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Wylie, ae Co evewens evry: hy Nua wy ey ~ w C LS SAK | os : wy . weddtgysltyy wr'y’Y ME Swe ASIA IIS aaaaeveeerie fever veges” “wives ppd hAAd AL |)” see err Vues: c UN — ~ Bone Ls ow owe ST = A wt ASTRA abld pe e WAS WOW ees: GIRIIAL ALS ddd abd 7 Yur ~ = yw < “2 PAY Nd “iw wis @ = wees vuure Nese twe vtuwvesiycsryyet =<. gyueveys viyw"e. im . ~~ omy i Aopahaek: a ow we oe by 1s Dee St Niet a i) Se ote Wee WuvnvICe cow vwse wun Cc ee rote Lee verity Ueuyyt ae w~ —— % As we ~t [= 2. ee ~ AN ail ad | i fed =. — Sr y¥_ — ow aly =a =8§=JOURNAL : WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 16, 1926 | oe Bot * BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucstiy GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AGNES CHASE DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. Stose BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices BOTANICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ERRATA Vol. 16, 1926 Page 88, 14th line from bottom; for ‘‘tendon’”’ read ‘‘tenon,’’ and, end of line, read “neatly”? for ‘‘nearly.”’ Page 88, 12th line from bottom, close ‘‘)’’ after “long’’ and insert ‘“‘,’’ after “‘branch.’’ Page 91, lines 9 and 10, change to read “‘it appeared that, after becoming loaded with the molecules, they could not pass.” Page 91, line 22, delete ‘‘which.”’ Page 91, 9th line from bottom, for ‘‘could”’ read ‘‘may.”’ Page 168, line next to last, change ‘‘maise”’ to ‘‘maize.”’ Page 284, line 2, change “‘Sasinto”’ to ‘‘Jacinto.”’ Page 433, line 2 of heading, change initial “‘T.”’ to “‘L.”’ Page 469, line 6, for ‘‘and Oligocene”’ read ‘‘an Oligocene.’’ No. 1 JASHINGTON ACADEMY ' OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewerr - S. J. Maucuiy GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ASSOCIATE EDITORS iL H. Apams 8. A. RoHwER _ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY _ BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY gE A. ovbMan G, W. Stross gi - BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grices J. R. SwANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY tle KIER IASTp CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2eht ] Ip: — ur laps PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY d A N 1 i 19" ? 6 EXCEPT IN aga AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MON me ath “2% BY THE are: gee + ant WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Senn - My, Royan anp GuILFoRD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND re bs: Entered as Second Class Matter, Jontary 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNnAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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Exchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 JANUARY 4, 1926 No. 1 VOLCANOLOGY.—The eruption of Santorini in 1925. H. S. WasHINGTON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. | The small island group of Santorini, among the southernmost islands of the Greek Archipelago, is well known through the monumental work of Fouqué,’ who described the island and its eruptions, especially that of 1866-70. I was able to study the present eruption during the 13th—20th of September last, in company with Prof. K. A. Ktenas, of the University of Athens and his assistant, Dr. P. Kokkoros. At the date of writing, three short notes on the early stages of the erup- tion, by Prof. Ktenas and others, have appeared.’ Since the explosion that formed the central lagoon in the original prehistoric voleano (Fig. 1), volcanic activity has been almost ex- clusively confined to a group of small islands in the center of the lagoon, the products of eruptions of different, and all historic, times (Fig. 2). The dates of the chief of these eruptions and the names given to the cones are as follows: Palaia Kaimeni,‘ 46 A. D.; Mikra Kaimeni, 1570 A. B.; Nea Kaimeni, 1707-1711 A. D.; and Giorgios Kaimeni, 1866-70. This last was in a feebly fumarolic state when I visited it in 1893. For the present voleano, Prof. Ktenas® has pro- posed the name Fouqué Kaimeni, in honor of the eminent French savant, and I gladly adopt his very appropriate name. After some feeble, apparently preliminary, earthquakes at the end 1 Received December 3, 1925. 2F. Fouqué, Santorin et ses Eruptions, Paris, 1879. 3K. A. Ktenas, C.R. Acad. Sci. 181: 376. 1925; Georgalas and Liatsikas, ditto, p. 425; Ktenas, ditto, p. 518. 4 Kaimeni (meaning burnt) is the modern Greek term for the voleanic cones. Palaia Kaimeni is not shown in Fig. 2. = Ktenas,' C. R. 18h: 377. 1925. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 1 of July and during the first nine days of August, the eruption began on August 11,° and the volcano has been in a continuous state of activity ” o ee s tax, Wh . xs =e = Egan e \ ee er dee in bas = * as = ~ 2 * te ‘ “er 5 * ~ : PA ¥ ° ’ ' a Fig. 1.—Map of the Santorini Group, prior to the eruption of 1925 ever since, or at least until October 27, according to a note kindly sent me by Prof. Ktenas. The initial center was submarine, in the strait 6 For some details as to the early stages I avail myself of the data in the three papers cited above, in addition to information obtained during my visit. JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 3 between Mikra Kaimeni and Nea Kaimeni, and apparently about half way between their craters (x in Fig. 2). An islet was formed and lava flows were poured out, which flowed east and north in the narrow NORD. A i. ee Bobote Mai : ca Fig. 2.—The central islands of Santorini (from Fouqué, Plate XXIX), showing Fouqué Kaimeni (IF. K.) and the two lava flows. September 19, 1925. channel, gradually filling it and rising several meters above the pre- vious water level. When I left September 20 the northern flow had practically ceased moving, but the eastern flow was slowly pushing out into the lagoon, and was still in motion on October 27. A small 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 lava flow also extended to the south, on the flat land east of the cone of Giorgios. The lava flows were of the usual Santorini type—loose agglomerate of large and small, angular blocks. An immediate evidence of flow was that these blocks would fall down or tumble over each other from time to time, as the more continuous lava flow, of which they formed the upper part, moved slowly onward. Where the flows entered the lagoon the water was very hot. Dr. Kokkoros measured temperatures up to 69°, and at places near the flows the water was apparently boiling, or almost so. Much steam was given off, and at times there was a rather strong odor of H.8 from the water. Near this part of the shore the lagoon water was colored bright yellow or orange, from the hydrolytic precipitation of iron hydroxide. The material of the lava flows and of the ejected blocks is a hyper- sthene andesite that in megascopic and microscopic appearance closely resembles the generality of the Santorini lavas, being dense, black, and highly vitreous. A chemical analysis by Miss Keyes shows that it contains 64.99 per cent of Si0., and that otherwise it is almost identical chemically with other lavas of Santorini, of different dates, that have been analysed.’ A description of the petrographical and chemical features must await a later publication, but attention should be called here to the very remarkable and almost unique constancy in. physical, modal, and chemical characters that the Santorini lavas exhibit, from the earliest times until the present day. A good view of Fouqué Kaimeni was to be had with binoculars from the town of Phira, about 2 miles east-northeast. From this point the spectacle at night was magnificent. Near-by views of the dome were to be had from the lagoon, although these were not very satisfactory. Attempts to see and study the eruption from the sum- mit of Nea Kaimeni and the north slope of Giorgios were frustrated by showers of stones, but finally on September 19 good view-points were found along the ridge of the easterly flow of Giorgios Kaimeni, about 500 meters from and about due south of the dome (S in Fig. 2). From this ridge on September 19, Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to form alow circular dome, estimated by me to be nearly 150 meters in di- ameter and about 50 meters high. During our stay its form changed continually, the summit being for a time flat and truncated, again 7Ci. H. S. Washington, C. R. XII Cong. Géol. Int., 235. 1914. 8 Ktenas (op. cit., 181: 520. 1925) estimates the diameter at not over 100-120 meters and the height at about 75 meters. According to him the height of the lava flow in the strait is 20-48 meters above sea level. There would seem to have been some ascensional movement at the east end since my departure. JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 5) regularly domal, and again asymmetrical, with an apex at the west side. The dome appeared to be formed of a carapace of solid lava, much cracked and fissured, a brilliant red incandescence being visible at night, but only rarely during the day. The cracks and fissures were constantly altering their position and, although we thought that the dome was a more or less continuous carapace, yet it is possible that it consisted mainly of a mass of loose, piled up lava blocks. No definite crater was visible. The dome rested upon a plateau formed by the earlier lava flows and, to judge from the observations made on September 19 and from Ktenas’ map, the center of activity had shifted, from its initial site in the strait, to a point a couple of hundred meters to the south, that is, onto the previously existing shore terrace. A battery of white-vapored fumaroles was in constant activity at the top of the east slope of Nea Kaimeni. The voleanic activity of Fouqué Kaimeni was continuous but ir- regularly pulsatory in intensity, and there were at least three kinds of eruption, one being practically uninterrupted, while the other two were intermittent. (1). From the north end of the Fouqué dome there rose almost continuously a vertical column of white or yellowish vapor, thin at the base and gradually expanding, that attained heights of about 200 meters or more. ‘This gave rise to a loud hissing noise and was unac- companied by the ejection of stones or ash. Another similar blast of white steam issued, with less force but with intermittent suddenness, from the southeast side of the dome, being projected upward at an angle of rather less than 45° from the horizontal. (2). The most violent explosions were dominantly of Mercalli’s vuleanian type, although there was, at times, some admixture of the strombolian. ‘These spectacular ejections took place from or near the summit of the dome, but apparently not from a fixed point or crater. ‘They occurred at irregular intervals, and consisted of a suc- cession of huge puffs, generally accompanied by aloud and deep roar. Some were practically noiseless. The successive puffs, as at many ‘other volcanoes, formed a thick column, of the usual ‘‘cauliflower”’ type, that attained varied heights, from 500 to 2000 meters and more, gradually thinning out and drifting to leeward at still greater heights. These cauliflower columns were white to dark gray in color, apparently composed very largely of water vapor, highly charged with gray lapilli, sand, and fine ash. There was a scarcely perceptible odor of H.S at about 500 meters to leeward. The emission of the cauliflower columns was generally accompanied by the violent ejection of many solid blocks of lava, that attained heights of 200-300 meters, and often 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 much more. ‘The stones were scattered in all directions and to con- siderable distances, some being found by us near the small harbor of St. George, about 600 meters to the west. It was reported that some had fallen on the shallow former anchorage, the ‘‘Banko,”’ about one kilometer to the east, so that this was abandoned by shipping. In daylight most of the ejected stones appeared black, only a few being dull red; but at night they were brilliantly red, forming a magnificent spectacle, as has been said. These blocks varied much in size, from that of one’s fist to lengths of 50, 60, or more centimeters. On impact with the ground they broke up, and there was further cracking from the strains set up as the glass cooled. We found no rounded bombs nor other masses evidently ejected in a fluid condition, nor were there any bread crust bombs. We could see no electrical discharges in the columns, either by day or by night. (3). The third kind of explosion was most unusual—indeed, I can recall no record in the literature of anything exactly like it, although something similar appears to have occurred at Giorgios in April, 1866,° and the eruption of Novarupta, near Katmai in Alaska!° may have presented some analogous features. ‘The probable cause of the phenomenon will be discussed in a subsequent paper. As studied with the glass from Phira at night, the foot of the dome of Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to be often partly surrounded by a thin ring» of bright red incandescense, evidently an encircling crevice. Occasion- ally an outer brilliant concentric crevice was visible here and there. These crevices were not evident in the daytime from our viewpoint on September 19, but at intervals there issued from the site of the crevice, at the foot of the dome on the west and southwest sides, a semicircular or quarter-circular series or battery of narrow jets of white or light gray vapor. These jets always exploded simultaneously and formed a crown around the dome. They were approximately equidistant from each other, and not far apart—possibly not more than 10 to 20 meters. They reached altitudes of only about 50 or 100 meters, possibly a trifle more. It seemed that the emission of these series of jets usually preceded the great vulcanian explosions, or were at least coincident with them. I would venture to suggest that the technical term coronet be used for this type of volcanic explosion. At night, from Phira, a few flames were to be seen playing over the dome. These were mostly bluish, but some were yellow or red. They were not visible in the daylight from points near the dome. ® Fouqué, op. cit., p. 75. 10 Cf. C..N. Fenner, Jour. Geol. 28: 588. 1920; and Tech. Papers Nat. Geogr. Soc., Katmai Series, 1: 55. 1928. JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 7 The inhabitants of Phira and the other towns were somewhat panicky, fearing serious damage to buildings from the volcano or from earthquakes. In our opinion there is scarcely a possibility of danger that the towns on Thera and Therasia will suffer serious damage from the voleano, and probably not from earthquakes, although the vine- yards may be damaged from falling ash, especially when the vines begin to burgeon in the spring. As to the future, it appears to be probable, from analogy with other recent eruptions at Santorini, that the eruption of Fouqué will be of considerable duration—at least one year and probably several years. ATOMIC PHYSICS.—WNote on the LyLy, levels of the atoms Si, P, S, Cl. Samurt K. Auiison. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.! : Many investigators have made measurements of the energy levels of atoms by means of experiments on the photo-electric effect of the radiations given off by these atoms when they are excited by various means. ‘This method is particularly useful in the region between the softest X-rays which can be studied by crystalline diffraction and the shortest wave-lengths in the ultra violet which can be studied with gratings as in the experiments of Millikan. In some cases it has been possible to compare the energy level values obtained by these photo-electric methods with those obtainable by the ordinary methods of X-ray spectroscopy, either directly, or by appli- cation of the combination principle. In the cases in which it has been possible to carry out such comparisons, it has often been found that no convincing agreements could be obtained. For instance, the meas- urements by Rollefson? of some critical potentials of iron which he ascribes to the L and M series are difficult to reconcile with the recent measurement of the La and 8 lines of iron by Siegbahn and Thoraeus.? It is the purpose of this note to call attention to the fact that recent X-ray measurements by Ray‘ and Backlin,® together with the older measurements of Lindh*:? make possible a rather rigid comparison between the two experimental methods for obtaining the Ly and Li limits of Si, P,S, and Cl. The experiments of these investigators 1 Received December 1, 1925. 2 Rollefson, Phys. Rev. 23: 35. 1924. 3 Siegbahn and Thoraeus, Arkiv. f. Mat. Astr. Fys. 18: No. 24. 1924. See also Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.), p. 238. 4Ray, Phil. Mag. 50: 505. 1925. ’ Bicklin, Zs. f. Phys. 33: 547. 1925. 6 Lindh, Diss. Lund. (1923.) 7 Lindh, Zs. f. Phys. 31: 210. 1925. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 make it clear that the energy levels of these light atoms depend in value on the particular chemical combination in which the atom is involved. From their results it is now possible to calculate the values of the Ly In levels of these atoms in different chemical combinations. | TABLE 1.—\ AND v/R VALUES FOR Kaps AND Kane ELEMENT COMPOUND UX.U ym v/R Kai A, v/R Kaz Si0, O007 25. 1Saaceo 7106.83. 128.224 14 Si ee | : Si Gol; 135.38 7109.17 128.182 P05 5751.5 158.44 6141.71 148.374 1 BNE 7 ANTS A EAS BNE TLE) ARE Peed 5767.4 158.00 6144.43 148.308 2 MSO, 4987.9 182.70 5358.50 170.061 || 5360.90 169.984 16 See ee |e eee | ree S 5008.8 181.93 5360.90 169.984 |} 5363.90 169.889 NaClo, 4369.4 208.56 (4715) (193.3) 17 Cl ae) a EE ee KCl 4382.9 207.92 4718.21 193.1389 | 4721.18 193.017 The result of such a calculation is shown in the tables. The wavelengths have been obtained from the following sources. The K, critical absorption wave-lengths of the compounds of P, 8, Cl, as well as of the elements themselves, are taken from the disserta- tion’ of Lindh. The value for the K, limit of S10, and Si was obtained by Lindh at a later date.’ The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka doublet of Si, P in P.O;, and of the Ka, line of Cl in KCl have been taken from the early measurements of Hjalmar.® : Recently Backlin® has measured the doublet separation of these lines for Si and P in various compounds but apparently no new ab- solute measurements of the wave-lengths have been made. ‘The wave- lengths of the Ka doublet in sulfur and sulfates (MSO.) have been taken from the work of Ray. The wave-length of the Ka, line of Cl in KCl is obtained from Ka, by the recent measurement of Backlin® of the doublet separation. The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka doublet in SiO, and red P have been obtained from the old measure-— ments of Hjalmar on Si and P.O;, by means of the results of Backlin® on the shift of these lines with varying chemical combination. A hypothetical wave-length for the unresolved Ka doublet in Cl in NaClO, has been inserted on the assumption that a shift of the doublet 8 Hjalmar, Phil. Mag. 41: 675. 1921. JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 9 of the same order of magnitude as found by Backlin between the lower and highest valences of Si, P, and S occurs. Due to this assumption an error of as much as 1 volt may be introduced into the Ly Ly; levels of Clin NaClO, in Table 3. Vv TABLE 2.—— VALUES OF L LEVELS R ELEMENT 5 COMPOUND Ly Lit Si0, 7.63 14 Si Si 7.20 P30; 10.07 15 P ier SEIT ST Feed 9.69 MSO, 1 agp 12.64 168 2 See ee S 12.04 11.95 NaCloO, L573) t7 Cl KCl 14.90 14.78 TABLE 3.—L LEVELS IN VOLTS Joti Sakae CRITICAL JoNTBAmION VOLTAGE Element Compound | oe i Compound er S102 103.4 14 Si Si $7.5 SiH, 98 = 2 P30; 136.4 ie Pred [eS PH; 128 = 2 MSO, 172.3 a2 168 N) 163.1 161.9 HS 163 = 1 NaClO, (207) 17 Cl ee : KCl 201.8 200.2 HCl 203 = 1 Holweck? has made measurements of the L;; Ly, energy levels of the elements Si, P, S, Cl by an ingenious method which differs con- siderably from the usual photo-electric methods. It is essentially a measurement of the critical ionisation potential of gaseous com- pounds of these elements by increasing the highest frequency in a beam 9 Holweck, Compt. rend. 180: 658. 1925. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 of X-rays partially absorbed in an ionisation chamber filled with a gaseous compound of the element in question until a sudden increase in the ion current through the chamber shows that a critical frequency has been reached. ‘The skillful technique which enables this method to be applied to very soft X-rays has been described by Holweck. In this work the gaseous compounds SiH., PH;, H.S, and HCl were used. The results for the Ly, Ly limits of $i, P, 8, Cl in these compounds are given in Table 3, and are there to be compared with the values obtained from X-ray data for other compounds. Such a comparison has been indicated by Turner.!° The X-ray data available at that time indicated a discrepancy between the results of Holweck and X-ray predictions, but it will be seen that the present agreement is good. It is evident from Table 3 that the X-ray data indicate an energy difference in volts between the LyLy, levels of these atoms in their highest and lower valencies which is greater than the experimental error which Holweck ascribes to his measurements, and in fact his data agree well with the lower valencies (in $i, P, S with the elements them- selves) and disagree definitely with the higher valency values. The necessity of taking account of the particular chemical com- pound involved in seeking agreement between data in this region has been emphasized by Siegbahn." The agreement between Holweck’s measurements on the hydrides and the X-ray values for the free elements in the case of Si, P, 8, indicates that the difference between the energy level values of the hydrides and those of the free element is much less than that between those of the free element and its higher ‘‘positive’’ valence compounds with oxygen. Such a result is perhaps not at variance with modern chemical ideas as to the type of linkage in these compounds. SUMMARY By application of the combination principle it is possible to calculate the energy values of the L,, Ly, levels in the atoms Si, P, 8, Cl in various compounds from recent X-ray data. ‘The resulting values are compared with a determination of these levels in the hydrides of these atoms which was carried out by Holweck by photo-electric methods. The results show that for Si, P, S these levels have very nearly the same energy in the hydrides as in the elementary substance itself, but that in the higher oxides of these elements there is an ap- preciable difference in this respect between the element and oxide. 10 Turner, Phys. Rev. 26: 148. 1925. (Footnote p. 145.) 11 Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.) p. 241. JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 11 BOTANY.—A new circumneutral soil prickly-pear from the Middle Atlantic States. Epcgar T. Wurrry, Bureau of Chemistry. Jn the course of studies upon the relation between soil reaction and the distribution of native plants, the prickly-pears of the north- eastern states have received some attention, and evidence has been found that, instead of the single species listed by Britton and Rose,? there are actually at least four species represented in this region. One of these appears to have been hitherto unrecognized, and the name Opuntia calcicola is here proposed for it, in reference to its frequent growth on calcareous rocks. ‘The differences between them may now be considered. AcID-SoIL SPECIES Opuntia compressa.—The most widespread of these prickly-pears is the one long known as Opuntia vulgaris Miller, now believed to be more correctly designated as Opuntia opuntia (L.) Karsten under codes permitting dupli- cate binomials, or preferably as O. compressa (Salisbury) Macbride. The center of distribution of this species appears to be in the Piedmont of Virginia and adjoining states; it ranges southward to an as yet unknown distance—possibly though not certainly into the Applachian Plateau prov- ince in Alabama—and northward into the Appalachian Valley province of central New York state, the northern Coastal Plain in New Jersey, and the New England Upland in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In all of these regions it grows in rocky or sandy soil which shows a distinctly or often a strongly acid reaction (subacid to mediacid). This is a prostrate plant with fibrous roots; the jointsare orbicular to oblong, averaging 8 to 10 cm. long, rather thick in proportion to their length (except in shaded situations, when they may become much elongated and thinned) and in color (following Ridgway’s Color Standards) dull grayish green-yellow, either ‘‘jade green” (27’’ k) or adjacent hues; the leaves are 4 to 5 mm. long, and more or less appressed; slender brown and white-banded spines, about 0.8 mm. thick and 2 cm. long, are occasionally present, one or rarely two to an areole; the numerous glochids are pale dull orange-yellow, near ‘‘deep colonial buff”’ (21’’b); the flowers are pure yellow (‘lemon yellow’, 23), and about 7 cm. in diameter, with 8 or 10 petals; the fruit is obovoid, 3 to 4 em. long and 1.5 to 2.0 cm. in diameter at the top, more than twice as long as wide only exceptionally in crowded situations; and the seeds are 4 to 5 mm. broad, with a prominent roundish keel. Opuntia pollardiz.—Though usually recorded as limited to the southern states, this species actually extends at least as far north as eastern Maryland and Delaware, if not into New Jersey, growing typically in the subacid to mediacid Coastal Plain sands. It is distinguished from the preceding by having sweet-potato-like thickenings on its roots; thick and stubby joints of 1 Britton and Rose, The Cactaceae 1: 127. 1919. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 somewhat more bluish green color (near ‘‘cress green”’, 29’’k) ; more spreading leaves; stouter spines 1.5 to 2 mm. thick and 2 to 4 cm. long; and seeds having an even thicker keel. CIRCUMNEUTRAL-SOIL SPECIES Opuntia humifusa.—Though sometimes included under Opuntia compressa, the plant from west of the Appalachian Mountains, ranging over the Interior Low Plateau and Central Lowland provinces, from Tennessee to Illinois and Ohio, has several features which distinguish it. It appears to be limited to limestone rock ledges and calcareous gravel. It grows more erect, with larger and relatively thinner joints, usually bearing a glaucous coating, so that their color is near “deep dull yellow green” (31’’k), although old joints from which the glaucous coating has disappeared may be similar in hue to those of O. compressa; the areoles are fewer and more widely spaced; the leaves are longer and more spreading; 3 to 5 cm. spines are frequently de- veloped; the glochids are strikingly different, being orange-brown in color, near “‘ferruginous” (9/1) when fresh, becoming ‘‘tawny”’ (13/1) with age; the flowers often have a red center, owing to a triangular blotch of orange-red (“scarlet,”’ 5) at the base of each petal; and the fruit is normally longer in proportion to its width. | Opuntia calcicola Wherry, sp. nov.—Growing on limestone and in other circumneutral soils in the Appalachian Valley and adjacent portions of other provinces, there is another type of prickly pear, which lies in many respects intermediate between O. compressa and O. humifusa yet seems sufficiently distinct from either to justify its separation. Its characters are as follows: Planis ascending, with fibrous roots. Joints oblong to obovate, mostly from 7 to 21 cm. long, 4 to 8 cm. wide, and 5 to 9 mm. thick; color a dull grayish yellow-green, ranging from about ‘‘chromium green” (31/1) on young joints bearing more or less glaucous coating, to ‘‘krénbergs green” (25’’k) on oldones. Areolesfew and widely spaced. Leaves spreading, early deciduous, 6 to 8 mm. long and 1.5 mm. thick, dull green-yellow, around ‘‘mignonette green” (25’1), toward the tip often of a dull orange-brown, such as “‘sayal brown” (15’1) or asimilar color. Spines none, except for a few small whitish ones on seedling plants. Glochids numerous, pale grayish orange-yellow approximating to ‘‘chamois’” (19’’b). Wool similar in hue to glochids, but paler, near “cartridge buff’ (19’’f). Flowers numerous, 7 to 10 cm. broad, opening during June; petals 10 to 14, pure yellow (“lemon yellow,” 23). Stamens about 150, 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long; filaments somewhat more orange- colored than petals, often ‘“‘lemon chrome” (21); anthers pale whitish yellow, “Gvory yellow” (21’’f). Style 1.8 to 2.2 cm. long, more or less yellow-colored; stigma lobes 3 mm. long, yellowish gray. Fruit slender obovoid, normally 3.5 to 4.5 em. long by 1.2 to 1.5 cm. wide at the top, thus three times as long as thick; on ripening becoming dull grayish red, “hay’s maroon” (1’m) and adjacent colors; seeds 4.5 to 5 mm. in diameter, 2.5 to 3 mm. thick, with an acute-edged keel rather less prominent than in its relatives, in color grayish orange-yellow, near ‘‘clay color” (17”’). As the type locality may be designated an occurrence on the west side of the JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 13 B. & O. R. R. tracks, a short distance north of Bolivar, Jefferson County, West Virginia. Type specimens, collected here on June 9, 1925, have been deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium (no. 1,242,156, type) and the New York Botanical Garden. The photograph reproduced as figure 1 was taken at that time and place, and brings out the lack of spines and the long fruit. This plant has been thus far observed at the following localities: On lime- stone at two places about 2 km. (1.5 miles) north of Luray (in one locality covering several acres) and at Overall, Page County, Virginia; on brown shale (Devonian) at several places in the vicinity of Moorefield, Hardy County, Fig. 1. Opuntia calcicola Wherry, new species West Virginia; on shaly limestone along B. & O. R. R., at Martinsburg, Berke- ley County, West Virginia; on dolomitic limestone near Bolivar, Jefferson Co., West Virginia (type locality); on red shale (Triassic) 6 km. (4 miles) south-southwest of Poolesville, Montgomery County, Maryland; and on limestone near Mechanicsburg, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania. Soil reaction ranging from specific acidity 10 to specific alkalinity 10, thus typi- cally circumneutral. In the report on the Living Flora of West Virginia by Millspaugh, published by the state in 1913, the occurrence at Moorefield is referred to in the tabulation (p. 309) as Opuntia Opuntia, but in the intro- duction (p. 15) as the western Opuntia polyacantha; as the latter species, true 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 to its name, bears numerous spines, while the West Virginia plant has none at all, this was a curious case of misidentification. Opuntia calcicola differs, then, from its relative, O. compressa, in often grow- ing on limestone, or in any case on rocks yielding circumneutral soils, in being more upstanding in habit, in having longer and relatively thinner joints of somewhat more bluish coior, in the areoles being wide-spaced, and in lacking spines. ‘The flowers are similar in color but larger, and the fruit is normally decidedly longer in proportion to its thickness, the seeds having a more acute and less prominent keel. Even allowing for some variation in these respects shown by the widespread O. compressa, the distinctness of the two seems evident. After the aspect of these plants is once in mind, as a result of ob- serving them at one or two typical localities, it is possible to tell which is represented in a given colony from a considerable distance, and this may be regarded as a final criterion of the separateness of the species. BOTANY.—WNew plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus. Pau C. STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum. The nine species of plants here described as new form part of a large and interesting collection made in the State of Chiapas, Mexico, in 1925 by Mr. C. A. Purpus. Mr. Purpus’ Mexican collections are too well known to need comment. Many of the new species found in them were described by the late Townshend 8. Brandegee in a ~ series of papers entitled ‘‘Plantae Mexicanae Purpusianae,” the last of which was issued in 1924.” Neea chiapensis Standl., sp. nov. Branchlets terete, pale brownish, minutely and densely grayish-puberulent at first but quickly glabrate; leaves opposite, or the upper verticillate, the petioles slender, 1.2—3.cm. long, glabrate, the blades elliptic or broadly elliptic, 7.5-15 em. long, 4.5—7 em. wide, abruptly acute or acuminate, at’ base acutish or abruptly acute, rarely rounded, thin, glabrous, the lateral nerves very slender, about 7 on each side, arcuate, laxly and irregularly anastomosing near the margin; pistillate inflorescence few-flowered, on a slender peduncle 5 em. long; fruit elliptic-oblong, 18 mm. long, 9 mm. thick, the stone com- pressed, coarsely costate. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,246, collected in a ravine in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 271). No. 414, from the same locality, is perhaps referable here, but in this the leaves are much smaller. The fruit is immature. All the Central American species of Neea are closely related. This one is similar in most respects to N. psychotrioides Donn. Smith, but in that the leaves are relatively narrower and shorter-petioled, and the fruit only half as large. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 10: 403-421. JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 15 Zanthoxylum tenuipes Standl., sp. nov. E, Branchlets unarmed or bearing stout broad-based prickles 1 cm. long; petioles terete, 2-3 cm. long; leaves odd-pinnate, the rachis setulose-hirtellous, the leaflets 5-9, opposite or the lower sometimes alternate, sessile or nearly so, ovate to oblong-elliptic, 3.5-6 cm. long, 1.5-38 cm. wide, acute or obtuse, thin, remotely and very shallowly glandular-crenate or subentire, deep green and somewhat lustrous above, paler beneath, sparsely setulose-hirtellous on both surfaces; inflorescences, axillary, lax, few-flowered, paniculate, much shorter than the leaves, slender-pedunculate, the branches very slender, sparsely setulose, the pedicels almost filiform, 6-8 mm. long, glabrous; follicle 1,very oblique, produced at base, glabrous, coarsely glandular-punctate, 5mm. long; seeds black and shining, 4 mm. long, sharp-edged. Type in the U: 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,237, collected in rocky 2ulch in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, July, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 126). Perhaps related to Z. mollissimum (Engler) P. Wilson, but easily recog- nized by the very long and slender pedicels and scant pubescence. Buddleia purpusii Standl., sp. nov. Branches quadrangular, densely stellate-tomentose, the tomentum loose, whitish or fulvescent; leaves sessile, lanceolate, 6—-8.5 cm. long, 1.7—3 cm. wide, attenuate to an acute apex, cuneate at base, finely serrate-dentate with acute teeth, entire toward the base, green above, gland-dotted and rather finely stellate-tomentose, the venation impressed, beneath densely tomentose with a tomentum of loose whitish hairs; flowers sessile in dense few-flowered heads, the heads spicate, the spikes panicled; spikes 2-5 cm. long, about 8 mm. thick, . ‘sessile, interrupted below, dense and continuous above, often branched; calyx densely stellate-tomentose, the lobes 1-1.5 mm. long, narrowly triangu- lar; corolla densely tomentose outside, 2mm. long, the lobes ovate-triangular, obtuse; capsule densely tomentose, equaling the calyx lobes. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,235, collected along creek near Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 160). Jacquemontia mollissima Standl., sp. nov. Woody vine, the stems red-brown, with few large pale lenticels, when young densely stellate-tomentose with lax spreading hairs; petioles 3-7 mm. long; leaf blades ovate or oval-ovate, 1.5-8 em. long, 1-2 em. wide, acute to rounded at apex, sometimes apiculate, rounded or subcordate at base, above densely stellate-pilose, the hairs very slender, long, and soft, with few rays, _ beneath densely tomentose with long soft whitish hairs; flowers few, solitary or fasciculate in the leaf axils, the pedicels 2-3 mm. long; sepals 3-3.5 mm. long, oval or rounded, rounded at apex, the outer ones densely tomentose; corolla (probably white) 8-10 mm. long, glabrous. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,236, collected on ae 2a at Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus no. 47). | In general appearance this plant suggests J. nodiflora (Desr.) Don, but in that the sepals are glabrous, and the tomentum of the leaves fine and close. Columnea purpusii Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, the branches very stout, pale brownish or ochrace- ous, leafy near the tips, sparsely pilose with appressed or ascending hairs; 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 petioles 4-8 mm. long, densely villous-pilose with ascending, septate, whitish or purplish hairs; leaf blades narrowly elliptic-oblong or lance-oblong, 4-9.5 em. long, 1-2 cm. wide, acute or acuminate, at base obliquely acute, glabrous above, beneath paler, sparsely setose-pilose along the nerves with pale appressed hairs, sometimes with a few appressed hairs between the nerves, the lateral nerves 3 or 4 on each side, ascending at an acute angle; flowers solitary in the leaf axils, the pedicels 4-12 mm. long, villous-pilose; calyx lobes narrowly lanceo- late, rounded at base, 16-18 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, attenuate to an acute apex, ciliate, sparsely appressed-pilose outside, entire; corolla bright red, rather densely shorter-villous, the tube 4.5-5 cm. long, 7-9 mm. broad in the throat, the upper lip 2.5-38 em. long, straight, the lower lip 1.5 em. long, linear- lanceolate, recurved, the lateral lobes about 1 cm. long, obtuse; anther sacs 2am. lone: Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,240, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 239). No. 96 from the same locality also represents the species. Only three species of Columnea have been reported from Mexico. C. flava Mart. & Gal. has yellow flowers. C. erythrophoea Decaisne is closely related to C. purpusii, but has cordate and dentate, rose-colored calyx lobes. C. schiedeana Schlecht. is distinguished from the present plant by its spotted corolla and copiously pubescent leaves. Columnea stenophylla Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, the branches reddish or pale brownish, when young pilose with stiff, appressed or ascending, septate hairs; petioles stout, 3-5 mm. long, pilose; leaf blades linear-lanceolate to linear, 6—9.5 em. long, 0.5-1.5 cm. wide, long-attenuate, obliquely acute at base, glabrous above, beneath paler, sparsely pilose with very slender, long, appressed, lustrous hairs, the lateral nerves inconspicuous; pedicels axillary, solitary, 4-8 mm. long, pilose with ascending hairs; calyx lobes lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 15-18 mm. long, 2.5-5 mm. wide, long-attenuate, rounded at base, entire, green, densely appressed-pilose with very slender, whitish, multiseptate hairs; corolla bright red, densely villous with very long, slender, spreading, red hairs, the tube 4.5 cm. long, 9 mm. wide in the throat, the upper lip broadly oblong, rounded at apex, 3 cm. long, 1.3 cm. wide, the lower lip triangular-oblong, 1.5 cm. long, acutish, the lateral lobes obtuse, 1-1.5 em. long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 567513, collected at Finca Irlanda, Chiapas, Mexico, June, 1914, by C. A. Purpus (no. 7206). Collected also at Cafetal Copalito, Oaxaca, May, 1917, by Blas P. Reko (no. 3894). A relative of C. purpusii but distinguished by the narrow leaves and the long pubescence of the corolla. The species of Columnea are among the most beautiful plants of tropical America because of the large, brightly colored (usually red) flowers. Only a few species reach the mountains of southern Mexico, but in Costa Rica the genus attains probably its greatest development, and the number of species occurring there is very large. Hillia chiapensis Standl., sp. nov. Small epiphytic shrub, glabrous throughout; stipules oblong to obovate, 3-4 mm. long, rounded at apex, caducous; petioles 2 mm. long or less; leaf JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 17 blades elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 9-14 mm. long, 4-7 mm. wide, rounded at apex, obtuse or acutish at base, fleshy, the lateral nerves inconspicuous, ascending at very acute angle; capsule subsessile, 17-22 mm. long, the valves after dehiscence 3-4 mm. wide. _ Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,244, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 262). Of the three other species of Hillia known from North America, only H. tetrandra Swartz could be confused with this Mexican plant. That species is much larger in all its parts, and I have no doubt that the Chiapas plant, although represented only by incomplete material, is specifically distinct. Psychotria chlorobotrya Standl., sp. nov. Branches green, subterete, glabrous, smooth; stipules distinct, green, herbaceous, persistent, glabrous, broadly triangular-ovate, 5 mm. long, bilo- bate to the middle, the lobes acute; petioles slender, 1.5—-4.5 cm. long, remotely and minutely puberulent or glabrous; leaf blades narrowly elliptic to lance- elliptic or oblanceolate, 8-23 cm. long, 2-7 cm. wide, long-acuminate, acute at base or usually long-attenuate, thin, bright green above and glabrous, be- neath slightly paler, glabrous or along the nerves sparsely and obscurely puberulent, the lateral nerves 12-16 pairs, divergent at an angle of 45° or more, arcuate, obscurely anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence ter- minal, cymose-paniculate, dense, many-flowered, the peduncles 2-3 cm. long, puberulent, the panicles 1.5-4.5 cm. long, the flowers in dense headlike cymes © on puberulent peduncles 1 cm. long or shorter; bracts ovate, green, obtuse or acute, 5-8 mm. long; bractlets broadly ovate to obovate, obtuse, green, glabrous or nearly so, much exceeding the calyx; calyx about 2 mm. long, 5- lobate, the lobes about 1 mm. long, ovate or deltoid, obtuse or acute, unequal, green, glabrous; corolla salverform, 4 mm. long (not fully developed), gla- brous, with short obtuse lobes. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,242, collectedin damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, May, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 104). No. 83, from the same locality, also is referable here. The species is well marked among those of Mexico by the large green bractlets, which nearly conceal the flowers. Psychotria phoeniciana Standl., sp. nov. Branches subterete, glabrous; stipules persistent, intrapetiolar, bilobate, united, the sheath 3 mm. long, the lobes obliquely ovate or triangular, acute, glabrous; petioles slender, 2.5—5 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-lanceo- late to ovate-lanceolate, 10-17 cm. long, 3.5-4.5 cm. wide, acuminate, cuneate- acute at base or sometimes abruptly acute, thin, glabrous, slightly paler beneath, the lateral nerves about 17 pairs, divergent at an angle of about 60°, arcuate, laxly anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence terminal, glabrous, the penduncle 15 cm. long, curved, the flowers very numerous, corymbose- _paniculate, the panicle much branched, 10 cm. long, 15 cm. broad, the pedicels slender, 10-15 mm. long; bracts triangular, acute, 1-2.5 mm. long, the bract- lets minute; calyx limb scarcely 1 mm. long, 5-lobed to the middle, the lobes ovate, obtuse, glabrous; fruit oval, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. thick, 10-costate, the nutlets concave and sulcate on the inner face. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,247, collected in damp forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, “May, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 316). _ Although not marked bya any outstanding characters, unless it be the large inflorescence and long pedicels, this plant seems distinct from any Psychotria of Mexico or Central America that is known to the writer. ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Colombia. THos. E. Snyper, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The seven new termites described in this paper were collected by Dr. W. M. Mann, of this Bureau, in the winter and spring of 1924, and by Mr. F. Neverman, of Costa Rica, late in 1924 and in 1925; a portion of this material has already been described.! In addition to descriptions of the new species, new geographical distribution records of known termites based on these collections are given. Most of the new species represent ‘‘powder-post”’ termites or poten- tial house termites, and may become of economic importance. ‘The writer uses the term powder-post termites for certain groups in the family Kalotermitidae; the impressed pellets of finely digested, ex- creted wood fall from wood infested by these termites and reveal their presence. Such termites must be rigidly excluded and guarded against by Federal quarantines; they are likely to be introduced in furniture, and become cosmopolitan in distribution. Kalotermes (Cryptotermes) brevis Walker occurs from Florida in the United States to the West Indies, Central and South America, and South Africa. Powder-post termites live in hard dry wood and are difficult to collect, hence, since they are not conspicuous, many new species are being found when specially sought after by such excellent collectors as Dr. Mann and Mr. Neverman. No single specimen was definitely designated as a holotype; since the specific descriptions were made from a series, these specimens are cotypes. Family KALOTERMITIDAE Kalotermes (Rugitermes) costaricensis, new species Winged adult—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown), smooth, shining, longer than broad, sides almost parallel, rounded posteriorly, with fairly dense long hairs. Postclypeus white, tinged with yellow, short but broad. Labrum light yellow-brown, broader than long, broadly rounded to 1 Snyper, T. E.: New American termites. This Journau 15: 152-162. 1925. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 19 nearly straight at apex, with long hairs. Eye black, not round, fairly large and projecting, separated from lateral margin of head by a distance greater than the diameter of an eye. Ocellus hyaline, projecting, suboval, at an oblique angle to eye, from which it is separated by a distance equal to the long diameter of the ocellus. Antenna light yellow-brown, whitish towards apex, with 17 to 20 aencates segments bead-like, or wedge-shaped, but becoming longer and broader toward apex; with long hairs; third segment longer than or subequal to second, but longer than fourth segment; last segment narrow, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not twice as broad as long, broadest at middle, roundly and shallowly concave both anteriorly and posteriorly; sides round, narrowed posteriorly, with scattered long hairs and denser short hairs. Wings smoky dark brown, coarsely punctate. In forewing, median vein uniting almost directly with the radial sector; radial sector close to and parallel, and with seven branches to costal vein, first four long and oblique, others short; cubitus running parallel to radial sector, above middle of wing, to: apex, with 11 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; subcostal veln uniting with costa before middle of wing; seven irregular to crescentic transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. In hind wing, median vein lacking; radial sector with two long and two short branches to costal vein; cubitus running to apex of wing with 10 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing: subcostal vein uniting with costa at about middle of wing; five irregular transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. Wing scale as lcng as pronotum. Legs dark brown to fuscous (tarsi lighter), elongate, slender, hairs long. Abdomen with tergites golden-yellow; tergites with fairly dense and fairly long hairs near base of each; cerci fairly elongate and prominent. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 11.5-12.25 mm.; length of entire dedlated adult, 9-10 mm.; length of head (to tip labrum), 2.1 mm.; length of pronotum (where longest not at median line), 1.2 mm.; length of forewing, 8 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.5 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame- ter), 0.37 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 1.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 2.05 mm.; width of forewing, 2.5 mm. Soldier.—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown, darker anteriorly and lighter posteriorly), cylindrical, markedly broadest anteriorly, sides slightly concave, with scattered long hairs, very dense on frontal slope or epicranial suture, where there is a median depression or groove. Eye spot hyaline, prominent, reniform, parallel to antennal socket. Gula about half as wide at middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles black, base reddish-brown, broad at base, tips more slender, but fairly broad, pointed and incurved; left mandible with two fairly large sharp pointed marginal teeth on apical third, a small pointed tooth, a molar in the middle and a small blunt tooth near the base; right mandible with two large pointed marginal teeth, one in middle, the lower nearer the base; edge of right mandible roughened between apex and first tooth (Fig. 1). Antenna yellow-brown to castaneous (lighter towards apex); with 15 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment dark, markedly subclavate, longer than . second or fourth segments; fourth segment about half as long as second; last segment elongate, slender, spatulate. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not quite twice as broad as long, broadest slightly anterior to middle; anterior margin broadly and roundly 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 concave; generally convex posteriorly except at middle where shallowly Sree ai sides narrowed posteriorly; pronotum with dense, fairly long airs. In some specimens, meso- and meta-nota with short wing pads. : Legs tinged with yellow; femora markedly swollen; three dark-colored spines at apex of tibiae. Abdomen with tergites yellow to light yellow-brown; a row of fairly long hairs at base of each; cerci fairly elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 10-12.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 5.25 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 3.5mm.; length of left mandible, 1.8 mm.; length of pronotum, 1.45 mm.; AN i VM New species of Kalotermes. Mandibles of soldiers showing marginal teeth. (Camera lucida, high power.) Fig. 1.—Kalotermes (Rugitermzs) costaricensis Snyder Fig. 2.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum Snyder Fig. 3.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae Snyder length of hind tibia, 1.2 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 2.1 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 2 mm.; width of pro- notum, 2.8 mm. Type locality Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with nymphs of the sexual form at the type locality on January 22, 1925, by Mr. F. Neverman in dead hardwood of Manic. Co-types, winged adult.—Cat. No. 28655, U. S.. N. M.; co-morphotypes, soldier. The winged sexual adults of K. (R.) costaricensis are large and bicolored; and the soldier is also large. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum, new species Winged adult—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and below . eyes) smooth, shining, longer than broad, elongate, sub-oval, rounded pos- teriorly, a V-shaped marking at epicranial suture, with scattered, fairly long hairs. Eyes black, not round, but little projecting, separated from lower JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 21 margin of head by a distance less than the short diameter of an eye. Ocelli hyaline, suboval, close to eye. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 12 segments, with long hairs; third seg- ment subclavate, slender, longer than second or fourth segments; fourth segment bead-like; from fourth on segments becoming longer and broader toward apex; last segment elongate, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum same color as head, shallowly concave anteriorly; posterior margin convex except for median emargination; sides narrow posteriorly; pronotum with scattered, long hairs. Wings smoky, costal area darker (brown); tissue coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein closeto and paralleltosubcosta; cubitus nearly in center of wing branching to apex, with about 11 to 12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median branching from subcosta near base of wing. Legs yellow (femora darker), slender, elongate; pulvillus present; legs with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, a row of leas hairs at base of each; cerci short, broad at base; styli present. M easurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 5.8-6.2 mm.; length of entire dedlated adult, 3.6 to 3.7 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip of labrum), 1.05 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5-0.6 mm.; length of forewing, 4.24.3 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.75-0.8 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame- ter), 0.25 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.7 mm.; width of forewing, 1.4 mm. Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge) to piceous on front (paler posteriorly), in profile head slightly concave in middle, short, cylindrical, front vertical to slightly projecting (overhanging) dorsally; head constricted (narrowed) dorsally at front, front scooped out; head with deep V-shaped median suture, lobes elevated, broadly rounded, and markedly roughened (tuberculate); head with transverse rows of long hairs anteriorly and in middle. ee spot not distinct, suboval. Gula blackish, not much narrowed in middle. Mandibles blackish, short, broad at base, but pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with two pointed marginal teeth near apex and a broad ie. “ middle; right mandible with two sharp-pointed teeth in middle ig. 2 Antenna SElloie browns with 10 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment narrow, short, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin deeply and roundly con- cave, roughened, with minute serrations or denticules; anterior corners high; posterior margin straight, except for median, round emargination; sides angularly narrow posteriorly. Presternal processes dark colored. Legs tinged with yellow; femora swollen; two chitinized spines and a spur at base of fore tibiae. Abdomen with tergites yellowish, with a row of long haars at base of each; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 3.8—4.7 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.55-1.75 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 1.2-1.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.6 mm.; length of pronotum, 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 0.55-0.6 mm.; length of hind tibiae, 0.6 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 0.85—1 mm.; - width ¢ of head (posteriorly), 1-1.1 mm.: ; height of head at middle, 0.9-1. mm.; - width of pronotum, 0.9—-1 mm. Type locality. —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with nymphs at the type locality by F. Neverman on May 15, 1925, in heartwood. i. Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28656, U. 8. N. M.; co-morphotypes, winged adult. Kalotermes. (C.) asperatum is smaller than either K. (Calcaritermes) emminens Snyder and recessifrons Snyder from Colombia or guatemalae Snyder from Guatemala and Costa Rica. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae, new species Winged adult——Head very dark castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge), (lighter below the eyes and anteriorly), smooth, shining, longer than broad, | (broadly suboval), rounded posteriorly, with few scattered short hairs, and a row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance about equal to half the short diame- ter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, very close to eye. Antenna yellow-brown near base, whitish with yellow tinge towards apex, with 13 segments; segments wedge-shaped to bead-like, becoming longer and broader toward apex; with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than fourth segment but approximately subequal to second; last segment elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin broadly roundly emargi- nate (shallowly concave); anterior corners high; sides roundly narrow towards posterior margin, which is nearly straight; short hairs on anterior margin; a row of long hairs just posteriorly to middle and on posterior margin. Wings dusky brown (smoky), costal veins darker; membrane coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close and parallel to subcostal vein; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex with about 12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin; in hind wing, median originates from subcosta near apex. Legs with coxae and femora dark castaneous-brown; tibiae and tarsi white with yellow tinge; legs slender and elongate. Abdomen with tergites dark castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci fairly prominent; styli present. Measurement.—Length of entire winged adult, 8-8.25 mm.; length of entire dealated adult, 5 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip labrum), 1.4— 1.45 mm. ; ‘length of pronotum, 0.7 mm.; length of forewing, 5.75 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.1 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.275 mm. ; - width of head (at eyes), 1.15-1.2 mm.; ; width of pronotum, 1-1.05 mm.; - width of fore- wing, 1.8 mm. Soldier—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and darker—to piceous—at anterior margin), elongate, cylindrical, thick, wider posteriorly than anteriorly, concave (dorsally) in middle in profile; head longer ventrally (2.40 mm.)—projecting to post-clypeus—than dorsally (2.25 mm.), where vertical; epicranial suture concave (hollowed out); head lobed medianly, a broad U-shaped cleft or suture, lobes but slightly roughened: head with Aiea scattered long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval, separated from antennal socket by a distance equal to its long diameter. Gula narrowed in middle. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 23 Mandibles piceous, broad at base, sharp-pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with three sharp-pointed marginal teeth, two near apical third, the other, larger tooth near middle; right mandible with two large pointed teeth near middle (fig. 3). Antenna light on. mere near base (lighter anteriorly), with 12 seg- ments; segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment short, slender, suboval. Pronotum castaneous-brown (margins darker), similar in shape to that of K. (C.) emarginicollis Snyder, but not quite so emarginate posteriorly, with scattered long hairs. Legs tinged with yellow (femora darker and swollen); fore tibiae with spur. Abdomen with tergites dirty white, tinged with yellow, a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci small; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 6.5—-7.5 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 3 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 2.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 1 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.8-0.9 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 1.5 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.4-1.5 mm.; width of pronotum, 1.5 mm. Type locality —Mixco, Guatemala. Described from a series of winged adults collected with soldiers and nymphs at the type locality in May, 1924, by D. W. M. Mann. Other specimens of this termite (winged adults and soldiers) collected at Estrella, Costa Rica, in April, 1924, by Mann and soldiers at Bananito on April 20, 1925, by F. Neverman. Co-type, soldier.—Cat. No. 28657 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes winged adult. The soldier of K. (C.) guatemalae is similar to that of K. (C.) emarginicollis Snyder from Panama, but it is darker colored, larger, and has a wider head and a longer, and less deeply emarginate pronotum. Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) thompsonae, new species Winged adult—Head yellow-brown or light castaneous-brown (slightly immature), shining, sides parallel, approximately suboval, with scattered short hairs and row of longer hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, pro- jecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than long diameter of eye; ocellus hyaline, suboval, close to and at an oblique angle to eye. Antenna light yellow-brown at base, yellow at apex, with 13 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments; last segment elongate, narrow, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly and roundly concave anteriorly; posterior margin nearly straight; sides angularly narrow posteriorly; margins with scattered short and long hairs. Wings hyaline (slightly immature) costal area yellow-brown; membrane coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex of wing; with 11-12 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median origi- nating from subcosta near base. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Legs yellow, elongate, slender, pulvillus present, hairs long. Abdomen with tergites light yellow-brown, a row of long hairs at base of each tergite; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 7-7.5 mm.; length of entire deailated adult, 4.3-4.6 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip of la- brum), 1.15-1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5—-0.55 mm.; length of forewing, 5.4mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.7 mm.; diameter of eye (long diam.), 0.25 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.9 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.85 mm.; width of fore- wing, 1.5 mm. The winged adult of K. (C.) thompsonae is lighter colored and smaller than either zmminens Snyder or recessifrons Snyder from Colombia. Soldier—Head castaneous to piceous on front, and yellow posteriorly, semicylindrical, nearly straight in profile, longer ventrally than dorsally; front of head with oblique slope, ventrally, seen from front, more or less shallowly concave, only slight outlines of a rim about median suture, which is broad, shallow, and V-shaped, lobes rounded and slightly roughened, with scattered short hairs anteriorly and a row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye spot indistinct. Gula narrowest at middle (where broadest in K. (C.) recesszfrons Snyder from Colombia). Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, pointed and incurved at apex; left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth at apical third, another in middle; right with two larger pointed marginal teeth near middle. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment ring- like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, semi-elliptical. Pronotum light yellow-brown (margins darker), short, nearly twice as broad as long; anterior margin broadly, roundly concave; anterior corners high; posterior margin shallowly concave in center; sides nearly straight, narrow posteriorly; pronotum with but few scattered short hairs and a row of longer hairs posteriorly. Presternal processes dark (yellow-brown). Legs yellow, femora swollen, spur on fore tibiae. ‘ Abdomen with tergites tinged with yellow, with a row of long hairs; cerci short. _ Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.8 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin ven- trally), 1.5 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.55 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.9 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 0.95 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.9 mm. Type locality— Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a series of winged adults and a soldier collected with nymphs at the type locality on May 29, 1925, by F. Neverman in dead dry wood of standing tree. Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28658 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes winged adult. The soldier of K. (C.) thompsonae has a shorter, more pointed mandible than in recessifrons Snyder and a shorter pronotum; it is smaller than emar- ginicollis Snyder from Panama. Named in honor of the late Dr. C. B. Thompson of Wellesley College. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 25 Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) marlatti, new species Winged adult—Head lght castaneous-brown, punctate, shining, sides parallel; head suboval, with scattered long hairs. Eye black, not round, projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than the diameter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, close and at an oblique angle to eye. Antenna yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments bead-like, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate, slightly longer than second or fourth segment; last segment elongate, subellip- tical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly; anterior corners high; straight at posterior margins; sides angularly narrowed posteriorly; pronotum with scattered long hairs. _ Wings dusky with golden tinge (costal area yellow-brown); tissue coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta; cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex, with about 12 branches or sub- branches to lower margin; in hindwing, median originating from subcosta near base (at about basal fourth of wing). Legs yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at base of each; cerci short. Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 6.2 mm.; length of entire deadlated adult, 4.5 mm.; length of head (posterior margins to tip of labrum), 0.9 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.45 mm.; length of forewing, 4.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.6 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.225 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.65 mm.; width of forewing, 1.2mm. The winged adult of A. (G.) marlatt: is hghter colored than that of barbourt Snyder of Panama. Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (darker—piceous—anteriorly and lighter posteriorly), slightly concave in middle in profile, slightly longer ventrally than dorsally, markedly narrowed or constricted dorsally at front, front darker, nearly vertical, a deep U-shaped median suture, lobes darker, raised and slightly roughened; head with two transverse rows of long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, suboval. Gula narrowed at middle. Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, sharp and incurved at apex; left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth on apical third, another near middle; right mandible with two larger, pointed teeth near middle. Antenna light yellow-brown, with 10-11 segments, segments wedge- shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment small, ring-like; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly, nearly straight at posterior margin, anterior corners high, sides narrow poste- riorly, margins with long hairs. Presternal processes light yellow-brown. Legs yellowish, femora swollen, three castaneous chitinized spines at base of fore tibiae; legs with long hairs. Abdomen with tergites dirty gray-white with yellowish tinge, with a row of long hairs on each; cerci fairly elongate. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4.25 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 1.65 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 1.25 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.5 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.75 mm.; width of 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 head posteriorly, 0.85 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.8 mm. Type locality —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Described from a winged adult and a soldier collected at the type locality by F. Neverman, February 1, 1925, in hardwood of Mant. Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28659 U. S. N. M.; co-morphotype, winged adult. The soldier of K. (G.) marlattz is smaller than that of angustus Snyder of Panama; is close to barbourz Snyder but the head is not so high, and the marginal teeth on the left mandibles are sharp pointed and not molar, and also the pronotum is of slightly different shape. Named in honor of Dr. C. L. Marlatt of the Federal Horticultural Board who carefully guards the United States against importation of foreign termites. Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) nevermani, new species Soldier.—Head light yellow, darker (yellow-brown) anteriorly, longer than broad, cylindrical, only slightly broader posteriorly than anteriorly, front obliquely, angularly sloping, a broad, rounded suture medianly, margins of lobes rounded, but slightly roughened, slightly elevated; head with several transverse rows of long hairs. Eyespot hyaline, large, suboval. Gula elong- ate, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles dark reddish-brown to piceous at tips, broad, narrowed, pointed and incurved at tips; left mandible with one pointed marginal tooth near apex, a molar with sharp point anteriorly and broader molar; right mandible with sharp-pointed tooth near middle and molar about as in K. (G.) —— Snyder. Antenna light yellow, (darker near base), w:th 10 to 12 segments, usually 11, segments becoming longer and broader (wedge-shaped) toward apex, with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical. Pronotum yellow (margins darker), broadly and shallowly concave an- teriorly, posterior margin nearly straight, anterior corners high, sides angu- larly narrowed posteriorly; hairs scattered, and long. Presternal processes yellow. Legs whitish, tinged with yellow, femora swollen, with long hairs. Abdomen oray-white, with a row of long hairs at the base of each tergite, cerci fairly elongate; styli present. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5—6.25 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 2.5-2.7 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.8— 1.9 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.95 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.6—0.7 mm.; length; of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head (dorsally) anteriorly, 1.2 mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.25 mm.; height of head in middle, 1.2 mm.; width of pronotum, I-1.05 mm. Type-locality—Western slope of the volcano Irazt, at 1500 meters, Costa Rica. Described from three soldiers, collected with nymphs at the type locality by F. Neverman on February 22, 1925, in a dry stump. Co-type, soldiers —Cat. No. 28660 U.S. N. M. Kalotermes (G.) nevermani is close to K. (G.) suturzs Snyder, also from Costa Rica, but is larger and has more segments to the antenna; the winged adult is unknown. JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES | 27. Family TERMITIDAE Capritermes ( Neocapritermes) longinotus, new species Soldier.—Head yellow to pale yellow-brown, darker anteriorly and on sides, with a distinct dark median line running from posterior margin to epicranial suture, sides nearly parallel, but head broader posteriorly than anteriorly, rounded posteriorly, with fairly dense long hairs, especially anteriorly. Labrum of same color as head, elongate and faintly trilobed, broad at apex, narrowed in middle, long hairs on median lobe. Gula elongate, slender, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles black, twisted, asymmetrical; left mandible longer than right. Antenna yellow, with 16 segments, segments becoming longer and broader toward apex, longest in middle; with long hairs; third segment shorter than second, but approximately subequal to fourth segment, or slightly shorter; segments becoming markedly longer from seventh to twelfth segments, then becoming shorter; last sezment elongate, slender, subelliptical. Pronotum white with tinge of yellow, darker on anterior margin, very elongate anteriorly, high (saddle-shaped), and markedly roundly emarginate, hairs dense, and long. . Legs tinged with yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs. Abdomen dirty white, tinged with yellow; tergites with fairly dense long yellow hairs; cerci not elongate. Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 7.75-8 mm.; length of head with mandibles, 4.6 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 2.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 2.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.85 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.25 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 1.8 mm.; width of head (posteriorly), 1.4 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.2 mm.; width of pronotum: 1.05 mm. Type locality.—Rio Frio, Colombia. Described from four soldiers collected with workers by Dr. W. M. Mann in February, 1924, at the type locality. Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28661, U.S. N. M. Capritermes (N.) longinotus is a very small species with a narrow head and a very long pronotum, which is markedly roundly, emarginate anteriorly; the winged adult is unknown. LIST OF KNOWN OR DESCRIBED TERMITES COLLECTED BY MANN AND NEVERMAN IN GUATEMALA, COSTA RICA AND COLOMBIA Family KALOTERMITIDAE Cryptotermes dudleyz Banks. Costa Rica:—San Jose, May 5, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (winged adults flying at light in house) Family RHINOTERMITIDAE Coptotermes niger Snyder Guatemala, Bobas; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Costa Rica, Colombiana; March, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Hamburg Farm, Feb., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers); June 2, 1925 (winged soldiers and workers). Bananito, April 20, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1 Prorhinotermes molinot Snyder Costa Rica, Parisiana Ranch; Feb. 6, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers in rotten log). Family TERMITIDAE Cornitermes acignathus Silvestri | CotomsiaA, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Armitermes chagresi Snyder Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) columbicus Holmgren Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) rotundatus Holmgren CotomstA, Rio Frio; March, 1924, Dr. W M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Nasutitermes (Obtusitermes) panamae Snyder Cotomsra, Rio frio; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (two ‘types of soldiers and workers). Amutermes beaumonti Banks GUATEMALA, Mixcc; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and workers). Microcerotermes exiguus Hagen CoLomBia, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (queen, soldiers and workers). SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The following lectures have been given in the Carnegie Institution’s series since the last record in this JouRNAL: November 24, Dr. Arraur L. Day of the Geophysical Laboratory, The Santa Barbara earthquake; December 1, Dr. Haraup U. SverprRupP of Captain Amundsen’s “Maud” Arctic-Drift Expedition, cooperating with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, The scientific work of the ““Maud” expedition, 1922-1925; December 8, Dr. ARTHUR 8. Kine of the Mount Wilson Observatory, Laboratory methods of analysing spectra, with application to atomic structure. Ernest F. BurcuHarp of the U. 8. Geological Survey has returned from a trip across South America from the Pacific to the Atlantic Coast, having examined iron-ore deposits in Misiones Territory and in Catamarea Prov- ince for the Argentine Government. On his return journey he visited the principal iron and manganese-ore deposits in central Minas Geraes, Brazil. T. S. Loverine has been appointed Junior Scientist in the Geological Survey. The 1925 exhibition of current scientific work of the Carnegie Institution of Washington held during December 11 to 14 was attended by over 2,300 visitors. The exhibits shown may be classed into four groups: (1) Original materials or photographs of such materials on which research work was done; (2) methods, especially instrumental, for solving such problems; (3) models and simple experiments illustrating the principles on which a re- search problem is based; (4) tables, graphs, models, and other means of presenting results obtained by research work. ee a Saar 3 _ The e Philosophical Society. y 12. Tae AcaDEMyY, be ey: 13. The ee Boge OnrorwaL Pappas | Voleanology.—The eruption a Santorini in 1925. H. 8. Ws Atomic Physics.—Note on the Loli levels of oe, atoms a ; ALLISON. «0.205. s eee e eve ee sce ses sae teneteea deer entice Botany.—A new micvuuentral soil ariuklocaene foi the J Epear T. Wahine ene 2 Botany.—New plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus Entomology.—New termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica, E. SNYDER, .50 12-50) cite eves he chats eeveoetspceces \ Scrmntirie NovEs AND NEWS ¥. Jct. csc. cease ewe el ue Oe Recording abe ee W. D, aoe Coast and Ge ode Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Pee VeliG January 19, 1926 No. 2 = ——« JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY ee OF SCIENC 1 AAN:25.1926 # Se 2 BOARD OF EDITORS ‘A : oe Qe gO D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy pink : CHASE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams 8. A. RonwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLDMAN G. W. Srosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F, Gricas J. R. SwANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royau AND GUILFORD AVES. BaLTIMORE, MarYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the 3 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for eh in Section 1193, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences kb This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to resent a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: 1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) — short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afliliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALis issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes corres ond to calendar years. 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Island masses furnish numerous cases of large deflections of the vertical by which the distribution of densities in the earth’s crust may be studied. A notable case is in the island of Porto Rico in the West Indies. Astronomic latitude stations on the south and the north coasts are connected by triangulation. ‘The difference in the astro- nomic latitudes is 35’ 36’’.00 while the difference in the latitude of the astronomic stations as derived from the distance between them obtained by triangulation is 34’ 40’’.20. The difference between these two values is 55’’.80, or about one statute mile. This value is the relative deflection of the vertical. Since the plumb line at each of the stations is attracted by the island mass and repelled by the deficiency of mass in the space occupied by water in the Atlantic Ocean or in the Caribbean Sea, it is certain the direction of the plumb line at each station is affected. TABLE 1.—Isostatic REDucTIONS oF Two STATIONS IN Porto Ricc: EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY AND COMPENSATION EFFECT OF TO DEPTHS OF STATION TOPOGRA- PEPE cergis eames

| : \ i$ eee | 2! y == (1) (2) ae l SI QI ae Ys ; | : | (4) (5) Figs. 1, 2, 3,4 and 5. Atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton and Watt be observed and sketched with some accuracy. Five typical curves are shown in the figures. Most of these appear to be aperiodic, though some are feebly oscillatory. In figure 3 it is seen that there are minute oscillations superposed on the main curve. It will be noted that the period of the main oscilla- tion is, in all cases, of: audio frequency; and Eckersley has pointed out recently that the relatively prolonged impulses of Watt and Apple- ton can not account for the observed intensity of the atmospherics 144 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 103: 84. 1923. 16 Hlectrician (London), 93: 150. 1924. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2 ordinarily experienced in radio reception. He suggests that possibly the ripples, such as are shown in figure 3, may be the actual atmos- pheric waves. Mr. Watt in the symposium ‘cited accepts this view and adds that more recent experiments in Egypt and elsewhere in the tropics show that there the fine ripple structure is much more common and of much greater amplitude than in England. Professor Appleton, on the other hand, holds that the low-frequency wave forms shown in the figures are capable of producing the observed disturbances at all wave lengths by shock excitation. In conclusion, the differences of opinion mentioned in this paper show that there is still much to be done before the sources of the dis- turbances are identified with certainty. While many of the atmos- pherics undoubtedly come from thunderstorms, many appear to come from regions where no such storms are occurring. It is also believed that even in thunderstorms some of the heaviest disturbances do not come from the lightning itself, but the nature of these non-luminous sources of such great power is still a matter of conjecture. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY | 923D MEETING The 923d meeting—the first meeting following the summer intermission— was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, October 3, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:15 with 33 persons in attendance. Program: 8. P. Fmerausson. Meteorology of the total solar eclipse of Janu- ary 24, 1925. (Illustrated by lantern slides). The circumstances of the total eclipse of January, 1925 were, in one respect, most favorable for the study of the very small, temporary disturbance of the atmosphere caused by the shadow. The path crossed a region abounding in easily-accessible sites for observing-stations and instruments capable of indicating the small changes of condition to be expected were available at several observatories in and near the path. On the unfavorable side, even near the coast of Connecticut and Rhode Island, totality occurred only two hours after sunrise, the altitude of the sun was below 20°, and the probabilities were that the effects would be small, at best, and negligible west of the 75th meridian. Furthermore, in January, in this region, the variability of the weather and its storminess at- tains the annual maximum—conditions likely to obscure the small effect probable. Through the courtesy of W. G. Fors of Wesleyan University, in providing facilities for the exposure of instruments during the eclipse, the author ob- tained continuous records of atmospheric pressure and the direction of the JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 47 wind, observations of the kind,direction, velocity, position, and density of clouds and attempted the measurement of shadow-bands. The wide scales of the automatic instruments permitted readings of pressure to 0.03 millibar and of the direction of the wind to 2° of azimuth, at intervals of two minutes. The observations of clouds were made at irregular intervals, usually of three to seven minutes. To these data have been added observations of tem- perature with an Assmann psychrometer at Wesleyan, records from Draper anemoscopes at Central Park, New York, and Blue Hill Observatory, Massa- chusetts, and observations of temperature and wind at New London, Con- necticut, and Westerly, Rhode Island, for which, respectively, the author is indebted to W. I. MitHam, J. H. Scarr, ALEXANDER McApIE and C. F. BROOKS. The weather on the day of the eclipse was unusually favorable for all ob- servations, but very uncomfortable; a severe cold wave prevailed and the temperature ranged between —25° and —15°C. The data referred to have been compared with normals or averages of each element (1) for all conditions at the time of year and (2) for the conditions prevailing on the day of the eclipse. The more important results may be summarized ‘as follows: The fall of temperature of 1°.9C. (slightly more than one half that occurring during average conditions) did not begin until within 30 minutes of totality and the rate of fall at first was very slow; the lowest temperature occurred about ten minutes after totality. The change of pressure was so small that it may be submerged in irregular fluctuations, of which many occurred during the 12 hours preceding the eclipse. It is possible, however, that the fall of only 0.4 millibar beginning 30 minutes after totality was caused by the shadow, for, under the conditions prevailing, retardation of all effects is to be expected. At stations in Connecticut the usual calm and irregular changes of the wind occurred during totality, followed by an increase of velocity and a reversal of the direction after totality, indicating a tendency to blow toward the region of lowest temperature and pressure. Similar tendencies were noticeable in the record at New York, but at Blue Hill the velocity was too high and too variable for the detection of the very small eclipse-effect. A slight decrease in the amount of the alto-cumulus clouds is believed by some observers to be due to the shadow. There was a fall followed by a de- cided increase in the velocity of the clouds, and the changes of direction in- dicated a tendency of the air at their level (estimated at 2000 metres above sea-level) to move toward the region of lowest pressure; these results confirm: the first observations of this effect during the eclipse of May, 1918. The shadow-bands, on first appearance, were a mass of fine, bright lines in ‘rapid irregular motion lengthwise as well as laterally; on second appearance the bands were more definitely outlined, but in both instances precise measure- ments were impossible. There was a general movement, nearly parallel to the path of the shadow, at a rate of between one and two meters a second. Observations, accumulated mostly since 1900, indicate that these bands probably occur chiefly, perhaps only, during the mixing of masses of air having different densities or temperatures, the necessary contrasts of density being maintained to an appreciable degree only during the rapid decrease and in- crease of temperature immediately before and following totality. The gen- eral movement or drift of the bands appears to be more closely related to that of the eclipse-wind than to the natural wind prevailing at any level. (Author’s abstract.) 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2 Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Pawziine, Curtis, HuMPHREYS, and PRIEST. C. Moon: A method of comparing the relative frequencies of a tuning fork and a pendulum. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An experimental arrange- ment was described for measuring the relative frequencies of a tuning fork and a pendulum by the well-known method of coincidences. The frequency of the fork must be very near an exact multiple of that of the pendulum. A series of flashes of twice the frequency of the fork is obtained by the device used by Curtis and Duncan. The light from the slit in the vanes carried by the prongs of the fork is reflected directly into a telescope by two mirrors placed side by side, one attached directly to the pendulum and the other to the pendulum support. The flash images of the slit from the fixed mirror appear superposed at the same place in the telescopic field, those from the moving mirror being separated into a series of lines which appear in the field at each forward and backward swing of the pendulum. For convenience a crude auxiliary pendulum is used to intercept the light source during the backward swing of the pendulum, so that only one series of images are seen for each complete oscillation of the standard pendulum. If the fork fre- quency is an exact multiple, say N times that of the pendulum, then the image of the first flash, the (2N + 1)th, the (4N + 1)th... . ete., will always appear at the same place in the telescopic field. Since the multiple relation will not be exactly fulfilled, there will be a slight progression of suc- cessive images and at regular intervals coincidences will occur between one of the lines from the moving mirror and the line from the fixed mirror. The time interval between two successive coincidences can be measured with a stop watch. It represents the time required for the fork to gain or lose one-half of a vibration on the pendulum. ‘This interval known, the relative frequencies can be readily computed. The method has been applied to a 100-cycle fork driven by a vacuum tube and a standard Coast Survey gravity pendulum. With the fork adjusted so that coincidences occurred at about 20 second intervals, the time of a single coincidence may be measured with an error of 5 per cent. This causes an error of approximately one part in 100,000 in the relative frequencies. By measuring five consecutive coincidences, the error can be reduced to two parts per million. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Swick, HUMPHREYS, Curtis, Hey and Prisst. O24TH MEETING The 924th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, October 17, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:16 with 55 persons in attendance. Program: L. B. TuckERMAN. We see things which are not there. (Illus- trated by lantern slides.) If the carbon copy of a typewritten sheet is placed in register over the original and then rotated slightly, a series of concentric circles is seen. When the carbon copy is displaced vertically the circles shift horizontally, the center of the circles always lying at the point of coincidence of the two copies. This effect must have been seen many times, but only one stenographer was found who has recognized the character of the pattern seen. Similar results are obtained from any irregular pattern. An example is a doubly printed photo- graph, the negative being slightly rotated between the two exposures. An- JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 49 other example is a trail photograph of circumpolar stars. The phenomenon is familiar to astronomers who match star photographs in detecting comets or asteroids or in determining proper motion of stars. The illusion is caused by the fact that in looking at objects we mentally complete the patterns which are suggested by the geometrical arrangement presented. A multitude of similar illusions are known and are effectively used by artists. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hryu, Stimson, SToK- LEY, PRrEST and FERGUSSON. Puitiep P. QuayLE: Single spark photography and its application to some problems in ballistics. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An apparatus was described for obtaining shadow pictures of objects in rapid motion by a properly timed illuminating spark. The general principle involved is not new but the means for carrying it out are believed to be unique and considerably more effective than any hitherto described. The apparatus is so arranged that the illuminating spark occurs when the object to be photographed is be- tween it and the photographic plate. There results an ordinary shadow of opaque objects, such as bullets, and inhomogeneities due to sound waves and . turbulence of the air give distinctive patterns owing to refraction effects. In the illustrative photographs presented are to be found some striking sound wave phenomena. i The photographs were presented primarily to illustrate the usefulness of the method but they give interesting and important information concerning the gas leakage in a revolver, the acceleration of projectiles outside the muzzle, the so-called stringing effect in shot shells and many other phenomena at- tending the discharge of firearms. Other characteristics of the photographs , were pointed out and in part explained. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed: by Messrs. Hreyi, LAportE, HawK- ESWORTH, Breit, TUCKERMAN, WRIGHT and others. Q25TH MEETING The 925th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, October 31, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:17 with 33 persons in attendance. Program: N. E. Dorsry: A thunderbolt and its results. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The nature of the damage which was done when lightning struck a tulip tree was described, and the more interesting features were illus- trated by lantern slides. The tree was an interior one of a small, isolated group surrounding the frame church at Annapolis Junction, Md. In the group were several others of the same kind and of the same height (47 feet) as that struck. The most exposed of the tulip trees is about 55 feet high, and the tower of the church is 56 feet high and only 30 feet from the tree which was struck. Neither of these were damaged in the least. Furthermore, the tree was struck within nine feet of the ground. A segment on the northwest side of the tree was splintered, and sections were torn from it; the larger, un- splintered portion of the trunk was split and bowed apart; the blazed area extended only to a height of 27 feet, and the split extended only a short dis- tance higher. Above that, the trunk was undamaged; the lower thirty inches of the trunk was not split. On a large section torn from the tree was a limb of which the overgrown portion had been broken squarely across the grain, and had been pulled from the trunk as a tenon might be pulled from a mortise. This break could have been produced only by a longitudinal pull. Along the 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2 western edge of the splintered segment, and, as nearly as could be determined, in the plane bounding the splintered segment, were four small isolated holes burned through the bark. The hole next to the top extended into the wood for about two inches; and for most of its length it was about the size of the lead of a pencil. The topmost and largest hole was eight feet from the ground; thé wood around it was badly torn, and much of it was lost. These four holes mark the spots in which the tree was struck; they pass straight through the sap-wood, which was not seriously damaged. The plane defined by them passes between, and close to, two trees exactly similar to the one struck. Everything indicates that the path of the stroke was essentially uninfluenced by the local field near the ground. The stroke appears to have been of the nature of a free electrical charge travelling, under its own momentum, along a line determined by conditions in the clouds. It was suggested that such a stroke may be closely akin to, and perhaps may actually be, an intense, con- centrated beam of cathode rays. It was pointed out that the production of such a beam is not inconsistent with what we know of the conditions in a thundercloud and it was shown that such a suggestion serves to correlate in a logical manner all the prominent effects observed. That the suggestion in- volves assumptions of which the validity can not at present be demonstrated, was admitted. (Auwthor’s abstract.) | | Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wuitr, HUMPHREYS, PAWLING, Bowre, and others. Ropert H. Gautt: Touch as a substitute for hearing in the interpretation and control of speech. (Illustrated by achart.) Thisis a report of psychologi- cal experiments that are being conducted in Washington under the auspices of the National Research Council. The problem is to determine (1) whether tactual sensation can be made a sufficiently fine means of discrimination to enable one to distinguish the forms of speech and to interpret them, and (2) whether tactual sensation,can be successfully employed as sufficient cues to aid in the control of speech—particularly the speech of semi-mutes. The author employs for his purpose a telephone-like instrument and an amplifier. Each observer (fifteen approximately totally deaf persons) holds a receiver of the instrument in his hand. As many as six sit as observers simul- taneously. Each one can feel the words of the experimenter upon the palm of his hand or upon a finger tip, depending upon how the receiver is held. Theoretically no two words feel alike and no two sentences feel alike. Charts are presented showing the progress of learning sentences, vowel qualities and isolated words. The most successful subjects, working from October 8, 1924, to November 25, 1924, became able to identify, with over 90 per cent of complete accuracy, ten sentences of six monosyllabic words each. They practiced but 25 minutes daily, five days each week. Subse- quently the same subjects in the course of three weeks attained a like degree of accuracy in identifying the long vowels. From June 11 to July 8, 1925, four observers, practicing three half-hour periods daily, five days weekly, attained a fair degree of accuracy 1n identifying 58 words. In the course of this period selections from the 58 words were employed from day to day to form new sentences that had never before been felt as sentences. The subjects were given an opportunity to interpret the sentences by their feel if they could. One hundred and seventeen such sentences were used in this manner. From the four subjects there were 468 reports; 225 of these were correct word for word; 131 more were correct in sense. During the summer period referred to, 103 groups of homophonous words JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 51 (words that are alike from a lip-reader’s point of view, such as “‘aim, ape’’) were chosen as stimuli to determine how nicely those of a group could be dis- tinguished by touch. There were groups of two words, three words, etc., up to ten. The members of each group are supposed to look alike. Asa mat- ter of fact in many instances the members of a group can be distinguished by vision in our experimental situation. Only 50 of the 131 groups are made up of truly homophonous words according to the author’s findings. Among the 131 groups there are but seven in which the subjects distinguished better by lip-reading than by touch. In one instance the two methods produced a tie. Ordinarily touch proved to be by far superior to lip-reading inrelation to these groups of words. The author applied the tactual method to the improvement of the voice of asemi-mute. He was made to feel the experimenter’s voice upon his hand; thereupon he undertook to reproduce the feel by applying his own voice to a transmitter that duplicated the one operated by the experimenter. Thus the subject improved the pitch and syllabication of his words. It was found possible to employ several subjects simultaneously in this experiment. In that situation members of the group criticised their companion who was trying to copy the experimenter’s voice. This practice stimulated interest, and furthermore, the subject with the receiver was aided thereby to discover the tactual criteria for vocal control. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was. discussed by Messrs. HawkKESWORTH, HumpuHRreys, Gipson, Bowir, Merwin and others. President FLEMING on behalf of the Society thanked Professor Gattr for his interesting paper. On request by the President, Major Bowis presented an informal report on the computations of the gravity observations done under a grant from the Society. Five stations in the Southern Pacific were completed and the results will appear in an early issue of the JouURNAL.! 926TH MEETING The 926th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, November 14, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:19 with 55 persons in attendance. Program: L. V. JUDSON: Geodetic instruments from the viewpoint of the physicist. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The instruments particularly re- ferred to are the base line tapes and apparatus for their test; also theodolites and instruments for testing their angular graduations. The design of appara- tus used for testing base lines shows striking differences in the different countries. The apparatus used at the Bureau of Standards for testing base- line tapes is both simple and accurate. The need of extensive investigations in the field of precise graduations of circles was emphasized, and a view of an apparatus for this purpose was shown. It was pointed out that the modern geodetic instrument must em- body all the improvements which the physicist can apply, and that funda- mental investigations were necessary as a preliminary to advances in design. As an example of the investigation of 50-meter invar base line tapes which is being carried on at the Bureau of Standards the question of the effect of concentrated loads upon the distance between the terminal graduations of the tape was taken up in some detail. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bowirm and Hopason. W.L. Humpureys: An unusual display of mammato-cumulus. (Illustrated 1See this JouRNAL 15: 445-450. 1925. 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2 by lantern slides.) The mammato-cumulus cloud, also called pocky-cloud, festoon-cloud, sack-cloud, and other more or less descriptive names, is a sheet — of cloud with numerous, thick-set, hemispherical pendants. This peculiar feature appears to be the result of an overflowing sheet of potentially cold air, dropping down slightly at numerous places and forming cloud as it goes. This phenomenon is most frequent in connection with thunderstorms, and some- times is well developed in association with a tornado. Two pictures were shown of an exceptionally fine example of the mammato- cumulus, obtained at Ashland, Ky., on the afternoon of July 3, 1925, just preceding a heavy but not intense local thunderstorm. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Major Bow1n. Paut R. Heyu: Perpetual motion in the Twentieth Century. Prior to the recognition of the principle of the conservation of energy it was believed that perpetual motion was impossible, but every proposed device of this character had to be examined on its own merits, and the special reason for its failure to work pointed out. The establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy made this unnecessary; all such devices could be dismissed as violating this general principle. Very soon the question was raised as to whether there could not be a perpetual motion of a second kind; that is, whether it was not possible under some circumstances for heat to run up hill. Maxwetu showed in the early seventies that the second law of thermodynamics could be set aside by the interposition of intelligence; BoLrzMaNN and PLANCK later showed that the basis of the second law was one of probability merely, and that actual depar- tures from this law on a microscopic scale must be expected to occur contin- ually and spontaneously. In 1900 LippMaNN suggested two perpetual motion devices based on this principle, and in 1907 SvEDBERG proposed others. In 1912 SmMoLucHOWsKI pointed out a general principle which, as he supposed, rendered these devices inoperative. The speaker showed that SMoLUCHOWSKI was in error in the application of this principle and that the devices of LippMANN and of SvED- BERG must be regarded as valid on a molecular scale. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, HAWKESWORTH, Breit, ADAMS, TUCKERMAN and others. H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. — SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of F. E. Wright on January 5. H.S. WASHINGTON described the methods now being used in Italy to obtain potassium salts, alum, and pure silica from leucite which is extracted me- chanically from certain leucitic lavas in the central Italian volcanic region, There was also a general discussion, led by W. T. ScuatteRand C. §. Ross, on What is a magma? From the discussion it appears that current usage of the word is not uniform, the stress being laid by different writers upon such different qualities as (1) high temperature, (2) liquidity, (3) location in a reservoir, (4) action as a source of lava or ore-bearing solutions, (5) pos- session of dissolved water in various percentages. q ‘ , ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Thursday, January 21. Tue AcApDrEmy. Saturday, January 23. The Philosophical Society. - Wednesday, January 27. The Geological Society. “Saturday, January 30. The Biological Society. _- Tuesday, February 2. The Botanical Society. Thursday, February 4. The Entomological Society. *The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. tives. Rivaons M. aie eee Co ee Paleontology —Two new Pleistocene mastodons. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Won; 16) - FEBRUARY 4, 1926 No. 3 ENTOMOLOGY .—Entomological taxonomy: tis aims and failures. 1. From a Taxonomic Viewpoint. 8. A. RoHwer, Bureau of Entomology When the idea of this symposium occurred to the chairman of the Communication Committee, it is very probable that he had recently seen some paper of a “taxonomic”’ nature which seemed to be lacking in a number of desired features. Otherwise the symposium would probably have been given a different subtitle, for I doubt very much the propriety of the use of the word “‘failures.”” The strongest idea it was intended to convey was ‘“‘shortcomings.”’ Be that as it may, we have accepted the subject for discussion and I think it is one we may well discuss. The science of Biology has made remarkable strides in the last twenty years. It has had opened before it many lines of investigation which were heretofore unknown. | Some of these new studies have gained such popularity that their patrons have thought so well of themselves and the importance of their investigations that they have coined new ‘‘ologies’’ to separate themselves from the other workers. All this time taxonomy has con- tinued and has attracted the attention of only afew. More recently, however, the pendulum has swung back and today the classifier is held in more esteem. ‘The time seems to be passing when it will be necessary to apologize for the fact that one is a taxonomist. This returning into the good graces will not last long unless the students of taxonomy avail themselves of the materials which have been gathered by investigators in related fields, for taxonomy can not be a deaf and dumb science and still live. For this reason it seems desirable to discuss the aims of taxonomy, and as we consider these perhaps we may in our reflection see some shortcomings. 1 Papers presented at the 373d meeting of the Entomological Society of Washing- ton, held March 5, 1925. 53) 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 Before getting too far into the subject it will be well to accept, at least for the moment, a definition of taxonomy; and while we may not all agree, I venture the following for consideration. Taxonomy con- sists of the grouping of organisms in a phylogenetic manner after a consideration of all of their characters and characteristics. Accepting such a broad definition, the taxonomist must base his classification not only on external morphology but he must also call to his aid anatomy, physiology, embryology, cytology, ecology, paleontology, and distribution; in fact, he must consider his organism not by itself alone, but he must understand its function and its place in relation to other organisms past and present. To do all this is no small task, and to say that, isnot all. If in entomology we were dealing with a limited number of forms and if these forms had such habits as to permit a detailed study of them, the task would be of sufficient magnitude. But when we consider that conservatively estimated there are about 640,920 described insects, and that this represents perhaps less than one-tenth of the forms which actually exist, and that for most of these 640,920 forms, we know only a few cabinet specimens of adults and nothing concerning their habits, the task becomes stupendous. It is very probable that this very fact has caused the taxonomist to become so deeply involved in the details that he has lost sight of other allied ‘‘ologies,’”’ and thus received such criticisms as ‘‘Oh! he is only a narrow taxonomist.”’ But let us not stop with these apologies. We grant the magnitude of the task and we admit also that some very good results have apparently been obtained by a careful comparison of morphology. If good results have been accomplished by a study of parts, how much better the results will be if we consider the whole. But let us go back and consider briefly some of the various lines of investigation a taxonomist should be familiar with and include in his consideration when making a phylogenetic grouping. I imagined I saw a shaking of the head when I suggested paleontology—I hope not. Yet most taxonomic entomologists ignore the fossils. So much are they forgotten that many times they are not cataloged. Such an attitude can not be defended by any scientific excuse. Where would be the classifications and the fundamental results derived from them in mammalogy had the fossils been thrown aside because there were too many recent things to describe? When I used the word “anatomy” a short while ago [ meant to restrict the use of the word somewhat, and had in mind more a con- sideration of the internal softer organs. So little is known concerning FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 55 these in insects that not much can be said, yet when more is known and _ their function better understood, I venture the suggestion that the taxonomist will find valuable evidence to refute or uphold his major groupings. Of embryology and cytology little can be said, yet both of these lines of investigation will furnish valuable aids to a true phylogenetic arrangement. Distribution if studied carefully will often prove of great aid. When I hear discussions of so-called dis- - continuous distribution, the first thought that comes to my mind is, how about the true relationships? Perhaps many of the examples of discontinuous distribution are due to faulty taxonomy. If there is anything in this thought then a study of distribution may help the taxonomist to see some of the weak points of his classification; hence it is a line of study the taxonomist should consider. And there is also — the converse, for a study of distribution may just as well tend to show relationships. In including ecology in the list of fields from which the taxonomist must expect aid, I have ventured to use a comprehensive definition of the word “ecology,” and I have therefore included under this head the information usually listed by taxonomists under such headings as “host,” “‘habitat,” and ‘“‘habits.’”