a par-
ticular form of instrument was suggested for convenient use. (Author’s
abstract.)
The second paper on the program was by W. W. CoBLentz on Impres-
sions of the Sumatra eclipse expedition, and was illustrated by lantern slides.
It was discussed by Messrs. HUMPHREYS and AULT.
The speaker was one of a party of four, under the leadership of Dr. H.
T. Stetson of the Astronomical Laboratory, Harvard University, that went
to Sumatra to observe the solar eclipse of January 14, 1926. Leaving San
Francisco in November, 1925, after spending a month in the eclipse camp at
Benkoelen, Sumatra, they returned by way of the Suez Canal and Europe
in March, 1926.
After discussing various factors that affect eclipse observations the
speaker exhibited an extensive series of lantern slides of scenes along the
route as well as in the eclipse camp.
There were elght expeditions in the field to make observations on the
solar eclipse; one on the east coast of Sumatra, one in the center of the
island, and six in Benkoelen on the west coast. Only the latter expedition
had good weather during most of the time of totality.
In view of the numerous factors that enter into the success of such an
undertaking (the weather, and health of the members, unforeseen accidents,
etc.), it seems desirable to consider the results obtained by all the parties
concerned, as a whole; and when so judged the results obtained were a success.
The Harvard-Bureau of Standards eclipse party had six projects; in-
cluding thermopiles for measuring the radiation of the corona, a lumenom-
eter for measuring the brightness at totality, a silvered quartz lens camera
for photographing the corona in ultra light, and two photographic methods
for obtaining the color index. The lumenometer measurements show that
the normal illumination at totality was brighter than that of the eclipse of
January 24, 1925.
The speaker had an opportunity to study the native fireflies and glow
worms in Sumatra, and vegetation on the moving sands in Egypt, the
latter being of interest in connection with the question of variation in colora-
tion on the surface of Mars. Unusual phenomena, such as the “green
flash”’ at sunset, and the sheen over the ocean from the zodiacal light, were
commented upon in concluding the address. (Author’s abstract.)
JULY 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 373
An informal communication on Gravity variations due to the moon was
presented by Mr. A. S. HAWKESWORTH.
939TH MEETING
The 939th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening,
May 1, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bowle at 8:16,
with 31 persons in attendance.
The program for the evening consisted of two papers. The first by W. J.
Peters was entitled The 27-day interval in earth currents. It was illus-
trated, with lantern slides and was discussed by Dr. BAuvEr.
Dr. Chree and others have shown by statistical investigations the recur-
rence of average high and average low values on the 27th day after days of
selected maximum and minimum in long unbroken records of magnetic
measures, such as the international character numbers, the daily ranges in
magnetic elements. The high correlation found by Dr. Bauer between the
variations, in terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and earth-
currents indicates the desirability of applying the same statistical method of
investigating the 27 day recurrency to those related phenomena.
The subject of this paper is a description of the process as applied to the
earth-current observations published in the bulletins of Ebro Observatory
in Spain between 1910 and 1924 inclusive and the exhibition of the results.
The daily ranges in the potential of the northerly-extending line, ex-
pressed in millivolts per kilometer were transferred by adding machine to
strips of paper, the values for each day following one another in regular
order without any intermissions excepting the missing observations. Ac-
cording to the usual practice the 5 highest and the 5 lowest values of each
month were selected and the particular day on which each value occurs was
designated n. They were marked on the strips, after which it became a
simple matter to pick out by means of a device designed by Mr. C. C. Ennis
the values that occur on any day desired, the (n + r)th day, following or
preceding the days, nth days, on which the selected values occur.
The values of r were taken from —2 to +2 inclusive, in order to bring
out the mean character of the selected maximum or minimum values, and
from +23 to +32 inclusive not only to show the character of corresponding
mean values on and around the 27th day but also to develop any other
recurrency interval that might exist within these limits.
Results were given for the following periods: 1910-1914, which covers
the earliest published records of the Observatory; 1915-1919, which in-
cludes the year of sunspot maximum, 1917, and the year of magnetic maxi-
mum, 1919; 1922-1924, which covers the period after the intermission of
one year, 1921, during which the apparatus was overhauled, up to the most
recent published results; 1910-1920, which covers the period of another
investigation; and 1910-1924, which includes all data available. The
paper will appear in Terrestrial Magnetism. (Author’s abstract.)
The second paper was by E. O. Hu.surt on The spectrum of hydrogen
in the stars and in the laboratory. It was illustrated with lantern slides,
and was discussed by Pawuinc, Breit, Laporte, and HUMPHREYS.