? Taxonomists have long paid con- siderable attention to the host and host plants, and to a lesser extent have they considered the habitat and habits. The consideration of these points is of importance, and when we get the phylogenetic point of view it becomes more so. We cannot logically expect that groups which have complex host relationships and specialized habits will give rise to groups with simple host relationships and generalized habits. Such may be the case. Cases of reversion are known, but a classification which indicated that this was true might well be carefully and critically examined before it is pronounced as having been made along phylogenetic lines. We have considered only very briefly some of the points but before my time is completely gone, I want to include a word about nomen- clature, the bug-bear of most taxonomists. I said ‘most’? and I believe advisedly because there are some who have in my opinion so completely forgotten the true significance of nomenclature as to be in the position of trying to put the cart before the horse. My apprecia- tion for the standardization of names, the application of general rules and suggestions on procedure is very great. In fact I fully appreciate nomenclature, so much so that I have been guilty of doing nomencla- torial things. But I have not as yet forgotten, and I trust I never shall forget, that nomenclature, as we entomologists use the word, is only a 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 handmaid to zoology. Nomenclature deals with names, not animals. I venture the guess that less than ten per cent of the changes in the names of insects are due to nomenclature. Most of them are due to a change in the conceptions of groups. In other words, they are made for zoological reasons. It must be so. The classification of insects must change. New facts are before us every day. We apply these in our taxonomic work and we change the name of some little insect or other. Such a change is not due to nomenclature. But I have almost forgotten why I brought up this handmaid to taxonomy. No taxono- mist likes to change names but no taxonomic work, however sound from a phylogenetic point of view, can stand for a long period of usefulness unless its author carefully considers the nomenclature of the group. It is essential that entomologists agree on. names, and if all taxonomic workers hasten to establish the landmarks by which group names may be recognized, fewer changes will be necessary and their work will be of a more permanent nature. The establishment of genotypes for all genera and especially those on which supergeneric names are founded is important, and to a very large extent this must be done by the taxonomist. In our definition we said taxonomy was the grouping of organisms and this presupposes there are organisms to be grouped. So a study of taxonomy must first await the accumulation of materials. A taxonomist without a collection is as bad off as the man at sea without. water and the one with a small collection is perhaps, as far as real progress is concerned, worse off. If proper taxonomic work can be done only when all factors are considered then to work in a taxonomic way over only an incomplete assemblage of specimens can not produce good results. Jn almost every group in insects we have examples of poorly constructed classifications because of an examination of an in- adequate number of specimens. We must not discourage the collecting instinct in the taxonomist. On the other hand we should lend him all encouragement. We should place at his disposal for study all the material of his group. He should have material from all regions and in sufficient abundance for him to study the variation of individuals. This need for collections imposes an obligation on the taxonomist as well as those who foster his work. It makes it necessary for him to care for these collections; they must be arranged in a careful, orderly manner; they must be labelled. The taxonomist must leave to his science and posterity evidence from which he made his conclusions. There must be no doubt about the fact that certain specimens were seen. The taxonomist has therefore devised a method by which his \ FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 57 co-workers and successors can know what he was talking about. He - calls certain specimens types. But this is not enough; he forms con- ceptions about other workers’ groups and he must leave evidences of the limits of his conception. Here many workers are negligent. They do not tell us definitely about these. The aim of all taxonomists should be to leave the evidences of their work in such good order as to leave no doubt in the minds of other workers on what their conclusions were founded. In short the taxonomist should care for his collec- tions and arrange and label them so as to aid, not hinder, other investigators. Jam sure all of you could cite many shortcomings here. Another aim of taxonomists is large libraries. The taxonomist must know what others have done. In a field as vast as entomology this is of the greatest importance. It is impossible for one worker to know all. It is imperative that he know what has been done before. Large libraries must also be considered a necessary aid to — taxonomic work. Sut libraries are of but little use unless one knows what is in them and where to find it, so indices are necessary. In view of the rapidity with which work is being published, these indices must be up to date to be of real service. While in a certain sense one can hardly say these libraries and indices are aims to taxonomic entomology, we must admit they are aims of taxonomic entomologists, and you all will agree it would fill a large volume to list the short- comings because of their lack. Summing up briefly, the aim of taxonomic entomology should be the phylogenetic classification of insects based on all available evi- dence, such evidence to include a consideration of anatomy, mor- phology, embryology, cytology, physiology, paleontology, ecology and distribution. If such are the aims of taxonomy then we have only to examine our literature to see how completely we have met them. Such a consideration of the literature would probably make many feel that there had been many shortcomings. Of course there have. But many of them are due to the magnitude of the task and some of them are due to the changing viewpoint. I hope the viewpoint may continue to change, that taxonomists will continue to include in their papers more and more information concerning all the characters and characteristics of the insects they treat. Many taxonomists have much of this information at their command and use it consciously or unconsciously in forming their classifications. Let us urge them to include more of it in their papers so they may be storehouses of information to other workers. By doing so their usefulness will greatly increase and they will rise in the esteem of workers in allied fields. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3 2. From AN Economic Virwpornt. A. C. Baker, Bureau of Entomology I have been asked to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology to economic entomology and the failures of the former in this relation- ship. Such a request in itself indicates the failure I shall mention. Perhaps, however, it is not a failure. Perhaps it is merely a circum- stance incident to growth. Lest I be misunderstood I wish to distinguish clearly between the science of insect life and those practices in the art of agriculture which concern themselves with insects and with which entomologists as agricultural advisors have much to do. This dual function of the entomologist, as advisor and as discoverer, has confused certain practices of the art with the science that underlies them. I presume that I am not expected to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology to the art of agriculture. Since this symposium is on taxonomy it may be well at the outset to delimit the different fields that are often confused with taxonomy by reason of the fact that taxonomists work in them. We must dis- tinguish taxonomy, classification, and nomenclature. Taxonomy, as its name implies, is not concerned with the arrangement as such but with the reasons and causes back of that arrangement, with the under- lying principles. Classification, on the other hand, constitutes the arrangement itself. Thus the same taxonomy may be employed in a classification of a family of Hemiptera or in that of a family of Hymenoptera. Nomenclature, again, is a subject which is concerned with the correct names for the units in a classification. It deals neither with the methods back of the classification nor with the classification itself. Thus we have nomenclature as a result of classification and classification as a result of taxonomy. In this relationship taxonomy is basic. | As I see it, there are three types of taxonomic entomology today, and these three types recapitulate the three stages in its growth. The first is the accumulative type. Here the main interest centers on the collection. The aim is to complete the series, to amass material. Species are described. These are carefully placed away, perhaps according to some accepted classification, and other species are described. Of this type I shall have little to say for the reason that it concerns itself very little with taxonomy as I understand it. In many cases even the classification is already a fixed conception. The author merely adds to the nomenclature of that classification in the naming FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 59) of species not already included. In regard to this type, however, -I shall say one thing. It might be of enormous advantage. As it stands today its devotees are interested in individual groups. They pick these from the population and ignore the others. But in.a study of the accumulative type the interest should lie in the equilibrium of the population. It is better to know the workings of a field than the disconnected items of a world. | The second type is the morphological one. Here the main interest centers on structure. Dissection is not uncommon and an attempt is made to reconstruct the relationships by means of the structures studied. Phylogenetic trees therefore are the mode and theoretical discussions are common. ‘There may even develop a voluminous literature on the interpretation that should be placed on the veins of the wings or the spines of the legs. Most taxonomic entomology today is of this type. Perhaps it is so of necessity. While I realize the valuable contributions that have been made from this viewpoint and the great handicaps under which brilliant men have labored in this field, I can not help feeling that this type of taxonomy has one decided fault. The structure is the primary concept and in concen- tration upon it the entomologist is apt to lose sight of his real goal. The broader visioned taxonomists of the morphological school, how- ever, are alive to this danger. Hence they constantly discuss and write about the suitability of characters. They talk of natural characters and of artificial characters, but they do not tell us how one character can be more natural or more artificial than another. The third type is the biotic one. Here the main interest centers on the insect alive rather than on its dead body. The taxonomic labora- tory is no longer an orderly array of dead insects. It is a dynamic world of living things. In its fullest realization this type requires some departure from the usually accepted ideas. Side by side with the collection will be, not only the morphological laboratory, but the insectary where the insects may be studied alive. And beyond all this there will be the outdoors. The taxonomist will once again become the naturalist, but with this difference he will have at his command a great store of modern technical methods. The biotic type of taxonomy will not only change the work, the publications too will change. They will be appreciated. A mono- graph of a genus will no longer lie uncut upon the shelf. It will become a live book full of interest for the biologist, the agriculturist and the physician. It will be used and its author will receive the credit he deserves. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3. 60 l snyy uo si[Vy Bopninn SSOUI JO $3003 — - snyy Wo sT[Vy stydeoyl Turydepeyy] oqII.—uoKyeIoossy snyy B1901U0'T snsov}e1O IOITpoUB[OULY SUIN}S IOP[V adv ; . sjuvjd jo syooyy YsV snjTydi01g j s]jes rejdog B][O1}OOH) é ysy “CNL, LUN eral eer ses rejdog Seay XB[IUIG a[dey snjrydro01do0eN ‘i S]jvs-opnosd rvjdog unydisy ‘I % s]jvs rejdog eddedAyovg TulIydwo1g sqi1y..—uoryv1ioo0ssy spoom dueq i g[[es aedog ejjoddedAypeg é ses rejdog BLOX[IMpPLO}A sjue i} gies 1ejdog siydvus0y a SP eae Ave é SCE peuEh Sqiey fo syooy s]jvs 1eidog snsrydureg Aq popue}}e s00yY Pie BIuats][N, TuIstydureg 9qiip—uorjer1ossy rejdog syue &q popueyye sjyooy j BOTOOL) j sy[es WIT BIYSBIGOr) SJUB JO SISON VINBYSIG UO S][VX) | snyop vied SOSsvId JO S}OOTY S][B@s UW erodoAIq sjue : SOSSVIS JO S}OOYY S][@s WY BINIUBI}OT, jO sjsou puUBv 8sj00Y CINBYSIG UO S]{[B) e][os1ydureg 5 S][es UTA CIG1OOL) y BINV4SIq UO S][B+) einouo{dy SOSSBIS JO SOO S][Vs Uy eydojon 8jUe syzueyd S][Vs jo sjsou puv $003 VINBISTG UO S][Vy Sp10q Apoo fo sjyooxy | -opnosd Jo sijes wy eulosolly IUIPIOY VqI1[.—UOT}VIDOSsYW BIOBISIG _ TUIPVWOSOlIy IqI1[—UOl}eID0Sssy WI aSVHd AUVAGNOOUS aSvHd AYVWIad SONGS aSVHd AYVGNOOdS aSvVHd AAVWIAd SAND 81001 94} 0} ATjensn ‘sqioy 10 S901} 04 Sulpeistu puv sood} UO S][Vs-opnoesd JO s[[vs SulMI0Y AVNILVWOSOINY ATINVATAG FO NOILVOIMISSVIO—'T A'TAV.L FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 61 Most work today is associated with the evolutionary viewpoint. _ As taxonomists, however, we have conceived of morphologic evolu- tion. We have concentrated upon supposed species. But if there is an evolution it is the entire environmental complex that evolves. Things change only in relation to other things. Perhaps I can make myself clear by saying that taxonomy should concern itself with events more, with supposed things less, with the quantitative record of conditions all the time. Our enthronement of type specimens is an admission of the failure of our taxonomic method. I may be pardoned if I refer to the group on which I have worked the most, the aphids. My excuse is that I know this group the best. Five years ago I presented a classification of this family. That classi- fication was woefully inadequate. In order to illustrate the taxonomy employed, however, I am showing a tabulation of one subfamily, the Eriosomatinae (Table 1). It will be noted that an attempt was first made to determine something of the living insects. Host relation was selected by reason of the fact that the insects are peculiarly phyto- phagus. The selection thus of one factor is admittedly weak. For as it is, the total association evolves so that it is the assemblage of factors that must picture the events. One factor however appears at times to be almost a master one and to reflect the others. On this possibility we have chosen host relation in this subfamily. The primary phase of the life cycle was accepted as fundamental for reasons that are obvious. It will be noted that certain associations at once become evident, such as the Elm Association, the Poplar Association, and the Pistacia Association. The insects falling in these associations were again segregated, using type species and the habits of type species as a basis. The list of genera falling in the Elm Association reveals certain morphological characters common to all species and peculiar to the genera in this Association. These characters therefore distinguish the tribe. A similar examination of the forms in the Poplar Associa- tion shows other characters peculiar to these genera and common to them. ‘The correct diagnosis of the tribe Pemphigini therefore be- comes evident. And so the examination proceeds throughout all of the associations. In the end we have tribal descriptions which reflect not only structures common to the insects falling therein, but life habits which are equally common to them—a classification of the animals alive. | | ‘ It will be urged by some that taxonomic studies of this kind deal altogether with secondary things, that structure is basic. But if we 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 accept evolution surely it is activity that is basic. Unrelated forms - may of course show similar habits but such forms would segregate earlier on other biotic factors. But aside from this question the economic value of the taxonomy employed will be clear if we look for a moment at the Tribe Fordini. Species of the genus Forda are common in this country on the roots of plants and in ants’ nests. Considerable study has been given to the species, and occasional revisions or partial revisions have been pub- lished. But these revisions left us in much the same state as we were before, for the reason that the investigators worked from the morpho- logical viewpoint. More supposed species were described, but this ‘only meant, at bottom, a more complete catalogue of our ignorance, for the work was all done on the incomplete secondary phases of the life cycles. The workers did not conceive of the Pistacia Association. Had they done so they would have realized that the key to the genus on this continent lay only in Texas and southward, and that years might be spent on the secondary northern remnants of these Pistacia forms without any real advance in knowledge. A similar picture of this very kind is the history of the study of the woolly apple aphis, Hrisoma lanigerum. For a hundred years men tried to solve the life history of this economic insect. Medals and prizes were offered for its solution. Years of research and large sums of money were spent without result. A glance at the biotic arrangement on the screen will show how simple the solution becomes; and it is equally simple in other instances. When we find another species of Hriosoma as a pest on pear roots we turn at once to the elms. When-we find still another very injurious to the roots of gooseberries we turn once more to the elms. Still another species is abundant on the roots of service berry and once again we take our way to the elms. Another example may be given. When a Pemphigus is discovered as a pest of the beet fields we can turn at once to the poplars for its complete cycle. In another, region the poplar segregated does not exist but the beets are nevertheless attacked. So we find a different poplar with a different Pemphigus migrating to the beets as before. Still another species is a pest of crucifers, and turning to the poplars we can determine its identity and the economic factors involved. Time will not permit me to follow the argument further, but I shall give one word in regard to the reception this work has had. My paper in 1920 did not give completely my taxonomy. For obvious FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 63 reasons I contented myself with a classification—with tabulating and discussing the characters resulting from the taxonomic study. Never- theless a thorough student might discover the method in the back- ground. Such a student is Professor Albert Tullgren of Sweden. In 1925 he referred to my classification in the following words: “One of the most important and in parts most interesting systematic work on aphids that has been published in the last ten years is A. C. Baker’s Generic Classification of the Hemipterous family Aphididae. Baker presents, often in 2, very alluring manner an entirely new system for the Aphididae and bases it on reasoning which often has a very convincing effect. He divides the entire family into 4 sub-families, Aphidinae, Mindarinae, Eriosomatinae and Hormaphidinae which are among themselves almost equal although the Aphidinae and the other three subfamilies are derived from two different ori- - gins of the hypothetical stem. The reasons given for this separation into 4 subfamilies do not appear to me, however, to be entirely free of criticism and I deem it therefore more cautious for the present to consider the three last groups as one subfamily.” And again he says: “Baker divided his subfamily Eriosomatinae into five different groups, Erio- somatini, Pemphigini, Malaphini, Prociphilini and Fordini. If one studies closely the characteristics of differentiation one finds that he derived the same first of all from the biological differences of the generic elements. And one can not help thinking that he put a higher value on these characteristics than on the morphological ones. For this reason presumably he has arrived at the peculiar conclusion, according to my opinion, that the Pemphigini and the Prociphilini represent two different branches of the stem which are about equal to the Eriosomatini.”’ I have cited Tullgren because I know him to be a scholar. Perhaps he is right. I forsee the day, however, when the taxonomist will not be set apart from the economic entomologist, when the collector will concentrate on true samples of the population, when the morphologist will consider function as important as form, and when all life history studies will be made by taxonomists of the biotic school. When that day comes there will be only one type of entomology. It will be economic. Its aim will be to understand and to express with mathe- matical exactness the laws and principles underlying the elements, the contacts and the inter-relations of the insect world. We are fast approaching the saturation point of our population and the day may not be far distant when we shall be pressed for that understanding. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 3. FRom AN EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINT. E. D. Bau, Department of Agriculture Taxonomy in its highest development, as I conceive it, is an explana- tion of the actual relationship of existing forms of life to each other. Although of necessity expressed in a linear series it should be an arrangement of the existing branches of the tree of life into groups according to their derivation and into a series showing inter-relation- ship of the groups. In the major branches of both botany and zoology, taxonomy has already approached this idea. When it comes to the lesser divisions and more obscure relationships it is still far from certain of its foundations and is undergoing a gradual evolution as new - discoveries in fossil forms are made and new interpretations of rela- tionships in living species are established. ‘Taxonomy, then, in its ideals is an interpretation of evolution, one of the most profoundly interesting and profitable fields of biological research. Taxonomy in its lowest expression is merely an enumeration of a group of individuals. Enumerating individuals for taxing purposes was man’s earliest effort and from this the science received its name. Some taxonomy has not materially advanced above this level. Let us illustrate: It would be possible to classify an indefinite number of wooden blocks of different shapes so that each one of a given group would fall into a definite category. The primary division might easily be (A) long blocks; (AA) short blocks; and (B and BB) under each one might be blocks with right angles and blocks without right angles, and so on indefinitely, and when you finished your task you would have a classification for taxing purposes only. It certainly would not be of value for any other purpose. You could take a saw and in a few min- utes change a given block so that it would go into an entirely different classification. Your classification was therefore entirely artificial and empirical. On the other hand, you might have classified your blocks into hard woods and soft woods. You might have gone further and classified your soft woods with reference to certain structures which would have separated the coniferous from the deciduous forms, and continued this segregation to a completion of the group. Such a classification could not be altered by any use of a saw. The block of wood would fall-into its correct classification regardless of what was done to it. In other words, it would have been a classification rather than an enumeration. In many of our taxonomic efforts, especially where working with a very small representation of a group or with little knowledge of ancestral forms, our classifications may be very FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 65 little better than the long and short sticks of wood, but if we attempt to make a rational classification and follow it as far as our knowledge at the moment permits, correcting it from time to time as our knowl- edge increases, we are doing the best we can and following the path of the evolution of all knowledge. There existed for a long period a large school of morphologists who openly ignored and belittled taxonomy. Happily that day is passing. I remember working in a laboratory for a year with an earnest and conscientious young man who was working industriously tracing the development of the lateral line and its sense organs in an embryo of a salamander. I was at the same time working on the evolution (taxonomy if you please) of a certain group of leafhoppers and we used to have frequent arguments as to the value of taxonomy, a value he did not at that time recognize. When, however, he had his work completed and was preparing it for publication he suddenly discovered that there were other genera of salamanders and that the references which he had been consulting were all about a certain common species. Not knowing that there were other genera he had failed to look up these references until his work was completed, and then he found a large volume of morphological work which indicated that there were wide variations in the embryonic development of the three groups, and the poor fellow did not know to which group his original sala- mander belonged. ‘That was a quarter of a century ago and as far _as I am aware he has never been able to name his salamander or pub- lish his results. Most of you are familiar with the classical case of the entomologist who worked on the spermatogenesis of a certain species of insect or thought he did. He had the species in the wrong genus, worked up the wrong literature, found that it did not agree with the determina- tions made by European workers, wrote a strong criticism of their work only to have his material re-investigated and the discovery made that he had been wrong in his taxonomy and wrong in his morphology. Although not belonging to the genus, it did agree in the morphological changes. There have been taxonomists who were equally indifferent to the biological and morphological relations of their work. All insects with long spines were placed in the group as against those with short spines. All dark insects were segregated from the light ones, entirely ignoring the fact that the length of spines or the color might easily be adaptations to certain food plants or environment and have occurred independently in groups of widely separated ancestry. 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | VOL. 16, No.3 Evolution does not take place in structure alone or in function alone. Variations in animals take place in all lines, in structure, in function, in habit. It is only when we consider all of the factors in their relation to each other that we arrive at a true concept of the path of evolution. | The teaching of economic entomology has departed widely from that of the related sciences. ‘The major portion of our textbooks has dealt with apple insects, corn insects, cotton insects, and the like. The student has a large amount of miscellaneous information of detailed life history and remedial measures centered around a certain crop plant and its environment. Instead he should obtain a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of insect biology so that if he meets a new pest he can apply his fundamental knowledge, and in a majority of cases have a fairly definite idea of the methods to use in control. Instead of getting the details of the 17-year locust in con- nection with the apple he may well learn that the Cicadidae as a group spend a long larval period in the earth, that their resemblance to an army tank is not accidental but an adaptation to that environ- ment. He can then learn that the wireworms as a group also have a long larval period, that in general they have a definite relationship to weed growth or known cultivated crops, and even when he meets an exception to this general rule it will be noted as an exception only to emphasize the fundamental importance of the general adaptation. On the other hand, when he is studying the leaf-feeding forms he will readily realize that short larval periods are absolutely essential to the preservation of the species and will marvel at the many modifica- tions which nature has worked out to adapt insects to the particular favorable period for this larval appearance. Such a course in ento- mology will train him to think and arouse his interest and enthusiasm, while the other course will be largely a training in memory and the mastery of definite details rather than the working out of principles and the development of theories. In conclusion I would say that every entomologist should study taxonomy. In fact I would go further—that every entomologist should be a taxonomist in some group, large or small. If every economic worker would carry the responsibility for working out some small unit of our classification he would find it a wonderful stimulus to further development, as well as a broadening influence that would give him a wider series of contacts which would be of value. The aggre- gate of such small contributions would rapidly advance our knowledge of many little known groups, and if he selected his own economic group / FEB: 4, 1926 -ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 67 for consideration it might easily change his whole viewpoint of the - economic relations. | In the same way I believe every taxonomist should be deeply interested in and a student of the biology of his group, that as far as possible he should work with living material, and that in every case at least one or more species should be studied in large numbers, and thus develop the normal range of variation and adaptation within the species. In this way the systematist would be much clearer in his concept of what constitutes a species and be much more sympathetic with those who are struggling with biologic forms. In a number of fields it is becoming impossible to ignore the fact that there exist definite and fixed biologic forms which. we can not, as yet at least, recognize by ordinary taxonomic characters. Taxonomy as a whole has already reached a position where many divergent lines of proof can be brought to bear, all of which indicates that our major conclusions with reference to the evolution of our - groups are accurate. A study of the parasites of the higher animals, for instance, shows a parallel development with that of the hosts. It shows that the parasites have differentiated as the hosts have differ- entiated. There are internal parasites and external ones; each one of these can be subdivided into different groups, and when the same evolutionary detail can be worked out for all of the groups each one will tend to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of the others. The writer was much interested a few years ago in checking up with Dr. W. D. Pierce on the classification of the Stylops in relation to the classification of the Jassidae and Fulgoridae that they parasitized. The Jassidae as a group are primitive with a certain number of special- ized lines. The Fulgoridae as a group are highly specialized with only a few primitive lines. Dr. Pierce’s classification of the Stylops indicated that the same relationship held with reference to the para- sites. When taxonomy is approached from this standpoint it becomes one of the most valuable forms of biological study and can be recom-. mended as part of the training of every entomologist and a part of the life work of a much larger number than at present. > 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 398TH MEETING The 398th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 7, 1925, President STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active membership of F. E. WuHITE. Program: Dr. Lauer Kocu, Chief of the Danish Explorations, who spent six years in northern Greenland, addressed the Society on The geology of Greenland: (1) Physiography and glaciology, (2) Structural geology and stratig- raphy. 399TH MEETING The 399th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 28, 1925, Presi- dent STEPHENSON presiding. Program: Prof. FrepERIcK J. Pack of the University of Utah gE the Society on Scenic aspects of Utah geology. Hueu D. Missr: Erosion in San Juan Canyon, Utah. The enna of San Juan River extends west across a high arid region in southeastern Utah and joins the Glen Canyon of Colorado River near the southern boundary of the State. It reveals a magnificent geologic structure section possessing the same dimensions as the canyon, as much as half a mile high and 133 miles long. The rocks aggregate a thickness of 5000 feet and consist of limestone, sandstone, and shale, ranging in age from Pennsylvanian to Jurassic. Most of the rocks are red beds and, since soil is scanty and rock ledges abound, red is the predominating color in any landscape view. The rock strata have been flexed into a broad gentle arch, but neither the arch nor the minor structural features, such as anticlines, synclines, monoclines, faults and joints, have influenced the course of the river. The present crooked course of the river in the canyon is a striking example of an entrenched meandering stream. Such a course may have been devel- oped on a former cover of Tertiary sediments or on a peneplain, fragments of which stand near and above the walls. The peneplain is possibly of Pleisto- cene age, and the canyon cutting therefore apparently began in Pleistocene time. The cutting was rapid but did not continue uniformly as there were a few short pauses when the river was graded and deposited gravel which now floors benches of small area on the walls. Rock debris, consisting of sand, gravel and boulders, forms the bed of the river and attains a depth of perhaps 100 feet or more. But it is presumably absent in a few of the rapids that are produced by inclined Jedges of hard rock which cross the channel. Long stretches of the canyon, where the debris is deepest, present the peculiar example of an alluvial stream flowing between close walls of solid rock, but much of the debris is apparently moved by high floods that take place many years apart. San Juan River carries an unusually large quantity of debris for streams in the United States and it is one of the chief contributors of mud to Colorado River. The water is always muddy, but during flood stages the river is actu- ally a river of mud; and according to samples taken by Pierce it occasionally carries by volume three times as much silt as water. The heavy load of debris carried during floods causes a peculiar kind of waves known as sand waves. FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 69 These waves attain a height of about 7 feet and resemble those thrown up by - astern-wheel river steamboat. They travel upstream, in marked contrast to other kinds of waves that are stationery and also to waves that travel down- stream. If the proposed storage and power projects on San Juan and Colorado rivers are carried to completion the river, on reaching the heads of the reser- voirs, will change its work from erosion to deposition. An important ques- tion concerning the reservoirs is, How soon will they be filled with rock debris? ‘The answer to this question remains for the future, because the data available at present are not sufficient for making an estimate of the total load of debris that is carried each year by the San Juan and discharged into the Colorado. (Author’s abstract.) 400TH MEETING The 400th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 11, 1925, President STEPHENSON presiding. Program: GEORGE P. MrrRRILL: Early American geologists and their work. (illustrated with lantern slides.) Davip WHITE: Geologic factors affecting and possibly controlling Pleistocene ice sheet development in North America. A review of the physiographic and continental changes following middle Tertiary and Pliocene times can not fail to strengthen the idea that the movements of the Pleistocene ice sheets in North America, if not their origin itself, were determined mainly if not wholly by terrestrial factors. It appears more than possible that not only the regu- lation but the creation also of those ice caps will find adequate explanation in changes of level of the land, great reduction of the epicontinental seas, especially in the temperate and higher latitudes, the expansion of the con- _tinental surfaces, the corresponding differences in sub-oceanic topography, and the changes in ocean currents, air currents, rainfall and temperatures consequent to the changes in the land and water. Among the conditions particularly to be taken into account are the emer- gence of the continents and the uplift of the higher land masses essentially to the maximum in the course of the post-Tertiary diastrophic revolution which probably is stillin progress. Not only are the continental shelves in general unusually exposed, but the epicontinental seas, great stabilizers of continen- tal climates, are in general greatly restricted. The Tertiary seas have largely receded. The conclusion appears justified that the Laurentian shield embracing the Hudson Bay region was a broad plateau at the close of Tertiary time. Its drainage is an interesting and profitable study. No marine late Cretaceous, no marine Tertiary of any sort, lie on it in some ancient valley or flank it short of the Arctic coast, a great distance to the northwest. It was a land surface on which, in what is now the Arctic British-American Archipelago, fresh-water Tertiary basins existed during late Eocene or Miocene time, with climatic temperatures and rainfall favorable to the growth of temperate arboreal vegetation nearly to the 80th parallel. Within this region the so- called Arctic Miocene flora spread from Alaska through the Arctic islands, central Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Franz Joseph Land and Siberia, plainly indicating a subsequent climatic revolution that could not take place without critical changes of landandsea. The post-Tertiary revolution lifted the northern lands much higher even than they arenow. Anelevation of 300 feet, which may well have taken place, would now close Bering Strait, and a 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 rise of 1200 or 1800 feet in the sea bottom around the north Atlantic would essentially connect up northeastern Europe and northwesternAsia through the islands very nearly to Greenland, leaving narrow and relatively shallow straits. Impressive geographical changes would follow an uplift of 750 feet. The mapping of the sea bottom in this region yields evidence in support of such changes and plant and animal distribution predicate recurrent uplifts or deformations sufficient to permit intercontinental migration of land animals and plants. The geologic profession is too prone to close its notebook as soon as its feet are wet by tidal salt water. Not only its consecutive constructive thought, but its geological observations too often stop at tide level. The submerged beaches are not less interesting and significant than those so enthu- siastically traced around the exposed lands; they may be as numerous and span even greater intervals. The topography and tectonics of the seas, soon to be traced by sonic sounding, are essential portions of the field of geology.. The geologic history of the sub-oceanic regions is a subject for study insepa- rable from that of the land. The northern Rocky Mountains have been shown to be progressive in growth. ‘They were relatively low at the close of Tertiary time, so as to per- mit comparatively free transit of moisture-laden winds from the northern Pacific (possibly abnormally warm and moist if Bering Strait was temporarily closed) across to the elevated Laurentian plateau where, due either to post- Tertiary increase in elevation or changes in Arctic climate, the snow and ice of winter might have gained upon the melting capacity of summer’s warmth, with consequent development and spread of the glacial ice sheet. Rise of the surface of the ice sheet itself naturally accelerated both the arrest of moisture and, through increased altitude, the lowering of mean temperature. The strangulation of the north Atlantic and Bering Straits would conduce to great Arctic frigidity, with consequent marked effects on the climates of the northern lands. Under loading of the ice sheet the shield should in due time have sunk iso- statically, presumably with concomitant elevation to a minor extent of the land in portions of the peripheral zone, a procedure fairly well established for the Labrador sheet. Rasmussen reports shore terraces up to an elevation of over 1300 feet on Bylot Island and above 550 feet on Melville Island. Depression of the surface of the region to lower elevations would tend to raise the mean temperature, while retarded temporary elevation of the western border rim which, at maximum extension embraced the foothills, at least, of the Rocky Mountains, could only have cut off a portion of the moisture driven inward from the Pacific. ‘Thus, conditions of reduced precipitation, especially in winter, and lowering of the land, should bring a check in the growth of the ice and reverse the annual increment of winter ice precipitation to annual gain of thaw, which, in due time, automatically would accelerate itself, with the lowering of the ice surface and the uncovering of the land mass. It may do no violence to facts yet observed to assume that the Hudson Bay region has been depressed and uplifted more than once since the development of the first ice sheet. Submerged beaches may alternate in time with some of the raised beaches between which the period of exposure of the land is so commonly distributed. It is important, however, to note that the ultimate or concomitant moun- tain-building movement is marked by the final progressive uplift of the Rocky Mountain region, in the course of which morainal deposits on the flank of the mountains were raised to an elevation of around 4500 feet, as has FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY “¢ | been noted by Alden. That the termination of Laurentian glaciation may have resulted both from the subsidence of Laurentian land itself on the one hand, and, on the other, the straining of moisture from the warm humid winds drifting from the north Pacific against the risen mountains, with consequent reduction of winter precipitation in the shield province, is indicated by the -known elevation of the Rockies during this time, the evident depression of what is now the Archipelago region of British America, and the absence of all marine deposits of Mesozoic or Tertiary age in the entire Hudson Bay basin. This basin is to be viewed as now in the process of isostatic uplift, with slow emptying out of Hudson Bay. An elevation of 300 feet will drain the greater part of the Bay; 1200 feet will dry it. Irregularity of the movement, which was retarded as compared with the more prompt rebound of about 1000 feet in a portion of the Labrador-New England region, is geologically nor- mal. The configuration of the basin, the strand deposits, and the presence of Pleistocene marine fossils at an elevation of 600 feet in the Hudson Bay depres- sion show that the land has rebounded to a certain extent, though the Bay is not yet emptied and its floor is almost certainly many hundreds of feet below its maximum post-Tertiary elevation. Similarly, marine terraces have been noted by P.S. Smith along the north Atlantic coast and by Koch in northern Greenland at elevations of around 700 feet above tide. ~The argument pred- icates a continued rise of the Hudson Bay area but does not depend upon it. The great depression of this region is indicated also by the relatively recent (Pleistocene?) diversion of drainage in the western slope from north-south systems eastward into Hudson Bay. In Eurasia changes of differential elevation and configuration of the land have received much attention, even on the part of biogeographers, but the possible consequent effects on the areas, depths, temperatures, densities and currents of the seas, and the joint effects on radiation, distribution of cyclonic centers and other climatic factors affecting the land do not seem to have engaged the close consideration that they deserve. Obviously, outward movements of the continental shore lines, with closing (partial at least) of Arctic connections, which may tentatively be assumed to have occurred, and the assured existence of extensive ice sheets in the north- ern hemisphere could not fail, through their effects on water and air currents, to affect prevailing winds and weather in the subtropical and even the tropical areas, and, by disturbance of the equilibrium, in the Equatorial belt, with diversion of atmospheric currents, may well have affected the normal drift of warm air into the Antarctic zone. This is probable, regardless of the certain effects of post-Tertiary Andean uplift. If true it would favor the develop- ment of climatic cold and ice in the Antarctic regions contemporaneously, or nearly contemporaneously, with the growth of glacial sheets and extreme cold in the north. It will be recalled that Arctic mammals were driven into the lower Mississippi valley, while many indigenous plants and animals, including the horse, were exterminated. The premises outlined above suggest factors possibly explanatory both of shifting in the areas of ice expansion and of some features of Cordilleran glaciation. ‘The elevation of the interior region of North America in late Tertiary time, with the consequent expulsion of the sea from the Central region and even from the Mississippi embayment, taken in conjunction with the low stand of the Rocky Mountains at the earliest stage of the Pleistocene, would be favorable for the great extension of the earliest glaciation, Nebras- kan and Kansan, to more southern limits in the Great Plains region. On the other hand, the growth of the Rocky Mountains from the south, with increas- 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 ing interference with transit of wind-borne humidity to that region, must have restrained the expansion of the later ice caps in that direction without cor- responding effect on the spread of the northeastern sheets. Similarly, the widespread glaciation of the Sierras while the Coast Ranges were relatively low contrasts strongly with the relatively restricted extent of the later glaciation at a time when the Coast Ranges were much more fully - developed. Mountain growth to the west and consequent interference with precipitation on the Sierras may have terminated glaciation in this region, just as in the north, though, on the other hand, it is left to the glacialist and the climatologist to determine whether ice erowth i in the Sierra regions was not dominated by the causes and the growth itself of the great Laurentian sheets. The.author does not deny the possible effects of astronomical phenomena on earth climate. - Variation in solar radiation, even for short periods like the three years of deficiency just past, may cause notable changes in ocean cur- rents and air currents, with consequent marked effects on climate that may be felt in most unexpected quarters, once the approximate climatic equilib- rium is disturbed, and by shifting and producing “‘highs”’ and ‘‘lows” of at- mospheric pressure may touch off earthquakes, influence volcanic action, and if continued sufficiently long may cause isostatic adjustment. Pleistocene glaciation may, in his belief, largely if not wholly be explained by terrestrial rather than astronomical changes. At least the geologist should not look unto the heavens for help in the solution of his problem before he has duly and most earnestly considered all the facts already within his reach. The object of this presentation is to stimulate study of the questions here specu- latively set forth. The more important evidence has to do with continental exposure, elevation, and configuration, Quaternary mountain building, elimi- nation or reduction of epicontinental seas, migration of shore lines, strangula- tion of Arctic circulation, great changes in currents and temperatures of water and air, and changes in season and amount of precipitation. The problem is one demanding the attention not only of the geologist, but of the oceanographer and the meteorologist, as well as the geographer. Its best solution can not be reached without their closest cooperation. When the causes of glaciation in Pleistocene time are determined it will be in order to consider the glaciations of earlier epochs. (Author’s abstract.) AQIST MEETING The 401st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 25, 1925, Presi- dent STEPHENSON presiding. ‘The Secretary announced the resignation from active membership of J. B. Epy. Program: C. D. Waucott: Robson Peak section. (Illustrated with lan- tern slides.) | R. 8. Bassuter: The stratigraphic use of conodonts. (Illustrated with lan- tern slides.) Certain Paleozoic formations particularly black shales, are often crowded with tooth-like fossils averaging a millimeter in diameter, resembling in part microscopic sharks’ teeth. In 1856 a monograph upon Russian examples of these fossils was published by Pander who termed them ‘“‘conodonts.’’ Since then the systematic position of the conodonts has been much in question and little work of systematic value has been published upon them partly because it was believed that these structures were too variable to be of stratigraphic value. A detailed study of the ample collections of conodonts in the U.S. National Museum by E. O. Ulrich and the writer has FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 73 / resulted in a classification of the group, which, if not entirely natural, has proved very useful in correlation. ‘The work has also convinced us that the conodonts are the teeth of primitive fishes of perhaps several distinct groups and that the supposed great variability of structure in the same species does not exist. The conodonts show a marked evolution from simple undenticu- lated teeth in the Ordovician to complex forms with a main cusp and com- plicated denticulation in the Mississippian. Their value as horizon markers was proved particularly in working out the correlation of the Devonian and Mississippian black shales in the Eastern part of the United States, identical faunas having been found scattered over a wide range of country. (Author’s abstract.) Wo. C. ALpEN: Glaciation and physiography of Wind River Mountains, Wyoming. Remnants of several finely developed sets of gravel-capped, cut terraces ranging from 15 or 30 feet to 1500 feet above the streams indicate successive notable stages of still-stand and stream planation alternating with stages of regional uplift. ‘These have been described by Blackwelder, Westgate, and Branson and others. The Lenore terrace 15 to 30 feet above the streams is generally confined between the lines of bluffs. The moraines of the last, the Pinedale (or Wisconsin) stage of glaciation, extend’ down onto the Lenore terrace. One to two hundred feet above the Lenore terrace is the Circle terrace. The moraines of the next older, or Bull Lake stage of glaciation, extend down - onto but not below the Circle terrace. Some notable shifts in the locations of streams and valleys took place after the Bull Lake stage (which may cor- respond to the Iowan stage of the Keewatin ice sheet) and prior to the Pine- dale stage. The Circle terrace seems to correspond to the main, or lower level of the second set of terraces throughout the Yellowstone drainage basin. There are scattered remnants of much more eroded higher and older sets of terraces some of which may correspond to the higher level of the second set of terraces on the Yellowstone of early Pleistocene age. The highest tablelands 1000 to 1500 feet above the streams, represented by the top of Table Mountain near Lander, are remnants of a vast gravelly alluvial piedmont terrace (the Table Mountain plain). This is believed to have been completed in Pliocene time and to be the correlative of Meeteetse terrace in Big Horn Basin and of the Flaxville and associated terraces of Montana. The much-weathered deposits of big boulders capping Table Mountain and other remnants are believed (in part at least) to have been deposited by mountain glaciers on the Table Mountain piedmont terrace before it was much dissected. This is probably as old as, or older than, Blackwelder’s ‘‘Buffalo drift’’ of the Wind River and Teton Mountain region. It is probably the correlative of similar deposits of early Pleistocene age on high mesas at the east front of Big Horn Mountains, and of the oldest moun- tain glacier drift (Nebraskan) on the highest benchlands in the region of Glacier National Park. Several thousand feet above the Table Mountain remnants is the sum- mit peneplain or plateau on Wind River Mountains, the product of Black- welder’s Fremont cycle of erosion. In the opinion of the writer this is older than Pliocene, possibly Miocene or Oligocene. Notable regional uplifts followed both the development of this peneplain and that of the Table Moun- tain plain. The latter uplift probably closed the Tertiary, brought on the first mountain glaciation, and started the streams to dissecting the Table Mountain plain or piedmont terrace. These correlations are, as yet, tenta- tive. (Author’s abstract.) 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 402D MEETING The 402d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 11, 1925, President STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active membership of R. L. Faris. Program: KX. T. Auten: Further evidence of the nature of hot springs. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) Drilling for natural steam as a source of power has been in progress for some time at a place called ‘‘The Geysers,”’ Sonoma County, California. ‘‘The Geysers’’ are situated in the St. Helena Mt. Range. The hot areas in this locality extend along the side of a narrow canyon, occurring at intervals for a distance of about six miles. No igneous rocks, lava or volcanic ejecta have been discovered in the immediate neigh- borhood; the rocks are sandstones, shales, serpentines, schists, and other metamorphics. At The Geysers sandstone is. encountered by drilling at a depth often less than 100 feet from the surface. The temperature close to the surface is very generally near 100°C.. As cracks are cut by the drill the steam flow increases and the temperature rises rapidly—25°C. or more per 100 ft. in the upper strata, and measurements show that water could not penetrate to any considerable depth without being vaporized. Small hot springs often of high mineral concentration are frequent. Their maximum temperature reaches about 98°C.—the boiling point of water for the eleva- tion. The mineral matter in the springs is chiefly sulphate and acid sulphate of ammonium and magnesium, or in the alkaline springs carbonate, bicarbon- . ate and sulphate. The evidence shows that the volatile matter is derived from the volcanic gases which are escaping from springs and fumaroles. ‘The non-volatile matter is derived from the serpentine and other metamorphic rocks and of the area. That it comes from rocks near the surface is supported by the fact that surface water can not penetrate deeply and fresh pyrite in the sandstone drillings shows that oxidation also extends only to shallow depths. The phenomena of The Geysers are best accounted for on the assumption that superheated steam and other volcanic gases are ascending from a hot batholith through a deep crack in the overlying strata; that the steam is heating surface water by condensation, and the gases, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide through logical chemical changes are decomposing the super- ficial rocks. (Author’s abstract.) W. 4H. Brapuey: An interpretation of the Green River formation. (Illus- trated by lantern slides.) The field observations on the Green River forma- tion and study of the microfossils of the oil shale together with the appli- cation of the principles of limnology to the interpretation of these lake beds indicate the following trend in the formation’s geologic history. The Green River lakes were initiated, by gentle downwarping of the basin floors, as large and relatively stable though quite shallow fresh water lakes in which flourished an abundant flora and an active fauna. Limy shale, oolitic limestone, sandstone, and a small amount of low grade oil shale were deposited in the lakes of this stage. The lakes of the second stage were still shallower and under climatic influ- ence repeatedly filled and evaporated either partially or completely. At the beginning of the cycle they may be pictured as broad sheets of clear and fresh or moderately alkaline water, but at the close of the cycle, after a long, hot, dry season, as a large number of disconnected ponds of various sizes and vari- ous degrees of alkalinity. Plankton organisms, mostly algae and Protozoa, thrived in these ephemeral ponds and reduction in volume not only greatly FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 75 concentrated those already present, but also stimulated a vastly greater pro- duction of them by reason of the stagnation and corresponding rise in tempera- tures of the water. Active putrefaction, probably also assisted by the activ- ity of saprophytic fungi, protozoans, various round worms, and minute crustaceans reduced the dead organisms to a nearly structureless jelly. Organic acids resulting from the putrefaction together with the increas- ing content of dissolved mineral salts finally became effective toxins and the ooze became an almost perfectly antiseptic medium. This structureless, semifluid organic ooze with its occluded algae, fungi, protozoa, pollen, and spores together with various proportions of finely divided mineral matter was then covered by the deposits of the next cycle and subsequently lithified into oil shale. The closing phase of Green River deposition was characterized by strongly alkaline lakes, probably playa-like, in the wet muds of which considerable glauberite crystallized out. The conditions of deposition of this third phase were evidently too unfavorable for the growth and accumulation of large quantities of microorganisms and only an insignificant amount of oil shale resulted. A period of vigorous stream abrasion terminated the alkaline playa phase and was followed by the deposition of stream channel sands and fluviatile clay which now make up the top of the Green River formation. (Author’s abstract.) Kirk Bryan: Recent deposits of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, in relation to the life of the pre-historic peoples of Pueblo Bonto. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The part of the valley of Chaco River known as Chaco canyon lies on the southern border of San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and is about 12 miles long, from 1 to 3 miles wide, and 200 to 400 feet deep. Theruins of 13 large communal houses stand on the canyon floor and the adjacent cliffs and with numerous smaller ruins testify to the flourishing civilization that once existed in this now desolate region. Pueblo Bonito, the largest of these ruins, is now being excavated by an expedition under Neil M. Judd, organized and supported by the National Geographic Society. The geologic work here recorded in a preliminary statement was done at the instance of Mr. Judd and at the expense of the Society. | The flat floor of Chaco Canyon is marked by a relatively recent gully in which the floods of Chaco River are now wholly confined. This gully, or arroyo, is now fron 150 to 450 feet wide and 30 feet deep at Pueblo Bonito. In 1877 it was 40 to 60 feet wide and 16 feet deep. An exploring expedition in 1849 makes no mention of an arroyo and it therefore seems likely that the arroyo was initiated at about the same time as the similar gullies in other southwestern canyons, i.e., since the year 1870. The alluvial deposits that form the floor of the canyon are of unknown thickness, but the upper 30 feet is well exposed in the walls of the arroyo. The sand, silt, ‘‘adobe,” and gravel of this valley fill are all characteristic of deposition in muddy floods similar to those of the present ephemeral stream and give no evidence that the Canyon ever had a perennial water course. The agriculture of the prehistoric peoples was, therefore, not carried on by irrigation with living water but probably by the methods of floodwater farm- ing—a system still in use in the region. Relics of man, in the form of hearths, bone-fragments, potsherds, etc., are found to a depth of 21 feet. The zone from 4 to 6 feet below the surface con- tains the remains of the people who built the large ruins and was therefore deposited in the Pueblo period. The zone from 6 to 21 feet contains the relics 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3 of pre-Pueblo peoples. In addition to this normal relation showing a transi- tion in the type of human culture with the progress of alluviation of the valley, there is a buried channel containing potsherds of the latest type known in Pueblo Bonito. The buried channel is from 15 to 18 feet deep and has been traced a total distance of 1500 feet. It was evidently formed and refilled either very late in the occupancy of Pueblo Bonito or shortly after its aban- donment, and represents a post-Bonito or post-Pueblo period. If this buried channel represents a period of erosion followed by a period of sedimentation intervening between the period of alluviation that formed the main valley fill and the present period of erosion which began in 1870, very important consequences result. The formation of the channel would have so reduced the agricultural area subject to floodwater farming as to furnish an approximate cause for the abandonment of Pueblo Bonito. The refill of the channel would have restored the flood plain to a condition nearly like its original condition and thus would have provided conditions suitable for the expansion of the Navajo tribe in the years before and since the Spanish conquest. Further investigation is planned for the purpose of tracing this buried channel and further unravelling the history of the valley fill. Since, however, the various members of the complex mass of otherwise similar sediments contain potsherds of characteristic type, the problem can be attacked by ordinary stratigraphic methods in which potsherds take the place of fossils. (Author’s abstract.) 403D MEETING The 403d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 25, 1925, Vice- President HEWETT presiding. Program: W. T. SCHALLER: Genesis of lithium pegmatites. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) Studies in the field and laboratory of the lithium peg- matites of southern California and laboratory studies of similar specimens from other localities have shown that these pegmatites as now composed are not original crystallizations from a magma but are a hydrothermal replace- ments of a much simpler, earlier formed, magmatic rock free from any lithium minerals. In the California field graphic granite was the earlier rock replaced, the well-defined texture of graphic granite serving as a “‘key’’ for the determination of the replacement:processes. In volume percentage, albite is the chief mineral replacing both the microcline and quartz of the graphic granite. Other stages of the replacement show that the albite was later replaced by lithium minerals. The well known rubellite and lepidolite speci- mens were shown to have been originally graphic granite. Other pegmatitic minerals accompanying the albitic and lithium mineralic replacements include muscovite, biotite, garnet, black tourmaline, beryl, columbite, etc. The original pegmatitic magma was therefore not rich in the so-called mineralizers, all of which were introduced later in the hydrothermal replacement processes. The formation of some of these minerals in bands and the formation of crystal lined cavities are likewise due to the replacement processes. (Author’s abstract.) FRANK L. Huss: Oélites. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) Some odlites from Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, were turned over to the speaker for study. They were formed through the precipitation of calcium carbonate in small pools under stalactites, the drip from which stirred the water of the pools, FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 77 so that precipitating lime carbonate was keptin motion. It was shown by other examples, including calcium carbonate odlites, formed in boiling sugar _ refuse; nickel odlites formed from gas in the regular production of nickel by the Mond carbony] process; sulphur odlites formed in crater lakes from sulphurous gases bubbling through the water; hailstones apparently formed through the precipitation of ice from gaseous H,O; and odlites formed in Great Salt Lake from calcium carbonate brought down by streams, that the same principle governed the formation of all these different types of odlites, that is, that many solids precipitated in a moving fluid take on an odlitic form, and it is therefore unnecessary to call on the aid of bacteria or other more or less mysterious agencies to explain the formation of odlites. Calcite, hematite, phosphorite and odlites have apparently all been formed in the same way. (Author’s abstract.) W.P. Wooprine: Miocene climate of tropical America. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) At the close of Miocene time many genera of marine animals suddenly disappeared in the Caribbean Sea and adjoining waters of the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. Most of these genera that are now living are found in the warm waters of the eastern Pacific and some are con- fined to the tropical western Pacific. Therefore it seems probable that in its physical features the Miocene Caribbean Sea resembled the present tropical Pacific. Among the mollusks characteristically tropical families such as the Terebridae, Conidae, Cancellariidae, Mitridae, Columbellidae, Cypraeidae and Arcidae had a much richer representation in the Miocene Caribbean Sea than in the present Caribbean Sea. The whole Miocene Caribbean fauna had a more tropical aspect than the living fauna. Perhaps the most significant feature accounting for the change in the Carib- bean Sea and the extinction there of Pacific genera lies in the closing of the channels that extended across Panama and Costa Rica during Miocene and earlier Tertiary time. The problem of the effect of these channels on oceanic circulation can hardly be avoided even though available data may be too meager to attempt to evaluateits significance. All geologists who are familiar with Central America agree that the channels were open during at least parts of Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene time and were closed after middle Miocene time. Some geologists believe that water from the Caribbean Sea was trans- ferred into the Pacific across the Central American channels. It seems more probable that the slightly higher mean sea level in the Pacific.and the much greater tidal range on the Pacific side of Central America would cause a move- ment in the opposite direction, carrying into the Caribbean Sea water having the same temperature, salinity, and food supply as Pacific water, and offering a means of transporting pelagiclarvae. Asthe Tertiary faunas of the Pacific coast of Central America and northern South America are being studied, it is becoming apparent that, at least so far as the mollusks are concerned, many of the Pacific genera that have disappeared in the Caribbean Sea were autoch- thonous in the eastern Pacific. They moved into the Caribbean Sea as temporary migrants and remained there only as long as the channels were open. ‘This explanation is far from satisfactory when an attempt is made to apply it to genera that were established in the Caribbean Sea during the long period from Eocene to Miocene and even spread as far north as the southeast coast of the United States. It is purely speculative, but it seems to offer a reasonable basis to account for the striking change in the Caribbean fauna— a change caused by the elimination or impoverisbment of genera and families that are characteristically tropical. (Author’s abstract.) 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL 16, No. 3 404TH MEETING The 404th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club April 8, 1925, Vice-presi- dent Burts presiding. Program: J. B. Mertiz, Jr.: The Paleozoic geology of interior Alaska. The oldest rocks in Alaska comprise a group of rocks, known collectively as the Birch Creek Schist, which crop out typically in the valley of Tanana River, in interior Alaska. These consist essentially of quartz-mica schist of sedimentary origin, together with orthogneiss and metamorphosed basic igneous rocks. ‘The schist is of pre-Ordovician and probably of pre-Cam- brian age. The included metamorphic igneous rocks may be in part of early Paleozoic age. Overlying unconformably the Birch Creek Schist in its type locality is a great thickness of slate and metamorphosed arkose, known as the Tatalina group, in the upper part of which occur lower Ordovician fossils; and at the very top of the Tatalina group is found a formation of metamorphosed basal- tic lavas, in the tuffs of which late middle Ordovician fossils occur. To the eastward, along the international boundary, rocks which are believed to be stratigraphically equivalent to the Tatalina group contain fossils ranging in age from middle Cambrian to upper Ordovician; while to the southward and southwestward, both Utica and Richmond horizons in the upper Ordovician have been recognized, the former being essentially an argillaceous and the latter a limestone formation. Lower Silurian rocks have not been found in the interior of Alaska, but middle Silurian rocks are widespread and form one of the best known hori- zon markers in the Paleozoic section. The type locality is in Brooks Range, of northern Alaska, where a middle Silurian limestone about 6000 feet thick, extends for more than 500 miles from east to west across the Territory. oe as x) Wee NO meres we Ligne ee | C (+ ee “a Weel hoe ie where wu, u, u, have the values in terms of u, u, u, given in Equation (5). It should be noted that the transformation equations for velocities also form a group of one-parameter transformations. They may be derived from the differential equations by integration, with the initial conditions that when Oey a then Un = Up u, =u FEB. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 85 The most general distribution of velocities that remain invariant to the special relativity transformation are determined by the partial differential equations: of x Of Me OK ca tag ee on Onion 4a of Se ce Ot me AC eR OF. # afi. 1 of Sas We i ae a Ti: ct — ‘i epee il Cee Uan8) This gives a velocity X-component for any assigned point of space, and any instant. The substitution of u, in the second and third equations and the integration thereof results in values for u, and u; in terms of 2, y, 2, t. III Accelerations are transformed by the special theory of relativity as follows: dx dx, i" di dy VU, Catt lye di 1 C2 d2x De meet A eee CaN ae Oe ee dt, P (1 ie my @ (1 a = di dz vu, d22; di? G wee di? VU, \2 Vib, Vee oe) ee) 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 These relations may be easily derived thus: 0D i a da? d dz, ce — eee os C du, d?z dx, dt di? Similarly: age Gil UU deyi, adeday ( (: 2 y Git >) den dies: dt; dy ea d’y; Ms di? i e Siar dies) | VU, \2 VU, \3 ee oe) e (1 - se 22, ; ‘ d Likewise for dea These equations for the transformation of accelerations are con- tained in the differential equations: dw,’ dw,’ dw, Tsim / / Grae 3 U, W; 2 U, Wy, + W, Uy -~2-Uu, w+ wae from which they result by integration with the initial conditions that when 6orv = 0, then We == 1B Wy. = UW, / LD Ta dx, Here w,’ = —— ete _ dt, FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 87 In a future paper, the writer hopes to develop the consequences of - these abstract formulae to the concrete relations and phenomena occurring in mechanics, astronomy, and electricity. I beg to acknowledge the inspiration of my sister Ella in this work. METEOROLOGY.—A lightning stroke. N. ERNEst Dorsery. ~ The detailed examination of a tree (height 47 feet, girth near ground 49 inches) which had recently been struck by lightning brought to light a number of facts! which do not readily conform to the usual ideas regarding the nature of a lightning stroke. Some of the more strik- ing are these: (1) The tree was surrounded by the following objects, each about half the height of the tree distant from it: To the north- west was a tower which was 2 higher than the tree; a tree of essentially its own height was to the southwest, another to the south and a third to the southeast; a tree about half as high was to the west and another to the north of east. Though surrounded in this manner, it was struck at an altitude of less than $ its height. At about twice its height distant, and on the other side of the building with the tower, was a tree of the same kind, about 2 taller than the one which was struck. This was in a far more exposed position, but it was not dam- aged in the least. The building was not damaged, neither was another tree of the same kind, of nearly the same height, and about twice its height distant, although it was far more exposed than the one which was struck. (2) Other than by mechanical tearing, the bark and sap- wood suffered only minor and very local damage, although one side of the tree was blown to pieces, and the unsplintered portion of the trunk was split. (3) The splintering extended to only a little more than half the height of the tree; the split reached the same height, but did not extend to the ground. (4) Along the apex of the blaze, which was about 4 inches from the bark and not at the center of the tree, there was a column of fibers which were quite completely shredded. This column extended from the roots to a point above the top of the split; it closely followed the grain of the tree. At all places, except one, it was separated from the bark by unshredded wood. ‘The one place where it communicated with the bark was on the upper side of a minor branch, 15 inches above the top of the split. There, very near the trunk, was a small hole where the wood had been blown outwards and 1 For a detailed account of the observations, see Monthly Weather Review, Novem- ber, 1925. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 the bark blown off. From this hole, a small tuft of shredded wood was projecting; the hole had been blown so empty that, by means of a No. 26 copper wire, it could be probed to a depth of 4 inches. (5) Along one edge of the splintered section there were four small spots where the bark had been charred. At three of them the bark had been perforated. The wood, back of the highest and largest spot, was so completely splintered that little could be learned regarding the nature of the hole; it appeared to have been nearly horizontal. A short distance beneath the bark there was a column of shredded fibers, then a region of little or no shredding, and then the shredded fibers at the apex of the blaze. The next hole, about a foot lower, could be quite satisfactorily reconstructed from the material available. Shortly after entering the trunk, it was scarcely larger in section than the lead of an ordinary pencil. It extended 2 inches beyond the bark, was inclined to the vertical by about 50°, and lay very nearly in the plane bounding that side of the splintered section. The third hole, which was about a foot lower than the second, merely penetrated the bark; it seemed to be inclined to the vertical by about 28°, but, on account of its short length, it was not possible to determine the angle with certainty. (6) Only one large section was torn from the tree. This section bore several branches; not far from its center, it was broken and bent, and the fibers were crumpled and crushed in such a way as to show that the lower portion had been forced violently into the upper. This occurred before the section left the tree. Attached to the lower portion, was a branch which, within the trunk, had been broken squarely across the grain, and pulled from the trunk as a tendon might be pulled from a mortise. And this was done so nearly that the fibers were not bent and that a sliver (one inch wide, 4 inch thick, and 4 inches long, which was split from the branch) was left attached to the trunk and undamaged. Two inches of this sliver projected free from the undamaged portion of the trunk and had been pulled out of the section bearing the limb. Such a break could have been produced only by a longitudinal tension which was quite closely parallel to the fibers in the plane of cleavage between the sliver and the branch. In passing up and around the branch, the fibers of the trunk bend outward at the sides of the branch and then inward to the point where they meet above the branch. ‘Thus, above the branch and at a certain depth within the trunk, the fibers are almost perpen- dicular to the plane of cleavage between the sliver and the branch; and a little nearer to the surface the overhang is still greater, so that FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 89 they form almost an inverted cup. This branch lay just within the western boundary of the column of shredded fibers. A small part of the column passed to the west and the remainder to the east of the branch; the two portions reunited above the branch, where the fibers are inclined and cupped, as just described. ‘The shredded fibers lay in the boundary between the torn out section and the standing trunk. Even a casual observer would have noticed that the center of vio- lence was not over 10 feet from the ground, and there seems no room for doubt that the main discharge which caused the damage passed through the charred spots, of which the largest and highest was only 8 ft. 3in. from the ground. Situated as the tree was, it seems certain that, prior to the advent of the stroke, the local field at these points could not have been essentially greater than that at many neighbor- ing points; and must have been far less than that at the top of the tree, and still less than that at the top of the tower, or at the top of the exposed trees mentioned. Also, it is difficult to believe that the electrical senipih of the air along the narrow paths leading to the holes differed from that else- where sufficiently to more than offset the reduced field at these lower levels. And surely the conductivity of the fibers which were shredded was not significantly greater than that of those surrounding them, and must have been appreciably less than that of the sap-wood, which was undamaged. The widely accepted belief that the path of the flash deinindds at each point either with the direction of the antecedent local field, or with the antecedent line of minimum electrical strength, or with a compromise between these two, appears to be entirely incompatible with these observations. In many ways, the observations suggest _ that we are here concerned, not with ordinary conduction, in which the carriers of the electricity drift slowly and follow the direction of the local field, but rather with a mighty rush of carriers—with something analogous to the well-known cathode stream. And this is fully in accord with the observation made by Sir J. J. Thomson at the beginning of this century, that a spark does not occur until, at some point, the field is sufficiently intense to confer upon an electron, in the interval between its encounters with the molecules, a velocity sufficient to enable it to dislodge an electron from the mole- cule with which it collides. Then, if there were no mutual repulsion between the several free electrons, and if the positive residues were removed so rapidly as to keep the field constant, a swarm of electrons 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 would result. The swarm would be elongated in the direction of the field, and the number of electrons in the swarm would increase expo- nentially with the length of the path. After the first encounter there would be two electrons, after the tenth there would be over a thou- sand, after the 60th there would be over 1018 electrons; which represents a gross charge of over 1/8 coulomb. For electrons moving with only a moderate velocity, 60 encounters will occur in a distance of about 40 microns. Owing to the mutual repulsion of the electrons, the swarm will tend to spread in all directions, but more especially in the direction of its motion; it will draw out into a dart. The leading elec- trons will be subjected to the repulsion of the trailing ones, as well as to the field arising from other causes, and hence their acceleration will be augmented. ‘They will gain energy at the expense of the trailing electrons. Instead of a very great number of electrons moving at a moderate velocity, there will be a much smaller number moving with a correspondingly greater velocity. At velocities exceeding a certain value, the amount of energy an electron expends per unit length of path decreases as the velocity increases; consequently, at these veloci- ties a weaker field will suffice to maintain the velocity. Once started with sufficient velocity, such a dart can continue to travel with unabated energy although the field is weak and, with a progressive reduction in energy, it can travel even in an opposing field. At high velocities, approaching that of light, the mutual fore-and-aft repulsion of the electrons is greatly reduced, and the effect of the attendant mag- netic field (attraction of parallel currents) in great measure compen- sates the lateral repulsion. At these velocities the dart may be relatively compact. A high speed dart possesses a very considerable amount of momentum, and can strike a correspondingly powerful blow. At low velocities, the path of a dart will coincide at each point quite closely with the direction of the local field existing antecedently to its arrival; as the velocity is increased, it will travel more and more under its own momentum, ignoring the local field. A high speed dart does not seek out a tree to strike, but merely collides with it. It makes no difference whether the tree is exposed or not; whether it is struck at the top or at the roots is merely a question of how it happens to be situated with reference to the path of the dart. ‘True, the direc- tion of the path just before collision will undoubtedly be modified by the presence of the tree, but the extent of the modification will be slight if the velocity of the dart is great. Where it collides, small FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 91 holes will be burned. Without other damage, the electrons will _ penetrate the trunk until their velocity is so reduced that they can become attached to the molecules composing the contents and walls of the cells; then their velocity abruptly decreases, and their progress becomes much more difficult. As their velocity is reduced, so is the magnetic field produced by their motion, and they are left more and more completely subjected to the full force of their mutual elec- trostatic repulsion, which urges them in all directions. In the partic- ular tree studied, it appeared that the molecules were so crowded that they could not pass transversely to the grain without actually punching out the fibers ahead of them (as at the hole in the branch 15 inches above the split), but along the grain in the direc- tion of the flow of the sap they could pass with a certain amount of freedom and in so passing the fibers were shredded. ‘The longer the column over which the charged molecules are spread, the more pro- nouncedly longitudinal will be the resultant stress. If they can not pass across the grain, the tree will be splintered. The center of vio- lence will be at the level of the entrance of the charge, and from this level the extent of the damage will decrease in both directions. In their passage up the fibers, in the case here considered, they encoun- tered the overhanging fibers above the branch which was broken squarely across the grain, and which subjected them to a stress nor- mal to their direction; this tore out the branch and drove upward the section of trunk containing it. Or, if it is preferred, we may say that a charge accumulated on these fibers, and was subjected to the repul- sion of the charges which lay below them. Only a relatively small charge is needed to account for this damage. If there were only 1/600 coulomb on these fibers, and only twice as much at a point 30 cm. below it, the mutual repulsion would amount to more than the weight of 50 tons. ‘This is more than ten times the longitudinal force required to tear apart a seasoned white oak rod having the same sectional area as the square break. Estimates of the amount of charge which could be involved in a lightning stroke run as high as tens and hundreds of coulombs, but what proportion of this is carried by the dart itself is not known. If, while driving along the grain, the loaded electrons come suff- ciently near the surface, the strength of the wood will be insufficient to stand the strain and the wood will be blown out and, through the opening so made, some of the shredded fibers will be ejected. Such was the case at the blow-out mentioned and also in the roots. Only 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 two of the latter showed damage, and in each case the center of dam- age was a single slender column of fibers. Where this came too near the surface a split occurred and the borders of the split were more or less shredded. It seems that the observations which we have been considering can, on the basis of the present electron theory, be logically correlated with one another and with other well known facts by assuming that the stroke is initiated by a high speed dart of electrons. This delivers its entire charge practically at once, and is followed, along the ionized trail left by the dart, by a current of the usual type. This current will continue until there is such an equalization of potential that no more can flow, or until the negative carriers have become exhausted. If the conditions are such that at any point of the path, especially near the cloud, the field is sufficient to impart to the positive residues a veloc- ity which enables them to dislodge electrons by collision, there will be a continuing supply of electrons until that condition ceases to exist. Scattered throughout the atmosphere, below the cloud as well as in and above it, are regions in which the atmosphere is electrically charged; some are charged positively, others negatively. All are drifting under the action of the electric field, and are being carried hither and thither by the wind. Between two such regions, oppositely charged and suitably placed, the electrical field will be much greater than if these regions were uncharged. In such a place the dart may originate and acquire the velocity requisite for its continuance in the weaker, undisturbed field. The intensity of the field required to pro- duce a dart depends in some measure upon the velocity with which the electron enters the field. The dart which we have been considering traveled towards the ground. Obviously, under other conditions, a dart might originate at the ground and travel in the reverse direction. It would originate where the field is intense, as at the top of an elevated object. The dart itself would do no damage; the damage, if any, would arise from the current of positive residues. Like other charged gas molecules, these move relatively slowly and possess but little momentum, but on account of their great number they may convey a great current. They will not penetrate deeply into the trunk of a tree, but will pass mainly along the well conducting sap-wood, that will bear the brunt of the damage. Lightning strokes possessing these characteristics are well known. In neither case is the stroke the result of the cloud discharging to earth, though the cloud does become discharged as a result of the FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 93 stroke. That, however, is purely an incidental and a subsequent effect. The negative charge of the dart is assembled along the path; the remainder of the charge involved in the stroke comes from the - ionization produced by the dart. The charges in the cloud are, prob- ably in large part, neutralized in situ, either by the spreading of the delivered charge by its own mutual repulsion, or by the dissemination of the ions by the wind. It is distinctly an after effect of the spark. Such seems to be the essential nature of a lightning stroke. There is first a rush of electrons, which blazes the path, then, along this con- ducting path, flows a more leisurely conduction current of the usual type. Under certain conditions, perhaps usually, this conduction current will convey a far larger quantity of electricity than is carried by the dart of electrons. The direction in which the dart flies is in a very real sense the direction of the stroke—the direction in which it is delivered. ‘The effects produced where the stroke starts differ quite characteristically from those produced where it ends. PHOTOGRAPHY.—Photography for the field geologist. Eiot BLAcK- | WELDER. Stanford University. GENERAL Nearly every field geologist carries a camera; but it is a common experience at the end of the season to find that pictures taken of some of the most important subjects were failures and that a much larger number were neither as distinct nor as bright as they should have been. ‘This is due to the fact that the taking of good photographs under all sorts of conditions is an art understood by but few users of the camera. Success in it requires a comprehension of certain facts and principles and close attention to the necessary details. The accuracy of photographs as records of field conditions makes them a valuable supplement to the usual notes, maps and sketches; and there- fore it is advisable for every geologist to inform himself to such an extent that he may be able to take good photographs under nearly all possible conditions. As a result of some twenty-five years of more or less painful efforts to reach such proficiency, the writer ventures to offer the younger geologist a few suggestions that may improve his results. In general the difficulties are not the same as those which confront the professional studio photographer, and so these remarks _ apply more particularly to field work.! 1A paper of interest in this connection is Stereoscopic Photography in Geological Field Work, by F. E. Wright. This Journat 14: 63-72. 1924. 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 4 EQUIPMENT Good results should not be expected without good equipment. The small pocket camera is not capable of giving photographs of much use to the geologist, except for nearby objects under favorable light conditions. Therefore he will do well to provide himself with a more elaborate camera, equipped with a ground glass for focussing, and as large as he can reasonably carry. The 5 xX 7 inch size is one of the most satisfactory, but in some kinds of work a smaller camera may be all that circumstances permit. One of the most important things is to get the best convertible lens and shutter that can be obtained. After trying various lenses, the writer finds that the Goertz Dagor type gives the sharpest detail; but some prefer other convertible lenses, such as the Zeiss Protar or Tessar, the Bausch and Lomb, or the Cooke lenses. One of the best shutters is the Compound; but there are others in the same class. It is advisable to have a lens consisting of two elements, one of which ‘can be removed to permit using a long focus for telephoto views. For this purpose it is necessary that the camera have a rather long bellows. To record the picture one now has considerable range of choice. Glass plates are perhaps the best means, but their fragility and weight are serious disadvantages in the field. Fortunately, cut films, which are free from such defects, give almost equally good results. Roll- films and film-packs are distinctly inferior on account of their slight tendency to curvature, so that they seldom give as sharp images as plates. Nevertheless, they are tempting because of their greater convenience, and they may well be used for photographs of minor import or those in which minute detail is not required. Various kinds of cut films may now be obtained for different purposes. For moving objects, or for taking views from trains or from windy stations, rapid films, such as Eastman ‘‘Portrait Super-Speed”’ film, may be required; but the results are usually not as good as those obtained with slower films. For general work within one or two miles of the camera, and where it is not important to bring out the more unusual colors, Eastman ‘‘Commercial Ortho” and other equiva- lent films are satisfactory. For distant mountain pictures with more or less blue haze, or for any pictures in which colors need to be especi- ally differentiated, the writer finds nothing equal to ‘‘Panchromatic”’ films. In fact, he has found nothing else that will give even tolera- bly satisfactory results in photographing desert mountain scenery, FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 95 where the blue haze is nearly always in evidence. The only disad- - vantages to using Panchromatic films are their slightly greater cost, and the fact that they must be loaded and developed in darkness. Ray-filters, or color screens, are indispensable for many geologic photographs. It is best to carry several kinds for different purposes. The function of the ray-filter is to equalize the rays of various photic intensities and thus to give truer color-values. A suitable filter is particularly important for the purpose of counteracting the effects of the blue and violet rays which predominate in the light coming from distant mountains. In photographing ordinary landscapes with Com- mercial Ortho films, the author has found the Wratten K-1 filter (made by the Eastman Kodak Company) satisfactory. When using Pan- chromatic films on distant mountains or desert. scenes, best results have been obtained with the G filter of the same series,—a rather deep orange-colored glass. Even better results are given by using a red filter, but this requires about five times as much exposure, and that is a serious disadvantage when the wind is blowing. Various smaller ray-filters for pocket cameras are on the market. Sharp definition of the details in a photograph depends partly upon accurate focussing of the lens and partly upon the stability of the camera. If ascaleis used for focussing, it is advisable to test the scale carefully before going into the field, and it is also necessary for the operator to be sure of the distance to be covered in each photograph. In general, it is probably best to focus on the ground glass every time, and for this purpose it is desirable to carry a black cloth to shut out the light. Beginners seldom realize the importance of stability of the camera. It is true that very rapid exposures, such as zy of a second, may be taken from a moving train or when a violent wind is blowing; but ordi- nary snapshots, even with an exposure of sr of a second, generally show the effects of slight movement. With the slower.films and ray- filters, it is necessary to use a solid support, such as a tripod. While the ordinary tubular metal tripod is better than none, and may be satisfactory in calm weather, it is not stable enough for ordinary con- ditions. It is much better to use a fairly heavy wooden tripod of the type that can be folded into a small space. It is now possible to obtain for the tripod head a ball-and-socket joint attachment that facilitates the photographing of objects on the ground or in other awkward positions. However, for a heavy camera it may be necessary to have such an attachment specially reinforced 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 to overcome vibration. Still better, one can use the tilting tops that are now obtainable; they are screwed on the top of the usual tripod. One of the most important problems confronting the photographer is that of the length of exposure to be given when taking the picture. Since this varies with the latitude, altitude, sky conditions, climate, nature of subject, time of year, hour of day, distance from subject, shadows, etc., it is really a very complex problem. To facilitate the necessary calculations, it is almost essential to use some kind of expo- sure meter. Of these there are now many types on the market. The writer has obtained best results with the Harrold exposure meter, and finds it compact, durable, and easy to operate. Only the most experi- enced photographer can afford to depend upon judgment or memory, when it comes to estimating the length of exposure required in a given case, except where all of the various conditions are what may be called normal. TAKING THE PICTURE It is well to remember that the camera is not capable of giving every- thing that the human eye can see. In order to show topographic details, the light must be favorable. Since it is the small shadows that bring these details into prominence, it is best to take the picture from such a position that the sun’s rays are nearly at right angles to the line of sight. For the same reason, photographs taken within two hours of sunrise or sunset show the greatest detail in mountain slopes, because the shadows are longer then than at noon. Timing the exposure is perhaps the most acute problem at the mo- ment of taking the picture. Exposure meters are usually devised for the conditions which prevail in the populous part of the eastern United States. For other regions certain allowances must be made. For example, in the western plateaus and mountains, at elevations of about 5000 feet, it is found necessary to reduce the time to one-half that which is indicated by the exposure meter. Above 10,000 feet, it should be reduced to one-third. On the deserts of the southwestern states, similar reductions should be made at much lower altitudes,— 2000 and 6000 feet respectively. Few people realize how important the factor of distance is, in this respect. Ata distance of 2 to 3 miles, the time should be further reduced about 10 per cent; and for 25 or more miles, about 50 per cent, as compared with nearby objects. Itis often impracticable to obtain a good image of both the near and the distant objects; but suitable films and ray-filters, with carefully calcu- FEB. 19, 1926 - BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 97 lated exposures, will give fair results that are impossible without - them. In order to photograph very light-colored objects, such as desert plains, quartzite outcrops, sand dunes, snowy peaks, and lakes, it is necessary further to reduce the time of exposure by 25 per cent to 75 per cent, according to the degree of reflection of light from the surface In question. One must acquire by experience an intuitive perception of the light-reflecting properties of the various subjects to be photo- graphed. There is another correction which is nearly always overlooked, but which is rather important when taking photographs at early or late hours in certain parts of the country. It should be remembered that the exposure-meter has been designed for correct time, i.e., solar time, but that our watches generally give ‘‘standard time.” It therefore happens that if one is situated near the boundary between two stand- ard time zones, his watch is in error as much as half an hour with refer- ence to solar time. In order to obtain contrast in the larger outlines of the picture, it is better to under-expose the film a little. On the other hand, to obtain detail in smaller objects, especially within a few feet of the camera, it is better to over-expose somewhat. For example, a dissected moun- tain slope some miles away would show best in the former case, and a rock specimen photographed in the laboratory would need the latter. FINISHING THE FILMS Developing and printing are important operations. They should be performed only by experts who are instructed in advance regarding the general nature of the photographs that have been taken and the kind of negatives especially desired. It is unwise to entrust such matters to the ordinary drug-store agency, or even to the average town photographer. It is best to seek out a qualified, experienced photog- rapher, explain one’s problem to him, and then send him all the films, even though it sometimes involves more or less delay. It is especially important never to let a careless or inexperienced person either load or develop the highly sensitive Panchromatic films. © aes 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 927TH MEETING The 927th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, November 28, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:15 with 46 persons in attendance. Program: G. Breit and M. A. Tuve. Radio evidence of the existence of the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer. (Presented by Mr. Breit and illustrated with lantern slides.) A method of testing for the existence of the Kennelly- Heaviside Layer has been described by the authors (see Journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, March, 1925). This method has given a definite indication of the existence of the layer. The transmission took place from Bellevue, Anacostia, as well as other stations. The layer is found to have different reflecting powers for different wave-lengths. Its properties change rapidly with time. Frequently it is capable of sending down more than one wave. This appears to be especially true in the afternoon and at night. The effective height of the layer is not quite constant but varies. It is generally in the neighborhood of 100 miles. The wave returned from the layer is differently polarized from the wave traveling along the ground. Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. WHITE, HUND, LAPORTE, Bauer, GisH, Curtis, MoHLER and WENNER. V. E. Wuitman. Studies in the electrification of dust clouds. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) Dust clouds were formed by blowing various pure chemical substances through tubes and the net electric charge imparted de- termined as a function of the composition of the dust, tube material, area of contact between the dust and the tube in being blown out of the tube, velocity with which the dust moves through the tube, and the length of the path of the dust through the tube. An apparatus was described with which photographic records of the paths of particles are obtained. Such photographs show the presence of positive, negative, and neutral particles in all dust clouds, even of very pure substances. The ratio of positive to negative electrification in a cloud is found to change as the larger particles in the cloud settle out, but evidence is obtained which contradicts the hypothesis that the large par- ticles carry an opposite charge from the small particles in a given cloud. The paper closed with a few remarks bearing on the relation of the present ex- perimental data to the concept of a tribo-electric series. (Author’s abstract.) Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, TUCKERMAN and SILSBEE. 928TH MEETING The 928th meeting, constituting the 55th annual meeting, was heid in the Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, December 12, 1925. It was called to order by Vice-President. AwLT at 8:16, with 37 persons present. The report of the Treasurer showed total receipts, $3828.44; disburse- ments, $2974.70, leaving a balance of $353.74. The report of the secretaries showed that 18 meetings were held during the year, several in conjunction with other societies. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, W1LLIAM FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 99 Bowtg; Vice-Presidenis, J. P. AvutT and Paut R. Hey; Treasurer, W. D. LAMBERT; Corresponding Secretary, H. L. DryDEN; Members-at-Large, General ~ Committee, G. Breit and EK. W. Woouarp. At the conclusion of the business meeting Dr. Witiram H. Datu addressed the Society on Some recollections of the founding of the Philosophical Society. The address was highly appreciated, the presiding officer voiced the senti- ments of al! present in thanking Dr. Datu for his address. Following Dr. Datw’s address Prof. James H. Gore and Dr. Witi1am H. Hoimess also spoke on the early days of the Philosophical Society. H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 681ST MEETING The 68lst meeting of the Biological Society was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, October 24, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHwER in the chair and 51 persons present. W. F. Rusery, Geological Survey, was elected to membership. VERNON Batury described the effects of fire in a ee muskrats in marshes in J.ouisiana. Many muskrat houses are burned and dozens of the animals are sometimes found dead. In places where extensive fires occur, it is estimated that thousands of muskrats may be killed. J. N. Ross reported that plans are being made for a 5,000 acre arboretum with a prospective endowment of $20,000,000 near Los Angeles, California. A. A. DoouiTTLe described examining a cat found in poor condition. It proved to be heavily infested with tape worms of a species usually met with in man. S. A. RoHwrrR announced the recent death of a member, Dr. W. D. Hunter of the Bureau of Entomology, in El Paso, Texas. Dr. HunrTEr, who had been in charge of important work in Texas for some years, was for- merly active in entomological and other biological work in Washington. P. B. JoHNSON referred to observations on viscachas recently living in the National Zoological Park. After a heavy rain a young one of a more bluish color than older animals was seen nestling close against the body of an adult male, presumably for warmth. VERNON Barry, Biological Survey: T’wo years’ progress in beaver farming. —Two beaver colonies established in 1923 in northern Michigan, where the animals are thriving and increasing in a satisfactory manner, were described. From one fully enclosed area one of the beavers escaped by digging under the fence when their dam raised the water above the bottom wires, but in a short time returned and was admitted to the inclosure with its companions. In the other colony, where only a drift fence had been built across the creek below them, a few of the beavers had crossed to the head of a neighboring creek and a second colony was established. This can be controlied by another short section of fence across the creek and meadow below. Both colonies are in excellent location for beaver farms. The importance of feeding beaver when the food supply near the shores is exhausted was emphasized and lantern slides of some of those caught in Mr. Bailey’s improved beaver trap were shown. (Author’s abstract.) AcGnes Cuass, Bureau of Plant Industry: Hunting grasses in Brazil— The speaker spent 7 months in Brazil, visiting the states of Pernambuco, Alagoas, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and Sao Paulo. The sertdo 100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 of both Pernambuco and Bahia was badly overgrazed. A trip was made to Paulo Alfonso Falls in Rio Sao Francisco. The falls, which are 81 meters high in all, form a stupendous cascade, not a straight fall. The region is a rocky desert with very little vegetation. In January Mrs. Chase botanized in the region about Rio de Janeiro and with a party from the Jardim Botanico visited Itatiaia, the peak of which, Agulhas Negras, was until recently believed to be the highest point in Brazil. Its altitude is now in dispute. On the ascent through tropical jungie a group of monkeys was seen. Above timber line grasses were abundant. About three months were spent in Minas Geraes, the highland campos of this state being especially rich in grasses. Serra de Cipd, 150 kilometers northwest of Bello Horizonte, yielded the best results of the entire trip. Three weeks were spent in the vicinity of Vicosa in the eastern part of Minas Geraes, where Dr. P. H. Rolfs is building up a school of agriculture for the state. With Dr. Rolfs and his daughter a trip was made to Serra da Gramma, and later with Miss Rolfs to Serra de Caparaé. The highest peak of this range, Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters, disputes with Agulhas Negras the place for highest point in Brazil. The party ascended Pontéo Crystal, 2798 meters, instead of Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters in altitude, but the botanical results were probably as good as if the higher peak had been attained. A last trip into highland campos was made to Campos de Jordao, Sao Paulo. (Author’s abstract.) 682D MEETING The 682d meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, November 7, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHwer in the chair and 59 persons present. FRANK THONE, Science Service, Washington, D. C., J. K. STRECKER, Baylor University, Waco, Tex., and Grorez M. Linp, Fort Collins, Colo., were elected to membership. oie H. C. OBERHOLSER referred to the establishment of the Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge by Act of Congress providing for the pur- chase of over 300,000 acres of overflowed lands along the Mississippi River from Rock Island, Il., to Wabasha, Minn. A sum of $1,500,000 has been set aside, a part of which is now available for the acquisition of lands by the U.S. Department of Agriculture through the Biological Survey, which in cooperation with the Bureau of Fisheries will administer the area. Attention was directed to the high value of this great refuge, the object of which is to conserve recrea- tional and economic'resources in the interest of all the people. VERNON BaILEY mentioned seeing a woodchuck near Washington and requested that members report any similar observations, with dates, with a view to securing more definite information relative to the length of the hiber- nation period of this animal in the District of Columbia. F. C. LIncoLn reported seeing a woodchuck about a month ago near White’s Ferry, Va. Its actions were unusual as it came running down the road and passed close between him and a companion before finally turning off into the brush. L. O. Howarp, Bureau of Entomology: Something about the salt marsh mosquito problem.—The speaker described the biology of the most prominent salt-water mosquitoes, namely Culex sollicitans and Culex taeniorhynchus, showing that in spite of his own efforts to learn the life histories of these species, they were not understood until a very thorough investigation had been made by the late Dr. John B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey (and former Secretary of the Biological Society of Washington), and his FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 101 associates in 1902. He then spoke of the extraordinary work that has been done by the State of New Jersey along its whole ocean front in draining and diking the marshes so as to prevent the breeding of these mosquitves which were for years the dominant mosquitoes of New Jersey and which had given that State its mosquito reputation. Both forms fly for great distances, and in the summer may be found 40 miles from the coast. The speaker mentioned other salt-marsh work which had been done on Staten Island, in Connecticut and, to a slight extent, in Florida; and then proceeded to tell about the great scourge of mosquitoes along the Gulf coast of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama during the past season, which had aroused sreat excitement among the owners of 7 property in these regions and had caused them to organize a survey of mosquito conditions which eventually may bring about a large-scale effort to drain the marsh breeding places. The speaker pointed out that this would be an enormous undertaking. He showed that, of the approximately 12,000 square miles of salt marsh on the whole of the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts of the United States, more than _ 6,000 square miles are included in the State of Louisiana. Complete and successful work will probably cost an enormous sum of money, but the value of the reclaimed land, to say nothing of the abatement of the mosquito scourge, will undoubtedly make such work well worth while. (Author’s abstract. ') E. A. GotpMAN, Biological Survey: Over-browsing by Kaibab deer.— The deer inhabit the Kaibab Plateau on the north side of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, embracing an area set aside as the Grand Canyon National Game Preserve in 1906, and a part of the territory now included in Grand Canyon National Park. There is little migration from the area and, under protection from hunters and partial protection from predatory animals, the deer have increased to numbers estimated by some at more than 30,000. The forage producing capacity of the area is being progressively reduced by over-browsing until it has reached a point where many deer are threatened with starvation. In addition to the wide-spread destruction of shrubs favored by deer, forest trees, especially reproduction of aspen, yellow pine, pinyon, white fir, spruce and juniper are being seriously injured or killed. The critical situa- tion that has arisen emphasizes the importance of regulating the numbers of game on limited areas in accordance with the forage supply, as a general conservation measure. The Grand Canyon National Game Preserve, with boundaries nearly identical with those of the Kaibab National Forest is under the administrative control of the Forest Service which is seeking a solution of the many-sided problem. (Author’s abstract.) 683D MEETING The 683d meeting of the Society was held in the assembly hall of the Cos- mos Club November 21, 1925 at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHWER in the chair and 120 persons present. Dr. F. H. CoirrTENDEN and Miss MaBeu CoxLcorpD were elected to membership. T.S. Patmer, Biological Survey: Report on the recent meeting of the Ameri- can Ornithologists’ Union, New York.—The speaker gave an account of the annual meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union heid in New York City in November, referring especially to the exhibition of the bird paintings and to the widespread membership of the Union. Mention was made of the next meeting of the Union, to be held in Ottawa, which will be the first meeting held outside the United States. - + 102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 W. C. Henpverson, Biological Survey: When the elk come down.—Of the two large herds of elk now in existence in the United States, the principal herd is that i in the Jackson Hole region in Wyoming. Under the protection afforded it, the herd is increasing rapidly i in numbers and to such an extent that the greatest problem connected with its preservation is that of providing sufficient food in winter. The only solution that seems practicable is that of keeping down the numbers by more extensive hunting in the open season. The speaker showed slides illustrating the herd and in conclusion gave a mov- ing picture film, prepared by the Biological Survey, showing the way in which elk are killed by poachers for the sake of the teeth. H. C. OBERHOoLsER, Biological Survey: Birds on the Farallon Islands, California.—The speaker described the Islands and showed moving pictures illustrating the murres, guillemots, cormorants, gulls, and petrels, which make up the bird life. The most abundant birds are the murres, whose numbers are estimated at about 20,000. H. C. Ospernouser: The bird reservations of Louisiana.—The speaker showed films illustrating the bird refuges on small sandy islands off the coast of Louisiana, which are populated principally by laughing gulls and royal terns, together with a much smaller number of shore birds, such as willets. 684TH MEETING The 684th regular meeting of the Biological Society was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club December 5, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHweEr in the chair and 48 persons present. Dr. D. N. SHon- MAKER was elected to membership. L. D. Miner reported the observation of a black-billed cuckoo feeding on caterpillars along the canal in the vicinity of Washington on 28 October. A. 8. Hircucock spoke of the close relationship between the floras of the northeastern United States and northeastern Asia and added another to the already long list of identities in the two floras, Brachyelytrum erectum. ‘This is a common grass in the northeastern United States, and was recently found by him in a collection sent from China. W. B. Greevey, Forest Service: The proposed changes in the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park in relation to wild life (llustrated).—The speaker discussed the existent National Forests and National Parks with special refer- ence to the proposed enlargement of the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park to include the rest of the Yellowstone River basin, most of the Grand Tetons, and the winter range of the Jackson Hole elk herd. With the other members of the coordinating committee appointed at the recent Conference on Outdoor Recreation called by President Coolidge, he made a trip through the area during the past summer. The paradise of wild life found in the vicinity of Bridger Lake was described, with illustrations of the scenery and of the bear, elk, moose, mule deer, bighorn, and other large mammals. The problem of providing winter food for the Jackson Hole elk herd still awaits solution. The speaker proposed the restriction of the herd by hunting to about 15,000 as the only way to prevent the starvation of large numbers of elk in bad winters. The additions proposed to Yellowstone Park follow ~ natural drainage lines instead of the present artificial boundaries, and small additions on the northwest and northeast sides and a larger one on the south- east, with some restriction of boundary on other sides. The coordinating committee has recommended that the Grand Tetons area be preserved in a completely wild state as a National Park. FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 103 The paper was discussed by 8. T. Matusr, who accompanied Col. GREELEY as a member of the coordinating committee. He reported that the Hopi Ranch north of the Yellowstone had recently been purchased from a privately raised fund and will be used as a shelter for antelope in winter. T. H. Kearney, Bureau of Plant Industry: Pollination in cotton (llus- trated).—Cotton plants are adapted for both close and cross-fertilization. Close fertilization is desired by plant breeders to preserve the purity of selected ‘strains, and insect pollination must be prevented. Experiments show that insect pollination is much more effective at Sacaton than near Phoenix, Arizona, owing to the greater comparative abundance of insects, especially honey bees. Few natural hybrids occur, even if both Egyptian and upland cotton are grown close together, owing to the fact that the bulk of the pollen grains on the stigmas are found to be self pollen. Selective fertilization—the greater effectiveness of like pollen than of an equal amount of unlike—also tends to prevent the formation of hybrids. Hybrids in the F, generation are uniform and intermediate in most characters, but in F, the characters break up badly. Strict inbreeding for seven generations has produced no bad effect. 685TH MEETING The 685th regular and 46th annual meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club December 19, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHWER in the chair and 24 persons present. The minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read and approved. New members elected: C. DENLEY, G. B. Grant, O. J. Muri. The annual reports of the Corresponding Secretary, the Recording Secre- tary, the Treasurer, and the Publication Committee were read and ordered placed on file. T.S. Patmer, for the Board of Investing Trustees, presented - an informal report showing that the George Washington Memorial Fund amounts to $600, that there is about $1500 in the Publication Fund, and the sum of $430 is due the Publication Fund from the General Fund. F.C. Lin- COLN gave a sketch of the history of the George Washington Memorial Fund. The election of officers then took place, resulting as follows: President, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Vice-Presidents, E. A. GoLpMAN, A. WET- mMoRE, C. E. Cuamstuiss, H. H. T. Jackson; Recording Secretary, S. F. BLAKE; Corresponding Secretary, T. E. SnypER; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members of Council, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, C. W. Stites, A. A. DooitTtie, B. H. Swauss. President-elect H. C. OBERHOLSER was nominated as a Vice- President of the Washington Academy of Sciences to represent the Biological Society. On motion of Dr. STILEs a rising vote of thanks was given S. A. RouweERr for his efficient service in the presidential chair. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 376TH MEETING The 376th meeting was held in Room 43 of the New National Museum, Thursday, June 4, 1925, with President R. A. CusHMaAN in the chair and 17 persons present. THomas R. CHAMBERLAIN of the Bureau of Entomology, Salt Lake City, Utah, was elected to membership. _ Program: C.’H. Ricwarpson: Some aspects of insect physiology. —Certain aspects of physiology as applied to insects were presented briefly. General physiology has suffered a one-sided development largely because the higher 104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4 vertebrates, particularly man, have been the subjects of most of the investi- gations. Digestion in insects was compared with that in the vertebrates, and with a few exceptions was shown to present no unusual features. Absorp- tion from the alimentary tract and from the malpighian tubules was discussed and the need for more studies on permeability was emphasized. — oe (11) 1 Oey / A, = by = 7 Ya — Yon) > 5 Yn T Yn) (12) and from (8) and (10) ay —i75 (Gq 2 (13) bs = x2 (bo — Yn + y's) (14) As an example we may take the values of 1000q. for material in course of reduction in this laboratory. Up to 57 years these are fitted with? : y = 6.795105 which at 57 years has an ordinate of 13.449, and a slope of 0.287 per year, while from 63 years up they are fitted with? y = 264 — 1132 + 14.40? — 0.4823 which at 63 years has an ordinate of 26.236, and a slope of 4.541 per year. Therefore n = 3, ao = bo = $ (26.236 + 18.449) — # (4.541 — 0.287) |= 19.843 — 3.191 = Seep a; = b, = 2 (26.236 313449) = 2 (er ae — 4262 = 2.414 =) ee ay = 4 (10,652 = 13.449" 35 9287) = a oen2 col col be = 4% (16.652 — 26.236 + 3 X 4.541) = + 0.4488 2 These equations are taken with origin at 25 years and with a five-year interval for the x unit. a ee a ee rn ete) MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 143 The ordinates for the different years are therefore as shown in Table 1. : TABLE 1.—OrRpDINATES YEAR z 10009, o7 —3 13.45 58 —2 14.00 59 | —1 15.06 60 0 16.65 61 +1 18.95 62 +2 22.14 63 +3 26.24 SPECTROSCOPY .—Are spectrum regularities for ruthenuum.’ W. F. MEGGERS AND Otto Laporte, Bureau of Standards. In a preliminary note on this subject the authors described? under- _ water-spark observations which led to the identification of the lowest term in the ruthenium spectrum. ‘This was a 5-fold term with separa- tions 392.2, 621.7, 900.9, 1190.8 cm.~, which from analogy with the structure of the iron spectrum was regarded as a quintet-D term. The lack of Zeeman-effect data for the identification of absolute quantum - numbers was deprecated and it was announced that new observations were being made in coéperation with Prof. B. E. Moore of the Uni- versity of Nebraska. ‘The untimely death of Professor Moore inter- rupted these experiments, but the kind offer of Prof. H. H. Marvin to continue them finally put us in possession of some data. Meanwhile L. A. Sommer in Gé6ttingen has also observed? some Zeeman patterns for ruthenium lines, and has indicated that the lowest term is in reality a quintet-F term, requiring that all our quantum numbers be in- creased by one unit. This has been confirmed by our own measure- ments, some of which appear in Table 2. The purpose of this paper is to make this correction and to extend the analysis of the are spec- trum of ruthenium. ) There are presented in Table 1 eighteen multiplets which have been selected as representative of quintet, triplet, and inter-system com- binations. The notation‘ here employed is that which is now in 1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the Depart- ment of Commerce. ' 2 Science, 61: 635. 1925. 3 Die Naturwissenschaften, 13: 840. 1925. * Astrophys. Journ., 61: 60. 1925. | 144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6 TABLE 1.—MULTIPLETS IN THE Ru I Spectrum BR s....- LOO. 8ai.< Bg t....900.9.2,, gs G27, 5B 392.2 SR 5D, 3799. 34(8)a 3979. 44(5) 4127.46(3) 26312.9 25122.1 24291.2 1194.0 5D; 3798.90(8)a 3983.55(4) 4032.21(3) 26316.0 25415.2 24793.3 ‘ 969.2 | 5D» 3790.50(10)a 3882.00(3) 3942.06(3) : 26374.3 25752.6 25360.3 652.9 5D, 3786.05(10)a 3843.07(3) : 26405.3 26013. 4 : 451.1 ‘Dy | 3777.58 (3)a 26464. 5 SF,’ | 3728.03(10R)a 3901.24(4) 26816.2 25625.6 1198.7 5F, | 3568.47(1) —- 3726.93(10R)a 3856.39(3) _-(28015.2 26824. 1 25923.7 875.5 5B,’ 3609.10(2) 3730.44(4)a 3819.04(4) 27699.9 26798.9 26177.2 536.9. 5F,’ 3657.17(2) - 8742.29(10)a 3798.06 (3) 27335.8 26714.0 26321.8 266.2 oF, 3705.36(2) 3760.03(4) 4 26980. 3 26588 .0 Buy ee MAR. 19, 1926 SRE loU.o OR, 5Ge *3498.95(50R)a 28571.8 1707.9 Ten 3301.59(8)a 30279.7 — 388.8 en 3344. 53 (8) 29891 .0 646.2 1163.2 1372.5 TABLE 1—Continued. *3436.74(30R)a 29089 .0 3483. 32 (4) 28700. 1 3406. 59 (2) 29346. 5 3348. 69 (2) 29853. 8 900.9 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES Ss ( 62157 3596. 17(20)a 27799.4 3514. 50(3)a 28445.4 3463. 14(8) 28867. 2 3452.91(3) 28952.8 3319. 52(1) 30116.2 145 5B, 392.2 SPY 3593.03 (20)a 27823. 7 1 3539.37 (4)a 3589.23 (5)a 28245.5 27853.2 3528.70(5) 28331.0 3389. 50(3) 3435.20(3) 29494. 5 29102.1 3238.77 (2) 3280. 46(3) 30867.0 30474.7 30348. 3 3294.13(10)a 3428. 65(4)a 29157.7 3204.04 (2) 31201.6 3037.96(5)a 28256. 9 3299. 34(2) 30300. 4 3216. 61 (3) 31080. 6 3368. 45(8)a 29678.8 (?) 3325.00(3) 30458. 8 30066. 6 146 SH dl 90.8 8Gs (?) 28495.2 1395.9 8Ga 3304. 81 (2) 30250. 2 1962.0 3G; a ‘=D, 5309. 26 (20) 18829.8 1194.0 5D, 4992.73(7) 20023. 6 969.2 sf,’ 5171.02 (40) 19333.2 1198.7 oR! 4869. 16 (25) -|20531.7 875.5 oP,’ 4669. 96(8) 21407.5 536.9 1092.6 TABLE 1—Continued. 5K, 900.9 oF’, 3661.34(6)a 27304.6 3440. 22(3) 3550. 28 (3) 29059. 6 28158.8 3260. 36(5)a 30662. 6 29761.5 5D’, 608.2 sD’, 5636. 23 (35) 17737.5 5280.81 (4) 5456. 13(8) 18931.2 18322.9 5026. 17(8) 5184.72 (2) 19890.3 19282.1 5014. 95(8) 19934.8 5142.76(8) -19439.4 4921.08(12) 5072.97(7) 20315. 1 19706.8 4794.38(4) 4938. 43 (10) 20851.9 20243.7 4874.33 (3) 20509.9 621.7 3359.09 (5)a 436.6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6 5, 392.2 oF 3430.77 (5)a 29139.7 ‘Dp ? 5D"o 5304. 85(7) 18845. 5 5127.25(5) (?) 19498.2 (?) 5011.22(9) 19949. 7 5047. 30(6) 19807. 1 4980.35(9) 20073.3 (2) MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 147 TABLE 1—Continued. ‘1D’, 1092.6 5D’; 608.2 *D’, 436.6 sD, 2 Sa 5G, 1707.9 5G; 4385. 40(4) 22796. 6 —388.8 5G, (?) 4690. 11(5) 22407.9 21315.5 646.2 5G; | 4336.42(2) 4552.10(5) 4681. 79(10) 23054.0 21961.7 21353.4 421.8 5G. 4466.34(1) 4591. 11(6) (?) 22383.4 2175.2 21338.6 5P, — 727.1 ea 1029.2 = sDy 5699.06 (20) 17541.9 1194.0 5D, 5335. 92(10) 5136. 55(25) 18735.7 19462.9 969.2 5D, 5076.07 (5) 4895. 28(6) 5155. 12(12) 19694. 8 20422..2 19392.8 652.9 ‘D, 4743.66 (1) 4987. 25(5) 21074.9 20045.5 451.1 je “3 4877.41(3) 20496.7 148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6 TABLE 1—Continued. SPs — 727.1 SP, 1029.2 bP, oF, 1198.7 5h,’ 5195.01 (10) 19243.9 875.5 5F 3’ 4968.87 (7) 4795.57 (6) 20119.7 20846. 8 536.9 by,’ 4839.75(4) 4675.19(1) 4911.58(3) 20656. 5 21383.5 20354. 4 266.2 sy)’ 4617.66(3) 4848.17 (2) 21650.0 20620.6 5G, 1707 9 oR — 388.8 5G, 4733.47 (12) 21120.3 646.2 5G; 4593.08 (1) 4444 .50(3) 21765.8 22493 .4 421.8 5G. 4505. 64(1) 4362.71(1) 4567.92(1) 22188.2 22915.1 21885.7 TABLE 1—Continuea. 1539.4 af, 4354. 14(5) 22960. 2 4144.18(10) 24123.4 4490. 22 (3) 22264.4 4112.76(8) 24307. 8 3984.86(10) — 25087 .9 973.4 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 3K, 4546.93 (1) 21986.7 4318.43 (3) 23150.0 4076.75(8) 24522.5 4284. 34(5) 23334. 3 4145.75(8) 24114.3 149 _- '"'-——- OOoOoOoono—w—ooo??*9@"@”'_—_—__— oO———— ns ww — es Pe : 5 ON se MAR. 19, 1926 sR, sD; 4080. 63 (20) 24499 .2 1163.2 s—D, 1372.5 3D, shy’ 4199.91(10)a 23803.3 2043.6 3H,’ 3867. 82(8) 25847.1 730.0 3F,’ 8G; 4554. 52 (50) a 21950. 1 1755.0 en 4217. 28(5) 23705.3 1602.6 8G, 3950. 22 (3) 25307.9 4510. 12(8) 22166.2 4206.02 (5) 23768.8 4385.66(4) - 22795. 2 150 1194.0 969.2 652.9 451.1 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6 sf, 5057. 33 (30) 19767.8 4769.30 (9) 20961. 6 4931.72 (0) 20271.3 4656. 42 (3) 21469. 7 4473. 92(4) 29345.5 TABLE 1—Continued. 3H’, 973.4 5484. 33 (10) 18228.7 5147. 24(10) 19422.5 4905.01 (4) 20381. 7 5015.99 (0) 19930. 7 4804. 87 (8) 20806. 4 4684.02 (10) 21343. 2 aR, 5418. 85(6) 18449.0 5151.06(8) 19408. 1 4983.44(4) 20060. 9 5040.74(6) 19833. 3 4907. 88(8) 20369.8 4844. 54(9) 20636.0 MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 151 TABLE 1—Concluded. “Bis 1539.4 sh, 973.4 aF, 4212.08(10) 23734.6 4282.20(2) 4584. 45(30) 93346.0 21806. 8 4166. 88(3) 3 (?) 4654. 31(10) 23992. 1 22452.9 21479.5 4370.42 (2) 4564. 69 (5) 22874.7 21901. 2 common use for the symbolical description of regularities in line spectra except that the letters 8, P, D, F, G are understood to corre- spond to / values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, respectively, / representing the quantized sum of the & values of all the individual electrons. The spectral term symbols are shown at the margins together with the separations of the sub-levels. Wave lengths in air, intensity estimates (in paren- theses) and wave numbers in vacuum represent the spectral data, the measurements of Kayser® being used from the ultraviolet to 4500A and those of Meggers® for the longer waves. Because of the larger scale of intensities given by Exner and Haschek’ their estimates have been quoted instead of Kayser’s. Lines which we have observed as absorbed in under-water-spark spectra are marked a; the raves ultimes are indicated by asterisks. The present grouping of the higher levels depends, in a few cases, on the rules for spectral line intensities and separations of sub-levels, and since it has been shown that these rules are frequently violated in spectra of the heavier atoms it may be neces- sary to revise some of the higher level groups when more conclusive data are available. N < # ; i JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 Aprin 4, 1926 No. 7 CHEMISTRY.—The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl isothio- hydantoin. RaymMonp M. Hann and Kuare 8. MARKLEY,! George Washington University. (Communicated by Epear T. WHERRY. ) In continuing the series of researches upon rhodanic acids now being pursued in this University it became a matter of interest to study, comparatively, the reactions of compounds possessing an analogous constitution. Rhodanic acids are the cyclic anhydrides of the dithio-carbamo glycollic acids and may be considered as 2-thio- 3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (I), while the isothiohydantoins are cyclic anhydrides of substituted thiohydantoic acids and may be > classed as 2-imino-3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (II). The close similarity in structure of these compounds has led us to prepare a a. LOGS 7S De ats YC = NH Ve did aan) O=C N ee AES R R (I) (II) number of derivatives of 2-phenyl-imino-3-phenyl-4-thiazolidone.? Dipheny! isothiohydantoin or 2-imino-pheny]-3-pheny]-4-thiazolidone has been prepared by Lange,? and further studied by Lange and Liebermann,‘ who showed that its reduction with alcoholic potassium 1 Presented before the meeting of the American Chemical Society, Los Angeles, California, Aug. 3-8, 1925. * Numbering is according to the recommendation of Bogert and ABRAHAMSON (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 826. 1922) taking the sulfur atom as 1. 8 LANGE. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879. 4 Lance and LirBeERMANN. Ann. Chem. 207: 123. 1881; see also ANDREASCH. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12: 1835. 1879. 169 : . { ; > 170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 hydroxide yielded thioglycollic acid and diphenylthiourea. This decomposition and other substantiating facts led them to revise the original structure proposed by Lange (1) | CH H.C——N _ -H,C—S E vere. | sts | >C = NGH: | 0 = C——_N O=C Nae CoH CoH (I) (IT) and substitute the pseudo-thiohydantoin structure (II). The later structure includes the S-CH:-CO linkage which has been pointed out by various workers to be a very reactive grouping. Among the compounds which react with the methylene hydrogen in such a combination may be mentioned the aldehydes,’ isatin,® formamidines,’ alloxan,® phthalic anhydride,® and phenanthraquinone.*° The present paper describes the preparation and properties of a series of aldehyde condensation products of diphenyl isothiohydantoin. EXPERIMENTAL Diphenyl rsothiohydantoin..1—The parent substance was prepared from diphenylthiourea and monochloracetic acid according to the method of Lange."2 The yield calculated on the basis of diphenyl- thiourea used, was 60 per cent of theory. 3.5-Dichloro-salicylic aldehyde.—Twenty grams of salicylic aldehyde was dissolved in 80 grams of glacial acetic acid and a stream of dry chlorine allowed to bubble through the solution as it was gently heated on the steam bath. Following saturation with the halogen the solution was cooled and a stream ‘of cold water added to cause precipitation of the substituted compound. After filtering by suction the derivative was recrystallized from dilute alcohol. The yield was 25.3 grams. ’ WHEELER and JAMIESON. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 25: 366. 1903. 5 Hitt and Henze. Ibid. 46: 2806. 1924. 7Darns and STEPHENSON. Ibid. 38:1841. 1916. 8’ ButscHEeR. Monats. fiir Chemie 32:9, 1911. °Kucera. Ibid. 35:137. 1914. 10 Hann. Unpublished results. 11 This substance has been prepared by Dixon and Tarytor (Journ. Chem. Soc. London ~ 101:561. 1912) from n-phenyl-v-carbethoxy phenylthiourea and chloroacetyl chloride. 2Lance. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879. CHO H,C———8 oe: -L | »C=NCH— | SONC:Hs + HO C N C N | C.H; {| CHEE O O APR. 4, 1925 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES AEE 8-M ethoxy-4-hydroxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde.—V anillin was dissolved in glacial acetic acid and a small amount of fused sodium acetate ‘added. Dried chlorine was then lead in, substitution taking place with rise in temperature of the solution and evolution of a slight amount of hydrochloric acid gas. As the reaction continued brilliant colorless crystals separated. Following saturation the crystal meal was filtered off and recrystallized from glacial acetic acid. The ehloro-vanillin crystallizes in the tetragonal system and melts at 164-5°C. | | 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-nitro benzaldehyde.—Vanillin was nitrated in the cold with fuming nitric acid according to the directions of Bentley." The nitrated compound may be separated from small amounts of side reaction products by recrystallization from alcohol. 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-bromo benzaldehyde-—Vanillin was bromi- nated according to Dakin’s" directions, the bromo-aldehyde separat- ing in pure condition from the reaction mixture. Aldehyde condensation products §-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Dissolved 3 grams of di- phenyl isothiohydantoin and 1.2 grams of benzaldehyde in 25 ce. of glacial acetic acid and after adding 5 grams of fused sodium acetate refluxed the mixture for 23 hours. After cooling an excess of water was added to the reaction mixture, the precipitated condensation product was filtered off, recrystallized from acetic acid and analyzed. The yield was 3.6 grams. Theory 3.98 grams. The reaction was as follows: 5-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin is a solid, crystallizing in brilliant platelike crystals of a slight yellow color. It melts at 215-6°C. (cor.). 13 BENTLEY. Amer. Chem. Journ. 24:172. 1900. 144 Dakin. Amer. Chem. Journ. 42:477. 1909. 172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7 . Analysts (Boric acid method) 0.2095 gm. consumed 16.3 ce. ai acid, equivalent to 7.78% N. Theory for C..H;,0ON,S is 7.86% N. 5-(e-Nitro-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The substitution of o-nitro-benzaldehyde for benzaldehyde gave the nitro homologue of the substituted hydantoin. This crystallized in crystalline aggre- gates of a yellow brown color which gave a yellow powder when crushed. The derivative dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with produc- tion of a brilliant red color. When heated in a capillary tube it melts at 196-7°C. (cor.). Analysis (Salacyl-Sulfonic acid method) 0.1128 gm. consumed 8.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 10.80% N. Theory for C2.H,;,03N38 is 10.47% N. 5-Cinnamal-2,3-diphenyl isothtohydantoin.—This derivative was pre- pared exactly as that preceding, using 1.5 gms. (theory 1.48 gms.) of cinnamic aldehyde and 3 gms. of thiazolidone. The compound separated from the boiling reaction mixture. It was filtered off from the hot solution, washed with hot glacial acetic acid and dried. ‘The yield was quantitative. This condensation product separates in brilliant yellow needles, which are slightly soluble in hot glacial acetic acid and almost insoluble in other organic solvents. It melts at 225-6°C. (cor.) to a clear red oil. Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method) 0.1264 gm. consumed 6.4 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 7.09% N. Theory for.C.,H;,ON.S is 7.33 ZN. 5-Furfural-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Three grams of the cyclic ketone, 1.1 (1.07 theory) gm. of furfural, 5 gms. of fused acetate and 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid were heated at the boiling point under reflux condenser for 2 hours. To the cold solution an excess of water was added when the furfurilidene derivative separated in brown needles. These were filtered by suction, washed repeatedly with water and recrystallized from acetic acid. Heated in a capillary tube they melted at 221—2°C. (cor.) to a black tar-like mass. 15 MARKLEY and Hann, Journ. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem. 8: 455. 1925. APR. 4, 1926 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES 173 Analysis (Boric acid method) 0.2050 gm. consumed 16.65 ce. acid, equivalent to N 14.01 8.12% N. Theory for CoH yO.N;S is 8.09% N. 5-Salicylal-2, 3-diphenylrsothiohydantoin.—Three grams of thiohydan- toin and an excess of salicylic aldehyde (theory 1.386 gms.) were heated with 5 gms. of fused sodium acetate and 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid. After 20 minutes an orange crystalline compound separated out, but the heating was prolonged for two hours to insure complete reaction. After cooling the mass was treated with water, filtered, dried and recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in yellow acicular needles which dissolve in concentrated H.SO, to give a deep red color. Heated in a capillary tube it melts at 249-50°C. (cor.) to a clear red oil, Analysts (Boric acid method) i — acid, equivalent to 7.538% N. Theory for C2:H;,0.N;8 is 7.58% N §-(8, 5-Dichloro-salicylal)-2, 3-diphenyl tsothiohydantoin.—This com- pound results as a product of the condensation of 2.5 (2.13 theory) ems. of chlorinated aldehyde and 3 gms. of the cyclic thiazolidone. After purification by several recrystallizations from acetic acid it separated in yellow needles which melted at 234-5°C. (cor.). 0.2006 gms. consumed 15.1 cc. Analysis (Boric acid method) 0.2006 gms. consumed 12.6 cc. acid, equivalent to N 14.01 6.28% N. Theory for C..H.O.N.CI1.S is 6.35% N 5-(3,4-Dihydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—When a so- lution of protocatechuic aldehyde (1.72 gms.) and diphenyl isothio- hydantoin (8 gms.) were heated in 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid, this product precipitated after one hour. It was filtered off by suction, washed with hot acetic acid and upon drying was obtained as a brilliant microcrystalline powder of light brown color. It does not melt below 300°C. Analysts (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method) 0.1458 gms. consumed 7.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 6.73% N. Theory for C22H,,0;N:5 is 7.22% N 174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 5-(8-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—If an excess of vanillin be heated in the presence of a dehydrating agent with diphenyl isothiohydantoin, the elements of water are eliminated and the vanillal compound is obtained. ‘This crystallizes in yellow shining leaflets which melt at 250-1°C. (cor.) to a clear yellow oil. Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method) 0.1205 gms. consumed 5.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 6.68% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03N3S is 6.97% N. &-(8-Chloro-vanillal)-2, 3-diphenyl isothiohydantein.—Chloro-vanillin (2.1 gms.) and diphenyl] isothiohydantoin (3 gms.) were heated in the presence of acetic acid and sodium acetate for a period of 8 hours. After standing overnight the solid which separated was filtered off and recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in fluffy crystalline masses of yellow needles which melt with decomposition at 132-4°C. (cor.). Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method) 0.1115 gms. consumed 4.8 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 6.08% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03;N.SCI is 6.41% N. §-(8-Nitro-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—This compound was precipitated as a yellow microcrystalline powder by addition of water to a heated reaction mixture containing its constituents in molecular proportion. It melts slowly and with decomposition at 100-2°C. Analysis (Salicyl-sulphonic acid method) 0.1155 gms. consumed 7.5 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 9.10% N. Theory for C.;Hi,0;N38 is 9.40% N. §-(5-Bromo-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The brominated 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzal condensation product was prepared by the general method, given above. It separates from acetic acid as a yellow brown powder which fails to melt sharply, some decomposi- tion beginning at 100°C. and incipient formation of a black tar results as the temperature is raised. Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method) 0.1186 gms. consumed 5.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to 5.91% N. Theory for C.3H,,0;NSBr is 5.82% N. APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 175 SUMMARY Dipheny! isothiohydantoin has been condensed with benzaldehyde, o-nitro-benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde, -furfural, salicylic aldehyde, 3,5 dichloro salicylic aldehyde, protocatechuic aldehyde, vanillin, chloro-vanillin, nitro-vanillin and bromo-vanillin, and the condensation products analyzed and described. - GEOLOGY.—WNote on the occurrence of the Choptank formation in the Nomint Cliffs, Va... WENDELL C. MansFietp, U. S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by L. W. STEPHENSON.) The Choptank formation, the middle formation of the Chesapeake group of the Maryland Miocene, was recognized in the Nomini Cliffs, Westmoreland County, Va., by Shattuck? in 1904. He says: “In the Nomini Cliffs, Virginia, it [the Choptank formation] is present as a 50-foot bed between the Calvert formation below and the St. Mary’s formation above.” In 1906 Clark and Mailler,? discussing the occurrence of the Cy ocak in Virginia, stated: ‘This formation is- prominently exposed in southern Maryland and Virginia, outcropping in a nearly complete section in the Nomini Bluffs on the Potomac River.” In the same year Shattuck and Miller‘ reiterated the earlier state- ment of Shattuck as to the occurrence of the Choptank in the Nomini Cliffs. In 1912, however, Clark and Miller® referred the entire Miocene portion of the section at Nomini Cliffs to the Calvert formation, recognizing neither the Choptank nor the St. Marys formation in that exposure. They wrote: ‘““The deposits hitherto described as Choptank in the Nomini Bluffs are now known, from a more exhaustive study of both the stratigraphy and paleon- tology, to belong to the Calvert formation. Itis possible that the Choptank may be represented, as it gradually thins out, in the low country lying be- tween the known outcrops of the Calvert and St. Mary’s formations but buried beneath the cover of Pleistocene formations.” The purpose of this note is to confirm the presence of the Choptank formation in the section at Nomini Cliffs, as originally interpreted 1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. 2 SHattuck, G. B., Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene Text, pp. LX XIX-LXXX, 1904. 3 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitumr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 2: 18, 1906. 4SuHattuck, G. B., and Mitusr, B. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, St. Marys folio (No. 136), Md.-Va., p. 3, col. 2, 1906. 5 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 4: 140-141, 1912. 176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7 by Shattuck, and also to indicate the occurrence of the basal portion of the overlying St. Marys formation. The Choptank formation in Maryland, according to Maryland Geological Survey Text, 1904,° is subdivided into five zones, which are numbered 16 to 20, inclusive. Zones 17 and 19 are very fossiliferous, corresponding respectively to ‘“‘zone e” and ‘“‘zone f”’ of Harris,’ while zones 16, 18 and 20 are either without fossils or sparingly fossiliferous. A comparison of the stratigraphic sequence, lithologic character, and faunal contents of the beds exposed in the Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, with those in the Nomini Cliffs and elsewhere in Virginia, seems to show conclusively that the Choptank formation is represented in the Nomini Cliffs. One section in the Calvert Cliffs very closely dupli- cates the section in one part of the Nomini Cliffs. The Maryland and Virginia sections are given below. Section about 13 miles below Flag Pond, Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, Maryland By W. C. MANSFIELD and W. P. PoPENOoE Approximate : thickness Pleistocene: . Feet Sand and gravel........ cy gore eleldue trace he tart ata 30-40 Miocene: St. Marys formation: Drab plastic clay (gone 22)... 250. 15 Clean fine-grained sand, 3 feet, underlain by dark gray slightly sandy semi-plastic clay, with a few fossil im- pressions (zone 21)..... Detecsdeces ae 18 Choptank formation: Bluish sandy clay, with a 1-foot layer of indurated fossilifer- ous sand at top containing the following species: Pedalion maxillata (Deshayes), Pecten madisonius Say, Asaphis centenaria (Conrad), Metis biplicata Conrad, Discinisca lugubris (Conrad), Schizoporella doverensis Ulrich and Bassler® (zone 20)... . 32... a. aoe eee 20 Light brown very fossiliferous sand with an indurated sand- stone layer, about 2 feet thick, at the top, carrying many individuals of Pecten madisonius Say (zonel9)....... 10-12 Bluish poorly fossiliferous sandy clay (zone 18).............. 8-10 Dark gray very fossiliferous sand (zone 17), exposed......... ib The subdivisions in the preceding section are separated into zones believed to correspond approximately to those designated in the Maryland Geological Survey Miocene Text, 1904. § Op. cit., pp. LX X XI-LX XXII. 7 Harris, G. D., Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: ser. III, pp. 21-31, 1893. 8 Identified by Dr. Ray S. Basstsmr, of the U.S. National Museum. APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 177 Section of Nomini Cliffs, right bank of Potomac River, Va., about 13 miles from lower end of Cliffs By W. C. MANSFIELD Approximate ; thickness. Pleistocene: Feet Reddish clive samcandmravel 2, in which some of the alumina is replaced by boric oxide. In view of, this possibility it is of interest to contrast the powder patterns of these two compounds. ‘Tracings of their photographs are shown in Figure 2. They clearly have no obvious relation to one another. Powder photographs have also been studied from samples of dumor- - tierite heated for 4 hours at various temperatures. Spacing measure- - ments upon them are stated in Table 4, their tracings are to be found in Figure 3. The principal lines of these photographs are seen to be essentially identical with the principal lines in the patterns of either Dumortierite 2 Q E J = Mullite <«—— Intensity Fig. 2.—Tracings of the positions of the principal powder lines of dumortierite and of mullite. The lengths of the lines in this diagram are roughly proportional to the relative intensities of the corresponding reflections. dumortierite or mullite. The measurements upon these photographs are not absolute determinations of spacings but were obtained by _ taking three or four conspicuous lines on each film as standard and establishing the relation of other lines to them. Such a simple pro- cedure is sufficient for the present purposes. Since dumortierite loses boric oxide and water at temperatures far below those at which the mullite pattern is observed it might be expected either that the dumortierite pattern itself would change as a result of these heatings, or that an amorphous material would appear as an intermediate stage in the decomposition of dumortierite. Small differences in relative intensities between the patterns of natural dumortierite and of this mineral after heating to 1100° and 1150° 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 appear to exist but the data of Table 4 show no well-defined altera-— tions in the observed spacings. These diffraction observations thus prove that the structure of dumortierite remains essentially unchanged after heating for 4 hours at 950° and 1100°C. and that mullite is the chief product arising from heating dumortierite to 1200° or 1500°C. TABLE 4.—Spactine Data ON DUMORTIERITE DECOMPOSED AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES SPACINGS AND APPROXIMATE INTENSITIES ORIGIN OF LINE 950° 1100° 1150° 1180° 1200° 1500° D m| 5.914 5. 82A a — a D ae Ween 5.00 ae Panty: ae D f | 4:33 4.42 ae oe an D foe ei88 3.90 = — ss D m | 3.48 3.49A 3.47 mea a ss M pas — (3.411)A| (3.411)A] (3.411)A] s D 3.25 3.25 nos D m | (2.918) |. (2.918) 4 (2.998), | {2-98 “a+ a M —— —— — |\ 2.88 2.88 f D,M ff 2.68 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.72 f M =“ mess = 2.53 2.53 2.54 m M hap REED aie = ses 2.29 2.28 f a m | 2.20 2.21 2.21 | (2.197) | (2.197) | @.197) | m M a a = apne 2.11 2.12 f D s | (2.089) | (2.089) | (2.089) | \2.08 ai te D f 1.93 1.93 1.92 1.93 mee ae M — = = — 1.88 ff M —_ — — iy 1.83 ff M —— = 1.70 1.70 1.70 m D ff 1.67 a ae _— D ff 1.62 = ab = M — ee — 1.60 1.59 1.59 f D f 1.55 1.54 1.54 une ats anes M a — —— | (1.518) ©] (1.518)) 4 (@e50s) eee D s | (1.460) | (4.460) | (4.460) | 1.46 M ee eee _ 1.42 1.43 1.43 f D,M m| 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.33 1.33 D f 1.29 1.29 1.30 see uae — M anes ios a 6 (1.260) | (1.260) | m Note: In the first column of this table D and M refer to dumortierite and to mullite respectively. The patterns of dumortierite decomposed at 1200° and at 1500° are prac- tically those of mullite ;!! the spacings of the principal lines of dumortierite are given in Table 3. Absences of reflections are indicated by bars; vacancies (as for instance for the long spacing lines in the 1100° column) do not mean the absence of these lines. Stand- ard lines are enclosed in parentheses. 11 J.T. Norton. Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 401 (1925); L. Navras and W. P. Davey, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 640 (1925); R. W. G. Wycxorr, J. W. Greta and N. L. Bowen, Amer. Journ. Sci. (in press). ———S a Apr. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 187 The pattern of this mineral heated at 1150° is to be interpreted as that of dumortierite with a small amount of admixed mullite; the photo- ‘graph arising from the 1150-80° heating shows mainly mullite with some undecomposed dumortierite. The patterns of these high tem- perature products are somewhat weaker than those of unchanged 1150 —'1180° Fig. 3.—Tracings showing the positions and the approximate relative intensities of the principal lines observed in the powder photographs of dumortierite heated at various temperatures. dumortierite, but they do not show the intense blackening which should be found if any considerable portion of the sample had become amorphous. DUMORTIERITE AS A REFRACTORY Dumortierite is to be regarded favorably as a basis for refractory bodies, and, on account of its higher Al.O; content, as having some 188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 advantages over the silicates of composition Al,03;-SiO., namely, sillimanite, andalusite, and cyanite. Indeed, dumortierite may, for refractory purposes, be looked upon as having the formula which was, by mistake, originally assigned to it, namely, 4Al,03-3S10., and its thermal behavior may be read off from the alumina-silica diagram. Though some liquid is formed at 1545° the amount (4 per cent) is considerably less than that formed with sillimanite, andalusite, or cyanite (14 per cent) so that failure under load at that temperature should be much less notable. With further rise of temperature in- crease in the amount of liquid is very slow until about 1700°, where it amounts for the 4:3 mixture to about 6 per cent. The liquid then increases more rapidly until at 1810° it amounts to about 18 per cent. The 4:3 mixture has therefore only a slightly greater amount of liquid at 1810° than the 1:1 mixture has at 1545°, though, in the latter case, the liquid is much more viscous. At 1810° the 4:3 mixture is abruptly transformed from mullite with a little liquid (18 per cent) to corundum with much liquid (nearly 70 per cent) and all its refractory power must there disappear. In so far as dumortierite approaches the theortical composition represented by the formula 8A1,0;-6Si0,-B,03-H.O its behavior at high temperatures should approach that outlined above. If it is really somewhat variable in composition, and especially if the ratio of alumina to silica may in some examples be not so great then these examples will not be quite so refractory. OBSERVATIONS ON DUMORTIERITE FROM NEVADA In addition to the very pure dumortierite from Arizona, dumor- tierite from the Rochester Mining District, Nevada, was examined.” None of this dumortierite is free from foreign matter which is almost exclusively muscovite. Two classes of material were treated, the one a select specimen with 3 or 4 per cent muscovite, the other, with about 20 per cent muscovite, which appears to represent the general run of material there available. At lower temperatures decomposition of the dumortierite into mullite and silica takes place in exactly the same way as in the Arizona mineral. Even at high temperatures the speci- men with only a little mica did not show any significant departure in behavior from the purer Arizona mineral. In the specimen with the greater amount of mica, however, definite sintering begins at a lower 12 This material was kindly supplied by Ernest E. Fatrpanxks, Bureau of Mines Reno, Nevada. APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 189 temperature. The formation of some liquid is in fact apparent at 1500°, and at 1550° the amount of liquid is definitely greater than that in the specimen with only a little mica. “Both give a pure white prod- uct even when definite partial melting has occurred. In this respect the pale-colored dumortierite from Nevada differs from the deep-blue Arizona mineral which, as we have seen, gives a slightly colored product when carried to temperatures where some formation of liquid occurs. No observations on the loss of weight were made on the Nevada ~ dumortierite. SUMMARY The dissociation of dumortierite, 8Al,03;-6Si10.-B.03;-H.O, at high temperatures has been studied and it is found that decomposition of the crystals occurs with formation of mullite, 3A1,.03-28i0., and a little excess material. The first definite evidence of a change is obtained at 950°, but the products of decomposition are recognizable by their microscopic and X-ray characters only at higher tempera- tures. X-ray diffraction photographs (powder method) have been made of dumortierite and of its decomposition products as obtained at various temperatures. The results of measurements of the lines of these photographs are given in Tables 3 and 4 and Figures 2 and 3. Formation of a little liquid with definite sintering occurs first at 1550°. Determination of the loss on ignition shows that B.O; and H,O are completely expelled at 1500° in 4.5 hours and almost com- pletely in a much shorter time. At such temperatures, then, the product of decomposition is mullite with a little free silica, and the fact that liquid first appears at 155C° is due to melting at the eutectic between mullite and SiO, (1545°).. The mineral thus behaves for all practical purposes as a simple mixture of alumina and silica, nearly, if not actually, in the proportion 4A1,03-38i0.2, and its thermal be- havior can be read off directly from the alumina-silica diagram, Fig. 1. 190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7 ENTOMOLOGY.—The_ occurrence of Phlebotomus in Panama.) RAYMOND C, SHANNON, Bureau of Entomology. (Communi- cated by 8. A. RoHWER.) The members of the genus Phlebotomus form one of the best known — groups (Psychodidae) of bloodsucking Diptera. Particularly is this true in certain southern European, Asiatic, and African countries where, owing to the fact that certain species are carriers of disease and others are suspected to be, a rather thorough investigation has been made of their habits, distribution, and classification. The American species have yet to undergo such an intensive investi- gation, for only twelve have been described, and these mostly from South America. Several species have been suspected of carrying disease, there being considerable evidence to show that P. verrucarum Townsend is the vector of verruga fever in Peru, while both P. brumptz and P. intermedius are suspected of being transmitters of American leishmaniasis. : There are as yet no published records of the occurrence of Phle- botomus in Panama. However, in 1911, Mr. August Busck collected two females at Cabima, Panama. These were tentatively determined by Knab as “P. squamiventris L. & N.” and “U. rostrans Summers,” respectively. In 1923, the writer collected a number of specimens, at three locali- tiesin Panama. ‘The first were taken in the month of May in the day- time by means of sweeping with a net at the bases of large coipu trees growing in the midst of an uncut forest area located near Cano Saddle, on one of the back arms of Gatun Lake. A number of females and one male were secured in this manner. In June and July, while the writer was investigating the mosquito fauna of Barro Colorado Island, in Gatun Lake, at that time a wholly uninhabited and nearly virgin forest area, he again encountered Phiebotomus. The midges were attracted by the camp light (a gasoline lantern) and rested upon objects well within the range of the light. They bit rather frequently, the bite being distinctly sharper than an ordinary mosquito bite. Towards morning they would leave the light and hide themselves 1 An excellent summary of our knowledge of the species of Phlébotomus has been published by F. LarroussE, Htude Systematique et Médicale des Phlébotomes, 1921, pp. 1-106. Fig. 1.—Male terminalia of Phlebotomus panamensis Snn. Fig. 2.—Male terminalia of P. vexator Coq. Fig. 3.—Female terminalia of P. panamensis Snn. Fig. 4.—Female terminalia of P. vexator Cog. Fig. 5.—Female terminalia of P. cruciatus Coq. APR. 4, 1926 SHANNON: OCCURRENCE OF PHLEBOTOMUS 191 ee oo \\N te Saas ae a oS Nh Yi. ) WLAN WAg ar SIPEG DIB er P. vexator Coq. 3 Fi od Ppanamensis Onn. fe) FP cruciatus Coq. 9 Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; see page 190 for description 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 away for the day. Only females were taken. At Porto Bello, Panama, the writer collected a single female in a cave-like dungeon in one of the old Spanish forts in the city. The dungeons were inhabited both by bats and snakes; either, or both probably, serve as hosts for the midges. It would seem from the above abeaaione that man is not a normal host for these bloodsucking midges; and, in the writer’s experience, no ill effects were felt from their bite. All of the collections of Phlebotomus from Panama proved to belong to a single new species, which is here described. Phlebotomus panamensis, new species Description of male and female.—Very similar in general appearance to other species of Phlebotomus. Integument pale yellow; antennae sixteen-jointed; palpi apparently four-jointed, the basal joint well fused with the second, the relative lengths of the joints (considering the two basal joints as one and the first joint) are 1: 0.90: 0.15: 0.25. All of the body pile long and erect. Subcosta ending free at about the basal third of the wing; distance between tips of R, and Rz greater than distance between tips of R. and M;; petiole of upper forked cell a little more than half the length of R»; petiole of lower forked cell is to the upper branch of the cell as 3:5 Male clasper: Four spines present, arangedee in a double group; = terminal spine the longest. Other genitalic characters are shown in the figure. Apparently eight abdominal segments are present, the seventh and eighth appear to be telescoped into the sixth. Female terminalia: The cerci, or terminal lobes, and the ventral lobes of three species before me, P. panamensis, P. cruciatus, and P. vexator show certain differences which may aid in distinguishing these species in this sex. (See figures 3, 4, and 5.) P. cruciatus has much larger terminal lobes than have the other two species, and they are more than twice as long as broad and more finely setulose; in P. panamensis the terminal lobes are subquadrate, except that the lower distal corner is obtusely produced; in P. vexator the terminal lobes are similar to those of P. panamensis, except that they are somewhat larger. The key to the American species, based on male genitalia, given by Larrouse, shows that P. longipalpis Lutz & Neiva (Brazil) may be the nearest ally, among the known species, to P. panamensis. The terminal palpal joint in that species is longer than any of the preceding APR. 4, 1926 SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 193 joints, whereas in P. panamensis, the last joint is much shorter than the antepenultimate joint. Type locality—Cano Saddle, Canal Zone, Panama. Type.—Cat. no. 28726, U.S. N. M. Male type, female allotype, Cano Saddle, Canal Zone; eight female paratypes, Cano Saddle, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Porto Bello, May—August, 1923, collected by R. C. Shannon; Cabima, Panama, May 22, 1911, collected by A. Busck. ANTHROPOLOGY .—The_ subjectwe element in magic. JOHN R. SWANTON, Smithsonian Institution.! The theory that religion originated in animism, belief in souls resident in or associated with plants, animals, natural and artificial objects, was, as is well known, propounded by E. B. Tylor more than fifty years ago; and, as is also well known, J. G. Frazer later set up an opposing theory to the effect that animistic beliefs were secondary, having sprung from an earlier stage in which men’s minds were dominated by magic. Frazer’s hypothesis has been repeatedly and thoroughly grilled by leading British and American anthropologists such as Lang, Marett, Goldenweiser, and Lowie, al! of whom take issue with the learned author, and in general it may be said that there is no tangible proof for the evolutionary succession for which Frazer con- tended. However, his critics have not found it altogether easy to place magic and religion in their proper mutual relations. Magical practices seem to be accomplished in three ways, (1) through spirit intermediaries whose coéperation can not be counted upon with certainty, (2) through spirit intermediaries who are absolutely gov- erned by the magician—or perhaps rather by the magical incantation, or (3) without spirit intermediaries. The first of these is generally conceded to belong in very large measure in the province of religion, while the second is usually classed as magical. But since the theoreti- cal control over spirits exercised by a worker in magic varies greatly it is difficult to draw a sharp line between practices belonging to these two classes. The conception of spirit helpers is certainly furnished by religion, and where their services are absolutely constrained we may perhaps say that we have a magic-religion complex with magic - dominant. Practices of the third type are, of course, those most typical of magic as distinguished from religion, but when we come to concrete 1 Received February 19, 1926. 194. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 7 examples the anthropomorphizing urge is so great that it is difficult to be sure that they are entirely sterilized of the religious element. And, having apparently segregated cases of true magic, are we sure that what we have left is anything more than the effect of a theory of causation differing in no respect from hypotheses involving purely natural phenomena? Indeed primitive man frequently applies terms generally reserved for the supernatural to purely natural occurrences. There are people with little or no superstition in their make up who believe that mind may communicate with mind directly over wide spaces. If it should turn out that they are right, the primitive magician who attempts to benefit or injure at a distance by mental action would deserve so much the more credit. Should we then class his efforts as magical or scientific? But that is not all. Granted that they are magical and supernormal from our point of view, are they from his? Lowie well says: “But the residue [of native lorel, which we are obliged to reject when testing it in the light of our knowl- edge, does not, for that reason, belong to a different category from a psychological point of view. . . . . In so far as [primitive man] observes and reasons without enveloping his menial operations with the atmosphere of supernaturalism he is none the less a scientist or at least a precursor of science because of his errors, for mistakes from sheer ignorance are committed by our greatest thinkers.’’? Not only so, but some of our greatest thinkers, Kepler for instance, hit upon cardinal scientific truths while their minds were enveloped in “the atmosphere of supernaturalism’”’ and therefore the atmosphere of supernaturalism becomes a rather insecure determinant of the distinc- tion between magic and science. But whether or not any of the scientific attitude attaches to magical practices and superstitions of related character numbers of them per- form subjective services, or supposed services, of another kind which go far toward explaining their existence and their persistence. I mean simply this, that the act in question keeps a desired end in view, or at least serves to exclude from the thoughts an undesired and hence unpleasant end. When, for instance, the Zulu chews a bit of wood “in order, by this symbolic act, to soften the heart of the man he wants to buy oxen from, or of the woman he wants for his wife,’ the pro- ceeding at least suggests and keeps before his mind the accomplish- ment of something agreeable. In view of the unexplored character of 2 KR. H. Lown, Primitive Religion, p. 148. 3 EK. B. Tytor, Primitive Culture, 1: 118 (quoted from Grout, Zulu-land). APR. 4,1926 | SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 195 much of the mental life even a civilized man might, under similar circumstances, think that perhaps his rite would be of some avail, and in the grade of development to which the Zulu belongs such a sugges- tion would be tenfold more powerful. At least, if timidity, remote- ness from the persons in question, or other causes prevented the per- former from taking more effective action, such a bit of imitative magic would furnish an outlet for his unsatisfied mental strivings. Similarly, when the wizard endeavors to injure or kill an enemy by making an image of him and mistreating it in various ways, his efforts will ordinarily be without direct avail. Still, the desired end may be accomplished by the effect of these activities on the equally super- stitious mind of his victim, and in any case the act serves to feed the spirit of hatred which the magician entertains, helps him to “nurse his wrath,’ and thus performs a service, although a perverted one, to the doer. The same argument applies in the case of hunting charms, war medicines, mascots, etc. They suggest success, help to keep up the spirit of the owner or owners, and hence actually add to their courage and feeling of competency. Even the possession of a rabbit’s foot may have an exhilarating effect on a highly educated gentleman of our own times which he would be ashamed to admit. Faced with an uncertain future of infinite possibilities, and recognizing that unknown laws are at work about him, the bewildered individual tends to grasp at anything which suggests a happy outcome and, at least, something associated in his mind with success. This may be a thing purely individual, as in the wearing of a particular scarf-pin, or a certain dress, or the carrying of a sketch as in instances cited by Tozzer,’ or it may be something which his group or associates have come to hold in such esteem. Cases of the latter kind are the rabbit’s foot just mentioned, the mascot of the college or the athletic team, or the palladium of a tribe. When in doubt or perplexity, man tends to lean on his fellows or his group, and when the group has come to associate good or ill fortune with this, that, or the other object, it is the easiest thing in the world to resolve the perplexity by accepting the group superstition. This, of course, applies to group ideas of all kinds, whether or not of the nature of charms. ‘‘Of course,’ we say, “we are not superstitious,’’ but we do not know how to meet the present emergency, the use of a rabbit’s foot or a particular amulet is an ancient and widely spread custom, and that fact argues that ‘‘there must be something in it,” and anyhow “it can do no harm.” 4 A.M. Tozzzr, Social Origins and Social Continwities, pp. 242-266. 1925. 196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 A personal experience may help along the thought at this point. When a boy the writer used to dress in a room heated by an airtight stove. Before brushing his hair he was in the habit of wetting the hairbrush at the washstand, and as this was on the opposite side of the room from the mirror, he was obliged to pass the stove going and coming. As he passed the stove on his way back he fell into the habit of flirting a little water off of his brush upon it in order to hear the sizzle. But, after this little custom had been kept up for some time, he one day determined he would omit the ceremony, and he was straightway conscious of a distinct sense of discomfort, while the thought flashed through his mind from nowhere in particular, “Sup- posing bad luck should follow the omission.” Evidently the cause of the discomfort was the breaking of a partially established habit, a discomfort of the kind that compelled old Dr. Johnson to go back and strike any fence post he had omitted hitting with his cane. ‘The thought consequent on the discomfort may have had a religious origin; it was perhaps a vague attempt to interpret in religious terms an unpleasant sensation which was purely psychological, the distaste of the organism toward any interference in a customary exercise. In most cases such superstitions probably do “do harm,’ because life is too short to clutter it up with useless formulas. The mental machinery will register impressions based on sound reasoning as readily as meaningless imitations of what our neighbors do or our ancestors have done, and our time should be devoted to the former occupation. However, there are suggestions connected directly with magic which are beneficial, even though they may be irrational. There is no ques- tion that certain sights and sounds have an alleviating effect on the sick. Some perhaps serve merely as counter irritants to remove the mind from its immediate troubles, but others are of a kind to turn the flow of the patient’s thoughts strongly to a happy outcome. When a Haida woman was about to give birth, it was customary to let an eel slide down to her feet inside of her clothing, the slippery nature of the creature and the direction it took indicting easy parturition, and a similar suggestion was involved in many magical practices on this and other occasions. If a patient strongly believed that the pain in his arm was due to a witch arrow and the doctor could seem to suck this out and actually show it to him, the alleviation of the apparent symp- toms was probable and their actual alleviation in certain cases more than likely. APR. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 197 The Chickasaw attempted to cure by a powerful use of group sug- gestion. The entire neighborhood would be summoned to the house _ of the sick person, a fire lighted east of the main doorway, which was always toward that quarter as being the good luck direction, little canes adorned with ribbons, images, and other objects properly con- jured by the doctor, were stuck in the ground near the fire, and all of the guests danced about between the fire and the house while the sick man himself sat in the doorway looking on, or was supported by others in that position. The vigorous actions of the dancers were supposed to energize the patient and ‘‘dance away” his malady. In other words he was made the focus of a powerful assembly of sugges- tions, composed of all kinds of good luck signs, the concentrated belief of his neighbors, and their display of energy which he was taught to think was working upon his indisposition. The elaboration of the charm, mascot, fetish, palladium, or cere- monial in order to suggest more intensely the end to which it was believed to lead would of course be thought to increase the possibility of attainment, but it would certainly make the desire more vivid and in the same measure increase the subjective satisfaction of the magician and his friends. Hence such efforts cannot be said to have been entirely unserviceable although in many cases they were socially undesirable. It is perhaps worth considering whether this motive may not have acted as a powerful stimulus in the evolution of the arts. My conclusion is that, whatever religious element may attach to. magic, it is to be explained mainly by reference to immediate psycho- logical processes, particularly those of the magician himself. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 929TH MEETING The 929th meeting, the first of the year 1926, was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium on Saturday evening, January 9, 1926. The meeting was called to order at 8:31 by President Bowie with 67 persons present. The address of the evening was given by the retiring president, J. A. FLEMING, on The magnetic and electric survey of the earth; its physical and cosmical bearings and development. It appears in full in an early issue of the JourNaAL. (This JOURNAL, 16: 109-132, 1926.) . 930TH MEETING The 930th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, January 23, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bowie at 8:15 with 49 persons in attendance. | 198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7 Program: E. O. Hutspurt: The propagation of radio waves over the earth. —In this paper a quantitative theory of the propagation of radio waves over the earth is presented. Larmor’s theory of refraction due to the elec- trons of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer does not explain the “skip distances” for short radio waves (regions of silence around the transmitter which Taylor’s measurements showed to be 175, 400, 700, and 1300 miles in radius in the daytime, averaged over the year, for waves of 40, 32, 21 and 16 meters, respectively, and which are surrounded by zones of strong signals). The range as a function of wave-length shows a minimum for about 200 meters which suggests the introduction of a critical frequency term. lf the effect of the magnetic field of the earth on the motion of the electrons is taken into account, as suggested by Appleton and by Nichols and Schelleng, the modifica- tion a the Larmor theory necessary to fit it to the experimental facts is secured. The upper atmosphere is assumed to contain N free electrons per cubic - centimeter, and neglecting absorption the dispersion equations are worked out for various modes of polarization of the radio waves. Then the skip distances are computed, making various. assumptions as to the electron density distribution. (a) Reflection theory. As a first approximation the layer is taken to be sharply separated from the un-ionized lower atmosphere. At this layer total reflection occurs in accordance with Snell’s law. (b) Re- fraction theory. The following distributions are considered: (1) Density increasing linearly with the height h, beginning at a certain height ho; (2) Density proportional to h?; (8) Density proportional to e*; (4) Density proportional to h}/”. Comparison with the experimental skip distances shows good agreement, and indicates that the radio waves which just reach the edge of the zone beyond are refracted around a curved path, reaching in the daytime a maximum height of from 97 miles (case 1, ho = 21 miles, and case 2) to 149 miles (case 3). At this height the electron density comes out close to 10° electrons per cubic centimeter. At night the electron density gradient is less and the height is greater. These conclusions agree with physical conceptions from other evidence. From the dispersion equations it follows that for waves of 60 to 200 meters, total reflection may occur from the electron layers at all angles of incidence. . From this result, combined with interference between various modes of polarization of the radio rays, a detailed qualitative explanation of many fading phenomena is presented. Further conclusions are: That the ions in the atmosphere have little effect in comparison with the electrons; that for longer waves the Larmor theory is correct; that short waves are propagated long distances by refraction in the upper atmosphere and reflection at the surface of the earth, not by earth-bound waves; that waves below 14 meters can not be efficiently used for long distance terrestrial communication, but appear to offer a possibility of interplanetary communication. (Author’s abstract.) J.H. Service: Recent results with radio-acoustic ranging. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) The radio-acoustic method of position finding was taken up by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in the fall of 1923. The introduction to the paper reviews briefly the construction and operation of the original apparatus and the procedure originally followed, involving stopping the ship, firing a bomb in the water alongside and recording the time. Sound energy from the bomb travels through the water to hydrophones at two or more shore stations. The reception of sound at a given shore station, by means of amplifier and relays, causes a characteristic radio signal to be sent APR. 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199 out from that station, which is received aboard the ship and timed. Time of travel of sound energy and thence distance to each station is thus obtained. The following improvements have been made during the past two years: ‘Design of a special bomb for great distances, more efficient procedure in hydrophone and cable installation and recovery, the obtaining of fixes without reduction of the speed of the survey ship, elimination of stray hydrophone ences, automatic shore station operation and improved methods of plotting. The method has been shown to be practical for distances between ship and shore station up to 200 miles (unless unfavorable bottom conditions _ intervene), and gives a location for the ship with a maximum distance error _ varying from some 75 meters to somewhat less than a mile as the distance between ship and shore stations increases from 10 miles to 200 miles. A shore station will function automatically for over a week of continuous opera- tion without attention. Some of the problems awaiting solution are: obtaining a more suitable hydrophone cable, the modification of the apparatus to permit the use for short distances of a sound source more convenient than explosions, the development of a sound receiver better than a microphone, and modification of the apparatus so as to make possible the detection of sound energy trans- mitted across unfavorable bottom conditions. The use of the method has brought to light strong evidence to indicate that the sound energy from bomb to hydrophone is transmitted largely by means of multiple reflections between the surface andthe bottom. (Author’s abstract.) H. A. Marmer, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The annual party of the Pick and Hammer Club was held on March 6. Among the former members of the U. S. Geological Survey present were: RaLtepH ARNOLD, petroleum engineer of Pasadena, California; Epwarp SAMPSON of Princeton University; and K. C. Hna.p. Mrs. Nora DowELL STEARNS resigned from the Water Resources Branch of the U. 8. Geological Survey on March 1. The following members of the U. 8. Geological Survey expect to attend the International Geological Congress in Madrid, Spain, May 24-31: H. G. FrrGuson, M. I. Gotpman, G. M. Hatt, D. F. Hewert, and E. O. ULRicH. Mrs. Ferguson, Mrs. Goldman, and Mrs. Hewett will also be members of the party. Most of the geologists will attend one or more of the geological excursions to regions of especial interest in Spain and northern Africa. Mr. Hewett left Washington March 12, and will make several geologic investiga- tions in Greece, Italy, and Sardinia before the congress. Mr. GOLDMAN leaves on April 15, Mr. Ferauson April 24, and Mr. Utricu May 12. ARTHUR KEITH is on leave from the U. S. Geological Survey for the two months beginning March 17, to give a course of lectures on Structural geology of North America at the University of Texas, at Austin. RosBeErt T. Boot will be succeeded April 1, 1926, by RicHarp H. GopparRp as observer-in-charge of the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory (Peru) of the 200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No.7 Carnegie Institution of Washington. Mr. Booth will return to Washington across South America via the Amazon as a member of the special expedition of Messrs. Dauut and RAMBERG. Davip Wurtz, W. C. MENDENHALL, W. T. THoM, Jr., L. W. STEPHENSON, H. D. Miser, C. H. Dans, H. W. Hoots, N. W. Bass, and J. D. NortHop of the United States Geological Survey attended the annual meeting of the Petroleum Geologists at Dallas, Texas, on March 25, 26, and 27. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Tuesday, April 6. The Botanical Society. Thursday, April 8. The Chemical Society. Saturday, April10. The Biological Society. Thursday, April15. Joint meeting of the Acapremy and the Philo- sophical society. Saturday, April 17. The Philosophical Society. Program: H. L. DrypEn: Measurement of the performance of desk electric fans. W. W. Cosientz: Impressions of the Sumatra eclipse expedition. The Helminthological Society. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTENTS | ie ath at | Ontarwan Parans Ghetusiry: —The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl foo Mineralogy.—A pubtoeonhey and aay ae of a, thermal dumortierite. We BowEN and R. Ww. G. Wrexorr. .. By * | Proceepines: ; + I i bs he : 7 ys Nip The Philosophical ee a Vol. 16 | APRIL 19, 1926 No. 8 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewett . S. J. Maucuiy A@anrss CHAsy GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTEY tae ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwsr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E,. A. GoLtpMAN G. W. Strosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griaes BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGIGAL SOCIETY E. WiIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat anp GuILFoRD AVES, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this endit publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) short notes of current scientfiic literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4 notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. 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Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 Apri 19, 1926 | No. 8 PHYSICS.—D7vffraction by a grating. G. Breit. Department Ter- restrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. It is known that Frauenhofer interference phenomena may be ex- plained by means of Duane’s hypothesis? of the transfer of momenta in quanta. According to this explanation, only momenta of amount h a = may be transferred laterally to a plane grating if a is the grating space. For low intensities of incident radiation the amount of light diffracted into a given order is proportional to the intensity of the incident light. This suggests that the action of a grating is similar to that which would exist if we had simple collisions between light quanta and the grating. However, a consideration of black body equilibrium shows that this is not the case and that the grating is similar in its action to an atom. It seems almost obvious that the actions of a resonator and of a grating are very similar because a con- ducting rod of a given length forms a transition step between the two. It is known that the relative intensities of various orders in the diffraction pattern of a grating may be varied within wide limits. This shows that for theoretical purposes we may require that a grat- ing reflecting only within one order should be in proper equilibrium with black body radiation. We postulate that the mean kinetic energy of each degree of freedom of the translational motion should be =, where k is Boltzmann’s constant and 7' the absolute tempera- ture. Whenever a quantum is diffracted by the grating, it acquires a 1 Received March 9, 1926. 2Duane. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., May, 1923. Compton. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 9: 359. EpsteInN and ERRENFEST. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 10: 133. Breit, G. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 9: 238-246, 1923. 201 202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 — h h momentum laterally of amount = me 5 where 6 = = We further simplify the consideration by supposing that the material of the grating is selectively reflecting at a frequency v. [This may be shown to be equivalent to assuming that its reflection curve is arbitrary.| SNe yy. i : We have then that Einstein’s? coefficient _ 1s proportional to rm p(v), where p(v)dy is the energy density in the frequency range dp. Einstein‘ showed that if black body radiation is referred to a frame of reference moving with velocity v, then in a direction making an angle » with the direction of motion the energy density is to within the first order of v p(v) + : cosy (> - — 3 o()) If we suppose now that the diffraction in various directions is deter- mined entirely by the number of hitting quanta and if each element of the grating is capable only of ordinary reflection, Einstein’s coefh- Op cient #& is proportional to v Seite 3 p(v). , Hence in order that the equation A2 — = 2RkT i (Einstein loc cit. 125, form. 12) be satisfied we must have 17-0 o(] i ale Stone ee (1) p\ Op Ov With Planck’s form of the radiation law this is clearly impossible (though the Rayleigh Jeans approximation satisfies the above re- quirement). Hence here just as in the case of atoms (Einstein loc. cit.) and free electrons: the influence of the presence of radiation on diffraction probabilities must be taken into account. The above- mentioned papers and the paper by Einstein and Ehrenfest® indicate how this is to be done. According to the generalization of Einstein and Ehrenfest, Pauli’s result may be interpreted to give the proba- bility of scattering as the product of two independent probabilities: (a) The probability of absorption, (b) the probability of re-emission. 3 Einstein. Zeits. Physik 18: 121, 1917. 4 Toc. cit. ’Pauui. Zeits. Physik 18: 272, 1923. 6 HINSTEIN and EuRENFEST. Zeits. Physik 19: 301, 1923. APR. 19, 1926 BREIT: DIFFRACTION BY A GRATING 203 For the case of a heavy grating we may simply suppose then that the resultant probability of scattering is such as though the grating were capable of absorbing and emitting as an atom does. _ Similar indications are given by the Doppler effect. Schroedinger showed that the Doppler effect may be understood in quantum theory by considering an absorbing and an emitting atom and by bringing into the discussion the changes in the energy of the quantum due to the recoil actions of the atoms. It is clear, therefore, that if a grating ‘is treated as a generalized atom Schroedinger’s reasoning will apply and all required conditions will be satisfied. If, however, the purely mechanistic point of view be taken, a difficulty is encountered at once in considering the diffraction by a moving grating. If, for ex- ample, the grating be moving with a velocity v towards the incident light and if the the incidence be normal, the angle of diffraction in the frame of the grating should be 6’ given by asin 6’ = ny’ where }’ is the wavelength of the incident light in the frame of the grating. If the grating be stationary asin@ = nd Thus sin 6’ v - aw ee 2 sin @ Cc ( y On the other hand, if the mechanism of diffraction were always that of imparting the same amount of momentum laterally to the grating as measured in the stationary frame, another angle 6’’ would result for the diffraction. ‘This is easily shown to be such that sin 6” v - = 1 — -—eosé (3) Sin 6 C (To within first powers of ai c The disagreement of (2) and (3) shows that the assumption underlying (3) is not valid. It may be suggested that the grating and the photographic plate should be looked upon as a complex atom. From a purely formal point of view the absorption by such an atom can be calculated by the Correspondence Principle. Similarly for its emission. We consider the latter first. The point of Duane’s idea is from this point of view that in addition to the quantum numbers of the emitting atom one 204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 may speak also of a quantum number of the grating, and that diffrac- tion in various directions is given by different changes in that quantum number. This quantum number according to Duane is the momentum of the grating divided by h. Appealing as this picture of Duane’s seems to be, it seems necessary to apply it only for phenomena of our complex atom within itself. BOTANY.—WNew Piperaceae from South America and Mexico. Wit- LIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois. (Communicated by BoP. Karaire:) Among specimens of South American and Mexican Piperaceae recently submitted to me by the United States National Museum for study the following new species and varieties were found: Piper austro-mexicanum, sp. nov. A shrub?; twigs somewhat zig-zag; flowering internodes rather thick and short (3 X 15-30 mm.), granular-scrabrous and rather persistently upcurved- hirsute; leaves elliptic-oblong, subacuminate, rounded at base with one side somewhat shorter, moderate (4-5 X 12-15 cm.), pinnately nerved from below about the middle, the nerves about 6 X 2, scabrous, the lower surface ap- pressed-hairy, somewhat bullate in age; petiole short (scarcely 5 + 3mm.), upcurved-hirsute, not winged; spikes opposite the leaves, 3-4 50-60 mm.; peduncle scarcely 10 mm. long, gray-hirsute; bracts rounded-subpeltate, gray-ciliate; flowers sessile, perfect. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,370, collected at Mon- serrate, Chiapas, southern Cordillera of Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 35). Piper eglandulosum, sp. nov. A shrub?; glabrous; flowering internodes long and slender; leaves ovate- elliptic, caudate, equally or subunequally acute at base, 6.5-7 & 15-16 cm., pinnately nerved nearly throughout, the nerves some 10-12 X 2, drying papery and glossy brown; petiole about 1 cm. long, winged at base; spikes opposite the leaves, 4-5 X 70-80 mm.; peduncle rather stout, 7 mm. long; bracts inconspicuous; flowers sessile, perfect. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,280,811, collected at Carapas, Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 14). Piper fenianum, sp. nov. A shrub?; flowering internodes crisp-pubescent, rather slender and short (2-3 em.); leaves elliptic-lanceolate, subacuminate, acute at base, small (2 xX 4.54.5 X 7cm.), palmately 5- or the larger obscurely 7-nerved, glabrous above, crisp-hairy beneath; petiole very short (scarcely 5 mm.) and slender, crisp-pubescent; spikes opposite the leaves, 2-3 < 60-75 mm.; peduncle crisp-hairy, short (scarcely 10 mm.); bracts subspatulate, ciliate and some- what pubescent; flowers perfect, sessile; berries oblong-ovoid, sulcate, glab- rous; stigmas 3, sessile. apr. 19, 1926 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 205 Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,377, collected at Hacienda Fenix, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 386). Piper martensianum interior, var. nov. A form with more lance-ovate leaves becoming 5-8 X 13 cm. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,374, collected at Mon- serrate, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 172). Purpus 148 is also this. Piper purpusianum, sp. nov. A shrub?; glabrous; twigs zig-zag; flowering internodes rather slender, moderately elongated (3-4 cm.); leaves elongated-lanceolate, subfalcately attenuate, subequilaterally rounded below or acute at the very base, moderate (3.5 X 15-5 X 21 cm.), pinnately nerved from below the upper fourth, the strongly upcurved nerves 5-9 X 2, somewhat bullulate in age, paler beneath; petiole rather short (10-20 mm.), winged to the blade; spikes opposite the leaves, small (4 * 20 mm.), with sterile apex scarcely 1 X 10 mm.; peduncle slender and short (scarcely 10 mm.); bracts lunately concave, glabrcus; flowers sessile, perfect. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,376, collected at Hacienda Fenix, Chiapas, southern Sierra Madre, Mexico, in 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 196). Piper zarumanum, sp. nov. A forking shrub, 2m. tall; flowering internodes rather slender and elongated, appressed- or crisp-pubescent; leaves lanceolate or lance-elliptic, somewhat acuminate, subacute at base, small (scarcely 1.75 X 5.5 cm.), pinnately or submultiple-nerved from below the middle, the nerves 4 X 2, minutely appressed-pubescent or scabrid on both sides; petiole 3 mm. long, appressed- pubescent, winged at base; spikes opposite the leaves, 3 X 30-50 mm.; peduncle 7 mm. long, crisp-pubescent; bracts triangular-subpeltate, ciliate | ean ; flowers sessile, perfect; berries depressed-globose; stigmas 3, small, sessile. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,222, collected between La Chorita and Portovelo (gold mine near Zaruma), Province Oro, Ecuador, alt. 1000-2000 meters, August 28, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21178). Peperomia carapasana, sp. nov. A rather tall but slender and straggling glabrous herb; stem scarcely 2 cm. thick; leaves characteristically 3 at a node, lance-elliptic, gradually acute at both ends, moderately large (2.5-4.5 X 9.5-13 cm.), 3- or obscurely 5-nerved, drying thin and translucent; petiole 10-15 mm. long, slender; spikes terminal, filiform (2 < 90-140 mm.), densely flowered; peduncle 15 mm. long; bracts round-peltate; berries ovoid-acute with pseudo-cupule; stigma apical. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,868, collected at Carapas, Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 114). -Peperomia choritana Trelease, sp. nov. A small essentially glabrous herb, repent on logs; stem slender (1 mm.); leaves alternate, round to elliptic, rounded at both ends or the longer acute 206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 at base, 7 X 7-12 mm., drying thick and yellowish with the simple midnerve evident beneath, somewhat revolute, minutely ciliolate upwards, obscurely pale-granular beneath; petiole scarcely 3 mm. long; spikes terminal, 1 & 40— 50 mm., somewhat openly subannularly flowered; peduncle filiform, 5-10 mm. long; bracts round-peltate; ovary ovoid, pointed; stigma subapical. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,212, collected between La Chorita and Portovelo (gold mine near Zaruma), Province Oro, Ecuador, alt. 1000-2000 meters, August 28, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21162). Peperomia enantiostachya distachya, var. nov. A slender repent and rooting form with ovate-acuminate leaves 2.5 X 5.5 em., filiform petioles 1-2.5 cm. long, and very small spikes (in fruit searcely 1 X 15 mm.) paired on a filiform 1-bracted common peduncle 2 em. long, the individual peduncles scarcely half this length; berries ovoid, obliquely long- beaked, the stigma at base of the beak. Type i in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,197 659, collected at Palmera, Rio Pastaza, between Bafios and Mera, Ecuador, alt. 1200 meters, in 1924, by Ge Hk H. Tate (no. 672). Peperomia omnicola oblanceolata, var. nov. A moderate short-stemmed subsimple subprostrate herb; stem rather thick (4mm.), crisp-pubescent; leaves alternate, oblong-oblanceolate, sharp-acumi- nate, acute at base, moderately large (5-6 15-17 cm.), sparsely appressed- hairy above, crisp-pubescent beneath especially on the midrib, rather faintly pinnately nerved; petiole 1-2.5 cm. long, crisp-hairy; spikes: 2-4 nearly sessile at each node of an open terminal panicle some 15 X 25 em., filiform (1 X 100-150mm.); common peduncle (3-4 cm.) and axis of panicle softly crisp-pubescent; bracts round-peltate; ovary ovoid, impressed; stigma sub- apical. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,197,654, collected at Palmera, ' Rio Pastaza, between Bafios and Mera, ‘Ecuador, ‘alt. 1200 meters, in 1924, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 667). Peperomia ppucu-ppucu, sp. nov. A moderately small (subprostrate?) glabrous herb rooting from many nodes; leaves crowded, about 3 at a node, round-elliptic, rounded at both ends, often emarginulate, drying opaque and without evident nerves, about 10 X 10 mm.; petiole short (2 mm.); spikes terminal, about 2 X 6 mm. rather closely flowered with anastomosing ridges; peduncle short (5 mm.); bracts round-peltate, rather large; berries ovoid-attenuate, with pseudo- cupule; stigma apical. : Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,231,071, collected at Ollan- taytambo, Urubamba, Peru, alt. 2800 meters, in 1925, by F. L. Herrera (no. 802). Peperomia stelecophila glabrata, var. nov. A moderately small repent herb, on logs, rooting from many nodes; stem rather slender (2-3 mm.), glabrous; leaves alternate, ovate, acuminate, peltate distinctly within the rounded base, 2.5 X 4.5 cm. (? or larger), dull, leathery, obscurely multiple-nerved, appressed-hairy around the margin; petiole 3 cm. long, glabrous; spikes axillary (? or also terminating lateral! APR. 19, 1926 PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 207 branches), 3 X 80-90 mm., closely subannularly flowered; peduncle 25 mm. long, bracted near the middle; bracts round-peltate; berries oblong, truncate _ with stout spreading beak; stigma on the truncated apex. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,573, collected between Banos and Cashurco, Valley of Rio Pastaza, Province Tungurahua, Ecuador, alt. 1300-1800 meters, September 25, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21886). Peperomia subanomala, sp. nov. A rather small erect branching herb; stem slender (1-2 mm.) rather long- hairy but glabrescent except about the nodes; leaves opposite, elliptic, sub- acute at both ends, rather small (7 X 14-10 X 20 mm.), slightly pubescent on the nerves above, somewhat revolute, densely long-hairy beneath, ob- scurely 3-nerved, firm and opaque; petiole short (2 mm.), hairy or sub- glabrescent; spikes terminal and axillary, moderately small (1 X 30 mm.), rather closely flowered; peduncle 5 mm. long, glabrous; bracts round-peltate; ovary ovoid, impressed; stigma subapical. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no, 1,197,533, collected at Ambato, Province Tungurahua, Ecuador, alt. 2500 meters, in 1924, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 542). Peperomia sukbccencava, sp. nov. A moderately small more or less cespitose simple erect arboricolous herb; stem rather slender (scarcely 2 mm.), at first puberulent or glabrous; leaves about 3 at a node, round-elliptic or obovate, rounded at both ends or the base subacute, very fleshy, drying thick with hyaline margin and not ob- viously nerved, 10 X 10-15 mm., somewhat pubescent to quite glabrous; petiole short (3 mm.) and thick, granular-puberulent or glabrous; inflores- cence unknown. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,467, collected between Cuenca and Huigra, Provinces Azuay and Cafiar, Ecuador, alt. 2700-3000: meters, September 12-13, 1923, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 21686). Peperomia tequendamana, sp. nov. An ascending moderately small more or less branched herb; stem moderate (2-3 mm.) with short internodes, rusty crisp-villous; leaves alternate (? ex- ceptionally opposite), broadly elliptic or ovate-elliptic, obtuse at both ends or abruptly blunt-acuminate, moderate (1.5 *K 2-2 X* 4 em.), 5-nerved, appressed-hairy on both faces, granular beneath; petiole very short (2 mm.), hairy; spikes terminal and axillary, 2 X 60 mm., rather loosely subverti- cillately flowered; peduncle about 10 mm. long, from sparsely crisp-pubescent glabrescent; bracts round-peltate; ovary impressed, ovoid, obtuse; stigma subapical. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no, 1,198,754, collected at Tequen- dama Falls, near Bogotdé, Dept. Cundinamarca, Colombia, September 1909, by Brother Ariste Joseph (no. B-92). BOTAN Y.—On Gyranthera and Bombacopsis, with a key to the Amert- can genera of Bombacaceae. H. Pirtrer, Caracas, Venezuela. In his recent revision of the Bombacaceae,! Mr. R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink has confessed himself unable to place my genus Gyran- 1 Revisio Bombacaceavum, in Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, Ser. III, 6: 161-232; pl. 26-38. 1924. 208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 Fig. 1—Flowers of Gyranthera: A-C, general views showing details of the petals; D, calyx; E, anther with the connective stipitate and auriculate at the base, long awned at the apex. All about 3 dia. APR. 19, 1926 PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 209 thera, described in 1914 from specimens of the Panaman species.? In 19213 I published a second species, Gyranthera caribensis, in a paper in which I gave all the additional details necessary to characterize the new genus definitely, and to place it rightly among the Bombacaceae. If the author had consulted this paper, presumably accessible to him, the description of the fruit alone would have convinced him that Gyranthera really belongs to the Bombacaceae, and further that it is not to be associated with Chorisia. In order better to establish the status of Gyranthera as a valid genus, its description is given here again, emended and amplified so as to show more clearly the characters which differentiate it. The illustrations, reduced to one-half natural size, show the principal features of the flower and fruit. DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS GYRANTHERA PITTIER (1914) Flores regulares vel leviter zygomorphi. Calyx coriaceus, tubulosus, caducus, plus minusve regulariter 2 vel 3-lobulatus, lobulis perbrevibus, integris bicuspidatisve, in aestivatione valvatis. Petala 5, laciniata, crassa, basi, tubo stamineo adnata, prefloratione contorta. ‘Tubus stamineus teres vel sulcatus, elongatus, gracilis, longe exsertus, apice versus staminodiis lineari-filiformibus plus minusve sparsis appendiculatus; filamenta 5, crassa, antheris permultis, vermiformibus, dithecis obsita; thecae transverse septatae; connectivum basi subsessile vel distincte stipitatum, apice emarginatum ongeque mucronatum; pollinis granula pallide flava, laeves, diminuta. Ovarium superum, sessile, 5-carpidiatum, 5-loculare; ovula transversa, anatropa, angulo interno locularum affixa; stylus filiformis, stamina longior, stigmate breviter 5-fido. Capsula plus minusve fusiformis, unilocularis, coriacea vel subligriosa; dehiscentia loculicida. Semina numerosa, alata, albuminosa; embryo leviter curvatus. Arbores sylvarum panamensium et venezuelensium, altae, deciduae, inermes. Folia alterna, 3-7-digitata, longe petiolata, foliolis integris, petiolu- latis. Flores magni, albi, ebracteati, in panniculas terminales, unilaterales, dispositi. From this description it will be seen that Gyranthera differs funda- mentally from Chorisia in its capsule, in which the ovarian cell-walls have been almost completely ob’iterated; in the shape and disposition of the winged seeds; and especially in the general structure and ap- pearance of the flower. The same conclusion may be more quickly reached by comparing plate 40 of volume 12, part 3, of Martius’s Flora brasiliensis with the illustrations added to this article. The affinities of the new genus are evidently with the Matisiae,—I would say with Quararibea and Ochroma with regard to the floral 2 Malvales novae panamenses, in Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 18: 318. 1914. 3 Acerca del genero Gyranthera Pittier, in Bol. Com. Ind. Venezuela 13: 417-433. 1921. . . ~~ f 210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 structure, and with Bernoullia as to the fruits. But our plant differs from all three in its digitate leaves and from each in particular by decidedly aberrant characteristics, such as the presence of staminodes disposed in two more or less regular whorls, each staminode simple or bifurcated in the upper whorl, bifid or trifid in the lower whorl. The arrangement of the seeds also is remarkable and sui generis: while in Bernoullia, the wings are simply turned upward at the base and downward at the apex of each cell of the capsule, in Gyranthera they are so placed in the single cell that two consecutive wings of the lower seeds are separated by the wing of one of the upper ones. This is neatly shown in figure B, of the accompanying Fig. 2. The above description is far from perfect. The arrangement of the anthers, on account of their peculiar gelatinous consistency when fresh, has not yet been sufficiently elucidated. The fruit of the Panaman species is not known. But it seems that there can be no doubt as to the validity of the genus and its place in the classification, somewhere between Quararibea and Bernoullia. Mr. Bakhuizen van den Brink also ignores the genus Bombacopsis, published by me in 1916, based on Pachira Fendlert.4 I am quite aware that any botanist who is reduced to mere herbarium speci- mens or scanty descriptions upon which to base his judgment may hesitate to accept any further splitting of the genera Bombax and Pachira. Schumann himself even went so far as to unite these two last groups into a single one, Bombaz, thus going back to the Linnean generic concept. This, however, has not generally been accepted, and most botanists admit that there is at least a decided difference between the two groups. ‘They are as a matter of fact separated by fundamental differences in the fruit and seed, and by no small struc- tural details of the flowers. Without going farther into details, let us recall the presence or absence of wool in the fruit and the considera- ble size of the seeds of Pachira as compared with those of Bombar. In the course of my explorations in Panama, my attention was drawn to two striking trees, originally placed among the species of Pachira, the one by Seemann under the name of P. Fendleri, the other by Bentham as P. sesstlis, and transferred to Bombax by subse- quent authors. The flowers of these two trees look exactly like minia- tures of those of the genus Pachira and, as the fruits had not then been described, both botanists were to a certain extent justified in the generic place assigned to these species. But when the fruits became known, they proved to have the structure of those of Bombar, 4Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 159-163, pl. 64-75. 1916 APR. 19, 1926 - PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 211 Fig. 2—Fruit of Gyranthera: A, capsule before dehiscence; B, part of open capsule showing arrangement of seeds; C, detached seeds, one open to show details of embryo. Same reduction as in Fig. 1. 212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 with small seeds imbedded in the wool depending from the pericarp. That is to say, these trees, on account of their fruits, do not belong to Pachira nor, because of the characteristics of the flowers, to Bombaz. In other words, they belong neither to Bombax nor Pachira. The simplest solution was, then, to create an intermediary genus, and this is what I did under the name Bombacopsis. As a general rule, I do not believe in the multiplication of generic names at the expense of well-established groups, but that there are cases when the necessity of the division becomes more and more obvious. ‘Two good instances have attracted my attention in the course of an experience of nearly forty years in neotropical botany. I refer to the genera Pithecolobium and Cassia. When one comes to know the species of the first by daily observation, ordinary com- mon sense leads one to separate them into several groups. There is certainly no macroscopic likeness between a Prthecolobium of the unguts-catt group and the rain-tree (P. saman Benth.); and again, it is difficult to see the direct parental connection of the latter with the sections Caulanthon and Chloroleucon as created by Bentham. I think that Merrill was right when he proposed to make Pitheco- lobium saman the type of the distinct genus Samanea,* and so I have followed him in naming several recently described species. Britton and Rose are now trying to effect an analogous division in the com- pound genus Cassia, and it is to be hoped that their views will be accepted, at least along general lines. These same authors, however, have not always been very moderate in their views. Few botanists, I think, would agree to accept their extreme splitting of certain genera of Cactaceae, in which each section has been proposed as a genus. To return to Bombacopsis, let us repeat that in this group the flower, notwithstanding its likeness to that of Pachira, differs markedly in its size, in the longer and narrower calyx, in the number and branching of the stamens, as well as in the wool-bearing fruit and the smaller dimensions of the seeds. On the other hand, if the fruit compares with that of Bombaxz in its general characteristics, the dehiscence is apical with the valves, coriaceous or at least thin, adhering to the receptacle, while in Bombazx these valves are woody and thick and detach themselves piece after piece from the fruit. The flowers, also, have at most 200 stamens and often not more than 75, while up to 1400 have been counted in some individual Bombazx flowers. These are the more distinctive botanical features which separate 5 This JOURNAL 6: 47. 1916. APR. 19,1926 — PITTIER: GYRANTHERA AND BOMBACOPSIS 213 the three genera. But in the field nobody would confuse a Bombazx tree, with its relatively short, thick or ventricose trunk, nor a middle- sized, leafy Pachira, with the often enormous individuals of Bomba- copsis, with its straight column or trunk and sparsely leaved crown towering among the highest in the forest. In Pachira and Bombaz the wood is white and soft and the bark smooth; in Bombacopsis the core of the former is reddish and much harder, and the bark, rough and rimose, is often covered with numerous, stout aculei. More - details and many illustrations will be found in the place of the original description. As is natural, I have expanded on the two genera Gyranthera and -'Bombacopsis, because, as my own creations, I had their defense very much at heart. It seems almost impossible not to recognize the va- lidity of Gyranthera; and as to Bombacopsis, which I find necessary as a transitory link between Bombax and Pachira, its acceptance depends mainly upon whether the two latter genera remain separated, as seems best, or whether the view of Schumann is to be maintained. Most American botanists adopt the former view and so does Urban in his Symbolae Antillanae* and Mr. Backhuizen in his ‘‘Revisio.”’ In the latter we note the presence of genus Montezuma, as ‘‘arbor mexicana.” As shown by Standley and Urban’ as early as 1921, the species probably was never found in Mexico and is identical with the Porto Rican Thespesia grandiflora, the type of Urban’s new genus Maga. Montezuma is recognized as belonging to the Malvaceae and must be dropped from the Bombacaceae. On the other hand, Back- huizen does not mention Spirotheca, separated from Ceiba prior to 1924 by Ulbrich,® who also described in October of that year another Austro-American genus Septotheca.® As known today, the American genera of the Bombacaceae may be tentatively keyed as follows: Fruit capsular, dehiscent, large, 5-celled or, in one case 1-celled on account of the disappearance of the walls; calyx caducous; seeds numerous. Seeds round and smooth, exalate; leaves digitate or, in one case, palmate ( Bombacineae) Seeds large (1.5 cm. in diam. or more), imbedded in the fleshy dissepi- ments of the endocarp; flowers large and long (up to 35 cm.); stamens numerous; filaments repeatedly dichotomous; leaves ee re re re ee UR ee 1. Pachira § Vol. 8, page 427. 7 Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Mus. Berlin 7: 543. 1921. 8 Ibid. 6: 160. 1914. 9Tbid. 9: 128. 1924. 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 | Seeds small (not over 1 cm. in diam.), surrounded by wool derived from the endocarp. Fertile stamens numerous, the upper part of the filaments free, simple or bifurcated, without appendices or staminodes. Flowers slender and long (up to 15 cm.); stamens 75-200; capsule ovoid or pentagonous 18 cm. long or less. ...2. Bombacopsis Flowers thick and short, the stamens very numerous (up to 1400); capsule fusiform, 15 cm. long ormore............3. Bombax Fertile stamens 5 or 10, more or less adnate; staminodes sometimes present. Stamens 5, the upper part of the filaments free. Calyx 3-5-lobed; anthers simple, certain species with stami- TLOGES 2 5s viesinie, a vite stlowe- 004 sae. ghey 6/2 loop ye oer 4. Ceiba Calyx truncate; anthers double; no staminodes....5. Spzrotheca Stamens with the filaments completely adnate. Anthers 10, straight; gynophor with a cuff-like whorl of 5-bifid staminodes; leaves digitate................. 6. Chorisia Anthers 5, vermiform; no _ staminodes; leaves palmate- lobedins® 2c. . oe ec 6 ok an ee eee 7. Ochroma Seeds winged; calyx more or less regularly 2—5-lobed; leaves digitate (Gyranthereae). Capsule 1-celled, with 8-12 seeds in all; staminal tube closed nearly to the apex; anthers vermiform; staminodes present... .8. Gyranthera Capsule 5-celled, with 8-12 seeds in each cell; staminal tube split open almost from the base; anthers short, oblong; no staminodes. 9. Bernoullia Fruit drupaceous, samaroid or capsular, but small; seeds 1-5; calyx mostly persistent; stamens mostly adnate, the anthers 1-celled; leaves simple, trinerved (Matiszae). Stamens united in 5 bundles; fruit samaroid.......... 10. Cavanillesia Stamens united in a single tube. Staminal tube very short, the upper part of the filaments free and bearing a simple anther; fruit capsular. Calyx truncate; filaments evenly thin.................. 11. Hampea Calyx 5-partite; filaments thicker toward the apex... .12. Catostemma Staminal tube long, more or less deeply 5-partite at the apex, this covered with sessile anthers. Staminal tube with 5 apical teeth; anthers 30-40; fruit subcapsular. 13. Quararibea Staminal tube 5-branched at the apex. Anthers 6-12, ovate-oblong, undivided; feng drupaceous. 14. Matisia Anthers more numerous, vermiform, irregularly divided into several cells. 0.25 6.2 a ee ee 5. Septotheca APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 215 BOTAN Y.—WNew South American Verbesininae.’ 8S. F. Buaxz, Bureau of Plant Industry. Of the thirteen new species of South American Verbesininae de- seribed in this paper, seven are based on specimens from the exten- sive collections made in northern Peru by J. Francis Macbride and William Featherstone on the Capt. Marshall Field expeditions sent out by the Field Museum of Chicago. Three of the others are from a small collection made by G. H. H. Tate, of the American Museum of Natural History, in the mountains of northeastern Venezuela, and one is from the Colombian collections of Dr. F. W. Pennell. The two remaining species are based on old specimens in the Kew Her- barium, collected by William Purdie and A. Mathews in Colombia and Peru respectively, and lent the writer for study by the Director of Kew Gardens, Dr. A. W. Hill. Jaegeria axillaris Blake, sp. nov. Small glabrous herb, repent at base; leaves lance-elliptic, connate-clasping, serrulate; heads small, solitary, axillary,on peduncles shorter than the leaves; rays 5, usually shorter than the narrowed tips of the phyllaries. -Perennial (?), 15 em. long or less, light green, simple or sparsely branched, repent below, the tips apparently ascending; internodes 3 to 30 mm. long; leaves opposite, lance-elliptic, 1.2 to 1.8 cm. long, 3 to 7 mm. wide, narrowed to the callous obtuse apex, cuneate-rounded and connate at base, remotely serrulate with blunt callous teeth or subentire, 3-pli- or 5-plinerved and reti- culate (the veins conspicuous in transmitted light); peduncles slender, erect, 3 to 10 mm. long; heads 3.5 to 4 mm. high, 2.5 to 4.5 mm. wide; phyllaries 5, lance-ovate (in their natural position) , with subherbaceous 8 to 5-nerved body, glabrous dorsally, hirsute on the sides, and thin scarious ciliate margins infolded about the achenes, abruptly contracted above, and more or less 3- lobate, the central lobe subherbaceous, triangular, acuminate to an obtuse apex, erect to spreading, 1 to 1.5 mm. long; rays 5, light yellow, fertile, essentially glabrous, the tube 0.4 mm. long, the lamina suborbicular, 1.2 mm. long and wide, 3-dentate, 3 to 5-nerved; disk flowers 8, their corollas pale yellow, sparsely pilose on tube, 4 or 5-toothed, 1.5 mm. long (tube 0.4 mm., throat campanulate, 0.8 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.8 mm.); pales broad, abruptly short-pointed, erose above, about 7-nerved, 3.5 mm. long; ray achenes oblong, 2.2 mm. long, obcompressed, blackish, glabrous, bearing a callous half-collar 0.1 mm. high at apex; disk achenes compressed or subquadrangular, 2.2 mm. long, blackish, glabrous, bearing a very short apical collar. Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected in - wet meadowsouthwest of LasCruces, Bogotd, Dept. Cundinamarca, Colombia, alt. 2600-2700 meters, September 24-25, 1917, by F. W. Pennell (no. 2171). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,042,157. When the internodes are short and the leaves crowded the plant is sugges- tive of Aphanactis jamesoniana Wedd. in appearance. 1 Received March 9, 1926. 216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 Aphanactis villosa Blake, sp. nov. Cespitose perennial, densely flavescent-villous; leaves crowded, narrowly elliptic, entire, 3-nerved; peduncles becoming 2 cm. long; phyllaries densely villous at least above. ! Stems several, prostrate or ascending, 6 cm. long or less, branched, slender, densely fiavescent-villous; internodes at first very short, becoming 4 to 12 mm. long; leaves opposite, sessile, contracted into sheathing, scarious, glabrate or glabrescent, connate bases, obtusely callous-tipped, 3 to 5- plinerved, thickish, the lower up to 13 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, the middle and upper smaller, elliptic or elliptic-spatulate, 4 to 9 mm. long, 1.5 to 2.5 mm. wide, all densely flavescent-villous; heads subglobose, about 3.5 mm. high and thick, solitary, axillary and terminal, in anthesis subsessile, the peduncles in age becoming 2 cm. long, naked or bearing a leafy bract; phyl- laries 6, about 2-seriate, appressed, the outermost one shorter, ovate, acutish, 2.8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, 5-nerved, subherbaceous except for the slightly indurated base, densely villous and ciliate, the next 4 equal, broadly oval, obtuse, 3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, with similar texture and pubescence, the inmost one oblong, 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, pilose along middle, searious- margined, not ciliate, erose at tip; receptacular pales aristiform-subulate, about 2.5 mm. long, 0.2 mm. wide toward base, glabrous, 1-nerved; pistillate corollas 5, greenish yellow, densely long-villous on tube, sparsely so on limb, barely surpassing the involucre, 2.2 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., lamina erect, cuneate, 3-toothed, 0.7 mm. long and about as wide); disk corollas 3 or 4, greenish yellow, densely long-villous on tube, glabrous above, 4 or 5-toothed, 1.8 mm. long (tube 0.7 mm., throat shghtly broader, 0.7 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.4 mm.); ray achenes obovoid-oblong, 1.4 mm. long, plump, biconvex, slightly obcompressed, obscurely about 5-angled, glabrous, fuscous, epappose; disk achenes obovoid or elliptic-oblong, 1.2 to 1.5 mm. long, somewhat com- pressed, about 4-angled, multistriatulate, glabrous, epappose. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534867, collected on grassy subalpine slopes at Chasqui, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, April 10, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3297). Duplicate in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,191,489. | Readily distinguished by its dense pubescence and at length elongate peduncles. The genus, of which only one species has hitherto been described, has not previously been known south of Ecuador. Montanoa lehmannii (Hieron.) Blake. Eriocoma (Montanoa) lehmannii Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 19: 54. 1894. Related to Montanoa quadrangularis Schultz Bip. In M. lehmannia the leaves are densely prominulous-reticulate beneath, and the fruiting pales are provided at the retuse apex with a comparatively short and stout cusp about 0.5 mm. long. In M. quadrangularis the leaves are not densely _ prominulous-reticulate beneath, and the retuse fruiting pales have a slender, longer cusp, usually 1 to 1.6mm. long. Specimens collected by M. T. Dawe (no. 700) in the Kew Herbarium show that the “‘arboloco”’ recently described by him? as an important source of timber and wood for billiard cues in Colombia is M. lehmannii and not M. moritziana Schultz Bip., as which his specimens were identified at Kew. The latter name, which has never been published with a description, belongs in the synonymy of M. quadrangularis. 2See Recorp, Tropical Woods 2: 13. 1925. APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 217 A photograph and fragments of a specimen in the Kew Herbarium of Lehmann 7480, type collection of EL. lehmannii, are now in the National Herbarium. Viguiera leptodonta Blake, sp. nov. Section Diplostichis; herb; stem loosely sordid-pilose; leaves opposite, ovate, slender-petioled, hirsute-pilose; heads small, several or numerous in terminal cymose panicles; involucre strigillose, 5 mm. high; achenes sparsely hispidulous; pappus of 2 awns and usually 4 narrow squamellae. Stem subterete (3 to 4.5 mm. thick), 65 cm. high and more, probably lax or sprawling, branched, striate, white-pithy, loosely and rather densely pilose with dull white, several-celled, spreading hairs, glabrescent below; internodes 4 to 14.5 cm. long; leaves opposite essentially throughout; petioles slender, naked, densely hirsute-pilose, glabrescent, 1 to 2.5 cm. long; blades ovate, 6 to 11.