The Balmer series of hydrogen, the simplest series of the simplest of
terrestrial elements, finds its most striking development in the spectra of
the stars and in the “flash spectrum” of the sun. As many as thirty to
thirty-five lines of the series are observed in the light from these extra-
terrestrial sources. The characters of the lines themselves vary greatly
3/4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL... 16, No. 13
in the different spectra, being bright (emission), dark (absorption), narrow,
broad, singly, doubly and triply reversed, etc. The production of these
lines and their variations with the relatively weak apparatus of the ter-
restrial laboratory has been accomplished only in part. The laboratory
investigations have, however, contributed definite knowledge of the phys-
ical conditions in the stellar ‘atmospheres, and further investigations offer
great promise.
The laboratory observations of the emission series to the twentieth Balmer
line and of the absorption series to the tenth line indicate that great ex-
panses of glowing hydrogen at low pressures are necessary for. the full de-
velopment of the series as seen in the stellar spectra. The Balmer lines
broaden very greatly with pressure, current density, foreign gases, etc.
Studies of the intensity distribution across the individual broadened lines
have led to the conclusion that the broadening is caused by the electric
fields of the ions and electrons of the radiating gas. This theory of broad-
ening is applied to the wide hydrogen lines of the stars. From the ob-
served widths of these together with the Saha theory of temperature ioniza-
tion the conclusions are indicated that the pressures in the stellar reversing
layers are low and that there may be many electrons in these layers.
Doubly reversed Balmer lines are observed in the laboratory, but as yet
no triple reversals. Stellar atmospheres which give rise to the double and
triple reversals may be pictured with some certainty. The cause of the
asymmetric reversals observed in some stellar spectra can not be said to
be definitely known. (Author’s abstract.)
H. A. Marmer, Recording Secretary.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
S96TH MEETING
At the 596th meeting of the Anthropological Society on March 16th,
W. H. Jackson, photographer to the Hayden Geological Surveys, 1870-79,
reviewed his experiences of fifty years ago among cliff ruins and Pueblo
villages in Colorado and New Mexico, illustrating his subject with slides from
original photographs. While engaged in photographing in the San Juan
Mountains, in 1874, a chance meeting with prospectors who told of some
wonderful cliff dwellings not far from their camp on the Rio La Plata led to
the discovery, or more properly the first published account, of the Mesa
Verde ruins. (Letter to the New York Tribune, November 3d by Ernest
Ingersoll.) Following their advice that something worth while might be
found in that region, Mr. Jackson left his main party in camp at Baker’s
Park and with Mr. INGERSOLL, and two packers, made a hasty side trip
to the miners’ camp where he met JoHN Moss, who had traveled extensively
over the southwest and who volunterred to ouide the party through Mancos
Canyon in the Mesa Verde, where he said the best examples of ancient cliff
dwellings were to be found. On a six day ride taking in the Mesa Verde,
the McElmo canyon, and the Hovenweep valley, many of these ruins were
discovered and photographed, but the greatest and most interesting group of
all, now the main feature of the Mesa Verde National Park, was not dis-
covered until fourteen years later. The results of this first expedition among
the cliff dwellings were of such interest that exploration was continued the
following year into Utah and Arizona. Mr. W. H. Houmus also led a party
into this region, which, while primarily engaged in geological work, devoted
much time to archeological research, paying particular attention to the
towers of the San Juan Valley. Mr. J ACKSON’S party followed the San Juan
JULY 19, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 3/795
River to the Chinle, and thence to the Hopi pueblos. Returning northwards
they visited the Abajo and LoSal Mountain region and then followed the
Montezuma Canyon back to the starting point. Many interesting cliff,
cave, and town ruins were discovered and photographed, including nearly
every canyon, mesa or valley throughout the whole region containing evi-
dences of prehistoric occupation. The Southern Utes, as well as tribes farther
west, were troublesome this year, Mr. GARDNzER’s topographical party being
attacked near the Abajo Peaks by a large party, with the loss of three animals
and all his camp equipment. Mr. Houmss’ party came near losing all its
- animals, and Mr. Jackson also had frequent encounters, but without loss.
In 1877 an extended trip was made through New Mexico to the Hopi pueblos
in Arizona, during which Mr. Jackson made a detailed study of the Chaco
Canyon ruins, and with the reports which followed, concluded his archeo-
logical work for the Survey.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Dr. Wiuis T. Les, geologist of the United States Geological Survey,
known to the public through his recent scientific studies and surveys of the
Carlsbad and other noted caverns of the country, died at his home in Wash-
ington on June 17, in his sixty-second year.