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 6.5 cm. wide, acuminate, somewhat falcate, at base broadly rounded to cuneate-rounded, crenate-serrate practically through- out (teeth depressed, 3 to 4 per cm., the apiculate tips about 0.5 mm. long), membranous, above dark green, evenly but not densely hirsute with some- what antrorse-curved white hairs with small tuberculate bases, beneath slightly lighter green, evenly but not densely hirsute-pilose on surface with spreading scarcely tuberculate-based hairs, densely so along the veins, tripli- or quintu- plinerved essentially from base and loosely prominulose-reticulate; panicles terminating stem and branches, usually ternately divided, 3.5 to 7 cm. wide, about 15-headed, the principal branches subtended by somewhat reduced leaves, the other bracts filiform, 7 mm. long or less, the chief branches pu- bescent like the stem, the pedicels densely appressed-pubescent, 4 to 15 mm. long; heads 1.5 to 2 cm. wide; disk at first cylindric-oblong, becoming sub- globose in fruit, in flower 8 to 10 mm. high, 5 to 7 mm. thick, in fruit about 1 em. thick; involucre 2-seriate, equal or slightly unequal, 4.5 to 5 mm. high, the phyllaries 10, lanceolate or lance-ovate (1 to 1.5 mm. wide), sharply acuminate, subherbaceous, blackish green, densely strigillose, the outer with somewhat divergent tips; rays 8, yellow, neutral, pilose on tube and on nerves of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 2-denticulate, 10 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, 7-nerved; disk flowers about 21, their corollas yellow, finely hispidulous throughout, short-hirsute on teeth, 6.5 mm. long (tube 1.3 mm., throat cylindric, 4.3 mm., teeth ovate, 0.9 mm.); pales acute, mu- cronulate, blackish green with scarious margins, hispidulous along middle, 7 mm. long; ray achenes (inane) trigonous, hispidulous, epappose; disk achenes obovate, strongly compressed, sparsely hispidulous especially above, 3 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide; awns 2, slender, subequal, denticulate below, 4 mm. long; squamellae lanceolate, acute, lacerate, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, a pair at base of each awn and often | or 2 much smaller ones on one side between them. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,823, collected along dry trail at Carapas, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 1680 meters, in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 27). Additional specimen, with same data, collected under Poo ALA... The only species of Viguiera hitherto known from Venezuela is V. mu- cronata Blake, to which and to V. anomala Blake, of Colombia, V. leptodonta is most closely related. In V. mucronata the stem hairs are all or mostly appressed, the achenes densely silky-pilose, the squamellae 4, broad and rounded, covering the whole apex of achene, and the disk corollas much shorter. In V. anomala the stem pubescence is denser and more sordid, the heads are narrower and fewer-flowered, and the acheneis glabrous. The name of the new species refers to the slender apiculations of the leaf-teeth. 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 Viguiera pusilla astephana Blake, var. nov. Achenes glabrous, epappose; otherwise as in the typical form. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 534812 (in part), collected in loose soil on slopes, Yanano, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 1830 meters, May 18-16, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3750 in part). Duplicate in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,191,464 (in part). The sheet in the Field Museum bears 3 specimens, one with the pappus and pubescent achene of Vzgwiera pusilla (A. Gray) Blake, the others pre- cisely similar except for the glabrous, epappose achenes. The National Herbarium sheet bears one specimen of each form. ‘The plant is of particular interest from the fact that no epappose form has hitherto been known in the large section Paradosa, including nearly half the species of the genus. Viguiera macbridei Blake, sp. nov. Series Aureae; stems stout, very leafy, densely and canescently spreading- pilose; leaves alternate, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, short-petioled, revolute-margined, bullate above, densely and canescently pilose-tomentose beneath; heads several or numerous, cymose-panicled, medium-sized; involucre eraduate, 7 to 9 mm. high, hispid-pilose. Herb, 1.3 to 1.6 m. high, several-stemmed; stems strict, subterete (4 to 8 mm. thick), striatulate, pithy, glabrate below, above densely pilose or hirsute- pilose with spreading or loosely reflexed white hairs 2 to 4 mm. long, with small tuberculate bases, and between them appressed- or ascending-pilose with shorter hairs; internodes mostly 3 to 10 mm. long; leaves alternate (except perhaps at extreme base); petioles stout, naked, 1 to 2 mm. long, densely hispid-pilose like the stem; blades narrow-lanceolate or linear-lanceo- late, 5 to 6.5 em. long, 5 to 13 mm. wide, acuminate, cuneate or rounded at base, subentire, strongly revolute-margined, subcoriaceous, above dark green, shining in age, harshly pilose-hispid with tuberculate-based antrorse hairs, beneath densely and canescently pilose-tomentose (the costa glabrate except for the persistent tuberculate hair-bases), triplinerved and with numerous pairs of lateral veins, these impressed above, mostly concealed beneath by the tomentum; heads about 2.8 cm. wide, 5 to 16 at apex of stem, terminal and on 1 to 4-headed axillary branches 5 to 15 cm. long, bearing reduced leaves, the pedicels or peduncles 4 cm. long or less; disk subglobose, 1 to 1.5 em. high, 1 to 1.8 em. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 7 to 9 mm. high, the phyllaries oblong-ovate to oblong (2 to 3 mm. wide), acute, appressed or with short spreading tips (glabrous inside), blackish green and subherbaceous with paler, more indurate base, I-ribbed, densely hispid- pilose and ciliate with subappressed partly deciduous hairs with persistent tuberculate bases; receptacle rounded; rays about 8, golden yellow, neutral, pubescent on tube and nerves of back, the tube 1.38 mm. long, the lamina . oval, 16 mm. long, 7.5 mm. wide, 3-denticulate, 12 or 13-nerved; disk flowers very numerous, their corollas yellow, pubescent chiefly on tube, base of throat, and back of teeth, 5.2 to 6.2 mm long (tube 1.2 to 1.8 mm., throat cylindric, 2.8 to 3.2 mm., teeth ovate, papillose-margined, 1 to 1.2 mm.); pales acute, carinate, blackish green and hispidulous above, 9 mm. long; ray achenes (inane) trigonous, with a pappus of about 6 lacerate squamellae up to 1.2 mm. long; disk achenes obovate-oblong, compressed, blackish, rather sparsely subappressed-pilose, 4 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide; awns 2, slender, hispidulous, very unequal, 1.8 to 3 mm. long; squamellae of each side of achene connate into a lacerate scale 1 mm. long. APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 219 Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 535145, collected on steep rocky western grasslands, Huacachi, near Mufia, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 1980 meters, May 20—June 1, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. _ 4078). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,191,485. A very distinct species of the Subseries Euaureae, related to Viguwiera sodiroi (Hieron.) Blake and V. mollis Griseb., of Ecuador and Argentina respectively, but distinguished from both by its Naas lanceolate leaves, as well as by other characters. Helianthus acuminatus Blake, sp. nov. Shrub; young branches densely griseous-pilose; leaves opposite, ovate, slender-petioled, acuminate, rounded at base, subentire, densely griseous- tomentose beneath; heads rather large; involucre about 13 mm. high, of oblong, acute or acuminate, cinerascent-puberulous and sparsely pilose phyllaries; disk corollas yellow or yellowish throughout. Apparently tall; stem stout (up to 6 mm. thick), subterete, striatulate, glabrous or slabrate, with mostly opposite branches; young branches very densely pilose, almost tomentose, with mostly spreading whitish or griseous hairs with small tuberculate bases; internodes of main stem 6 to 10 cm. long, of the young leafy branches 1 to 2 cm.; leaves opposite practically throughout except in the inflorescence; petioles 0.8 to 1.8 em. long, slender, densely pilose- subtomentose; blades ovate, 4 to 7 cm. long, 2.8 to 4.8 cm. wide, falcate- acuminate, at ‘base broadly rounded, subtruncate, or subcordate, very shortly or not at all decurrent on the petiole, obscurely serrulate (teeth 4 to 5 per cm.) or subentire, firm, above green or blackish green, densely and rather softly short-pilose with ‘antrorse, shining hairs with small glandular-tuberculate bases, beneath densely and softly griseous-tomentose, triplinerved essentially from base; heads about 3.8 cm. wide, axillary and terminal, 1 to 5 toward tips of stem and branches, on stout upwardly somewhat thickened spreading- pilose peduncles 1 to 14 em. long; disk subglobose, 1.3 to 1.5 em. high, 1.2 to 2 em. thick; involucre about 4-seriate, graduate, 1.2 to 1.4 cm. high, the phyllaries oblong (2.8 to, in age, 5.5 mm. wide), acute or acuminate, blackish green, obscurely herbaceous above, the inner with loose tips, all densely and ° cinerascently appressed-puberulous and pilosulous, somewhat pilose above, glabrescent in age, about 3-nerved; rays 14 or more, yellow, neutral, pubescent on tube and nerves of back, the tube 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong-elliptic, 2-dentate, 2 cm. long,6 mm. wide; disk corollas yellow throughout or greenish on the teeth, pilosulous chiefly toward base of tube, along nerves above, and on teeth, 7.5 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., throat cylindric, 5.2 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.8mm.) ; pales acute, usually mucronulate, pilosulous chiefly along the narrow keel above, 11 mm. long; achenes oblong-obovate, compressed, blackish, glabrous, 3.8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; awns 2, lanceolate, hispidulous-ciliolate, caducous, 3 mm. long; rays achenes (inane) with 2 less caducous, lacerate squamellae 1 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518863, collected on open, moist, rocky slope at Tomaiquichua, a pueblo three miles below Ambo, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2590 meters, September 19, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 2429). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,894. Allied to Helianthus grandiceps Blake, of Ecuador, which has alternate leaves with cuneate or rounded-cuneate base, more definitely toothed, and with the lateral nerves arising distinctly above the base, and longer involucre; 220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 also to H. jelskii Hieron., of Peru, in which the leaves are much thicker, and densely ochroleucous-lanate-tomentose and lacunose-reticulate beneath. Helianthus discolor Blake, sp. nov. Shrub; branches appressed-pilose, glabrate or glabrescent; leaves opposite below, alternate above, often with axillary fascicles, linear-lanceolate or linear, 3.8 cm. long or less, greenish and strigose above, beneath white-tomentose; heads solitary at tips of stem and branches, medium-sized; involucre 9 mm. high, of lanceolate or lance-oblong, cinereously appressed-pubescent phyl- laries, only their extreme tips loose; disk corollas yellow, with fuscescent teeth. Stems in clumps from a caudex, 40 cm. long and more, slender (2.5 mm. thick or less), alternate-branched, gray-barked, glabrate; branches thinly appressed-pilose, somewhat glandular, and toward the nodes often tubercu- late-hispid; petioles pilose, 1.5 mm. long or less; blades of the principal leaves 2.3 to 3.8 cm. long, 4 to 6 mm. wide, usually acuminate to an obtuse apex, cuneate at base, somewhat falcate, entire or subentire, revolute-margined, subcoriaceous, above dull green, rather densely strigose to sparsely hispidulous with glandular-tuberculate-based hairs, somewhat glabrescent, beneath densely and loosely white-tomentose, triplinerved near base and feather- veined, the veins impressed above, evident beneath through the tomentum in age; leaves of the fascicles linear, about 1.5 em. long, 1.5 mm. wide, or | smaller; peduncles terminating stem and branches, 3 to 7 cm. long, naked or few-bracted, sordid-pilose and sparsely hispid below the heads; heads 3.5 cm. wide or less; disk hemispheric, 9 to (fruit) 14 mm. high, 1 to (fruit) 2 cm. thick (as pressed); involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 8 to 9 mm. high, the phyllaries lanceolate or oblong (outer) to oblong-lanceolate (the inner 1.5 to 2.5 mm. wide), appressed or (especially the outer) with spreading tips, the outer subherbaceous essentially throughout, densely appressed-pilose and somewhat hirsute, the others indurate and blackish below and there nearly glabrous except for the hirsute-ciliate margin, with shorter or longer obtuse to acutish herbaceous tips, these densely appressed-pilose, more or less ciliate, and somewhat glandular; rays about 9, yellow, neutral, pubescent on tube and on nerves of back, glandular between them, the tube 1 mm. long, the lamina oblong, 2-toothed, about 10-nerved, 15 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; disk corollas puberulous on lower part of tube, on nerves above, and on teeth, 7.3 mm. long (tube 1.2 mm., throat cylindric, 5mm., teeth ovate, 1.1 mm.); pales acuminate, often mucronulate, blackish above along costa, hispidulous above along keel and ciliolate, about 9 mm. long; achenes oblong-obovate, compressed, glabrous, 3.38 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; awns 2, linear-subulate, hispidulous, caducous, about 2 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518724, collected on eastern side of canyon at Llata, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2135 meters, August 21, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 2240). Duplicate in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,892. . Allied to Helianthus microphyllus H. B. K. and H. subniveus Blake (H. _ niveus Hieron., not Brandeg.). In the former the involucre is only 5 mm. high, with oblong, apically tomentose phyllaries; in the latter it is 1 em. long, and densely niveo-tomentose. Helianthus senex Blake, sp. nov. Shrub; branches canescently long-villous, glabrescent; leaves mostly APR. 19, 1926 | BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 221 opposite, broadly ovate, serrulate, petioled, cinereous-pilose above, densely white-tomentose beneath; heads ‘medium-sized, solitary on axillary and terminal peduncles; involucre 8 mm. high, graduate, the phyllaries oblong, ob- - tuse, canescent-tomentose especially above; disk corollas yellow throughout. Shrub 1 meter high, growing in clumps; stem stout (4 to 7 mm. thick), with opposite or alternate branches, terete, in age glabrate and conspicuously lenticellate; branches very densely long-villous with loosely spreading or reflexed white hairs 2 to 3 mm. long and with slightly enlarged bases, glabres- cent, striatulate; internodes mostly 0.5 to 2.5 cm. long; leaves chiefly opposite, alternate above on the flowering branches; petioles stout, 5 to 15 mm. long, unmargined, densely pilose-tomentose; blades ovate, the larger 5 to 6.5 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, acute, broadly rounded at base and very shortly decur- rent on the petiole, serrulate or crenate-serrulate above the entire base (teeth about 4 per cm.), thick-herbaceous, above densely cinereous-pilose with mostly spreading hairs with small glandular-tuberculate bases, beneath very densely and softly white-tomentose, triplinerved from near the base, the principal veins at first impressed, later prominulous above, beneath at length evident beneath the tomentum; branch leaves often smaller, yellowish above; peduncles axillary and terminal, 2 to 5 toward tips of branches, normally 1-headed, spreading-pilose, glabrescent, naked or few-bracted, 2 to 8 em. long; heads 2 cm. wide; disk subglobose, 1 to 1.8 em. high, 8 to 15 mm. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 7 to 8 mm. high, the phyllaries appressed or with very short spreading tips, oblong (1.8 to 2 mm. wide) or the outer oblong-ovate, obtuse, with indurated, blackish, pale-margined, glabrate (in the inner nearly glabrous) base and shorter, densely pilose- tomentose, herbaceous apex; rays about 8, small, yellow, neutral, pilose on tube and on nerves of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic-oblong, 5 to 10 mm. long, 2 to 4 mm. wide, 3 or 4-denticulate, 9-nerved, sometimes bearing at base 2 appendages suggesting abortive stamens; disk corollas sparsely hispidulous chiefly on nerves above and on teeth, 6.3 mm. long (tube 1.3 mm., throat cylindric, 4.5 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.56 mm.); pales acute or acutish, callous-apiculate, not keeled, pilose and ciliate above, 11 mm. long or less; achenes oblong, compressed, blackish, glabrous, 3.5 mm. long, 13: mm. wide: awns 2, linear-lanceolate, hispidulous-serrulate, caducous, 3 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 518,077, collected on canyon slope at Mito, Dept. Hudnuco, Peru, alt. about 2745 meters, July 8-22, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1572). Duplicate in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,884. Nearest Helianthus imbaburensis Hieron., of Ecuador, which has alternate, acuminate, entire leaves and shorter sub-2-seriate involucre of more densely and uniformly pilose-tomentose phyllaries. Helianthus viridior Blake, sp. nov. Shrub, much branched, very leafy; branches appressed-pilose, glabrate; leaves chiefly alternate, lanceolate, short-petioled, subentire, appressed- subsericeous when young, soon glabrescent and green on both sides; heads medium-sized, solitary; involucre 1 cm. high, of lanceolate or lance-ovate acuminate phyllaries, densely pilose above; disk corollas with fuscous teeth. Stem terete (5 mm. thick), gray-barked, lenticellate, glabrous, apparently procumbent, 30 cm. long and more, sending out numerous mostly simple or subsimple alternate ascending branches nearly or quite as long; young 222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 | branches warty, not densely appressed-pilose, the older gray-barked, glabrate or glabrescent; internodes on the older portions mostly 1 to 5 mm. long, on the younger mostly 1 to 2.5 cm.; leaves opposite at base of branches, alter- nate above; petioles slender, naked, appressed- or erectish-pilose, 3 to 8 mm. long; blades lanceolate, 3 to 4.3 em. long, 5 to 13 mm. wide, acuminate to acutish, callous-apiculate, cuneate at base, entire or obscurely serrulate mostly above the middle, rather thin, triplinerved above the base, scarcely reticulate, above at first canescently subsericeous-pilose with appressed hairs, soon glabrescent, green, and evenly appressed- or antrorse-pilose (the hairs with scarcely enlarged glandular bases), beneath at first densely and can- escently appressed-silky-pilose, soon green and loosely antrorse-pilose, usually narrowly revolute on margin; peduncles solitary, terminating stem and branches, 1-headed, appressed-pilose, naked or few-bracteate, 3.5 to 5 cm. long; heads about 3 cm. wide; disk subglobose, 1 to 1.3 em. high and thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 8 to 11 mm. high, the phyllaries lanceolate or linear-lanceolate (outer) to lance-ovate, mostly acuminate, with short callous blackish tips, rather densely and loosely pilose on their exposed portions and ciliate, appressed or with rather loose tips, the outermost subherbaceous and blackish green throughout, the others pale and multi- vittate below, with mostly longer blackish green tips; rays about 9, neutral, yellow, linear-elliptic, 9 to 12-nerved, 2 or 3-denticulate, pilose on tube and sparsely so on principal nerves of back, the tube 1.5 mm. long, the lamina about 15 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide; disk corollas numerous, yellow with fuscous teeth, sparsely pilosulous on tube and back of teeth, 6 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat cylindric, 4.3 mm., teeth triangular, acute, 0.7 mm.) pales acuminate, blackish above, sparsely pilose chiefly above, somewhat glandular on the sides, about 8 mm. long; infertile ovaries of the ray with a pappus of 2 or 3 lacerate squamellae 0.5 mm. long; disk achenes oblong, compressed, blackish, glabrous, 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; pappus of 2 caducous, lanceolate-acuminate, hispidulous-ciliolate awns 3 mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 517591, collected in crev- ices of a vertical limestone cliff at Tarma, Dept. Junin, Peru, alt. about 3965 meters, June 1-6, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1070). Duplicate in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,869. Readily distinguished from the other Andean species by its lanceolate, glabrescent leaves. Perymenium featherstonei Blake, sp. nov. | Shrub; branches strigillose; leaves lance-ovate, slender-petioled, acuminate, rounded at base, crenate-serrate, bullate and green above, densely griseous- tomentose beneath; heads small, slender-peduncled, in small cymes; in- volucre 5 mm. high, of broadly ovate, obtuse, strigillose phyllaries. “Tree-shrub, 1.3 to 2.3 m. high, rather open but very erect,’”’ with opposite branches; stem subterete (3 to 6 mm. thick above), striatulate, lenticellate, glabrate, brownish or dark gray; internodes 1.5 to 6.5 cm. long; leaves opposite; petioles slender, naked, sulcate above, strigillose, appressed-pilose above, 5 to 12 mm. long; blades 5 to 8 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide, crenate- serrate from above the short entire base to apex (teeth rounded, subequal, 4 to 5 per cm.), narrowly revolute-margined, subcoriaceous, above dull green, densely and harshly tuberculate-hispidulous with subappressed hairs, strongly bullate, beneath densely and rather softly griseously or cinereously pilose- tomentose except on the 3 chief nerves (these strigose), triplinerved 2 to 4mm. APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 223 above base and reticulate, the veins and veinlets impressed above, the chief ones prominent beneath, the others mostly concealed by the tomentum; heads in cymes of 2 to 5 at tips of branches, subtended by reduced leaves, the pedicels angulate, strigillose, usually 1.5 to 4.5 em. long; disk (in old fruit) subglobose, 6 to 7mm. high, 7 to 9 mm. thick; involucre 3 to 4-seriate, graduate, 4 to 5.5 mm. high, appressed, the phyllaries broadly ovate or orbicular-ovate, obtuse, obscurely and shortly subherbaceous at apex, otherwise pale and indurated, strigillose and finely ciliolate; rays not seen; disk corollas (im- perfect) about 3.2 mm. long; pales acutish to acuminate, narrow, strongly l-ribbed, minutely hispidulous on keel, about 6 mm. long; ray achenes trigonous, hispidulous on angles and at apex, their pappus of 20 unequal, hispidulous, deciduous awns 1 to 1.8 mm. long; disk achenes obovoid-obleng, 2.5 to 3.2 1am. long, 1.5 mm. wide, biconvex, biauriculate at apex, narrowly whitish-margined, finely hispidulous especially on margin and at apex, fuscous, finely papillate, their pappus of 2 slender hispidulous awns 2.5 to 2.8 mm. long, on the angles, and about 12 similar shorter awns 1 mm. long or less, all deciduous. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum, no. 517839, collected in river canyon at Cabello, a hacienda 14.5 km. above Huertas, Dept. Junin, Peru, alt. 2440 meters, June 25, 1922, by J. F. Macbride and W. Featherstone (no. 1329). Duplicate in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,198,875. Allied to Perymenium serratum Blake, of the Province of Chachapoyas, which has a much larger involucre, 9 to 10 mm. high. Pappobolus cinerascens Blake, sp. Nov. Branches slender, cinerascent-pilosulous and sparsely pilose; leaves lance-ovate, subentire, green and rough above, densely cinereous-pilose beneath; heads 2 or 3, terminal, medium-sized; involucre cinerascent-puberu- lous and somewhat pilose, graduate, of lance-ovate acuminate phyllaries with reflexed herbaceous tips. Herb (?); branches slender (2 mm. thick), simple, subterete, striatulate, pithy, densely cinerascent-pilosulous with chiefly spreading or reflexed hairs and sparsely spreading-pilose; internodes 4.5 to 7 cm. long; leaves opposite throughout, or those subtending the peduncles alternate; petioles naked, densely spreading-pilosulous and long-pilose, 4 to 13 mm. long; blades lance-ovate or lanceolate, 6 to 8 cm. long, 1.7 to 2.5 em. wide, acu- minate, falcate, at base cuneate or rounded, entire or obscurely and remotely serrulate, very narrowly revolute-margined, above blackish green, densely and harshly hirsutulous and hirsute with curved hairs with persistent tu- berculate bases, maculate in age, beneath densely and softly subtomentose- pilose with antrorse hairs, triplinerved 1 to 2 mm. above base, the chief veins usually impressed above, prominulous beneath; heads 4 to 4.5 cm. wide, in terminal cymes of 2 or 3, the peduncles slender, naked or with a single bract, pubescent like the stem, 2 to 8.5 em. long; disk depressed-subglobose, 1.2 cm. high, 1.5 to 2.3 em. wide (as pressed) ; involucre 4 to 5-seriate, gradu- ate, 7 to 9 mm. high, the phyllaries lance-ovate or lanceolate (1.5 to2.5 mm. wide), with blackish green, ribbed and vittate base and longer to shorter, reflexed, acuminate, somewhat involute, callous-tipped, herbaceous apex, densely cinereous-puberulous (inside and outside) on their exposed surface, tuberculate-hispidulous above, more or less pilose dorsally above, ciliolate; rays 18 or more, yellow, neutral, pilosulous on tube and nerves of back, the tube slender, 2 mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 2.4 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, 9- 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 8 nerved, 2-dentate; disk flowers very numerous, their corollas yellow, fuscescent on teeth, puberulous on nerves of throat and on teeth, 6.7 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., throat slender-funnelform, 4.2 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); ray achenes (inane) with a caducous pappus of about 14 linear-lanceolate spinu- lose-serrulate unequal paleaceous awns 1.2 to 1.8 mm. long; disk achenes obovate-oblong, very strongly compressed, fuscous, glabrous, striatulate, 4 mm. long, 1.5mm. wide, their pappus of about 16 caducous awns like those of the ray achenes, 1.8 to 2.8 mm. long, those on the angles the longest. Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of Chachapoyas, Peru, in 1836, by A. Mathews. Photograph and fragment of type in U. 8. National Herbarium; duplicate in British Museum. Allied to Pappobolus mollicomus Blake, also from Chachapoyas, with duph- cate types of which (in Kew Herbarium and British Museum) it has been possible to compareit. InP. mollicomus the pubescence of stemand peduncles is much longer, being composed of long, spreading, tuberculate-based hairs, and the phyllaries are broader (3 to 4.5 mm. wide) and densely canescent- pilose, with longer spreading herbaceous tips. Pappobolus macranthus Blake, the type of the genus, is distinguished from the two other species by its usually broader, definitely serrate leaves, which are griseous- rather than canescent- or cinereous-pubescent beneath. It wasdescribed from Mufia, Peru (wrongly “Bolivia” in the original description), and has been collected at Mito, Peru, 1922, by Macbride and Featherstone (no. 1384, a smaller- headed form than the original) and at Chaglia, Peru, 1923, by Macbride (no. 3646). All three localities are in the Department of Hudnuco. Oyedaea maculata Blake, sp. nov. | Shrub; branches densely scabrous-hispidulous; leaves oval or ovate-oval, acute, rounded at base, serrulate, very rough on both sides, triplinerved, short-petioled; heads medium-sized, 1 or 2 at tips of branches and in upper axils, short-peduncled; involucre 9 mm. high, of oblong, acuminate, herba- ceous-tipped, scarcely spreading phyllaries. Stem stout (5 mm. thick), striate, brownish, densely incurved- or ap- pressed-hispidulous with tuberculate-based persistent hairs; internodes 5 to 20 mm. long; leaves opposite; petioles broad, densely tuberculate-hispidu- lous, 2 to 4 mm. long; blades 3.5 to 5 em. long, 1.7 to 2.7 em. wide, sparsely serrulate above the middle (teeth 3 to 5 pairs, 3 to 6 mm. apart), narrowly revolute-margined, firm and subcoriaceous, above brownish green, somewhat shining, evenly hispidulous with curved hairs with tuberculate or glandular- tuberculate persistent bases, beneath duller brownish green, evenly but not densely short-hispid on surface with spreading or slightly incurved hairs with small tuberculate bases, antrorse-hispid along the nerves, rather defi- nitely triplinerved within 3 to 6 mm. of base (the lateral pair reaching slightly above middle of leaf) and with 6 to 8 other pairs of principal lateral nerves of which 1 or 2 are conspicuously stronger than the others, the nerves and veins impressed above, prominent or prominulous beneath; peduncles 1-headed, solitary, terminal and in the upper axils, pubescent like the stem, 6 to 12 mm. long; heads 3.8 cm. wide or less; disk hemispheric, 1 to 1.3 em. high, 1.2 to 1.5 em. thick (as pressed); involucre 8 to 10 mm. high, 3-seriate, slightly or scarcely graduate, the phyllaries oblong (2 to 2.5 mm. wide), erect or with slightly spreading tips, acuminate, callous-tipped, the outermost herbaceous throughout, rather sparsely tuberculate and short-hispid, 1-nerved, the others with pale, indurate, more or less hispidulous-ciliate, otherwise nearly glabrous APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 225 base, and subequal, glandular-tuberculate, sparsely hispidulous and hispid herbaceous tips; rays about 11, yellow, neutral, hispidulous on tube and back, the tube 2 mm. long, the lamina oblong-elliptic, bidentate, up to 2 cm. long, 5 mm. wide, about 11-nerved; disk corollas yellow, essentially glabrous except for the finely hispidulous teeth, 7 mm. long (tube 2 mm., throat cylindric- funnelform, 4.2 mm., teeth ovate, 0.8 mm.); pales acuminate, keeled, hispidu- lous on the slightly greenish apex, about 9 mm. long; disk achenes obovate- oblong, compressed, biconvex, 4.5 mm. long, 2.2 mm. wide, fuscous, 2-winged (wings thick, about 0.3 mm. wide, hispidulous on margin), very sparsely strigillose; awns 2, very unequal, hispidulous, 1.8 to 4 mm. long; squamellae acute, unequal, lacerate, united below, 0.8 mm. long or less. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,911, collected on the sub- paramo, Cerro de Turumiquire, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 2975 meters, in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 232). Additional specimen, with the same data, collected under no. 233. Related to Oyedaea wedelioides (Klatt) Blake, of Peru, and O. jahnii Blake, of the Province of Mérida, Venezuela. In the former the leaves are decidedly larger and borne on petioles 4 to 15 mm. long, the heads are several or numerous and cymose-panicled, and the phyllaries have spreading tips. In the latter the leaves are ovate or lance-ovate and much larger, and the heads are larger, solitary, and longer-peduncled. Verbesina tatei Blake, sp. nov. Section Saubinetia; stem stout, pithy, leafy, densely lanate-tomentose; leaves alternate, large, elliptic-oval, acute or acuminate at each end, repand- serrulate, stout-petioled, rough above, densely sordid-pilose beneath; heads medium-sized, yellow, radiate, many-flowered, numerous in a rounded terminal panicle; involucre about 8 mm. high, of oblong, obtuse, sordid- pilosulous phyllaries; rays about 5 mm. long. Shrub or large herb; stem subterete, 8 mm. thick above, glabrate and yellowish brown below, densely lanate-tomentose above with dirty-white hairs; internodes about 1 cm. long; petioles 2 to 3 mm. thick, narrowly grooved beneath, densely lanate-tomentose, margined above the decurrent leaf base, the naked portion 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long; blades 12 to 20.5 cm. long, 4.5 to 8.5 em. wide, thick-pergamentaceous, repand-serrulate above the entire cuneate base (teeth small, obtuse, 2to 5mm. apart), above dark green, evenly hirsutulous on surface with antrorse-curved hairs with small glandular- tuberculate persistent bases, hirsute-pilose along costa and chief veins, beneath brownish green, densely and rather softly ochroleucous-pilose on surface with curved hairs, very densely so on chief veins, featherveined, the chief lateral veins about 11 pairs, like the stout costa prominent beneath, the veinlets prominulous beneath, mostly impressed above; heads 1.8 cm. wide, about 32, on axillary and terminal peduncles, in a rounded panicle 11 cm. wide, about equaled by the leaves, the bracts small, the pedicels stout, 1.5 to 3 ecm. long, densely sordid-pilose; disk subglobose, 1 em. high, 1.3 em. thick; involucre 3 to 4seriate, graduate, 7 to 8 mm. high, appressed, the phyllaries oblong or the outermost ovate-oblong (1.5 to 3 mm. wide), obtuse, dark green, subherbaceous with (especially the inner) narrow pale margins, 1-nerved, sordid-pilosulous especially along costa and margin; rays 9 to 12, slightly exceeding disk, yellow, pistillate and bearing imperfect anthers, pilose on tube and nerves of back, 8.5 mm. long (including tube), 3 to 4mm. wide; disk flowers about 75, their corollas yellow, pilose on tube and teeth 226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 with several-celled acuminate hairs, glabrous on throat, 6 mm. long (tube 1.3 mm., throat subcylindric, 3.7 mm., teeth ovate, 1 mm.); pales pilose on the narrow keel and margin and on the yellowish, somewhat spreading or re- curved, subscarious obtuse apex, about 7.5 mm. long; immature disk achenes obovate, compressed, scarcely winged, ciliate, sparsely pubescent above, 2.8 mm. long; awns, 2, subequal, stout, trigonous, hispidulous on keel, 4.5 mm. long. . | Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,230,946, collected on an ex- posed ridge, Cerro de Turumiquire, Sucre, Venezuela, alt. 1830 meters, in 1925, by G. H. H. Tate (no. 350). In pubescence, foliage, and inflorescence this species is strikingly like Verbesina crassiramea Blake of Colombia, amember of the Section Lipactinia with discoid, 5 to 14-flowered heads. Its closest ally, however, is the long- doubtful V. humboldtiz Spreng. (V. helianthoides H. B. K., not Michx.) of Colombia. In the latter the stem is ascending-pilose to spreading-pilosu- lous, the internodes are longer, the petioles margined nearly to base, the leaves less densely and softly pubescent beneath, the heads much larger, the rays longer and apparently white, the phyllaries of the somewhat longer involucre distinctly broader, and the pales essentially glabrous (except for the more or less ciliate margin) on the thin acute or acuminate tip. Verbesina humboldtiz Spreng. was left among the doubtful species by Robinson and Greenman in their revision of the genus. It was described (as V. helianthoides H. B. K.) from ‘‘Regno Quitensi?,’”’ and is represented in the Paris Herbarium by at least two sheets of the original material. Hieronymus at first’ referred to it Lehmann 7481 from Colombia, but later+ described this as a new species, V. lehmannii, distinguishing it from V. humboldtit by several supposed differential characters derived from the original description of the latter. During the summer of 1925 I examined the type material of V. helianthoides H. B. K. at Paris and a specimen of Lehmann 7481 at Kew, and, through the courtesy of the curators of these herbaria, obtained photographs and small fragments of both specimens. Study of these shows that Hieronymus’ species can not be maintained as distinct from V. humboldtu. Triana 1381, from Bogota, alt. 2,300 meters, which I have on loan from the British Museum and the Kew Herbarium, belongs to the same species. The position of V. humboldtiz 1s somewhat difficult to settle satisfactorily. So far as the size of the rays indicates, it might be placed as a small-flowered Verbesinaria (as was done by Hieronymus) or a large-flowered Saubinetia (in the Paris specimens I recorded the rays as only 7 mm. long), but their white color would refer it rather to Ochractinia in Robinson and Greenman’s treatment. One or two species of Saubinetia (particularly V. semidecurrens Kuntze, of which V. soratae Schultz Bip. is a synonym) are now known to have white rays, however, and the best position for V. humboldtiz is probably in this group among the species numbered 68 to 79 in Robinson and Greenman’s treatment, from all of which it is distinct. In three heads of Verbesina tatez examined the rays were all intermediate in form and structure between normal rays and disk corollas, being hermaph- rodite and imperfectly ligulate. The short proper tube, at the apex of which are inserted the very unequal, nearly free, and non-polliniferous sta- mens, is continued into a funnelform throat shorter than the proper lamina. The latter is equally or unequally 3-toothed, and sometimes bears a large 3 Bot. Jahrb. ENGLER 19: 54. 1894. 4 Bot. Jahrb. ENGLER 28: 612. 1901. , APR. 19, 1926 BLAKE: NEW VERBESININAE 227 lateral lobe and a much smaller one, or the other two segments of the corolla are represented by two small and unsymetrically placed teeth on one side _ of the apex of the throat. The style branches bear elongate hispidulous sterile appendages. Although the condition is doubtless abnormal, and not characteristic of the species, it is of interest as showing how easy is the transition from the tubular 5-toothed disk corolla, the theoretical type of the asteraceous corolla, to the 3-toothed pistillate ligule. Verbesina oligactis Blake, sp. nov. Section Ochractinia; tall; stem wingless, densely spreading-pilose with yellowish hairs; leaves alternate, large, oblong-elliptic, acuminate at each end, obscurely denticulate, tuberculate-pilosulous above, densely short- pilose beneath especially along the veins, short-petioled; heads small, very numerous, white, in a large terminal panicle, sessile or short-pedicelled; rays 1 or 2, disk flowers 11 to 13. Tall herb (?); stem stout (6 mm. thick above), striate-angulate, pithy, densely spreading-pilose with yellowish-white hairs about 1 mm. long; internodes about 1 cm. long; petioles stout, densely pubescent like the stem, the unmargined portion 3 to 5 mm. long; blades 20 to 25 cm. long, 4 to 7 cm. wide, long-cuneate at base, remotely denticulate with small blunt callous teeth (0.3 mm. high, 3 to 8 mm. apart), papery, above dull green, evenly antrorse-pilosulous with yellowish-white hairs with glandular-tuberculate persistent bases, densely short-pilose along costa, beneath densely griseous- or flavescent-pilose along the chief veins with spreading several-celled hairs, less densely so on all the veins and veinlets, featherveined, the chief lateral veins 10to012 pairs, rather prominent beneath, the chief veinlets prominulous; panicle terminal, flattish, very many-headed, 20 cm. wide, pubescent like the stem, the bracts small (mostly 3.5 cm. long or less), definitely serrulate * with dark callous teeth, the pedicels usually 2mm. long or less, sometimes up - to 6 mm.; heads 6 to 8mm. wide; disk obovoid, 4.5 to 6 mm. high, 3 to 4.5 mm. thick; involucre 2-seriate, unequal,3 mm. high, the phyllaries few, lance- oblong or oblong (about 1 mm. wide), obtuse, appressed, thickened and sub- herbaceous at base, with longer, thinner, submembranous, pale tip, loosely and rather sparsely pilosulous and ciliolate; rays 1 or 2, white, pistillate, the tube pilose, 1.5 mm. long, the lamina oblong, 4.8 mm. long, 2mm. wide, nearly glabrous, 3-denticulate, 7-nerved; disk flowers 11 to 13, their corollas white, blackish green below the teeth, pilose on tube and throat, glabrous on teeth, 4 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat cylindric-funnelform, 2.5 mm., teeth ovate, papillose-margined, 0.5 mm.); pales submembranous, blackish green with subscarious margins, pilosulous, ciliate above, subtruncate or with short blunt erect or slightly spreading glabrous apiculation, about 5 mm. long; disk achenes (immature) ciliate, pilose especially above, narrowly winged, 2.8 mm. long; awns 2, unequal, hispidulous, 2.2 to 2.7 mm. long. Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected at San Miguel, Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, Colombia, November 1844, by William Purdie. Photograph and fragments i moles: National Herbarium. A member of the Verbesina punctata group, nearest V. synethes Blake, also a Colombian species, which has thicker heads, containing 8 rays and about 29 disk flowers, borne on pedicels 7 to 14 mm. long. Similar also to V. callac- atensis Hieron., of the Section Lipactinia, in which the heads sometimes bear asmany as 3 very smallrays. In that species the petioles are always auricu- late at base, the heads are considerably larger, and the involucre is densely pubescent. 228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—Preliminary note on proposed changes in the constants of the Austin-Cohen transmission formula.’ L. W. Austin. Laboratory for special Radio Transmission Research. (Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the Ameri- can Section of the International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy.) It has been known for a number of years that the Austin-Cohen transmission formula, while satisfactory for moderate distances and wave lengths, gives values at 6000 km which are only about one-half of those observed, and that at 12000 km the ratio appears to be about one to four. Our original formula? for daylight signals over salt water of 1910- 1914, was written hI Grim: HS W220 “aaa cae é (volts km. amp.) where u = se The constants in wu were determined empiri- cally from shunted telephone observations for distances up to 2000 km and frequencies between 1000 ke (A = 300 m) and 80 ke (A = 3750 m). Naturally I have been desirous of bringing the formula into better — agreement with the observations. Acting on the advice of some of my European colleagues in the URSI, I have given up the idea of altering the Hertzian portion of the formula since this is the portion that rests on a theoretical basis, and have given attention only to possible changes in the values of the constants of the exponential term. These can easily be arranged so as to give excellent agreement for limited ranges of wave length and distance, but in order to give the formula a general character, it should be at least approximately accurate for all frequencies between f = 1000 kc (A = 300 m) and 127e Ow = "25000 mm): 7 During recent years a very considerable amount of experimental data on signal field strength has been collected. Long series of trans- atlantic observations have been taken by the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, The Radio Corporation of America, The Marconi 1 Published by Permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U.S. Department of Commerce. 2 Bureau of Standards Bulletin VII; 315. 1911. Reprint 159; and XI; 69. 1914. Reprint 226. APR. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: AUSTIN-COHEN TRANSMISSION FORMULA 229 Company, the French Army at Meudon, near Paris, and the Bureau of Standards. The Marconi Company has also collected a vast amount of experimental reception data from various transmitting stations during the voyages of the 8. S. Dorset from England to New Zealand (February and March, 1922) by way of the Panama Canal, and of the 8. 8. Boonah from Australia to England (June, July, August, 1923) through the Suez Canal. In addition, the Indian Post Office made field intensity measurements at Karachi, India, on several of the European high-power stations from November, 1921, to January, 1923. | All this material now makesit possible to determine the variations of field intensity with varying wave length and distance with some degree of certainty. The relative value of the different series of observations of course differs widely. ‘Those in which the same sta- tions are observed regularly over one or more years are naturally the most valuable. ‘Those which have been taken during the voyages of ships, while important, may show large variations during different parts of the voyage, since in general only one observation is taken at any given distance from the transmitting station, and the results can at best represent the conditions during only limited portions of the year. 7 The use of much of the experimental material for deriving a for- mula which must by definition hold for an all water path is compli- cated by the fact that in most cases of long distance transmission the waves pass for a considerable distance over land. For example, the shortest great circle distance between Nauen, Germany, and Wash- ington is roughly twenty-five per cent land, Rocky Point to London twenty per cent, Buenos Aires to Washington more than fifty per cent, while from Karachi, India, to the European transmitting sta- tions nearly the whole path is over land. The question of the relative land and water attenuation in radio transmission is not at all settled. It is generally agreed that for wave lengths below 5000 m, land attentuation is much greater than that over water, and it seems probable that there is considerable, though decreasing, land effect from 5000 m up to at least 15000 m. The amount of this effect naturally depends upon the character of the land traversed, and especially on conditions in the neighborhood of the transmitting and receiving stations. Observations at Washing- ton covering more than two years indicate that signals from Bolinas, California, near San Francisco f = 22.9 ke (A = 13100 m) have prac- tically the same attenuation as over water, if the reported effective 230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 8 height of the station is correct. On the other hand, a much more limited number of observations in Washington on San Diego, and in San Diego on the east coast stations indicate nearly twice the water attenuation. This may_be due to local conditions near San Diego as this has always been thought by operators to be less favorable for radio work than San Francisco. | Notwithstanding these uncertainties, it has seemed worth while to make use of the accumulated data for obtaining at least tentative constants for a new formula. Up to the present a value of u = 0.0014d r0-6 varied as more and better observational data are obtained. Table 1 seems to give fairly satisfactory results. This may be slightly TABLE 1.—Ratio or NEw Aanp OLD VALUES OF e-% d km \ km = 500 1000 2000 4000 6000 12000 0.3 0.93 0.86 0.72 0.5 1.00 1.00 1.00 {<0 1.05 Lola i. 22 2.0 1.07 1.14 1731 3.0 £06 1.15 1.33 ViTG 5.0 1.32 172 2.25 10.0 : vst 1.62 2.09 4.40 16.0 1.55 1.94 3.75 24.0 1.80 3-2) gives the ratio of the new to the old values of e~* at various wave lengths and distances, and Table 2 shows a collection of observed intensity values from various sources which are in good, or fairly good, agreement with those calculated according to the revised for- mula. The observations at Cliffwood and New Southgate? were taken by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and those at Karachi by the Indian Post Office.‘ The series at San Diego*® was taken by the Bureau of Standards, while the Marion and Nauen observations on the S. 8. Dorset and Boonah* by the Marconi Company represent the averages taken from the observation curves of the two ships, one in March, 1922 and the other in July, 1923. Bordeaux changed its wave length from 23400 m to 19000 m, at about the time the Boonah sailed from Australia, 3 Bell System Technical Journal 4: 459. 1925. 4London Elec. 91: 164. 1923. ‘This JOURNAL 15: 139, 1925. 6 Jour. I. E. E. (London) 638: 933. 1925. APR. 19, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 231 and this change resulted in such an increase in the efficiency of the station that the observations on the two ships could not be fairly compared. TABLE 2.—Some CaLcULATED AND OBSERVED FIELD INTENSITIES E aie SENDING STATION RECEIVING STATION 2 2 Saree spies Deen ee. (ro Nauen Cliffwood, N. J. 23.8] 12.6 | 6350/44 |42 1922-1923 Marion New Southgate, /25.8) 11.6 | 5280/40 [53 1923-1924 Eng. Rome Karachi, India 28.0] 10.7 | 5230/24 |20 Nov, 1921, “to Bordeaux Karachi, India 12.8} 23.4 | 5900/60 {68 Jan., 1923 Ste. Assise Bureau of Stds. 20.6) 14.5 | 6150/53 |48 1923 Bordeaux Bureau of Stds. 12.8] 23.4 | 6160/67 {71 1922 Buenos Aires Bureau of Stds. 23.6) 12.7 | 8300/30 (37 1924 Cavite, P. I. San Diego, Cal. 19.3} 15.5 | 11800} 2.7) 2.0) Aug. 28-Sept. 22, 1924 Marion S. S. Dorset and 95 8) 11 a 8000}11 {12 March, 1922, and | Boonah “|| 12000} 2.7] 3 July, 1923 Nauen S. 8. Dorset and 93 8| 12 al 8000/21 |22 pee 1922, and Boonah “ |} 12000] 5.4) 5.5]{ July, 1923 Bordeaux S. S. Dorset ore - 8000/37 |33 || March, 1922 “|| 12000]/13 [10 In a later paper the rest of the available data, both favorable and unfavorable to the formula, will be discussed. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS On behalf of the American Geographical Society, presentations were made of the Cullum Geographical Medal to Dr. Harvny C. Hayus, the Charles P. Daly Medal to Brig. Gen. Davip L. Brarnarp at a joint, meeting of the AcADEMY, Philosophical Society, and the Biological Society, on April 15. Professor ERNEST CoueEn, Director of the Vant’ Hoff Laboratory, Univer- sity of Utrecht, will address a joint meeting of the AcapEMy and several of its affiliated societies in the near future. The following scientists will be in Washington; Dr. Rurus L. GREEN, Professor of mathematics at Leland Stanford University, from April 24 to 30; Dr. Witt1am McPuHeErson, professor of chemistry and dean of the graduate school of Ohio State University, from April 22 to 25; and Dr. E. L. NicHous: of Ithaca, N. Y., from April 21 to May 16. All may be addressed at the Cosmos Club. fi i ar Abe i > ae oH aR ro ay a — ae > om, ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Tuesday, April 20. The Anthropological Society. Saturday, April 24. The Biological Society. Wednesday, April 28. The Geological Society. Saturday, May 1. The Philosophical Society. Program: W. J. Peters: The twenty-seven day interval in earth currents. K. O. Huntsvrt: The spectrum of hydrogen in the stars and in the laboratory. Tuesday, May 4. The Botanical Society. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTENTS - OnraiNaL PaPERs | BOPP enag. Botany. New Pipereaeue from South Vraericd and Mexico. oe * - Botany.—On Gyranthera and Bombacopsis with a key to the | ee iy ee Bombaencese. Hi: Prrramiy oodles get ok see athe 3 Botany.—New South American Verbesininae. S. F. ‘Buaxg, : Radiotelegraphy .—Preliminary note on proposed changes in Austin-Cohen transmission formula. as We AUSTIN. - fee President: Gaoaes K. Bees Bureau of Standards © x Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiusBzx, Bureau of Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Su Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. __ Vol. 16 May 4, 1926 No. 9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuny Aanres CHASE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwer PHILOSGPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GotpMAN G. W. Stosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R, F. Griaes J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOG!IGAL SOCIETY E. WicHuERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ; A ~~ | EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBE Lo qusontnn waST) TP . BY THE > WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ¥ “JUN - 21926 * Mr. Rorat anp GuiLForp AVES. Var, eo BALTIMORE, MARYLAND ONat MUS a Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. 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Astronomers and geophysicists are generally agreed that the planet- ary mote on which mankind breathes and moves bespeaks an evolution of a nebulous mass, but the physics of this transmutation is a matter of very persistent dispute with them. Again they evaluate the time of this transformation into the hundreds of millions of years, but their bases of calculation are as diversified as the astounding figures arrived at. These are some of the uncertainties of geology, a science very pertinently christened by someone as the Benjamin. Undoubted, however, it does appear that from the very first incrustations of our globe, fretful apparently at its very existence, the earth gave way to expressions of this anxiety in repeated quiverings. The story, then, of earthquake phenomena is undeniably very ancient. Once people began to tenant our sphere and reckoned time set itself to filing away for posterity items in the archives of the past, its computers were made aware that the flooring beneath their feet was running away from | them. Rightly might we expect records to advise us when all of this first happened. Instinctively we turn to the inspired writings, but only to meet with much disappointment. True it is that there we find earthquakes referred to. ‘This under two general connections. First: they may be predicted in prophetical or apocalyptic literature, in which case it is not always certain whether the literal ‘‘earth quake” or simply some commotion (moral, social, or physical) is represented by the figure “earthquake.”’ Secondly: a few times earthquakes are mentioned as historical facts. Referred to without historical record, 1 Papers presented at the 933d meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington, March 6, 1926. 233 234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 or even certainly literal use of the word, we find the word ‘‘earth- quake,” in Hebrew ra’ash, in Isaiah, chapter 29, verse 6, and in Eze- kiel, chapter 3, verses 12-13, chapter 37, verse 7, and chapter 38, verse 19. In the New Testament, where the word appears as “seis- mos,” we find this in Matthew, chapter 24, verse 7, Mark, chapter 13, Sete 8, and Luke, chapter 21, verse 11. In the Apocalypse, or hpaaies known Revelation of St. John the Divine, there are five mentions of the word, each prophetic and none certainly literal. As an historical record: In the Book of Kings we read: “earthquake with fire,’ lightning is probably here referred to. Again in Amos, where the year is not determinable with any accuracy. It is unfortunate that the times in the Old Testament are so equivocal. As regards the earthquake at Horeb, witnessed by Elias and chronicled in the third book of Kings, the 19th chapter, the 12th verse, the pas- sage reads: “And after the earthquake a fire (usual word for lightning).” This took place in the reign of Achab, and, at least, three years after its inception. It is to be noted that the chronologies of the Kings differ by margins of fifty years or even more at the hands of various com- puters, but the more reliable date for the reign of Achab most probably reached from 873 to 854 B.C. ‘This, therefore, is one of the oldest, if not the oldest scriptural record available in this connection. Others are chronicled to have taken place between the years 789 to 738 and 781 and 743. : | It may not be uninteresting for me to mention in this connection that the earthquake accompanying the crucifixion and resurrection would have occurred in the spring (probably) of 28, 29, or 30 A.D. Again the earth shocks felt by the prisoners at Philippi may be as- signed, with strong probability, to the year 51 A.D., though from late 50-52 A.D. would be the extreme margins. Before quitting this subject I feel obligated to mention the incident recorded in Numbers, chapter 16, verses 29-34. The engulfing of the rebels, as narrated here, by the fissure of the earth is not explicitly connected with any of the current expressions for “earthquakes;”’ but, on the other hand, | it need not have been of a supernatural character, and if not, it would be most likely referable to a local earthquake or accompanied thereby. In which case this quake would antedate the above. It is to be noted however that the date here would have to be read with a margin of at least a century and one half. Little wonder, once a people were witness to one of these nerve-rack- ing experiences, that they would make it the topic of their table talk. What they wanted to know was, what it all meant and particularly MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 235 curious were they to ascertain when it was likely to reoccur. So the wiser of the communities set themselves up as shock detectors, soon to realize that in the category of sensitive mechanisms, the human body is wholly unreliable. Man, as often as he recognized his short- coming in the physical world, invoked the machine. Accordingly we read in the Chinese Annals: “‘In the first year of Yoka, 136 A.D., a Chinese, Choko by name, a smith by trade, hammered out of a lump Fig. 1.—First seismoscope, by Choko, 136, A.D. of copper an instrument to which he or some one of his admirers gave the name of seismoscope (Fig. 1). The tale goes on to say: ‘‘Once upon a time a dragon dropped its ball without any earthquake having been observed, and the people, therefore, thought the instrument of no use, but after two or three days a notice came saying that a shock had taken place at Rosei. Hearing of this, those who doubted the use of the instrument began to believe init again. After this ingenious 236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 instrument had been invented, the Chinese government wisely ap- pointed a secretary to make observations on earthquakes.” Passing strange it is that in the history of scientific development there seems to have been a stagnation persisting from the very earliest findings till deep into the middle ages. ‘Two striking instances are electricity and magnetism. Add to these investigations in earth shocks. For from the time of our Chinese friend till 1703 not one advance had been made instrumentally. Then it was that a French priest, De Haute Feuille, featured the first improvement (Fig. 2). Not only did he claim for his device a greater sensitivity than that of Choko, because Fig. 2.—De Haute Feuille’s modification of Choko’s seismoscope, 1703. of the substitution of mercury for the metal spheres but also the additional asset of rating the intensity of the quake in terms of the displaced fluid. It might be instructive to indicate all of the contraptions for record- ing tremors carrying us from what I might style the period of qualita- tive study of earthquakes into the quantitative, but time prevents. Close to the end of the last century a band of English geologists, amongst whom I may mention such names as Milne, Ewing, Perry, Knott, and Gray, made their way to Japan and there, in collaboration with the Japanese geophysicists, put together the first of the scientific MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 237 seismographs. Ewing is accredited with the first horizontal seismo- _ graph in 1879. The stationary mass of this machine was 25 kg. and the length of the suspension 6.8 meters. Just one year later Gray announced his vertical instrument. Short functionings of these in- struments early made it apparent that the earth’s autographs were vitiated by a tendency of the swinging mass to take up its own natural period of oscillation, a condition which becomes very exaggerated where the period of the earthquake vibrations approximate that of the pendular mass. Wegener, an associate of Gray, first took notice of this. Gray very promptly attacked the problem of eliminating these vitiating elements and this through friction. Rood, an American geologist, first applied liquid damping. Toepler followed with air damping, a method quite popular even today. Galitzin’s latest inter- ference is magnetic. Possibly this is the most efficient. Brassart, in 1886, gave to science the first double component machine. This was of the heavy pendulum type. A very marked departure in earth- quake instrument construction dates back to 1892 when Milne showed that a heavy mass is not an essential feature of an efficient seismom- eter. In 1894, on the suggestion of the same Milne, the photographic sheet became a close competitor of the sooted parchment. Galitzin’s magnetic registration and Wood-Anderson’s torsion pedulum close the story of the earthquake instruments to date. Investigations into the transmission of earth movements through the earth’s capsule were first launched by Young. His was the mind that suggested that the propagation was akin to that of sound waves in air. Gay-Lussae concurred. In 1846 Mallet first put the trans- verse waves into competition, though he by no means made it clear that two types of undulations were distinct, to wit the longitudinal and transversal, or compressional and distortional. This was re- served for Wertheim. Miuilne, following his instrumental findings, placed a definite imprimatur on these interpretations. Wiechert, in 1899, first read out of grams the reflected longitudinal wave and Zoeppritz first the transversal waves once reflected. Wiechert seems to have first diagnosed the long or Raleigh waves which many years - antecedently Ewing had mistaken for the transversal. Seismologists have not as yet bequeathed us all the wealth of the gram. Following the complete identification of these elastic undulations, the seismologist, knowing what he was after, had to establish their running record. To Wiechert and Zoeppritz credit is due for the first reliable time curves, reading up to 12,000 kilometers, though earlier attempts at these had been made by Schmidt, Milne, Benndorf, and 238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 Oldham. In 1912 Wegener edited charts for distances in excess of 11,000 kilometers. Others followed in quick succession. These by Gutenberg, Meisner, Mohorovicic and Angenheister. There is still a readiness on the part of geophysicists to accept even more reliable tables. One might suspect that attempts at fixing the exact centers of quakes were very early. Far from it. Mallet appears to have been the first to establish the geography of these happenings from iso- seismal lines. Where reliable observers are available, this method still qualifies. No further back than 1911 did Milne work out his first group of epicenters covering quakes between the years 1899-1903, on the basis of triangulation. A second group appeared in 1912 span- ning the years 1904-1909. The work then fell to the lot of Turner who published centers for 1911 and 1912. Strassburg pledged itself to the work in 1918 but due to the world war the results are now some four years in arrears. Every people seem to have had a secret formula for solving the problem of earthquake occurrences. One or other may be mentioned. The ancient Greeks held resentful Zeus responsible for these visitations. The Babylonians attempted to read their wherefore in the stars. The inhabitants of the West Carolinian Islands fancied they heard in them the stampeding of giant animals against the earth’s crust. Others deciphered them as the rappings of warning spooks. Over against these unique, not to say, grotesque ravings, we have the more reserved interpretations of the older philosophers. Pythagoras, 580 B.C., attributed earthquakes to underground fires therein anticipating voleanic earthquake history. Metrodorus, a pupil of Democritus, 460 B.C., made a guess at a theory which pressed. hard in on the pre- vailing theory of today. He said: One mass of the earth may sink, following gravity, while another has to rise to maintain equilibration. Epicurus, 341 B.C., favored the notion, afterwards sponsored by Ger- mans, that the ground water dissolved out certain geological materials and that the overhanging dome, for want of support, collapsed. Aristotle, 384 B.C., conceived earth tremors to be brought about by the attempted escape of air imprisoned within subterranean cavi- ties. Cardano, mathematician and philosopher, about the middle of the 16th century, looking on the earth’s interior as one gigantic crucible, saw therein sulphur, bitumen, and saltpeter chemically inter- acting and the energy liberated causing havoc to the abutting walls of the laboratory. Alexander von Humbolt orthodoxly observed that though there were earthquakes usually connected with volcanic erup- tions, such were distinctly in the minority as compared with the MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 239 devastating quakes of history. He conceived, therefore, the volcanoes _to be safety-valves for the pent-up gases imprisoned within the earth. A return here to the Aristotelian doctrine. Here I must mention Mallet, an English inventor of machines of war. When in 1857 a destructive quake razed the kingdom of Naples, he applied to the Royal - Society for a grant for research along this quake. As he was deemed qualified for such studies because of his familiarity with explosives, the allotment was made with the result that the bookshelves of the seismo ogists were graced with two new volumes, entitled ‘‘The Neapol- itan Earthquake.’ This in 1857. Mallet, so we read in these tomes, agreeing with Aristotle on the fundamentals of his theory, applied thereto the findings of the Dutch physicist, Huygens, on the travel of harmonic disturbances in different media. With these embellishments Mallet christens the theory the centrum theory. For the first time, too, we meet with the terms, now bywords w:.th the seismologists, centrum, epicenter. About fifty years was to be its lifetime. The great quake in the Neo Valley, Japan, 1890, set geologists to doubting it. Photographs taken of the territory showing macroseismal move- ments indicated fractures running for miles across the country and that along these seams of rupture the land had seesawed, rising in one point to a maximum height of eight feet, while in some places, though neither side had been raised or lowered in reference to the other, the two sides had slipped by each other in opposite directions. Six years following this catastrophe there occurred the heavy quake in Assam. Three fractures were located in a study of a restricted portion of the affected area and a vertical displacement of thirty-five feet. Oldham published a memoir in which he contended that one plane of fracture was clearly a thrust on a plane of low angle to the horizon. In 1906 Tarr and. Martin contributed an article to the Bulletin of the Geological Society of American in which they showed that following the severe quake of September, 1899 in Yukutat Bay, there were marked depressions in the coast line and elevations on land amounting to 16 meters. This they attributed to mountain growth with vertical adjustments between the large blocks within a fault mosaic. In 1907 Mr. Willard Johnson made a field survey of the Owens Valley quake of 1872 and for the first time an accurate map was prepared of a fault network suffering adjustment at the time of earth movements. With such imprimaturs the so-called tectonic theory of earthquake has grown until today it is a dogma of the seismic school. The researches of the past half century and particularly of the past decade have dowered seismology with a wealth of information. These 240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 investigations have been stimulated through such agencies as the British Association Seismology Committee, the International Seismo- logical Society, with headquarters in Strassburg, the Imperial Earth-- quake Investigations Committee, Tokio, Japan, the Seismological Society of America, and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Besides, the several governments the world over have lent most liberal encouragement to this work. Most recently have our own United States officially authorized seismological researches and designated the Coast and Geodetic Survey to execute them. The authorities have so auspiciously inaugurated this new activity that it is quite apparent that our country in the very near future will add many more interesting pages to the history of this most important of the sciences. 2. OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS IN Sxrrsmotocy. N. H. Heck, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The outstanding problem in seismology is to develop a future worthy of the past. ‘There might appear to be no reason to feel any doubt, and yet such a future will not be assured without special effort. A few days ago I read a review of the art conditions in various countries which was rather critical of present conditions. The critic overlooked the fact that probably many of the men who would have been the out- standing or arriving artists now were killed or wounded in the war. — - The same thing would appear to apply to seismologists especially in the countries which were most active before the war. I do not intend to discuss details but only the outstanding points in the various problems which are now occupying the attention. of seismologists. Each subject could be the basis for several papers. An apparently simple problem is one which many seismologists have given up in despair and yet which apparently cannot be dispensed with,—the determination of isoseismal lines through appraisal of intensity by observers. This, of course, applies only to earthquakes whose effects are felt or visible. The elements of the problem include: inability of the average man to tell his experiences accurately, especially when disturbed; difficulty in securing proper distribution of competent observers; actual changes in effects from place to place, as between rock and alluvial land; disagreement between two observers at the same place; and difficulties in adopting a scale of intensity which will fit all the observations. The solution is necessary, as in most cases there is no other practical means for determining the area disturbed and distribution of the in- May 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 241 tensity. At present the effort is to get the largest possible number of competent persons to report; the Coast and Geodetic Survey has adopted a form which guides the reply, but which leaves it free for the observer to state his own impressions. He is not asked to estimate the intensity. It has been proposed to form special local organizations in earthquake regions for the purpose of making accurate reports. The Weather Bureau has taken an active part in this work in the past, and is continuing to do so. With the best possible results, the prob- lem is much like that of plotting magnetic lines for a region of magnetic disturbance, though with good judgment reasonably satisfactory re- sults are obtainable. It has been made clear that instrumental development is the neces- sary background. Adoption of good instruments in this country is most important. The Wood-Anderson seismometer seems to give con- siderable promise as a teleseismic instrument, and the test now being made under observatory conditions at the Coast and Geodetic mag- netic observatory at Tucson, Arizona, is likely to be productive of much benefit. Most of you have had occasion to use apparatus in which an es- sential feature is the uniform rotation of a cylinder. This was not well accomplished in many of the best European types of instruments. The need for such apparatus developed during the war and it is now possible to have rotation of any desired accuracy. The problem is now to secure the result with minimum cost and minimum complica- tion of apparatus. It will be seen that this matter of accurate time is vital to many parts of the study. Assoon as an entirely satisfactory apparatus of low cost is developed for the Wood-Anderson instrument, it is going to be possible to have widespread distribution of good seismographs. One of the outstanding needs is the operation of vertical instru- ments. Such records are indispensable, but at present there is no suitable instrument which can be operated with a moderate degree of attention. Father Tondorf is making a wonderful contribution at Georgetown University by operating his Galitzin vertical, but he will admit that it is a difficult instrument to install, operate and keep in order. Until we have more vertical instruments, certain urgently needed studies must be postponed. : Assume that we have satisfactory instruments, what are we going to get out of them? The results that we are going to get depend both on ability to interpret the seismogram and to completely develop the underlying theory. A great deal of work has been done on both of 242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 these problems during the present century. Just as in every field of science, as the significance of various phases has been established on apparently good evidence, there have been some who have refused to accept the conclusions and have forced the accumulation of evidence till it was overwhelming. This is a proper course, though in every case the critics should be those who are themselves making contribu- tions to seismology. The P and S waves are now generally accepted as having definite significance, but Wiechert, as recently as 1903, had difficulty in secur- ing the acceptance of the S wave as a transverse wave following nearly, if not quite the same path as the longitudinal P wave. It took much study to develop and recognize the various reflected waves and this process is still going on. The complications of the subject can be readily recognized when it is considered that at each reflecting surface there are really five possibilities, in case the approaching wave strikes the surface obliquely, though all of them do not occur in every case. Suppose the incident wave is longitudinal. There may then be a reflected longitudinal and a reflected transverse, each taking a different path; also a transmitted longitudinal and transverse, each taking a different path. There will also be Rayleigh waves transmitted along the surface. ‘Though ordinarily in the case of the surface, not more than three reflections have been recognized, the possible number of reflected waves is very great and certain series may appear under some conditions and another set under others. It is evident that this is a problem worthy of the best efforts of seismologists. Though it is far from being fully solved, it is significant of the new spirit in this country that-Dr. James B. Macelwane, head of the Jesuit Seismological As- sociation, is at present engaged in preparing tables which extend the work of Klotz, Visser, Gutenburg and others so that we may take into account a large number of phases. He is preparing convenient tables to make this possible. The method is to determine the approximate distance of epicenter, then enter the tables and take out the time of arrival of the phases given. Then make an independent study of the seismogram and set down the phases observed. There should, with good records, be an agreement of perhaps eighty per cent of the phases when the correct distance has been adopted. This makes it possible to obtain much greater distances accurately than the previous tables permitted. The unidentified twenty per cent of the phases may be either non-existent or not yet identified. This shows the need for further investigation. The tables cover average conditions. At some stations average MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 243 conditions do not give good agreement. ‘This seems to be unques- tionably true of the records obtained at the Honolulu Magnetic ob- servatory. An investigation is in progress to establish this fact be- yond argument and discuss possible explanations. In general, waves reach this station considerably in advance of the time required by any existing theory. Long waves, though the most impressive parts of the seismogram, are less important for obtaining distance than for determining inten- sity. They are extremely complex and have only in part responded to mathematical treatment. A mathematical physicist has an ample field for his effort. To obtain the intensity of the ground movement, it is necessary to obtain from the seismogram the acceleration and the intensity. De- termination of the acceleration, which is the factor needed by design- ers of structures and which may be also used in placing isoseismal lines, is an essential operation. ‘The acceleration can be obtained from the period and the amplitude. With well-designed seismographs the period of the recorded wave is practically equal to that of the earth wave, but the instrument, for practical reasons, is designed to give a much greater amplitude than that of the earth’s movement. ‘The magnification is calculated from the period of the earth wave and in- strumental constants, and the amplitude of the earth movement may thus be known. With an undamped seismograph magnification cannot be determined when the period is the same or nearly the same as the natural period of the instrument on account of resonance. This is a frequent occurrence in the case of the long wave. The theory of wave transmission has been investigated mathemat- ically in quite a thorough manner but parts, even of the generally ac- cepted theories, do not satisfy all seismologists and there is a vast amount of debatable ground for future investigation. A knowledge of the direction of the earth vibrations (in three di- mensions) is necessary to determine depth of focus. The problem of maximum depth of focus, as well as depth of a given earthquake, is naturally one of great interest. The establishment of isostasy would seem to make it necessary that all earthquakes should occur above the depth of compensation. Ge- odesists are therefore interested in more accurate determinations of depth of focus. This will require more accurate timing of arrival of phases than heretofore and the recording apparatus developed by Wood and Anderson will help to solve this problem. The stations now being established by the Carnegie Institution in California should 244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 give valuable evidence on this question of depth, the only possible difficulty being that most of the earthquakes there are probably rela- tively shallow, as evidenced by the effect on the surface of the earth. Certain phases appear on seismograms which‘can be explained only on the assumption that there are reflecting layers at the depth of 60 kilometers and 2900 kilometers, respectively. These layers are established beyond a doubt and there is good evidence for other such layers. The 2900 kilometer layer is also arrived at by other methods, such as those used in the studies of the Geophysical Laboratory. The physical significance of these surfaces of discontinuity afford an in- teresting problem in physics. The phenomenon of crustal creep seems to be established for regions such as California where earthquakes are known to be of not infre- quent occurrence. The measurement of the amount of change of positions both horizontally and vertically by geodetic methods has now been carried to the point where the determination of the manner in which strains develop and are released may be possible. The Coast and Geodetic Survey is, by the nature of its other work, especially attracted to consideration of the submarine earthquake. Its accurate surveys along our coasts are going to make it possible to determine accurately the changes due to earthquakes. An important illustration of this has been recently found in investigation of the rec- ords. In 1914 an accurate survey was made by modern methods of a shoal near the Cuyo Islands, Sulu Sea, Philippine Islands. Eighteen months later it was found that part of the shoal had dropped through at least 100 feet. An earthquake was recorded about halfway between the two surveys. This is probably the only case where change has been proved by comparison of two modern hydrographic surveys, each of the same standard and with control of positions by high-grade triangulation determination of the objects used. ‘The details of this case are of more interest to geologists, but there is a definite relation between such cases and the broad questions of geophysics. I have left a number of important problems unmentioned, but - believe that I have described enough of the problems to show the great field of investigation that is open to the seismologist, which will not only be of scientific value but will have a direct bearing on the solution of some very practical problems of preservation of lite and property. May 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 245 3. EARTHQUAKES FROM THE IsostTaTic VIEWPOINT. WILLIAM Bowlz, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In attacking problems relating to the structure of the earth’s crust and the processes which change surface features, it is desirable that all available data be used. One of the earth problems awaiting solution which is receiving a great deal of attention to-day is the earth- quake. ‘The data resulting from the isostatic investigations should prove of value in studying this phenomenon. It is not possible, in this short paper, to cover the subject of isostasy. What is known of that condition of the earth’s crust is set forth in many reports and papers, readily available, which have appeared in recent years. Here we need merely accept isostasy as a scientific principle and see what is its probable relation to those processes which are at work within the earth to rupture rock and cause the tremors known as earthquakes. The isostatic investigations seem to indicate very clearly that the depth to which the isostatic compensation extends is about 60 miles below sea level. ‘That depth is not a fixed one, always the same in different places. ‘The derived depth of 60 miles from geodetic data is an average one. ‘The compensation, in some places, may extend to a greater depth and at others may not reach so deep below the outer surface of the earth. It has been shown, with some degree. of exactness, that the com- pensation of topographic features is a somewhat local phenomenon, but it is uncertain as to whether or not the compensation extends hori- zontally 25, 50, or some other number of miles from the feature. A test of whether or not strictly local or regionally distributed compensa- tion most nearly eliminates the isostatic anomalies was reported on in Special Publication No. 10 of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Regional distribution, out to a distance of about 37 miles from topo- graphic features, eliminated the anomalies about as well as strictly local compensation. When the compensation was distributed region- - ally to a distance of about 104 miles from the topographic feature, the anomalies were larger, on an average, than for the other methods of distribution. A test was made to show the mass of a topographic feature which might escape isostatic adjustment.! The results seem to indicate that any topographic feature, having an average thickness of 3000 feet and a radius of about 18 miles is, at least largely, compensated. 1 See p. 34, Special Publication No. 99, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 The crust below all classes of topography, whether high, low or intermediate in elevation, is in isostatic equilibrium. This is true for the various geological formations, whether old, recent or inter- mediate. The isostatic test has been made for a number of regions; these include the whole of the United States, southern Canada, the Mackenzie River Valley in Canada, Holland, western Siberia, the Alps, India, the Solomon Islands and their vicinity, and Spain. In every case the crust beneath the geodetic stations used has been found to be closely in equilibrium. We are justified I think from the results of these tests in predicting that tests in other regions will show that the crust beneath them is also in isostatic equilibrium. All mountain systems existing to-day occupy areas which previous to the uplifts were areas of heavy sedimentation. How can an area that was once low, subjected to 10,000 feet or more of sediments and, presumably, in isostatic equilibrium (for all sedimentary areas to-day are in that condition) become an area of uplift, with an average height of topography of a mile or more, with the crust below still in isostatic equilibrium? The mountain mass is not an extra load on the sub- crustal base beneath the mountain area. If it were so, surely this con- dition would be detected by the deflections of the vertical and the values of gravity at stations in the vicinity of the mountains. There are two ways in which a mountain system can be formed in a sedimentary area and still not have the mass as an extra load. One is to have the crust of the earth thicken beneath the mountain area with roots projecting into subcrustal space. These roots would just balance, by their deficiency in density, the mass that forms above sea level. This is what is called the ‘‘roots of mountains theory,” ad- vanced by Osmond Fisher a number of years ago. Fisher was fol- lowing the equilibrium ideas of Airy. The second method would be to have a decrease in the density of the crustal material beneath the sediments, resulting in an increase in the volume. ‘The material would tend to expand in all directions but it could not go down nor would it be able to push sidewise to any extent. The line of least resistance would be upward and this is the direction in which the material goes. This latter theory is based on the idea of Pratt: One of these theories must be true, but which one no one knows. But the indications seem to be that the Pratt idea is much the stronger of the two. The “roots of mountains” theory has a number of weak points which have not been cleared away by its advocates. I strongly advocate the Pratt idea and the statements made in this paper are based on it. MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 247 We seem to be left, then, with the earth’s crust, approximately 60 miles in thickness, in almost perfect isostatic equilibrium. - The topo- graphic features are compensated by deficiencies or excesses of density in the crustal material in the vicinity of the features. This compen- sation may extend horizontally to a distance of 20, 30, or possibly some greater number of miles, from the feature, but it is probable that the regional distribution of density does not extend out as far as 100 miles from a topographic feature. A topographic feature, having dimensions equivalent to 3000 feet in average thickness, with a radius of 18 miles is at least largely compensated. ‘The mountain systems occupy areas _ which in a previous period had been subjected to heavy sedimentation. Those areas of heavy sedimentation were along the margins of oceans or of inland seas. We have, in the above, information and data of great importance in the study of earthquakes but we have additional information which must be’considered. ‘This is that the isostatic condition of the earth’s crust is probably maintained while tremendous loads of material are shifted over the earth’s surface. The rate of erosion in the United States is such that one foot, on the average, would be denuded from the 3,000,000 square miles of our area in 9000 years. This is a rate of half a mile of erosion in 20,000,000 or 30,000,000 years. ‘The average elevation of the United States is about 2500 feet and at the above rate most of this mass would be denuded in a comparatively short time. But we must remember that, as erosion takes place, the isostatic equi- librium is not permanently disturbed. If 1000 feet of material were eroded from an area, undoubtedly the original crust below would be lighter than it had been before, but the pendulums and deflection of the vertical stations do not show that an area of rapid erosion is out of equilibrium. We must conclude that, as the material is eroded from the surface, there is a transfer of subcrustal material into the crustal | space to offset the erosion. We do not know the density of the sub- crustal material but it is reasonable to assume that it is 10 per cent or more denser than the surface material which is approximately 2.7. In any event, in order to base-level an area, it would be necessary to erode from it several times as much material as appeared in the original mountain mass. Under the influence of erosion, the crustal material below is brought into higher and, presumably, colder regions.. This coming up of the crust undoubtedly results in fractures in the crustal materials and especially in the cold rock near the surface, thus causing earthquakes. It is probable that this process was involved in. the earthquake in Montana during the summer of 1925. 248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 As material is laid down along the margins of an ocean or an inland sea, the crust below sinks under the added weight, but it would appear — that only a moderate amount of sediments could be laid down in shal- low water in any particular region because of differences in density of the sedimentary material and the subcrustal material. It is probable that the subcrustal material is at least 20 per cent denser than the un- consolidated sediments. We have, however, evidence of many thou- sands of feet of sediments having been laid down in shallow water. We must, therefore, conclude that there is a sinking of the crustal material, independent of the weight of sediments. . An analysis of the situation leads us to believe that this independent . sinking is due to cooling off of the crustal material which was uplifted during a prior period of erosion. As was mentioned earlier, the crustal material below an erosion area rises to colder regions. Eventually that material will cool down to the temperature normal to those new places; then some physical or chemical reaction probably takes place which contracts the crustal material which had been uplifted. A sink- ing of the surface would take place, due to this contraction, and a synclinorium would be formed into which sediments are deposited. Does it not appear, therefore, that any area that is receiving or has received great masses of sediment all laid down in shallow waters, was previously a mountain area, or at least one of high elevation, from which much material had been eroded? As the material of the crust which had been carried upward during erosion contracts, the contraction would tend to take place in all directions. This would probably make rifts within the contracting material and between that material and the unaffected crust to the sides, but the crustal material is not strong enough to maintain a rift extending to a great depth (what depth we do not know). It would appear, therefore, that there would be a horizontal movement to fill any deep rifts that might have opened. It would seem probable that there would be some slow movement of material, resulting in distortion without fracture, but it seems logical to assume that some of the con- traction would result in rifting and that this would give rise to earth- quakes. As the sediments are laid down on the crust the weight of this added material will push down the crustal material beneath it. This will force aside subcrustal material equal in mass to the added weight. In addition to the earthquakes due to independent sinking, it would seem to be most probable that earthquakes in sedimentary areas are also caused by the weight of sediments pressing the crust down. Some of the pressing down from the weight of the sediments _ may 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 249 will take place so slowly that the crustal material will yield to the stresses without fracture. At times, however, the sediments will accumulate more rapidly than the ability of the crust to assume new shapes and forms without rupture or crushing. In these cases the material will be strained beyond the elastic limit and a break will occur, causing an earthquake. It is probable that about one-fifth of the lowering of the base of the sediments is due to the contraction of the crust below, and four-fifths to the sinking caused by the weight of the sediments. As the sediments are laid down along the margins of an ocean or an inland sea and the crust sinks beneath, the crustal material will be car- ried down into hotter regions. The sediments in some cases are as much as five or more miles in thickness and it is reasonable to suppose that the crustal material beneath these sediments will be carried down approximately an equal amount. When the material assumes the temperature of its new position, there will be a chemical or physical reaction, or a combination of the two, which will expand the crustal material. There will also be the ordinary thermal expansion. It is possible that the mountains and plateaus are formed by the expansion of the crustal material below them. In fact, it is most probable that this is true if the Pratt equilibrium idea is the correct one. In the process of uplift to form the mountain system, cubical ex- pansion would tend to operate, but the material cannot go down nor sidewise, therefore the movement is upward. ‘There would be much crushing of material during upward movement and in the confining of the movement to a single direction. Much of the distortion of strata and the horizontal displacement as observed in an uplifted area may be merely incidents to the vertical movement. In any event this - expansion of material to cause mountains or plateaus will undoubtedly rupture rock near the surface and give us earthquakes. There are other earthquakes than those mentioned above. These are caused by the explosions occurring in the vicinity of volcanoes. These earthquakes, as a rule, are not very heavy ones. With isostasy established as a scientific principle, we are forced to conclude that the subcrustal material is plastic to long continued stresses or, at least, that it has very low residual rigidity. It would therefore seem to be most probable that the subcrustal material would yield without fracture to the stresses resulting from shifting of loads on the earth’s surface. This leads us to believe that the earthquake must be a phenomenon confined to crustal material. Since the crust is approximately 60 miles in thickness, we should not expect the epi- 250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 centers of earthquakes to be at a greater depth than 60 miles below sea level. The late Prof. Omori, the famous seismologist of Japan, made a statement in one of his papers that he had not located any epicenters at a greater depth than about 27 kilometers. This fits in with the isostatic principle. The determination of depths of epi- centers is a subject which is receiving a great deal of attention by seismologists and we shall look forward with interest to the results obtained by their studies. Conclustons: Based on what has been said above, we must postulate that we have several causes of earthquakes. Since the theory of isostasy has been proved and may now be called the principle of isostasy, we must not ignore the equilibrium of the earth’s crust in earthquake studies. It seems probable that the isostatic equilibrium of the crust has obtained throughout the sedimentary age of the earth. Earthquakes are, apparently, due (on the isostatic principle) to the maintenance of isostatic equilibrium during erosion and sedimenta- tion, the expansion of the crustal material which has been thrust down- ward under sedimentation into hotter spaces, and the contraction of the crustal material which has been pushed upward into colder spaces under areas of erosion. These would appear to be the major causes of earthquakes. In addition, there are the volcanic earthquakes of more or less local character and of minor importance. 4, DIFFICULTIES IN THE Strupy oF LocaL EARTH MovVEMENTS. ArTHUR L. Day, Geophysical Laboratory. In 1905 I was sent officially to England to confer with Sir John Milne in regard to some contemplated developments in the study of earth movements, and visited him at that time at his place at Shide on the Isle of Wight, where he had a number of seismographs set up and operating. He was then of course nearing the close of his career. Milne, at that time, was a gentleman farmer by environment, and had become the world’s foremost student of seismology through the pursuit of his chief avocation. He intimated that it was a gentleman’s privilege to choose his pleasures as he wished, and this was his choice. I was shown his equipment with much enthusiasm. Without ex- planatory preface he told me then and there the cause of two-thirds of the recorded earthquakes, namely, spiders in the instrument case. A little later Mr. Gutenberg, who stands in the very front rank of seismologists today, was able to explain a portion of the remaining ones. | It appears that in the great laboratory at Gottingen which has become MAY 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 251 familiar to you all through the work of Wiechert, earthquakes were at one time of frequent occurrence whenever a certain outside window was open. They did not persist when it was closed. Notwithstanding these historic episodes, or perhaps occasionally because of them, the study of earthquakes is a thoroughly serious business, as all of those distinguished men who have sought to ap- proach the subject quantitatively have discovered, whether the search be directed to the causes of local earthquakes or to the constitution of the earth’s interior mass. It is quite possible by the use of these refined methods, which have been described to you so clearly by Father Tondorf, to pick up earth vibrations of many different vibration periods beginning as low as from four to seven or eight-tenths of a second. ‘These short waves form a class by themselves, which was first seriously studied by the Gottingen group and originally ascribed by them to the waves of the North Sea. One early difficulty lay in the fact that the direction in which the sea lay was not always the direction from which these waves had come according to the seismograph record. Afterward Guten- berg became interested, as most of you know, to try to fix upon some other natural phenomenon which might prove adequate to explain these short-wave disturbances. He studied the relation between the movements indicated by his instruments and the beating of the waves upon the rock-bound coast of Norway, the varying barometric pressure, the wind-velocity of the storms which visited the region, and finally with different varieties of traffic at various distances. In general these discussions, which came out some ten years ago and were very generally participated in by the seismologists at work at that time, established the fact that probably all of these causes have some share in the so-called short group of waves, but the actual share of each of them was not then and is not now established. It is probably true that the waves of the sea had some share in these short-wave dis- turbances because the instruments set up on the Island of Helgoland in the North Sea plainly show such impulses of appropriate period. There has also been for many years a very well-equipped laboratory upon one of the Islands of the Samoan group where earth movements of period appropriate to the sea waves have been recorded. Never- theless the matter is not cleared up and disturbing movements of unknown origin still pursue the student of short-period earth move- ments, i.e., of local earthquakes. In California we have on the west coast a mountain range (the Coast Range) which geologically is quite unstable, and has been 252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 likened by Lawson to a door which rises and falls on a hinge (the Sierra Nevada mountains); which has swung below the sea at least a mile and above the sea by an amount equal to its present elevation, five or six different times in the course of its geologic history, as is evidenced by alternate depositions of marine sediments and the sand and clay accumulations from surface erosion. Out of the geologic history of the region therefore we know that tectonic forces have lately been and probably still are locally active,—this is one of the chief reasons why the Carnegie Institution has selected it for the earth- quake studies now in progress there. It is not a region like a voleanic centre in which occur only local earthquakes which are felt but a short distance away, but it is a region of frequent and powerful local move- ment. The epicenter of the 1906 earthquake extended over 190 miles of land, and probably more of ocean floor, as you undoubtedly recall. Likewise the Santa Barbara earthquake of the past summer, though local in point of damage to buildings, was complicated and possibly far reaching in its effect upon geologic structures. Its source has been traced to two faults, one of which is perpendicular, at the base of the Santa Ynez Mountains, the other is a thrust fault from the direc- tion of the sea. The two intersected at a comparatively narrow angle within which stood the more thickly settled portion of the city of Santa Barbara. Both active faults have been located by investigation since the earthquake. Weare therefore confronting here local tectonic movements of considerable severity and complication and may expect others. There is one other limitation which confronts the student of local earth movements which is neither attributable to spiders nor to air draughts, to sea waves nor to storms, there are great differences in the kind of crustal movement recorded, which vary with the sort of foun- dation the instrument happens to be standing on. The most convinc- ing illustration of it is to be found in the fact that the greatest destruc- tion always occurs on filled land. Reid has developed a theory of the movement of masses of alluvium contained in a rigid bowl to which forces are applied from without. It is contained in the second volume of the Report of the California Earthquake Commission published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1908. In illustration of this Professor Rogers of Stanford University, during his study of the 1906 earthquake, built a box a meter or more long and half as wide, filled it with wet sand and attached it by a horizontal crank shaft to a wheel, so as to be shaken to and fro with a measured period and am- plitude, in order.to see what relation the movement of the sand might may 4, 1926 SYMPOSIUM ON EARTHQUAKES 253 bear to the movement of the box containing it.!. This relative move- ment is best shown by Rogers’ curves, reproduced in Fig. 1, but the amplitude of movement of the sand was always greater than that of the containing vessel, usually about twice as great, and was relatively much greater when its water content was increased. It is usual to interpret this observation by pointing out the danger to all structures erected on filled or unconsolidated or water-soaked ground. It might be equally pertinent to recognize its bearing upon attempts to interpret seismograph movements recorded at points similarly exposed. With the study of local earthquakes particularly is coupled the need for full geological knowledge of the region and its ground- Fig. 1.—Upper curve represents actual movement of the sand. Lower curve repre- sents actual movement of the containing box. water relations lest the earth-wave itself may have suffered unsus- pected distortion somewhere between epicentre and instrument. There are even many seismometers which for one reason or another do not rest upon igneous-rock foundations and contrariwise few earth- quakes have their origin in homogeneous igneous rock. There is a similar situation in the application of the Rossi-Forel Scale and the determination of isoseismal lines which perhaps found expression in some of the difficulties which Commander Heck has just portrayed to you. Such an arbitrary scale of intensities may be worth 1, J. Rocers in Report of the California Earthquake Commission (A. C. Lawson, Chairman), Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 87, 1: 326, 1908. 254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 much or little, according to the experience of the man who applies it. A chimney on a hillside, or in a valley adjacent, will suffer quite differ- ently in the same earth movement. Indeed at Santa Barbara the destruction in the plain at State Street was rated at IX or X, Rossi- Forel, while the hillside, no more than two or three city blocks distant, showed no damage which could be rated higher than V or VI, even though located between the same portions of the active faults and somewhat nearer to one of them (Santa Ynez) than is State Street. Such crude classification partakes but little of a quantitative character and seismograph tracings are frequently subject to similar limita- tions, particularly in the records of local earthquakes. . These, very briefly, are difficulties which stand in the path ck the student of local earth movements, and at the very beginning of the path, other and greater ones wait beyond. GEOPHYSICS—Pressures in planetary atmospheres.1. P. G. Nut- TING, U. 8S. Geological Survey. The total normal pressure (weight) of any single component of a planetary crust or atmosphere is proportional to its mass and inde- pendent of its physical state or chemical associations. The distribu- tion of that pressure is not. Completely vaporized at high tempera- tures it exerts a uniform pressure over the planet’s surface but when partly fluid or solid or when not entirely dissociated from other sub- stances not completely vaporized its pressure may be largely localized. It seems worth while to examine such conditions in some detail, par- ticularly as to their bearing on the isostasy of the surface. Many numerical data on vapor pressures and solubilities are lacking but the argument is fairly simple. Take the case of water on the earth for example. The critical temperature is about 374°C. and the critical pressure 217.8 atmos- pheres, pressures being expressed in atmospheres and temperatures in °C. onthe absolute scale (Data of Holborn 1919). The water of the earth covers 70.82 per cent of its surface of 196,950,000 sq. miles to a mean depth of 3681 meters or 2.287 miles (Data supplied by U. 8. Coast Survey 1926). The waters of rivers, lakes, the atmosphere, polar ice, ground waters and combined waters are quite negligible by comparison. The oceans therefore contain sufficient water to ' cover the entire earth to a uniform depth of 2607 meters. At tem- peratures exceeding 374°C. all waters must be atmospheric and con- * Received March 21, 1926. MAY 4, 1926 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 255 tribute a fixed amount, 252.3 atmospheres, to the pressure uniformly distributed over the surface. This is considerably in excess of the critical pressure (217.8 atm.) of water. The vital point in isostasy is that at 374°C. 13.7 per cent of the water was deposited as fluid upon the earth’s surface, 86.3 per cent remaining in the air. This fluid suddenly deposited amounted to sufficient to cover the entire earth to a depth of 357 meters or 1171 feet. Local pressures (at the lowest point) may well have amounted to 3000 feet or more of water. This discontinuity in pressure was pointed out and discussed in a paper by the writer in Science, October 6, 1911. Not alone as regards isostasy but chemically and geologically, this abrupt precipitation of a seventh of the earth’s water at such an elevated temperature and tremendous pressure must have been the greatest epoch marking point in the earth’s geologic history. Had there been TABLE 1.—PRECIPITATION AND PRESSURES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES Ue haba PRESSURE dP(atm.) dP/P A gies re PER CENT a ATMOSPHERES dT (deg.) aT/T (METERS) PRECIPITATED 0 273 0.006025 | 0.000447 20.25 100 50 323 0.1217 0.00605 16.057 100 100 373 1.000 0.0358 13.353 100 150 423 4.698 0.1272 11.452 38.21 99.53 200 473 15.34 0.3237 9.981 148.2 94.2 250 523 39.24 0.666 8.876 395.2 §4.8 300 573 84.80 1.210 8.176 865.9 66.6 300 623 163.21 2.000 7.634 1676 30.7 370 643 207.5 2.513 7.788 2234 14.3 374 647 217.8 wie ngs brats ol ine PAO 14.1 14 per cent less water on the earth, there would have been no such great discontinuity in the earth’s life. With the exception of a few metals, all minerals (even quartz) give way before water at or near its critical temperature and pressure. The first solid crust to form, namely the carbides freezing? at 4600 to 4900°, could last but a short time while the oxides, forming at lower temperatures, would rapidly become hydrated and attack each other. Solution and erosion would proceed at enormous rates. At temperatures below 374° precipitation rapidly increases with lowering of (mean annual) temperatures as shown in Table 1. For example at 300°C. the water is 2 precipitated as fluid on the earth’s surface while the remainder, equivalent to a column 865.9 meters high, is vaporized and constitutes over 98 per cent of the pressure of the 2 Wittiam R. Mott. Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc., p. 255, 1918. 256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 9 atmosphere. Some writers have wrongly assumed that at tempera- tures just above 100°C. the oceans would have all left the earth. Such is far from being the case. Even at 200°C. only 6 per cent of the water would be vaporized. Pressure due to other components than water vapor and the per- manent gases considered above would lower the proportion of water vaporized given in the table. However very few substances (mercury, ’ sulphur, CO., SO. . . . ) have a vapor pressure as high even as one atmosphere at 374° and these are either too scarce to need considera- tion or are locked up in compounds of still lower vapor or dissociation pressures. When the water was all vaporized the atmosphere was of course very much deeper than at present, water vapor extending out perhaps 1000 miles or ~ the earth’s radius. Although heavily blanketed by material of low heat conductivity, conditions were favorable for steep thermal gradients in the outer layers and therefore for copious local (high level) precipitation. It is very doubtful whether such rain ever reached the surface. The thermal gradient from poles to equator was probably slightly less than at present. Water has been chosen as an example because of its abundance and the simplicity of its behavior. Nearly complete data of high precision . are available and anyone with a knowledge of elementary physics can rough out the problem. The molecular weight of water differs but little from that of the nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere so there is but little tendency to segregation. Nor are there other abundant sub- stances having closely related thermal properties to complicatematters. Next to be considered are the oxides of iron (7 per cent), aluminum (15 per cent) and silicon 60 per cent of the earth’s crust 10 miles deep according to F. W. Clarke as compared with 7 per cent for water. Both $10, and Al,O3 reach a vapor pressure of about one atmosphere at about 2200°C. with dissociation into oxygen and metal already in an advanced stage. It appears highly probable that these oxides are completely dissociated at temperatures far below those at which any considerable fraction would be vaporized. At high temperatures therefore we have to consider not fused and vaporized oxides but oxygen and fused metals with their vapors. Since the mass of the oxygen is about 7 times that of the water present on the earth, atmospheric pressure at 3000 to 3500° would be about 2000 atmos- pheres or 15 tons per square inch. Oxygen would reside at all levels since there would be but little tendency to segregate. The heavy metallic vapors (of Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca and Na) on the other hand would may 4, 1926 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 207 tend to remain largely near the surface on account of their higher molecular weights. In this temperature region (3000-3500°) gases and vapors also become ionized by thermal agitation and therefore self luminous and good radiators of short wave radiation. This would tend to equalize temperatures by more rapid heat exchange. ‘There was no precipitation of fluids from the outer cooler portions of the atmosphere upon the surface of the earth. In summary, the history of the earth and of other planets of similar composition may be thus sketched out on a temperature rather than a time scale. 1. At 5000° and above. No solids present. Atmospheric pressure 20 to 30 tons per square inch. The atmosphere over 90 per cent oxygen with water vapor and free hydrogen in the outer layers and metallic vapors near the surface. 2. 4800 to 4600°. First solid crust formed consisting of metallic carbides, probably in thin scattered patches. Atmosphere as above. 3. 4600 to 3000°. But little variation in conditions. Luminosity decreasing rapidly with temperature. A few more carbides became solid. Practically no other compounds in any state except liquid alloys. , 4. 3000 to 2000°. ‘This is the great period of oxydation. Hydrogen and the more abundant metals first form stable oxides. All or nearly all in a molten condition with only water vaporized to a large extent. Atmospheric pressure drops from about 20 to about 3 tons per square inch due to removal of nearly all the free oxygen from the gase- ous state. But for the protective action of the superficial layer of oxides formed but very little oxygen would have been left. The amount of water formed limited by the amount of hydrogen present. 5. 2000 to 400°. This wide range like 3, was one of many minor changes but with little outstanding. A thick crust of oxides chiefly silica and silicates is being formed with some chlorides and sulphides. The original scanty patchy crust of metallic carbides probably deeply buried by silicate minerals. Water still all vaporized and not effective for hydration of surface minerals. 6. 374°. One seventh of the water precipitated to the surface as fluid. Atmospheric pressure dropping abruptly from 3700 to 3200 pounds per square inch. This water (sufficient to cover the entire earth 1170 feet deep) would accumulate in the lowest levels probably half a mile deep. 7. 374 to 300°. This is the period of hydration, solution, erosion, chemical changes and mineral formation, all proceeding at a rate 258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 16, No. 9 difficult of conception. Metallic oxides are hydrated to acids and alkalis in enormous quantities. All forms of silica and silicates are soluble and play a major réle (in a minor key). Carbides are of course decomposed wherever water can reach them, the final result pre- sumably being carbon dioxide. Within this temperature range the ocean increased to 4 times its initial, and 2 its present volume. Tor- rential rains of almost red hot water at very high pressures changed whole landscapes over night. Sedimentation miles in thickness was a matter of but a few years instead of aeons as at present. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 931ST MEETING The 931st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, February 6th, 1926. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Heyl at 8:15 with 50 persons in attendance. Byron E. Exuprep: Physical observations on hearing and deafness. Helmholtz stated that the mechanical problem which the apparatus within the drum of the ear had to solve was to transform a motion of great amplitude and little force, such as impinges on the drumskin, into motion of small amplitude and great force such as had to be communicated to the fluid of the labyrinth. Were this the only problem the ear of the bird would best serve the purpose as it provides the simplest mechanism:—that of the large and small diaphragm connected by a single rigid member. ‘The ossic- ular arrangement is Nature’s device for slow moving animals. It serves the further purpose and solves another problem of regulating the force im- parted to the labyrinthian fluid. The human drum apparatus may be considered to function as a variable transformer. In normal hearing there is accommodation for varying force of air wave vibration. This accommodation or adjustment for reception is explained by the functioning of the tensor tympani muscle in response to the indicating nerves of the external layer of the drumhead. Failure in accommodation of the muscle control is emphasized as the prob- able cause of ordinary deafness uncomplicated by disease. Otosclerosis is suggested as a more probable result of deafness than its cause. Movable joints in the human system consigned to extended temporary inaction become sclerosed. A minimum of force of air wave vibration is required for hearing in a normal person and greater force for one of defective hearing. The drumskin collects the resultant force of many air wave vibrations which are transmitted to the ossicles as a compound mechanical vibration to become in the perilymph varying pressures in liquid where analysis takes place into the simple vibra- tions which afford the sense of hearing. Certain sustained noise vibrations furnish the force required for many deaf persons. Ordinary speech combines with these noise vibrations and is heard. may 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 259 The force vibration may be one of inaudible frequency and effect the same result. If the force waves are too strong, then the deaf ear, by accommoda- tion protects itself against this force and the ability to hear normal voice is lessened. The compounded vibration is evidently diminished in force. This explains the difficulty experienced with normal hearing under noise conditions. If a substantially sinusoidal air wave vibration of suitable force is furnished certain deaf people experience sustained hearing ability for hours after a few minutes exposure to the wave. Continued daily use has evidenced a cumula- tive effect in many cases where regular use of the instrument for several months has been resorted to, the period of better hearing extending from a few hours after the primary application of the wave to several days after the later ones. Investigation shows that a comparatively few congenitally deaf are without some degree of hearing. It has hkewise been demonstrated that most con- genital deafness is due to defects of the middle ear. The results of a large scale test conducted at a public deaf mute institution have demonstrated that greatly increased hearing can be developed by the application of the peculiar wave vibration of this invention. The theory is advanced that human infants are born protected against inner ear reception of vibration and it is suggested that abnormal protection may be attributed as the cause of many case of congenital deafness. (Author’s abstract.) H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Ore Deposits Club met at the Geological Survey on March 26 to discuss informal contributions on the subject of Field methods and equipment. At the regular meeting of the Columbia Historical Society on April 20 Dr. Epcar T. WHERRY gave an illustrated lecture on Wild flower cultivation. The regular April meeting of the Petrologists’ Club, held at the Geological Survey on April 6, was devoted to a discussion of The réle of water in magmas. The discussion was opened by G. W. Morey of the Geophysical Laboratory. The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on March 27. E. F. BurcuHarp outlined his visits to iron and manganese ore deposits in several South America countries, and J. T. SrtncEwaup of Johns Hopkins University described his 1925 exploration of the headwaters of the Amazon in Peru. Dr. J. G. THomson of the London School of Tropical Medicine, exchange Professor with Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md., visited laboratories of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Plant Industry, and attended the 95th meeting of the Helminthological Sy of Washington, Saturday night, April 18, 1926. J. E. SANDERS, JR., magnetic observer of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, cabled his arrival on April 22, at Cotonou, Dahomey, after a success- ful series of magnetic observations along the Niger River in French West Africa. 260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 16, NO. 9 Dr. A. C. Lawson has been appointed to represent the American Geo- physical Union at the Fourteenth International Geological Congress, at Madrid, May 26-30, 1926. Amundsen’s ship Maud was recently purchased by the Hudson’s Bay Company and renamed the baymaud. She is to be used near Boothia Felix. Joun Linpsay has been appointed delegate from the Carnegie Institution of Washington to the Pan-American Congress at Panama City, June 18-25, 1926. . Dr. C. G. Apgpot, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has just returned from a six months journey to Algeria, Baluchistan, and South- west Africa for the purpose of selecting a location for a solar observatory to measure the variations of the sun. This project is under the auspices of the National Geographic Society which is supplying the funds for erecting and maintaining the observatory for four years. Dr. Apsot has chosen Mt. Brukkaros, altitude 5200 feet, situated about 60 miles to the northwest of Keetmanshoop, Southwest Africa. The rainfall in this region averages 34 inches a year; the clearness is extraordinary, and the prospects for fair observing weather are regarded by him as superb. > = a ie hich Res 3 a ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES* Saturday, May 8. The Biological Society. Wednesday, May 12. The Geological Society. Thursday, May 13. The Chemical Society. Program: G. W. Morey: The constitution of glass. Saturday, May 15. The Philosophical Society. Program: Joun C. Mzerriam: The meaning of evolution in individual experience. Saturday, May 15. The Helminthological Society. Saturday, May 29. _ _— Joint meeting of the Acaprmy, the Chemical Society, and the Philosophical Society. Program: Ernst Couen: The alleged constancy of our physico-chemical constants. * The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month, CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS if é ae . Seismology.—A symposium on earthquakes... ...........0.2.cceeesesccaees 1. Seismology.—A retrospect. FE. A. Toston: i ere trae ath 2. Outstanding problems in seismology. WH Rien 925 ee Nes tr tees 3. Earthquakes from the isostatic viewpoint. Wi~L1am Bowie... 4, Difficulties in the study of local earth movements. ArTHuR L. Geophysics.—Pressures in planetary atmospheres. P. G. NurrTina@.. -_ PROCEEDINGS OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY — President: fines Kk. Baneeee: Bureau of Siniade: Sues Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. StuspeE, Bureau of Stand: Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Ceadenie Survey. Vol. 16 May 19, 1926 No. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewerr S. J. Maucuiy Aanes CHAsB GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwzr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN G. W. Srosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY R. F. Gricaes J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mt. Rorant AND GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. eT BY Lee NSO TT Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 1 oe This JourNnatL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to — ae present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges.—The JourNnaAt does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 May 19, 1926 No. 10 GEODESY.—Gravity work at the second meeting of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union... EMMANUELE SOLER, Royal University of Padua. (Communicated by W. D. LamBErr.) The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, which was formed after the war for the purpose of promoting and coérdinating investigations in geodesy and geophysics, held its first meeting at Rome in May, 1922. At this meeting there was but little discussion of gravity work. The writer presented a note: The establishment of an international gravity net (Sullo stabslimente di una rete gravimetrica internazionale) which was published in the Bulletin Géodésique (No. 2, April, 1923), issued by the Section of Geodesy of the Union, and was intrusted with the duty of drawing up an international report on determinations of gravity between 1912 and 1922 and also some account of those made in 1922-24. This report, which is now in press and which contains 600 determinations of gravity made in this period, and also an account of the work in 1922-24, were presented at the Madrid meeting. The facts brought out by the report, both in regard to the variety of instruments and in regard to certain diversities in the methods of observation and calculation prevailing in the various countries, brought home to the Section of Geodesy of the Union the necessity of ap- pointing an international Committee on Gravity? to consider the vari- ous questions raised in the report and to establish general rules for coordinating gravity work. In the first place the Committee recognized the difficulty of pre- 1 Translated from the Memorve della Societad Astronomica Italiana, Vol. III, New Series, by W. D. Lampert, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 2The Committee was. as follows: E. Soler, Chairman; other members, Bowie, Perrier, Neithammer, Lenox, Conyngham, Matsuyame; A. Vening Meinesz, Secretary 261 262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 scribing a single type of instrument for determining gravity, since it would be only unwillingly that the various countries would give up the instruments made in their own machine shops, or devised by their own geodesists. Instead of this, the committee deemed it desirable to recommend uniform standards both for the work of observation itself, and more especially for computing the precision of the resulting de- terminations of gravity; these standards can be applied whatever may be the pendulum apparatus used and whatever the method by which time is determined, whether astronomically or by radiotelegraphy. The rules for the conduct of observational work deal especially with the following matters: (1) the desirability of continual verification of the constancy of the pendulums, a matter which may be tested by returning them frequently to the national base station, or to some other connected with the latter by determinations of great accuracy; (2) the method of arranging the pendulum observations with reference to determinations of time, and the limits of admissible error, which will vary with the importance of the station considered. In regard to the computation of the precision of the results, on the proposal of Meinesz and of Niethammer it was recommended that account be taken: (1) of accidental errors of the period of the pen- dulums, as deduced from the values of the period of oscillation ob- served at a single station; (2) of the errors in the period which are constant at a single station but which vary from one station to another according to the laws of accidental error; (3) of errors more or less systematic in nature. For each of the above classes the errors in- tended to be included were specified. | The committee laid down certain criteria to be applied in the rather troublesome computation of the so-called topographic correction,? to be applied to correct the observed period of oscillation, for the effect of matter lying above the geoid and extending to a distance of 40 km. at least from the station. It was voted to proceed with the correction, and this with all at- tainable precision, of certain national base stations, particularly of those neighboring countries which are members of the Union, that is, at the present time: Madrid, Paris, DeBilt, Proviantgaarden (Copen- hagen), Uccle, Cambridge, Basel and Padua; some of these stations are not included in the international gravity net adjusted by Borrass 3 [This is the topographic correction (Gelindereduktion) of Borrass’s reports on grav- ity. It is applied because the topography above the geoid is conceived as condensed upon the latter to form a surface layer of density proportional to the elevation. It is not the correction for the topography in isostatic calculations.—Translator.] MAY 19, 1926 SOLER: INTERNATIONAL GRAVITY WORK 263 in 1909. This connection when made and the adjustment of the result- ing net will form a supplement to Borrass’s work. The Committee again expressed the opinion that theoretical gravity should be calculated by Helmert’s formula of 1901. In this way and by means of the standards referred to above, which are given in full in the minutes of the Committee soon to be published,‘ conclusions were reached on some of the most interesting problems encountered in measuring gravity. With regard next to the much-debated question of isostasy it was deemed desirable to have the values of gravity corrected not only by the classic methods of reduction of Faye® and of Bouguer, but also by the isostatic method, according to the methods proposed by Hayford and Bowie. At the instance of the committee on gravity the Section of Geodesy voted that those countries which might not desire, or might be unable, to establish an office for computations of this sort might apply to the U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Survey which, after suitable financial arrangements had been made, would perform the computations for the gravity determinations made by the countries in question. This decision has the advantage of opening the way to a knowledge of the so-called depth of compensation in various parts of the world by means of uniform methods of calculation and therefore of increasing the value of the conclusions that may be derived from this knowledge. To complete the chronicle of the discussions on gravity at Madrid let me mention two important communications. The first one referred to certain fundamental changes which might be introduced into gravity apparatus. General Ferrié and Colonel _ Perrier presented some remarks regarding a method which is being tested at Paris by the Service Géographique de l’Armée. In this method gravity is determined by means of special light waves emitted during the fall of a body. Bowie referred to an apparatus of Michelson’s® still in the experi- 4 A brief summary of the deliberations of the committee is published in the Bulletin Géodésique, No. 4, (1924). 5 [Faye’s reduction = free-air reduction. Mr. G. R. Putnam has applied the term Faye reduction to a method, also used by Faye, in which the Bouguer reduction is applied to the topography between the level of the station and the ‘‘general level of the sur- rounding country”’ and the free-air method to the vertical distance between the general level and sea level.— Translator. | 6 Cf. W. Bowig, Isostatic Investigations and Data for Gravity Stations in the United States established since 1915. (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special pub. No. 99, Washington, 1924). 264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 mental stage at Washington, with which gravity is determined by measuring with the interferometer the flexure produced by a weight applied to a quartz fiber and suitably arranged on the fiber itself. The second interesting communication was made by Vening Meinesz and dealt with the determination of gravity at sea. Meinesz, who had studied in Holland a way of eliminating the effect upon the oscillations of the pendulum of those small movements of the ground, which are quite noticeable in that region, by means of a method based on the simultaneous swinging of several pendulums, believed that the same method could be applied to eliminate the effect of the motion of a vessel situated at some little depth below the surface of the sea, and that therefore it could be used in a submarine submerged toa depth of about 10 meters below the surface. He used for the purpose a Stiickrath outfit of four pendulums in the Dutch submarine KII and during the voyage of this vessel from Holland to Java he made determinations at 26 stations, some in harbors and some in mid-ocean. The results, which are published in a note, Observations de pendule sur la mer, Delft, 1923, and were presented at Madrid, although pro- visional are very important.’ ‘The Section of Geodesy therefore ex- pressed the hope that all nations having navies might be willing to repeat these investigations. e *k *k *f Thus has been summarized in outline the work pertaining to gravity that was accomplished at Madrid, work which, as is evident, fared far better than the work done at Rome during the first meeting. So without going into discussions of new forms of gravity apparatus which are not yet well known and which may perhaps displace the pendulum, it may be said that the decisions reached regarding the methods of observation and of computation are certainly such as to ensure greater homogeneity in gravity work and greater rigor, and thus to make the results lend themselves more readily to geophysical inferences. At this point I should like to emphasize the subject of the connection [Professor Soler may perhaps have confused the brief reference to MicHELSON’s ap- paratus in Special Pub. No. 99 with an oral account of the apparatus devised by Dr. F. E. Wright of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In Michelson’s apparatus the deflections of a small cantilever beam of quartz are measured with an interferometer; in Wright’s apparatus the distortion of a coil spring made of quartz and loaded with a weight is measured on a graduated circle —Translator. | 7 Mernzsz has informed me that he is making modifications in the instruments used in the first voyage. MAY 19, 1926 SOLER: INTERNATIONAL GRAVITY WORK 265 of this work with geophysics. Without dwelling upon the ever- glorious traditions of geodesy, it is certain that in all countries there has been accumulated an enormous mass of geodetic data. This does not represent, however, merely a necessity of the past. The lively and interesting discussions in the Section of Geodesy at Madrid regarding the choice of an international ellipsoid of reference prove that this is a question of present-day interest. And it is a question that involves not merely theoretical necessity but also practi- cal convenience. It is well known theoretically that, whatever ellipsoid may be chosen to represent the earth’s surface, there are always deviations of the latter from the geoid. It remains for geodetic research to determine these deviations in the best way, to deduce from them the curvature of the geoid and to give some idea as to the possible effect of these devia- tions on the determination of gravity. But the practical point of view is no less important, since by the choice of a convenient ellipsoid the connections between the triangula- tions of adjoining states are made more certain, the results of leveling are rendered more valuable, and the solution of the various problems of a practical nature more simple. This ellipsoid should fulfil the following conditions: (1) the local deflections should be reduced to small amounts; (2) it should have only small deviations from the geoid; (3) it should be possible to pass by small changes of the semiaxes from this ellipsoid to the several regional ellipsoids used in various countries for their triangulations. ‘The subject of a suitable ellipsoid is there- fore not exhausted by classical investigations and always leaves open the way to further studies, which likewise have a practical bearing. The fact that in investigating this ellipsoid of reference the results of astronomic methods were combined with more modern results from measurements of gravity is one of the many strong claims to dis- tinction of the illustrious Helmert, who in 1901 calculated an ellipsoid from determinations of gravity known up to that time. This same ellipsoid now serves and will continue to serve, as has previously been mentioned, for the calculation of the theoretical values of gravity. Thus the geodesists are applying to their fundamental—and in- exhaustible—problem methods ever more and more modern, and these methods depend on results, like those of gravity determinations, which, along with others depending on determinations of longitude differences, latitude variations, and so forth, make up an aggregate of work which the geodesists, in addition to that done for their own special purposes, are making available for geophysical research. It is certain that this 266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 work will go on being continually increased, discussed and modernized; but is likewise certain that it cannot be of use in geophysical problems unless serious steps are taken to secure the needful coérdination. Permit me to say here that as regards this codrdination little has been accomplished so far by the International Union. At Madrid, as I happen to know, there was a meeting between certain delegates of the Section of Geodesy and the Section of Oceanography; from this re- sulted the decision to establish institutions for the study of earth tides in connection with oceanic tides. Certainly this is an important decision and one which may lead to interesting results in which geodetic investigations (leveling, etc.) may be combined with geophysical ones. Another meeting was held of the delegates of the Section of Geodesy and the Section of Meteorology and of Seismology, but as far as I recall, without practical results. All this is not very much. The variety of problems is well known for which geophysics needs geodetic connections and in some countries, such as the United States, through the work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, these connections exist and geodetic investigation with its application to problems of a geophysical nature goes on increasing. It is enough to mention the masterly investigations of Hayford and Bowie on isostasy. It is therefore to be hoped that it may be possible to establish within the Union closer relations between the various sections. But, particularly as regards our own country, it is well to repeat the wish so competently expressed by Senator Volterra in his Presi- dential address before the Academy of the Lincei at its meeting of June 1, 1924, to the effect that not only should the National Commit- tees take steps to unify by appropriate means the investigations of the various branches of the Union, but that institutions should also be established among us of a practical and experimental character, in- stitutions which might bring about the necessary progress and the coordination needed in the various problems which bind together geodesy and geophysics. Royal University of Padua. January, 1925. CHEMISTRY.—Chemistry as a branch of mathematics: Leason H. Apams. Geophysical Laboratory. In selecting a title for this address, I have chosen ‘‘Chemistry as a branch of mathematics” in order that the title itself might emphasize 1 Address of retiring President of the Chemical Society of Washington, January 14, 1926. MAY 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 267 one of the important aspects of chemistry. It is my purpose to discuss some of the points of contact between chemistry and mathematics and to direct attention to the necessity of making more use of mathe- matical methods in chemical investigation. Let us begin with a brief review of the origin and early history of chemistry, in order that we may better observe the place which it oc- cupies among the other sciences and the general trend of chemical thought. Alchemy. Chemistry had its origin in the ancient art, alchemy, which was first developed by the Alexandrian Greeks early in the Christian era. According to an old legend it was founded by the Egyptian god Hermes. For this reason the early alchemists were said to practice the hermetic art, and when they filled vessels with various ‘mixtures and closed them up they placed on them the seal of Hermes, from which arose the term “hermetically sealed.’ The first well- authenticated event in the history of alchemy was the decree issued by the Roman emperor Diocletian in 290 A.D. ordering the destruction of certain books which contained, among other things, various recipes for making alloys simulating gold and silver and used in the manufacture of ¢heap jewelry. It seems that originally these processes, which were kept secret by the priests, deceived only the outsiders, but that eventually the adepts succeeded also in deceiving themselves into believing that they could turn base metals, such as lead, into gold. This hope and belief fur- nished the incentive for chemical investigation—of a certain kind— extending over many centuries, first by the Greeks and Egyptians and later by the Arab and Roman alchemists. The development of al- chemy took place along the theoretical as well as the experimental side, and if their experiments were few and inconclusive, their theories were numerous and detailed, as found in the abundant literature of al- chemy. Many of these theories were founded on the idea of a prima materia, a single primitive matter of which all substances were com- posed. Other theorists, however, were more liberal as to the number of fundamental elements. Thus many adhered to Aristotle’s system whereby the fundamental elements were earth, air, fire and water, while in the works of Basil Valentine sulfur, mercury, and salt were assumed to be the constituents of all metals. Perhaps the most interesting explanation of the genesis of metals is found in the writings of Vincent of Beauvais who held that there are four spirits—mercury, sulfur, arsenic, and sal ammoniac—and six bodies—gold, silver, cop- per, tin, lead, and iron. The metals are formed as follows: ‘‘Pure 268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 white mercury, fixed by virtue of white non-corrosive sulfur, engenders in mines a matter which fusion changes into silver, and united to pure clear red sulfur it forms gold while with various kinds of impure mer- cury and sulfur the other bodies were produced.” Such was alchemy. ‘The properties of a number of substances were known in a general way, but in more than a thousand years the al- chemists had made but little progress beyond the knowledge and beliefs of the early Greeks and Egyptians. The beginnings of chemistry as a science. Alchemy came to an end, to be replaced by what we now call chemistry, at the time (from 1600 to 1700 A.D.) when the idea of the transmutation of the elements died out. Although little real progress was made and although the main activities were in the line of industrial chemistry rather than in funda- mental research, yet there were a large number of cultured men willing - and eager to extend their knowledge of the properties and composition of all substances. Their failure to do so—except in a very limited way—is not to be attributed to a lack of brain-power or to an unwil- lingness to spend much time and effort on the subject, but rather to an inability to proceed along the right course. It is remarkable that the science of geometry had been well developed before even the earliest beginnings of alchemy—so well developed that today we have in common use a textbook, Euclid’s Geometry, which is nearly 2000 years. old. The ancients were fully capable of proceeding along the lines of pure logic, but they had no facility for properly combining hypothesis and experiment. Real progress did not come until they could pre- serve the proper balance between theory and observation. Modern chemistry began in the period from 1700 to 1800. Its origin is inseparably connected with the names: Dalton, Boyle, Lavoisier, Priestly, Scheel, Cavendish, Bertholet. One of the first evidences of the real beginning of chemistry was the development of symbols and formulae. The alchemists were accustomed to represent the known metals by certain astronomical signs, namely those for the sun and 7 planets. Thus O JOC 216 }© stood for gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, antimony, lead and mercury respectively. Since this provided for only 8 elements, Bergman added certain arbitrary symbols to the list: ODQ 5 foo OW + GO O AV V which stood for zinc, man- ganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, platinum, metal, acid, alkali, salt, phlogiston, water, and alcohol. Dalton used a new and more consistent set of characters; for example, OD@@@®OOO repre- sented, in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, potas- MAY 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 269 slum, sodium and oxygen. Finally Berzelius replaced the geometric signs with the letters now used. Mathematical notation. The use of characters to represent elements s the first indication of a mathematical trend in chemistry. For the essence of every branch of mathematics is a set of symbols which represent quantities, qualities, and operations. Thus, the symbol AB may represent the length of a line extending from a point A to a point B, or the direction of the line (say, northwest), or the result ob- tained by multiplying a number A by a number B. In mathematics a set of symbols enables us to write a kind of shorthand whereby a statement concerning the relation between a number of quantities and requiring many complete sentences can be condensed into a few strokes of the pen. For example, the following collection of symbols (a + 6)? = a? + 2ab + 6b? is the equivalent of the statement that: | When one number is added to another number and when the sum is multi- plied by itself the number obtained by this operation is identical with that obtained by multiplying the first number by itself and then adding twice the product of the two numbers and adding also the product obtained by multi- plying the second number by itself. To take an extreme case, the expression R,%,, well known in a certain branch of mathematics, stands for a set of expressions? which would require many hours to state completely in plain English. Ina similar but less striking manner every chemical equation is a statement in mathematical language of a number of facts concerning certain ‘ elements and compounds, and the difficulty of writing or speaking about chemical subjects without having recourse to the conventional symbolism can well be imagined. To return to the history of chemistry: having been started in the right direction by the great hypotheses of Dalton and of Avogadro, the science developed steadily and ever more rapidly. The century that has just passed has seen chemists increase in number from perhaps a few dozen to tens of thousands; it has seen a vast accumulation of information concerning the properties and composition and reactions of substances; it has seen chemistry transformed from a mere hobby to a great branch of science and an indispensable factor in the world’s most important industries. During this period workers in the field of chemistry were so occupied with measurement, with analysis and with synthesis that theory lagged far behind experiment. A great mass of uncoodrdinated and apparently unrelated data accumulated 2 This is the Riemann curvature tensor; used in the theory of relativity. 270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 and by its very magnitude and unwieldly character forced the develop- ment of theories or laws to harmonize and simplify the known facts. Chemistry was thus driven slowly and inevitably into mathematical- physical channels. Abstract reasoning. Let us now consider the two ways in which we may look at chemical problems. People may be divided rather sharply into two classes depending on their ability to view things in the ab- stract. One class has no difficulty in visualizing the meaning of sym- bols and in forming a mental picture from an equation. The other class finds it difficult or impossible to do this and prefers the written word or sentence rather than a symbol which stands for it. All equa- tions are poison to these people. We have here a difference of tem- perament rather than training. Each class has its own mode of think- ing and its own method of attacking problems. The one typeisfound . more often among the physicists; the other among chemists. It seems that in schools and colleges too little allowance is made for this condi- tion. The kind of mathematics customarily employed in physics presents very great difficulties to most students of chemistry. How- ever, to teach ‘Functions of a Complex Variable” to an unwilling chemist is no more foolish than to eliminate mathematics entirely from his course of study. Actually the amount of pure mathematics re- quired in most branches of chemistry is small. Elementary calculus | is as far as most need go, but what is more important than any specific mathematical subject is to have a certain type of mental training, a mental training requisite for a proper understanding of the physical meaning of a formula. Most people realize that geometry is not taught to high school students because they are likely to have any practical use for the relation between the exterior angles of triangles, but rather because geometrical demonstrations teach them to think straight and to proceed in a logical manner whenever they attack any problem. Mathematics is an abstract science while chemistry is essentially a concrete science, but progress in any branch of science will be most rapid when it makes full use of the tools which the mathematician has provided. ‘This is more evident in physical chemistry than in organic chemistry or biochemistry, but because of the inherently greater dif- ficulties these parts of chemistry have not developed so far. Already, however, the methods of physical chemistry are being made use of in nearly every branch of chemistry and, a start having been made, it is to be expected that much of the apparent aversion to mathematical methods will gradually disappear. May 19, 1926 ADAMS: CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS 271 Let us now consider a few examples of the mathematical aspects of chemical investigation—first a brief description of the elementary mathematical devices which are of most general use, and second a mention of certain branches of chemistry which are most intelligible when allowed to speak in mathematical language. The graphical representation of data. In nearly all kinds of investi- gation, it is necessary to measure something, and if one of the measured quantities depends solely on one other quantity it is common practice to plot a curve. ‘Order and regularity are more readily and clearly recognized when exhibited to the eye in a picture than when they are presented to the mind in any other manner.”’ However, it is seldom that the full possibilities of graphical representation are realized. In many instances it is advantageous to plot one quantity against the logarithm of the other quantity. This can be done either by finding the logarithms and then plotting in the ordinary manner, or, more directly, by the use of special coérdinate paper with a logarithmic scale. By this means, curves having a logarithmic or exponential shape? become straight lines, or nearly so, and a straight line, of course, is much easier to draw and is more useful for extrapolation. In other cases it is convenient to use a double logarithmic scale*—so-called log-log paper. Still more important for the chemist is a peculiar scale in which the logarithm of one quantity is plotted against the reciprocal of the other. This is almost indispensable when dealing with vapor pressures or with equilibrium constants, and it is very surprising to observe the large number of those in chemical work who are not familiar with this procedure. The deviation curve is a valuable aid in plotting certain kinds of data. It is difficult to plot data accurate to one part in one thousand on a sheet of reasonable size. But by plotting the differences between the observed points and some arbitrary line which approximately fits the data, it is possible to obtain a satisfactory representation on a small sheet of codrdinate paper and to show irregularities which are invisible on the ordinary plot. | Selection of an equation. This brings us to one of our most common difficulties—the selection of an equation to represent a given set of data. ‘To this goal there is no royal road. It requires the use of the 3 That is, curves approximately represented by the equation y = ab*, where x and y are the variables. 4 This makes a straight line of the function x? = by-. 272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 10 simple mathematical devices which have been provided for us, com- bined with as much common-sense and experience as we can bring to bear on the problem. In general, the best procedure is as follows: First, it is advantageous to familiarize oneself with the appearance of a number of the simpler types of curves. Several of these’ may be plotted on a convenient scale and kept for reference. Then, having plotted the data in question, we compare with the reference curves the shape of the curve so obtained, and if one is found which resembles the experimental curve we use this as a clue in replotting the data so that nearly a straight line is obtained. If satisfactory, we then use the graph to determine all but one of the constants of the equation and calculate the remaining constant from the equation and the data. A more elegant method for determining the constant of the chosen equation is to use the method of least squares. This is a good plan— for those who can do it. Nearly as good results are obtained b - averaging the points in groups so as to obtain as many “average points” as there are constants in the equation and then solving directly for the constant. As a last resort, when all other methods fail, the data may be fitted to a power series y=Ast+ Be + Ce’ + De +. using enough terms to make the curve fit the data to a sufficient approximation. ‘This is the most common method and the least satisfactory. What has been said so far refers to the case of two variables only. With three variables (for example, P, V, and T) graphical representa- tion requires the construction of a solid model, or the drawing of con- tours on a plane, while with four variables the case is hopeless unless one is clever enough to draw a projection of a four-dimensional sur- face on a three-dimensional solid. | The Phase Rule, and chemical thermodynamics. “ % Oy : ™ ih ph neg 3 am ey Le ie sp a . sel, Gaia. Wiican Ea Seaiheey ee fe Chemistry.—Chemistry as a —— of mathematics. : “Taso ayes, 2 ae PROCEEDINGS | The AQADEMY... is.) ens sdcutnn case tories sa Geeta aaa The Philosophical Soehaty es a ea SCIENTIFIC NorEes AND NEWS... seeseeseeeeesesses seers Con aenaas arenas Francis B. SILSBEE, Bureau of , Stan opr aniod es chk W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Geodetic Vol. 16 4 oe, JUNE 4, 1926 JOURNAL OF THE No. 11 “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES D. F. Hewett GEOLOGICAL SURVEY L. H. ApamMs PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY E, A. GOLDMAN BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY R. F. Grieas BOTANICAL SOCIETY BOARD OF EDITORS S. J. Maucuiy DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM E. WICHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY BY THE ASSOCIATE EDITORS Ny S. A. Ronwzr ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY G. W. Stross GBROLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGIGAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mt, Royran anp GUILFORD AVES. 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Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | Vou. 16 June 4, 1926 No. 11 GEODESY.—The equilibrium theory of the earth’s crust. GEORGE R. Putnam. Washington, D. C. It is now generally accepted that the crust, or outer portion of the earth, is in a condition of equilibrium, called isostasy. Under the great and continuous pressures exerted, the solid materials of which the crust is composed act to some extent as if they were plastic, and elevations are, so to speak, floated and depressions sunk by the relatively lighter or heavier materials of which they are composed or by which they are underlaid. I became interested in this subject over 30 years ago. So much has been written about isostasy since, that I would not feel justified in again recurring to this early work, were it not that, because of the way in which it was published, there has been some misapprehension regarding it. The early work referred to was the measurement of the relative force of gravity made by me in 1894 and 1895 at 34 stations in the United States, and the statements of the results for these and other stations published in 1895 and 1896.1. The field work was for the most part planned by Mendenhall, then head of the Coast and Geo- detic Survey, and was the first extensive use of the portable pendu- lum apparatus developed under his direction, largely by E. G. Fischer. The stations were systematically distributed across the continent, at points well suited to bring out the general facts as to crustal condi- tions, including a station on the summit of Pikes Peak. I had the assistance of Charles Mendenhall, now of Wisconsin University, on the mountain part of this work. While the task assigned me was to make the observations, in putting the results into shape, with reduction to sea level by the then cus- 1PuTnaM. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Report for 1894, Appendix No. 1, pages 9-37. 1895. Phil. Soc. Washington Bulletin 13: 31-56. 1895. Amer. Jour. of Sci. 1: 186- 192. March, 1896. 285 286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 tomary methods, one on the theory of a rigid crust, and the other a crude application of isostasy, I was impressed by the significance of this series, and by the fact that those two methods both signally failed to remove all the large anomalies, and that therefore neither gave clear evidence as to crustal conditions. The idea of isostasy had been expressed by Airy in 1855, and by Pratt in 1859, as an explanation of anomalies in plumb line deflections in India, and was also advanced to account for the anomalies in gravity results from pendulum observations in India in 1865. In 1880 the French astronomer Faye? suggested that while elevations in general are in a condition of equilibrium, the gravity results would be more harmonious if certain features of moderate size were allowed for as supported loads, and he gave as illustrations the Great Pyramid of Egypt, a single hill or mountain, and the ‘“‘pillar’’ of an oceanic island. He did not however apply this idea. The so-called free air reduction was an attempt to apply a compen- sation correction to gravity observations by ignoring the attraction of all material above sea level. A comparison in 1895 of the result- ing anomalies, with the topographic situations of the stations showed a striking relationship, with large positive anomalies where the sta- tions were above the average elevation, and the reverse for stations below. So I applied a leveling off process, estimating the average elevation of the country about each station within an arbitrarily assumed radius of 100 miles, and then allowing for the attraction of the mass between the station elevation and the average elevation, subtractive or additive as the station was above or below the average. This in effect applied approximately an isostatic compensation suf- ficient for the average elevation of the region about a station, in- stead of for the station elevation itself. In application it simply added another term to the free air reduction. On the idea of isostasy, this was a logical procedure, as the trouble with the free air reduc- tion was that it ignored the fact that gravity at any station is ap- preciably affected not only by the compensation immediately be- | neath that station but by the resultant effect of the compensation of the surrounding area for some distance, and in regions where the 2 Faye. C. R. Acad. Sci. 90: 1443. 1880. Because of the suggestion in this paper of allowing for certain supported loads, in 1895 I used the term Faye reduction. FAYE however never applied the idea or developed a formula. To avoid confusion which has arisen, and also because the reduction I developed is not dependent on the idea of sup- ported loads, I have since called it the average elevation reduction, as it adds to the free aid reduction formula a term to allow for isostatic compensation for the average elevation of the region about a station. JUNE 4, 1926 PUTNAM: EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF THE EARTH CRUST 287 - point of observation was much above or below the average elevation the resulting over or under compensation was shown by the large free air residuals. In this investigation I used 67 stations, including previous determinations in several continents, and island stations in two oceans, a group of stations exceptionally well placed to throw light on isostasy. Quantitatively the method was effective, as for the first time in gravity reductions, the large residuals disappeared. In 1909, after having tested the theory of isostasy by means of deflection of the vertical data, Hayford made an important advance by developing a method of reducing observations of the force of gravity taking account for the first time of the curvature of the earth’s sur- face and of the compensation of all the topography of the earth.’ He assumed a condition of perfect local isostasy, a depth of compen- sation derived from his deflection investigations and uniform vertical distribution of compensation. He reached important conclusions by comparisons of the anomalies with those of older methods. In this work he used 72 gravity stations, 56 of which are in the United States. The investigations were later greatly extended by him and by Bowie. They constitute the most thorough investigation that has been made of the bearing of gravity observations on the condition of the earth’s crust, and they yielded gravity residuals which are probably more significant than any heretofore. But it developed that the 1895 dicta had given anomalies on the average approximately as small as the later more rigid work. The reason for this was explained later. The investigations of Hay- ford and Bowie‘ have indicated that there is practically no difference between the average anomalies based on an assumption of perfect local isostasy and those based on an assumption of regional compen- sation, which implies some local rigidity, to a radius of 37 miles from the station, and it is not shown that the same may not be true for a somewhat larger radius. For an area included within a radius of 104 miles they concluded that there is a marked advantage for local isostasy. While there is probably close isostatic adjustment for areas smaller than this, the average anomaly differences are still rather small even to the radius of 104 miles, and there is a little additional evidence in favor of regional compensation to this limit, as for example that derived from neighboring pairs of stations.’ * HayFrorD. Report, International Geodetic Association, App. A: 365. 1909. 4 HayrorD and Bowie. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Spec. Pub. 10: 98-102. 1912, Bowie. Coast and Geodetic Surv. Spec. Pub. 40: 85-92. 1917. 5 Putnam. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33: 299-301. 1922. 288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 Therefore the results of the method used in 1895, which was equiva- lent to applying approximately an adjustment to each station to compensate for the average elevation of the surrounding region, are not affected by whether local features are considered as regionally supported loads or not. Within the limits of the approximations used the results should be similar to those by the Hayford method. TABLE 1—Comparison oF Gravity ANOMALIES ANOMALIES, g OBSERVED, LESS g COMPUTED AVERAGE ELE- STATION ata VAriOn gene = a= VATION ee Bouguer| Free air ee Hayjord reduc- | reduc- | reduc- | TE@UC- MELES tion tion tion Ae Putnam, 1895 meters | meters dyne dyne dyne ‘Hee Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian) Coastal TOMO We sie Sic ae ee oe bade 10 0/-++0 .023}-+0 .024!-+-0 .023}+0 .039 Deer Park, Md. Allegheny Mts. ridge.. 770 479|—0 .045|-++-0 .032|-++0 .003}+0 .010 ithaca Ns ¥) Wakemwerions). 3.0 5-500 247 345| —0.055|} —0 .031|—0.021|—0 .023 Denver, Colo, Western plateau......... 1,638} 2,212}—0.207;—0.048}+0.008]—0.016 Pikes Peak. Rocky Mt. summit........ 4,293] 2,258}—0.231/+0.234/+-0 .014)+0.021 Grand Junction, Colo. Rocky Mt. valley} 1,398} 2,251|—0.184|—0.044|+-0 .041|+-0 .024 Norris Basin, Wyo. Rocky Mt. region..| 2,276} 2,137|—0.197|+0.038]-+-0 .024/++0 .021 Salt Lake City, Utah. Western plateau. .| 1,322| 1i,894)—0.171)/—0.045/+0.010/+0.010 Mt. Hamilton, Calif. Coast mountain SLL ONL Re OA AE SER ae Ge RRA RLS 1,282 80] —0 .031|}-++0 .093] —0 .022|—0 .003 San Francisco, Calif. Pacific Coast..... 114) —280}—0.009/—0.028]—0.039]—0.023 Seattle, Wash. Coastal region.......... 74 530/—0'.127|—0.135|—@2071)—0 gs Juneau, Alaska. Coastal valley......... 5 800] —0 .039|—0 .047| + 0.046} + 0.037 St. Georges, Bermuda. Atlantic Island. 2|—2,400/+ 0.225}+ 0.214} 0.029) | 0.020 Saint Paul Island, Alaska. Bering Sea SPT eset ee cee Netter a eM 2 ecg 12} —60/+0.041/+0.032/+ 0.034} 0.000 Honolulu, Hawaii. Pacific Island, coast. 6/—1,930}+ 0.202/+ 0.192}|—0.002| + 0.054 Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Pacific Island, SUMAN 3: eae ty eee ae Crees Asi eed 3, 981}—1,670 + 0.252/+ 0.630)-++0 .076| +4 0.185 For 42 stations, range of anomalies...................- 0.507| 0.765) 0.147} 0.278 Mean: resardless of ssiem tiie) a dese eee he 0.104; 0.068} 0.025} 0.024 For 25 United States stations, range of anomalies....... 0.278) 0.316} 0.086} 0.062 Men, regardless of sles 0 sae te ee nt 0.117} 0.039} 0.018) 0.014 They do agree, on the average, to a degree which is rather unexpected when the generalizations of the 1895 reductions are considered, but as I pointed out, the methods of computation were too approximate for the individual residuals to have much significance. For the most part, however, they show the same trend as the Hayford anomalies. Table 1 illustrates the foregoing by comparison of anomalies for stations significantly located, using the four reduction methods. JUNE 4, 1926 PUTNAM: EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF THE EARTH CRUST 289 The summary at the end includes all stations for which a direct comparison of original results could be made. A full comparison, and explanation of the reductions, were published in 1922.6 Most weight should be given to the United States stations, and these show a small but appreciable advantage for the 1912 results. The 1895 investigation included 15 oceanic island stations in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and Bering Sea, and for these the weight of surrounding sea water, as well as the configuration of the sea bottom, was taken into account in computing the compensation due to average elevations.’ The results for these oceanic island stations were in good conformity with those for the continental stations. At the time, I stated® that the 1895 results indicated ‘‘that local topographical irregularities’ are ‘‘maintained by the partial rigidity of the earth’s crust,’’ and I meant, by this, features of the order of a single mountain, as suggested by Faye. I did not conclude that mountain systems or larger continental areas are upheld, and I did not use the words “mountain ranges,’ which in this connection are ambiguous. ‘The 1895 results furnished strong evidence of the exist- ence of isostasy to a fairly close but not determined limit, but it has since developed that they did not furnish proof as to the support of local features. The results with the Hayford reduction method give very strong evidence of the correctness, to a close limit, of the theory of isostasy, but as shown above, for areas of 37 miles radius, or pos- sibly larger, they give indeterminate results as between regional and local compensation. Such a feature as a single mountain would generally fall within an area of this size, and thus the gravity investi- gations do not determine whether a mountain is regionally sup- ported or locally compensated. A mountain is in general undoubt- edly compensated, but it is probable that through partial rigidity the compensation is distributed beyond the area of the base, as a part of the compensation of the surrounding region; the method of distribu- tion is, for obvious reasons, difficult to detect with the pendulum. Visible evidence on the surface of the earth shows that the strength of its materials is sufficient to maintain for long periods nearly vertical rock walls of great height. It is highly improbable that there is such a condition of compensation below the surface as to support locally and separately the rock walls and the contiguous valleys of the Glacier Park region, for example, or the gorge and the side walls of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 6 Putnam. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33: 291-299. 1922. ™Putnam. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rep. 1894, App. No. 1; 26-29. 1895. 8 PurnaM. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rep. 1894, App. No. 1; 25. 1895. 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 At the request of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Gilbert, a well-known geologist, took part in the 1894 work by making a geological examination of some of the stations, and he also later discussed the results with respect to isostasy.2 His com- putations and conclusions were quite independent of mine, and I had no responsibility for them. While convinced of general isostasy, his conclusions as to the extent of regionally supported features were much broader than anything suggested by me, and in fact his dis- cussion rather disregarded my warning that “it is probable that no particular significance attaches to these residuals remaining,’ and the fact also that I attached no significance to the arbitrarily selected radius for the average elevation about the station. His work, how- ever, had the valuable effect of pointing the way to the interest of the gravity results to geology. Gilbert in a later paper!® completely dis- carded his deductions of 1895, and I refer to them now only because the conclusions he discarded have inadvertently been ascribed to me.1! Their publication at the same time without comment is explained by the state of knowledge at the time, and inexperience on my part. Hayford wrote me a letter, March 11, 1922, which I would not quote but for its quite direct bearing on the purpose of this note. Referring to my paper of 1922," he says: ‘‘In general I am fully in accord with it. It seems to me that what you did was to reach a close approxi- mation, in 1895, to correct conclusions, based on evidence that con- vinced you but which did not at that time fully convince others. The fact that later, and much more abundant, evidence treated much more rigorously gives conclusions in such close agreement with those reached by you, emphasizes the validity of your work, and also strengthens the conclusions from the later work.” I have pointed out the superiority of the recent methods. ‘The 1895 investigations, however, arrived at a fairly close approximation to the same results by a very simple computation method." Be- ® GILBERT. Phil. Soc. Washington Bulletin 13: 61-75. 1895. 10 GILBERT. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 85-C. 1913. 11 BowrE. Bull. Geodesique, 6: 2. Memoir of Hayford. 1925. Scientific Monthly, 22 (OG: In these two references there has been some misapprehension in stating my views, ascribable to the earlier manner of publication. 122 PuTNAM. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 33; 287-302. 1922. 13 National Research Council. International Critical Tables. 1: 1926. Swick, Variation of Gravity with Elevation, page 402. Under ‘‘more exact methods” for com- puting the value of the acceleration of gravity at a point on the earth’s surface, the average elevation method, similar to the formula developed in 1895, is given as follows: “In mountainous country, the computed value will be practically as close to the true JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 291 sides their interest historically, they have also a value, as mentioned by Hayford, in showing that similar conclusions as to general crustal conditions are reached by a quite different method of computation, and in indicating how a combination of approximate assumptions may yield results on the average quite close to those of the more elaborate method. There may be a tendency to take more literally even than their authors intend the truth of combinations of assump- tions, the probability of which may appear to be indicated by the smallness of averages. For example, it is fairly obvious that there is no sharply defined depth of compensation, that the depth in which there is some compensation effect varies in different regions, and that there is not a uniform vertical distribution of compensation, these being assumptions that were made for mathematical convenience. An impressive fact as to the earth is that all the varied features of its so-called crust are in a fairly close state of equilibrium, and a con- clusive proof of this fact has been furnished by the study of the oscillations of the pendulum. PETROLOGY.—Rocks of Eastern China.1 H. 8S. WasHINGTON and Mary G. Kryss, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. INTRODUCTION Attention has previously been called to the paucity of our knowl- edge of the chemistry of the igneous rocks of China.? Of the igneous rocks of that country—with an area of one-half that of the United States—only about 25 analyses have been published, and few of these are of good quality and of fresh rock. In order partially to supply this deficiency, Dr. L. F. Yih, Director of the Geological Survey of China, at the request of the senior author, kindly sent him 24 speci- mens of the igneous rocks of eastern China from the Survey collec- tions. For this kindness and courtesy we would express our hearty thanks. value as in flat country if an additional term is added to the right hand side of equation (1) (free air reduction), to take account of the elevation of the place above or below the general level of the topography within a radius of, say, approximately 160 km. For every 10 m. the place in question is above the general level, this term amounts to 0.001 . em. /sec.?, and for every 10 m. below the general level, it amounts to —0.001 cm. /sec.?. In computing the height of a coast station above the general level, the water must be considered replaced by an equal mass of rock, of average surface density, resting on the bottom of the ocean.’’ 1 Received May 6, 1926. ; 2 CLARKE and WasHINGTON, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 127: 66. 1924. 292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 The present paper aims only at giving petrographical descriptions and chemical analyses of the specimens at our disposal, the descrip- tions having been written by the senior and the analyses made by the junior author. Literature. The literature on the petrography of China is not abundant. Of the more general works, that of Pumpelly? need not be considered, as it antedates the use of the microscope. Von Rich- thofen‘ in general names the rocks only from field observations, and he gives no detailed petrographical descriptions. Blackwelder® con- tributes a chapter on the rocks collected in northern and central China by the Carnegie Expedition of 1903-4, with many petrographical descriptions but without analyses. The rocks collected in north- western and central China by the Futterer-Holderer Expedition of 1898 have been described by Andree and Schwartzmann, with a few chemical analyses. Deprat’ gives many descriptions, with some good analyses, of the rocks of Yunnan in southwestern China. Koch? describes the rocks of northern China collected by the Szechenyi Expedition, but without analyses. Shorter papers are those by: Pabst,? who describes rocks of Kiangsi. used in porcelain manufacture; Schwerdt,!° who describes von Rich- thofen’s specimens from Shantung and Liautung; Steuer," who gives a few brief descriptions of granites from Kansu and Shensi; Lévy and Lacroix,!? who describe rocks from southern China; Rinne," with good descriptions of rocks from around Kiau Chow in Shantung; Wong,” who deals with the petrography of Hsi Shan, west of Peking, in Chihli, Yih, describing the geology; and Norin,! who gives a good description of a syenitic area in western Shansi, some of the rocks of which we have analysed. 3 PUMPELLY, Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl., 15, 1867. 4 Von RICHTHOFEN, China, 2, 1882. 5 BLACKWELDER, in Willis, Walcott, et al., Research in China, Carnegie Inst. Publ. No. 54: 1 (2). 357-476, 1907. 6 FuTTERER, Durch Asien, 2, part 2, passim, 1909; 3, part 4, 61-116, 1911. 7 Dreprat, Mem. Serv. Géol. Indochine, No. 1 (1), 1912. 8 Kocu, in Wiss. Ergeb. Reise Graf Bela Szechenyi, 3: 364. 1899. 9 Passt, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 32: 223. 1880. 10 ScHWERDT, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 38: 198. 1886. 11 StevuER, Neu. Jahrb. Beil. Band 10: 478. 1895. 22 Lévy and Lacrorx, C. R. Acad. Sei., 180: 211. 1900. 13 RINNE, Ztsch. deutsch. geol. Ges., 56: 122. 1904. 14 Wonca, in Yih, Mem. Geol. Surv. China, No.1:32. 1920. 15 NoRIN, Bull. Geol. Surv. China, No. 3:45. 1921. JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 293 PETROGRAPHY Alaskite. The best specimen of alaskite is one from Chow Kow Tien, in Hsi Shan (Western Hills), in Chihli, a granite from which, poor in quartz, is described by Wong. Our specimen is white, rather fine-grained, composed almost wholly of white orthoclase and less quartz, with very few scales of biotite and small, opaque, black grains. In thin section the feldspar is seen to be uniformly a slightly turbid, untwinned soda-orthoclase, with abundant quartz, the texture being granitic. The very rare, small biotites are light yellow; there are some small, elongated crystals of colorless titanite, (mentioned by Wong as common in granite); a few magnetite grains, but no pyrox- ene. The black, apparently opaque grains, under high powers, are slightly transparent on thin edges, with a dark red color and marked pleochroism: they are referred to one of the sodic amphiboles, aenig- matite or cossyrite. Much altered specimens that appear to be alaskite, are those from Ma Shan, Chao Yuan Hsien,!* Shantung, which is reddish and porphyritic, and may be the tsingtauite of Rinne or the rhyolite porphyry of Blackwelder; from Ssu Tze Shan, Hunan; and from Ki Ling An, Fan Chang Hsien, Anhui (Ngan Hwei), which is aplitic. The chemical analysis (No. 1 of Table 1) is that of a somewhat sodic alaskite, with almost equal amounts of the orthoclase and al- bite molecules. The small quantity of sodium metasilicate shown in the norm obviously belongs, with the normative acmite and diopside, to the sodic hornblende;!? while the small percentages of normative rutile and wollastonite go to form the titanite. The rock is clearly of sodic affinities. Granite. Various kinds of granite are very abundant in China. Two specimens were studied. A biotite granite from Lai Yang Hsien, Hunan, is fine-grained, made up of white feldspar, quartz, and small biotites. ‘The thin section shows a typically granitic texture. The | feldspar is dominantly untwinned orthoclase, with less, finely twinned oligoclase; they and the quartz grains inclose a few small crystals of colorless titanite; the thickish tables of pale brownish biotite are fresh and clear. ‘There are a few magnetite grains, but neither pyrox- ene nor amphibole is present. The chemical analysis of this speci- men (No. 2 of Table 1) calls for no special remark, except that all the 16 Hsien = district. Shan = mountain. 17 'This has been shown for the lavas of Pantelleria (Washington, Jour. Geol., 22: 22. 1914). 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 normative hypersthene must enter biotite and, with the necessary amount of orthoclase and a little of the magnetite and ilmenite, thus forms about 15 per cent of this mica. TABLE 1—Rocks or Eastern CuHina* (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) . (6) CC) BIOs ues. xh fp. 10 65.63 63.93 63.65 62.72 61.05. 54.18 AlsOhy: eee. 12.95 14.69 16.86 13757 12.70 16.49 16.11 Fe.O3...... 0.60 roo 2.78 0.64 Teo TOL 3:02 HeOv.. se 0.60 3.01 p22 1.68 17 3.97 4.68 MeO. oassek 022 1.58 0.67 3.61 3.44 3.00 5.00 Care: 0.66 DOT 4.33 Do 4.85 5. ol 8.40 NasO een 6 4.90 O20 5.42 4.90 HAS 3.09 3.92 KeQark. Y: bite 4.56 Deas Seto 3.43 o06 iss FO Ane 0.36 0.55 0.54 0.43 0.43 0.53 0.03 H,0O-..... 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.03 On12 none 0.01 Ope eras 1.26 2205 aly 1.80 Ba 7 1.67 2:02 bt cath tay Nanaia ned: n.d. none 0.02 n.d. n.d. nid: 1g Oa 0.05 0.19 0.37 Oe 0.45 0.14 Of? Sawered se eee n.d. ib... 0.03 0.05 n.d. n.d. n.d. CreOneees: n.d. 1. none 0.01 Wade n.d. n.d. Nin@ a. 0.01 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.08 Ba@siae o n.d. n.d. 0.09 0.08 mids n.d. nid. 100.47 99 .92 99.80 99.58 99.42 100.10 99.50 Norms (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Oh Fe ea is 25.02 20.70 - 15.66 9.54 9.12 13.20 4.20 Cite os rig ee 34.47 Dio2A4: 13.34 21.68 20 .02 20.57 7.78 Ao te 33.54 2125 45.59 41.39 44 54 26.20 33.01 pa Ban ae tere — 11.95 15.29 4.17 ple 20.85 22°52 ANGhe Mase 1.85 — — — — — — TING Ra ot a 134 — — — — — De eae 1.30 1.76 2.59 15.98 Lane 4.94 14.52 Hee eae = 4.36 0.50 1.60 1.30 8.94 8.02 Wik Ee a” 0.70 — — — — — = NU re aaa Sa — 1.86 4.18 0.46 — 1.39 5.34 LG ene stan P22 3.95 Pa s4183 5200 a20D 3.19 3.80 ele eee ee — — 0.32 1.28 UU er : 0.64 -- — ~- 2 — —- Ammen} — 0.34 . 0.34 0.34 S02 0.34 0.34 (1) Alaskite, I1”.4.1.3. Chow Kow Tien, Hsi Shan, Chihli. (2) Biotite granite, I(II).4.2”.3. Lai Yang Hsien, Hunan. (3) Augite granite, I(IJ).4”.2”.4. Shang Ch’ien Pu, Wu An Hsien, Honan.. (4) Quartz syenite porphyry, II.(4)5.1(2).”4. Chin Ling Ch’in, Shantung. (5) Quartz syenite porphyry, II.(4)5.1.4. Tien Shan, Ih Tu Hsien, Shantung. (6) Granodiorite, II.4”.3.3”. Hsiao Chi Sheh, Lung Jen Hsien, Fukien. (7) Andesine andesite, II”.5.3.4”.. Hsi Ma Ho, Mongolia. * Mary G. Keyss, analyst. JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 295 A specimen from near Shang Ch’ien Pu, Wu An Hsien, Honan, is an augite granite porphyry. This is light gray, with small (24 mm.) phenocrysts of dull, slightly pink feldspar and small prisms of black augite in a very fine-grained but phaneric groundmass. Microscopi- cally, the phenocrysts of orthoclase are fairly euhedral, stout crystals, with rough outlines and somewhat turbid in the interior. A few phenocrysts of oligoclase also occur. ‘The rough prisms of augite are of a pale, slightly greenish, yellow. ‘The fine-grained groundmass is typically granitic. Magnetite grains are few, and there is no biotite, amphibole, or titanite. The chemical analysis (No. 3 of Table 1) shows that the rock is decidedly sodic and that the amount of quartz is not large. Quartz syenite porphyry. Two specimens that fall here come from Chin Lin Ch’in and from Tien Shan, Jh Tu Hsien, both in Shantung. They resemble each other so closely in all respects that the two locali- ties probably are near each other or belong to the same petrographic district. They are fine-grained, aplitic-looking rocks, with small phenocrysts of white feldspar and some of black augite, in a very fine-grained, phaneric groundmass. Both specimens contain small dark xenoliths of pyroxenite. The thin sections show short, thick tables of fresh, considerably twinned microcline, with little quartz. The augite phenocrysts form stoutish, ragged prismoids, of a pale, brownish yellow color, and are not very fresh. The groundmass is granitic, composed of some quartz and more turbid feldspar. Neither specimen contains biotite, amphibole, or magnetite grains, but in that from Ih Tu Hsien there are some small crystals of colorless titanite. ‘The chemical analyses of the two specimens (Nos. 4 and 5 of Table 1) are much alike and show that the feldspar is a sodic micro- cline or a potassic albite. Biotite granodiorite. Only one specimen, from the southeasterly province of Fukien, represents this rock, but it would appear to be fairly abundant in eastern China, to judge from the descriptions by Koch and by Blackwelder. The rock is rather fine-grained, with granitic texture, made up of much fresh feldspar, many small scales of black biotite, and a little quartz. The microscope shows that the abundant feldspar is in part multiply twinned andesine, about Ab;Ang, with less untwinned orthoclase. The thick tables of rather dark brown biotite carry no inclusions; there are few crystals of light yel- lowish augite, slightly altered, but no amphibole. Grains of magnetite, some of them arranged in branching aggregates of octahedra, also occur. ‘The chemical analysis (No.6 of Table 1) is distinctly quartz 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 monzonitic in character, with a marked sodic tendency—hence the name granodiorite rather than quartz monzonite, following Lindgren and Iddings. ‘“Basalt.”’ Three specimens of basaltic lavas were studied by us, two of which proved to be olivine basalt and the third andesine ande- site, using the nomenclature proposed by Iddings,!% and adopted by one of us for the Hawaiian rocks.!®° According to this scheme, in the andesites the normative feldspars are dominant over the femic miner- als, while in the basalts the amounts of each group are about equal. An andesite or a basalt may or may not contain modal olivine. An olivine basalt from T’ang Shan, Ch’i Shia Hsien, Shantung, is black, densely aphanitic and wholly aphyric. The thin section shows rather numerous, small, equant, microphenocrysts of fresh olivine, in a very fine-grained groundmass, made up of grains of magnetite and smaller granules of colorless augite in a colorless glass base. Feldspar is almost wholly lacking and must be occult in the glass base. No analysis was made of this basalt. Basalts, of this and other kinds, would appear to be rather plentiful in the peninsula of Shan- tung, according to the descriptions by von Richthofen, Schwerdt, Rinne, and Blackwelder. A basalt from Hsueh Hau Shan, Tsing Ching Hsien, Chihli, is medium gray, aphanitic and aphyric, with a few, small, irregular vesi- cles of the aa form. It is apparently not quite fresh, and was not analysed. Microphenocrysts of olivine are fewer than in the pre- ceding specimen and they are all considerably altered to a yellow sub- stance. The microgroundmass contains many small, thin laths of andesine, grains of magnetite, and granules and minute prismoids of colorless augite, in a colorless glass base. It is possible that this “basalt” is strictly an andesine andesite, as is that next to be described. There is one specimen of “basalt’’ from Hsi Ma Ho, Mongolia, a river which we cannot find on the maps available, but which is pre- sumably near the Chihli border. Von Richthofen (pp. 381, 389, 739) states that in eastern Mongolia there are extensive flows of ““basalt,’’ which here, as in Shantung, are said to overlie ‘“trachytes”’ and ‘‘rhyolites.’”’ Our specimen is medium gray, almost aphanitic, except for very small feldspar laths in a dense gray groundmass. There are numerous, small, irregularly angular cavities, which con- tain small tables of labradorite. The microtexture is intersertal, the rock being made up of rather thick, much twinned, plates of andesine, 18 Tppines, Igneous Rocks, 2: 21. 1913. 19 WASHINGTON, Amer. Jour. Sci., 5: 469. 1923. JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 297 about Ab;An,, some small and altered, roundish grains of olivine, and fewer of fresh, pale gray augite. No magnetite grains are present, but there is considerable interstitial, dusty, brownish glass. ‘The chemical analysis (No. 7 of Table 1) is that of an andesite, rather than of a basalt, in the usual acceptation of the terms. Its norm shows some excess S102, as is true of many such rocks, in spite of the modal presence of olivine, which belongs presumably to an early stage of crystallization, in accord with the so-called Bowen-Andersen effect.?° Syenite area of Shanst. At Tzu Chin Shan, in western Shansi, Lat. 38°14’ N. and Lon. 110° 51’ E., is an area of syenitic rocks, which have been described by Norin,?! who, however, gives no analyses of them. ‘The igneous body is regarded by Norin as a laccolith. The igneous rocks are: “trachy-andesite’’ (phyric hornblende mon- zonite?), augite syenite, nephelite syenite, and aegirite-nephelite syenite, with tinguaitic dikes; a volcanic neck of brecciated syenite, cemented ‘‘trachyte,”’ has broken through at one side. Our specimens are of augite syenite, nephelite syenite, and leucite tinguaite. The augite syenite is fine-grained, showing many small prismoids and grains of black pyroxene scattered through finely granular al- kalic feldspar. The thin section shows that the texture is granitic, and that the rock is composed very largely of untwinned, slightly turbid, anorthoclase, with less, somewhat tabular, finely twinned albite or oligoclase-albite. There is very little nephelite, mostly as small rounded grains, included in the feldspars. The pyroxene forms sub- hedral prismoids, which are pale yellowish brown, with a slightly greenish tinge. It is faintly pleochroic, from pale olive green to pale greenish yellow, with extinction angles up to 40°, and apparently contains a small percentage of the acmite molecule. There are fewer small, rounded and mostly equant grains of a dark red, almost opaque, hornblende, some of which are included in the augite. In our speci- men they are so opaque that little definite can be said of them, except that they are a sodic hornblende which closely resembles that which is present in the alaskite of Chihli. According to Norin, the horn- blende is monoclinic, with an extinction angle of 10°-12°, and he re- fers it to barkevikite, which, however, in our experience is usually - much lighter in color and less reddish. Norin states that titanite “occurs abundantly,’’ but none of this mineral was observed in our section, nor did we note any magnetite grains, which Norin mentions as also occurring. ‘The chemical analysis of our specimen is given in 20 BOwEN and ANDERSEN, Amer. Jour. Sci., 37: 487. 1914. 21 Norin, Bull. Geol. Surv. China, No. 3:45. 1921. 298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 TABLE 2.—Rocks oF SHANSI (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) as. aur oe vhs 55.38 56.40 jae 50.00 51.93 52.91 A 8 Pewee 15.47 19.74 18.71 20 .03 20 .29 19.49 Fe2Q3....... Stk 215 4.60 0.98 3.59 4.78 i) SS ae 3.46 1.04 0.56 3.98 1.20 2.05 1 @ Ae 2.20 0 jee! 0.03 0.69 0.22 0.29 Cats Ore: 6.65 2.93 i a 3.41 1:65°° Sea NasQitin.c% 4.77 ae 5.43 8.28 8.49 Vole 0 Pek eae Seale 12.42 12.64 8.44 9.81 7.88 H3O-+....:: 0.36 Or33 0.78 1.50 0.99 119 H.O-....... 0.03 0.28 0.07 0.10 0.10 nid: ot ALG OR nari 1.96 t52 1.61 0.99 0.20 none PGs. een 0.36 0.14 none 0.21 0.06 trace SOpt nea ce Da. n.d. 0.25 mad. 0.67 n.d. Gs ip ae Uae ned: md. 0.14 trace 0.70 4 ie'5 WENOE 2! 2 Ont 0.08 0.13 0.50 trace 0.44 Be Osi used n.d. nea. 0.01 none 0.09 n.d. 99 .63 99.99 99 .82* 99.877 100 .58t 100 .25§ Norms (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Opie er ice. 30.02 70.06 33.92 28.91 31.97 46.70 SA eed Wi 34.06 —= — -—— — 14.15 Na ais te es 5.84 4.45 _— — — — Gs Se eee — 2562 31.83 16.13 20 .28 — Newt 3.41 WES 13.62 30.39 26.98 22.42 Mle aaah — — 0.23 — 117 0.82 Mpa ce eet — — 0.43 — 1.14 — INOS Nao cae — — 13.40 DUG 10.63 — INS iekeee hohe: == — 0.49 2.56 0.12 — Depa tie. gs. 11.88 1.08 — 12.94 4.77 Dame s Wiss ae ee 3.83 Ses) Dea = 1.16 3.83 Oe a de == <= = [25 —_ Mite eon. Oe — — — — 6.96 sees te hes ce 3.80 Va N33 1 52 1es2 0.46 == AI ea a Deak — — — —_— 1 Bk Gene : — 0.40 0.80 -— a= — U2 Gb lier pega 1.01 0.34 — 0.67 — — (1) Augite syenite, I1.5.(1)2.8”. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shamsi. Kryss analyst. (2) Nephelite syenite, I(II).6.1”.2. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shansi. KEyzs an- alyst. (3) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, II.7.1.2. Tzu Chin Shan, Lin Hsien, Shansi. KryEs analyst. (4) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, I1.7(8).1.8. Beemerville, New Jersey. Wourr analyst. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 99, 577, 1917. (5) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, "II.7(8).1.8. Bearpaw Mts., Montana. Sroxzs analyst. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper. 99, 577, 1917. (6) Pseudoleucite tinguaite, (I)I1.6.1.3(4). Magnet cove, Arkansas. WILLIAMS an- alyst. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 99, 553, 1917. * Includes ZrO». none, Cr.O; none. 7 Includes CO, 0.22, FeS, 0.54. t Includes CO, 0.25, F 0.27, SrO 0.07. § Includes S 0.52, X 0.48, SrO 0.09. JUNE 4, 1926 WASHINGTON AND KEYES: ROCKS OF EASTERN CHINA 299 No. 1 of Table 2. Some of the normative ilmenite presumably exists in the sodic hornblende, which is usually rather high in titanium. The nephelite syenite of the area is regarded by Norin as intermediate between the augite syenite and the aegirite-nephelite syenite. Ac- cording to him, the nephelite syenite is very variable in character, both texturally and modally, and he thinks that these syenites are schliere-like “‘differentiation products from the augite syenite magma.”’ Our specimen appears to differ from what Norin describes as “‘a rep- resentative type.’’ It is pale gray and somewhat phyric, showing thick-tabular phenocrysts of alkali feldspar, in a medium-grained, granitic-textured base, composed of gray feldspar, some flesh-colored nephelite, irregular spots of a black mineral with sub-metallie luster, and a few small scales of biotite. The thin section shows no features of special interest as regards the feldspar, which is a slightly turbid anorthoclase, and the much less abundant nephelite, the latter being fresh. None of the pyroxene, mentioned by Norin, appears in our sections, but there is a little brown biotite. Norin mentions that biotite is abundant when pyroxene is subordinate and vice versa. The megascopically black areas resolve themselves, in thin section, into clusters of small grains of a yellow-brown, isotropic mineral, with high refractive index; this is evidently the spinel spoken of by Norin. We could detect no titanite, which Norin says is abundant. The results of the chemical analysis of our specimen are shown in No. 2 of Table 2. This is remarkable for the high content in alkalies, es- pecially in potash; giving rise to a small amount of normative leucite, which is taken up by the modal nephelite. The subrang, [.6.1.2, in which the rock falls, is as yet unrepresented by any analysis, so that this subrang, 1.6.1.2, may be named shansose. As we have no specimens of the aegirite syenite or of the “‘trachy- andesite,” the reader is referred to Norin’s paper for descriptions of them. Pseudoleucite tunguarte. Our specimen of this, the only represen- tative of the many kinds of (mostly tinguaitic) dikes in the area, belongs to Norin’s first type of “leucite tinguaite porphyry.” It shows rounded or sub-angular phenocrysts of pseudoleucite, up to 1.5 cm. in diameter, in a greenish black, densely aphanitic ground- mass. It can be seen by the naked eye that the pseudoleucites are composed of two minerals, a finely granular, grayish white fe!dspar, and pale flesh-colored nephelite, the latter occurring mostly in the interior of the crystal aggregate. Under the microscope, the large pseudoleucites show the usual aggregate of orthoclase and rather 300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 less nephelite grains. No leucite could be detected, although Norin notes the presence in his specimens of a clear, colorless, isotropic mineral, with low refractive index, which he thinks is analcite, but which may be leucite. In the pseudoleucites are needles of aegirite and a few bundles of slender needles of natrolite. The holocrystal- line groundmass is made up of very small anhedral grains of ortho- clase and nephelite, irregularly sprinkled with very slender needles of aegirite, which are so thin that the individuals appear to be black, although the more crowded, felt-like areas show a greenish tinge. No sodic hornblende was seen nor was there found any of the sodalite group of minerals, although the chemical analysis indicates that very small amounts of some of these are present, as they are in other pseudoleucite tinguaites. The chemical analysis (No. 3 of Table 2) shows about the same very high percentage of KO as does the nephelite syenite, but with less SiO. and twice as much Na.O. As there is no, or at most very little, modal leucite, the normative leucite is to be considered as split up, forming modal orthoclase and potassic nephelite, in accordance with Bowen’s interpretation of the composition of nephelite, based on laboratory study of the end members.” The high Fe,O; is connected with the abundant aegirite, into which enters also the small amount of sodium metasilicate shown in the norm. The Chinese rock closely resembles, modally and _ texturally, the pseudoleucite tinguaites of Bear Paw Mountains, Montana,” and of Beemerville, New Jersey.** The analyses of these two (Nos. 4 and 5 of Table 2) are much like that of the Chinese rock, except for the higher K,O and lower Na.O of the last. All three are also alike in that their norms show notable amounts of the leucite molecule, although no modal leucite is discernible in thin sections. The Chinese tinguaite falls in the subrang II.7.1.2, while the other two are in I1.7.1.3. All three have a little sodium metasilicate in the norm. It may be recalled that both Pirsson and Wolff were cog- nizant of this excess of Na.O over that needed for albite, nephelite, and acmite. Pirsson attributed this, in great part, to sodalite and nosean, which are present in the rock; but Wolff found difficulty in explaining it, as the New Jersey rock contains no sodalite, so that he somewhat doubtfully assigned it to aegirite. The pseudoleucite tinguaite of Magnet Cove” is also similar to these three modally and 22 BOWEN, Amer. Jour. Sci., 43: 115. 1917. 23 WEED and Pirsson, Amer. Jour. Sci., 2: 194. 1896. 24 WoLFF, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 38: 273. 1902. 25 J. F. Wiuurams, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Arkansas, 2: 267. 1891. JUNE 4, 1926 MACLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 301 texturally, but its analysis (No. 6 of Table 2) shows slightly higher SiO, and lower Na.O and K.O, so that the norm contains none of the leucite molecule, and no leucite is present in the rock. All the known pseudoleucite tinguaites are connected with nephelite syenite and similar rocks, some of which they much resemble chemically, as the Chinese tinguaite resembles the accompanying nephelite syenite. Summary. The specimens at our command are too few to give a very satisfactory idea of the general characters of the magma under- lying eastern China, but the results of their study, taken in connec- tion with the descriptions by others, allow us to form a general notion. The igneous rocks of the region are mostly granitic and granodioritic, true dioritic and gabbroic rocks being rare, and syenitic rocks even rarer. The common occurrence of effusive basalt, much of it with -andesine, and of andesite (the “‘trachyte’’ of Richthofen and others), with some rhyolite, and the apparent absence of alkalic trachyte, phonolite, and tephritic lavas, also indicates that. the general magma is decidedly silicic and of distinctly medium composition. Although many of the plutonic rocks have a decidedly sodic cast, yet the oc- currence of nephelite syenite and other such very sodic rocks appears to be exceptional; they being known only in Shansi and in southern China, as has been noted by Lévy and Lacroix. In connection with this latter occurrence it may be noted that the jadeite of Upper Burma is regarded by Bleeck?* as a metamorphosed nephelite syenite, as was suggested earlier by Pirsson2’ for the jadeite of Tibet. ETHNOLOGY.— Piscataway royalty: a study in stone age government and inheritance rulings! W. C. MacLrop, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. (Communicated by Jonn R. SWANTON.) 1. THE PISCATAWAY OVERLORDSHIP The Piscataway were an Algonkian tribe or nation whose village was located originally in Maryland, at the junction of Tinker’s and Piscataway Creeks, some fifteen miles south of the present city of Washington. The name Piscataway is also used to denominate the group of tribes, each with its own head chief or ‘‘king,’”’ over which the “king’”’ of the Piscataway tribe ruled as overlord or ‘‘emperor.” The Piscataway overlordship or ‘‘empire’’ embraced lands stretching for aS BLEECK, Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 36: 254. 1907. 27 Prrsson, Amer. Jour. Sci., (4), 1: 401. 1896. 1 Received April 15, 1926. 302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 130 miles from east to west in the Potomac River valley, north of the river; south of the river was the domain of Powhatan, ‘‘emperor” of the tidewater Virginia tribes.2, About 1634 under the Piscataway overlordship were the tribes—and their kings—called Chingwawataick, Nangemaick, Mattowomans, Potopaco, Sacayo, and Pangayo. An archival note of 1666 would indicate the inclusion, at least at that date, of the Mibibiwomans and Masquetend; and also, but certainly very doubtfully, of the Anacostia of the District of Columbia and the Nanticoke groups, the Choptico and Doags. The Anacostia in 1631 were noted as being under the protection of the tribes of the upper reaches of the Potomac River, and warring on the Potomac tribe; the “protectors” of the Potomac tribe were also warring on the Piscataway.? But by 1666 there had been a serious decline in the native population, and some adjustment of sovereignties and alliances. By 1666, moreover, the same delegate, Mattabone, represented both the Piscataway tribe and the Sacayo tribe in conference with the English, which suggests that the Sacayo were losing their tribal iden- tity; at this time the Pangayo and the Chingwawataick appear to have coalesced. The Piscataway empire was clearly organised much after the pattern of that of Powhatan. Each tribe was constituted of a village and its suburbs or hamlets, under a tribal king who was subordinate to the king of the ranking tribe. The Piscataway organization appears to have been no neeaunle formation. In 1660 representatives of the component tribes explained for the benefit of the governor of the province or colony of Maryland in conference that their first emperor had come from the Eastern Shore of Maryland, historically Nanticoke country, thirteen genera- tions before. That this first emperor had ruled over all the tribes or villages of what in 1660 was the colony of Maryland (the tidewater). They named “every town separately;”’ but the Proceedings of Council does not make record of the list. It is implied that then the Nanti- cokes were subject to the Piscataway emperor; and it is stated that in that day the historic enemies of the Piscataway,—the Potomac and the Susquehannock,—were subject to the Piscataway.t This last statement we may imagine may be mere boast on the part of the Piscataway. Thirteen generations would carry the Piscataway gene- ology back to perhaps 1540 A.D. 2 See Brinton, Walam Olum, pp. 226-227. 3 FLEET, pp. 25, 30; Smitru, General History, Book 4: 377, 378. 4 Council of December 20, 1660. JUNE 4, 1926 MACLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT . 303 In 1639 the English Jesuits arrived in Maryland to missionize the Indians, under the patronage of Lord Baltimore. In that year they established a mission at the ‘‘metropolis of Pascatoe,”’ the town of the Piscataway tribe; but in 1642, due to the war of aggression by the Susquehannocks, they had to move their station down river to Poto- paco. Father White was the head of the Jesuit mission. As we shall see it is likely that the missionaries had some influence in the politics of the natives. Further European influence came shortly when the Piscataway agreed with the colonial government that their native political offices should require ratification by the colonial governor in order to be valid. 2. MATRILINEAL INHERITANCE. OF OFFICE Piscataway inheritance appears to have been similar to that ob- taining in Powhatan’s empire south of the river. Powhatan, emperor of the tidewater Virginia tribes, in the course of an address to John Smith, said that the heirs to his imperial office in order of preference according to native law were (1) his three brothers, (2) his two sisters, (3) the daughters of his two sisters. Apparently his two sisters had no sons, for John Smith writes that sisters’ sons were preferred to sisters’ daughters. Powhatan em- phasized the fact that primogeniture also was the rule; an elder brother succeeded in preference to a younger brother; but preference was for male heirs, so that a younger brother would follow his elder brother before any sister of the brother could succeed. Our data on the Piscataway is not so explicit, but nevertheless indicates that exactly the same rulings held; and it furthermore shows us that a sisier’s daughter, even though only a child, would be preferred in succession to chiefship before any cousin of the former incumbent. These matrilineal, primogenitural rulings apparently were general among the tribes of the southeast of North America, and are exactly similar to the inheri- tance preferences prevalent among the mother-sib tribes of north- western North America, save in the case perhaps of the Tahltan of the plateau who seem to have preferred male cousins to sister’s daughters.® 6 Smitu, Relation, pp. 52, 115; and Description, p. 165. Smits adds that office never descends to heirs of the brothers of the incumbent. Compare Anonymous, A Relation of Maryland, p. 84, 1635. MacLrop, Natchez Political Evolution; Aspects of Northwest Coast Social Organisation; and Lawson, Carolina, p. 318. Morice (p. 142) notes among the Carrier Indians of the Northwestern plateau, that if there are no brothers, sisters, or sisters’ children to succeed to the chiefship, the nephew, or even the niece of the mother of the deceased, that is, a cousin on the mother’s side, might succeed. 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 The first “emperor” of the Piscataway line, circa 1540 A.D., was succeeded by his brothers, in turn, and the last of these was succeeded by a sister’s son of the eldest brother, ‘‘and so on, from brother to brother, and for want of such, to a sister’s son,”’ on down to the period of the arrival of the English circa 1600.6 The ruling sovereign when the English arrived was Kittamaqund. ‘This emperor had slain his brother Wannas,” to the end that he might enjoy the crown by the right of their succession, brother always succeeding brother till they all be dead.’’? Among the other tribes of the upper Chesapeake region and of the eastern shore we have a number of annotations referring to boy kings and emperors, with regents acting for them pending their maturity; and notes also of queens or female rulers.® 3. THE QUESTION OF THE SIB We must now emphasize the fact that for the Piscataway (as for their neighbors) we have recorded virtually no note of wnheritance rulings save those applying to the office of king or civil head chief, and that matrilineal inheritance of the chiefship is not in itself evidence for matrilineal inheritance of property, nor of the existence of the mother-sib. Among the Chitimacha of Louisiana it is found associ- ated with the father-sib; and among the Yuchi who formerly dwelt on the plateau back of Virginia, it is associated with the mother-sib, but also with patrilineal societies; while among the Natchez it is associated with a form of patrilineal inheritance of rank. The presence of matrilineal chiefship, however, indicates, in all like- lihood, at least the influence of the mother-sib. The north-eastern Sioux of the Virginia highlands and plateau apparently possessed the mother-sib. Of these plateau peoples Lederer noted in 1671 that: From four women, viz., Pash, Sepoy, Askarin, and Maraskarin, they derive the race of mankind; which they therefore divide into four tribes, distin- guished under these several names. They very religiously observe the de- grees of marriage, which they limit not to distance of kindred, but difference of tribes, which are continued in the issue of the females; now, for two of the same tribe to match, is abhorred as incest, and punished with great severity. Their places of burial they divide into four quarters, assigning to every tribe 6 Council of December 20, 1660. 7 Council of May, 1662; compare above. 8 Compare, for example, WHITE, Brief Relation, p. 41; Jeswit Letters, pp. 124-125, 136; and above. JUNE 4, 1926 MaAcLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 305 one; for, to mingle their bodies, even when dead, they hold wicked and ominous.?® This is clearly an attempt by one not trained in ethnology to describe the mother-sib. To the northeastern and southeastern Siouan, the Algonkian of the tidewater were indebted for much of their material and social culture and it may be that the mother-sib had been borrowed. 4. HISTORICAL DATA ON THE PISCATAWAY DYNASTY In 1640 the Piscataway emperor was Kittamaqund. In that year he and his family were converted to Catholicism by the Jesuits. In 1641 Kittamagqund died. Subsequently an Indian delegation to the English authorities stated that he had ‘“‘died without brother or sister, and appointed his daughter to be queen.” This daughter was a Catholic, one of two daughters of the deceased emperor; she was his favorite daughter. The Indians refused to assent to this breaking of _ the matrilineal rule of inheritance of office.'° From the time of this event, in the history of the first emperor to rule during the period of European influence, there appears to have been frequent irregularity in the inheritance of the office. To make this more comprehensible we will first outline something of the chro- nology, as it appears in the archival records." 9 The quotation is from LEDERER, p. 8. On the inheritance of property we have a note by eeeelie included in John Smith’s compilations. The note very likely refers to Potomac River tribes. SpPELMAN describes death and burial and then observes: ‘‘What goods the party leaveth is divided among his wives and children. But his house he giveth to the wife he liketh best, for life; after her death, unto what child he most loveth.’’ This indicates patrilineal or bi- lateral property inheritance (ARBER’s edition of SMITH; SPELMAN, p. CX). On the possibility of the sib: An observer included in Smith’s works noted for the Accohannock of the Eastern Shore that ‘‘In their marriages, they observe a large dis- tance, as well in affinity as consanguinity.’’ Properly affinity refers to relationship by marriage, but an observer without understanding of the sib may have misunderstood sib relationship for affinity. (Smitu, General History, p. 355.) On the “‘significance of matrilineal chiefship’’ see MacLzEop, Chiefship, 1923. On the significance of Lederer’s note for the sociology of the Sioux of the Plains compare Swanton, New Light. On the general cultural relationships of eastern Siouan groups and the eastern Algonkian see Speck, Hthnological Position. 10 Council of May, 1662; and Letters of the Jesuits, p. 126. In these letters, sur- prisingly enough, for the year 1641 we read of this daughter as “‘the young empress’”’ (pp. 182, 135-136); and it is in these also that we read of the wife and two sons of ‘‘the Tayac,’’ Tayac being the native term for emperor, and referring to Kittamaqund, very likely. 11 The extermination of family lines by disease was no doubt disturbing inheritance at this period (compare MacLeop, Chiefship, p. 497). Still, we read, (Council of December 20, 1660) that the first emperor was succeeded by his brother ‘‘since he died without issue.”’ This “‘since’’ however is very clearly a misunderstanding on the part of the interpreter. (My italics.) 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 1. UrraProINGASSENEM:” the first emperor, circa 1540 A.D. 2. QUORENASSEM® cot) ac brother of the foregoing, circa 1550 A.D. Eleven unrecorded emperors follow, then: 14. KITTAMAQUND:...... died, 1641. This emperor had slain his elder brother Wannas, (also spelled Uwamno) in order to secure himself the throne. Kittamaqund died without ‘awful heirs,’—that is, brother, sister, or sisters’ children. He wanted his daughter to succeed him, but the tribe refused this. Instead they chose as his successor™ 15. WEGEUCASSO?... 5.4). (spelled also Wahocasso, and Walmcasso), who was a descendant of one of the brothers of the first emperor, Uttapoingassenem, who had suc- ceeded to Uttapoingassenem’s office. Weghu- casso died in 1658.11 He was apparently himself without heirs for he was succeeded by another 16. UTTAPOINGASSENEM:. another descendant of one of the ancient em- perors. This Uttapoingassenem died in 1662, after a short reign of four years. He was suc- ceeded by 17. WANNASAPAPIN:..... who is reported as the son of the Wannas who } should have succeeded before Kittamaqund but who was slain by his brother, who succeeded instead. Wannasapapin died within one year, in 1663.18 He was succeeded by 1S. NATPTOWASSO?. 22. who was the son of Weghucasso (no. 15, above); Nattowasso changed his name and took that of his father, Weghucasso. Nattowasso dzed circa GTO! . The Weghucasso, who succeeded Kittamaqund, the native coun- cellors told the governor of Maryland, was descended “from one of the brothers of the first emperor, which one, they knew not.” Upon his death, Weghucasso “appointed” another “‘descendant of one of the first kings’? to succeed himself.!8 This is rather puzzling; suc- 12 Council of May, 1662, and Jeswit Letters, p. 123; and references cited above. He was called Uttapoingassenem ‘‘inasmuch as he did, as it were, embrace and cover them all,’’ that is, rule over all the tribes of Maryland. See Council of December 20, 1660. 13 Councils of December 20, 1660, and May, 1662, p. 45. 14 Council of February, 1658. 15 Council of May, 1662. 16 Council of June, 1663. 17 Councils of May, 1662, and of June, 1670, p. 289. 18 Councils of December 20, 1660, and of May, 1662, p. 453. The title for king among the Piscataway we do not know; the title for emperor was Tayac, cognate with Nanticoke Tallak, head chief. In the 1660 council we read con- cerning Uttapoingassem II, successor to Weghucasso, that he was to be called Jan Jan Wizous, ‘‘which, in their language, signifies a true king, and [they] would not suffer us to call him Towzin, which is the style [title] they give to the sons of their kings;”’ and the narrative continues to explain that sons may never inherit their father’s office. JUNE 4, 1926 MacLEOD: STONE AGE GOVERNMENT 307- cession to office by descendants of the deceased encumbant’s brothers 1s not matrilineal. And succession by Weghucasso’s son and by Wannas’ son, is frankly patrilineal, just as was the succession of himself by his daughter determined on by Weghucasso’s predecessor, Kittamaqund. 5. A PUZZLING ROYAL WEDDING In the case of Nattowasso a puzzling situation is presented which, if it is ever wholly unravelled, will no doubt serve to illuminate social organisation in this region. Nattowasso was a mere boy, eleven years old, when he succeeded. He died when he was about eighteen. Remembering Kittamaqund’s killing of his brother, and the short one-year reign of Wannasapapin, son of the murdered Wannas and predecessor of the son of Weghucasso, we may suspect a quarrel for the office of emperor, especially so in view of the fact that on ratifying the Indian’s choice of their boy em- peror the colonial governor significantly then charged the Indians that they should not presume to wrong him upon any pretense either by poisoning of him or by other indirect ways.!* This may be com- pared with the note by Lawson for the Carolinas, that a chief’s heirs were his sister’s sons; but that occasionally a ruler would disapprove of his heir apparent; therefore: “Sometimes they poison the heir to make way for another, which is not seldom done, when they do not approve of the youth that is to succeed them. The king himself is generally the chief doctor in this cure.” ?° In explaining their choice of Nattowasso, and of a further desire of heirs, the Indians said that: In times past there were two families living at Piscatoway, out of which two families their kings were chosen; the one being the family of Wannys, the other the family of Wahocasso, of which Wahocasso this Nattowasso descended, he being his eldest son as aforesaid. Further, the Indians show that there is a daughter of the family of Wannys now living at Piscataway, and about the same age as this youth now elected by them.*! Does the use of Towzin indicate something of the Natchez plan of giving a certain rank to the sons of kings? (On Tayac as the term for ‘“‘emperor’’ as distinct from mere “king,” see Jesuit Letters, p. 125, and A Relation of Maryland, 1635, p. 84.) Since we have, as to inheritance rules, compared the Southeast to the Northwest, we may note something in the Northwest comparable to this giving of title to sons of a chief in a matrilineal order. Moricer says of the ‘‘Toenezas,’’ or chiefs of the Carrier Indians, whose office descended matrilineally, that ‘their rank . . . . was shared in by their children, who were called ‘‘oezkezas.’’—Morics, p. 142. (My italics.) 19 Council of June, 1663, p. 481. 20 Lawson: Carolinas, p. 318. *1 Council of June, 1663, p. 481. 308 JOURNAL OF THE. WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 They state that they intend to marry these two child representatives of the two regal families, that of Wannas and that of Weghucasso; the boy, a son of a former emperor in the matrilineal line, to the girl, who is apparently a sister of the last emperor, Wannasapapin; the marriage is to be consummated as soon as the children are of ‘mature years.” They also explain here that they intend to change the name of Nattowasso to Weghucasso, ‘“‘after his father’s name.” The governor postponed his decision ‘‘concerning the uniting of these two families.” At the council in which eventually, seven years later, we hear of the death of the boy emperor, Nattowasso, we hear, incidentally, facts which indicate clearly that the king of Nanjemaick has been suc- ceeded by his own son, one Necutahainon, suggesting that inheritance was tending toward the patrilineal even among the kingly offices of the tribes, as well as in the office of overlord or emperor. NOTES ON SYNONYMY NANGEMAICK appears sometimes as Nangemy, and Nangenaick; ANa- cosT1a, aS Analostan, Anacostaub, Nacostanck, Nacochtank, Nacostines, and Nazatica; Sacayo, as Zachaiah; Poropaco, as Portobacco, Portobackes; CHINGWAWATAICK, as Chingwaters, Chingwawaters, Chingweatyke; Pis- CATAWAY, as Pascatoe. The Piscataway were also known by a name of different root, spelled or transliterated variously as Ganawagas, Ganaweses, Kanawhas, and Conoys. In early days under the emperor Kittamaqund the Piscataway village was; by the English, called, after him, Kittamaqundi. At the same time the emperor’s name was sometimes spelled by some of the English, Chitomachen. Chitomachen and Kittamaqundi are the same Algonkian name transliterated differently. Brinton thought erroneously that Chitomachen was a personal name, the name of the emperor, and Kittamaqund was a place name, the name of the Piscatoway capital. Translating the two names into English, after ‘‘discovering”’ the Algonkian roots behind them, he got two remark- ably different translations! ‘This is a warning against reckless translation of Algonkian words which have been hopelessly corrupted in English trans- literation; local historical enthusiasts should take notice. WORKS REFERRED TO Brinton, D. G., The Walum Olum: or The Lenape and Their Legends, 1883. FLEET, Journal, 1631; reprinted in Neiu1, E. D., Founders of Maryland, 1876. Hiuton, Relation of Florida; reprinted in Forp#£, Tracts, vol. 4. Lawson, Joun, History of Carolina, 1714, reprinted 1860. . LEDERER, JoHN, Narrative, 1671; English translation and reprint, 1900. (Reprinted also in ALvorD and Bipgoop, Trans-Allegheny Explorations.) Letters of the Jesuits, see under Relation. Mac Leon, W. C., On the Significance of Matrilineal Chiefship, American Anthropologist, 1923. Natchez Political Evolution, Ibid., 1924. Certain Aspects of Northwest Coast and of Algonkian Social Organisation, 1924 Proceedings of the Inter- national Congresses of Americanists. JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 309 Mooney, J., Indian Tribes of the District of Columbia, American Anthropologist, 1889. Morice, Fr. A. G., The Western Dénés, 1888-1889 Proceedings of the Canadian Institute. Proceedings of Council, Archives of Maryland. ProvupritT, 8. V., Ancient Village Sites and Aboriginal Workshops in the District of Colum- bia, American Anthropologist, 1889. Relation of Maryland, Anonymous, 1635; in Original Narratives of Early American History: Maryland. Letters of the Jeswitsin Maryland: Selections: in Ibid. Fr. A. Wu1Te: Relatio Itineris, Translation in Ibid. Speck, F. G., Hihnological Position of the Southeastern Algonkian, American Anthropol- ogist, 1923. Swanton, J. R., New Light on the Early History of the Siouan Peoples, Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1923. Wuite, see Relation, etc. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 686TH MEETING The 686th meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club January 16, 1926 at 8 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 103 persons present. The President announced the membership of the following committees: Committee on Publications, C. W. RicHMonD, CHAIRMAN, J.H. Rinny, G.S. Minuer, Jr.; Committee on Communications, W. R. Maxon, CHAIRMAN, 8. A. RoHwer, V. Bartey. ‘The President referred to the recent death of W. E. Sarrorp and to his many services to the Society. O. J. Murin, Biological Survey: On the trail of the big brown bear in Alaska. —Two species of bear, Ursus gyas and Ursus kidderz, inhabit the Alaska Pen- insula throughout its length and are also plentiful on Unimak Island, which is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. Ursus gyas is probably the largest of the brown bears, with the possible exception of the form on Kodiak Island. Hence this is the largest carnivorous mammal in the world. The Aleutian Range, which follows closely the Pacific side of the Peninsula, is the natural home of this bear, the lava beds and other rugged portions of the mountains furnishing ideal retreats for hibernation in the winter. The bears emerge from winter quarters probably in the latter part of April or the first part of May and spend the spring season high in the mountains, where they feed largely on grass, roots, and ground squirrels. They appear to prefer the lofty ledges and snow patches on which to lie and doze during the day. Late in June they begin to go to the lowlands and in July are found congregated about the salmon streams where these fish are coming up to spawn. During the summer the salmon form an important item on their bill of fare. In going to and from favorite feeding places the bears have worn deep trails across the tundra and over the marshes. ‘These are interest- ing indications of the presence of the bears and are often used by travelers. (Author’s abstract.)—The subject was discussed by C. H. Merriam, who mentioned Dr. T. H. BEAn’s experience with these bears in Alaska; also by C. W. Stites, who spoke of a form of pernicious anaemia occurring in man from the eating of salmon. A very similar disease is found in the bear, and it is possible that the bear acts as a reservoir for the germs of this disease. 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 C. E. Cuamstiss, Bureau of Plant Industry: An wnused southern wild food plant.