Dr. T. A. JAacar, director of the Hawaiian Voleano Observatory of the
U. 8. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lecture at the Interior Depart-
ment on June 12 on The recent eruption of Mauna Loa.
Dr. N. L. Bowen of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, sailed for England on June 5, to spend the summer in field
work on the igneous rocks of the British Isles, in company with several British
petrologists.
JOHN W. VANDERBILT, 8. SPENCER NYE and Martin J. BueRGER have
been appointed junior geologists in the U. 8S. Geological Survey and have
been assigned field work in the west.
B. 8. Butter and T. 8. Lovertne of the U. 8. Geological Survey have
been assigned to the State of Colorado to begin codperative geological surveys
in that State designed to aid in the development of its metalliferous mineral
resources. The research may extend over a number of years.
The new officers of the American Geophysical Union as elected for the
period July 1, 1926 to June 30, 1929, at the annual meeting of the Union in
April last, are: Chairman, H.S. Wasurneton; Vice-Chairman, G. W. LirTLe-
HALES. (J. A. FLEMING continues as General Secretary through June 30,
1928.) The newly elected officers of sections for the corresponding period
are: (a) Geodesy—Chairman, WiLu1amM Bowie; Vice-Chairman, F.
Wricut (W. D. LAMBERT continues as Secretary through June 30, 1928);
(b) Seismology—Chairman, L. H. Apams; Vice-Chairman, N. H. Hecx (D.
L. Hazarp continues as Secretary through June 30, 1928); (c) Meteorology—
Chairman, H. H. Kimpatu; Vice-Chairman, G. W. LirrLeHALss; Secretary,
A. J. Henry; (d) Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity—-Chairman, N. H.
Heck; Vice-Chairman, J. H. DELLINGER; Secretary, J. A. FLEMING; (e)
Oceanography—Chairman, T. WayLAND VAUGHAN; Vice-Chairman, G. T.
' 376 JOURNAL OF. THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 13 ©
Rup#; Secretary, Austin H. Cuarx; (f) Volcanology—Chairman, T. A.
JaGGcaR, Jr.; Vice-Chairman, F. E. Wricut (R. B. SosmMan continues as
Secretary through June 30, 1928).
The United States Geological Survey has established a Section of Volean-
ology in the Geologic Branch, effective July 1, of which T. A. Jacear, Jr., will
be Volcanologist in charge.
Mr. Kirk Bryan of the United States Geological Survey has been ap-
pointed Lecturer in Physiography at Harvard University for the year 1926-27.
N. L. Wiumuer has been appointed mining engineer and F. W. Houz-
HEIMER associate mining engineer in the U. S. Geological Survey. They
will make investigations in Alaska.
A. M. Pipe has been appointed assistant geologist in the Water-Resources
Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey, and will be assigned to ground-water
investigations.
H. D. Miser, who has been temporarily State Geologist of Tennessee since
September 1, 1925, has returned to the U. 8. Geological Survey and has been
appointed Geologist in charge of areal geology, in the Geologic Branch, as
successor to Sidney Paige, resigned.
GEMS
1
2
page
x
©
ont
month
ch
4
‘
a
| } ted societies
twenty-seventh
ca 4
¥
lia
he
of
aecades
"So
i
+
s of the
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PaPmrs
Page
Geology.—Notes on the igneous rocks of the northeast West Indies and on the
geology of the Island of Anguilla. THomas WaYLAND VAUGHAN...........- 345
Geology.—The geological age of Tuolumne Table Mountain, California. OLIvER
Bo HA oo ey Re Uae ee A Re Sine sis wae yey plete be Cn 358
Botany.—Notes on Disterigma. S. F. BuaKe&................... CUPRA Ss Rp mee PCY 361
Botany.—Tetrastylis, a genus of Passifloraceae. Exusworta P. Kinuip......... 365
Anthropology.—The fundamenta! principles of Algonquian languages. TRUMAN
MICHBESON’ oe. ea be ke oe be Cvs wie bie ce sina oie Dee bly vale! crew wie nan a or 369
PROCEEDINGS
The Philosophioal: Society «0. os... cvs ge whie alerage sn eo ng he On CER a ee 371
The Anthropological Society... oes 0 py. 0. Ls er 374
Screntiric Notes anp NEWS 210.0022 2 000.5 eee vse oe oe ee ee ee 375
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Gzorce K. Burcsss, Bureau of Standards.
Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiusBee, Bureau of Standards.
Recording Secretary: W. D. LamBurt, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Vol. 16 — Avausr 19, 1926 No. 14
ty -
tf.