—There is a large acreage of wild rice (Zizania palustris) on the Atlantic Coastal Plain which supplies food for millions of wild ducks and many other marsh-loving birds. In this area this grass grows on the mud flats and low marsh land that border the tidal streams above brackish water. The seed of this plant should be gathered by the seedsmen of these southern States to supply the needs of the southern hunter, who at present can obtain seed only of the northern species of wild rice (Zizania aquatica). The hunter buys this seed at 80 cents per pound to sow in localities remote from tidal marshes to attract wild ducks and to supply them with one of their favorite foods. The northern species matures too early in the southern states to serve as shelter for game birds, and in this section it is also less productive than the southern species. Besides supplying food for our game birds, this southern wild plant should also be used as a source of food for man. The aborigines of the Coastal Plain of the South Atlantic States probably never used this plant, or the value of wild rice seed as a food would have been brought to the attention of the early explorers to this coast, as it was to the first Europeans who went into the region of the upper Mississippi Valley. Here the white man found that among certain Indian tribes the seed of Zizania aquatica was one of the principal articles of diet. We are today indebted to the descendants of these Indians for the nutritious and very palatable parched wild rice that is obtain- able from our leading grocers and for the seed that is sought by hunters in every section of the United States. (Author’s abstract.) J. W. GipLey, National Museum: Fossil man associated with the mammoth in Florida: New evidence of the antiquity of man in America.—The published reviews and opinions expressed by various authorities regarding the dis- coveries, a few years ago near Vero, Florida, reported by Dr. E. H. SELLARDs, were reviewed. These show a wide difference of opinion between the anthro- pologists and paleontologists regarding the contemporaniety of early man with a Pleistocene fauna in Florida, the former believing that the association of material as reported by Sellards is an unnatural one. Discoveries near Melbourne, about 40 miles north of Vero, made by the Amherst-Smithsonian Expedition of last summer seem to refute this, and to confirm in general Sellard’s views regarding the general geology of the region and of the associa- tion of remains of man with those of a Pleistocene fauna, which he considered a natural one. Three important localities were examined in the Melbourne district, all showing similar conditions of deposition and geologic position. The Vero district was also revisited. The general conclusions reached as a result of the Amherst-Smithsonian Expedition are that the human remains located belong to the geologic levels in which they were found, and are not the result of later inclusions from the surface through human burials or otherwise; that the human bones and artifacts represent a people contemporaneous with the mammoths and mastodons with whose remains they were found asso- ciated, but that the general geologic conditions as interpreted suggest a relatively recent date, either late Pleistocene or even post-Pleistocene, for the extinction of the last survivor of the Pleistocene fauna in the south. (Author’s abstract.)—The subject was discussed by N. M. Jupp, who stated that the human remains described cannot be more than 2,000 years old, basing his remarks on the similarity existing between these remains and those known from the Mississippi Valley. C.H. Mxrrrtam considered that the evidence now available made it clear that man was in existence in Florida in the Pleisto- cene, or else that the mammoth and associated mammals lived on into the present age. JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY dll 687TH MEETING The 687th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 30, 1926 at 8:10 _p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 106 persons present. New members elected: W. H. Batu, H. L. Stropparp. T. S. PatmMEeR made an announcement of the Sixth International Ornitho- logical Congress, to be held at Copenhagen May 24-29. This is the first held since 1910. HERBERT W. Branpt, Cleveland: A naturalist in Alaska (illustrated).— With representatives of the Biological Survey and the Field Museum, the speaker spent the spring of 1925 in Alaska in the study of the native birds and mammals. Leaving Nenana on March 21, they travelled 800 miles by dog team down the Yukon and established headquarters at Hooper Bay in late April, after 40 days’ travel. The Esquimaux of that region are a very primitive race, having almost no contact with whites. Their clothing is made entirely from the skins of birds, and they subsist on fish, birds and eggs, and seal. They are very fond of tea and tobacco. They are very accurate observers of birds, and base their names for them almost entirely on their calls and songs. About the middle of May the snow began to disappear, and soon spring arrived, heralded by the geese. The first eggs (those of Western Sandpiper) were found on May 26, and soon birds were nesting freely. Birds were abundant, and all those collected were very fat. Many sing on the wing, but the song period is short, lasting only a week or 10 days. The different groups of birds observ ed—geese, ducks, sandpipers, plover, cranes, ptar- migan, jaegers, gulls, and others—were described and illustrated by colored slides. lt was a “lemming year,’ and snowy owls remained to feed upon them and nest. They lay 6 to 9 eggs, at intervals of 2 or 3 days, and begin to incubate at once, so that the young in a nest present all stages of growth. The earliest nester is the Alaskan Jay, which lays from February to April, when the temperature is far below zero. A. 8. Hrrcucock, Bureau of Plant Industry: The grasses of Alaska: their distribution and relationship (illustrated) —Alaska has four main physio- graphic areas: (1) The forested area of southeastern Alaska, which extends along the coast about to Kodiak Island, characterized by high rainfall and moderate temperatures; (2) interior Alaska including the valley of the Yukon and its tributaries west to the Yukon delta, characterized by sparse rainfall, extremes of temperature and rather open forests on the lower land; (3) the treeless region of west Alaska, including the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands and most of the Seward Peninsula, consisting on the lower levels Fay of tundra; and (4) Arctic Alaska, including the drainage into the Arctic cean. Many species of grasses have a wide distribution outside of Alaska. Sev- eral Arctic species are circumpolar; the species of southeast Alaska often extend south to the Puget Sound region; the species of the interior extend over Canada and southward in the Rocky Mountains. Several species found in the lowlands of Alaska extend southward in the mountains and in the United States are alpine plants. Trisetum spicatum is common near sea level in Alaska and the circumpolar area, but as an alpine plant extends southward in the mountains through North America into the high Andes, and finally in Terra del Fuego descends to the lowlands again; in the eastern hemisphere it extends south to the Himalayas, Tasmania, and the Antarctic regions. Calamagrostis canadensis is a common marsh species in the northern United States; in Alaska it is the dominant grass of the interior. As in all northern 312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 11 countries the grasses are chiefly of the tribes Festuceae, Agrostideae, Aveneae, and Hordeae; while the great tribes Paniceae, Andropogoneae, and Chlorideae are not represented or scarcely so. An anomalous case of distribution is shown by Sphenopholis obtusata, which is abundant around Tanana Hot Springs below Fairbanks. Here is an area of several acres where the soil is kept warm by numerous hot springs. At this spot are found many plants of regions far to the south and not other- wise known from Alaska. The nearest known locality for the grass men- tioned, south British Columbia, is about 1500 miles to the southeast. (Author’s abstract.) 688TH MEETING The 688th regular meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club February 13, 1926 at 8:05 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 63 persons present. New member: F. A. VARRELMAN. A. WETMORE reported that the long-eared owl which was common 30 or 40 years ago 1s now rare in this vicinity. In company with Messrs. McAtee and Preble, he found a dead bird near here about five years ago. A specimen collected in January of this year by E. B. Marshall of Laurel has recently been sent to the Museum. This bird collects in small bands in the winter, and is decidedly unsuspicious. Its growing scarcity is no doubt due i its being shot by hunters. A. 8. HiTcHcock gave an account of the life of Aimé Bonpland, who accom- panied HuMBo.LpT on his South American and Mexican trip. C. W. Stites and M. B. Orteman, U. 8S. Public Health Service: An attempt to untangle man and the higher apes.—The nomenclature of Man, the African Chimpanzees, the Malayan Orang-utans, the Barbary Ape, and the Macaques, is an extremely confused status, not only in general literature but also (except for Homo sapiens) in that of systematic mammalogy, medical zoology, bacteriology, and public health. Specialists in mammalogy have referred the complications to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature for special action under ‘‘Suspension of the Rules,” but the data submitted were not complete. The present article reviews the subject from 1551 to date, and the conclusion is reached that the premises present not only a very confused condition in systematic zoology but also one which potentially involves the loss of human life because of the danger of erroneous application of experimental data in bacteriological and serological literature. According to our interpretation of the International Rules: (a) the correct specific name of the chimpanzee is satyrus Linn., 1758; (b) under one inter- pretation Simia 1758 is the correct generic name for the chimpanzee, while Macaca 1799 is the generic name for the Barbary ape, and Sizlenus 1820 is the generic name for the macaques (not including the Barbary ape); (c) under another interpretation, Simia 1758 should be used for the Barbary ape, while the chimpanzee should be known either as Theranthropus 1828 (a sale catalogue name) or as Chimpansee 1831; (d) Pongo pygmaeus 1760 is the correct name for the Malayan orang-utan now usually known as Sima satyrus. Obviously, the case must be reopened by the International Commission to. decide between (b) and (c) at least. The confusion of Simia, Sima satyrus, and Pithecus, is so extreme in systematic zoology and in medical publications that we despair of any out- look to make their use uniform and we are persuaded that zoologists should not assume the responsibility for what might result in bacteriological, sero- logical, and public health work, if these cases are judged solely as questions JUNE 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 313 to be settled under the Law of Priority. We agree with specialists in mam- malogy that an application of the rules will ‘produce greater confusion than uniformity,” but we hold that the proposition advanced by the mammalogists ’ would result in preserving ambiguous names and would not meet the de- siderata for public health laboratories. We offer an alternative proposition which appears to us to obviate all chances of ambiguity, namely, that (1-5) under the “Plenary Power” lodged in the International Commission— 1. The technical systematic names Szmia, Simia satyrus, and Pithecus be declared suppressed and as eliminated from further use in connection with any genus or species in zoology; 2. Theranthropus 1828 be suppressed, because of inevitable difference of opinion as to its availability; 3. Chimpansee 1831 be adopted as official generic name for the African Chimpanzees, and the name be included in the “Official List.”’ 4. The specific name chimpanse 1856 be declared type species of Chim- pansee 1831,—thus giving a tautonymic combination similar to Gorilla gorilla. 5. The generic name Macaca 1799, type inuus = sylvanus 1758, be de- clared valid and be inserted in the Official List of Generic Names. 6. Finally, that the generic name Pongo 1799, type borneo= pygmaeus 1760, be inserted in the list of Official Names as correct name for the Malayan orang-utans under the Rules. In analyzing the causes of the confusion in zoological nomenclature, the primary and most important factor, in our opinion, is the lack of proper instruction in the principles and practices of nomenclature (1.e., the Grammar of Science). Students too often have to flounder around amid a chaos of technical names without being told why these names are used or how to use them. The remedy consists in teaching the Grammar of Science to persons who later have to speak and write the Language of Science. (Author’s abstract.)—Discussed by C. H. Merriam and T. 8. PALMER. K. R. Kaumpacnu, Biological Survey: Blackbirds vs. rice in Louisiana.— This paper reviews a season’s work devoted to a study of an interesting problem in economic ornithology. Blackbirds, particularly Agelazus phoeni- ceus subsp. and Megaquiscalus m. macrourus, exact a more or less regular annual toll from the rice grower situated near the southern border of the rice area. This damage often becomes serious for farmers close to the coastal marshes, necessitating protective or control measures. Work carried out from the end of April to the end of September indicated that successful control work could not be carried out during that period of food abundance. Addi- tional work is planned for March and April of this year when better results against the troublesome local race of blackbirds is expected. Migrants from the north, present on the Gulf Coast in great numbers during late fall and winter, do not enter so forcibly into the problem of rice damage, which is most ‘pronounced during the ‘milk’ and “dough” stages of the crop. (Author’s abstract.) 689TH MEETING The 689th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 27, 1926 at 8:10 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 53 persons present. New members elected: Stuart T. Danrortu, F. C. Horrss, Pau H. OEHSER. The Secretary read the report of the Committee on Constitution and By- 314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ Vol. 16, No. 11 laws, to be acted on by the Society four weeks later. The report was discussed by the President. C. W. Gitmorg, National Museum: Remarks on fossil tracks from the Grand Canyon (illustrated).—The speaker described a trip to the Grand Canyon, Arizona, undertaken for the duel purpose of ‘securing a collection of fossil tracks for the U. S. National Museum, and of preparing an exhibit of the tracks in situ for the National Park Service. The tracks occur in the Cocon- ino sandstone (Permian), at a level more than 1,000 feet below the present rim of the Canyon wall, where the famous Hermit trail crosses the sandstone on its descent into Hermit Basin. Both of the above-mentioned projects - were successfully carried out, a collection of slabs of footprints some 1.700 pounds in weight was secured for the National collections, and a track- covered area several hundred square feet in extent was uncovered by the side of the trail to form a permanent exhibit of the tracks as they occur in nature. It was pointed out that all of these tracks are found on the inclined surface which make up the strong cross-bedding of the sandstone, and that with one exception all of the bundreds of tracks and trails observed were headed up the slope. No satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been obtained. It was pointed out that the Ichnite fauna of the Coconino sand- stone as now known consists of 8 genera and 10 species, representing both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. All of the vertebrates were quad- rupedal in gait, and all were relatively small, probably representing the two classes Reptilia and Amphibia. No skeletal remains have yet been found in the Coconino sandstone, consequently no direct evidence can be offered as to the makers of any of these tracks. (Awthor’s abstract.) Discussed by Davip Wuitz, who referred to the recent calculations of the age of the earth based on the rate of atomic disintegration of radio active minerals. According to these calculations, the age of Permian deposits is put at 450,000,000 to 600,000,000 years and of some Precambrian rocks at 1,500,000, 000 years. Waxpo L. Scumipt, National Museum: Col'ecting invertebrates in South America (illustrated).—The speaker spent six months, from August, 1925, to January, 1926, in a field study of the South American crustacean fauna, under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship administered by the Smith- sonian Institution. This bequest was made by the late Mrs. Viremia Purpy Bacon, of Detroit, in memory of her son to enable studies to be made of the fauna of countries other than the United States. Nearly three months were spent collecting along the Brazilian coast, in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and southward. Stations were established at Santos, Ilha Sao Sebastiéo, where in company with Dr. H. LUEDERWALDT of the Museu Paulista at S40 Paulo, a most profitable ten days field work was spent, Paranagua, Sao Francisco ‘and Florianopolis. One trip was made inland to Castro, in the State of Paranda, for the purpose of obtaining speci- mens of a carcinological rarity, Aeglea intermedia, which here was found to occur in great abundance. Blumenau in the State of Santa Catharina, long the home of Fritz Mueller, was also visited. Here are yet to be found the ‘““primitive’’ microscopes with which he made all of his wonderful microscopic observations. At the Museu Paulista, in Sao Paulo, their very considerable and valuable collection of unidentified crustacea was lent for further labor- atory study in Washington. The collections of the Brazilian National Museum were examined while at Rio de Janeiro. In Uruguay about seven weeks were spent, chiefly at Montevideo, and in trips with the steam trawlers working out of that port. Calls were made at JUNE 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 315 Puerto La Paloma, Maldonado, and Barro de Santa Lucia. At Montevideo, the Instituto de Pesca maintains a well equipped fisheries laboratory. The National Museum, in view of the wealth of that country, where the American dollar is at a discount, should have a new independent building instead of being housed in a portion of the Teatro Solis building. At Buenos Aires the first year’s field work was brought to conclusion with an examination of the extensive crustacean collections here brought together by the Buenos Aires Museum. Permission was granted to take a selected. series back to Washington. The excellence of the collections of these forms is in a measure due to a system of subsidizing fishermen, and providing them with suitable collecting kits. A visit was also paid to the famous museum at La Plata where, in addition to their marvelous exhibit of fossil vertebrates, other zoological collections are maintained. Here too, the carcinological collections were most generously tendered for study in Washington. (Author’s abstract.) | S. F. Buaks, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. JOHANNES ScumiptT, Director of the Carlsberg Physiological Labora- tory will give an address under the joint auspices of the AcapEmy, the Smith- sonian Institution, the Carnegie Institution, and the Biological Society at the National Museum on Friday, June 4, on the Danish oceanographical expe- ditions: eel investigations. The address will be illustrated by film and lantern slides. At a meeting of the American Institute of Chemists, held in New York on May 8, Dr. Witi1am Buvum of the Bureau of Standards was awarded the Institute’s first annual medal for ‘‘Distinguished Service in Governmental Work.” Dr. C. E. Munror made the presentation address. Dr. Bium responded with an address on Science for humanity’s sake. Professor H. H. Bartuett, Director of the Botanical Garden of the Uni- versity of Michigan, visited the Grass Herbarium to identify some fragments - of grasses and other economic plants excavated from Graeco-Roman sites in Egypt by Professor A. E. Boax, of the University of Michigan. Professor BarTLETT has been appointed honorary collaborator of the Smithsonian Institution and will collect in Formosa and Sumatra on behalf of the two institutions mentioned. GS OF THE ACADEMY AND 2 under the joint auspices of the AcapEmy, Smithso- Danish oceanographical expeditions—eel investigations. Thy the meeti 128 of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if the th d the twenty-seventh day of each month, os” > — + SS eee ee tec e.g Bs Fea Nd eS Me 7 f ~ AX aby we ste s ‘a ™ ie? A ee ew ae 9 A Ss wy ORIGINAL Soe | President: GEORGE K. Burasss, Bureau of Standards. : Corresponding gietase FRANCIS B. SILsBEE, Bureau of . a Aree ty Et eb Meera Vol. 16 JUNE 19, 1926 No. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucuiy AGNES CHasE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwzr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stose BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R, F. Griaes J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MO BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mt. Royran aND GUILFORD AVES. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy | JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 16 JUNE 19, 1926 No. 12 STATISTICS.—The frequency distribution of scientific productinty. ALFRED J. LoTKA. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York. | It would be of interest to determine, if possible, the part which men of different calibre contribute to the progress of science. Considering first simple volume of production, a count was made of the number of names, in the decennial index of Chemical Abstracts 1907-1916, against which appeared 1, 2,3... . entries. Names of firms (e.g. Aktiengesellschaft, etc.) were omitted from reckoning, since they represent the output, not of a single individual, but of an unknown number of persons. The letters A and B of the alphabet only were covered. ‘These were treated both separately and in the - aggregate, with the results shown in the table and in figures 1 and 2 below. A similar process was also applied to the name index of Auerbach’s Geschichtstafeln der Physik (J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1910) which cover the entire range of history up to and including the year 1900. In this case we obtain a measure not merely of volume of productivity, but account is taken, in some degree, also of quality, since only the out- standing contributions find a place in this little volume, with its 110 pages of tabular text. The figures and relations thus obtained are shown in the table and in figures 1 and 2. On plotting the frequencies of persons having made 1, 2, 3. contributions, against these numbers 1,2,3. . . . of contributions, both variables on a logarithmic scale, it is found that in each case the | points are rather closely scattered about an essentially straight line having a slope of approximately two to one. The approach to this ratio is particularly close in the case of the data taken from Auerbach’s 317 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12. TABLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTIVITY i | NUMBER OF PERSONS MAKING STATED NUMBER OF CONTRIBUTIONS NUMBER OF CONTRIBU- TIONS n | Letter Letter A B Chemical Abstracts Total | 1,543 | 5,348 | 6,891 1 890 | 3,101 2 230 | 829 3 ft | 92882 4 58 | 229 5 A, 248 6 42 89 7 20 93 8 24 61 9 21 43 10 15 50 11 9 32 12 11 36 13 26 14 21 15 18 16 20 17 14 18 14 19 14 20 21 22 23 24 i) ~j SOrFOoOorFOQOOOFRWOONNNFRWORRNOTOWH Kh RW A OE eS WOWrH RSH OWWWWaIDwaNIID SO pm RP CO CS OO 3,991 1,059 493 287 184 131 113 85 64 65 41 47 32 28 21 24 18 — BPNWRRFRrOR DW WNT OO CO OO © OC OO Auer- bach’s tables entire alphabet CSCOOCOOFOCOOFOOCOOFOOFONWOWFOOFWwWaOaArR RN ON &D Observed B 57.68 | 57.98 14.91 | 15.50 7.19 | 7.14 3.76 | 4.28 Ze GO, ed Zeke 1.66 130) aA 1.56 1.14 1367) "O:80 0.97 0.93 04:58.) 0260 0.71 0.67 0.39 | 0.49 0.45 | 0.39 0.19 0.34 OF26) | NOow, 0.26°) 0.26 0.32 | 0.26 0.19 | 0.26 0.39 | 0.15 — One OSs Only O:2602 0507 0.26 | 0.07 — 0.17 OOF Orit 0.06] 0.18 0.13} 0.15 OFS Oe 0.138 | 0.09 — 0.06 a 0.06 0.19 | 0.06 0.06 | 0.06 — 0.02 = 0.02 0.06 | 0.06 ra 0.06 0.06 | 0.02 — 0.02 Chemical Abstracts A’-+ Bo) Ae SN es ee PER CENT OF TOTAL Com- puted! 57.92 | 56.69 15.37 | 15.32 7.15) ae 4.16 | 4.14 2.67 | 2072 1.90 | a2 1.64 | 1.44 1.23 | v2 0.93 | 0.90 0.94 | 0.73 0.59 | 0.61 0.68 | 0.52 0.46 | 0.45 0:41 S039 0.30 | 0.34 0.35 |} 0.30 0.26 | 0.27 0.28 | 0.24 0.25; 0.22 0.20; 0.20 0.13 | 0.18 0.16)" Oz 0.12 | Oma 0.12; 0.14 0.13 | O.f8 0.135 |> O22 0.12: Oral 0.15 | 0.11 0.12°)* 0210 0.10.) (0209 0.04 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.01 Ob- served Auerbach’s tables Com- puted? Entire alphabet 59.17 15.40 9.58 3.77 2.49 2d 1.43 1.43 0.45 0.53 0.45 0.53 0.30 0.30 0.38 0.23 0.23 60.79 15.20 6.75 3.80 2.43 1.69 1.24 0.95 0.75 0.61 0.50 0.42 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.24 0.21 JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 319 TABLE 1—ContTINveED. NUMBER OF PERSONS MAKING STATED PER CENT 4 NUMBER OF CONTRIBUTIONS Se One: NUMBER Dae Ta ei ss oo Le eee OF Chemical Abstracts Auerbach’s tables oS ape Chemical Abstracts UC areata os ee rce gt ical tables Observed reir Pac ae eee entire pA as ers Ce veer Peter 5A B a eae A B A+B | A+B | Entire alphabet 42 0 2 2 0 — 0.04 0.03 43 0 0 0 0 — == == 44 0 3 3 0 — 0.06 0.04 45 0 4 4 0 — 0.07 0.06 46 A 1 2 0} 6.06 | 0.02;|' 0.08 47 OF 3 3 o| — 0.06 | 0.04 48 0 0 0 2 -- — — 49 0 ft 1 —- 0.02 0.01 50 Tf if Zz, 0.06 0.02 0.03 51 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01 52 0 Z, Z, — 0.04 |} 0.03 an 0 2 2h — 0.04! 0.03 54 0 2 a —- 0.04 0.03 ne Zz, iL 3 0.13 0.02 0.04 56 0 0 0 — — — 57 0 1 1 = 0.02 | 0.01 58 0 1 il — 0.02 0.01 59-60 0 0 0 —_— — — 61 0 2 2 —- 0.04 | 0.038 62-65 0 0 0 == — — 66 0 1 1 — 0.02} 0.01 67 0 0 0 — = — 68 0 2 2 — 0.04} 0.03 69-72 0 0 0 — — — cle 0 1 1 ~- 0.02 0.01 74-77 0 0 0 — — — 78 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01 79 0 0 0 — —_ — 80 t 0 if 0.06 — 0.01 81-83 0 0 0 — — — 84 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01 85-94 0 0 0 — — — 95 0 { 1 —_— 0.02 0.01 96-106 0 0 0 — — — 107 1 0 t 0.06 = 0.01 108 0 0 0 — — — 109 0 1 1 — 0.02 0.01 110-113 0 0 0 —_— — — 114 0 il 1 — 0.02 0.01 115-345 0 0 0 — — — 346 1 0 al 0.06 = 0.01 1 According to f = 56.69/n1:888, ? According to f = 600/z?n?. 320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 tables. Determined by least squares, the slope of the curve to Auer- bach’s data, as determined from the first 17 points,: was found to be 2.021 + 0.017. Similarly, the slope for the data in the Chemical Abstracts, letters A and B jointly, as determined from the first thirty points, came out as 1.888 + 0.007. ‘The general formula for the rela- tion thus found to exist between the peyeney y of persons making x contributions is sy = const (1) For the special case that n = 2 (inverse square law of scientific pro- ductivity) the value of the constant in (1) is found as follows: c I= LP (2) c 4 Oe 92 (3) ¢ # 1 1 1) zy-c(h+atat.. . Shoeteeee ) she =¢2 : (6) 1 v ; I 2 =O% (7) be ely (8) « Use il But, since y is a frequency, the summation > y gives unity. 1 Then finally f= 2 (9) 6 = 9.87 (10) = 0.6079 or 60.79 per cent (11) 1 Beyond this point fluctuations become excessive owing to the limited number of persons in the sample. * See, for example, K. Knopp, Theorie und Anwendung der unendlichen Reihen: 239, 1924 or J. L. Cootiper, Mathematical Theory of Probability: 22,1925. For method of summation when exponent is fractiona], see WHITTAKER and Ropinson Calculus of Observations: 136, 1924. Exponent 1.888 thus gives the value c = 0.5669 appearing at the top of ninth column in Table 1. JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 321 Thus, according to the inverse square law, the proportion of all contributors who contribute a single item should be just over 60 per cent. In the cases here examined the actual proportion of this class to the whole was 59.2 per cent in Auerbach’s data (1325 contributors), 57.7 per cent in the Chemical Abstracts under initial A (1548 contribu- tors) 57.98 under letter B (5348 contributors) and 57.9 under letters A and B daly (6891 contributors). 50 wm ro) 3 A0 Auerbach's Historical Tables < ==== Chemical Abstracts ae 0 ay seceeeeee Inverse Square Law oh Ga 2) G 30 O c oO 10 oo a alk el a fee = 1 2 5 9 10 Be of to: Fig. 1—Frequency diagram showing per cent of authors mentioned once, twice, etc., in Auerbach’s Geschichtstafeln der Physik, entire alphabet, and in the decennial index of Chemical Abstracts 1907-1916, letters A and B. The dotted line indicates frequencies computed according to the inverse square law. 100 ’ os in eel ee a eee | ae ea Seciuiiiii @ 60> | ee GE PoE DEEPER, 1S awe eS MAGUGGIAIIAI 30 Seen Carentan aii fl AT | mm) | DE PEI a one NAMROGNOIIGI LT aie cic tN EECA See A CEEEENS ST ee S| Ba rc Red 031 Sesmmemae el a ee I " ol aD . 5 678910 15 i S Se of Mentions Percent of Authors Fig. 2.—Logarithmic frequency diagram showing number of authors mentioned once, twice, etc., in Auerbach’s tables (points indicated by crosses), and in Chemical Ab- stracts, letters A and B (points indicated by circles). The fully drawn line indicates points given by inverse square law, exponent = 2; the line of dashes corresponds to exponent 1.89. 322 JUNE 19, 1926 LOTKA: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTIVITY 323 Frequency distributions of the general type (1) have a wide range of applicability to a variety of phenomena,’ and the mere form of such a distribution throws little or no light on the underlying physical rela- tions. The fact that the exponent has, in the examples shown, approximately the value 2 enables us to state the result in the following simple form: In the cases examined it is found that the number of persons making 2 contributions is about one-fourth of those making one; the number making 3 contributions is about one-ninth, etc.; the number making n contributions is about - of those making one;* and the proportion, of all contributors, that make a single contribution, is about 60 per cent. The fact that two such widely different sources as Chemical Ab- stracts (listing practically all current work in chemistry over a ten year period) and Auerbach’s tables (listing selected important con- tributions only, in physics, for all historical time) give very similar results, seems somewhat remarkable. It would be interesting to extend this study to such a work as Darmstaedter’s Handbuch der Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik. Unfortu- nately the index of this work does not indicate multiple entries of the same year under one author’s name, but distinguishes only separately dated entries. It would therefore be necessary in each case to refer to the text. On the other hand the work could be abridged by restrict- ing the inquiry to one or two letters of the alphabet, as was here ore in the case of the Chemical Abstracts. 3 Compare especially Corrapo Grint, Biblioteca dell’ Economista, ser. 5a, 20: Indici dz concentrazione e di dipendenza. See also the Report of Commission of Housing and Regional Planning, State of New York, Jan. 11, 1926: 59-73; and Income in the United States, by W. I. Kine and others; 2: 344 et seq. 1922. 4C,. J. Wiuuts’ conclusions aes ae the mechanism of evolution, inferred as they are from the occurrence of curves of this type in the relation between neers of species and genera, seem for this reason to carry little conviction. See A. J. Lotxa, Physical: Biology: 311. 1925. 5 Fortunately, however, there are somewhat more persons of very great productivity than would be expected under thissimple law. The very high figures (e.g., Abderhalden, 346 contributions in ten years) should perhaps be considered separately, since they are not the product of one person unassisted. Joint contributions have in all cases been credited to the senior author only. 324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 . GEOLOGY.—Geology of the Guanténamo Basin, Cuba. N. H. Darton, U. 8. Geological Survey.. During the Spring of 1916 I had the opportunity to examine the Guaso Valley and some of the surrounding ridges in the central part of Oriente District, Cuba, in the general vicinity of Guantanamo. The purpose of my visit was to ascertain the prospects for artesian water desired for irrigation by one of the large sugar companies and for this it was necessary to determine the stratigraphic succession and structure of the region. As there is nothing on record regarding these features and I also obtained some important paleontologic data it is believed that the results will be of interest. It was supposed that much of the area was covered by a tropical jungle but I found that exposures were extensive and while roads were not good, nearly all points could be reached easily on horse. TOPOGRAPHY As shown in the map, figure 1, the Guantanamo basin is a broad valley sloping to the south where it is flooded by tide water of the Bay of Guantanamo and the Ensefiada de Joa. The valley heads to the north in a high ridge called Sierra Guaso and is bordered on the east by Sierra Maquay? and in part on the west, by Sierra Cafiada. It is about 25 miles long and 15 miles wide. Much of the area is smooth or gently undulating but to the northward there are low terraced ridges between the shallow valleys of the streams. These streams head in the highlands to the north and northwest and flow south in nearly parallel courses to tide water. Guantanamo River, which rises far to the northwest, flows across the southeastern corner of the basin and empties into Guantdnamo Bay near its mouth. The streams nearly all have steep banks 5 to 40 feet high, and most of them are deepening their channels into the rocks. But little alluvium is being deposited excepting in the bays and estuaries below tide water level. THE ROCKS General succession.—The oldest formation in the region consists of schists and other crystalline rocks which constitute the ridge on the sea shore at the Naval Station and the central and northern part of Sierra Guaso. I did not study these rocks but they appear to be simi- t Received May 11, 1926. 2 Named from shells and not from the Maguey plant. 325 GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN DARTON JUNE 19, 1926 a: Ny ALS p= age eee 52 {% | io, sae Tepe = eS 1 ; \ i ; . nN SS ; Nees ; eee OA NS Sk ] \ ea Vee ail “i NN Nn ae gers TK par tee oA te eu < | =) \ ease % R | ‘ Ns ‘ \ See el DAA NSC rt 14 hes | E- - sy i ~ ‘ fe ‘ 1 ; Uh APS SS NO em ON a) et 4, We 1m ON 3} pis | CME MU AN } oi foe | Mi, “An! oe AT reper y, ee a a iy ere H | a A: D | yp | ey ee i, eo Fe yi a a ae lal OAS geese lt ' ' eX ! OS | i (| thon : baci, (} oX ee ch le alll a ' gl le SI Poa B NEN ys, \ : Se A | ) | ; ey wey a ‘ ( Ni (os 9 cs ) ( Mae des, se YY NX ‘ : ‘us on Ay ly) \ | Femi Soe Vy NA ey y, \| | (re eel UA Gea aa a Coa ea aN hes 2 oe ae | ~ SSM eee ake = 7 7 | a" ee ae ae: Cal he iy, “se Vn ys WALA RiO Jaiho s : fe oat good Oe ee Ea WA v isi we = x » imenera wCa : Miles : 2 ~ any) AC ay ( v\ \ th ° ious sources, Wi iled from var anamo region comp —Sketch map of the Guantd 1 Fig. additions by N. H. Darton. 326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 lar to those in the Santiago de Cuba region and in the ridge on the north side of the island. It seems possible that they may be of pre- — = ———— one = Tae ae me — | yee. \\s ray = 7 Ss EAA Stee = Ss SS SE Sse rae PS a a a er neo et ER EE = T= = == area ree SE ee ote Pee Soe EAE Saye ts eae oe nea ee cosa ene eas , a Cees —— —- eon «NW. Sierra Canada SSS S — = = y) les Scale: horizontal (eee es A, from north to south from Sierra Guaso to the Carribean Sea. Cambrian age but I have no evidence to offer on this point. | Sierra Guaso and Sierra Cafiada consist of limestone of Eocene age, several hun- dred feet thick, apparently lying on the schists, ete. and dipping under the basin at a moderate angle as shown in the sections in figure 2. This limestone is overlain by 4000 feet or more of shale, Sierra Maquay, the high ridge north of San Antonio, and the mesa region on both sides of the valley of the Rio Yateras. The general relations of these formations are shown in figure 2. Ter- race deposits of Quaternary i i in part sandy and including ' | i i 2 thin members of slabby sand- ill Ms stone, which underlies most Hh of the Guantanamo basin. ! : To the south at Caimanera We | and Boqueron this shale in- | = onal i ie = ¢ eludes thick deposits of brec- | | i = o cia and conglomerate, which i it | W ie § = appear to overlap to the Ht eiil Ss a 2 £ south on the schists at the H < i oe ae Z 2 € Naval Station. i atl “4 | va Se < The thick shale series Le o ve a = grades up into a succession Wi ii ae & 2 of limestones, sandstones, if Hi t 2 Me <£ and shales, 1000 feet or more / * i § 2% thick which constitute the sg 5 e BE % § = = 3 age occur in the Guantdénamo basin and along the sea margin are ter- races of coral, one very persistent one, the ‘‘Seboruco,” extending to tide level. JUNE 19, 1926 DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN 327 The Guaso limestone.—The principal limestone of the region consti- tutes the cuesta of Sierra Guaso. The most notable exposure is at the mouth of the cavern through which the Rio Guaso comes out of the ridge where there is a canyon with vertical walls 150 feet high consisting of a practically continuous body of massive, light bluish- gray limestone. A few impure beds are included, and at the mouth of the cavern a few feet of underlying buff sandstone are exposed. The dip here and all along the ridge is to the south at a low angle. I traveled through the cavern and made a trip northward part way across the sierra, but did not have opportunity to go to the crystalline rocks, which I learned were in its higher central part. In a trip through Cima to Rio Yateras about 10 miles northeast of Jamaica, I passed along the slope of the Sierra Guaso and found that the river comes through it in a deep gorge. In the flats along the stream are great quantities of bowlders of crystalline schists and intrusive rocks of many kinds, derived from the body which underlies the limestone. I collected fossils from the Guaso limestone at several places, which have been determined by Cushman and Vaughan.? The following were obtained from strata high in the limestone succession on the slope of Sierra Guaso northeast of Guanténamo (Loc. 7666 USGS). Conulites americana (Cushman) Discocyclina cubensis (Cushman) Vaughan Asteriacites subtaramellei (Cushman) Vaughan Lepidocyclina subraulinii (Cushman) Carpenteria proteus (Cushman) Linderina sp. According to Vaughan this fauna is ‘‘clearly Eocene, probably upper Kocene”’ a horizon which is widespread in Cuba and Haiti and appar- ently also present in Santo Domingo. | Guantanamo shale——The thick series of shale underlying the Guan- tanamo basin undoubtedly overlies the Guaso limestone and grades up into the series of limestones, sandstones, and shales constituting Sierra Maquay. This shale outcrops extensively throughout the basin for there is but little cover of surficial deposits. There are high bluffs of it along the Rio Guaso in the eastern part of Guantanamo, and there are 3 J. A. Cusuman, Fossil foraminifera from the West Indies: Carnegie Instn., Pub. 291. 21-71, pls. 1-15, 1919. , The American species of Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 125: 39-105, pls. 7-35, 1920. T. W. Vaucuan, American and European Tertiary larger foraminifera: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 35: 785-822, pls. 30-36, 1925. 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 many exposures of it along other streams. Apparently it extends far northwest up the Rio Bano Valley and westward, for I noted it along the railroad to San Luis, and to Jiguani where the underlying limestone comes up. Shale of the same character also outcrops at Antilla. The formation is well exposed in the wide flats about the Ensefiada de Joa, notably near Glorieta and on the railroad cuts south of that place toward Boqueron. The relations of this formation to the Guaso limestone were examined north of Guaso, near Cima, and at the foot of Sierra Cafiada. At all of these places there is perfect conformity, but an abrupt change from limestone to shale. Superposition of the latter is evident throughout. <—N. Sie wae G P80 oy huang y) SS Ry e < Cry Sig, 4 y / So ro poy, ng ala Piedra . } aw’ ip Sees. J Mil reg IOS y . a Cra = S=— == <= = —— SSS SS ==Es = “3 neg ines SS = ta Sp SS SS Se SS =| Ory Ti seas SSS Shale, gray Seale 1 mile Je Loey Dp SS —— == SS ites Sea, SS SS SS ce 2 OS ee eee (Fig. 3.—Section from Sierra Guaso southeastward through La Piedra. The thickness of the Guantdénamo shale is about 4,000 feet, judging by width of outcrops and scattered dip determinations. In a section passing through Guantanamo, as shown in Section B, figure 2, the dips average from 6 to 10 degrees in the western part of the basin and about 5 degrees in the eastern part. Near Cima, however, where the dips are about 10 to 12 degrees, the thickness either is considerably less, some of the beds are cut off by a fault, or the base of the overlying formation begins at a lower horizon. ‘The diminished thickness is shown in figure 3. The predominant material of the formation is brownish-gray shale in large part somewhat sandy and soft. Thin beds of brown to dirty gray sandstone occur at intervals, and thin beds of limestone appear at various horizons, especially near the middle of the formation. Some of the sandstone members are conspicuous in the town of Guantanamo and others at a lower horizon outcrop exten- sively on the east bank of the Rio Jaibo a few miles west of Guanta- namo. A 10-foot bed of coarse arkose was noted 4 miles southeast of Guantanamo underlying fine-grained sandy limestone and underlain by dark shale with thin layers of limestone. The dip here is N. E. 70°. Other thin beds of limestone are conspicuous about Jamaica and in the bed of Rio Guaso in the northwestern part of Guantanamo. JUNE 19, 1926 DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN 329 In general the material of the formation becomes finer grained to the north. The clay of this shale is the cause of the very muddy condition of the basin during the rainy season when most of the roads become impassable for vehicles. Some foraminifera were found in thin limestone lenses in the lower part of this formation at Cima northeast of Jamaica and in upper beds on the north slope of La Piedra. The latter were determined as follows by Cushman.‘ © Lepidocyclina schlumbergeri (Lemoine and Douvillé) Lepidocyclina marginata (Michelotti) Lepidocyclina sumatrensis (H. B. Brady) Carpenteria americana (Cushman) The specimen of Lepidocyclina morgani included in his list came from Jigue de la Argolla and Vaughan® on reéxamination of the collection believes that L. marginata and L. sumatrensis also came from other localities. Vaughan states that the name JL. dilatata of Michelotti has priority over L. schlumbergeri and he finds that the genus is also represented in the collection by a new stellate species, soon to be described, and several other species. He adds to the list the following: Orbulina? Sp. Globergerina sp. Amphistegina sp. Heterostegina sp. and a coral Orbicella imperatoris (Vaughan) Vaughan states that this fauna is either Oligocene, probably high Oligo- cene, or very low Miocene. An Aquitanian age is not improbable. Tiie coral Orbicella imperatoris indicates a high horizon. However, the fauna is a new one for the West Indies and it is probably for that reason that so few of the species can be identified. Conglomerate of Boqueron and Caimanera.—The ridge and bluffs at Boqueron and Caimanera consist of a thick deposit of coarse dark conglomerate that appears to be in the midst of the shale series. The Boqueron ridge shows about 50 feet of the rock in thick irregular beds, most of it loosely cemented, and dipping 8. E. at angles varying from 78° to 10°. Bowlders from 1 to 3 inches in diameter predominate ‘and they consist of quartzite and a considerable variety of diorites and other igneous rocks. Most of them are round, but some are angular 4 Op. eit, Prof. Paper 125. > Personal communication. 330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 and subangular. The following section shows the relations at this place. Fig. 4.—Section of bluff at Boqueron on Guanténamo Bay, Cuba. A bench or terrace on the west slope of the conglomerate ridge is occupied by an uplifted coral reef, but below this a dark sandy shale outcrops showing that the conglomerate is underlain by this material. Not far east of Boqueron are shales and sandstones which doubtless overlie the conglomerate and constitute the slopes of the west side of the southern extension of the Sierra Maquay. These shales are ex- posed in the deep railroad cuts along the bay shore between Boqueron and Glorieta. The conglomerate in the bluff at Caimanera, across the bay from Boqueron, is similar to the rock at the latter place and apparently part of the same deposit. The beds here dip north at an angle of 8 degrees, with strike toward Boqueron. At one locality in the southern part of Caimanera the conglomerate is seen to be underlain by sandy shale as at Boqueron. Possibly the conglomerate extends under the low land to the west, but I did not have opportunity to trace it. It is my belief that the deposit marks the course of a stream which flowed across the region when the muds constituting the shale that now underlies the basin were being deposited. A somewhat similar conglomerate was reported in a 1400-foot bor- ing a mile and a half south of Boqueron sunk for water in 1906 at the first location of the U. 8. Naval Station. The record was as follows: The first 141 feet was reported as mostly conglomerate some of which was termed “shale conglomerate” or “slate conglomerate.” Next below are 300 feet of shales with several thin beds of conglomerate, some of which are reported as “sand conglomerate’ and “‘lime con- glomerate.”’ Below 441 feet all was shale, of which the lower 90 feet were of lighter tint. A trace of coal was mentioned at 273 feet. As the dip is to the east and northeast in this vicinity the beds in this hole doubtless underlie the conglomerate exposed at Boqueron and Caimanera. The relation to the strata in the region farther south is not known because the structure was not ascertained. Shale out- crops on the east side of Hospital Key, with dip 8. 20°, and the rocks JUNE 19, 1926 DARTON: GEOLOGY, GUANTANAMO BASIN 331 about the U. 8. Naval Station dip north, facts which indicate a shallow syncline to the south with a low anticline between Hospital Key and the 1400 foot boring. Maquay formation: The prominent ridge known as Sierra Maquay consists of a suc- cession of sandstones and limestones over- lying the Guantanamo shale. These strata also constitute La Piedra and the ridge of which that feature is a part and they occupy a wide area in the high mesas and ridges east of Rio Yateras. There is considerable shale between the harder strata and appar- ently the succession of beds varies consider- ably from place to place. A basal member of about 40 feet of soft massive sandstone, with many hard layers 6 to 12 inches thick, appears in the lower slopes east of San An- tonio and is well exposed in a railroad cut about one-half mile east of that plazita. Next above are softer sandstones with intercalated beds of shale and limestone which extend south along the western front of Sierra Maquay and northwestward to La Piedra to- ward which they rise on a low dip. On the trail passing through the gap in Sierra Maquay east of Glorieta I found 400 feet or more of the light-gray massive shales extend- ing far up the slope to a thick cap of the gray slabby sandstones including thin beds of lime- stones, at the top of the ridge. ‘These beds dip east at a low angle and constitute the cuesta that slopes down toward Rio Yateras. The valley of this fine stream is a deep one with high mesas of Maquay formation on its Shale 2'shale cong!” 80° =a = Shale, light 10° Conglomerate, shaleksand5I' |= = Shale 34' Conglomerate As Shale light Sthin’sd.congls’ 538° = Shale hard. 2 conals. vee Shale 66° Conglomerate, shales lime, 4’ = Rhale a ; = pp domete attest 1 rae Shal@, 37° Conglomerate. 3° Shale. 42’ Conglomerate. 3* Shale, 869° mi Me | | it | | i i i Shale, | ight-gray, 90° \ 5 Fig. 5.—Record of deep boring 13 miles south of Bo- queron, Cuba. east side and it becomes a canyon a short distance south of the point at which the trail reaches it east of Glorieta. At a locality called El Jigue de la Argolla about 2 miles northeast of San Antonio fossil echinoids, called ‘‘estrellas’” by the people, have been obtained by Mr. Charles Ramsden of Guantdnamo. Some of 332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 these kindly furnished by Mr. Ramsden have been determined as follows by Dr. Jackson :° EKchinolampas anguillae (Cotteau) Clypeaster concavus (Cotteau) Clypeaster placentoides, new species The first two of these species were noted by Vaughan in Anguilla and they have also been reported from Antigua, in beds regarded as middle Oligocene and lower Miocene and while ‘‘the evidence is incon- clusive’? Vaughan is inclined to regard the echini at El Jigue de la Argolla as lower Miocene probably near the Anguilla horizon and the same as that on the north slope of La Piedra. An echinoid obtained by Mr. Ramsden from Mount Toro, north- west of Guantanamo is a new species of Clypeaster. Another speci- men collected by Mr. Ramsden from high on the slope of the valley of the Rio Yateras, 21 miles northeast of Guantdnamo, has been described by Jackson as a new species Cardiaster cubensis, and for some unac- countable reason assigned to the Cretaceous.® It is probable, however, that the strata at that locality are either upper Oligocene or lower Miocene. STRUCTURE Most of the data obtained as to structure of the region are set forth in the cross sections and the descriptions of the strata. ‘The general structure is a wide syncline opening to the east. Various minor undu- lations were noted but their relations could not be worked out in the limited time at my disposal. PETROLEUM No traces of petroleum were observed. While the prospects are not encouraging, some of the sandstone members in the lower part of the 300 feet or more of the Guantanamo shale might possibly contain this material. §’R. T. Jackson, Fossil Echini of the West Indies: Carnegie Instn., Pub. 306, 1922. 7 Personal communication from manuscript in preparation. 8 R. T. JAcKSON, op. cit., pp. 5, 12, 69-70, G. Steranin1, Relations between American and European Tertiary Echinoid faunas: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 35: 845-846, 1925, ques- tions this assignment to the Cretaceous and suggests that the age is Miocene. JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS 333 ARTESIAN WATER It seems unlikely that the sandstone members in the shale series under Guantdnamo basin contain any large amount of water that would rise to or above the surface. These members are thin, mostly muddy and have very small outcrop areas but it is possible that in some places they might afford alocal supply. It seems likely however, that there is some chance for water in the conglomerate near the Naval Station. where the coarse deposits probably abut against the schists. It is also possible that if the 1400-foot hole south of Boqueron had been deeper it might have reached coarse beds containing water. BOTANY.—WNew species of cotton plants from Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. O. F. Cook and J. W. Hupsarp, Bureau of Plant Industry.? A brief visit was made in December, 1925, to northwestern Mexico to study the native cottons and rubber-producing plants. In the vicinity of Guaymas two localities were visited where Gossypium _davidsoni grew in abundance along dry washes and in open shrubby vegetation, much as Thurberia grows in Arizona. Also several forms of the native door-yard cottons were obtained at Guaymas and in the Yaqui Valley, at Esperanza, Cocorit, and Cajeme. Most of the data regarding the native cottons were obtained at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, between San Blas and Topolobampo. Several of the native species had been collected and a small planting made at Los Mochis by Dr. W. W. Morrill, formerly State Entomologist of Arizona, and more recently engaged in agricultural investigations in Mexico. Dr. Morrill had observed a wide range of differences among the native cottons, and invited us to make a botanical study of the collection that he had grown at Los Mochis. Also he suggested that we stop at Guaymas and in the Yaqui Valley, to see the other types of native cottons that he had noted in those districts. The classification of the species of Gossypium presents several difficulties that are not apparent on the surface, but are more appre- ciated as wider knowledge and experience are gained. One of the chief difficulties is that the cotton plants and their relatives have a protean flexibility of response to different conditions of growth. Such changes of characters often extend beyond any reasonable prospect of associat- ing the members of the same progeny, if the origin of the seed is not 1 Received May 5, 1926. 334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 definitely known. ‘The size of the plants, the habits of growth, the forms, textures and surfaces of the leaves and involucral bracts; the sizes and shapes of the bolls, numbers of locks, and even the seed and lint characters, have been profoundly altered in some of the cottons brought from tropical countries, when planted for the first time in the United States. Other difficulties in classification arise from differences of age and of seasonal or cultural conditions, complicated also by the variability and diversity that are usually to be found in the leaves and other organs of the same individual plant. The juvenile leaves are different from the adult leaves, the stalk leaves different from the branch leaves, and the sun leaves different from the shade leaves. ‘Thus a very wide range of sizes, forms and textures of leaves, bracts, and bolls, may be found on any large plant. Yet with side by side comparisons of living plants and judicious selection of material, it becomes possible to recognize and formulate contrasting characters. Without such comparisons the characters remain too indefinite and intangible to be used for purposes of diagnosis. Much of the herbarium material of Gossypium has been sasemnialee: with no recognition or purpose of showing the distinctive characters of the species, and the association of such material into species is largely speculative or arbitrary. The usual herbarium specimen is a part of a fruiting branch with a flower, but showing little of the range of characters, even of the leaves and involucres. ‘The characters of the fresh unopened bolls, which afford some of the most distinctive fea- tures, are difficult to preserve, and usually disappear in the dried specimens. Finally, the task of classification is complicated by the wealth of plant types, whether species, varieties, or hybrids, of which it is neces- sary to take account. Missionaries and traders have carried cotton seed to remote regions, so that many of the primitive tribes have obtained commercial cottons which now are variously hybridized with the native kinds. In addition to the principal commercial species and their numerous varieties, there undoubtedly are hundreds, if not thousands, of appreciably different forms of cotton in cultivation among the primitive tropical peoples of both hemispheres. The conditions of existence for cotton plants no doubt were pro- foundly changed during the agricultura! period of human development, in prehistoric times. With the spread of the primitive agricultural people over the tropical world, the forest areas were restricted and the JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS 3390 species of cotton that previously had been isolated were brought together and allowed to hybridize. From the fact that cotton is not tolerant of shade, it may be inferred that the species were limited in their natural distribution to dry districts where other vegetation was sparse and open, either because the soil was too rocky or too sandy, or because the rainfall was too . limited or too irregular to support large trees or a dense growth of forest. ‘There may have been many separate areas where different wild species of cotton existed, and a few may still exist under conditions of natural isolation, like other wild plants. How many species there were, before the agricultural period, it may be impossible to determine, or to establish definitely the original asso- ciations of the characters. The recognition of species necessarily is provisional in our present state of knowledge, but at least the differ- ences that exist should be recognized, and the out-standing peculiarities that appear in the cotton plants of different regions should be recorded, as affording the best prospect of associating the characters correctly. Although most of the West-Mexican cottons are to be associated with Watt’s Section IV on account of the smooth seed, other charac- ters are remote from those of the Sea Island series. These differences include the presence of distinct angular teeth on the calyx, in some cases produced into slender points, that may even project beyond the buds. Another departure from the Sea Island series is in the form of the leaves, with the auricles very large, the sinus often completely closed and the lobes overlapping. In these respects there may be more affinity with some of the species of Watt’s Section III, species with fuzzy seed and free bracts. Yet these Mexican cottons may be asso- ciated with the Sea Island series in the broadest sense, since their seeds are fuzzy only at the base and their bracts are somewhat united. KEY TO MEXICAN COTTONS Outer nectaries located on the pedicel, below the receptacle, forming a narrow groove on a longitudinal ridge; large leaves of uprights with broad flat lobes, the margins often distinctly undulate Gossyprum hypadenum Outer nectaries located on the receptacle, in the sinus of the bracts; leaf- margins not undulate. Involucres open at the angles, the bracts small, oval, narrowed at the base, not auricled; pedicels swollen at the base, often slender, attaining more than 3 times the length of the mature bolls; fruiting branches short, usually of 1 or 2 slender internodes Gossypium patens 336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 — Involucres usually closed at the angles; bracts cordate, auricled or expanded at the base, below the point of attachment; pedicels stout and short, seldom exceeding the length of the boll. Bolls flat-sided, square or pyramidal, with no oil-glands over the sutures; the locks held compactly in the open bolls by numerous fibers attached to the carpel walls Gossypium contextum Bolls rounded in section; oil-glands not interrupted over the sutures; the cotton not held in the open bolls by fibers attached to the carpel walls Plants producing a vegetative and a fruiting branch from most of the nodes on the upper part of the stalk; these vegeta- tive branches horizontal, bearing many short fruiting branches; flowers white with large red _ petal-spots; bolls smooth, oblong-elliptic with a short abrupt nea le 2 as Caer eS aii ee ee Gossypium dicladum Vegetative branches confined to lower nodes, large and ascend- ing as secondary stalks; flowers white, with no petal- spots; bolls distinctly pitted, conic-ovoid, with a long OCUANANOLE DOLE 8b sos a ora pl Gossypium morrilli Gossypium hypadenum, new species Plants with strong, upright shoots attaining a height of about 10 feet in the first season. Very young stems and margins of the bracts slightly pilose, but all adult parts appearing entirely naked. Leaves of rather thin papery texture, light green, glabrescent, deeply cordate and auricled, entire or with 3 to 5 broadly triangular lobes, with long acuminate points, side lobes usually very short, often represented only by a tooth; callus red, even on young leaves; petioles held in erect or strongly ascending positions and at smaller angles to the blade than in other cot- tons; upper side of petiole with a sharp median crest or angle, more dis- tinct on the upper pulvinus, but running well down. Leaves of the up- right shoots attaining large size, with the margins undulate, or ruffled, contrasting with the flat surface; length of blade on midrib 17 em., on the auricles 22 cm., width 24 cm., petiole 24 cm.; auricles very large, often overlapping. Leaf nectaries usually 3, those on midveins much farther ‘up, often twice as far as those on the veins of the forelobes; stipules large and persistent. Involucral bracts large, flat, deeply cordate and auricled, with 7 to 9 large, gradually tapering teeth, longer than the body of the bract; auricles regularly united on the margins at base almost to their full width; color of bracts light fresh green, sometimes reddened on the exposed side; bract- lets not found; outer nectaries, along narrow groove, simulating leaf nectaries, and located far down on a ridge of the pedicel, rather than in a depression of the receptacle; inner nectaries broadly triangular; no distinct swelling of the receptacle around the end of the pedicel as in the usual cotton types, where the nectaries usually are placed, but a gradual tapering down from the bolls, more like Gossypium davidsonii; calyx with long slender teeth, tailed, often exceeding the bud. Flowers pale yellow, with no petal spots; stamens relatively few, with rather long filaments, anthers brownish, pollen very pale; stigma only slightly exserted. JUNE 19, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: COTTON PLANTS BBA Bolls rather small, elliptical, acuminate, 3-locked, with a band free of oil-glands along each suture, most of the oil glands being close to the fis- sures. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,604, collected at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Dec. 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard. Gossypium patens, new species A large branching shrub or small tree about 12 feet high, with trunk 3 or 4 inches in diameter. Fruiting branches short, practically one-jointed, ’ the other joints very slender and seldom producing bolls. Usually the second joints diverge very strongly from the direction of the first on account of the swollen base of the pedicel. Leaf forms showing a wide range of diversity; the large leaves of rather heavy texture, several inches across, of broad Upland forms; small leaves having distinct, somewhat attenuate lobes, suggesting Durango or Acala; also many simple, entire, subcordate leaves much like those of Gossypium davidsonii; petioles relatively short on the large leaves; stipules of vegeta- tive branches long, linear, those of fruiting branches much shorter and broader. Involucres small and open, the bracts oval, distinctly narrowed at base, flared at the angles; teeth 5 to 7, well forward, often none below the middle; bractlets usually present, double involucres of frequent occurrence; outer nectaries distinct, but small and uncolored, forming deep, round or short elliptic depressions in the strongly inflated surface of the receptacle; inner nectaries transverse, located in very deep grooves; pedicels often very long, 3 or 4 times the length of the boll, and with the base swollen as in Thurberia; some of the short pedicels much thicker than the internodes of the fruiting branches; calyx lobes with long attenuate tips often exceed- ing the bud, all five lobes tailed or only 3, with the others sharply angled. Flowers white, no petal spots; stigma well exserted. Bolls small, subrotund, abruptly apiculate, 2, 3, and 4 locked, usually 3; fissure deeply marked below, even in green bolls, extending completely to the receptacle; ripe open boll 3.5 cm. across, with beak about 5 mm. long, very distinct in dried state; seeds 4 or 5 in each lock. Seed small, black, naked, except a small tuft of brown fuzz at beak; lint sparse, fine, silky, more than 1 inch in length, commonly }. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,601, collected at Guay- mas, Sonora, Dec. 8, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard. Gossypium contextum, new species A robust, spreading, bushy plant, with rather strong short-jointed stalks, hirsute branches and dense foliage. Leaves heavy, deep green, densely pilose, entire or 3 to 5 lobed, deeply cordate and auricled, sinus often closed; an occasional tooth on the midlobe, or on the basal curves; leaves of the upright shoots attaining large size with very large auricles, often overlapping widely; length of blade on the midrib 20 cm., on the auricle 25 cm., width 27 cm., petiole 24 cm.; nectaries usually 3, even on rather small leaves; stipules present, but not prominent. Involucral bracts deeply cordate, with long teeth, auricles united at the base; bractlets of common occurrence, often 3 together, usually 3 or 4 to an involucre; calyx with long triangular lobes, sometimes with tails as long as the bud. 338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 Bolls of medium size, short and flat sided, pyramidal or square, with a short abrupt tip; oil-glands not present on a broad light green band over the suture; 3 or 4 locks, with 5 to 7 seed per lock. Seed dark brown, smooth, with yellowish brown fuzz at base; lint rather sparse, from three-fourths to seven-eighths inches long, easily pulled from the seed, but strongly held in the locks by numerous fibers attached to the carpel walls. Type in the U. S. National Hee bawium, no. 1,209,602, collected at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, December 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard. On account of the numerous fibers attached to the walls of the carpels; the open bolls of this species have a distinctive appearance, with the locks not emerging from the carpels, but somewhat drawn down from the open- ing and remaining a compact mass. ‘This is in striking contrast with the behavior of the cotton in the open bolls of other species. In some cottons the locks remain in place, on account of the rough elastic fibre which “‘fluffs”’ and holds together. In other species the locks fall out soon after the bolls open, or the seeds separate gradually. Gossypium dicladum, new species A large, upright, densely foliated plant, with woody stems and hirsute leaves and branches, producing small horizontal vegetative branches from most of the joints to near the top of the plants, from the same nodes with the normal fruiting branches, and of about the same size, bearing bolls on small secondary fruiting branches, usually of 1 or 2 joints. Leaves of medium size, cordate, entire or 3 to 5 lobed, with large fore- lobes nearly equal to the midlobe; length of blade on midvein 12 cm., on auricle 15 cm., width 18 cm., petiole 13 cm., extra teeth occasional on basal lobes, none on midlobe; auricles ample, often overlapping; texture rather heavy, brittle; nectaries usually one, near the base; stipules prominent and persistent on the young shoots. Involucral bracts large, cordate, with rather large teeth, the auricles regularly united on the margins below to almost their full width; nectaries usually present; receptacles prominent and distinct; calyx with short sharp pointed lobes, but not tailed. Flowers large, white, opening widely, with very large dark red spots on the claws of the petals; stamens numerous; anthers pale; stigma barely pre- truding beyond the staminal column. Bolls oblong-elliptic, apiculate, 3 and 4 locked; oil-glands large and scat- tering; no distinct sutural bands without oil-glands. Seed large, black, naked, except a tuft of greenish fuzz at beak; lint sparse, three-fourths to seven-eighths inches in length. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,605, collected at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, December 16, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard. The double branching habit, with a vegetative branch and a fruiting branch produced together from the upper nodes of the stalks, is a consistent and characteristic feature not previously recognized in any of the “tree” cottons. The greater tendency to produce vegetative branches is apparent even where the branches are very small, with only two or three leaves, but commonly they have several joints and produce bolls on short secondary fruiting branches. The vegetative branch as a whole is about the same size as the primary fruiting branch of the same node. A similar tendency to JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 339 produce two branches from the same node of the stalk has been recog- nized in the Kehchi cotton of eastern Guatemala.’ Gossypium morrilli, new species Tall plants bearing numerous long, short-jointed, fruiting branches with 10 to 12 nodes, often maturing bolls at each node, and frequently two bolls from the same node. Some plants very hairy, others notably less, but all distinctly pilose on new growth. Leaves large dark green, of thin texture, with very broad lobes, strongly up-folded at the sinus; auricles ample, often overlapping on the large leaves; teeth occasionally on midlobes, forelobes and base; length of blade of large leaf, on midrib 15 cm., on auricle 22 cm., width 21 cm., petiole 18 cm.; leaf nectaries 3, even on rather small leaves; stipules rather large. Involucral bracts broad, distinctly cordate at base, with inner margins united; bractlets occasionally present; pedicels short, triangular in cross section, but not sharply angled; receptacle distinct, but not much swollen around nectaries; outer nectaries often quite large, usually longer than broad, sometimes narrowed to a short groove; calyx lobes sharp-pointed, often tailed. Flowers white, of very delicate texture; petals with hyaline areas around the yellow oil glands; stamens with long filaments; stigma slightly exserted. Bolls small, conic-ovoid, with a long acuminate point, mostly with 3 locks, but often with 4; oil glands large and scattering, not interrupted on sutural bands. Seed very small, black, naked except a small tuft of greenish brown fuzz at base; lint sparse, about 8 inches in length. This species was obtained by Dr. Morrill from sand-dunes near the coast of southern Sonora in the Yaqui-Valley district. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,209,603, collected Dec. 16, 1925, from a plant grown at Los Mochis, Sinaloa, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 935TH MEETING The 935th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, March 20th, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bow1z at 8:15 p.m. with 75 persons in attendance. The program of the evening consisted of an address by Professor Max Born of the University at Géttingen, on New methods in the quantum theory. The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantum mechanics, which since 1915 has been used successfully to find the energy and radiation of an atomic system with not more than one electron, is exposed to the objection that it operates with unobservable quantities such as size of the electron orbit, orbital frequency (which is not equal to the frequency of the emitted light), and 2 See Weevil-resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant, Bur. Pl. Ind. Bull. 88: 20. 1906. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 especially the coordinates p;, q, of the electron at a certain time t. A generalized quantum mechanics has been proposed by Heisenberg, attempt- — ing to give up this unsatisfactory union of classical mechanics, quantum conditions, and correspondence principle and to replace it by a unique quantum kinematics of discrete energy levels. That the place of the coordinates pz, q, of the moving electrons is taken by matrices of Hermitian type was shown by the speaker in the following way: The Fourier series for the coordinates of the old theory q, = Ag D, == Bales are replaced by two-dimensional schemes: (1) Age A3\er ae sree’ A(22) AQ) 6" a i s ABLE” Age" “AG3) | | or in condensed form: ee (A (mn) mn) and D, ie (B(mn) er") The coefficients A (mn) are the amplitudes of the wave emitted when the sys- tem is jumping from state m to state n, and v(mn) is the frequency of this jump, which obeys Ritz’s combination principles: v(mn) = v(mk) + v(kn) For the product of two of such schemes we and, since no new frequencies must appear in the exponent: Mo (C(mn) me) where C(mn) = ~ A(mk) B(kn) This is the well-known law of matrix multiplication. Hamilton’s equations must now be written in matrix form: dp, oH da, oH dt oe Oq,,’ dt si OP, while Sommerfeld’s quantum conditions i dq = mh have to be replaced by JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 341 h ea a een a P, 9; — 4D, = 93 PD; PB, — P,P, = 9; 4, 4, — 4,9, = 9, 1 being the unit matrix whose diagonal terms are equal to unity while all others are zero. | The general theory of perturbation based on this idea is free from any convergence difficulties, which previously made the application of classical theory of perturbation very ambiguous and questionable. The speaker then discussed a possible extension of this theory, namely, to replace the matrix calculus by a still more general operator calculus. (Abstract by O. Laporte.) The address was discussed by Messrs. HAwKEs- WorRTH, LarortH, HeRZFELD, and Breit, and at the close Professor BoRN ~ was tendered a rising vote of thanks. 936TH MEETING The 936th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, April 3, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bowle at 8:15, with 45 persons in attendance. The program for the evening consisted of a paper on Recent developments in the theory of periodic systems of the elements, by Dr. Orro Laporte, and was illustrated with lantern slides. The paper was discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH and TUCKERMAN. _ Bohr’s and Stoner’s assignment of total and azimuthal quantum numbers n and k respectively to the electrons of the atoms was discussed with the object of showing that various chemical, physical and spectroscopic evi- dences suggest subdivision of the ordinary period of eight elements (e.g. Li—Ne, Na—A) into two subgroups of two and six elements; that is, we assume a subshell to be closed with Be, Mg, Zn, etc. Spectroscopic facts show that the electrons belonging to this shell of two have k = 1 whereas from B to Ne or Al to A, etc., six electrons with k = 2 are bound until the shell is closed again in the rare gases. The apparent irregularity of the first period consisting of but two elements H and He now vanishes immedi- ately, since in H and He two 1:electrons are bound, the first period should be » _compared with the other groups of two and in writing down the periodic chart He must be placed in the second column together with Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Hg. The thus asserted similarity of the spectrum of He with those of the alkaline earths actually exists. This viewpoint furthermore asserts the inequality of the four valency bonds of the carbon atom, since two of its electrons are bound in 2:, and two in 2 orbits. This fact, although spectro- scopically verified in C and the homologous elements Ti, Ge, Sn, still waits for its proof in chemistry. Of the 18 electrons of A, two are bound in 1,, 2 in 2,, 6 in 2., 2 in 3,1, and 6 in 35. The occurrence of the ten high melting point metals is thus ac- counted for by the completion of a shell of 10 electrons of 33 type and like- wise the occurrence of the palladium and platinum metals by 10 electrons of 4; and 5; character respectively. Similarly the occurrence of 14 rare earths means the binding of fourteen 4,electrons. It was pointed out that it is unjustified to write the last three elements Th, Ux, U into the fourth, fifth and sixth columns. One should rather expect here the beginning of a second 342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12> rare earth group, characterized by the binding of 5, electrons. Whether or not this viewpoint is justified must be decided by investigating their optical and x-ray spectra. It was finally illustrated how the cabalistic regularity of the periodic system which is contained in the scheme 2 = 2= 2.1? 2+6 = 8 = 2.2? 2+6-+10 = 18 = 2.3? 2+6+104+14 = 32 = 2.4 is explained by means of Pauli’s exclusion principle which states that if with one n; electron the atom is capable of assuming N different orientations in a magnetic field, with two equivalent n; electrons it can not assume N? but only N (N—1)/1.2 orientations, with three N (V—1) (N—2)/1.2.3, ete. It thus follows that a shell of n; electrons just contains 2 (2k—1) elements which furnishes the above given scheme. (Author’s abstract.) 937TH MEETING The 937th meeting was a special meeting held jointly with the WaAsx- INGTON ACADEMY of ScrENCES and the Biological Survey at the Cosmos Club on Thursday evening, April 15, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Burexss of the AcapEmMy at 8:15, with about 100 per- sons in attendance. On behalf of the American Geographical Society Major Gen. SALTZMAN presented the Charles P. Daly Medal to Brigadier General Davip L. Brarnarp, and Captain CrosLEy presented the Cullom Geographical Medal to Dr. Harvrny C. Hayrs. Major General GREELEY was present and spoke in appreciation of the attainments of General Bratinarp. The recipients accepted the medals with appropriate words of thanks. The address of the evening was given by Dr. Pau, R. Hryt, on Visions and dreams of a scientific man. H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 690TH MEETING The 690th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 13 March, 1926, at 8:00 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 68 persons present. New member elected: Joun P. Homan. T. S. PatmMer reported the death of the female Brazilian cardinal (Paro- aria cristata) which has spent the winter in the vicinity of the Department of Agriculture and on the Smithsonian grounds. ‘The bird first appeared in September and has been fed regularly through the winter by many people. It was found in a weakened condition and put in a cage, where it died on 24 February. An examination of the body showed filaria and staphylo-’ coccus. The only previous record of a bird living here for several months in the wild state is that reported several years by Dr. P. Barrscu. A. WeEtTMOoRE spoke of his experience with the bird in Argentina. It ranges south to Buenos Aires, which is not as cold as Washington, although snow sometimes occurs. It is common in the Chaco, and highly esteemed as a cage bird. F.C. Lincoun reported that one was captured last fall in a bird trap at Indianapolis by a bird bander, who thought it might be a cross be- tween a cardinal and a rose-breasted grosbeak. JUNE 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 343 PauL BartscH reported that the mockingbird that has appeared at his bird feeding-counter for several years has returned this winter and eats suet for the first time. JoHN C. Puiuies: Introducing foreign and American birds into new localities (illustrated by specimens).—Birds introduced into new regions show several types of response to the new environment. (1) They may disappear at once (some game birds and European song birds); (2) they may nest the first season, then quickly or gradually die out without nesting again (Hungarian partridge in the eastern States); (3) they may have a long period of only local success (European goldfinch in Massachusetts and eastern New York, skylark on Long Island and Vancouver Island); (4) they may propagate rapidly and spread into new territory (California partridge in Australia), with increase in size of broods and apparent im- munity from natural enemies, but usually ultimately disappear; (5) they may become thoroughly naturalized (English sparrow and starling). The history of bird importation in this country is little known before the ’50’s. Cagebird fanciers, particularly near Cincinnati, New York, and Portland, Oregon, and sportsmen have been the two most important agencies in introduction. Among introduced game birds, all the west American species introduced in the East have failed, as has the Egyptian quail, which bred for one season, and disappeared. Valley quail, plumed quail, and Hungarian partridge have succeeded in the northwestern United States and Canada. Black- cock and capercaillie have failed in the eastern States and Canada. Sev- eral tropical species have recently been introduced on Sapelo Island, Georgia. The chachalaca has flourished, but the ocellated turkey has not. Guinea- fowl, introduced in the West Indies 200 years ago, have run wild and become a good game bird. (Author’s abstract.) PauL BartscH, National Museum: Some experiences: with the birds of the Dry Tortugas (illustrated).—The Tortugas are 68 miles southwest of Key West. This group constitutes one of the National bird reservations and is particularly interesting because here we find the only colony of Sooty and Noddy Terns breeding on the American Coast. Bird Key, a small sandy island only a few feet above sea level, some 400 feet in length and 200 feet in width, harbors annually no less than 30,000 of the Sooty and Noddy Terns. These birds have been breeding here for a long time. They were visited in 1832 by Audubon, and have been the object of attention from naturalists ever since. The Sooty Tern probably breeds there today as it did when first discovered, but the Noddy has undergone a tremendous change in nesting habits in the last decade, owing to the fact that several recent hurricanes have denuded the island of its woody vegetation. When Dr. Bartscu first visited the group 14 years ago, the Noddy Tern bred in the Bay Cedars which formed an abundant thicket on this Key, and since their destruction they have been forced to abandon this mode of nesting, being slowly forced to the ground by the dying and breaking off of the dead branches of these shrubs. The birds, which were at first tree nesters, now cling to anything that suggests wood, branches of the old stubs of the Bay Cedars or the little branches on the ground pulled together to form a nest. The old boards from a wrecked house, being wood, in part satisfy the craving for a woody nesting site, and where these elements are wanting the Noddy has at last come to use a mere hollow, just as does the Sooty. 344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 12 . It has been an interesting change, which, while gradual during the last 14 years, may, nevertheless, be considered a rather abrupt transition from a tree building type to a ground nester. With this change in nesting habit has come a decided diminution in the numbers of the Noddy, while the Sooty has maintained itself in the usual number. It is interesting to note that in the single palm tree standing on the island today, the Noddies are breeding in numbers in the axils of the leaves high above the ground. The Biological Survey has now planted several hundred coconut palms on the island. Most of them are doing well and will furnish, it is hoped, adequate nesting site, as well as shelter from the glaring rays of the sun, to the young birds of both species. All these transition changes of nesting were illustrated with lantern slides, as well as the home life of both species, likewise of other visiting water birds, such as large numbers of Man-o’-war, and three species of Boobies. Dr. Barrscu also showed pictures of the breeding colonies of Roseate Terns on Long Key, and of the Common Tern colony on Bush Key, and of some of the other visiting birds, such as waders and herons. He mentioned that so far he had recorded 136 birds from the group, most of which, of course, are spring and fall migrants. (Author’s abstract.) S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. ArTHuUR L. Day is at present engaged in investigations in California as chairman of the Advisory Committee of the Carnegie Institution of Washington on seismology. Dr. W.S. Apams, Director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, was in Washington during the early part of June, on his return from New York, where the degree of doctor of science had been conferred upon him by the Columbia University. Mr. W. C. Parkinson of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington left New York June 10 for the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory in Peru, where he will act as consultant in the instal- lation of earth-current recording devices. A lecture on World migration as illustrated by the distribution of the redwood tree, was given by Ralph W. Chaney at the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, on May 25, 1926. bes of thin ath ddddiotioa will on this if th and se sucterant be orig oe f oa 7 5 F ied F “ it t ak : i ‘ 2 id is ‘ ~ * j 4 £4 , : i ie alc 7 , et ‘ : ‘ $ P ", a . ‘ EF < frets “) Aah 2 , 4 { A MWe 5 : j ed ay ed CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Statistics.—The frequency distribution of scientific productivity. Atrrep J. TAOPIEA eis os vce cies bari ea le bie Bia BR eel aad ia Wrote cee ata a aee onan 4 a Saute: Wa ofall Camano 317 Geology.—Geology of the Guanté4namo Basin, Cuba. N. H. Darron,........... 324 Botany.—New species of cotton plants from Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. O. F. Coox and J. W. AUBBARD Ls) soe ee se Ca 333 PROCEEDINGS The Philosophical Society. 22.0302. . ea Ses ie tide 6 Sleuag ciene ee ee oe 339 The Biological Society. soi. So ees oa als ce oo ein ed ops soe eee ee 342 Screntiric Nores AND: NEWS 2.300. Cece ee 344 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: GrorcE K. Buresss, Bureau of Standards. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Strspex, Bureau of Standards, Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. JuLy 19, 1926 No. 13 ees SUwial —' lily Vj me JUL 211926 x JOURNA uy OF THE 4 af TONAL MUSED OF SCIENCES © Bat pipes 7 cg Oy BA BOARD OF EDITORS ' Dz. ¥F. Hewerr S. J. Mauceiy Acnes CHasz «GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A, Ronwer PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GotpMAN G. W. Strosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY R. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royan aNnp GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24,1912. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE ) WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 ) JuLy 19, 1926 No. 18 GEOLOGY.—WNotes on the igneous rocks of the northeast West Indies and on the geology of the Island of Anguilla... THomas WAYLAND VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Cali- fornia. The following paper consists of notes on a collection of igneous rocks I made in the West Indies in 1914, with determinations of the different rock specimens by the late Prof. J. P. Iddings, and of supplemental notes on the geology of the Island of Anguilla. IGNEOUS ROCKS AND A FEW ASSOCIATED SEDIMENTS FROM THE LEEWARD AND VIRGIN ISLANDS Before Professor Iddings’ lamented death he examined and identi- fied for me all the samples of igneous rocks I collected in the West Indies in 1914. After his death that collection and other specimens were sent to Dr. E. O. Hovey, who was making a general study of the voleanic rocks of the eastern West Indies. Since Doctor Hovey died before completing his investigations, it appears desirable to publish an annotated list of the rocks with Professor Iddings’ determinations. The only explanatory remark needed seems to be regarding L. I. 56, 58, and 60, from St. Bartholomew. The contact of the rock repre- sented by these samples with the St. Bartholomew limestone was not seen. ‘The presence below the St. Bartholomew limestone of pebbles (L. I. 54) of rock similar to the rock referred to by the numbers just * mentioned suggests an age greater than that of the limestone, but L. I. 64, 65, and 66 represent rock obviously intruded into the limestone. The geologic ages of the formation mentioned in the column headed “Geologic Occurrence” are as follows: Antigua formation, upper and middle Oligocene; St. Bartholomew, upper Eocene; Anguilla forma- tion, lower Miocene. 1 Received June 15, 1926. 345 346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES List or Rocks FROM THE NORTHEASTERN WEST INDIES. LOCALITY (FIELD) NUMBER STATION NUM- BER NAME OF ROCK By J. PP; Topimes LOCALITY Altered dacite| Antigua, Rat Island, Eh Se i 1e38 1a is . 47 . 00 . os! 6882 6883 6884 6885 or rhyolite Basalt Dacite tuff Dacite tuff Holocrystal- line andes- ite Altered andes- ite, brecci- ated Possibly mi- crocrypto- crystalline silica Altered an- desite north side, alt. 30-40 ft. Antigua, N. 18°F. from Langford Mill on slope of first ridge to the north towards Crosby’s Mill Antigua, eastern slope of hill at Bethesda Church, head of Wil- loughby Bay Antigua, north of All Saints Bridge, 42 miles from St. John ' Antigua, summit of Drew’s Hill Antigua, Drew’s Hill 110 ft. below the-summit Antigua, top of Gray’s Hill -Antigua, northeast foot of Montero Hill Altered basalt} Antigua, between Orange Altered daci- tic rock Much altered andesitic tuff Andesitic tuff Altered an- desitic glass Altered tuff Valley and Church Bay, behind first hill back from the shore Antigua, west side of Burnfoot Hill Antigua, English Harbor Village, east side of Falmouth Harbor Antigua, Falmouth Har- bor, slope of Monk’s Hill, alt. about 100 ft. Same locality as L. I. 56b, but on top of the hill Antigua, west and south slope of Monk’s Hill VOL. 16.N@s tas DETERMINATIONS GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE Bedded tuff, older than the Antigua formation Intrusive into the An- tigua formation Bedded tuff, older than the Antigua formation Older than the Antigua formation Younger than the An- tigua formation Younger than the Anti- gua formation Bedded rock occurring with the bedded tuff; older than the Antigua formation Not definitely ascer- tained, probably younger than the An- tigua formation Not definitely ascer- tained, probably younger than the Anti- gua formation Appears to be younger than the Antigua for- mation Not definitely tained ascer- Younger than the Anti- gua formation Overlies L. I. 56b, there- fore younger — Unconformably overlies water-bedded tuff JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES 347 LOCALITY (FIELD) NUMBER STATION NUM- BER NAME OF ROCK - LOCALITY ea aeeoooeoeouououoeoeOoeoeoeoeoeoeoeoaoaoioawaviwaioiwvw Be 60! 6886 Altered an- desitic glass Antigua, Barnabas a EOS OG . 584 soo 6896 6898 6899 6900 6901 6906 6908 6909 6910 6911 6912 Altered py- roxene an- desite Holocrystal- line pyrox- ene andesite Altered py- roxene Altered py- roxene an- desite Holocrystal- line pyrox- ene andesite Altered an- desite Micro-quartz diorite or holocrystal- line quartz- pyroxene andesite Altered py- roxene an- desite Altered py- roxene an- desite Altered py- roxene an- desite Altered aphanitic dacite? Altered apha- nitic da- cite? Simi- lan to Lt. 70 St. Barts, spur s.e. side of Anse Ecaille Bay; alt. 120 ft. St. Barts, northwest end of point on which Ft. Gustaf stands, alt. about 20 ft. St. Barts, above Ballast Bay; alt. 430 ft. St. Barts, slope of divide ‘between Carasol and Flammand bays, Car- asol Bay side; alt. 210 ft. St. Barts, between Cara- sol and Flammand bays, Caraso! Bay side of divide; alt. 100 ft. St. Barts, south slope of divide up from Caraso! Bay, alt. 130 ft. St. Barts, northwest side of head of Galet Bay; alt. 140 ft. St. Barts, head of Mari- got Bay; just above sea level St. Barts, east end of island; Tortue bear- ing N. 15°E., Grand Fond Mountain bear- ing 8. 55°W. St. Barts, Grand Fond Bay; alt. 60 ft. St. Barts, south slope of La Croix Mountain St. Barts, Brim Moun- tain, north slope GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE Seems to belong to the tuffs older than the Antigua formation Pebbles from conglomer- ate interbedded with St. Bartholomew lime- stone Not definitely ascer- tained; seems. older than Eocene St. Bar- tholomew limestone Probably the same as Ae 56" Apparently intruded in- to the St. Barthol- omew limestone Seems to be older than the St. Bartholomew limestone Apparently the same as : Wee (7 Intruded into St. Bar- tholomew limestone. The same as intrusion L. I. 64 Not ascertained Not ascertained Not ascertained Not ascertained Not ascertained 348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LOCALITY (FIELD) NUMBER STATION NUM- BER NAME OF ROCK LOCALITY —_————— | | | 6913 |Altered an- PR Be 9c I.-E.-72? . 73 . 74 ae | LO . 84 s0 . 89 . 90 . 92 . 93 6914 6916 6917 6920 6922 6927 6931 6932 6955 6956 6957 6959 desite or dacitic tuff Altered daci- tic ? tuff Altered an- desitic tuff Altered an- desitic tuff Altered mica- bearing an- desite Dacite Altered py- roxene an- desite Altered py- roxene an- desite Altered an- desite, pos- sibly dacite Altered tuff Laminated sediment Holocrystal- line dacite Micro-quartz- dacite or ho!ocrystal- line pyrox- ene andesite St. Barts, L’Orient Point; the basal bed St. Barts, L’Orient Point; bed next above Tae. D725 St. Barts, L’Orient Bay, base of point on west side St. Barts, L’Orient Bay, east half, south side of bay St. Barts, Gouverneur Bay, west cove St. Barts, volcanic peak, east side of Gouverneur Bay St. Barts, Anse Lézard, boulder in volcanic agglomerate and con- glomerate St. Barts, south of south- east corner of Bay Flammand, n.e. side of main divide of the island St. Barts, col between St. Jean and Chau- vette bays St. Martin, south of Red Hill, near Simson Bay St. Martin, Petite Ecaille Bay, west of North Point St. Martin, Grande Ecaille Bay, south of North Point St. Martin, west side of head of Cul de Sac Bay, Well’s lodge VoL. 16, No. 13° GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE Underlies L. I. 72b Overlain by St. Bartho- lomew limestone Underlies St. Bartholo- mew limestone Underlies St. Bartholo- mew limestone Intruded as dike into St. Bartholomew lime- stone Younger than St. Bar- tholomew limestone. Compare with L. I. 70 and L. I. 71 Appears to lie below the Bartholomew lime- stone Intruded into the St. Bartholomew lime- stone ; Probably younger than the St. Bartholomew limestone. Compare this with i, Ie7@, i. 1. 71, and L. 1.79. Seems to me (T. W. V.) the same as L. I. 71 and Loe Post-Miocene Probably Cretaceous Post-Cretaceous Post-Cretaceous JULY 19, 1926 LOCALITY (FIELD) NUMBER STATION NUM- BER VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES NAME OF ROCK LOCALITY 6961 BOT 95 . 108 . 109 2 110 pelt . 113 . 114 . 102 Finer grained, like L. I. 93 Fine-grained granite or quartz mon- zonite Banded meta- morphosed sediment Fine-grained quartz dior- ite Altered an- desite Altered an- desite Altered an- desitic tuff Altered basalt Pyroxene an- desite Pyroxene an- desite Altered an- desitic tuff Altered an- desite St. Martin, head of Orient Bay, Orient Bay side of divide between it and Grand Case Bay; from a pit St. Martin, east side of Grand Bay, southwest foot of peak 634 ft. high Same locality as L. I. 108 Same locality as L. I. 108 St. Martin, east side of Ft. Amsterdam Hill St. Martin, Philipsburg- Marigot road, neck of land at southeast cor- ner of Marigot Bay St. Martin, Philipsburg- Marigot road; out of well east of Simpson Lagoon Anguilla Crocus Bay, Pelican Point Anguilla, Road Bay, north side, near west- ern end of point of land on N. side of bay St. Kitts, Brimstone Hill N. side; alt. 360 and 460 ft. St. Kitts, 22 mi. from Rasseterre on road to Old Road St. Croix, Frederiksted, Fort Catarhina Hill St. Thomas, 3 mi. S. E. of Frederiksberg, half way between F redericks- berg and Flag Hill 349 GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE Post-Cretaceous Post-Cretaceous; in- truded into L. I. 109 Probably Cretaceous: intruded by L. I. 108 Intruded into sediment i. ~k’ 109:° specimén taken back from con- tacts Ak. «Ts “108 the dike form of this rock Intruded into sediments probably of Cretaceous aze Not observed, probably post-Cretaceous Unconformably overlain by the Anguilla forma- tion Unconformably overlain by the Anguilla forma- tion Probably post-Pleisto- cene in age Broken from a large boulder; geologic rela- tions not observed Apparently overlain by hard limestone. Not observed. This rock is mapped as ‘‘bluebeach”’ by Cleve 2Jn this limestone are included pieces resembling L.I.5. The limestone seems to be of Middle Oligocene age. 350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13 - A considerable volume of literature is now available on the igneous rocks of the West Indies. Papers by Hégbom,? Calkins,? Earle,* Fittke,’ and Burbank,‘ are listed below, but these references do not exhaust the literature. I made in the Virgin Islands of the United States a considerable collection of igneous rocks which were examined by Mr. Clyde P. Ross of the U. 8. Geological Survey but no report was finished for publication. I have published a few notes on these rocks in the papers cited below.’ I collected all the kinds of rocks mentioned by Mr. Earle in his paper on the Virgin Islands except pegmatite. No review of present knowledge West Indian igneous rocks can be attempted in this article, but a few general remarks may be made. One of the striking features of the West Indian rocks is the persistence of rocks of the diorite-andesite group, with or without free quartz, virtually throughout all the known geologic ages. They extend from the probably Paleozoic Daguilla diorite schist of the Isle of Pines? to the modern andesitic lavas of St. Kitts. A striking feature of the rocks is the almost complete absence of potash feldspars. This is only corroboration of what Hégbom has so well expressed in his paper. The only rocks among those I collected and listed above which contains potash in a notable amount is my L. I. 109, on the east side of Grande Bay, St. Martin. More basic rocks are also well developed in the West Indies; peri- 2 Héaspom, A. G., Zur Petrographie der kleinen Antillen. Geol. Inst. Upsala Bull., 6: (pt. 2), 214-232, pls. 9, 10, 1905. 3 CaLKIns, F. C., Metamorphic and igneous rocks, in Geol. Reconn. Dominican Repub., by T. W. Vaughan and others, Geol. Surv. Dominican Repub., Mem., 1: 83-88, 1921. Also in Spanish edition. a 4Earute, K. W., Report on the geology of Antigua, Govt. Printing Office, Leeward Ids., 1923. 28 pp. , The geology of the British Virgin Islands, Geol. Mag., 61: 339-351, 1924. , Reports on the geology of St. Kitis-Nevis, B. W. I., and the geology of An- guilla, N. W. I., Published by the Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. Pp. 50. 5 Firrxe, C. R., The geology of the Humacao District, Porto Rico, N. Y. Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Ids., 2: (pt. 2) 117-197, text-figs., and map, 1924. (Much other information has been published by the N. Y. Acad. Sei., see bibliography of this paper.) 6 BURBANK, W.S., Igneous rocks, Geology of the Republic of Haiti, by W. P. Woodring and others, pp. 260-330, 1924. Repub. Haiti, Dept. Public Works. Also in French edition. 7VauGcuHAN, T. W., Stratigraphy of the Virgin Islands of the United States, etc., THIs JOURNAL 13: 303-317, 1923. (In the bibliography at the end of this paper I failed to list the very important paper by Professor Hégbom, for which see foot-note 2 of this paper.) A sketch of the history of igneous activity in the northern and north-eastern West Indies, Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Australia, 1923, Proc., 1: 851-55, 1925. 8 Hayzs, C. W., Report on a geological reconnoissance of Cuba, Rept. of the Military Governor for 1901, p. 115, 1902. JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES dol dotites, usually metamorphosed into serpentine, gabbro, and several. kinds of basalts are known. Regarding the igneous rocks of Anguilla, Mr. Earle says: The igneous rocks forming the basement beds of Anguilla and Dog Island do not differ essentially from those forming the foundations of St. Kitts and Antigua to the south and are all parts of the Antillean “province” as distinct from the very different suite of igneous rocks forming the Virgin Island “‘province.”’ As regards the similarity of the mode of occurrence of the igneous rocks in Anguilla to those in Antigua Mr. Earle is right, but there are andesites and dacites of probably Triassic or Jurassic age in Haiti; andesites and andesitic tuffs of Cretaceous age occur in St. Thomas. and probably in St. Croix; and andesitic tuffs are interbedded with Eocene sediments in St. Bartholomew. In Cuba, in the Province of Santa Clara, quartz diorite underlies Upper Cretaceous sediments; dioritic rocks are intruded into Cretaceous sediment in St. Thomas, Culebra, Vieques, and elsewhere; in St. Bartholomew holocrystalline andesite is both older and younger than the Eocene sediments; in Haiti quartz diorite is intruded into Eocene sediments. Igneous rocks of the chemical composition indicated extend in age from pre-Creta- ceous to present time in the West Indies. Gabbro and basalt have about the same geologic range but do not occupy so large areas. Peridotite and serpentine are extensively present in Cuba, the Domini- can Republic, and Porto Rico, and are present in the republic of Haiti. They are mostly of Mesozoic age. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGUILLA Some months ago I received a copy of Mr. Kenneth W. Earle’s paper entitled ‘‘The Geology of Anguilla, B. W. I.,’’2 in which he says that he does not understand a generalized, composite section I pub- lished!* of the exposures adjacent to Crocus Bay and he disagrees with my statement that the Anguilla formation rests on igneous rock at Crocus Bay. My original characterization of the Anguilla formation is as follows: Anguilla formation. This formation is uppermost Oligocene, if the Aquitan- ian of Europe is correctly referred to the Oligocene. In the opinion of some paleontologists it would be classified as earliest Miocene. It is paleontologically characterized by certain Foraminifera, described by J. A. 9 Published by the Crown Agents for the Colonies, 4, Millbank, London, S. W. 1, - without date. . 100.8. Nat. Mus. Bull., 103: 262, 1919. U Turis JOURNAL, 8: 271, 1918. 352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13. Cushman in a report not yet published; by numerous species of corals, among which are the genera Stylophora, Stylocoenia, Antillia, Orbicella, Siderastrea, and Goniopora; by echinoids described by Guppy or by Cotteau, among which are Echinolampas semiorbis Guppy, E. lycopersicus Cotteau, and Agassizia clever Cotteau; and by a number of species of Mollusca, de- scribed in manuscript by C. W. Cooke. The Mollusca include Amusiwm lyon Gabb and Orthaulax pugnax (Heilprin). I obtained no specimens of Lepidocyclina in Anguilla. The type exposure is along the southeast and south shore of Crocus Bay. The material consists of calcareous clay, argil- laceous limestone, and more or less pure limestone. The formation uncon- formably overlies basic igneous rock. Mrs. Burdon reprinted the paragraph quoted above, accompanied by a few notes I gave her on Anguilla, in her useful little volume entitled ““A Handbook of St. Kitts-Nevis, a Presidency of the Leeward Islands Colony, containing information for residents and visitors concerning the Islands of St. Christopher or St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla,’’! The description of the generalized section mentioned above which I published reads as follows: GEOLOGIC SEcTION AT Crocus Bay, ANGUILLA 3. Hard cavernous limestone, with few or no corals................0.+20+e-e: 60 feet 2. More or less argillaceous limestone with some beds of harder, purer lime- stone; contains fossil corals from bottom to top, some coral heads as much as 2 feet in diameter; this member subdivisible into subordinate beds, about. 200 feet 1. Yellow and brownish clay underlain by dark blue-black clay, or by sandstone and conglomerate of igneous material, overlying basic igneous rock (ex- posed at‘ Pelican’ Point)! ..5 e024 ald oe ee os eee 5 feet I have discussed some of the geological features of Anguilla in other papers listed below." 12 Published by authority of the Government of St. Kitts-Nevis by the Crown Agents for the Colonies. London, The West India Committee, 1920, see pp. 232, 233. 13 The platforms of barrier coral reefs, Amer. Geogr. Soc. Bull., 46: 427-428, 1914. Studies of the stratigraphic geology, etc., of several of the smaller West Indian Islands, Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Yearbook for 1914, pp. 18, 14, 1915. Some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern Leeward Islands and their bearing on the coral reef problem, THis JOURNAL, 6: 61, 62, 1916. Ab- stract in Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 27: 44, 1916. Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rico, etc., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 103: 209, 262, 276, 277, 1919; The biologic character and geologic correlation of the sedi- mentary formations of Panama, Ibid., p. 585. . Correlation of the Tertiary formations of Central America and the West Indies, First Pan-Pacific Sci. Congress Proc., Bishop Mus. Special Pub., pp. 832, 833, 1921. Stratigraphic significance of the West Indian species of fossil Echini, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub., 306: 113, 114, 1922. Criteria and status of correlation and classification of Tertiary deposits, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 35: 733, 1924; American and European Tertiary larger foraminifera, 1bid., 803. JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES 353 During 1914 I spent nearly two months in geological field work in the northeastern West Indies and I was in Anguilla from February 28 until March 8. While on the island I made careful studies of the exposures along and near the shores of Crocus Bay and less detailed studies of very nearly the entire island, but I did not visit the outlying islands, Some of these were viewed through field glasses and Mr. Carter Rey gave me a number of notes on them. Since the ex- posures in Anguilla, especially those in the vicinity of Crocus and Road Bays, are of much importance in the study of the West Indian. Tertiary formations, it seems desirable to present more detail than has hitherto been published. : No general description of the physical features of the Island will be given here, since such descriptions are available in several papers, the earliest with which I am acquainted being ‘‘Reports on the Geology of Jamaica’? by Sawkins and others, 1869. The description in the British Admiralty’s ‘‘West India Pilot,’ vol. 2, pp. 289-296 is good. The general map of Anguilla I have used is chart no. 1834 of the Hydro- graphic Office, U. 8. Navy, which is based on a British Survey made in 1847 and subsequent small corrections. A detailed chart of Crocus Bay is published as one of several harbor charts on chart no. 371a of the Hydrographic Office, U. 8S. Navy. This chart is based on British surveys made in 1846, corrected to 1883. Crocus Bay lies on the northwest side of Anguilla between two points of land of which the more southern projects farther west than the one at the north. The extreme distance across the harbor opening is about 1.9 sea miles. ‘The maximum distance from a line between the seaward ends of the bounding points to the bay shore is about 0.8 sea mile. The bay is open toward the west. The end of the northern point is known as Flat Cap. The sea between slopes gradually from a depth of 9 fathoms in the outer part of the bay to the shore. The highest land adjacent to Crocus Bay is at the Customhouse,. whose altitude is 218 feet above sea level. From Valley Postoffice, where the bay extends farthest into the land, there is a gradual slope to sea level from an altitude of about 140 feet. Most of the slopes around. the bay are steep, even precipitous. The Customhouse stands only about 800 feet back from the water’s edge according to the chart, the slope there being almost 1 foot in 4 feet. The following description of the section exposed between the Customhouse and the water’s edge at Crocus Bay is a composite, 354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13° since all of the section could not be seen in one continuous bluff face or slope. The lower 6 beds were examined along the foot of the bluff and in its northeastern part on the south side of the slope from Valley Postoffice to the shore of the bay. Ata height of about 90 feet above sea level the line of the section. was shifted southward to a steep-faced bluff which rises to a height of about 185 feet above sea level. Several aneroid barometer readings gave the height of the top of the bluff above sea level as between 175 and 200 feet, which is too low, the actual height by the chart being 218 feet. A correction has, therefore, been applied to the aneroid readings in order to make the thickness of the beds equal the height of the bluff. The measurements are only approximate. ‘The exposures along the southeast shore of the Bay are nearly along the strike of the beds, which is southwestward; the dip is southeastward, at an angle of perhaps 10°—precise measurement is not practicable. DESCRIPTION OF SECTION ON THE SOUTHEAST SHORE OF Crocus Bay, NEAR VALLEY PosToFFICE (THICKNESSES ONLY APPROXIMATE) Thickness an feet 8. Limestone, massive, hard, exposed at the Customhouse, 218 feet above sea level; overlies the coralliferous limestone and marls exposed below. 7. Limestone, yellowish, argillaceous, with interbedded harder limestone which forms discontinuous beds or bands. A large number of corals and some echi- noids were collected from exposures equivalent in stratigraphic position to the upper half of this part of the section, field no. L. I. 96 (1914). About 40 ft.. above the base of this division corals, three species of echinoids, Amusium, Spondylus, etc., were collected field no. L. I. 100c (1914)...................... 130 6. Limestone, harder, but with considerable clay, colored yellowish to red with Oxides Of IFOM. 0.2... sds ga eseg mapeinise cies ee se) 2 ee 12 5. Limestone, more argillaceous, zones of nodular limestone in clay; many corals, some excellently preserved, part of collection field no. L. I. 100b (1914)........ 30 4. Limestone, harder, base of the EHchinolampas semiorbis bed, corals abundant, part of collection field no. L. 1. 1006 (1914) ...220 2... J. ne eee Le, 3. Yellowish calcareous clay and yellowish argillaceous limestone. Much of the more calcareous parts form more or less nodular bands embedded in more ar- gillaceous matrix. Fossils are abundant in this part of the section: ‘“‘Orbit- olites,’’ Miogypsina antillea, Stylophora, Orbicella (heads 2 ft. in diameter), Goniopora (heads 2 ft. in diameter), Porites, some echinoids, Ostrea, Pecten, Spondylus, Turritella, etc. In some places Miogypsina antillea makes up most of the rock. Collection field no. L. I. 100 (1914) mostly from the lower part; field no. L. IT. 100a (1914) solely from lower 10 ft. of this division.............. 30 2. Yellowish, brownish, and chocolate-covered clay......:../.....922e eee 3 1. Base of bluff. Blue-black clay in which lignite and amber have been found. This corresponds to the bed immediately overlying the volcanic sandstone and conglomerate and andesitic tuff on the north side of the bay.................. 2 Total thickness, approximately.... 219 JULY 19, 1926 VAUGHAN: GEOLOGIC NOTES, WEST INDIES 3990. On the north shore of Little Harbor, northern part of Crocus Bay, near Flat Cap Point, there is the following exposure: Section, LirrteE Harspor, Crocus Bay Thickness in feet 3. Hard, massive, cavernous limestone, many caves, some 50 ft. in depth. From a pit in one of them Mr. Carter Rey collected specimens of Amblyrhiza........... 60. MEITAALeO. CalGATGOlS SAMOStONE.... Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 25: 128. 1919. JULY 19, 1926 KILLIP: A GENUS OF PASSIFLORACEAE 367 1. Tetrastylis ovalis (Vell.) Killip, comb. nov. Passiflora ovalis Vell. Fl. Flumin. 9: pl. 75. 1827: (figure only); M. Roemer, Fam. Nat. Syn. 2: 168. 1846. Passiflora silvestris Mast. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 131: 620. pl. 127. 1872, not Passiflora silvestris Vell. Tetrastylis montana Barb. Rodr. Rev. Engenharia 4: 260. 1882. Woody vine; glabrous throughout; stems terete, longitudinally sulcate, suberose below; stipules setaceous, 8 to 10 mm. long, soon deciduous; petioles 2.5 to 4 em. long, biglandular at base, the glands orbicular, about 1.5 mm. in diameter, sessile; leaves elliptic or elliptic-oblong, 6 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 5.5 em. wide, not lobed, abruptly acuminate at apex, acutish at base, entire, usually cartilaginous at margin, l-nerved (principal secondary nerves 7 or 8 pairs, arcuate), conspicuously reticulate-veined, coriaceous, sublustrous; flowers in axillary racemes up to 75 cm. long, the peduncles short, about 1 em. long, stout, 2-flowered, the pedicels 1.5 to 4 cm. long, articulate above middle ; bracts and bractlets setaceous, 1 to 2 mm. long, soon deciduous; flower tube 3 to 5 mm. long; sepals oblong, 2.5 to 3 cm. long, 0.5 to 0.7 cm. wide, obtuse, ecorniculate, subcoriaceous, dull red without (when dry), paler within, longitudinally streaked with red; petals oblong or lance-oblong, 1.5 to 2 cm. long, 0.3 to 0.6 mm. wide, obtuse, membranous, whitish, longitudinally streaked with red both without and within; corona filaments narrowly liguili- form, in 2 series, the outer about 1 cm. long, the inner half as long; operculum membranous, closely plicate, incurved, crispate; limen annular, fleshy; gyno- phore about 2 cm. long; ovary oblong; fruit (according to Velloso) oblong, about 10 cm. long, 6 cm. wide; seeds obovate, truncate at apex. Specimens examined (all Brazil): Rio de Janeiro, Glaziou 7859 (Paris, Berlin, Copenhagen), 3269 (Berlin, Copenhagen), 14854 (Paris, Berlin, Geneva, Kew, Copenhagen), 14873 (Paris); Peckholt 7 (Berlin); De Moura 503 (Berlin). Bahia, Blanchet 1708 (British Museum). Without definite locality, St. Hilaire 1689 (Paris). The nomenclature pertaining to this species is somewhat involved. Vel- loso’s figure was unaccompanied by any description or explanatory notes, and under the rules of nomenclature does not constitute valid publication. Roemer, however, in his elaborate monograph of Passifloraceae, gives a de- tailed description of Velloso’s plate, and the species must be considered to date from this publication in 1846. Masters’ treatment of the species in the Flora Brasiliensis® is a curious one. Here species no. 77 is given as “‘Passi- flora silvestris Vell.’’ and Velloso’s plate 74, bearing this name, is cited. The description which Masters then gives of this species applies in general, however, to Velloso’s plate 75 (P. ovalis), and the figure with which Masters illustrates ‘‘Passiflora silvestris’ (plate 127) agrees almost exactly with Velloso’s P. ovalis, and bears no resemblance to the plate of P. silvestris of Velloso. The inflorescence as shown by Masters’ plate is an elongate raceme with 2-flowered peduncles, and the leaves are narrowed at the base, with the petioles biglandular. The detailed enlargement of the flowers shows four styles but a stracght gynophore with the staminal structure as in true Pass?- 6131; 620. pl. 127. 1872. 368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13 flora. This conventionalized flower sketch I believe was made from two different plants, one true Tetrastylis ovalis, the other some unknown species of Passiflora of the Granadilla relationship. This solution is also suggested by the specimens which Masters cites under his ‘‘Passiflora silvestris.”’? The first mentioned is “Velloso,” the specimen not being seen by Masters. The second is “Luschnath.” -This specimen I did not see at any of the European herbaria visited, and at Kew it is represented only by a sketch of the flower, This has three styles and a straight gynophore. Accompanying the sketch is a note by Masters ‘“‘P. sylvestris St. Hil.?”” The third specimen cited is “Prov. Minas Geraés, St. Hilaire 1689.”’ This specimen, which IJ saw at Paris, is Tetrastylis ovalis. Finally, as to “Passiflora ovalis Vell.” Masters merely lists this among certain doubtful species, stating that only a fruiting specimen was figured. The identity of Passiflora silvestris Vell. (plate 74) I have not fully estab- lished. It represents a plant closely related to Passiflora jileki Wawra if not that species. 2. Tetrastylis lobata Killip, sp. nov. Stem stout, triangular, grooved, glabrous; stipules in pairs, semi-ovate, 5 to 15 mm. long, 3 to 8 mm. wide, aristate, entire; petioles 3 to 8 em. long, canaliculate above, hispidulous, bearing near middle 2 subsessile saucer- shaped glands, a second pair occasionally present at base of blade, the glands 1 to 2 mm. in diameter; leaves 10 to 15 cm. long (along midnerve), 12 to 20 cm. wide (between apices of lateral lobes), 3-lobed half to two-thirds the length of the blade (lobes variable, oblong, oblong-lanceolate, or broadly ovate- lanceolate, 2.5 to 6 cm. wide, acuminate or acute), cordate, 3-nerved, entire or shghtly undulate, membranous, dark green and minutely hispidulous with hooked hairs above, glabrous, (occasionally slightly scabrous), and mottled with dull dark red beneath; peduncles solitary or in pairs, 2 to 3.5 em. long, glabrous or sparingly hispidulous; bracts setaceous, 2 to 3 mm. long, borne on lower half of peduncle; flowers 3.5 to 6 em. wide, the tube patelliform, about 3 mm. long; sepals oblong-lanceolate, 1.5 to 2.5 em. long, 0.4 to 0.8 cm. wide, sparingly hispidulous and green without, glabrate and white, or pale rose, streaked longitudinally with violet within, terminating in a horn about 2 mm. long; petals ovate-lanceolate, 0.8 to 1.5 em. long, 0.5 to 0.7 em. wide, obtuse, streaked longitudinally with violet on both faces; corona filaments in a single series, filiform, narrowly ligulate, 1 to 2 em. long; operculum membranaceous, deep red, strongly plicate, incurved up to 5mm. high, minutely denticulate; nectar ring annular, less than 0.5 mm. high; limen membraneous, 1 to 2 mm. high, incurved, crenulate; gynophore about 1 em. long; stamens united to within 3 mm. of their tips, forming a mem- branous androecium, the upper portion free from the gynophore, about 2.5 mm. long, the lower portion closely sheathing the gynophore; ovary nar- rowly ovoid, obtuse, tapering at base, glabrous; styles clavate, 4.5 mm. long, recurved; stigmas saucer-shaped; fruit obovoid, about 10 cm. long, 3 cm. in diameter, green, white-spotted; seeds obovate. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,085, collected at La Hondura, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1200-1500 meters, March 9, 1926, by Paul C. Standley (no. 51917). JULY 19, 1926 MICHELSON: PRINCIPLES OF ALGONQUIAN LANGUAGES 369 Additional specimens examined (all Costa Rica) : Finca de Chirripé, Plains of Zent, altitude 200 meters, Pitter 16055 (U.S. N. M., Brit. Mus.), 16100 (Brit. Mus.). Tuilardn, altitude 750 meters, Valerio 14 (U.S. N. M.). Vicinity of Orosi, Province of Cart- ago, Pittter 16026 (U.S. N. M.); Standley 39673, 39720, 39793. Santa Maria de Dota Province of San José, Standley 41796. El Muiieco, on Rio Navarro, Province of Cartago, Standley 51389. La Estrella, Prov- ince of Cartago, Standley 39352. Quebrada Serena, southeast of Tilaran, Province of Guanacaste, Standley 46140 (all U. S. N. M.). Two of these specimens (P2ttzer 16055 and Valerio 14), have leaves less deeply lobed than are those of the type, and the pubescence is rather denser. The general appearance of Standley’s 46149 is quite different, the leaves drying a lighter green and the lateral lobes being much reduced. The flowers of all of the specimens here cited seem the same, and the differences in vege- tative characters are no greater than in many species of the family. This plant is not to be confused with Ceratosepalum micranthum Oersted? (later reduced to Passiflora ceratosepala Mast.). Ceratosepalum was segre- gated from Passiflora mainly on the basis of horned sepals. Among several specimens of Passifloraceae sent me by the Universitetets Botaniske Museum, Copenhagen, for study were two sheets labeled ‘“‘Ceratosepalum”’ in Oersted’s handwriting, which evidently are type material of Ceratosepalum micranthum. They prove to be Passiflora adenopoda DC., a fairly common species ranging from Mexico to northwestern South America. ANTHROPOLOGY. The fundamental principles of Algonquian languages... TRUMAN MicHELSON, Bureau of American Eth- nology. | The grammatical processes are prefixing, suffixing, reduplication of various types, vocalic change, and composition. All objects are class- ified as animate and inanimate. Singular and plural are distinguished; as also the first person plural exclusive and inclusive; difference and identity of third persons are carefully kept apart by grammatical devices. In the verb there are frequently two stems, and sometimes more. Of these those which under no circumstances can occur in the initial position are very few in number. When two stems, both of which can occur in the initial position, are combined in a single com- pound, it is quite conventional as to which precedes or follows. The phonetic changes resulting from such combinations are relatively few and are of a simple character. It should be noted that a number of stems indicating parts of the body occur in the second position only. 7 OERSTED, Rech. Fl. Amer. Centr. 18. pl. 17. 1863. 1 Summary of an address given before Section L of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, January 3, 1925. Received May 26, 1926. | 370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13 And it should be stated that the auxiliaries are few in number and occur in the second position only, and frequently are entirely distinct according to whether the subject is animate or inanimate. The num- ber of moods is very great. The subject pronouns of the independent mood are clearly related to, and in some cases are identical with, the possessive pronouns, and are partly prefixed, partly suffixed, partly both. Some of the objective pronouns of the independent mood are the same as some of the subordinate moods, and are suffixed. The inclusive form in this mood (and others) is clearly related to the second person plural. The forms of the independent mood with the third person animate, singular and plural, as subjects and the first and second person singular, the inclusive and exclusive, and the second person plural as objects are really passives in construction. All the pro- nouns of the subordinate moods are invariably suffixed. The objec- tive pronouns are largely the same in the various subordinate moods while several of the subjective pronouns are fundamentally different. Yet in many cases the objective and subjective pronouns are so fused, and at times even modal elements with them, that analysis into the constituent elements is not possible. A participial is formed by changing the stem vowel of the first vowel of the initial stem; the pronominal elements in this case are obviously derived from other sources with but slight changes. The complexities of this mood, however, have not been thus far adequately treated. The following voices are distinguished: active, middle, passive, reflexive, and reciprocal. The last two are formed by special suffixes, but the ordi- nary intransitive verbal pronouns are used. Atleast two passives are common, one where the agent is either expressed or understood, the other where the agent is not expressed and is indefinite. ‘The pro- nominal elements of the last, in the case of the independent mode, are allied partially to the ordinary intransitive verbal pronouns. Other passives apparently exist, but their exact function is not accurately known. One appears to be very indefinite and to occur only with an indefinite subject. Every active, middle, and passive verb (with a few exceptions) requires an instrumental particle showing by what the action was done, e.g., by the hand, by the foot, by heat, by cutting, etc. The middle voice employs the ordinary intransitive verbal pronouns with these particles. From what has been said it is clear that in some Algonquian languages the verbal pronominal elements theoretically must run into the thousands. These instrumental particles are comparatively few in number (in Fox about forty), and JULY 19, 1926 _ PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 371 usually differ in form according to whether the logical object is animate or inanimate; in the case of the middle voice the subject (animate or, rarely, inanimate) determines the choice. It should be noted that often these particles are purely formal, having lost their original significance; in such cases it must be known by rote as to which sets go with any given verbal stem. The instrumental particles can be combined with initial stems, and follow them if there is no second stem; if there is a second stem (whether wholly non-initial or one that may occur in the initial position in another verbal compound), they follow this. The typical Algonquian verb in subordinate moods would be: first stem, second stem, instrumental particle, objective pronoun, subjective pronoun, modal element.: Temporal relations in some dia- lects are expressed by what for convenience may be termed prefixes, though there are indications that some are strictly not these, in others by combining initial stems. Reduplication of various types occurs, to express ideas of intensity, duration, distribution. When the whole stem is not reduplicated, a longi of the first syllable of the initial stem (which alone can be reduplicated) is replaced by 4; under similar con- ditions 6 also by 4. ‘The structure of nouns follows the general ar- rangement of verbs, but there are some suffixes with generic meanings. _ It may be added that abstract nouns are extremely common. A gen- eral, vocative, locative, and obviative (and in some dialects a sur- obviative) case are distinguished. ‘The independent pronouns are patently related to the possessive pronouns. The demonstrative pronouns express such ideas as near and visible, removed but visible, past time, etc. What has been said above applies especially to the Eastern-Central dialects; Blackfoot and Arapaho have specialized in opposite directions; so we may be sure that neither presents a primitive Algonquian grammar. Secondary phonetic changes and some special- izations have in some instances obliterated the principles enunciated above in certain of the Eastern dialects; but in almost all cases we may show by comparative methods what originally existed. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES — PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 938TH MEETING The 938th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, April 17, 1926. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President AULT at 8:15, with 32 persons in attendance. The program for the evening consisted of two papers. The first by H. 372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 13 L. DrypEN was on the Measurement of the performance of desk fans, and was discussed by Messrs. Breit, Dickinson, PAwLING, TUCKERMAN and HUMPHREYS. The common method of measuring the output of desk and bracket type electric fans consists in the measurement of the velocity distribution along one or more diameters by means of a Pitot tube and inclined gauge or equivalent device, the results being integrated to give the total volume of air flowing. These measurements were shown to be subject to a systematic error due to the angular inclination of the airflow to the Pitot tube. A general description was given of the type of airflow and of the principles in- volved in the cooling action of the fan. Various quantities which have been suggested as measures of the output were discussed, including volume per unit time, momentum per unit time, and energy per unit time. As a result the momentum per unit time was suggested as the best criterion of cooling power since (1) it is sensibly constant at all distances from the fan; (2) it is a satisfactory compromise between several theoretical considerations; and (3) it is readily and accurately measurable by the thrust reaction on the fan. Methods of measurement of the thrust were described and a par- ticular form of instrument was suggested for convenient use. (Author’s abstract.) The second paper on the program was by W. W. CoBLentz on Impres- sions of the Sumatra eclipse expedition, and was illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. HUMPHREYS and AULT. The speaker was one of a party of four, under the leadership of Dr. H. T. Stetson of the Astronomical Laboratory, Harvard University, that went to Sumatra to observe the solar eclipse of January 14, 1926. Leaving San Francisco in November, 1925, after spending a month in the eclipse camp at Benkoelen, Sumatra, they returned by way of the Suez Canal and Europe in March, 1926. After discussing various factors that affect eclipse observations the speaker exhibited an extensive series of lantern slides of scenes along the route as well as in the eclipse camp. There were elght expeditions in the field to make observations on the solar eclipse; one on the east coast of Sumatra, one in the center of the island, and six in Benkoelen on the west coast. Only the latter expedition had good weather during most of the time of totality. In view of the numerous factors that enter into the success of such an undertaking (the weather, and health of the members, unforeseen accidents, etc.), it seems desirable to consider the results obtained by all the parties concerned, as a whole; and when so judged the results obtained were a success. The Harvard-Bureau of Standards eclipse party had six projects; in- cluding thermopiles for measuring the radiation of the corona, a lumenom- eter for measuring the brightness at totality, a silvered quartz lens camera for photographing the corona in ultra light, and two photographic methods for obtaining the color index. The lumenometer measurements show that the normal illumination at totality was brighter than that of the eclipse of January 24, 1925. The speaker had an opportunity to study the native fireflies and glow worms in Sumatra, and vegetation on the moving sands in Egypt, the latter being of interest in connection with the question of variation in colora- tion on the surface of Mars. Unusual phenomena, such as the “green flash”’ at sunset, and the sheen over the ocean from the zodiacal light, were commented upon in concluding the address. (Author’s abstract.) JULY 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 373 An informal communication on Gravity variations due to the moon was presented by Mr. A. S. HAWKESWORTH. 939TH MEETING The 939th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, May 1, 1926. The meeting was called to order by President Bowle at 8:16, with 31 persons in attendance. The program for the evening consisted of two papers. The first by W. J. Peters was entitled The 27-day interval in earth currents. It was illus- trated, with lantern slides and was discussed by Dr. BAuvEr. Dr. Chree and others have shown by statistical investigations the recur- rence of average high and average low values on the 27th day after days of selected maximum and minimum in long unbroken records of magnetic measures, such as the international character numbers, the daily ranges in magnetic elements. The high correlation found by Dr. Bauer between the variations, in terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and earth- currents indicates the desirability of applying the same statistical method of investigating the 27 day recurrency to those related phenomena. The subject of this paper is a description of the process as applied to the earth-current observations published in the bulletins of Ebro Observatory in Spain between 1910 and 1924 inclusive and the exhibition of the results. The daily ranges in the potential of the northerly-extending line, ex- pressed in millivolts per kilometer were transferred by adding machine to strips of paper, the values for each day following one another in regular order without any intermissions excepting the missing observations. Ac- cording to the usual practice the 5 highest and the 5 lowest values of each month were selected and the particular day on which each value occurs was designated n. They were marked on the strips, after which it became a simple matter to pick out by means of a device designed by Mr. C. C. Ennis the values that occur on any day desired, the (n + r)th day, following or preceding the days, nth days, on which the selected values occur. The values of r were taken from —2 to +2 inclusive, in order to bring out the mean character of the selected maximum or minimum values, and from +23 to +32 inclusive not only to show the character of corresponding mean values on and around the 27th day but also to develop any other recurrency interval that might exist within these limits. Results were given for the following periods: 1910-1914, which covers the earliest published records of the Observatory; 1915-1919, which in- cludes the year of sunspot maximum, 1917, and the year of magnetic maxi- mum, 1919; 1922-1924, which covers the period after the intermission of one year, 1921, during which the apparatus was overhauled, up to the most recent published results; 1910-1920, which covers the period of another investigation; and 1910-1924, which includes all data available. The paper will appear in Terrestrial Magnetism. (Author’s abstract.) The second paper was by E. O. Hu.surt on The spectrum of hydrogen in the stars and in the laboratory. It was illustrated with lantern slides, and was discussed by Pawuinc, Breit, Laporte, and HUMPHREYS. The Balmer series of hydrogen, the simplest series of the simplest of terrestrial elements, finds its most striking development in the spectra of the stars and in the “flash spectrum” of the sun. As many as thirty to thirty-five lines of the series are observed in the light from these extra- terrestrial sources. The characters of the lines themselves vary greatly 3/4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL... 16, No. 13 in the different spectra, being bright (emission), dark (absorption), narrow, broad, singly, doubly and triply reversed, etc. The production of these lines and their variations with the relatively weak apparatus of the ter- restrial laboratory has been accomplished only in part. The laboratory investigations have, however, contributed definite knowledge of the phys- ical conditions in the stellar ‘atmospheres, and further investigations offer great promise. The laboratory observations of the emission series to the twentieth Balmer line and of the absorption series to the tenth line indicate that great ex- panses of glowing hydrogen at low pressures are necessary for. the full de- velopment of the series as seen in the stellar spectra. The Balmer lines broaden very greatly with pressure, current density, foreign gases, etc. Studies of the intensity distribution across the individual broadened lines have led to the conclusion that the broadening is caused by the electric fields of the ions and electrons of the radiating gas. This theory of broad- ening is applied to the wide hydrogen lines of the stars. From the ob- served widths of these together with the Saha theory of temperature ioniza- tion the conclusions are indicated that the pressures in the stellar reversing layers are low and that there may be many electrons in these layers. Doubly reversed Balmer lines are observed in the laboratory, but as yet no triple reversals. Stellar atmospheres which give rise to the double and triple reversals may be pictured with some certainty. The cause of the asymmetric reversals observed in some stellar spectra can not be said to be definitely known. (Author’s abstract.) H. A. Marmer, Recording Secretary. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY S96TH MEETING At the 596th meeting of the Anthropological Society on March 16th, W. H. Jackson, photographer to the Hayden Geological Surveys, 1870-79, reviewed his experiences of fifty years ago among cliff ruins and Pueblo villages in Colorado and New Mexico, illustrating his subject with slides from original photographs. While engaged in photographing in the San Juan Mountains, in 1874, a chance meeting with prospectors who told of some wonderful cliff dwellings not far from their camp on the Rio La Plata led to the discovery, or more properly the first published account, of the Mesa Verde ruins. (Letter to the New York Tribune, November 3d by Ernest Ingersoll.) Following their advice that something worth while might be found in that region, Mr. Jackson left his main party in camp at Baker’s Park and with Mr. INGERSOLL, and two packers, made a hasty side trip to the miners’ camp where he met JoHN Moss, who had traveled extensively over the southwest and who volunterred to ouide the party through Mancos Canyon in the Mesa Verde, where he said the best examples of ancient cliff dwellings were to be found. On a six day ride taking in the Mesa Verde, the McElmo canyon, and the Hovenweep valley, many of these ruins were discovered and photographed, but the greatest and most interesting group of all, now the main feature of the Mesa Verde National Park, was not dis- covered until fourteen years later. The results of this first expedition among the cliff dwellings were of such interest that exploration was continued the following year into Utah and Arizona. Mr. W. H. Houmus also led a party into this region, which, while primarily engaged in geological work, devoted much time to archeological research, paying particular attention to the towers of the San Juan Valley. Mr. J ACKSON’S party followed the San Juan JULY 19, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 3/795 River to the Chinle, and thence to the Hopi pueblos. Returning northwards they visited the Abajo and LoSal Mountain region and then followed the Montezuma Canyon back to the starting point. Many interesting cliff, cave, and town ruins were discovered and photographed, including nearly every canyon, mesa or valley throughout the whole region containing evi- dences of prehistoric occupation. The Southern Utes, as well as tribes farther west, were troublesome this year, Mr. GARDNzER’s topographical party being attacked near the Abajo Peaks by a large party, with the loss of three animals and all his camp equipment. Mr. Houmss’ party came near losing all its - animals, and Mr. Jackson also had frequent encounters, but without loss. In 1877 an extended trip was made through New Mexico to the Hopi pueblos in Arizona, during which Mr. Jackson made a detailed study of the Chaco Canyon ruins, and with the reports which followed, concluded his archeo- logical work for the Survey. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Wiuis T. Les, geologist of the United States Geological Survey, known to the public through his recent scientific studies and surveys of the Carlsbad and other noted caverns of the country, died at his home in Wash- ington on June 17, in his sixty-second year. Dr. T. A. JAacar, director of the Hawaiian Voleano Observatory of the U. 8. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lecture at the Interior Depart- ment on June 12 on The recent eruption of Mauna Loa. Dr. N. L. Bowen of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, sailed for England on June 5, to spend the summer in field work on the igneous rocks of the British Isles, in company with several British petrologists. JOHN W. VANDERBILT, 8. SPENCER NYE and Martin J. BueRGER have been appointed junior geologists in the U. 8S. Geological Survey and have been assigned field work in the west. B. 8. Butter and T. 8. Lovertne of the U. 8. Geological Survey have been assigned to the State of Colorado to begin codperative geological surveys in that State designed to aid in the development of its metalliferous mineral resources. The research may extend over a number of years. The new officers of the American Geophysical Union as elected for the period July 1, 1926 to June 30, 1929, at the annual meeting of the Union in April last, are: Chairman, H.S. Wasurneton; Vice-Chairman, G. W. LirTLe- HALES. (J. A. FLEMING continues as General Secretary through June 30, 1928.) The newly elected officers of sections for the corresponding period are: (a) Geodesy—Chairman, WiLu1amM Bowie; Vice-Chairman, F. Wricut (W. D. LAMBERT continues as Secretary through June 30, 1928); (b) Seismology—Chairman, L. H. Apams; Vice-Chairman, N. H. Hecx (D. L. Hazarp continues as Secretary through June 30, 1928); (c) Meteorology— Chairman, H. H. Kimpatu; Vice-Chairman, G. W. LirrLeHALss; Secretary, A. J. Henry; (d) Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity—-Chairman, N. H. Heck; Vice-Chairman, J. H. DELLINGER; Secretary, J. A. FLEMING; (e) Oceanography—Chairman, T. WayLAND VAUGHAN; Vice-Chairman, G. T. ' 376 JOURNAL OF. THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 13 © Rup#; Secretary, Austin H. Cuarx; (f) Volcanology—Chairman, T. A. JaGGcaR, Jr.; Vice-Chairman, F. E. Wricut (R. B. SosmMan continues as Secretary through June 30, 1928). The United States Geological Survey has established a Section of Volean- ology in the Geologic Branch, effective July 1, of which T. A. Jacear, Jr., will be Volcanologist in charge. Mr. Kirk Bryan of the United States Geological Survey has been ap- pointed Lecturer in Physiography at Harvard University for the year 1926-27. N. L. Wiumuer has been appointed mining engineer and F. W. Houz- HEIMER associate mining engineer in the U. S. Geological Survey. They will make investigations in Alaska. A. M. Pipe has been appointed assistant geologist in the Water-Resources Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey, and will be assigned to ground-water investigations. H. D. Miser, who has been temporarily State Geologist of Tennessee since September 1, 1925, has returned to the U. 8. Geological Survey and has been appointed Geologist in charge of areal geology, in the Geologic Branch, as successor to Sidney Paige, resigned. GEMS 1 2 page x © ont month ch 4 ‘ a | } ted societies twenty-seventh ca 4 ¥ lia he of aecades "So i + s of the CONTENTS ORIGINAL PaPmrs Page Geology.—Notes on the igneous rocks of the northeast West Indies and on the geology of the Island of Anguilla. THomas WaYLAND VAUGHAN...........- 345 Geology.—The geological age of Tuolumne Table Mountain, California. OLIvER Bo HA oo ey Re Uae ee A Re Sine sis wae yey plete be Cn 358 Botany.—Notes on Disterigma. S. F. BuaKe&................... CUPRA Ss Rp mee PCY 361 Botany.—Tetrastylis, a genus of Passifloraceae. Exusworta P. Kinuip......... 365 Anthropology.—The fundamenta! principles of Algonquian languages. TRUMAN MICHBESON’ oe. ea be ke oe be Cvs wie bie ce sina oie Dee bly vale! crew wie nan a or 369 PROCEEDINGS The Philosophioal: Society «0. os... cvs ge whie alerage sn eo ng he On CER a ee 371 The Anthropological Society... oes 0 py. 0. Ls er 374 Screntiric Notes anp NEWS 210.0022 2 000.5 eee vse oe oe ee ee ee 375 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Gzorce K. Burcsss, Bureau of Standards. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SiusBee, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: W. D. LamBurt, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Vol. 16 — Avausr 19, 1926 No. 14 ty - tf. ; pS JOURNAL «....... OF THE TASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS ). F. Hewett S. J. Maucsiy Aanes CHasz BOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L, H. Apams 8. A. Ronwzr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GoLpMAN G. W. Stosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY _R,. F. Griaes J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. WIcHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royan anp Guitrorp AVES. BattTiImMorE, MARYLAND . eo Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the hie Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for } in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to — present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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C, European Agent: Weldon & Wesley, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. : Exchanges.—The JourNAL does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy - 5 OIG t 4 = 23.02) a » et ak ye dy te ‘a «’ F - ~ a | 4" ca J aa ba. 4 < ou "| er ober ee - +? Sa hy Ae © Lay» **, ‘ A 4 ” * Vax a 3 rue * Se ah cae = See ei ; 4 es ee ot RR eee es Oe eee ria et Lt rs . 5 Store Se ee i eT. ne 7 Se ee a a eS ee ee Pee ee ee Fe eee ; Ae pe Ee oe A eS eee ee i ee See JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 16 Aucust 19, 1926 | No. 14 MATHEMATICS.—Transformations associated with the Lorentz group and their wnvariants.'. CHARLES Bararr, U. 8. Patent Office. (Communicated by L. H. Apams.) The aim of the scientist is duofold; first to describe the processes of flux in Nature by means of transformation equations, then to reveal amidst this continual change those entities that are immutable and unchangeable. In an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, MacMahon,’ the president of Section A, called attention to this” alm and inHasived its importance in the following words, “In any subject of inquiry, there are certain entities, the mutual relations of which under various conditions it is desirable to ascertain. A certain combination of these entities may be found to have an unalterable value when the entities are submitted to certain processes or are made the subjects of certain operations. The theory of in- variants in its widest scientific meaning determines these combina- tions, elucidates their properties and expresses results when possible in terms of them. The great principle of chemical science which asserts that when elementary or compound bodies combine with one another the total weight of the materials is unchanged, illustrates one case in point. Another illustration is a fundamental principle in physics, —that when a given mass of an ideal gas is under the operation pressure X volume of varying pressure and temperature the quantity Tee as is invariant.” With the advent of the theory of relativity in recent years with a scheme of transformations radically different from the transforma- 1 Received February 19, 1926. *Report Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1901. 377 378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 - tions of classical physics, the question naturally arises as to the nature of the invariant entities associated with it. The most fundamental invariant of this theory is the interval between two world events. Some other special invariants are the velocity of light through vacuous space and electric charge. It is the aim of this paper in continuation of the results presented in a former paper? to elucidate some of the quantities and expressions that remain invariant to a special rela- tivity transformation. ‘The results are set down in a mathematical way with little or no comment. ‘Their physical interpretation is re- served for a future paper. In what follows most of the transformations are taken from Ein- stein’s original paper of 1905 on the special relativity theory. The invariants are derived by the methods outlined in Wright’s Jn- variants of Quadratic Differential Forms.* The invariants which are derived constitute a set of independent invariants from which other dependent invariants may be derived by the ordinary processes of algebra and calculus. The scheme of notation is as follows: the quantities accented are those that are observed by an observer moving uniformly relatively to a second observer, who represents the corresponding magnitudes by unaccented symbols. All references to light include any radiation which is propagated through vacuum with the velocity c given by the ratio of the electro- magnetic to the electrostatic unit. . I. KINEMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR INVARIANTS In the former paper? the transformations for velocities and accelera- tions were given. It may be noted that the most general function of the space time coordinates, that remains invariant to the transformation of space time coordinates is Ea = CP. y, 2) (4) Similarly, the most general invariant function which involves ve- locities only is es p (YE=H 4) Ul; Uz where F is any arbitrary function of the arguments. 3 This JOURNAL, 16: 81-87. 1926. *Wricut, Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms. 1908. ' Op. cit. AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 379 It may also be noted that the invariants of the accelerations are deducible as the solutions of the simultaneous equations —du, du, du, dw, dw, dw, 3) 1 oe Uy Ul, SUAD, 2U,0, + U,W,. 2u,We+ UW, Co There are five independent solutions, three of which are Ve = uw Uy W, — d . Se ae C The other two will follow from the complete integration of these equations. The form of Wz G-% is of interest, for it has the form of a space time curvature aa dt In the theory of the radiation from electrons, it is sometimes neces- sary to go one derivative further and consider third derivatives of the space with respect to the time, or the time rate of change of acceleration, which is the equivalent. We will denote the derivative of the acceleration with respect to the time by the symbol K. Its component parallel to the X axis is transformed by means of the equation — Pes See + == Se UV U, ‘ VU Uz (1 =) (1 - =) The invariant involving it, the acceleration and the velocity is (13) 2 3 Wi, — K.(1 - %) Nie din nee A: (14) 380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 This section will be concluded with the transformations for momenta G and Gibb’s heat function R, which were deduced by Planck® from a combination of the principle of least action with the principle of relatwwity. | The transformations of these quantities are: Here G denotes momenta, & denotes the Gibb’s Heat Function under constant pressure RK=H+pV where # denotes the total energy of the body, p the pressure acting on it, V its volume. The fundamental invariant involving these two quantities G and Ris: ee or Ci Pine Aula sacs at These transformations may be written in the equivalent form Ree (= 4G) C C ee (s) C C and the invariant therefor in the form ee —— C : C. ; 6 PLhancK, Ann. d. Physik: 1. 1908. AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 381 II. ELECTRODYNAMIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR INVARIANTS Electrodynamic quantities are transformed, according to the special theory of relativity, by means of the scheme of transformation identities: me Xx i eee y' =6(y—*w) M’ = 6(m+"z) | wi = (2+ 2m) w'=s(w —*y) /o2*3), a ee ie Uy V Ys | a ae | a(1 - :) | U; | as U,V i) 1 — C These symbols have the same significance and meaning that is ordinarily attached to them in the fundamental Maxwell-Lorentz equations: 2 (22 + pu] = Gel G Yo 1 OH cp Ur (2) div L-=fp- div H =o J The transformation identities for the electric and magnetic intensi- ties may be exhibited in somewhat different form by letting a ue ¢ = tan~'— = cos !8 382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 in which case, the equations have the form ie Pee oo Y’ = Y cos ¢@ + Ni sin @ N’ = N cos 6 + Yi sin 9 Z’ = Zecos6 — Mi sin 6 M’ = M cos 6 — Z sin 6 | (3) These equations may be derived by integrating the system of simultaneous differential equations CNS Aan de Ted bet oli iene nies céu a a DO ia le == 1 Shs =i Ni = N There are five independent invariants of electric and magnetic intensity. They are | ; v2 2 We 5 6) Z? — M?’ YM+ZN | AuG. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 383 The most general invariant function of electric and magnetic intensities is an arbitrary function of these, namely, the function PF Gs BE, Van 2 — Ma, ae) 6) MN+ YZ As a special example of an invariant function of electric and magnetic intensities, it might be interesting to note in passing, the Lagrangian function (X2 + Y2 + 72) — (12 + M? + N?) Let us consider now the transformation identities for p, uz, Uy, Uz. The system of differential equations from which these may be derived by integration are mee Mie due = dp 68 3 BS St = ime Us aT OM RT Up 1 v 2 2 2 2 pe G € C G C with the familiar condition that when v = O then PP Uz = Uz U, = Uy U, = Uz Uy : : ies (7) p VC = uz The most general function of these which is invariant to the Lorentz transformation and the associated transformations above is: fF (, Uy, = p Me = 62.5 |. 102.01) -56.7| 49.2 |. = | 107-6 (eeaeee te. 25. .) 137.7) 63.0") 60.0 | — | 45.9 | 171.0) 79.8) 69.7 | . — 73.1 Wovember.......'.. 117A) B8296-56-0) | — "41.4 |. 206.0) - 87.4) 80.8 |. — 59.5 Merember:.-...: 1.) 124.1) 54.0) 52.9 | — | 49.6 |.267.1) 114.1) 88.3; — 50.9 PEVET ARO. <5. 0. ! | 121.2) 57.4 | 56.6 | 50.6 | 54.0 | 132.5 99.3} 51.7 | 48.9 | 138.6 resistance; while the Radio Corporation‘ regulates the intensity of the local signal and introduces it by means of a calibrated mutual inductance. The Radio Corporation method is of especial interest coc le iy. i. 1ds B15 19238. pewoc. 1. Rois, 11: 661. 1923. 400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 | since it is identical in principle with the methods commonly used for radio field intensity measurement in England, France and Germany. At the Bureau of Standards, long-wave field intensities are measured TABLE 3.—AVERAGE SIGNAL INTENSITY AND ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES FOR Str. Asstse (FT), Botinas (KET), Naven (AGS), Monte GranpE (LPZ) AND LEAFIELD (GBL) In Microvouts PER METER j A.M. P.M, 1925 : Stee Se eee UFT | KET | AGS | LPZ | GBL| Dist. | UFT | KET | AGS | LPZ Dist. Jay. ee. Aerie ee 31.9} 54.2) 20.0) 54.2) — | 26.0) 44.8 | 52.4 | 34.7]; — 39.6 iM ebrUarye. aseacts a. 35.6) 45.4) 24.6) 57.1) — | 44.5) 35.8 | 56.7 | 35.1 | = 76.2 March.............| 36.9) 49.4) 27.1} 5527) — | 56.8) 29.4 | 48.0 | 24.4) 26°38) 11971 HN 0) RR OB occ oe 44.8) 59.2) 24.7) 41.8) — | 67.3) 28.0 | 45.9 | 18.8 | 19.7 | 194.2 Vaio tse Anse ae 46.1} 56.4} 32.9} 49.0) 15.5) 46.2] 27.5 | 41.9 | 17.4 | 23.5 | 145.0 lumens! ce Hae seene 46.8) .53.7| 37.5) 40.2) 17.9) 51.3) 18.5 | 23.4 | 16.0 | =") 217-4 July...............| 45.4) 58.0)°35.8) 39.9) 19.6) 42.5) 28.6 | 36.6124 ee eae JAMS UWSIGet Eos wccte: 53.1} 62.1) 46.5) 45.6) 23.2) 32.7) 28.0 | 43.0 | 22.9] — | 185.5 eptember: is... . 50.6) 70.6) 48.6) 45.9) 21.7| 38.7) 33.3 | 46.5 | 24.7 | — 88.2 October: ys. 47.5| 66.7) 35.8) 44.9] 21.5) 38.7) 46.2 | 69.5 | 38.5} — 58.5 Nowmemben ssene cae 41.6) 63.0) 28.1) 50.7) 17.1} 34.0) 56.7 | 65.0 | 38.5 | — 52.2 Decemibers>.:. nee | 48.5} 70.4) 24.1) 60.3} 23.6) 41.6) 71.3 | 78.0 | 49.2 | — 48.5 AVETASC cee 44.1} 59.1) 32.1} 48.7| 20.0 43.4) 387.3 | 50.5 | 28.4) — | 119.4 TABLE 4.—AveRAGE SIGNAL INTENSITY AND ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES FOR Ex Cayrny (NAU) in Microvouts PER METER A.M. P.M 1925 piel» NAU Dist. NAU Dist + BE VONUTEW aA g eral at Ge ee 6, Sey Poe NAR 6 pe Mellon | 9.5 59.3 8.5 Heommary eee eer iin ee Oe ee DU 3 ames (2-2 2256 VDT Pee i VS ERE EE ok Do. 2 22.0 44.2 44.0 YANO} 20 DR ORea tans Set RA ORAS 8 bk Ue ED) AL 25.6 42.4 77.9 Weve ek ee. 2 Ro en oe 80.3 28.6 52.4 77.4 SF UERGS ce cs.raes Ake SUAS Mer enen eee 83.3 PASY. Wb 49.1 129.1 Why aA a A MRS aa ig 77.6 98.1 52.1 104.5 JANIE UISIEM 2's Sl) Hep i a Gagan 80.2 15.0 65.0 91.8 Sepiemibers nooo eeatte deck Lee ee (22 22 63.9 46.1 October ores eee ele 81.5 26.1 62.6 a) INovembert 5.4: a, Sete eee ee 73.0 16.5 60.7 23.0 December. oe. ate ee oe ee 77.0 PAM 4 89.7 22.5 IAVORAG CEILI E:, SEN ROR ee ace TAZ PASAY: 59.4 56.8 with the telephone comparator® in which a known audio-frequency signal is matched against the signal as heard in the telephones of CIProce Lede eee ease aes auG. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 401 the receiving set. Special calibrations of the apparatus are made from time to time either by means of a local generator of from signals of known intensity. The agreement between the three systems of “measurement was very satisfactory, when the disturbances were not too heavy; the differences being generally less than 20 per cent on distant signals, with still better agreement on the nearer stations. The tables and curves® giving the results of the year’s work at the Bureau of Standards are self-explanatory. In addition to the data for 1925, the curves show also some comparisons of the field intensities of various stations and the strength of the atmospheric disturbances 80 60 MIICROVOLTS PER METER 40, : 2 : z 2a 3 : = © We ebaacanas cocesdorestss esas sessenae Eo 192. 1923 1924. 1925 Fig. 1.—Annual average signal, 10 a.m., 1922, 1923, 1924, and 1925 in former years due to difficulty in making accurate measurements of the actual field strength of atmospheric disturbances the results shown in the curves of atmospheric disturbances are expressed in equivalent microvolts per meter. The seasonal variations of the continental European stations as observed in’ Washington now seem to be fairly clear. The 10 a.m. observations give all daylight path conditions, though during the 6 The measurements are taken when possible on moderate speed transmission, as speeds above fifty words per minute are found to reduce the received field intensity in a marked degree. It is also to be noted that the two Ste. Assise stations formerly UFT and UFU are now FT and FU, while the old Nauen POZ is now AGS. 402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 shortest days of winter the Nauen observations, with 6 hours dif- ference of time, have to be taken somewhat before 10 a.m. The winter A.M. signals of the northern European stations are weak in America, owing either to the approach of sunset in Europe, or to the proximity of the arctic darkness along the signal path as suggested by Espenschied, Anderson and Bailey’ or possibly to a combination a He Ht a a i . i : a He Cee fee oT HEE cL MICROVOLTS PER METER tai! H Faw (7 Rowe wl Beers 7 ne We ore a 9 + tee ce ea HE EE Hein iia a i ry SG esterase tee gaaee! Soe SS eg oO 1922 1923 1924 (925 Fig. 2.—Annual average atmospheric disturbances and signal, 3. P.m., 1922, 1923, 1924, and 1925. of these causes. The 10 a.m. signals become in general stronger through the spring and summer and reach a distinct maximum about September, after which they fall to their low winter values. ‘The course of the 3 P.M. signals which are transmitted at about 8 P.M. in western Europe or 9 P.M. in central Europe and hence have a path of partial darkness during most of the year is the reverse of that of ? Proc. I.) R. Bs, 142%: 1928: AuG. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 403 the 10 a.m. all daylight signals. The maximum occurs in mid-winter with a minimum in summer. The 10 a.m. and 3 P.M. curves cross -each other as a rule in March and October. The 3 P.M. winter maxima are particularly strong in the case of the longer wave sta- tions, Bordeaux LY, Ste. Assise FU, and Nauen AGW. This strengthening of the 3 p.m. European signals in winter, with darkness extending over part of the signal path, does not seem to SEEGE SHSNS SERRE BEES BER Bees ee ; eoeercneeattandeeseaeeesicsaied Pee BE t Gaeaeeesee + mee wee Pls Eee MICROVOLT'S PER METER Hl uN SEEEEGGSEy SEEGEEEESE LIONTHS Fig. 3.—Nauen (AGS) and Bolinas (KET) average signal, 10 a.m. and 3 p.m., 1925 agree with the observations of Espenschied, Anderson and Bailey on signals between England and America, who found low intensities for partly dark signal path. We have, however, no observations on European stations of a wave length below 12,000 m., while the most pronounced drop in intensity as noted by the Bell observers was at much shorter wave lengths. The west-east transcontinental signals from KET, Bolinas, Cali- fornia (three hours time difference), which have an all daylight path during both observation periods show practical equality of the 10 a.m. 404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 and 3 P.M. signals in winter, while in summer the afternoon signals fall well below those of the morning. ‘The same can also be said in regard to the signals of NAU, Cayey, Porto Rico (approximately - south-north transmission) at a distance of 2500 km. In the case of Monte Grande, Argentina, LPZ (south-north transmission) at a distance of 8800 km. and with a little more than an hour’s difference in time, there has been until recently no regular afternoon -trans- mission. ‘The morning signals from this station have shown no great seasonal variations, which was to be expected since the signal path is 9OFS See 8o =EEEEE SEE | im, <7 8 Ol 50 FOEH MICROVOLTS PER METER . oO J Fe Gel A ™ J Vv A S Oo MV D MONTHS . Fig. 4.—El Cayey (NAU) and Monte Grande (LPZ) average signal, 10 a.m. and 3 P.M., 1925. divided nearly equally between the northern and southern hemi- spheres. From the data available it seems that the afternoon signals are much weaker than those of the morning in winter and spring, and it is probable that this difference persists throughout the year. The cause of this weakening of signals in the afternoon, which is observed on practically all stations in summer, even when there is comparatively little difference of time and no question of sunset or darkness effect, is not clear. It may be connected with absorption due to ionization in the lower atmosphere along the signal path, produced by the same conditions which produce atmospheric disturbances in the afternoon along the same path.° 8 Several years ago Navy operators in Panama reported weak signals from Washing- ton whenever bad disturbance days occurred in the eastern United States. AuG. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 405 In Fig. 8, the monthly averages of the 3 p.m. signals from Bordeaux (LY) received in Washington and those of the corresponding signals taken at Meudon near Paris (d = 510 km.) are shown. The re- markable agreement in seasonal variation at these two receiving stations, which has not been observed in other signals taken at moderate and long distances, and which did not occur before LY’s change of wave length from 23,400 m. to 18,900 m., indicates that the variations observed in Bordeaux signals are due to causes in the neighborhood of the transmitting station and not in the general trans- : SESE EEE ES eee am a EERE EERE EEE EGE C EE AEE Pe EEE EEE EET 550 ooaegsuada ra eeaeesenceenndies gereueseyeeataereratats Biseroat FETE ! So ee PERE EE EE EERE EE EEC AEE EEE EE Ee EEE EEE Seu CaueT eee oe iT eetEDEagEaTont geese ise fosartareasgueastocteat suoe cawen So SEECUUTSEEEoeeTE : iS Suen ES ETe beau Gees Ubeue Quece resale CuUse Sezer 500k: Sorosetitiesrtioriirercas eeseeeeseeetd oesistess ieaeaia de nea [o} ro a SEE Hee HH PEE 4 oH nae roa a a agae an He Boy beeeeoooes guegeeueu one gpa Be SeSEE Prey gc CgeEeEea ce CES eeecnce: Eee 4 gopesyossezavensaut stg evonfevazeczesyeysuferaes Heneeeesecieitas 45 gua bubeg bbve=esura cscst passe Goes! dobasgvasaransataseeazaceasasasgreas ereraraezsete pause eee! Be cteageepeuus i: sop, tanesesesaueeney vasroceesc esas geese suseqaaagasues = gobdrasiasesaeers eee Seee face uses sesev0Sses 2eerse 40 = cree Pease ae Eapeshs bueeefaeespeueennes ESSeSE i cf ereieeelts H aa EEE y = if : a ra se ae HH Fu aaa y= 3S +H if eon tees sug ceeseeay’ a & Sify PS py Sue alle a [eee seeet pe eee z X 30 ! = HEH N Serer S25 eeeetiast & aaee % S 2 iH seenece cco i 4} yt Lyt . aun a ei He i 10. aa nes 50 oO J F M A MM J J A S Oo NV /B: MONTHS Fig. 5.—Average atmospheric disturbances, 3 p.m., for 1922, 1923, 1924, and 1925. f = 24 ke. (12500 m.). mission paths. In addition to the agreement in seasonal variations at Washington and Meudon, it is to be noticed that there has been a gradual increase in Bordeaux’s intensity at both receiving stations which is out of proportion to the average increase in antenna current. During the year a slight modification has been made in the constants of the exponential term e-“ of the Austin-Cohen transmission formula, which has resulted in a great improvement between the observed and calculated values at the greater distances without impairing the | 406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14 | accuracy of the formula at moderate distances. The value of the | exponent, u, expressed in km and wave lengths, is now 1.4x10°%d. looong ae Cine instead of ha aires | where d is the distance and \ the wave length, or expressed in km. | and ke., u = 4.57X10-> dx f*:®. This change approximately doubles BEE HH FERRE EEE eee eee | SESH HESS SHresuHeeutesatiessrisseeensstenciits 2 Pr a ar BERBER. GEEREEs. inne Prt 0) S00 eReee eee @ EB SSSes SSeeee! wl SERe Se aise : beer re EEE EEE Se ae - eeee Rees eee ee TT Haetaaie f c aBEERETcoeraeesazsaeras HEESSESEELEESSETOEED (2n8) GEETEETEET Sr © Neier epnttesstpniit Sy SeapeetsCestensestessetsasisens pf - aoe 2 rH ro gage {ceeGnen ar dage Hi serenststes HH a Eeeecceecsassccsssss ssviil Babe a ose NA oer. %, EQUIVALENT MICROVOLTS PEP METER 4 eesdecetaGtveaeeits ee! ae EEE —| 4 ene! pape fiat ny ara age B BH petsistaaiey Seseeaneer BEE EERE EEE SUEEESEaRT Ty qoeooeee Lb ae MONTHS Fig. 6.—Average atmospheric disturbances 3 p.m., for 1925. f = 15 ke. (20000m.), 24 ke. (12500 m.), and 33.3 ke. (9000 m.). the calculated values at 6000 km. and increases them about four times at 12,000 km. | | An examination is now being made of the transmission data al- ready collected for the purpose of finding possible connections with other natural phenomena. Special study has been given to possible meteorological relations. It appears that for long distance long- wave transmission, for example between Europe and America, the connection between signal strength and American weather is not Aua. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO RECEIVING MEASUREMENTS 407 close. This is not remarkable since the meteorological data in America can apply to only a small portion of the signal path. A much more distinct relationship exists In transmission over a few VUCKOVOLTS PEFR IMMETER ZSUan PESoD Dasae PEESS GaeSS SaeEn SEESE SURE SESES CERoe SSSEEEEESS Ht E sy, F iM A Mf J Y A Ss ° Nv 2 PIONTHS a | | AT WASHINGTON | : il | | : | | : : 2 > A Oe ss : ti i prasa eueed wxees toned sovts gered poses veut fetes ted freer ce" *ysstero7s SSS : A Ae [ar av. A EO =sar. wet ae oa UT, 22 Al AT HASSE FEA gereaeaena AT MEUOON n Ny Ww 9 Oe 8 ‘ nn ~ % > AV av <4 466 : ; : pearn pipe ta tet — ; rai ER 7000 146 ai 6000 rege aS E S eceas iesacecass oe savetctass gresmes seetenenss aeeeess we —_-=_-- YFMANMSSASONDYFAAMISSASONDIFMAHSSIASONDIFHAMSIASONES 19Z2 1923 1922 1925 Fig. 8.—Lafayette (LY) average signal at Meudon and Washington, 3 p.m., 1922, 1923, 1924, and 1925. hundred km. because in these cases the weather is comparatively uniform over the whole path. This will be discussed in a later report. Comparisons have also been made between European signal in- 408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 14. tensity in Washington and the occurrence of sunspots and magnetic storms. ‘Thus far no certain relationship has been observed between sunspots and abnormal signals, but there appears to be in many cases an undoubted effect of the more severe magnetic storms upon trans- mission.?° ; During the year directional measurements on the atmospheric dis- turbances were made at frequencies of 21.4 and 15 ke. (14,000 and 20,000 m.) at the U. 8. Naval radio receiving stations at Colon and Balboa at the two ends of the Panama Canal. The data obtained seem to warrant the following conclusions: 1. During the dry season, probably from January 15 to April 1, the atmospheric disturbances both at Balboa and Colon come almost entirely from the South American continent, from the direction of the high Andes in northern Colombia, i.e., from the southeast. 2. When the dry season comes to an end and local storms begin to appear, the local disturbances from the low mountains of the isthmus begin to be prominent. ‘This shifts the prevailing direction at Balboa at times from the southeast to the north, but has little effect on the direction at Colon since the mountains containing the local centers of disturbance here lie to the south and east, or roughly in the direc- tion of the disturbance sources in Colombia. 3. In midsummer, while there is probably much disturbance from Central America and Mexico, the local disturbances from the isthmus mask this to such an extent that the prevailing direction at Colon continues roughly southeast, while at Balboa, the distant and local disturbances unite to give a northerly or northwesterly direction. 4. The observations further indicate that from northern sending stations, Balboa and Colon should give nearly equally good uni- directional reception in the dry season, but during the rest of the year, where the disturbance conditions are more troublesome, Colon should have considerable advantage over Balboa. Observations’ in Washington show that in winter the prevailing afternoon disturbances come roughly from the southeast, that is, from the direction of eastern South America or perhaps in part from Africa. In summer the direction is southwesterly, apparently from Mexico or the southwestern United States. ‘This is in accord with the idea that disturbances generally originate over land and are most intense in the afternoon and evening in the regions where the sun passes very nearly overhead. ° For a complete study of the possible relationship between radio phenomena and solar activity observations covering at least one complete sunspot cycle will be necessary. 10 WSPENSCHIED, ANDERSON and BalILey, loc. cit., have noticed in their measurement of signals between England and America that magnetic storms produce a marked decrease in night signals and a slight increase in day signals. ‘the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month r OnrGrNat, Papmrs Aiaphshiaties SP cactocieria paoaainl with the Torbnte) rou variants. CHARLES: Bee ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: GrorcE K. Punees Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Gotdetia Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 8 rege 2 Wi ® 4 : : : 2 ees) Oe tee ops mie baal » ‘ ~ rs } , - = ri . SP 2 we a = : 2 wii ae Gees bg 0.05 0.63 0.29 js Os oe fe ae See ae CS 22 2.49 3.02 Zone MoO) iceaee tid, ee het 0.60 0.64 TOF V.38 CaO. 2.48 2.45 2.08 2.62 TMD ie he hg os a eee 3.38 3.68 3.36 2.90 UNA 0 SE See ey Oo pee namlny - Woeser A Serban 3.90 3.79 Gey 4.58 PAG Ore Be tae Sole ahaa Lr, 0.50 O22 Oise Osks Oe) 3h, AEE a a ee 0.14 0.12 0.05 0.06 PSG scoks - ccc. a8 ee ee EE 0.94 0.93 1.43 1225 P.O;. 0:22 0.20 0.18 0.11 SAY ET G ea RRR ye 2 ae eat eae a 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.06 100.03 99.84 100.72 100.79 Norms (1) (2) (3) (4) (ONE SUS ROO R a My she 3 ge ie ae NE 28.26 26.02 22°02 2672 OY Habe es eta ecru ey Weare 7 7 RRO 22.80 22.24 alee 27.24 5S Un MO Cte eae Og ae: oe, WO 28.82 31.44 28.30 24.63 PATE Prete Sires) sa A cre n hy ae 10.56 11.40 9.45 11.95 Ce Pel Rovark td bare Peet Gant 145 0.92 — 0.51 PeLavand :Sevev haga: POWs eS acca ic CRN 4.93 4.77 5.47 5.41 IVE, decane Miers eer dt 0.23 — 0.93 | O846 | RAD 0050 ate ues aR Ne Ae eae 1.82 1-82 2.74 2.43 AIS... SEA cE SUG CLS 0.67 0.34 < 0.34 0.34 (1) Biotite granite, I’’.4.2.3’’.. Villalba, Madrid Province. (2) Biotite granite, I’’.4.2.3(4). Berrocal de Cerceda, Madrid Province. (3) Biotite granite I(II).4.2.3. Almorox, Toledo Province. (4) Biotite granite, I’’.4.2.3. Bafios de Penticosa-Pirenes, Huesca Province. H. S. WASHINGTON, analyst of black biotite. No muscovite is visible. They differ in granularity: those from Villalba and Barrocal de Cerceda, in the Sierra de Guadarrama, are 2 to 5 millimeter-grained; that from Bafios de Penti- cosa, in Huesca, is finer, 1 to 2 millimeter-grained; and one from Almorox, northwest of Toledo, is coarser and somewhat porphyritic, SEPT. 19, 1926 WASHINGTON: GRANITES OF CENTRAL SPAIN 411 and is not quite fresh. The thin sections show typically granitic texture, all the rocks being made up of very slightly turbid orthoclase with a little oligoclase, considerable quartz, and a little pale brown biotite. No muscovite was seen in any of the sections.. There are a few small zircons and rare prismoids of apatite, but no magnetite or epidote. There is no hornblende. A specimen of rather coarse granite from Cercedilla, north of Madrid, with flesh-red feldspar and very little quartz, is too much weathered to merit further description or analysis. The analyses presented in Table 1 are of interest as showing great uniformity in chemical composition. The variation in percentage of SiO, is within 2 per cent, and the amounts of the other constituents differ only slightly the one from the other. The percentage of K.O is higher than that of Na,O, but not very much so, while the amount of CaO is considerable and fairly constant. The norms show the absence of the diopside molecule, and the presence of hypersthene and (in Nos. 1, 2, and 3) corundum, these features being in harmony with the pres- ence of biotite alone as the mafic mineral, and the absence of horn- blende or augite. It is clear, from the microscopical examination and from the analyses and norms, that these granites are not alkalic, but are calci-alkalic, and sodipotassic, as is shown by the symbol, 1.4.2.3, of the rang in which they fall. This calci-alkalic character is in line with the fact that in the central plateau ‘‘quartz porphyry,’ quartz diorite, diorite, and diabase are common, although much less abundant than granite, while per- alkalic and very sodic rocks, such as syenite, nephelite syenite, and tinguaite, are very rare or are unknown. These analyses of granite give an idea of the general magmatic character of the Iberian Meseta, especially when the great uniformity among the specimens from different localities is considered, and when the granites are taken in connection with the associated rocks. It is clear that the magmatic character of the great central Spanish horst differs very much from that of the igneous (plutonic and volcanic) areas that occur on and near the coasts, on all sides around the central mass. Many of these have been studied petrographically, with chemical analyses, and they are fairly well known. They are alkalic or sub-alkalic, and mostly with a decidedly sodic character. They include: the granites of Guipuzcoa’ and the trachyte, etc., of Monte 7 'TermigR, Bull. Soc. Geol. France 7: 13. 1907. 412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 | Axpe near Bilbao,* on the north; the volcanoes of Olot and Gerona,? with basalt, nephelite basanite, and limburgite, at the northeast; the rhyolites, dacites and andesites of Cabo da Gata ?° and the peculiar alkalic rocks of Murcia," in the southeast; the nephelite syenite mass, with its accompanying dikes in Algarve, Portugal,” at the southwest; and the riebeckite syenite mass of Alter Pedroso, in Alemtejo,* on the west. Fernandez Navarro" has shown that recent lavas do not occur in the central meseta, except for one small occurrence of nephelite basalt in the Sierra de Guadarrama, but that a series of Tertiary and more recent small eruptions of nephelite basalt and of limburgite have taken place along its periphery. He also points out some of the coastal occurrences of more varied rocks. It thus appears that, petrologically, the Iberian Peninsula consists essentially of a main central massif of dominantly granitic rocks, of approximately average composition, surrounded on its folded and faulted borders by discontinuous occurrences of more alkalic, and mostly sodic, igneous rocks. In these respects it does not appear to be unique, but is analogous to several other horsts, as well as some of the ancient shields, and even some of the continental masses. The matter cannot be discussed fully in this brief note, but a few examples may be given." These include: the Canadian shield, with alkalic rocks in Ontario and Quebec; the Brazilian shield, with alkalic rocks in eastern Brazil and Paraguay; the Fenno-Scandian shield, with alkalic rocks at Christiania, Kola, and elsewhere; and apparently the continent of Africa, where the coastal igneous rocks are mostly sodic, while the interior is largely granitic. Such distribution of distinctly sodic rocks around a central granitic massif, if it be indeed real, brings to mind Harker’s hypothesis of differ- entiation by expulsion of residual magma through crustal stresses, with the production of alkalic, and especially sodic, rocks. It would not be favorable to the reference of igneous rocks to Atlantic and Pacific branches, nor to belief in the derivation of alkalic rocks from basaltic ones by assimilation of limestones. 8 WASHINGTON, U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 99: 271. 1917. 9 CALDERON, CazurRo, and Navarro, Mem. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat. 4, 5: 1907; WasHINGTON, Amer. Journ. Sci. 24: 217. 1907. 10 Qsann, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. 43: 325, 688. 1891. 11 Osann, Rosenbusch Festschr. 263. 1906. 12 Kratz-KoscHLau and HackMann, Tsch. Min. Pet. Mitth. 16: 197. 1896. 13 Lacrorx, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 163: 279. 1916. 14 FERNANDEZ NAVARRO, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 162: 252. 1916. 15 The distribution suggested here was briefly alluded to in CLARKE and WASHINGTON, U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 127: 43, 53, 55, 63. 1924. SEPT. 19, 1926 STANDLEY: THE GENUS CALATOLA 413 BOTAN Y.—The genus Calatola.' Pau C. STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum. In 1923 the writer published in the Trees and Shrubs of Mexico? a new genus of Mexican trees, Calatola, which was referred doubtfully to the family Jcacinaceae. It had been intended to publish previously a fuller account of the genus, with an illustration of one of the species, and a description of a third species, native of Costa Rica, but the pub- lication of the paper was delayed. During a visit to Costa Rica in 1925-26 further material of the Costa Rican tree was obtained, to- gether with interesting data concerning its economic applications. The purpose of the present paper is to give an account of the informa- tion now available with regard to the genus. CaLATOLA Standl. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 688. 1923. Trees; leaves alternate, petiolate, the blades membranaceous or coriaceous, entire; flowers dioecious, very small, the staminate bracteate, arranged in long slender solitary axillary spikes, the pistillate axillary, solitary and pedunculate or in few-flowered spikelike inflorescences; calyx of the staminate flower small, 4-lobate; corolla of the staminate flowers 4-parted, the lobes concave, valvate, 1-costate on the inner surface and sparsely villous along the costa; stamens 4, alternate with the corolla lobes, erect, basifixed, the fila- ments very short, adnate to the corolla, the anthers oblong, 2-celled, dehiscent by lateral slits; calyx of the pistillate flower 4-lobate; ovary 1-celled; fruit drupaceous, large, globose, oval, or obovoid, the flesh thick, the stone thick and osseous, bicristate and with numerous irregular reticulate dentate crests over the whole surface; seed large, the surface irregularly convolute, the embryo large, the endosperm copious, fleshy. Type species, Calatola mollis Standl. In flower characters the genus seems to agree reasonably well with the family Icacinaceae, but in general appearance it does not much resemble other members of the family. The strictly spicate character of the staminate spikes, which strongly suggest catkins, is not matched in other genera of the Icacinaceae, and the fruit also exhibits certain peculiarities. The flowers, however, are much like those of the common representatives of the family. Among the American genera, the only ones that appear to be related are Mappia and Kummeria, both of which differ in their long filaments and 5- _ parted flowers. Although the material at hand is rather ample, the result of its study has . been far from satisfactory, and study of the trees in the forest has failed to give a better clue to their relationship. It may be that further study will 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received «July 29, 1926. 2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 688. 1923. 414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 necessitate the reference of the genus Calatola to some other family, or even its recognition as the type of a distinct family. The generic name Calatola is the vernacular name of one of the Mexican species. It is of interest to record here the fact that Dr. E. W. Berry has published? recently the description of a genus, Calatoloides, based upon fossil fruits from the Wilcox Group of the lower Eocene strata of southwestern Texas. Dr. Berry states that, so far as he is aware, no representative of the family Icacinaceae has ever before been found fossil. The fruit of Calatoloides eocenicum, as figured, is strikingly like that of the genus Calatola, but only half as large. KEY TO THE SPECIES Leaves densely soft-pubescent beneath over the whole surface. 1. C. mollis. Leaves glabrous beneath, or densely barbate in the axils of the lateral nerves. Leaves glabrous beneath or nearly so, not at all barbate; staminate spikes WER} CEMSE yay. h ccharisbede:s oalel: Liisielss 2s aul eee 2. C. laevigata. Leaves densely barbate beneath in the axils of the lateral nerves; staminate spikes loosely flowered and somewhat interrupted. 3. C. costaricensis. 1. CaALATOLA MOLLIS Standl. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 689. 1923. Mig, 1, Tree, the branches terete, densely pilose when young with short fulvous- grayish hairs; petioles stout, 3-4.5 em. long, pilose; leaf blades oval-elliptic, oblong-oval, or oblong-obovate, 21-30 cm. long, 8-14 cm. wide, obtuse or rounded at base, acute or abruptly short-acuminate at apex, when young short-pilose on the upper surface but soon glabrate except along the nerves, densely short-pilose beneath, the costa slender, prominent, the lateral nerves 7-9 on each side, ascending at an angle of about 50°, subarcuate, laxly anas- tomosing near the margin; staminate spikes 8-21 cm. long, about 6 mm. in diameter, densely flowered, the rachis short-pilose, the bracts small, ovate- acuminate; calyx densely white-pilose outside, glabrous within, the lobes oblong-oval, obtuse; corolla 2 mm. long, the lobes obtuse, sparsely villous outside along the costa; anthers 1.2 mm. long, the filaments about 0.3 mm. long; pistillate flowers solitary; peduncle of the fruit (in one immature speci- men) 1.5 cm. long; fruit densely and closely tomentose, the stone 5-5.5 cm. long, 4-4.5 ecm. in diameter, covered outside with very numerous thin, sharp, irregularly dentate, reticulate crests, smooth and brown within; seed about 3 cm. long, brownish. Mexico: Zacatlan, Puebla, Apr. 3, 1913, F. Salazar, type. Tlatlanquitepec, Distrito de Tepeji, Puebla, collector unknown. This tree is well known in the State of Puebla, and has been mentioned a few times in literature, but without a Latin name. It has been referred in at least one instance to the Juglandaceae, doubtless because of the nutlike fruits, which somewhat suggest walnuts. The staminate spikes, likewise, 3 Additions to the flora of the Wilcox Group, U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 131: 14.. pl. 14, f. 3-6. 1923. sEPT. 19, 1926 STANDLEY: THE GENUS CALATOLA 415 Ye s: iS bk Ls i] \ vies . nanan ee 5 Fig. 1.—Calatola mollis. Natural size; floral details x 2. 416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 resemble catkins. The vernacular name of the tree is “‘calatola;” the fruits are called ‘‘nueces de calatola.”’ Here probably belong specimens of fruits, received from Prof. C. Conzatti, who writes of them as follows: “I send two fruits called ‘nuez de calatola.’ The plant which bears them is a tree about 20 meters high, called ‘calatolazno,’ native of Tlatlanqui, Distrito de Zacapoaxtla, Puebla. It grows at an altitude of 650 to 900 meters. It flowers in March and April, and the in- florescences, which I have not seen, are called ‘colas de ratas.’ The seeds are said to have vomitive-purgative properties.” According to notes made by Dr. W. E. Safford, this tree has been reported from Tabasco and San Luis Potos{, and the name ‘‘zapote de mono” sometimes is given to it. The seeds are said to have been employed with good results as a purgative. They are reported to yield a clear yellow oil, and drops of a blue coloring matter which is partly soluble in water or alcohol. It is said that the seeds are sometimes employed for dyeing. 2. CALATOLA LAEVIGATA Standl. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb: 23: 689. 1923. Branchlets sparsely appressed-pilose or glabrate; petioles 1.5—-2 cm. long; leaf blades oblong or narrowly elliptic-oblong, 11.5-16 cm. long, 4-7 em. wide, acute or obtuse at base, acute at apex, when young sparsely puberulent along the costa but soon glabrous, subcoriaceous, usually drying blackish, entire or obscurely sinuate-serrate, the costa prominent beneath, the lateral nerves about 10 on each side, very slender, arcuate; staminate spikes sessile, 4-6 cm. long (immature; probably much longer in anthesis), very dense, the bracts ovate-acuminate, equaling the flower buds, sericeous; calyx minutely serice- ous outside, the lobes obtuse; corolla lobes obtuse, glabrous outside; pistillate flowers in short dense spikes; young fruit sparsely short-sericeous or nearly glabrous. Mexico: Cafetal San Carlos, Cerro Espino, Oaxaca, alt. 800 m., B. P. Reko 3440, type. Cafetal Calvario, Cerro Espino, Oaxaca, Reko 3728. Calatola laevigata has much narrower leaves than C. mollis, and denser | staminate spikes. The vernacular name is “palo tinta,” from which it may be surmised that the fruits are employed for dyeing. 3. Calatola costaricensis Standl., sp. nov. Tree 6-15 m. high or larger, with a dense, broad or sometimes narrow crown, branchlets and petioles pilose with minute, appressed or ascending, ochrace- ous hairs, in age glabrate; petioles 2-5 cm. long; leaf blades oblong or elliptic- oblong, 10-25 cm. long, 4.5-10.5 cm. wide, short-acuminate to obtuse, acute at base, somewhat lustrous when fresh but when dry dull and usually blackish, when young sparsely appressed-pubescent above but soon glabrate, beneath densely barbate along the costa, especially in the axils of the nerves, the lateral nerves 6-8 on each side, subarcuate, laxly anastomosing near the margin; staminate spikes about 13 cm. long, very slender and laxly flowered, the rachis hirtellous; calyx hirtellous outside, the lobes obtuse; fruit oval, 5-7 em. long, glabrous or nearly so, smooth, green, with thick juicy flesh; stone ellipsoid to subglobose, 4.5-6.5 em. long, 3.5—4 em. in diameter, rounded or obtuse at each end, bicristate and also with several sharp longitudinal crests and numerous transverse reticulate crests. | SEPT. 19, 1926 STANDLEY: THE GENUS CALATOLA AI7 Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,510, collected in wet forest at Yerba Buena, northeast of San Isidro, Provincia de Heredia, Costa Rica, altitude about 2,000 meters, February 28, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 50,000). The following collections also belong here: Costa Rica: Forests of El Copey, alt. 1,800 m., Tonduz 11896. Viento Fresco, Provincia de Alajuela, alt. 1,800 m., Standley & Torres 47895. Santa Maria de Dota, Provincia de San José, alt. 1,500 m., Standley 42838; Standley & Valerio 43359. Near Quebradillas, Provincia de San José, Standley 42865. Cerro de las Caricias, Provincia de Heredia, alt. 2,000 m., Standley & Valerzo 51943. Yerba Buena, Standley & Valerio 49028. Here may be referred also two stones received from Dr. E. W. Berry, who found them on the beach in Panama at Panama and San Miguel bays. These stones may have come from Panama or Costa Rica, or possibly, of course,. from some other region. It is to be expected that some species of the genus: will be found in the mountains of northern Panama. Calatola costaricensis is a frequent tree in the mountains of central Costa Rica, growing in moist or wet forest at altitudes of 1,500 to 2,000 meters. It is a large tree with rather smooth but scaly bark, and there is nothing about its appearance to attract attention. The curious fruits, which often are abundant upon the ground, are noticed immediately, however, for they are quite unlike any other with which one is familiar. The tree first came to my attention this year at Santa Marfa, where it was rathercommon. The fruits were shown to several persons, all of whom knew them, but were uncertain as to their name. The name “duraznillo” was given by some, but this is probably incorrect, although the stones do suggest somewhat peach pits, as that name would indicate. I was given also the name ‘‘erepe,’’ and this is probably correct, since it is reported also by Tonduz from El Copey. On the slopes of the voleanoes of Barba and Pods the tree is well known, and called “palo de papa” (potato tree), “papa de palo,” and “palo azul.” I was told at Fraijanes that palo de papa and palo azul were different trees, but a guide, to whom fruits were shown, said they were those of palo azul, while he gave the name palo de papa for the dry stones from which the flesh had been stripped. The name palo azul probably refers to the fact that the leaves often have a bluish cast, or perhaps to the fact that, as in C. mollis, a blue coloring material is found in the seeds, although I did not note any blue coloration in the seeds that we examined. The wood of this tree is said to be of good quality and to be used sometimes for constuction purposes. The most important and interesting product of the tree isthe seeds. They are white, of firm consistency, and have a pleasant sweet flavor suggesting coconut. By the people who live on the slopes of Barba and Pods the seeds are roasted and eaten. They are also ground and mixed in tortillas, the tortillas thus made having the agreeable flavor of those prepared with grated cheese. Prof. Valerio and myself ate some of the fresh seeds found at Yerba Buena, 418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 and found them very good. We also ate roasted seeds, but found them less agreeable, perhaps because they had not been roasted properly. While Mr. H. Pittier was in Washington recently, Calatola seeds were shown him. He recognized them immediately, and recounted that once, while lost in the mountains of Costa Rica, and without food, he ate some of the seeds and was made very sick by them. It seems probable, therefore, that the seeds of C. costaricensts possess the properties ascribed to those of the Mexican species. The stones of Calatola costaricensis exhibit considerable variation in size and form, those from the region of Santa Marfa being longer and narrower than those from the central cordillera. It may be that when more ample material has been assembled, it will be found that two species are represented in Costa Rica. BOTANY.—Fiwe new American Melampodiinae.' 8. F. Buaxsg, Bureau of Plant Industry. This paper contains descriptions of five new tropical American Asteraceae of the subtribe Melampodiinae, as well as a record of range extension for a unique species of [chthyothere described in this Journal several years ago. Clibadium laxum Blake, sp. nov. Section Euclibadium; plant strigillose; leaves large, ovate, long-petioled, serrate, submembranous; heads medium-sized, remote, in very loose diver- gent-branched panicles; phyllaries 1-2; pistillate flowers 9, hermaphrodite 10-18; fertile ovaries pubescent at apex. “Branched herb, 2-2.5 m. high;”’ stem stout (7 mm. thick above), pithy, indistinctly about 6-angled, rather densely short-strigose; leaves opposite, those subtending the upper branches of the inflorescence alternate; petioles strigillose, sulcate above, margined above by the decurrent leaf blades, the naked portion 2.5-9 cm. long; blades ovate, those below the inflorescence more broadly so, 23.5 em. long, 15 em. wide, acuminate, at base truncate- rounded and shortly decurrent on the petiole, those subtending the principal branches of the inflorescence long-acuminate, cuneate at base, 14-20 em. long, 6-9 cm. wide, all thin, nearly equally green on both sides, coarsely and bluntly serrate (teeth mucronulate-tipped, depressed, 2-3 per cm.), lepidote-strigillose and barely roughish above (the hairs mostly deciduous except for the bases), sparsely strigillose beneath, tripli- or quintuplinerved within 4.5 em. of base, the veins prominent beneath, the principal veinlets prominulous; panicles many-headed, very loose, ternately divided, about 17 em. wide, strigillose, on peduncles 8 em. long or less, the bracts subulate-filiform, 2-6"%m. long; heads sessile, remote (usually 3-10 mm. apart), in flower oblong, 6 mm. long, 3.5 mm. thick, in fruit depressed-globose, 3.5 mm. long, 4.5 mm. thick; phyllaries 1 or 2, ovate to suborbicular-ovate, 3 mm. long, 2.2 mm. wide, acutish to obtuse, 5—7-nerved, ciliate, sparsely strigillose, whitish, subscarious; pistillate flowers 9, all paleate, the hermaphrodite 10-138, all but the 2 or 3 1 Received July 30, 1926. SEPT. 19, 1926 BLAKE: FIVE NEW AMERICAN MELAMPODIINAE 419 innermost paleate; pales of the pistillate flowers suborbiculate-ovate, up to 4 mm. long, 2.8 mm. wide, acutish or obtuse, about 6-nerved; pales of the hermaphrodite flowers oval-oblong, blunt, 1.8-2.8 mm. long, 3—5-nerved, ciliate; pistillate corollas white, obscurely glandular at apex, unequally 3- toothed, 2 mm. long; hermaphrodite corollas white, 3.2 mm. long, hispidulous on the teeth; achenes suborbicular-obovoid, 1.8—2 mm. long, 1.6—1.8 mm. wide, obcompressed, fuscous, hispidulous at apex; sterile ovaries long-pilose espe- cially toward apex, 1-1.2 mm. long. Ecuapor: Teresita, 3 kilometers west of Bucay, Province of Guayas, al- titude 270 meters, 5-7 July 1923, A. S. Hitchcock 20430 (Typ no. 1,195,383, U.S. Nat. Herb.). The only close ally of this species is Clibadium remotiflorum O. E. Schulz, of Brazil and Bolivia, which has 4 or 5 phyllaries, larger heads, smaller leaves, and shorter petioles. Clibadium microcephalum Blake, sp. nov. Section EHuclibadium; plant strigillose; leaves large, ovate, long-petioled, - membranous, depressed-serrate; heads tiny, sessile or subsessile, crowded in small glomerules; pistillate flowers 3, hermaphrodite 3-4; fertile ovaries pubescent at apex. “Shrub;” stem subangulate, striatulate, strigillose, 5 mm. thick just below the inflorescence; leaves (only uppermost seen) subopposite; petioles strigil- lose, margined above by the narrowly decurrent leaf blades, the naked portion 4—5 em. long; blades ovate, 24-28 cm. long, 11.5-14 cm. wide, acuminate, cuneate or cuneate-rounded at base and then narrowly decurrent on the upper part of the petiole, depressed-serrate (teeth mucronulate-tipped, 1-3 per cm.), about equally green on both sides and sparsely strigillose, roughish above and there with the hairs mostly deciduous except for their lepidote bases, quintuplinerved within about 4 cm. of base, the principal veinlets prominu- lous beneath, scarcely so above; panicles ternate at apex of stem, many- headed, flattish, 7-10.5 cm. wide, densely strigillose, ternately divided, on peduncles 3.5-11 cm. long, the heads in glomerules of 5-8, these mostly 4-7 mm. thick; bracts mostly subulate and about 2 mm. long; heads oblong- cylindric, 5 mm. long (including the corollas) 2 mm. thick; phyllaries 2 or 3, suborbicular-ovate, obtuse, 3—6-nerved, subscarious, ciliolate, essentially glabrous dorsally, 2.5-3 mm. long, 2-2.8 mm. wide, sometimes with a much smaller triangular-ovate acutish bractlet at base; pistillate flowers 3, all paleate, the hermaphrodite 3 or 4, usually epaleate, rarely 2 paleate; pales of the pistillate flowers similar to the phyllaries; pistillate corollas white, glabrous, minutely 4-toothed, 2.2 mm. long; hermaphrodite corollas white, finely hispidulous on the teeth, 3.2 mm. long; submature fertile ovaries obo- void, obcompressed, hispidulous above, 2 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide; sterile ovaries ascending-pilose throughout, 2 mm. long. Ecuapor: Valley of Pastaza River, between Bafios and Cashurco, Province of Tungurahua, altitude 1300-1800 meters, 25 Sept. 1923, A. S. Hitchcock 21873 (Typx no. 1,195,714, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Nearest Clibadium glomeratum Greenm., of Costa Rica, which is immedi- ately distinguished by its pilose-tomentose branches and inflorescence. Ichthyothere connata Blake, sp. nov. Glabrous throughout; leaves opposite, ovate, sessile, conspicuously connate 420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 at base, entire, thick, 7 or 9-plinerved; heads few, sessile in a terminal cluster; pales with erose acutish tips. Herbaceous, simple or subsimple, 35 cm. high and more; stem stout (3-5 mm. thick), striate- angled, apparently glaucescent; internodes 3-7 cm. long, usually shorter than the leaves; leaves ovate or oval-ovate, 5.5-8 em. long, 34.2 cm. wide, not reduced above, acute, at base clasping and connate for 2-6 mm., stiffly coriaceous, 7 or 9-plinerved from base and prominulous- reticulate, apparently elaucescent ; heads about 7 mm. high, 5 mm. thick, | about 3 or 4 in a terminal cluster, subtended by normal leaves; phyllaries suborbicular, obtuse, glabrous, strongly about 10-ribbed, the narrow thin margins erose above with subglandular teeth; pales acutish, subglandular- erose, strongly about 3-nerved. Braziu: ‘‘Chapadao dos Veadeiros ou de Porto Leguro,”’ Goyaz, Jan.—Feb. 18—, A. Glaziou 21648 (type in Kew Herb.; ea and fragment, U.S. Nat. Herb.) A very distinct species, nearest Ichthyothere latifolia (Benth.) Gardn.,? but readily distinguished by its conspicuously connate-clasping leaves. The type number was listed by Glaziou’ as J. suffruticosa Gardn., a species with elongate-lanceolate leaves. The sheet examined, on loan from the Kew Herbarium, now bears only two heads, which it has not seemed advisable to injure by dissecting. ‘The stem and leaves appear to have been glaucous, but this appearance may be due to the deposition of a very thin layer of the corro- sive sublimate used in poisoning. IcHTHYOTHERE SCANDENS Blake, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 11: 301. fig. 1. 1921. This species, originally described from a collection (no. 3430) made by Dr.. TI’. W. Pennell at Libano, Department of Tolima, Colombia, altitude 1100- 1300 meters, in 1917, has since been found to have an extensive range. It was collected many years ago at Colonia Tovar, Venezuela, by Fendler (no. 2560, in Gray Herb.), and has been found several times by Mr. Henry Pittier in Venezuela (as at El Portachuelo, State of Miranda). Prof. A. S. Hitch- cock collected it (no. 21881) in the valley of the Pastaza River, 8 hours east of Bafios, Province of Tungurahua, Ecuador, alt. 1800-1800 meters, on 25 Sept. 1923. A most unexpected extension of range is shown by typical speci- mens collected in the vicinity of Gudpiles, Province of Limén, Costa Rica, alt. 300-500 meters, 12-13 March 1924, by Mr. Paul C. Standley (no. 37148). The last occurrence establishes the first record for the genus outside the South American continent. The original specimen was described by the collector as a shrubby vine. Later collectors have called it a shrub or herb 4-5 ft. high. It is probable that this species varies in habit, like many other tropical plants. 2 This name, based on Latreillea latifolia Benth., was properly published by GARDNER, Lond. Journ. Bot. 7: 424. 1848. The specimen listed (but not described), Gardner 3273, belongs to I. terminalis (Spreng.) Blake (f. cunabi Mart.). Baxmr, Fl. Bras. 6°: 154. 1884, has referred Gardner’s name to the synonymy of [. cunabi, and remade the combination J. latifolia for Bentham’s plant. ’ Mém. Soc. Bot. France 3: 409. 1910. SEPT. 19, 1926 BLAKE: FIVE NEW AMERICAN MELAMPODIINAE 421 Polymnia latisquama Blake, sp. nov. Tall herb; stem essentially glabrous; leaves ovate, large, firm-papery,. - eoarsely serrate, triplinerved, short-decurrent on the upper part of the petiole; heads solitary, long-peduncled; outer phyllaries 4, ciliolate, glabrous dorsally, suborbicular-ovate, about 1.8 cm. wide; rays yellow, about 8, the lamina. about 3 cm. long. _ Herb, 1.5-3 m. high; stem rather slender (2.5-3.5 mm. thick), simple or dichotomous at apex, striatulate; upper internodes 5.5-9 cm. long; leaves opposite; petioles cuneate-winged at apex, hirsute-pilose with sordid many- celled hairs, narrowly connate at base, the naked portion 1-4.5 cm. long; leaves ovate or the lower triangular-ovate, 9-23 cm. long, 4.5-15 cm. wide, acuminate, often slightly falcate, at base cuneate to (in the larger leaves) subtruncate, decurrent on the petiole for 0.5-2.2 cm., coarsely serrate with unequal teeth (1-3 per cm.) tipped with blunt somewhat callous mucros about 0.5 mm. long, above deep green, smooth, essentially glabrous, hirsute- ciliate with sordid many-celled hairs, beneath scarcely lighter green, glabrous. or with a few hairs along the veins, triplinerved and beneath prominulous- reticulate; peduncles solitary, terminal, glabrous, naked, 7-9 cm. long; heads. about 6 cm. wide; disk 2—2.5 cm. thick; outer phyllaries 4, decussate, sub- orbicular-ovate, obtuse to acute, coriaceous, sparsely hirsute-ciliate, glabrous dorsally, about 9—nerved, united for about 5 mm. at base, subcordate, 2—2.3 em. long (from base of involucre), 1.7-2 cm. wide; inner phyllaries (sub- tending the rays) about 8, ovate, short-acuminate, submembranous, ciliate, stipitate-glandular on back, at maturity about 13 mm. long, 8 mm. wide; rays “bright yellow,” pilose on tube and on nerves of back, fertile, the tube about 1.5 mm. long, the lamina oblong-elliptic, 3.5 em. long, 9mm. wide; disk flowers very numerous, infertile, their corollas yellow, sparsely hirsute on tube, 1 cm. long (tube 2.5 mm., throat thick-cylindric, 5.5 mm., teeth ovate, papillose-margined, 2 mm. long); pales oblong, membranous, obtuse, bluntly 1-dentate on each side below apex, somewhat pilose and stipitate-glandular, about 6-nerved, 9 mm. long, 3 mm. wide; ray achenes (scarcely mature) plump, obcompressed, glabrous, multistriatulate especially on back, epappose, 6 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; style of disk flowers 2-parted, the branches densely hirsute-pilose, with linear subulate hispidulous appendages. Costa Rica: Along stream, southern slope of Voledn de Turrialba, near the Finca del Volcan de Turrialba, alt. 2,000—2,400 meters, 22 Feb. 1924, P. C. Standley 35340 (TYPE no. 1,227,055, U. 8. Nat. Herb.); wet thicket, Rio Burris, southern slope of Volcan de Irazti, 23 Feb. 1924, Standley 35412. The closest relative of this species is Polymnia quichensis Coulter, of Guate- mala, which has more or less densely sordid-pilose stem and peduncles, narrower leaves with more tapering base, rough above and rather densely sordid-pilose on the veins and veinlets beneath, smaller, ovate, acuminate phyllaries (1-1.5 cm. long, 8-9 mm. wide), and much shorter rays (lamina about 1.2 cm. long). Melampodium cornutum Blake, sp. nov. Slender annual; stem hirsutulous in lines, without long hairs; leaves slender- petioled, rhombic-ovate, crenate-serrate, membranous; heads small, sessile or subsessile, axillary and terminal; phyllaries 5, free nearly to base; rays ea fruit with ovate appendage prolonged into a long slender recurved orn. : 422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 Plant about 15 em. high, few-branched above, the branches long and diver- gent; leaves opposite; petioles of the larger leaves slender, 8-13 mm. long, narrowly marginate above, hirsutulous on margin; blades of the larger leaves rhombic-ovate, 2—-3.2 cm. long, 1.2—-2.3 em. wide, acute, acutely cuneate at base, crenate- serrate above the entire cuneate base (teeth 5-7 pairs), triplinerved, sparsely hirsute-pilose above and on margin, beneath scarcely paler and practically glabrous; branch leaves smaller, short-petioled, often obtuse; heads about 4 mm. wide in anthesis; outer phyllaries 5, oval or oval- oblong, membranous-herbaceous, free nearly to base, obtuse or rounded, ciliate, about 5-nerved, 2—2.5 mm. long, 1.2-1.8 mm. wide; rays probably 5, greenish-yellow, bidentate, 3-nerved, about 1.3 mm. long, much shorter than the body of the fruit appendage; disk flowers about 3, their corollas greenish yellow, 1.3 mm. long, 4 or 5-toothed, the teeth bearing an internal apical tuft of hairs; pales oval, obtuse, scarious, glabrous, 1.38 mm. long, bearing a subterminal oblong central gland; fruit body ribbed and corrugate on the sides, about 1.5 mm. long, 1.3 mm. wide, the hood ovate, sparsely hispidulous- ciliate, sometimes muticous, obtuse, and about 1.2 mm. long, usually acumi- nate, about 2 mm. long and 1.6 mm. wide, and prolonged into a slender recurved sparsely hispidulous horn about 3.5 mm. long. Mexico: Alzada, Colima, 4 Nov. 1910, C. R. Orcutét 6601 (TYPE no. 1,209,590, U.S. Nat. Herb.). Related to Melampodium longicornu A. Gray, which has similar heads and fruit, but is distinguished by its narrowly elliptic to lance-elliptic, sessile or subsessile leaves. BOTANY.—Venezuelan species of Valeriana, section Porteria.t H. Pirtrer, Caracas, Venezuela, and HE. P. Kinuip, U. 8. National Museum. Two genera of the family Valerianaceae, Porteria Hook. and Am- blyorhinum 'Turez., were proposed in the year 1852, the former an- tedating the latter by a few months. A single species, Porieria bractescens, was described? by Hooker; five species were published? under Amblyorhinum. Both Hooker’s P. bractescens and the first species mentioned under Amblyorhinum by Turezaninow, A. grandi- florum, which should be considered the type of this genus, were based on Linden’s 424, from Caracas. Turezaninow, after he had prepared the manuscript of his paper, evidently became aware of Hooker’s article, for he added a paragraph (p. 173) in which he changed the name of his first species to Porterta bractescens, and trans- ferred the five other species to Porteria. The characters which Hooker especially emphasizes in describing Porteria are the large imbricate bracts which almost completely con- 1 Received July 3, 1926. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution. 2 Hook. Icon. Pl. 9: pl. 864. 1852. 3 Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscon. 257: 173. 1852. SEPT. 19, 1925 PITTIER AND KILLIP: SPECIES OF VALERIANA . 423 ceal the flowers, the bract-like leaves, the truncate, saucer-shaped - epappose calyx-limb, inclined to the side, the attachment of the corolla laterally, its base forming a blunt spur, and, finally, the general shrubby aspect of the plant. | In an account‘ of South American Valerianaceae published in 1857, Weddell, evidently unaware of Turczaninow’s work, described three new species in the genus Phyllactis Pers. (Group B), one of which, Phyllacits cordifolia, was based on Funck and Schlim’s 1623, the type of Amblyorhinum (= Porteria) sprcatum Turez. ‘The two other species were Phyllactits mutisiana and P. pinnatifida, both from Colombia. As originally understood by Persoon,®> Phyllactts included only stemless plants, with rosette leaves, involucrate flowers having a 3-lobed corolla, and epappose fruit. The extension of Phyllactis, either as a distinct genus or as subgenus of Valeriana, to include the species which we are discussing, is hardly justifiable. Hock, in an elaborate monograph® of Valerianaceae, reunited Phyllacitts and Valeriana, dividing the species enumerated by Wed- dell under Phyllactts among four sections. In the section Porteria was placed correctly Valeriana bractescens (Hook.) Hock; but Hock unfortunately included certain Ecuadorean species with a well- developed, pappose calyx. Graebner’s synopsis of Valerianaceae’ contributed little to the correct interpretation of this particular group, for in his section of Valeriana to which he gave the name Porteria not a single one of the species originally described by Hooker or Turczaninow was mentioned. It remained for Briquet in 19148 to formulate the most satisfactory interpretation of this group, and, in the main, the present paper is in accord with his treatment. ~The question as to whether this small group of species, confined probably to the mountainous region of western Venezuela and eastern Colombia, constitutes a genus distinct from Valeriana or whether it is treated best as a well-marked section is difficult to deter- mine at present. The calyx of Valeriana (wide sense) varies greatly, and these variations are not clearly associated with other characters. The spur near the base of the corolla tube, prominent in the original 4Chloris Andina 2: 28. 1857. 5 Syn. 1: 39. 1805. 6 Bot. Jahrb. Engler 3: 57. 1882. 7 Bot. Jahrb. Engler 37: 445, 476. 1906. 8 Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Genéve 17: 349-356. 1914. 424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 species of the group, is much reduced in the other species; in at least two species it 1s scarcely more pronounced than in Valeriana rusbyi, V. simplex, V. lyrata, or V. urticifolia of various other sections. As Briquet observes, a restoration of the genus Porterta should be made only in a general monograph of Valerianaceae, based upon a complete study of the material in the large herbaria. Recently certain species of this group have been re-collected in Venezuela, thus supplying data additional to those in Briquet’s synopsis, and one new species has been found. It seems advisable to publish this information at the present time. Mr. Killip has had the opportunity of examining material of this group in several European herbaria. KEY TO THE VENEZUELAN SPECIES Leaves 2.5 cm. long or less. Leaves attenuate to a short petiole, crenulate or entire, more or less divaricate; corolla white; branches puberulent. Corolla 6-8 mm. long; leaves crenulate, not ciliolate. .1. V. phylicoides. Corolla 4-6 mm. long; leaves entire, minutely ciliolate ..2. V. parviflora. Leaves sessile, crenulate, appressed; corolla deep yellow; branches Slabrouseys . 24a Ge LL RID Be ee ok Oe 3. V. spicata. Leaves more than 2.5 cm. long. Leaves serrate or crenulate; corolla 1 cm. long or less. Bracts entire, 7 mm. ong or less; leaves oblong-linear, acute 4. V. triplinervis. Bracts remotely dentate, 8-10 mm long; leaves obovate-oblong _ §. V. foliosa. Leaves entire; corolla more than 1 cm. long. Bracts subcordate, 2 cm. wide or more; leaves broadly lanceolate 6. V. bractescens. Bracts linéar-oblong, 0.5-1 cm. wide; leaves linear-lanceolate 7. V. meridana. 1. VALERIANA PHYLICOIDES (Turcz.) Brig. Ann. Conserv. Bot. Jard. Genéve 17-955.0 1914 Wie. 1. Amblyorhinum phylicoides Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 171. 1852. Porteria phylicoides Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 1738. 1852. Porteria parviflora var. Trev. Bot. Zeit. 11: 354. 1853. Sierra Nevada de Mérida, 3250 m., June, 1847, Funck & Schlim 1529 (Paris, Geneva; type). Sierra Nevada de Santo Domingo, Mérida, 3600 m., Sept. 12, 1922, Jahn 1092 (Caracas, U. 8. N. M.). Between Caracas and Mérida, Linden 365, in part (Paris). 2. VALERIANA PARVIFLORA (Trev.) Héck, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 3: 57. 1882. Bie. 2: Porteria parviflora Trev. Bot. Zeit. 11: 354. 1853. Between Caracas and Mérida, in 1848, Linden 365, in part (Paris, Geneva; type). Pdramo de Piedras Blancas Mérida, 4000 m., Nov. 27, 1915, Jahn 425 (Caracas). Pdramo de Timotes, 3000-4000 m., Sept. 4, 1921, Jahn 547 (Caracas), Jan. 21, 1922, Jahn 835 (Caracas, U. S.N. M.). smPr. 19, 1926 PITTIER AND KILLIP: SPECIES OF VALERIANA 425 Valeriana parviflora is certainly distinct from V. phylicoides. The leaves are entire, usually minutely pubescent near the margin (floraleleaves or bracts ciliolate), and loosely imbricate; in V. phylicoides they are distinctly crenulate, glabrous throughout, and closely imbricate. In the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, there is a specimen of Linden 365, which corresponds excellently. with the description of V. parviflora and with Jahn’s 835, which was taken to Europe for com- parison. On another sheet at Paris two collections are mounted, Funck & Schlim 1529, and another Linden plant, the label of which bears the same locality data as the Linden 365 sheet; a small slip with the number ‘365’ is pasted on this sheet with the two specimens. The two plants appear to belong to the same species; they are not of the same species as the Linden 365 which is mounted by itself; they agree well with Jakn’s 1092 which was likewise taken over for comparison. Probably Linden collected two dis- tinct species under his no. 365, but possibly the slip with the number 365 has been placed wrongly on the sheet. 3. VALERIANA SPICATA (Turcz.) Brig. Ann. Conserv. Bot. Jard. Genéve ieoot 1914. Wig: 7: Amblyorhinum spicatum Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 170. 1852. Porteria spicata Turcz. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 25?: 1738. 1852. Phyllactis cordifolia Wedd. Chlor. And. 2: 32. 1857. Porteria rotundifolia Karst. Fl. Columb. 2:99. pl. 151, f. 8-10. 1862-69. Valeriana cordifolia Hock, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 3: 54. 1882. Sierra Nevada de Mérida, 3250 m., June, 1847, Funck & Schlim, 1623 (Paris, Geneva; type, also type of Phyllactis cordifolia). Trujillo, Linden 411 (Geneva). 4. VALERIANA TRIPLINERVIS (Turez.) Briq. Ann. Conserv. Bot. Jard. Genéve tions. (1914. Fig. 5. Amblyorhinum triplinerve Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 170. 1852. Porteria triplinervis Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 178. 1852. Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Mérida, 3350 m., June, 1847, Funck & Schlim 1551 (Paris, Geneva; type). 5. Valeriana foliosa Pittier & Killip, sp. nov. Fias. 3, 4. Planta fruticosa, trunco brevi vel brevissimo, 2-3-furcato, caulibus basi aphyllis glaberrimis, supra breve ramosis dense foliosis plus minusve rufo- pilosis; foliis subcoriaceis, sessilibus, semi-amplexicaulibus, obovato-oblongis, basin versus attenuatis, apice subacutis, apicem versus serratis, trinerviis nervibus penniveniis, supra glaberrimis subtus ad nervos pilosis; inflore- scentiis terminalibus, brevibus, dense bracteosis; bracteis ovatis, reticu- latis, supra glaberrimis, lucidis, subtus ad nervos pilosis, margine sinuato- dentatis, ciliatis; bracteolis lanceolatis sparse pilosulis, interdum remote dentatis; floribus sessilibus, calyce glabro, apice limbo angustissimo minute sinuato coronato; corolla albovirescente, bracteis brevior, apice 5-lobulata, extus glabra intus sparse pilosa; staminibus inclusis; stylo apice breve trilobulato; caetera ignota. - Caulis 30-50 cm. altus, 0.5 cm. crassus. Folia 3-5 cm. longa, 0.7-1.3 cm. lata. Bracteae 1.4 cm. longae, 0.8—-1 cm. latae; bracteolae basi leviter i 426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 | | Fig. 1.—Valeriana phylicoides (Jahn 1092); 2.—V. parviflora (Linden 363); 3, 4.— V. foliosa (type). (1, 2, 3, about 4+ nat. size; 4, 1.5 nat. size.) . SEPT. 19, 1926 PITTIER AND KILLIP: SPECIES OF VALERIANA 427 Fig. 5.—Valeriana triplinervis (F. & S. 1551); 6.—V. meridana (F. & 8. 1540); 7.— V. spicata (F. & S. 1623); 8.—V. bractescens (Linden 424). (All about + nat. size.) 428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 connatae usque ad 7.5 mm. longae, 1.4 mm. latae; calyx circa 2 mm. bs Corolla 6-8 mm. longa. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,186,558, collected on the Paramo de Quirora, Mérida, Venezuela, altitude 3200 meters, October 8, 1921, by A. Jahn (no. 718). This species belongs to the large-leaved group, from the other members of which it is distinguished by serrate leaves, hirsute on the nervation beneath, dentate bracts, and by the dimensions of the flower. Unfor- tunately, the meager specimens at hand give only a poor idea of the general appearance of the plant. Dr. Jahn describes it as being formed of two or three stems issuing from a very short trunk, or from a trunkless rootstock, and not more than 50 ecm. high. 6. VALERIANA BRACTESCENS (Hook.) Héck, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 3: 57. 1882. Fis. 8. Porteria bractescens Hook. Icon. PI. 9: pl. 864. 1852. Amblyorhinum grandiflorum Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 257: 168. 1852. Sierra Nevada de Mérida, 3000 m., in 1842, Linden 424 (Kew, Paris; type, also type of Amblyorhinum grandiflorum); Funck & Schlim 1515 (Paris, Geneva). 7. VALERIANA MERIDANA Briq. Ann. Conserv. Bot. Jard. Genéve 17: 353. 1914. Fig. 6. Amblyorhinum angustifoltum Turez. Bull. Soc. Bot. Moscou 252: 169. 1852. Not Valeriana angustifolia Mill., 1768. Porteria bractescens var. Trev. Bot. Zeit. 11: 354. 1853. Sierra Nevada de Mérida, 2800-3300 m., Funck & Schlim 1540 (Paris, Geneva; type). In addition to these Venezuelan species, two Colombian plants, V. muti- siana (Wedd.) Héck and V. karsteniz Briq. (Porteria pubescens Karst.), perhaps belong to this section. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED | SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 691ST MEETING The 691st meeting of the Biological Society was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club March 27, 1926, at 8:10 p.m., with President OBER- HOLSER in the chair and 80 persons present. New members elected: Mrs. May C. WituiaMs SETTLE, Colonel R. MEINERTZHAGEN. The secretary read the changes in the By-laws proposed by the committee appointed to consider this subject, consisting of H. H. T. Jackson, Chairman, T. E. Snyper, and B. H. Swatzs. The proposed changes were passed unanimously. These changes in the By-laws are worded as follows: That the words ‘‘The President shall not be eligible for immediate re-election’’ be stricken from the first paragraph, Art. II, of the By-Laws, so that the paragraph shall read: ‘‘The President shall preside at the meetings of the Society and of the Council. ii ; . SEPT. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 429 He shall appoint all committees except such as are otherwise provided for; and, jointly with the Recording Secretary, shall sign all written contracts and other obligations of - the Society. In the absence of the President, his duties shall be performed by one of the Vice-Presidents.”’ That in the first paragraph of Art. III, the word ‘‘calendar”’ be inserted before “‘vear,’’ and the words “‘one year’’ before ‘‘in’’ so that the paragraph shall read: ‘‘The annual dues of active and corresponding members shall be one dollar and fifty cents, payable at the beginning of the calendar year, and no member one year in arrears shall be entitled to vote at the annual meeting for the election of officers or on any proposed amendments to the Constitution or By-Laws.’’ That in the sixth paragraph of Art. IV, the word ‘‘December’”’ be changed to ‘‘the spring”’ so that the paragraph shall read: ‘‘The annual meeting for the election of officers shall be the last stated meeting in the spring.’’ That the following paragraph be added to Article V: ‘‘The official term of all officers shall commence at the close of the meeting at which they are elected.”’ T. S. Patmer reported the first box turtles appearing from hibernation in the city on March 24 and 25, one ona southern exposure and one on a northern exposure. ERNEST P. WALKER, Biological Survey: (The wild life of Alaska and its | protection (illustrated) —The work of protecting Alaska’s wild life may be likened to managing a gigantic livestock range. From her most mosquito- infested swamp to the tops of her highest peaks Alaska is preeminently a livestock country. Asa whole we have found no animals better suited to the range than the wild stock native to the region. The game animals and game birds furnish much valuable meat to Alaskans and throughout the greater portion of the Territory are the only source of fresh meat. The game animals are important attractions to non-resident big game hunters and the annual fur harvest is worth about $2,000,000, and by proper management can be increased at least tenfold with correspondingly increased profits. The waterfowl probably benefit the sportsmen of the western States even more than they do the Alaskans. The great extent of the stock range is best illustrated by superimposing a map of Alaska on one of the United States of the same scale which places the easternmost portion at the Georgia coast and the tip of the Aleutian Islands near Los Angeles. Some lands of Alaska do not have certain game and fur animals which are well suited to such lands. The Alaska Territorial Legisla- ture appropriated and made available to the Alaska Game Commission in the spring of 1925, $10,000, for stocking such lands. Operations under this appropriation to date have consisted in placing beaver and muskrats on the Kodiak-Afognak Islands group. Protective work is receiving good support from Alaskans. Cooperative policing is carried on with the adjacent Cana- dian provinces of British Columbia and Yukon Territory. As a whole the future is bright for increasing the supply of Alaska wild life. Slides were shown of deer, moose, bear, mountain sheep, caribou, beaver, mink, marten, muskrat, rabbit, sea lion, ptarmigan, grouse, eagle, scenery, and miscellane- ous subjects. (Author’s abstract.) Epcar T. WuHerry, Bureau of Chemistry: Exploring for wild flowers in the Gulf States (illustrated) —The trip described was taken in company with Dr. J. K. Smauu of the New York Botanical Garden to obtain data as to dis- tribution of native plants, especially in the south central states (Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas), in preparation for publishing a complete revision of Small’s “Flora of the Southeastern United States.” Transporta- tion was by automobile, and 7,000 miles were covered in 7 weeks. The 430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 15 route was from Cape Sable, Florida, around the Gulf coast to Brownsville, Texas, then to El Paso, Texas, and eastward by a more northern line through Oklahoma, Arkansas, northern Louisiana, and back to Florida. Although the limited time available made frequent stops impossible, many species were collected and data as to their habitat obtained. Particular attention was paid to Iris, and a considerable number of undescribed species were discovered; roots have been sent to the New York Botanical Garden and when the plants flower, they will be painted and described. New species in several other genera were also found, and many extensions of range established. The speaker had taken photographs of many of the plants seen, using a 4x5 camera with only a low-priced lens, but with long bellows and swing- back. Commercial orthochromatic cut films were used throughout, and were highly satisfactory, even for yellow and red flowers, for which an orange ray- screen was employed. Color notes were taken in the field, and 75 lantern slides made from the negatives obtained, painted with transparent water- colors, were shown. (Author’s abstract.) 692D MEETING The 692d meeting was a joint meeting with the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia and was held April 10, 1926 at 8:00 p.m., in the audi- torium of the National Museum, with President T. S$. Patmzr of the Audubon Society in the chair and 200 persons present. The program consisted of the following papers: A. O. Gross, Bowdoin College: The threatened extinction of the heath hen on Martha’s Vineyard (illustrated).—In Colonial times the heath hen (T’ympa- nuchus cupido) ranged from Maine to Carolina. By 1840 it had disappeared from the mainland of Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1868 there were still a few on Long Island and in New Jersey, but since 1870 it has existed only on Martha’s Vineyard. Brewster in 1890 estimated the number of birds at 150 to 200. In 1906 there were less than 100. By 1916 the number had increased to about 2,000. A great fire in the spring of 1916 destroyed many nests and much of the birds’ natural cover, and during the next winter the number was reduced by hawks and other causes to about 150. In 1917 there were about 300, but in 1925 the number was reduced to about 25. The Federation of New England Clubs secured the services of a special warden, and by 1926 the number has increased to about 35. The speaker hopes that under the care of this warden the heath hen may be preserved from extinction. Views were shown of some of the birds and of the heath hen reservation. A. O. Gross: The jungle life of Panama (illustrated).