; pS
JOURNAL «.......
OF THE
TASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
). F. Hewett S. J. Maucsiy Aanes CHasz
BOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
L, H. Apams 8. A. Ronwzr
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E, A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stosr
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
_R,. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
E. WIcHERS
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mr. Royan anp Guitrorp AVES.
BattTiImMorE, MARYLAND
. eo Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the
hie Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
} in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to —
present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To thisendit publishes:
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;
(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afiiliated Societies; (4
notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issue
semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer
when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years, Prompt
publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fifth or
the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the JourNnat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be
clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The
editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References
should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate
the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered
serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures —
or diagrams of simple character. The cost of producing cuts for illustrations must be
partly met by the author.
Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors
unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors
will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors’ Reprints.—Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices.
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Cover
50 $.85 $1.65 $2.55 $3.25 $2.00
100 1.90 3.80 4.75 6.00 2.50
150 2.25 4.30 S20 6.50 3.00
200 2.50 4.80 5.75 7.00 3.50
250 3.00 5.30 6.25 7.50 4.00
An additional charge of 25 cents will be made for each split page.
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagi-
nation and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or reprints
should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume t8........000 iach an oe ices ckeecewewee
Semi-monthly numbers................ Geet sak so 40'sche oS owen ene tei ee
Monthly numbers. 5 oceans ees Saale cs ek bean oe eee 5 hae oRamed Cee cane
Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences,” and
addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C,
European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. :
Exchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
*Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates
are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy
- 5 OIG t 4 = 23.02) a
» et ak ye dy te ‘a
«’ F - ~ a | 4" ca J aa ba. 4
< ou "| er ober ee -
+? Sa hy Ae © Lay» **, ‘ A
4 ” * Vax a 3 rue * Se
ah cae = See ei ; 4 es ee ot RR eee es
Oe eee ria et Lt rs . 5 Store Se ee i eT. ne 7
Se ee a a eS ee ee Pee ee ee Fe eee ; Ae
pe Ee oe A eS eee ee i ee See
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 16 Aucust 19, 1926 | No. 14
MATHEMATICS.—Transformations associated with the Lorentz group
and their wnvariants.'. CHARLES Bararr, U. 8. Patent Office.
(Communicated by L. H. Apams.)
The aim of the scientist is duofold; first to describe the processes
of flux in Nature by means of transformation equations, then to
reveal amidst this continual change those entities that are immutable
and unchangeable. In an address to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, MacMahon,’ the president of Section A,
called attention to this” alm and inHasived its importance in the
following words,
“In any subject of inquiry, there are certain entities, the mutual
relations of which under various conditions it is desirable to ascertain.
A certain combination of these entities may be found to have an
unalterable value when the entities are submitted to certain processes
or are made the subjects of certain operations. The theory of in-
variants in its widest scientific meaning determines these combina-
tions, elucidates their properties and expresses results when possible
in terms of them. The great principle of chemical science which
asserts that when elementary or compound bodies combine with one
another the total weight of the materials is unchanged, illustrates one
case in point. Another illustration is a fundamental principle in
physics, —that when a given mass of an ideal gas is under the operation
pressure X volume
of varying pressure and temperature the quantity Tee as
is invariant.”
With the advent of the theory of relativity in recent years with
a scheme of transformations radically different from the transforma-
1 Received February 19, 1926.
*Report Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1901.
377
378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 -
tions of classical physics, the question naturally arises as to the nature
of the invariant entities associated with it. The most fundamental
invariant of this theory is the interval between two world events.
Some other special invariants are the velocity of light through vacuous
space and electric charge. It is the aim of this paper in continuation
of the results presented in a former paper? to elucidate some of the
quantities and expressions that remain invariant to a special rela-
tivity transformation. ‘The results are set down in a mathematical
way with little or no comment. ‘Their physical interpretation is re-
served for a future paper.
In what follows most of the transformations are taken from Ein-
stein’s original paper of 1905 on the special relativity theory. The
invariants are derived by the methods outlined in Wright’s Jn-
variants of Quadratic Differential Forms.*
The invariants which are derived constitute a set of independent
invariants from which other dependent invariants may be derived
by the ordinary processes of algebra and calculus.
The scheme of notation is as follows: the quantities accented are
those that are observed by an observer moving uniformly relatively
to a second observer, who represents the corresponding magnitudes
by unaccented symbols.
All references to light include any radiation which is propagated
through vacuum with the velocity c given by the ratio of the electro-
magnetic to the electrostatic unit. .
I. KINEMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR INVARIANTS
In the former paper? the transformations for velocities and accelera-
tions were given.
It may be noted that the most general function of the space time
coordinates, that remains invariant to the transformation of space
time coordinates is
Ea = CP. y, 2) (4)
Similarly, the most general invariant function which involves ve-
locities only is
es
p (YE=H 4)
Ul; Uz
where F is any arbitrary function of the arguments.
3 This JOURNAL, 16: 81-87. 1926.
*Wricut, Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms. 1908.
' Op. cit.
AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 379
It may also be noted that the invariants of the accelerations are
deducible as the solutions of the simultaneous equations
—du, du, du, dw, dw, dw, 3)
1 oe Uy Ul, SUAD, 2U,0, + U,W,. 2u,We+ UW,
Co
There are five independent solutions, three of which are
Ve = uw Uy W,
— d .
Se ae
C
The other two will follow from the complete integration of these
equations. The form of
Wz
G-%
is of interest, for it has the form of a space time curvature
aa
dt
In the theory of the radiation from electrons, it is sometimes neces-
sary to go one derivative further and consider third derivatives of
the space with respect to the time, or the time rate of change of
acceleration, which is the equivalent. We will denote the derivative
of the acceleration with respect to the time by the symbol K. Its
component parallel to the X axis is transformed by means of the
equation
— Pes See + == Se
UV U, ‘ VU Uz
(1 =) (1 - =)
The invariant involving it, the acceleration and the velocity is
(13)
2
3 Wi, — K.(1 - %)
Nie din nee A: (14)
380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14
This section will be concluded with the transformations for momenta
G and Gibb’s heat function R, which were deduced by Planck® from
a combination of the principle of least action with the principle of
relatwwity. |
The transformations of these quantities are:
Here G denotes momenta, & denotes the Gibb’s Heat Function under
constant pressure
RK=H+pV
where # denotes the total energy of the body, p the pressure acting
on it, V its volume.
The fundamental invariant involving these two quantities G and
Ris:
ee
or
Ci Pine
Aula sacs at
These transformations may be written in the equivalent form
Ree (= 4G)
C C
ee (s)
C C
and the invariant therefor in the form
ee ——
C : C. ;
6 PLhancK, Ann. d. Physik: 1. 1908.
AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 381
II. ELECTRODYNAMIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR INVARIANTS
Electrodynamic quantities are transformed, according to the special
theory of relativity, by means of the scheme of transformation identities:
me Xx i eee
y' =6(y—*w) M’ = 6(m+"z) |
wi = (2+ 2m) w'=s(w —*y)
/o2*3),
a ee ie
Uy V
Ys
|
a ae |
a(1 - :) |
U; |
as U,V
i) 1 — C
These symbols have the same significance and meaning that is
ordinarily attached to them in the fundamental Maxwell-Lorentz
equations:
2 (22 + pu] = Gel
G Yo
1 OH
cp Ur (2)
div L-=fp-
div H =o J
The transformation identities for the electric and magnetic intensi-
ties may be exhibited in somewhat different form by letting
a ue
¢ = tan~'— = cos !8
382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14
in which case, the equations have the form
ie Pee
oo
Y’ = Y cos ¢@ + Ni sin @
N’ = N cos 6 + Yi sin 9
Z’ = Zecos6 — Mi sin 6
M’ = M cos 6 — Z sin 6 |
(3)
These equations may be derived by integrating the system of
simultaneous differential equations
CNS Aan de Ted bet oli iene nies céu
a a
DO
ia le
==
1 Shs
=i
Ni = N
There are five independent invariants of electric and magnetic
intensity. They are
|
;
v2 2 We
5 6)
Z? — M?’
YM+ZN
|
AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 383
The most general invariant function of electric and magnetic intensities
is an arbitrary function of these, namely, the function
PF Gs BE, Van 2 — Ma,
ae) 6)
MN+ YZ
As a special example of an invariant function of electric and magnetic
intensities, it might be interesting to note in passing, the Lagrangian
function
(X2 + Y2 + 72) — (12 + M? + N?)
Let us consider now the transformation identities for p, uz, Uy, Uz.
The system of differential equations from which these may be derived
by integration are
mee Mie due = dp 68
3 BS St =
ime Us aT OM RT Up 1 v
2 2 2 2 pe
G € C G C
with the familiar condition that when v = O then
PP
Uz = Uz
U, = Uy
U, = Uz
Uy
: :
ies (7)
p VC = uz
The most general function of these which is invariant to the Lorentz
transformation and the associated transformations above is:
fF (, Uy, = p Me