—The speaker spent several months in 1925 studying the bird and animal life on Barro Colorado Island in the Canal Zone. He showed numerous views of the city of Panama and the Canal Zone and of its distinctive birds and animals. Most of the smaller birds lay only two eggs, in decided contrast with the birds of the temperate zone. , S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. ‘ ’ SEPT. 19,1926 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL: SOCIETY 431 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 597TH MEETING The 597th meeting of the Society was held in the United States National Museum on April 20, 1926. Program: Dr. WattTeR Hovuau: Fifty years of Pueblo Archeology. Ex- ploration during the past fifty years in the Pueblo region forms an interesting history. Veterans of the discovery of the cliff-dwellings in 1874-75 are still with us, W. J. JAcksoNn, who discovered and photographed, and W. H. -_Houimegs, who first sketched and pictured them in oils. As this work on the Southwest archeology was carried on by the U. 8. Geological Survey and the Bureau of American Ethnology almost exclusively until recent years, it is observed that more than half of the investigators were members of the Anthropological Society of Washington. In the period of reconnaissance beginning in 1869 the names of HoLmss, JACKSON, YARROW, POWELL, STEVENSON, BANDELIER, and CusHING stand out prominently. Beginning in 1879 work in all the branches of anthropology was actively prosecuted by the Bureau of Ethnology. In 1886 the MInpE- LEFFS studied the architecture of the ancient and modern pueblos over a wide region, furnishing invaluable data. Exploration in the sense of excava- tion of ruins began in the 80’s. CuSsHING carried on exploration work on a large scale in the lower Salt River Valley and also collected archeologica at Zuni. Historically, the first ruin explored was at St. George, Utah, in 1869- 70 by Epwarp PaumMsEr, a most indefatigable collector. The St. George specimens are in the National Museum and the Peabody Museum at Cam- bridge, Mass. In 1894 NorDENSKIJOLD published the results of his explor- ation of Mesa Verde cliff-dwellings. ‘This work is a landmark. In the 90’s Dr. J. WaLteR Fewxss entered the field, exploring a ruin called Skyatki on the Hopi Reservation. Dr. FEwxkss continued his researches for many years and is still active. In this period came Houcu, Hnwett, MooreHeEan, DorsrEy, OWENS, PEPPER, HrpLIcKA, PRUDDEN, and others. The period of more intensive exploration presents the names of KiIppER, Neson, Morris, Jupp, CUMMINGS, SPIER, GUERNSEY, JEANCON, sent out by different institutions. In this period methods depending on a classification of sherds, the presence or absence of pottery, stratification and superposition, have cast much light on the history of the ancient peoples of the southwest. We have here a good example of the normal development of research in the past 50 years. The order of culture in the ancient pueblos is now tentatively basket maker, post-basket maker, pre-pueblo, pueblo, and recent. Much is to be expected of the active and enthusiastic workers of the present in clearing up the problems of Pueblo archeology, and the best wishes of the Old Guard go with them. The modern phase of pueblo exploration which was formerly impracticable in the vast field to be covered is seen in the National Geographic Society’s work at Pueblo Bonito under the direction of Num M. Jupp, and Dr. A. V. Kippir’s work for Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., at Pecos. It is seen that great financial resources are necessary to uncover and explore thoroughly one relatively large ruin. This, however, is the only way to elicit the further story of ancient Pueblo Indian life. 3 JoHN M. Coorpsr, Secretary. ‘432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACAD SCIEN TIFIC NOTES | By: A.S. Hrrcucock attended the eee ae Congres S recently held at Ithaca, where he gave a paper by invitatio1 al round-table discussion on nomenclature. He was appointed a: ™m International Committee on Nomenclature. Mr. T. A. Spracus, of the Kew Herbarium, London, r week at the ae S. National Herbarium cneiaind the ppiltoreens " Ae L ts i iy a4) 3g is ro Dy} . oe A pe eS NS ee ae eT Se a gray ‘of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if d = by the ee and the twenty-seventh day of each month CONTENTS ORIGINAL PaPBRs Page Petrology.—Granites of Central Spain. Henry S. WAsHINGTON......... Jos three, So Botany.—The genus Calatola. Paun C. STANDLEY.............-0e00e: sio's'ak Se eeee ee Botany.—Five new American Melampodiinae. §S. F. BuaKe.............. 5 atic eate ALS Botany.—Venezuelan species of Valeriana. H. Prrrrer anp E. P. Kinuip........ 422 PROCEEDINGS Biological Society... econ 0. dss oe Poe bs bow ys beck as bos ae ee sv bind vhs Anthropological Society -ii...65 jac. akc ew ancs ve oly onaneue = ane pie Meas Screntiric Notas AND NEWS. 22.5 0c...055- des ss lec la anie dss os Ce eee avakote B86 ~ OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY : President: Gzrorce K. Burasss, Bureau of Standards. 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Speciai rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy thee iron i an PLL LING TE LG JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 3 VoL. 16 OcToBER 4, 1926 No. 16 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The optical properties of some _ sugars. GrorcE T. KEENAN, Bureau of Chemistry. (Communicated by Epear T. WHERRY.) The value of the optical properties for the identification of crystal- lized substances is now well recognized, and several systematic lists of properties in individual groups of compounds have been published. Thus far, however, there has been no comprehensive treatment of the commoner sugars. Some of the data here presented have been assem- bled from the crystallographic descriptions by Groth,? and some from the publication on the pentoses by Wherry.’ Through the cooperation of the Carbohydrate Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, many of the crystalline sugars were made available. The study of the optical properties of these sugars was carried out by the immersion method as applied by crystallographers. Sugars are insoluble in the oily liquids commonly used in the im- mersion method. ‘The liquids best suited for this study proved to be mixtures of mineral oil with m = 1.49 and monochloronaphthalene with nm = 1.64 in such proportions that each liquid differed in n from the next by 0.005 or, in certain ranges, by a smaller amount. Their exact n values were determined on a refractometer; observations were made in yellow light, approximating that of the D-line, obtained by : _ interposing a yellow glass or gelatine film between a source of white light and the microscope mirror. The author desires to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. H.8. Paine and Dr. D. H. Brauns of the Carbohydrate Laboratory in furnishing the sugars for this study and of Dr. E. T. Wherry for suggestions in the preparation of the paper. 1 Received Aug. 14, 1926. 2GrotH, P. Chem. Krystalog. 3: 450. Also 435 and 448. 1910. 3 WuerrRy, Epear T. Crystallography and optical properites of three aldopentoses, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1852. 1918. 433 434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 16— ]-ARABINOSE In ordinary light—Crystals rod-like, with prominent oblique terminations, the rods being often collected in stellate groups or twins. Refractive indices—(D'). ng = 1.551, ng = 1.567, n, = 1.571, n, — Ne = 0.020, all +0.001; n. 1s usually shown crosswise, and n, length- wise.® Characters shown in parallel polarized light with often nicols.—Ex- tinction apparently inclined, but angle small; double refraction rather strong, (0.020), the colors being mostly first order; elongation negative. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Only traces of negative biaxial figures with large axial angle (20°?) obtainable. Distinctive characters—The minimum and maximum refractive indices (Nm = 1.551, n, = 1.571) are both of value in identifying the substance. FRUCTOSE In ordinary light—Consists of thin rods. Refractwe indices. (D)—Nq = 1.558, ng = indet., 7, =— Paoli bork +0.003; m2 occurs lengthwise and n, crosswise; both easily found. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction very weak (0.003), mostly first order colors. being shown; extinction parallel; elongation negative. Characters shoun in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— None. 3 Distinctive characters—The minimum and maximum refractive index values (nm. = 1.558, n, = 1.561) are both readily found and significant for the substance. The weak double refraction differen- tiates this from all the other sugars studied. d-GLUCOSE HYDRATE In ordinary light—Consists of six-sided plates. Refractive indices. (D).—nq = 1.521, ng = indet., n, = 1.549; both +0.002. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols —Dou- ble refraction moderate, n, — nN = 0.018; colors 1st or 2nd order. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— The plates all extinguish sharply, indicating that 6 is more or less perpendicular to their broad face so that interference figures could not be expected; extinction parallel; elongation negative, ocT. 4, 1926 KEENAN: OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SUGARS 435 Distinctive characters.—nq = 1.521 and n, = 1.549 both occur fre- quently enough to be of value for determinative purposes. a-LACTOSE HYDRATE In ordinary light—The a-form or commonly recognized lactose hy- drate is seen to consist of characteristic tomahawk-shaped crystals. Riefractiwe indices. (D).—%q = 1.517, ng = 1.542, n, = 1.550, all +0.005.* Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Second and third order colors evident; double refraction fairly strong Meese se bx /,-c, = 10°,.A a = 99°. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Optic sign —; 2E = 335°; figures rare. Distinctive characters —The characteristic shape of the crystals and the minimum and maximum indices of refraction are useful in identi- fying the substance. LYXOSE In ordinary light—The material consists of six-sided grains, but little elongated in any direction. memmeive mdices. (D).—n, = 1.532, ng = 1.641, n, = 1.549, Ny — Ny = 0.017, all +0.001; m. usually shown in one direction, and n in the other.? Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Extinction inclined, the angle, being, however, very small; double refraction moderate (0.017), colors being mostly first or second order. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Interference figures rarely seen, but occasionally part of a negative figure with very large axial angle is obtained. Distinctive characters—The maximum refractive index value, n, = 1.549, is readily found and is diagnostic for the substance, although the other value, n. = 1.532, may also be used. d-MANNOSE In ordinary light—The material consists of small, six-sided plates and rods. Refractive indices. (D).—ny = 1.529 crosswise; ng = 1.536, length- wise; n, = 1.563 crosswise; all +0.002. 4Wuerry, Epcar T. Journ. Agric. Research 21: 793. 1921. 436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction fairly strong (0.034); extinction varying from par- allel to inclined; elongation +. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Partial interference figures occasionally shown with plates inclined {0 an optic axis, -.... 3 Distinctive characters.—The most significant refractive index value’ for this substance is ng = 1.536 which occurs frequently lengthwise on six-sided rods. d-MELIBIOSE In ordinary light—Habit rod-like, quadrilateral forms also being common. Refractive indices. (D).—nq = 1.526 shown lengthwise; ng = 1.541 shown crosswise; 2, = 1.560 common, and occurring lengthwise; all +0.002. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Polarization colors brilliant, 2-3 order; double refraction fairly strong (0.034) ; extinction parallel; elongation positive. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Biaxial interference figures rare; 2E appears to be large. Distinctive characters —The most characteristic optical constant for determinative purposes is the value of the maximum index, n, = 1.560 which occurs frequently on elongated forms lengthwise. | RAFFINOSE In ordinary light—The material consists of flaky rods and needles. Refractive indices. (D).—ng = 1.522 lengthwise and common; Ng = indet.;n, = 1.537 crosswise; both +0.002. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction moderate (0.015); extinction parallel; elongation negative. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— None. Distinctive characters—The moderate double refraction and the refractive index shown lengthwise on rods and needles (mq = 1.522) are characteristic of this substance and should prove of value for determinative purposes. RHAMNOSE MONOHYDRATE In ordinary light—The material consists of irregular fragments. Itefractive indices. (D).—n, = 1.523, ng = 1.531, 1 eee / oct. 4, 1926 KEENAN: OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SUGARS 437 Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction moderate, (0.011). Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Biaxial interference figures common, particularly grains perpendicular to an optic axis; optic sign —;2E = 95°51’. Distinctive one. sia frequency with which fragments show one optic axis up in the interference figure, also the minimum and maximum refractive index values (ng = 1.523 and n, = 1.584), are useful for determinative purposes. d-RIBOSE In ordinary light—The material consists largely of rods and oc- casionally irregular fragments. Refractiwe indices. (D).—n, = 1.533 shown lengthwise; ng = 1.549 shown crosswise; n, = 1.570 shown crosswise; all +0.002. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction strong (0.037); extinction parallel; elongation “negative. Characters shown in iter polarized light with crossed nicols.— No interference figures shown. Distinctive characters.—The minimum refractive index value (ng = 1.533) and the maximum value (n, = 1.570) are both readily obtained, the former occurring lengthwise and the latter crosswise. SUCROSE In ordinary light—The material consists of irregular fragments without any definite habit. imermacune moices. ()-—n, = 1.540; ng = 1.567, n, = 1.5722 Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Double refraction fairly strong (0.032); second and third order colors shown. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Interference figures common, grains perpendicular to an optic axis being readily located;2V = 48°0’;ax. pl. b (010);X A c = 67° in obtuse angle 8; optic sign —. Distinctive characters—ng = 1.567 occurs very frequently and is considered significant for determinative purposes. The readiness with which interference figures are found is also characteristic of the substance. 438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 TREHALOSE In ordinary light—The material occurs in the form of rods with oblique terminations. Refractive indices. (D).—ng = 1.528 shown crosswise and easily found; ng = indet.;n, = 1.533 shown lengthwise; both +0.002. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Colors gray; double refraction weak (0.005); extinction parallel; elongation positive. Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— No interference figures obtainable. Distinctive characters.—The weak double refraction and the refrac- tive index shown crosswise are characteristic of this substance and should be of value in determinative work. d-xYLOSE In ordinary light—The material consists of irregular fragments. Refractive indices. (D).—nq = 1.517, ng = 1.544, n, = 1.546, all +0.001.2. Fragments extinguishing in a hazy, indefinite manner (with crossed nicols) and showing (in convergent light) interference figures characteristic of grains perpendicular to acute bisectrix show ng = 1.544 in one extinction position and n, = 1.546 in the other. Characters shown in parallel polarized light with crossed nicols.— Polarization colors brilliant, two or three distinct marginal color bands showing on many of the fragments; double refraction fairly strong (0.029). Characters shown in convergent polarized light with crossed nicols.— Biaxial interference figures common, many grains showing sections perpendicular to the acute bisectrix; 2E = 36° (approx.); optic sign —. Distinctive characters—The minimum and maximum refractive index values are readily found in this substance and can be used in identifying it optically. DETERMINATIVE TABLE FOR THE SUGARS Immerse crystalline material in the liquids of refractive indices shown in the left-hand column, made by mixing mineral oil and mono- chloronaphthalene. Examine under the microscope with polarizer in place and diaphragm partially closed, trying one liquid after another until the outlines of the fragments disappear when in one position in the field. Confirm identity of the material by the data in the cen- tral column, and obtain the name of the sugar in the right-hand column. oct. 4, 1926 KEENAN: OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SUGARS 439 TABLE 1.—DEscrIPTION OF CRYSTALS AND CONFIRMATORY DATA © Index . Sugar : ols Tomahawk-shaped crystals are significant for this sugar. Contrmy by immersion in liqurdlsa0. cs ek ce oe a-Lactose : hydrate 1.521 Material consists of six-sided plates, all extinguishing : sharply, precluding interference figures. Confirm by im- : Pee See CTU DAO) Ls eed ROMER ees, oo alee wis a, 6 LEME ota, Gavan s d-Glucose hydrate 1.522 Material consists largely of rods and needles, this index being shown lengthwise. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.537, which matches y shown frequently crosswise........... Raffinose 1.528 Rods with oblique terminations. This index is shown crosswise. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.533, which matches y shown frequently lengthwise on rods.............. Trehalose 1.534 Irregular fragments. Biaxial interference figures common. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.523 which matchesa......... Rhamnose ; hydrate 1.536 Six-sided plates and rods. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.563, which matches y, shown frequently crosswise on rods. ..d-Mannose 1.546 Irregular fragments. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.544, which matches 8, shown frequently on fragments extinguishing iiarhany, Indennite Manner... ....i.0...-ssseseeceee Be tarde d-Xylose 1.549 Six-sided grains but little elongated in any direction. Con- firm by immersing in liquid 1.532, which matches y, and shown “SEG IS IOUAIT Ly tee ed ce Es a date Coa a A gE ne Lyxose 1.558 Thin, colorless rods; this index occurs lengthwise. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.561, which matches y, shown fre- PETG Ly7 CHOSS WISE Ol TOUS: onc sc), ssn e pis edevelonnsg oak ed aeldse cs Fructose 1.560 Rod-like and some quadrilateral forms; this index occurs lengthwise on rods. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.541, which matches 6 shown frequently on rods crosswise.......... d-Melibiose 1.567 Irregular fragments; ease with which interference figures are found significant for this sugar. Confirm by immersing in iid (2 wihtehematenes Yoos.c6..0.+ ses techs eee ewesas ae Sucrose 1.570 Consists largely of rods; this index is shown crosswise on rods. Confirm by immersing in liquid 1.533, which matches a, and is shown frequently on rods lengthwise.................. d-Ribose 1,571 Rod-like, with prominent oblique terminations; this index occurs lengthwise on rods. Confirm by immersing in hquid 1.551, which matches a, shown frequently crosswise on rods. ..l-Arabinose 440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 =} separ | -— ~ | -aepur - ‘sgpur | “separ | -sopur | “separ = ‘opur | og | qeput [one . eastg 098 | 9epur | 2.6L | PUL | ,1S.96 | “Jopur | osre] | “Yopur | “Jopur | Fee | “Jopul 006 ONE aallgaiee yee 1 Se Seale ‘elt an o> ( ‘body ‘borj ‘borj 0 oR OBI dBA OIL 0 0 (icc Bo See aes "Soins ‘qapul + “‘qyopul —- “qopul — + a ‘qyopul - — — — ee ee UO Boon ‘qopul | “48 ‘qopul “48 ‘qopul as “48 te 43 45 “Tour "{OUr “48 "48 SSG | areet es ah ee UOMO err) &-G I &-%G 6G aa | od 3G &G GI 6G Gol RO (I ie ates eee HAOTOS) eee eee OL ial ered oleaeg Talkoce LSj6co 1 i ceo il );s0GG1 | tag ft | TOS hi cle po aT Om erG 6c0'0 | $000 | 2&0 0 | 2800 | TI0'0 | S100 | FE0'0 | FEO'O | 210°0 | E800 | 8100 | £000 , L800 ie ag coal Pe eee Oat eyoa ih leva 1 OOS. 1. foe0e Ls 6pS-1 | cOGG 1. Gyo | tS tr) Us tj) eee ay oe ope ee La Orcmiei ecu: Tie rOpUls| ro 1) 0g Tt iro Lt | cro 1. | Pepat |) epur | 0g Tt ye eg AE ee eee Ug es cogea| eoGadls | Go" Ta) 96S Ls) -669 Tj cee [1 219 1. | beg ft | SSG TS Tse fie yer. ”U :So0Ipuy soyejd | suistid | soyeyd | spor | sozeyd | spo. spor | soyejd | sureas | syiep | soyeyd | spor SOUS ie ae eee San gern aSOTAX-p na em asouons | asoalu-p Risen ta ASONIMAVY Tai isis WSOXAT eee RSanaeeD WSO LOW fee am dad IMOsaq] SUVNNG JO SUMLOVUVHD IVOILdQ—Z ATAVL oct. 4, 1926 BAILEY: MAMMALS OF THE VICINITY OF WASHINGTON 441 ZOOLOGY.—Mammals of the vicinity of Washington.. VERNON Bat.ey, Biological Survey, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Two hundred years ago the country now occupied by Washington and the District of Columbia was real wilderness, teeming with game animals, large and small. There were buffaloes, elk, deer, bears, panthers, wolves, beavers, and martens, which have since disappeared before the advance of civilization, but most of the smaller quadrupeds of that day are still to be found here in more or less reduced abundance. Some species, however, are probably just as numerous, and others may be more so than in the days of the Indian and the buffalo. Unlike the birds most of the mammals are rather plain in appear- ance or highly protective in their colors and not easily seen when they sit still, and further to escape our notice they move about mostly at night in search of food or in carrying on their family affairs, and then sleep hidden away in their nests during the daylight hours. For these reasons the study of mammals is not so easy and generally attractive to beginners as that of birds, insects, or plants, but the very difficulty of finding their haunts and learning their habits renders the study especially fascinating to those who know how to go about it. One of the chief interests lies in our surprises as we discover in the small timid creatures intelligence and feelings akin to our own, for we too are mammals with well-developed brains, minds, and psychic senses, gener- ally a little ahead of the rest of our class. ~ Here in the District of Columbia we have an excellent opportunity for the study of our native animals, although the rabbits, woodchucks, squirrels, and chipmunks are the only diurnal species. Many of the others can be watched during the evening or morning twilight hours, and still others may be caught in cage traps or bottle traps and kept in captivity long enough for careful study of their habits, intelligence, and dispositions. If given good care and quarters with comfortable, sanitary, and attractive cages, most of the small animals enjoy their captivity and some will become sufficiently gentle to be natural and easily handled. Others may be watched and partially tamed while entirely free in their native haunts. The gray squirrels in our parks and yards readily respond to human attentions and kindness. Quick in reaction to a threat from man or dog or cat and in taking refuge in treetops, they are just as quick to recognize a friendly look or gesture and in coming boldly up to receive 1 Radio talk, May 22, 1926, under the auspices of the National Zoological Park, arranged by Austin H. Clark. Received Aug. 4, 1926. 442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16° food from the extended hand. But we are not slways consistent in our treatment of our squirrel friends, for at times we feed them lavishly and again, when they especially need food and water, we forget about them and leave them to suffer or hunt for new homes. They need water every day and suffer oftener with thirst than with hunger. We could also add greatly to their comfort by occasionally puffing flea powder and sulphur into their nests to kill the parasites that torment them: At times these are so troublesome that the squirrels are forced to leave home and build fresh nests of leaves in the branches of the treetops. The big yellow fox squirrels and the bright little red squirrels may be found in the neighboring woods, but have not yet gained enough confidence in man to visit our yards and parks. The little striped chipmunks are occasionally seen on the edge of the woods or in Rock Creek Park, scampering for the nearest holes in the ground or to hollow stumps or logs, where they can feel safe. They have good reason to be timid and nervous, for stray cats leave few of them to be seen by anyone. Nevertheless they usually respond to soft words and proffered food. Rolled oats and nuts are the most enticing bait with which to win their confidence, and with skill and patience you can soon have them eating out of your hand. In this climate they are generally out on warm days all winter but in the North they are one of the seven sleepers who spend the winter in deep hiber- nation. . The big fat woodchucks, or groundhogs, also of the squirrel family, are another of the seven sleepers and may be found up the Potomac half way to Great Falls. Often they are seen sitting on the rocks sun- — ning themselves on summer mornings, or out in clover fields in autumn, getting fat as fast as they can for their long winter sleep. In the North they generally remain curled up in their underground nests from October to April, but in the mild climate of Washington they often wake up during a warm wave and not infrequently may see their own shadows on the fateful Groundhog Day of February second. Whether they see their shadows or not they generally go back and sleep through several weeks more of cold winter weather. As a matter of fact they usually sleep most of the time until the green grass and clover come up in spring to supply their food and take the place of last year’s accumulation of fat, which has carried them through the winter. Because they eat his clover the farmer generally considers them his enemies and makes war upon them with dogs, guns, and traps, so they are among the most shy and timid of our wild animals, but they are often tamed and make interesting pets. i oct. 4,1926 BAILEY: MAMMALS OF THE VICINITY OF WASHINGTON 443 The little flying squirrels with soft coats of fur, big eyes, spreading tails, and folded winglike membranes along the sides of the body are _ beautiful and gentle little animals, but so owl-like in their nocturnal habits that they are rarely seen alive. They sleep all day in some hollow tree, old woodpecker hole, or asoft bark nest in the top branches of a juniper tree, and if one knows how and where to look for them, they are sometimes found in the very edges of Washington. If you pound on the tree with a stone or an ax you may see a little gray nose and beady eyes appear in the doorway above, and if you pound still harder you may see the wings unfold and carry the little animal, gliding rapidly on the air, to some other tree 20 to 50 feet distant. It is not real flying, however graceful and wonderful it may seem, for the animal always alights lower down than where it started, and only by running up each tree trunk and soaring to another point lower down can it progress rapidly through the forest. Flying squirrels are easily tamed and make interesting and lovable pets if you have the right kind of place for them. At large, in the house, they are apt to do some mischief by making their nests in curtains, cutting up papers and clothing for nest material, or knocking things off the shelves and bookcases. Cottontail rabbits are often seen in the District of Columbia, where they are protected from hunting, and they would be much more common if it were not for stray cats and dogs that catch many of them before they grow up. If given a reasonable degree of protection they soon multiply and become common up to the edges of the city, in the parks, and even in our dooryards. In many states cottontails are considered the most valuable game animal because they are so abundant that they afford hunting for more people than all the other game. For my part I would rather see them around than shoot them, though when they get too numerous, I see no harm in rabbit pies. Too many rabbits might destroy all our bushes and young trees. Speaking of destructive animals, the brown rat, or wharf rat, is the most destructive and offensive animal we have, not only in the city and in any houses or buildings where they can gain an entrance, but also out in the fields wherever there is grain or food to their liking. They are not only filthy and destructive but dangerous as well, for they carry disease and have been among the chief distributors of bubonic plague. With modern methods of destroying rats and keeping them from obtaining foid they are now less destructive and dangerous than at any time since they were brought to this country from Europe in the early colonial days. 444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 We have also a native animal called a wood rat, or pack rat, very different from the Old World rats, a large-eared, soft-furred, bright and pretty little inhabitant of the woods and rocky cliffs. A few may be found along the rocky banks of the Potomac near Great Falls, but they are so scarce, so shy and so strictly nocturnal that they are rarely seen unless captured for study or for specimens. Our fur-bearing animals are represented by a few red and gray foxes, raccoons, opossums, otters, minks, weasels, skunks, and muskrats, all rather scarce and rarely seen except by trappers. The mere mention of mice will no doubt cause a shudder, just because everybody knows the disagreeable, smelly pest of our pantries and cellars—the house mouse, which was also introduced from the Old World. But we have many small native animals of mouse size in our fields, meadows, and forests without any of the disagreeable traits of the house mice, and each of the half dozen different kinds is as interesting in its habits and means of making a living as any of our larger animals. Some of the small animals are useful to man, while some are of no economic importance; others can do great damage to our crops and fruit trees if we do not watch out. The meadow mice and pine mice, or apple mice, are the most dangerous species, often destroying crops and killing fruit trees on a large scale, but they are not difficult to control. The little harvest mice and the deer mice are bright and pretty and practically harmless, while the long-tailed jumping mice are entirely harmless and especially interesting in their habits. Like the woodchucks they have solved the fuel problem by going to sleep in warm nests underground when the nights get cold in October, and waking up when the flowers begin to bloom in the spring, some five months later. We are still ignorant as to whether the time they spend in sleep is deducted from their allotted span of life, or whether added to it, and I am keeping several of them in comfortable captivity to determine this point before recommending hibernation to any of my friends. Another group of small animals, including the insect eaters, the moles and shrews, is well represented here. The common mole is plentiful and the star-nosed mole is rare, but both are animals highly useful to man and very interesting from their burrowing habits and their ravenous appetites. They feed almost entirely on earthworms, cutworms, and other small insect and animal life found under the surface of the ground. ? The shrews of about four different species have much the same food oct. 4, 1926 STEJNEGER: NEW TOAD FROM CHINA 445 habits as the moles, but being smaller take other sets of insects and smaller animal life. They vary in size from the velvety, short-tailed - shrew, about the size of a mouse, down to the tiny least shrew, the smallest mammal in America, if not in the world. Each species, however, fills its place in the animal economy of our country, and in preserving a wholesome balance of nature. Bats are well represented about Washington by at least ten species, and of about half of these there is an abundance of individuals. They range from the great hoary bat, the large brown bat, the silvery- haired and red bats down to the little brown bat, the least brown bat, and the little pipistrelle. Anyone can see them flitting about the houses and trees in town or out in the woods on warm evenings in summer, and usually can recognize some of them by different sizes and colors before the twilight is too far advanced. To many the men- tion of bats brings up pictures of darkness and mystery, and vermin and hooked claws entangled in ladies’ hair, and a general feeling of terror and disgust, all products of ignorance and imagination. Our bats are really highly specialized and intelligent mammals. They are clean in habits and usually free from parasites and have never been known to get in anyone’s hair or to bite or hurt anyone unless abused. If handled gently they soon become quite tame and make interesting house pets, learning to come for food and water at regular times and quickly ridding the house of moths and night-flying insects. In many cases we find a practical advantage in knowing our friends and foes in the animal world, but in any case we understand ourselves better by knowing more of what we have been taught to call the lower animals. ZOOLOGY.—A new toad from China: LEONHARD STEJNEGER, United States National Museum. Among the collections brought home by Mr. F. R. Wulsin, leader of the National Geographic Society’s Expedition to Kokonor in 1923, there is a large series of an undescribed species of toad. It was col- lected during his stay from August 24 to 31 at Choni, on the Tao River, about 120 miles south of Lanchow, Kansu, China, consequently on the north slope of the Min range, which here forms the boundary between the provinces of Kansu and Szechwan. Rev. D. C. Graham, during his trip to Sungpan in 1924 obtained a number of specimens at the latter place, consequently on the south slope of the same range. 1 Received Aug. 21, 1926. 446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16. Whether its habitat is restricted to this mountain system remains to be seen. Bufo minshanicus, sp. nov. Diagnosis.—Top of head without bony crests, except a faint one on canthus rostralis; first finger longer than second; toes webbed one half or more; sub- articular tubercles double; tarsal fold more or less distinct; tympanum dis- tinct, less than 4 diameter of eye; top of head with large rounded warts; upper; side of tibia with large warts, more or less confluent; a large oblong gland on outer side of tarsus. Type.—U. 8. National Museum No. 68567. Type-locality.—Choni, on Tao River, Kansu, China. Total length of type, an adult female, 78 mm. Remarks.—This species is easily recognized among Chinese toads by the large globular tubercles on top of the head, especially a semicircle of three or four large ones marking the inner edge of the upper eyelid. The canthal ridge is also generally covered with one or more large warts. On the upper side of tibia there is one or more conspicuously large glands. ZOOLOGY.—A new Pelobatid batrachian from Borneo. Doris M. CocHRAN, United States National Museum. (Communicated by A. WETMORE.) In the splendid collection of amphibians from Borneo sent to the United States National Museum by Dr. W. L. Abbott some years ago, there is a Pelobatid toad belonging to the genus Megophrys, which has not been described. I take great pleasure in naming it after the collector, whose untiring efforts have resulted in a vast enrichment of our scientific knowledge in nearly every branch of biology. Megophrys abbotti, new species Diagnosis.—Profile of snout obliquely truncate, strongly projecting beyond lower jaw; canthus rostralis angular and loreal region oblique; head one and one-fifth as broad as long; tympanum distinct; tibio-tarsal articulation not reaching beyond eye; tibia two and one-half times in length from snout to vent; toes with a slight rudiment of web; vomerine teeth none; tympanum half the diameter of the eye and greater than its distance from the eye; nostril much nearer end of snout than eye. Type.—U. 8. National Museum no. 39097, collected at Balik Papan Bay, Eastern Borneo, February 6, 1909, by Dr. W. L. Abbott. Description.—Tongue nicked behind; head moderate, one and one-fifth times as broad as long; pupil vertical; snout obliquely truncate in profile, projecting beyond the lower jaw, longer than the eye; canthus rostralis very sharp; loreal region vertical, slightly concave; nostril situated at extreme end of canthus rostralis and much nearer to tip of snout than to eye; interorbital 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received Aug. 14, 1926. oct. 4,1926 cOCHRAN: NEW PELOBATID BATRACHIAN FROM BORNEO 447 space flat, one and one-half times as broad as the upper eyelid; tympanum very distinct, half the diameter of the eye, and greater than its distance _ from the eye; fingers with very feebly swollen tips, first and second equal, about two-thirds the length of the third; subarticular tubercles absent; two large carpal tubercles, the inner somewhat the more pronounced; a small and inconspicuous inner metatarsal tubercle; no outer metatarsal tubercle; . toes slender, with feebly swollen tips, slightly webbed, the web fringing the first two toes nearly to their tips; a small dermal ridge beneath the fourth toe; tibio-tarsal articulation reaching the eye; tibia two-fifths the distance from snout to vent; foot shorter than tibia. Skin on top of head perfectly smooth, on back very minutely ‘“shagreened,”’ on eyelids and sides of head and body distinctly dotted with glandules, on lower surfaces perfectly smooth. A strong glandular ridge beginning at the nostrils and extending along the canthus rostralis, continuing again on the posterior corner of the eyelid, extending above the tympanum and beyond it almost to the shoulder; a flat- tened wart on each side of the breast behind the insertion of the fore limb; no warts on the chin. Coloration yellowish brown above, with no markings excepting a dark patch beneath the canthus rostralis, a small dark spot on the posterior corner of the eyelid, and another on the tympanum; under surface yellowish white, the chin and throat tan. The type is unique. Dimensions mm . mm SUPT EO) VEWG 7255 ss sie dats eae oa 54 Diameter of tympanum........ 4.5 Length of head to occiput........ 20 Distance between eye and Pen OU NEA. oi... occ eva ae Deskin 2D TeVAID PATRI Fo ss As ds aie en » 3 Extreme tip of snout to eye...... 10 PAIN Pe og cic airs wget Sys 14 Mirameter Of. 6ye..... 0.6.0 ee cent 9 LS eal a te ee 22 inperorbital width..........0....: 8 POR ee see. ans ie Ce ina os 19 From the five species of Megophrys already known from Borneo and listed in Dr. Van Kampen’s excellent work on the Amphibia of the Indo-Australian Archipelago (1923), this species can be easily distinguished. It could never be confused with M. montana, which has a pointed eyelid, nor with M. nasuta, possessing a pointed snout. Megophrys gracilis, also of Borneo, is a very long-legged toad, unlike WM. abbottz; M. baluensis has a head twice as broad as long, differing from the new species which has a head only one and one-fifth times as broad as long. From M. hasselt:, the only remaining described species from Borneo, M. abbott: differs in possessing a very distinct tympanum, a sharply sloping and truncated snout, in having the nostrils situated at the extreme end of the upper surface of the snout, and in coloration. In using the key contained in Boulenger’s ‘“‘Revision of the Oriental Pelo- batid Batrachians (Genus Megalophrys),”’ the new species falls nearest to the Chinese Megalophrys boettgeri. But M. boetigert has the tongue entire; the nostrils are equally distant from eye and from the end of the snout; the carpal tubercles are indistinct or absent; there are two warts on the chin; and finally, there are symmetrical blackish markings on the body. None of these charac- teristics are found in M. abbott. 448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 ENTOMOLOGY .—New neotropical myrmecophiles.1 Witut1am M. Mann, U. 8. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (Com- municated by 8. A. RoHWER.) Descriptions of the following new myrmecophilous beetles have been prepared for some time, and duplicate specimens of some of the. Fic. 1.—Terapus mexicanus species have been sent to various correspondents. With the exception of the new species of J'erapus, all of the myrmecophiles described in this paper are guests of various species of Army Ants. Terapus mexicanus, new species Length 2 mm. Brownish red, shining. Head sparsely, coarsely and irregularly punctate, and with short and fine erect hairs, clypeus and labrum smooth, front rather 1 Received Aug. 25, 1926. ocr. 4, 1926 MANN: NEW NEOTROPICAL MYRMECOPHILES 449 strongly concave and at middle with an impressed line extending to base of labrum; sides in front of eyes thickly margined, the margins diagonal above and extending forward as very fine carinae bordering the median impressed line; clypeus transversely concave. Pronotum with sparse irregular punc- tures, coarsest along the basal border; transverse, broadest behind, anterior border broadly emarginate at middle; anterior corners rounded, posterior corners broadly angulate, sides bilobed, the anterior lobe the longest of the two and the inner surface of both impressed, bordering a nearly flat triangular area in the middle of which is a rounded tubercle bearing a thin brush of yellow trichomes; median surface evenly convex. Elytra longer than broad, humeri gibbous, basal margin with several short, shallow impressions; surface with abundant elongate punctures, coarser than on pronotum. Propygidium transversely hexagonal, divided at middle by a bi-arcuate line, the upper surface flat, the lower surface roundly elevated at sides and concave at middle; surface very sparsely punctate. Pygidium a little broader than long, sparsely and finely punctate. Keel of prosternum as broad in front as behind, sides very feebly arcuate, nearly parallel, obtusely margined, the margins rounding and converging in front becoming almost obsolete, at middle posterior border broadly emarginate, surface finely and densely punctate and distinctly con- cave; a feeble transverse impression at base of Jobe, which is finely punctate and shining, and, at anterior border, entire. Mesometasternum without dividing line; anterior border and sides with a fine margin, the anterior border biconcave, narrowly arcuate at middle, sides nearly straight. Legs broad, anterior femora stout, dorsal edge straight, ventral concave, tibiae broadly triangular, the basal half of outer border arcuate, apical] half nearly straight, with a few very small, widely separated spines; middle femora longer, tibiae elongate triangular, the basal edge feebly concave, longer than the apical, which is more concave and separated from it by an angle; posterior femora broad, rather compressed, with a strong, transverse truncated lobe at base of dorsal border, ventral border concave at middle, rounded at base, tibiae broad and flattened, lower border concave at middle, upper border with the basal portion nearly two times as long as the apical, projecting and rounded at middle, separated from the anterior edge by an angle. Type locality.—Mexico, San Diego Cocula, Jalisco, Guadalajara. Host.—Pheidole kingi Pergande. Type and paratypes.—Cat. No. 29051 U.S. N. M. - Described from five specimens (one type) taken by the writer with host ant, which nests in populous colonies common on moist slopes. The legs, the elytra, the sculpture and color are entirely different from the other species of Terapus to which I assign this species on account of the struc- ture of the head and thorax. It has no close relationship with T. mnriszechi. The pilosity is fine and veryshort above, equally fine but longer on the legs. There is a distinct though thin line of golden trichomes on the apical half of the upper edge of the basal part of the posterior tibiae. Ecitophya rapaxae, new species Length 6 mm. Opaque, dark brown to black, apical half of gaster, ventral surface of thorax, the coxae and trochanters lighter. Moderately fine and very dense punctation on head, body and appendages; elytra also finely tuberculate. Hairs coarse, erect, mainly black, but some with brownish reflections. 450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 Head a little longer than pronotum, broadest just posterior to eyes from where the sides converge to the straight posterior border which is less than one-half as broad as the front between the eyes; vertex convex; front behind eyes with longitudinal impression at middle. Clypeus very strongly carinate at middle for two-thirds its length, anterior margin nearly straight. Eyes convex. Basal antennal joint two times as thick and two-thirds as long as the third, second joint about as long as broad, third joint longer than the fourth and fifth together, joints 3 to 9 nearly three times as long as broad; penultimate joint as long as the terminal, which is obliquely connate at tip. Pronotum only slightly broader than head including eyes, broadest behind middle, anterior angles and border broadly rounded, sides, posterior to middle feebly concave and divergent, posterior angles narrowly rounded, hind margin broadly convex; disc at middle narrowly and strongly impressed longitu- dinally, the impression somewhat broadened anteriorly; sides broadly and shallowly concave. Elytra broader than pronotum and much longer than broad, humeri broadly and posterior angles narrowly rounded, sides nearly straight, posterior border emarginate. Abdomen but little broader than elytra and shorter than head and thorax together. Legs very long and slender, with the posterior basitarsi nearly as long as the remaining joints together. Type locahty.—Cachnela Esperanza, Rio Beni, Bolivia. Type.—Cat. No. 29052 U.S. N. M. Host.—Eciton rapax Smith. A single specimen found by the writer in a file of the ants. This species is closest to Ecitophya simulans Wasm., but distinct in the structure of the head, which is comparatively broad in front and strongly narrowed behind, its more convex eyes, more elongate elytra and coarser punctuation. Ecitomorpha melanotica, new species Length 3.75 mm. Opaque black, appendages dark fuscous; evenly cribrate-punctate, more finely and shallowly on abdomen. Hairs erect, black, long and finely tipped, moderately abundant, shorter and stiffer, semi-erect and more abundant on appendages. Head more than twice as long as broad and a little broader behind than in front, sides feebly convex; front shallowly impressed at middle between eyes; vertical region feebly convex. Clypeus convex, anterior border broadly emarginate. Antennae long, thickened apically, the basal joint thick and convex at sides, shorter than joints 2 and 3 together, second joint a little more than half as long as the third and as long as the fourth, joints 4-10 gradu- ally increasing in length and thickness and all distinctly longer than broad, the terminal one and one-third times as long as the penultimate and slightly narrower, slightly arcuate, narrowed and rounded apically. Pronotum a little shorter than in EF. arachnoides, the median longitudinal impression strong, the lateral depressions very feeble. Elytra together a little broader than their length at suture, anterior and posterior corners broadly rounded, sides nearly straight, posterior border rather strongly emarginate at middle. Abdomen convex, elongate, as broad in front as behind, sides slightly arcuate. Type locality—Mixco, Guatemala. Host.—Eciton burchella var. infumatum Wheeler. oct. 4, 1926 MANN: NEW NEOTROPICAL MYRMECOPHILES 451 Type.—Cat. No. 29053 U.S. N. M. Described from a unique specimen, collected by the writer as the result of an hour’s watch of an army of the ants. This is distinct from Heitomorpha arachnoides Wasm. in having a shorter, broader head, more narrowly compressed between the eyes, and in its more slender antennal joints. ‘The impressions on the sides of pronotum are more feeble than in FE. arachnoides. | Mimeciton antennatus, new species Length 2.10 mm. Yellowish brown, abdomen darker; subopaque, finely rugulose-punctulate, more finely and shallowly on the abdomen, which is moderately shining. Pile and pubescence very fine and silky, yellow in color, moderately abundant on head, body and appendages. Head from the front, quadrate, about one and two-thirds times as long as: broad, sides and posterior border straight, cheeks swollen, front between the antennal foveae strongly elevated and subcarinate, triangular in front and continuous with clypeus, the surface of which is flattened and the anterior border truncate; outer border of antennal foveae strongly margined. Mandi- bles thick basally, sharply pointed at tips. Antennae long and rather stout, their scapes longer than the head, of nearly uniform thickness and slightly arcuate; second joint broad, somewhat compressed and curved, longer than joints 3-4-5 together; joint 3 transverse, joints 4 to 9 gradually increasing in length and thickness, those anterior a little longer than broad; terminal joint longer than the preceding two together, shallowly constricted in front of middle, rounded at tip. Pronotum about two times as long as broad, broadest and with sides rounded in front, impressed shallowly and trans- versely near middle. Elytra without indication of suture, longer than broad, posterior border deeply emarginate, with the sides extending as vertical, rather thick lamellae, projecting and obtuse at tips and entirely concealing from the side the short abdominal peduncle. Abdomen very convex, strongly incrassate behind, shortly and narrowly pedunculate in front. Legs long and slender; joints of posterior tarsi very long. Type locality—Tena, Ecuador. Host.—Eciton (Labidus) praedator F. Smith. Type and paratypes.—Cat. No. 29054 U.S. N. M. Described from five specimens (one type) taken by F. X. Williams, Feb. 24, 1923, in marching files of the host ant. This species differs from Mimeciton pulex Wasm. and Mimeciton zikani Wasm., both of which also live with Hciton praedator, in being more opaque, in its shorter and broader head with the front more elevated between the antennal insertions, and in the form of the second antennal joint. This is peculiar being narrow basally, clavate anteriorly and broader than the follow- ing joints, quite scapiform in itself, and as long as the following three joints together. 452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16 CEPHALOPLECTINAE Cephaloplectus trilobitoides, new species Length 1.75 mm. Dark reddish brown, form broad, pubescence short, whitish, moderately abundant, pilosity long and fine, suberect, arranged in about ten longitudinal rows; abdomen rather thickly pilose, apical segment at base with several stiff, though slender, dark, needle-like hairs as long as the segment itself. Head above about four times as broad as long. Pronotum transverse, a little longer than the elytra; posterior corners strongly projected and acute; _ posterior border straight at middle. Elytra transverse, little narrowed behind, sides moderately arcuate, posterior corners slightly projecting and rounded, border straight. Abdomen tapering, last segment quadrate, truncate apically. Labrum transverse, rounded at sides. Penultimate joint of maxillary palpi elongate, cylindrical. Mesosternum roundly and rather narrowly emarginate behind. : Type locality —Esquintla, Guatemala. Type.—Cat. No. 29055 U. 8. N. M. Host.—Eciton coecum Mayr. Related to Cephaloplectus quadriglume Wasm., but smaller and proportion- ately broader and with the posterior corners and pronotum much longer and more acute. Described from a single specimen collected by the writer. Cephaloplectus flavus, new species Length 2.25-2.50 mm. Pale yellow-brown throughout, feebly shining; head above, thorax and elytra rather densely covered with short and fine yellowish pubescence and with abundant, regular, long, stiff very finely tipped sloping hairs; abdomen and ventral surface of thorax with recumbent pilosity. Labrum nearly twice as broad as long, sides arcuate, anterior border shal- lowly emarginate. Penultimate joint of maxillary palpi cylindrical, three times as long as broad. Mentum quadrate, transverse. Antennae flattened, basal joint short, club not sharply distinct from remainder of antennae, inter- mediate joints very strongly transverse. Pronotum distinctly longer than elytra, convex, sides arcuate, posterior corners angulately produced. Elytra transverse, posterior corners and border broadly arcuate. Abdomen strongly tapering, tip narrow and truncate. Prosternum shallowly concave between coxae and a Jittle behind, then convex; posterior border strongly, arcuately emarginate. Type locality —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara, Costa Rica. Type and paratype.—Cat. No. 29056 U.S. N. M. Host.—Eciton. Differs from Cephaloplectus quadriglume Wasm. in its more slender form, smaller size and pale coloration. Described from two specimens collected by F. Nevermann, one selected as type. Cephaloplectus mus, new species Length of head, thorax and elytra 2.25 mm. (abdomen strongly contracted). Broadly oval, convex, moderately shining, coriaceous; rather heavily oct. 4, 1926 MANN: NEW NEOTROPICAL MYRMECOPHILES 453 pubescent and with abundant, slanting, acute, yellowish hairs; color dark brownish red. Head above a little less than four times broader than long. Pronotum ' rather strongly convex above, broader than long and distinctly longer than the elytra, posterior corners projecting and subangulate. Scutellum large and triangular, less than two times as broad aslong. Elytra at base as broad as pronotum, sides feebly arcuate, posterior corners very broadly rounded, posterior border straight. Ultimate abdominal segment narrowly rounded at middle. Labrum and mentum transverse. Prosternum broadly and shallowly impressed posterior to coxae, flat behind, posterior border deeply and rather narrowly excavated. Type locahty—Mera Oriental, Ecuador. Type and paratype.-—Cat. No. 29057 U.S. N. M. Host.—Eciton vagans Smith. Described from two specimens (one type) taken Feb. 1923 by F. X. Williams in files of the host ant. This is larger than Cephaloplectus quadriglume, the elytra are distinctly broader, the pubescence above much thicker, the scutellum is also proportion- ately large, in C. quadriglwme very small. Cephaloplectus pusiilus, new species Length 1.60 mm. Pale yellow-brown, shining; pubescence very short and white, not dense; surface finely coriaceous, sparsely punctate, each puncture with a long and fine, nearly erect pale yellow hair. Head above four times as broad as long; labrum and mentum transverse, flat. Pronotum transverse, distinctly longer than elytra, posterior corners projecting and acute. Elytra individually broader than long, posterior corners less broadly rounded than in Cephaloplectus flavus. Last abdominal segment truncate. Abdomen rather thickly pilose and with a few coarser, erect hairs, all golden yellow in color. Mesosternum rather broadly emargi- nate. Type localityx—Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. tyne. wat. No. 29058 U.S. N.-M. Host.—Eciton. This species resembles Cephaloplectus flavus, but has the posterior angles of the pronotum much more elongate and arcuate, the elytra are much broader (in C. flavus each is distinctly longer than broad), and the erect hairs on the dorsal surface are sparse but longer and more erect. Described from a single specimen collected March 3, 1925, by F. Nevermann. Eulimulodes, new genus In habitus and general structure resembling Cephaloplectus but differing in the maxillary palpi and antennae. The maxillary palpi have the first joint very small, the second about as long as the third, slender basally, triangularly clavate and somewhat compressed apically; the third joint is elongate oval and compressed, obliquely truncate at apex; the termina] joint is thickly subulate. The basal antennal joint is large and nearly as long as the remain- ing part of antennae excluding the club, the following joints are small and 454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16. submoniliform; the club is Jarge and strongly compressed, composed of two broad segments, the apical slightly the longest. The remainder of head and the prosternum are very similar to these parts in Cephaloplectus. Genotype.— Hulimulodes mexicanus, new species. Eulimulodes mexicanus, new species Length 2 mm. Brownish red. Broadly oval, tapering behind, coriaceous, closely serio- lately pilose, the pile short and appressed, pale yellow, almost white; surface moderately shining. Portion of head visible from above three times as broad as long, its anterior border forming an even arc with the sides of pronotum; labrum slightly trans- verse, a little broader behind than in front, sides straight, anterior border shallowly emarginate and with an impressed space near margin. Pen- ultimate joint of maxillary palpi broad, subovate and compressed, terminal joint subulate and about three-eighths as long as the penultimate. First antennal joint nearly as long as side of labrum, club oval, strongly flattened, the two joints subequal in length and very much broader than the moniliform joints between it and the basal. Pronotum a little broader than Jong, about as long as elytra, strongly convex, sides arcuate, posterior corners moderately produced and narrowly rounded, posterior border nearly straight. Scutellum very broadly triangular. Elytra at base a little narrower than pronotum, together broader than long, narrowed behind; posterior corners broadly rounded, border nearly straight. Abdomen moderately tapering, apical segment shallowly emarginate at tip; dorsal surface with abundant, recum- bent, Jong and fine black hairs. Ventral surface shining, pilosity longer, finer and less appressed than on dorsal surface. Prosternum broadly convex except between coxae, where it is flatter, triangulately emarginate behind. Type locality —Ixthan, Nayarit, Mexico. Type and paratype.—Cat. no. 29059 U.S. N. M. Host.—Eciton (Acamatus) wheelert Emery. Described from two specimens (one type) taken with the host, out from beneath a stone, by the author. Cephaloplectus godmam Sharp from Panama is a much larger species and the pronotum is proportionately longer. Cephaloplectus quadriglumis Wasm. which lives with Eciton quadriglume Hal. is similar in habitus but lighter in color and above with erect hairs, lacking in Hulimulodes mexicanus. ‘The emargination of the posterior margin of prosternum is more broadly angulate and all of these have the third joint of the maxillary palpus long and slender and the antennal joints broad. This species resembles an exceedingly large Limulodes and sufficient material for dissection may show a close relationship between the two. Xenocephalus lucidus, new species Length 3.5 mm. Yellowish brown, minutely and sparsely punctate and shining, a few delicate striolae visible on front margin of head, without hairs above. Form elongate, strongly convex above. Head from above four times as broad as long, arcuate in front and behind, with small, lumate portions of the eyes visible at sides. Pronotum transverse, at middle slightly shorter than oct. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 455 elytra, anterior border broadly emarginate, anterior corners rounded, sides arcuate, posterior corners slightly projecting and more narrowly rounded than the anterior ones; posterior border feebly arcuate. Elytra at base -as broad as pronotum, transverse, sides, seen from directly above, nearly straight and parallel, very slightly projected and rounded at posterior corners, posterior border feebly sinuate. Abdomen at base a little narrower than elytra, moderately tapering, posterior corners of dorsal sclerites angulate, penultimate sclerite with six triangular teeth at apex. Head from beneath rather flat betweeneyes. Labrum transverse, strongly emarginate anteriorly. Eyes large, more than twice as long as broad and with very large facets. Antennae barely reaching anterior margin of head, basal joint two-thirds as long as eye, somewhat compressed, second joint cylindrical and two times as long as broad, remaining joints, except the terminal, transverse and forming a compressed club, terminal broadly oval and shorter than the two preceding joints together. Maxillary palpi elongate, second joint arcuate, clavate at apical half, third joint as long as second, slender, feebly thickened toward apex, fourth joint thickly subulate, two-thirds as long as the third. Legs short and strongly compressed. Type locality Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica. Type and paratype.—Cat. no. 29060 U.S. N. M. There are sparse microscopic hairs, barely visible, at the lateral and posterior margins of the elytra, more at the apices of the dorsal abdominal sclerites, otherwise the dorsal surface is glabrous. On the ventral surface and legs there is rather sparse and fine yellowish pilosity and at the apices of the abdominal segments a few erect, stiff black hairs. This is an unusually narrow species. Described from two specimens col- lected by F. Nevermann, one being selected as type. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 693D MEETING The 693d meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club April 24, 1926 at 8:10 p.m., with President OBERHOLSER in the chair and 61 persons present. New members elected: James O. Matoney, S. PRENTISS BALDWIN (life member). C. W. TownsEnp described a recent trip with T. GiLBERT Pearson through the southern states in search of birds. They visited Miss ABBiE AUDUBON, 90 years old, the granddaughter of AupuBon. At King Ranch, Texas, an unsuccessful search was made for the whooping crane. The quail study sta- tion in southern Georgia, in charge of Mr. SroppaRD, was visited, and a call was made upon ARTHUR WAYNE at Mt. Pleasant, 8. C. In Florida, roseate spoonbills, limpkin, and everglade kites were seen. A. WETMORE gave an account of an egg recently laid at the Zoological Park by a California condor. ‘Three birds of this species have been at the Zoo for many years. The two eggs Jaid in previous years have been accidently broken by the birds. The egg laid this year was put under a hen, but did not 456. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 16. hatch, and is now in the National Museum. ‘The egg is very similar in appear- ance to that of a goose. An amateur collector once sent one to the Museum which he had bought for #500, but which proved under microscopic examina- tion to be a goose egg. H.C. OBERHOLSER stated that a collector had once sent Major BENpIRE eggs said to be those of a rare Florida hawk, which presented a peculiar appearance about the blow-hole, and which proved to be painted pullet’s eggs. S. PRENTISS BALDWIN, Cleveland, Ohio: Intensive study of the life history of birds.—The speaker described his work in bird banding at Cleveland, Ohio, and at his Georgia station. During 10 years he has banded about 50,000 birds. Special attention has been devoted to the house wren, of which 12 to 15 pairs nest on his grounds near Cleveland. Aided by several young ornitho- Jogical assistants, close watch is kept on the birds’ actions al] day long. The eggs are weighed daily, and the order of laying and hatching is noted, as well as the gain in weight of the nestlings and many other matters. The birds quickly become familiar and recognize individuals. In addition to numbered bands for individual birds, sex bands of different colored celluloid are used for convenience in studying the actions of the birds. The sexes are distinguished by song, flight, method of entering nest boxes, etc. The male migrates north first and at once adopts a certain territory for hisown. The birds raise two broods each year and generally change mates between broods. Young birds are led off by their parents when very young and almost never come back to the same nest box. . No cases of interbreeding have been noted. S. Prentiss Batpwin: Life history of the house wren (illustrated).— The speaker showed two reels of moving pictures exhibiting the nesting activities of the house wren, and the method by which these were recorded.— Discussed by L. J. Coin, E. P. Watkrer, A. WeTmorgs, and R. M. Lipsy. 694TH MEETING 47TH ANNUAL MEETING The 694th regular and 47th Annual Meeting was held in the new lecture hall of the Cosmos Club, May 8, 1926 at 8:10 p.m., with President OBER- HOLSER in the chair and 20 persons present. ‘The minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read and approved. The annual reports of the Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, Treasurer, and Publications Committee were read and ordered placed on ‘le. B. H. Swatss, for the Auditing Committee, reported that the Treasurer’s accounts had been found correct. §S. A. RoHweErR gave an informal report for the Committee on Communications. After the suspension of the By-laws, the following new members were elected: Dr. Francis R. Hagnur, Dr. T. GInBeRT PEARSON. S. A. Rouwer moved the suspension of the By-laws and the re-election of the officers elected last December, which was carried unanimously. The officers of the Society for the ensuing year are as follows: President, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Vice-Presidents, EH. A. GOLDMAN, A. WET- MORE, C. E. Cuamsuiss, H. H. T. Jackson; - Recording Secretary, S. F. BLAKE; Corresponding Secretary, T. E. SNYDER; Treasurer, ¥. C. Lincotn; M embers of Counol, Hi) C. PuLuER: Wrokt Maxon, C. W. Strives, A. A. Doourrty, B. H. Swates. S. F. Brake, Recording Secretary. phi al Society of Washington are as follows: : Ae Azzor. A new observatory in southwest Africa ti ms of the aiilinted'agcictios will appear on this ) if teenth and the twenty-seventh day OF each month. nt CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Crystallography.—The optical properties of some sugars. G: 01 Zoology.—Mammals of the vicinity of Washington. VERNON Se —A new toad from China. _Leonarp STRINEGER... es Boe PROCEEDINGS Ct eee Tlic Biological. Socisty.+..00.b,- carer is ace OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Gzorcre K. Burcess, Bureau of Standards. Recording Seca: W. D. a keect Coast and Geodetic § ' Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 4 - . 3 Cree PRR! cat, tee, Se ty MR a eS wtih aN are ' a wie j . nw - Vol. 16 OcTOBER 18, 1926 No. 17 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY eee eT OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewett | S. J. Maucutiy Agnes CHASE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. RoHwER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY EBNTOMOLOCICAL SOCIETY E, A. GOLDMAN G. W. Stose BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLICAL SOCIETY R. F. Griacs J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCCIETY E. WicHERS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE ein isi WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENGES” f ign Mr. Roya anp GuILForD Ay Se OCT 2 0 1926 $e) BALTIMORE, MARYLAND / yt hy “Mona, MUSE Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the Act of August 24, 1912. 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Ce a eo eee ae teat ale eR ae | i al Ba ee i 4 a . ew eee Oe ee eee ie ae JOURNAL es OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 OcTOBER 18, 1926 No. 17 RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—Direction determinations of atmospheric disturbances on the Isthmus of Panama.’ L. W. Austin. Labora- tory for Special Radio Transmission Research. It has long been known that atmospheric disturbances in general originate over land rather than over the ocean. It is also known that the sources of the tropical disturbances seem to follow the sun in its changing path between the northern and southern hemispheres.’ It was therefore to be expected that during the winter in Panama, (10° north), the atmospheric disturbances would come chiefly from the mainland of South America, while in summer they might be ex- - pected to come from the direction of Central America and Mexico. In addition, during the rainy season, it could be assumed that there would be a considerable amount of local disturbance generated in the low mountain chain which forms the backbone of the isthmus. It was not known, however, whether these local disturbances would outweigh those coming from the larger land masses. During February and March, 1925, I made directional observations on atmospheric disturbances at frequencies of 21.4 and 15 ke. (14,000 and 20,000 m.) in the U.S. Naval radio receiving stations at Balboa and Colon, at the two ends of the Panama Canal. The measurements were afterward continued by the personnel of the two stations. The method used in the measurements was first described in 1920.4 The apparatus shown in the figure, consisted of an 8 ft. (2.44 m.) coil antenna with 48 turns, which was combined with a small single wire 1 Received May 5, 1926. Published by permission of the Director of the National Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce. 2 Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the American Section of the International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy. 3 DeGroot, Proc. I. R. E., 5: 75. 1917. Goutpscumipt and BraILuarD, La T.S. F. (Congo Belge), Hayrz (Bruxelles) 1920. Austin, Journ. Franklin Inst. 191: 619. 1921. Rounp, EckERSLEY, TREMELLEN & Lunwon, Journ. I. E. E. (London), 63: 62. 1925, ~ 4 Austin. Journ. Franklin Inst. 191: 619. 1921. © 457 458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 | antenna to form a unidirectional receiving combination. In the meas- urements the general direction was first found by rotating the coil and adjusting the antenna coupling and resistances until the dis- turbance maximum was obtained with the antenna reversing switch VY QY DY /P = §000-20000 ohms Fi2= 200- /000 ohms Mzcener Fig. 1.—Diagram of directional receiving circuit S thrown in one direction, and the minimum when it was thrown in the other. The absolute direction in which signals were strengthened with the switch in a certain position was determined by observations on a transmitting station in a known direction. When the general direction had been determined, the coil was turned approximately at right angles to the indicated disturbance direction; the switch S was then rapidly reversed, the coil being at the same time slowly moved until the position was found in which the sound of the disturbances in the telephones was of the same intensity with the switch in its two positions. In general there were a certain number of degrees on the coil scale over which the sound equality was maintained. The center of this zone of equality was the scale reading for which the coil was at right angles to the average disturbance direction, since in this position the coil was inactive, the whole reception being from the antenna. By this method good readings can be obtained when no direction at all can be observed on the coil antenna alone. oct. 18, 1926 AUSTIN: ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES AT PANAMA 459 Table 1 shows the results of the observations from February to November, 1925. Those taken from February to the end of June were -made by observers who had received personal instruction in the method of measurement and are considered more reliable than those taken later. Owing to changes in the personnel of the stations, the work was apparently entirely interrupted during July and August. During the months in which accurate measurements were generally possible, the bearings in the table are given in degrees. During the more dis- turbed periods the directions are only roughly indicated. TABLE 1.—DIREcTION oF ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES AT BALBOA AND COLON BALBOA COLON of of observations observations : E = = = S Z Z Feb. 3p.m.| 10 | All (120°-130°)5 on wth sm March | 10 a.m. | — — 10 a.m 9 | All (120°-130°)* 3p.m.} 25 | All (125°-135°) 3 p.m 9 All (130°-140°) 10 p.m. | — é _ 10 p.m. 9 | All (120°-140°) 10 a.m 7 | 7 NBs 10 a.m. | 28 | All (120°-145°) April 3 p.m. | 29 | 20 NB, 7SH, IN, 1E 3p.m.| 25 | All (130°-145°) 10 p.m Zi} SNB, 2N 10 p.m. | 23 | All (120°-140°) 10 a.m 9 | 4 NB, 5 (NW-N) 10a.m.| 16 | 2 NB, 14SE May 3p.m.}| 31 | 15 NB, 15(NW-N),1NE| 3p.m.| 13 | 2 NB, 11 SE 10 p.m 9 | 8 NB, 1 NE 10 p.m. a }° 35H 10 a.m 9 | 3 NB, 6N 10am. | 15 | ASE June 3p.m.| 30 | 5 NB, 25 N 3p.m.| 14 | AIlSE 10 p.m 9 |9NB 10 p.m 4 | All SE No observations in July and August = aes i: 10 a.m. | 30 | 1 NB, 29 SE Sept. — — — 3p.m.| 30 | 1 NB, 28 SE, 1S 10 a.m 31 | 26(NW-NE), 5 SE 10 a.m. | 31 All (130°-140°) Oct. 3p.m.| 31 | 3 NB, 23(NW-NE),5SE} 3p.m.]} 31 | All (130°-145°) 10 p.m. | 31 | 25 NB, 5(W-N), 1SE — — — 10 a.m. | 30 | 19(E-SE), 8(NW-NE), | 10 a.m. | 30 | All (135°-140°) 3(S—-W) Nov 3p.m.| 30 | 1 NB, 20(SE-S), 3(S9W-| 3p.m.| 30 All (130°-145°) W), 6(NW-NE) 10 p.m. | 15 | 13 NB, 1SE, INE — — — * NB = no definite bearings. >’ The angles are measured clockwise from north. 460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 | The data obtained seem to warrant the following conclusions: © 1. During the dry season, probably from January 15 to April 1, the atmos- pheric disturbances both at Balboa and Colon come almost entirely from the South American continent, from the direction of the high Andes in northern Colombia. | 2. When the dry season comes to an end and local storms begin to appear, the local disturbances from the low mountains of the isthmus begin to be prominent. This shifts the prevailing direction at Balboa at times from the southeast to the north, but has little effect on the direction at Colon since the mountains containing the local centers of disturbance here lie to the south and east, or roughly in the direction of the disturbance sources in Colombia. 3. In midsummer, while there is probably much disturbance from Central America and Mexico, the local disturbances from the isthmus mask this to such an extent that the prevailing direction at Colon continues roughly south- east, while at Balboa the distant and local disturbances unite to give a northerly or northwesterly direction. 4. The observations further indicate that from northern sending stations, Balboa and Colon should give nearly equally good unidirectional reception in the dry season, but during the rest of the year, where the disturbance conditions are more troublesome, Colon should have considerable advantage over Balboa. GEOLOGY.—Mayjor features in the geology of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. L. W. StepHenson, U. 8. Geological Survey. GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT AND TOPOGRAPHY The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain is a sharply defined geologic unit, and a somewhat less sharply defined physiographic unit, through- out most of its extent in the United States. The length of the plain from Cape Cod, Mass., to the Rio Grande is in round numbers 2,000 miles. ‘The Atlantic portion of the plain (exclusive of Florida) is much narrower than the Gulf portion, the former averaging about 100 miles in breadth and the latter (exclusive of the Mississippi Valley) averaging about 250 miles. The Mississippi Valley from the Delta to to Cairo is about 570 miles long and the Peninsula of Florida about 400 miles long. This vast so-called plain rises from sea level on the coast to a maximum of somewhat more than a thousand feet in. parts of Texas, and there is in general a rise in the altitude of the inner margin of the plain from a little more than 100 feet in places on Cape Cod 1 Presidental address read before the Geological Society of Washington, December 9, 1925. Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. Received September 18, 1926. oct. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 461 (disregarding hills of glacial upthrust which are nearly 300 feet high) in the northeast to over a thousand feet in Texas. Beyond the Rio Grande in Mexico the country that can properly be classed as Coastal Plain narrows rapidly toward the south, the inner margin approaching to within a few miles of the coast, and from the vicinity of Tampico southward to Yucatan is represented only by narrow areas bordering the coast. In Yucatan the plain broadens out again to large proportions, practically the whole of the peninsula presenting a coastal plain aspect. In eastern Mexico, however, no serious attempt has as yet been made to determine the exact boundaries of the areas that should be classed as coastal plain. Although we ordinarily think of the Coastal Plain as ending at the coast, it does not in reality end there but extends out under the sea to the edge of the Continental Shelf, the position of which is shown on the map. In other words, a part of the Coastal Plain is submerged to maximum depths of about 600 feet. Off the New England coast the entire Coastal Plain goes out to sea and is completely submerged. At the edge of the Continental Shelf the submerged surface plunges steeply to the abysmal depths of the ocean. Although the term ‘‘coastal plain”? seems to suggest a region of level topographic aspect, the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain is by no means a featureless plain. ‘The province does present extensive tracts of nearly level plain, but other extensive areas range from rolling to sharply hilly. Examples of the former are the broad marine terrace plains which are more or less clearly developed and preserved from the Eastern Shore of Maryland southward to Florida, and the alluvial terrace plains of all the larger streams crossing the Coastal Plain, the finest and broadest examples of which are in the valley of Missis- sippi River. The hilly topography occurs in the higher, dissected, inter-stream areas, especially along the inner margin of the Coastal Plain from the Carolinas southwestward to Mississippi Valley, and beyond the Mississippi in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Locally there are rough forest-covered tracts of dissected upland of unbeliev- able wildness, several examples of which are: the Cretaceous sand hills in Cumberland and Scotland counties, North Carolina, and similar hills in Marlboro, Chesterfield and Kershaw counties, South Carolina; the Cretaceous hills along the inner margin of the Coastal Plain in Alabama; the Tombigbee River hills, and the hills of the Pontotoc Ridge, in northern Mississippi; and the Tertiary hills of Anderson and Cherokee counties, Texas. 462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 CHARACTER AND FORM OF SEDIMENTS The Coastal Plain is underlain by a series of sedimentary formations composed of sands, clays, marls, limestones, and chalks, and sub- ordinately of gravels, diatomaceous earths, water-laid voleanic ma- terials, and common salt in the form of plugs or so-called salt domes. Locally in Arkansas and Texas the sediments have been cut by intru- sive igneous rocks. ‘The thick accumulations of chalk and limestone are restricted to the south Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. These various materials are mainly unconsolidated or only partly consoli- dated, though some indurated layers occur interbedded with the softer beds, and they range in age from Lower Cretaceous to Recent. They rest upon a basement of much older consolidated rocks which range in age frcm pre-Cambrian to Triassic. The different kinds of materials do not form separate uniform sheets extending throughout the entire length of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, for the sediments laid down at any given time differed from place to place, and the conditions of sedimentation constantly shifted from time to time. Briefly stated, this means that no two columnar sections, unless closely adjacent to each other, are identical in lithologic succession. This diversity in the succession of formations in different sections is one of the chief diffi- culties encountered by the stratigrapher and paleontologist in deter- mining the age and stratigraphic relationships of the formations. “Viewed as a whole the sediments of the Coastal Plain form a wedge- shaped mass along the eastern border of the continent, with the blade of the wedge represented by the thin feather edge along the inner margin of the plain. ‘The thick end of the wedge along the coast ranges in thickness from a measured minimum of 1,540 feet at the mouth of Cape Fear River in North Carolina, to an unknown maximum prob- ably beneath the Mississippi Delta in southern Louisiana, which may reach 10,000 feet or more. A well 5,283 feet deep, slightly more than a mile, near Pascagoula in southern Mississippi, and one 6,027 feet deep near Lockport in southwestern Louisiana, may not have penetrated half the full thickness of the sediments, though this is conjectural. The form of this wedge of sediments is extremely attenuated in cross section, far more so than we ordinarily conceive of, due to the fact that most of its published graphic cross-sections are necessarily exaggerated in the vertical scale anywhere from 10 to 50 times. To get a true picture of such a cross-section one need only plot it to its true scale. If, for example, we draw a section across the Coastal Plain in the Cape Fear region of North Carolina, where the width of the plain is about ocT. 18, 1926 = PA VERTICAL’ SCALE EXAGGER NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION ATED 10 TIMES STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 463 Fra. 1.—Ideal section across the Atlantic Coastal Plain showing the greatly attenuated form of the wedge of Coastal Plain sedi- / ments. The section is 100 miles long and increases in thickness from a feather edge at the left to 1,500 feet at the right. 100 miles and the thickness of the sediments at the coast is 1,540 feet, taking the length of the section as 10 feet, its coastward end would be only about a third of an inch thick. (See fig. 1.) In the Miuississippi Valley, where the width of the Coastal Plain from north to south is 570 miles, if we assume a thickness of sediments at the mouth of Mis- sissippi River of 10,000 feet, the thickness of a section 10 feet long would be only two-fifths of an inch at the Delta end. With a wedge of sediments so extremely thin as this, only relatively slight crustal movements are required to account for the known tilting and warping. The sediments of the Coastal Plain do not end at the coast, but extend out under the sea, and if the basement surface on which they rest continues to slope uniformly the mass of the sediments must increase in thickness at least as far as the edge of the Continental Shelf, be- yond which they should thin out rapidly as they merge into the oozes of the ocean depths. ORIGIN OF THE SEDIMENTS A very large part of the sediments of the Coastal Plain was brought into the sea by streams entering from adjacent land areas, and was derived from sedimentary and igne- ous rocks ranging in age from pre- Cambrian to Triassic. Lesser por- tions were derived partly by the 464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 . direct action of the waves of the sea itself, eating into the edge of the land along the shores, partly from the precipitation of calcium car- bonate from the sea water, partly from the accumulation of caleareous and siliceous shells and skeletons of various marine organisms, both small and large, and partly from the formation on the sea bottom of the iron potassium silicate, glauconite. The sediments were laid down on the Continental Shelf in marine waters generally less than 100 fathoms deep, some in water so deep as not to be disturbed by wave action during their deposition, and therefore acquiring massive struc- ture; some in shallower water near the lower limit of wave action, and consequently exhibiting cross-bedded structure of fine pattern; and some in water so shallow as to show strong, coarse cross-bedding. The latter were for the most part laid down near shore in the sea itself or in bays and lagoons, and are either coarse or fine in texture depending upon the character of the material carried into the sea at the time of their formation. A subordinate part of the sediments was deposited — on river flood plains closely adjacent to the sea. The texture of the sediments was determined in part by the kind of material fed to the sea, In part by the strength and distribution of currents, and in part by the proportional amount of precipitated matter, and the amount and character of the organic remains entering into their composition. The degree of hardness was determined partly by the presence or ab- sence of cementing matter, such as calcium carbonate, silica, and iron oxide, and partly by the weight of overlying sediments. The amount of the available material is by no means the only factor that determines the thickness of sediments. In order that marie sediments may continue to increase in thickness it is necessary that the sea bottom on which they are accumulating should continue to subside either by tilt- ing or by direct downsinking, or that the level of the sea should rise, for these sediments cannot pile up higher than the level of the sea. Upon reaching nearly to sea level, instead of piling up they will be carried farther seaward by the currents and spread over a broader area. This is why a thickness of 100 or 500 feet of marine sediments in the Coastal Plain may represent as great a period of geologic time as 5000 or 10,000 feet in certain other parts of the world, as in California and in parts of South America. The ideal condition for the accumulation of great thicknesses of marine sediments is highly uplifted land areas closely adjacent to deeply subsiding sea bottoms. The reverse con- ditions, in which land areas undergo slight or moderate uplift, and adjacent sea bottoms sink slowly and to only moderate depths, result ocT. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 465 in the accumulation of formations of thin to moderate thickness. It was under the latter conditions that most of the formations of the -Coastal Plain were laid down, and the minimum thickness is found in the northern part, in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey. Here 25 or 50 feet of sediments may represent the time interval of 500 or 1,000 feet in the Gulf portion, where the maximum thicknesses occur. It may perhaps be fairly assumed that the greatest thicknesses exist in the Mississippi Embayment where an abundance of material has been continuously supplied by Mississippi River and its tributaries during Cretaceous and Tertiary time, and where subsidence has been greatest. GEOLOGIC HISTORY AS EXPRESSED IN THE MAP Although a complete history of the Coastal Plain would include in ~ its scope the formation of the basement rocks upon which the sediments of the Coastal Plain rest, for the purposes of this paper I will go back only to that period of geologic time immediately preceding the depo- sition of the earliest of these sediments. In early Cretaceous time all of the Coastal Plain was a land area undergoing erosion, and the ex- posed rocks ranged in age from pre-Cambrian to Triassic. In the Atlantic Coastal Plain the rocks were pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks with the exception of a few small areas of land-laid sedimentary rocks of Triassic age, preserved in down-faulted basins within the crystal- lines. In the Gulf Coastal Plain the rocks were, so far as known, chiefly Paleozoic, ranging in age within that era from Cambrian to Per- mian, with, however, some areas of ancient pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks. If we could construct a moving picture film of the events that have played the major part in the upbuilding of the Coastal Plain on this basement of older rocks, and could speed up that film so as to bring the picture within the limits of the present hour, we would observe the sea in a remarkable succession of advances and retreats, and after each retreat we would see left behind layers of sediment of greater or less thickness and extent constituting one of the contributions to the con- struction of the Coastal Plain. The sum total of these contributions, as the picture would appear at the end of the reel, would be the Coastal Plain in form and outline as we see it today. The accompanying sketch map (plate 1) is an attempt to show graphically how the Coastal Plain has been gradually built up during the time that has elapsed from the Lower Cretaceous epoch to the present. The lines numbered frcm 1 to 11 show the approximate position of the 466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 present inner, or landward, edges of the deposits that were laid down during the successive geologic epochs and periods, and it will be observed that in general, but with certain exceptions, the lines bearing the successively higher numbers occupy positions successively nearer the present coast. The deposits of each period formerly extended farther inland than their present landward limit, erosion having bevelled off -their exposed edges for undetermined dis- tances seaward from their original landward limit, in places doubtless amount- ing to several miles. As the width of the eroded belts varies greatly with respect to the deposits of the different periods, and also from place to place along the hnear extent of the outcrop of the deposits of any period, it is not possible to show the original inner limits of the deposits. It will be observed that in places the lines marking the landward limits of the younger formations sweep inward obliquely across those marking the landward limits of the older formations, and these are the exceptions to which reference was made above, where transverse warping caused the sea to transgress farther inland than would have been the case had there been no such differential warping. Some of the more important features that are brought out by these lines are ex- plained below. | Line 1.—This line shows the inner edge of Lower Cretaceous marine de- posits (Comanche series) in the western Gulf region, and the inner edge of Lower Cretaceous continental deposits (Potomac group) in the Chesapeake and Delaware Bay region. No Lower Cretaceous deposits of marine origin are known east of Mississippi River though they may be present, deeply buried beneath the overlying younger sediments in parts of the eastern Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plain not yet reached by the drill. The Lower Cretaceous sea submerged the western Gulf region, but so far as we know, did not sub- merge the eastern Gulf nor the Atlantic Coast region. In the western Gulf region the submergence was not restricted to the Coastal Plain, but spread far to the northwestward up the valley of the Rio Grande, and far to the west- ward, southwestward, and southward, covering nearly all of what is now the high Mesa Central of Mexico. The continental deposits of the Potomac group in the north Atlantic Coastal Plain were laid down on a low plain presumably bordering the coast of that time, though it has not been demonstrated that the strand line was any farther inland then than it is at the present time. Follow- ing the deposition of the Comanche series in a sea which covered most of the western Culf region and most of Mexico, there was an uplift of the land which brought the submerged region above sea level and subjected it to erosion. Thus we have in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, an unconformity between the Comanche series and the overlying Gulf series. Line 2.—This line shows the inner edge of the Upper Cretaceous deposits (Gulf series), including marine and non-marine sediments. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain tilted seaward, allowing the ocean waters to spread over most of the Coastal Plain from southern New England to Mexico. In Mexico the sea extended west of the present Coastal Plain, even encroaching 1) tee 3 Ven) 2h Ws war \ any Bg % ae Hs Xe %. nm peg on A a / ¢ aie lal ' y PuatEe 1.—Map showing o Plain. The Coastal Plain « by the successive additions anticlinal and synclinal bi | MICHIGAy ly Ses 2G Ths . S ‘3 A. winctOry . : jo ~ LSS / ee WSS SS a a ae OW YE SS ee ae a | Sh eae eae eee eS ee f \ ; Sy ( \ x ao i \ Ge AnNAH VA Neto - ae Bxeto | ie 1A Zay \ J NG ye te NENG Oe! fa* eg or Seth! . TS ce ae 4 yg aS \ 8) =) N -~, cs MS — a a N \ N N | PS eI Nae \ INE SEDGE OF GONT Na \ co) 100 200 300 400 MILES \ \ Kw —— — EXPLANAT ION — 1] —-— + BASE OF LOWER CRETAGEOUS (Sa BASE OF OLIGOCENE 2——— » » UPPER ” (Gulf series) Roe os LOWER MIOCENE 8 -<--— » 1» MIDWAY (Eocene) 9 ——---- » » UPPER ” Ame WILCOX (sa) 10) —=2—==--—— 9 PRIOCENE Bua sae each *» » CLAIBORNE ( » ) Woo Goastward limit of outcrops of 6 -coeo = > JAGKSON { =>2 >) formations older than Pleistocene pba !_—Map showing outcrop of the base of deposits of different ages, i.e., the inner or landwai rd edge of these deposits, in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal ; 4in. The Coastal Plain extends from the coast inland to the border of the cross-lined area. The series of lines shows how the Coastal Plain was formed 'y the successive additions of sediment during Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary time. The heavy broken transverse lines indicate axes of broad anticl; dticlinal and synclinal warping. 7 7- WiGHIe a3iimM a * fARAIIXS \ GUO ZIKBAGAD AIWOYAONMICAG —~ ae a ce:is2 Mud} ve AG OMAL Rete 1 en eet ye (sns003} YAW ORE Fe P wpatockrtc aes f ; MODUINGG ON & * Neen " {+ + CaM RGA AD oF out ' Vormkt IO SROM eat Hleistocemn-- @ t# ow ty ‘ omme- Sno 4. a > e - y : : . ¢ 7 Yo bieilesests ediole sebwd.eds oF baralabddeoviedt mort abootxs aight ledesoD att mislite emt eiaiietaup. bore asad! .egosesterD | chruski #eomibee lo ancitihbs oyiesssaon edi ye aciqiew laciiooye boa leatibiina ocT. 18,1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 467 in places on the eastern border of what is now the Mesa Central, but probably most of central and western Mexico remained above the sea. This sub- mergence, if restricted in its extent in Mexico, was far more extensive in the west-central and northwestern parts of the continent than the preceding Comanche submergence. An area of vast extent embracing the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions of the United States and Canada, was down- warped allowing the waters of the Gulf to spread inland through what is now the Rio Grande Valley region, forming a great epicontinental sea which prob- ably extended northward entirely across the continent connecting with: the waters of the Arctic Ocean. In the Coastal Plain itself the great geosynclinal valley known as the Mississippi Embayment had its initial downwarping allowing the sea to encroach northward in the form of a deep embayment having its head at the southern extremity of Illinois. During the deposition of the Upper Cretaceous sediments in and along the borders of the ocean of that period there were oscillations and warpings of the land with respect to sea level which caused minor retreats and advances of the strand line, and each such retreat is marked in the sediments by an unconformity of relatively short time significance, but at the close of the period there was a general continental uplift which freed the land of its flood of ocean waters and forced the strand line oceanward perhaps as far as the edge of the Continental Shelf. Erosion throughout the extent of the newly emerged surface produced the regional unconformity which separates the Upper Cretaceous from the overlying Eocene sediments. | Line 3.—The inner edge of the oldest Eocene deposits, those of the Midway group, is shown by line 3. The Midway sea was much more restricted in its extent than the preceding Upper Cretaceous sea; it did not cover all of western Texas and, so far as known, none except the extreme southern portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain; it did, however, sweep northward to the head of the Mississippi Embayment, and in Ceorgia reached almost to the inner edge of the Coastal Plain. In parts of the Gulf region there is an unconformity between the deposits of the Midway group and those of the overlying Wilcox group, and where present this break marks a retreat of the sea. Inne 4.—This line shows the inner edge of the deposits of Wilcox Eocene age, which overlie the Midway. The line lies just a little nearer the Coast than Line 3. It extends to the head of the Mississippi Embayment but the Wilcox sea did not spread this far to the northward for the deposits in the northern part of the Embayment are of non-marine origin, probably having been laid down on the flood plain of an ancient Mississippi River, or perhaps in part as delta deposits at the mouth of the same river. In Georgia the Wilcox deposits are overlapped and concealed by younger deposits (see Line 7), but they reappear again in a small area in the eastern part of South Carolina. Several remnants of shallow marine deposits of Wilcox age (identified by Dr. Wythe Cooke) occur on the upland resting on the Creta- ceous near the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in North Carolina, and one such. 468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 17. remnant (also identified by Cooke) occurs resting on crystalline basement rocks a few miles east of Raleigh. Whether these remnants indicate a com- plete transgression of the sea over eastern North Carolina, or were laid down in a restricted embayment is not known. If, however, Wilcox deposits were ever laid down over all of the North Carolina Coastal Plain they were later largely removed by erosion, for they are wanting over most of the area, and younger deposits of Jackson Eocene age, rest directly upon the Cretaceous in the vicinity of Wilmington. No attempt has been made to represent on the map the shore line of the sea in which these remnants were laid down. The Eocene is completely overlapped by upper Miocene deposits in the northern part of the North Carolina and southern Virginia Coastal Plain, but the Wilcox Eocene, represented by the Pamunkey group, reappears farther north, within a few miles of the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware. Line 5.—The inner edge of the deposits of Claiborne Eocene age is shown by this line. The Claiborne sea was more restricted in extent than the Wilcox sea, and the Claiborne waters fell far short of reaching the head of the Missis- sippi Embayment. The deep southward indention of Line 5 in northeastern Texas and northwestern Louisiana, marks the position of the Sabine uplift, the axis of which is shown on the map. The Claiborne deposits were prob- ably laid down over all of this area but were eroded away as a result of the uplift. They are almost overlapped by younger deposits in eastern Alabama, and, although revealed in places by erosion along drainage lines in Georgia and southwestern South Carolina, the area in which they occur in that State was completely transgressed by the next younger or Jackson sea. Claiborne deposits have not been identified either in surface outcrops or in wells any- where in the Atlantic Coastal Plain north of South Carolina. Line 6 —The inner edge of the Jackson, the youngest deposit of the Eocene, is shown by this line. It indicates a still greater restriction of the sea in the Gulf Coastal Plain in late Eocene time. However, a renewal of the down- warping in the Mississippi Embayment carried an arm of the Jackson sea at least as far north as had been reached by the Claiborne sea and perhaps a little farther. In the south Atlantic Coastal Plain a broad downwarp allowed the sea to sweep inland across all older deposits to the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in eastern Georgia and southwestern South Carolina. Farther north a broad upwarp having its axis near the boundary between North Carolina and South Carolina forced the Jackson strandline outward almost to the present. coast, where the deposits of Jackson age may now be seen resting unconformably on the Upper Cretaceous. Farther north in North Carolina the Jackson deposits, represented by the Castle Hayne marl, pass under the Miocene and are not known anywhere in the North Atlantic Coastal Plain. Line 7.—This line marks the inner edge of the Oligocene deposits which are represented by the Vicksburg group. In southern Texas the Oligocene ‘deposits, as here interpreted, are completely overlapped by lower Miocene deposits, and are known only in wells. The line starts in eastern Louisiana oct. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 469 a few miles south of Line 6. Where it crosses Mississippi Valley the line is markedly convex to the north, but falls 200 miles short of reaching as far _ north as Line 6; apparently there was only slight downwarping in the Embay- ment during Oligocene time. Through eastern Mississippi and western Alabama Line 7 lies only a few miles south of Line 6. In eastern Alabama and western and central Georgia and Oligocene sea made a decided trans- gression to the north over the Eocene deposits, for Line 7 cuts obliquely across lines 6, 5, and 4, and in the vicinity of Macon the sea reached to within a few miles of the inner edge of the Coastal Plain. In eastern Georgia the Oligocene strata (Glendon chert) are in turn transgressed and concealed by Miocene deposits except in one relatively small area in Savannah River Valley, where erosion has uncovered them. No occurrences of Oligocene strata are known either in wells or outcrops anywhere in the Atlantic Coastal Plain north of the last mentioned area. The Catahoula sandstone of Mississippi, which has heretofore been correlated with the Oligocene, is believed by Doctors Wythe Cooke and Julia Gardner to be of lower Miocene (Aquitanian) age, and it seems probable that the Catahoula of Louisiana and Texas are also of lower Miocene age. It is on this assumption that Line 7 is not extended across Louisiana into Texas. Marine Oligocene representing the Vicksburg group has, however, been recognized in wells in southern Texas, showing that beds of this age are present there beneath younger beds. Line 8.—Deposits of lower Miocene age are found inland as far as Line 8. In certain places these deposits carry marine fossils and were obviously laid down in marine waters of moderate depth. A considerable part of the deposits are, however, not of typical marine origin, but their distribution parallel to the coast suggests that their deposition was controlled by sea level. They were doubtless laid down in part in the shallow littoral waters of the sea, in part in bays, lagoons, and estuaries, in part in deltas, and in part as flood plain deposits on low plains bordering the sea. In determining the position of this line in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, the opinions of Doctors Wythe Cooke and Julia Gardner, already cited, that the Catahoula sandstone in Mississippi belongs to the lower Miocene, is accepted. Some investigators regard this formation as Oligocene, and in Louisiana and Texas as contemporaneous in part with the Vicksburg group. In eastern Georgia the lower Miocene (Alum Bluff group) transgresses inland across Oligocene and Eocene formations to within 20 miles of the inner edge of the Coastal Plain, but in the southern part of South Carolina, Line 8, marking the inner edge of the Alum Bluff deposits, swings to the southeast and comes to the coast. North of this lower Miocene deposits have been recognized only in a limited area in eastern North Carolina (Trent mar!), as indicated on the map. Apparently most of the Atlantic Coastal Plain north of South Carolina was above sea level and undergoing erosion in lower Miocene time. In Florida Line 8 outlines an island of upper Eocene deposits belonging to the Ocala limestone (of Jackson age) on the north, east, and south sides of which are overlapping deposits of lower Miocene age. ‘This island-like area may once 470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 17. have been covered by lower Miocene deposits which were later removed as a result of slight uplift and erosion. Line 9.—This line, which marks the inner limit of deposits of upper Miocene age, shows a marked restriction of the sea of this time in the Gulf region as compared with the landward spread of all the earlier seas which participated in the upbuilding of the Gulf Coastal Plain. From southern Alabama west- ward the upper Miocene deposits were completely overlapped and concealed by the deposits of the next younger epoch, the Pliocene, and were later uncovered by erosion in the valleys only, in limited areas in southern Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Only relatively small areas in Florida and Georgia were covered by the waters of the upper Miocene sea, but from South Carolina northward to New Jersey there was marked transgression of the sea inland across the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the maximum submergence being in the northern part of North Carolina and in Virginia where the sea completely covered the Coastal Plain to its inner edge. In eastern South Carolina and southeastern North Carolina this upper Miocene transgression is indicated only by scattered erosion remnants of Miocene sediments occupy- ing shallow depressions in the eroded surface of Upper Cretaceous deposits, but farther north the sheet of upper Miocene deposits is continuous, reaching a maximum thickness of several hundred feet. Line 10.—This line marks the inner edge of deposits of Pliocene age. In the C-ulf Coastal Plain these sediments are largely of non-marine origin, and were apparently laid down chiefly as coalescing alluvial accumulations on a low plain bordering the coast. In Mississippi and western Alabama these deposits (the Citronelle formation) spread northward across Miocene, Oligo- cene, and uppermost Eocene formations, but they are relatively thin, and the underlying overlapped formations are exposed by erosion in all except the smaller headwater valleys. A broken line is used to show this northward transgression of the Pliocene over older formations. ‘The Pliocene is repre- sented by marine deposits at a few localities in Florida and along the Atlantic Coast as far north as the southern part of North Carolina. These occurrences mark small embayments which extended a few miles inland. Mr. W. C. Mansfield has recently identified marine Pliocene marls along the shores of Neuse River south of New Bern, N. C. At many places on the higher inter- stream uplands of the Coastal Plain are erosion remnants of greater or less extent, of relatively thin surficial deposits of gravel, sand, andloam. ‘These were laid down by ancient rivers which flowed across the Coastal Plain in meandering courses, probably during Pliocene time. They have never been mapped in detail and have been disregarded in the preparation of the accom- panying sketch map. Line 11 —This line marks the coastward limit of the outcrop of formations older than Pleistocene. Between this line and the coast only deposits of Pleistocene and Recent ages appear above sea level. This does not mean that these younger sediments are wanting on the landward side of the line, for on the contrary relatively thin terrace deposits of both marine and fluviatile ocT. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 471 origin blanket the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations in extensive areas, in places extending back to and even beyond the inner edge of the Coastal Plain. The most widespread development of marine terrace deposits is in the Atlantic Coastal Plain and in Florida, and these record transgressions of the sea inland across the Coastal Plain in Pleistocene time. The most exten- sive sheets of alluvial terrace deposits occur in the valley of Mississippi River from the head of the Embayment to the Gulf, but terraced areas of lesser width occur in the valleys of all the larger streams crossing the Coastal Plain. STRUCTURE In general the strata composing the Coastal Plain lie in a gentle monoclinal attitude. They have been tilted seaward and, recalling the attenuated form of the cross-section of the sediments (fig. 1), the tilting was relatively slight, the dip rarely amounting to one degree, generally less than half and often less than a quarter of a degree, except in local structures. Slight as was the tilting it did not take place all at once but from time to time. In each tilting movement there was probably an axis of revolution parallel to the coast west of which the movement was upward and east of which it was downward. In general, but with certain exceptions, this axis advanced coastward with each successive tilting movement, and in this way formations that were laid down in the sea were later raised to various altitudes above the sea, reaching a maximum of 1,000 feet or more. Decrease of load im the area of denudation, and increase of load in the area of deposition have probably been the primary causes of the tilting, except in the New England area where the load of the Pleistocene ice doubtless was a major factor in completely submerging the Coastal Plain. Attention has already been called to the broad differential warping with axes at right angles to the trend of the Coastal Plain, which has resulted in the lobe-like overlapping of younger formations upon older. The approximate position of the axes of the folds in the principal areas of downwarping and upwarping are shown on the map. Where the transverse folding has taken place at different times the axes have not always been in exactly the same position. For example in the area of downwarping in eastern Georgia and southwestern South Carolina the axis in Eocene time lay approximately along the valley of Savannah River, as indicated on the map, whereas the axis of the downwarping which affected the same general area in early Miocene time lay farther west, approximately in the valley of Altamaha River. In addition to the general tilting and the broad transverse warping the Coastal Plain has been affected by minor folding and by many faults, ranging in size from short faults of small displacement to faults many miles in length 472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 17 and several hundred feet displacement. The distribution of these faults is of interest. In the Atlantic Coastal Plain as far south as Georgia, faults are rare and the few that are known are of small dis- placement. Faults of some magnitude that we do not now suspect may lie concealed beneath some of the younger overlapping formations. The Charleston earthquake may have been caused by a movement along an active fault in the underlying basement rocks, and, if so, the overlying sediments were doubtless involved in the faulting. Charles- ton is on the north limb of one of the areas of broad downwarping. North of Cape Hatteras the down-warping in late Tertiary and in Quarternary times affected the Coastal Plain more completely than it did south of that pomt. The evidence for this appears first in the relatively small drowned valleys of eastern North Carolina, next in the more deeply drowned valleys of Chesapeake Bay and Delaware River, and finally in the completely submerged Coastal Plain off the coast of New England. In Alabama faulting mostly of a small order of magnitude is abun- dant in the chalk near the top of the Cretaceous and in the basal forma- tions of the Eocene. However, vertical displacements of as much as 300 feet have been reported in Wilcox County and one larger fault, the Jackson fault, over 15 miles long from north to south, and showing a maximum vertical displacement of 450 feet, lies just east of the east end of the Hatchetigbee anticline, the only large well formed anticline known east of Mississippi River in the Coastal Plain. The latter structure trends northwest-southeast in western Alabama about mid- way of the Coastal Plain from north to south, is 50 miles long by 20 miles wide, and exhibits a maximum uplift of 600 or 700 feet above the normal position of the beds involved in the folding. Some folding of the anticlinal nose and terrace types has been described in the vicinity of Jackson and Vicksburg in Mississippi, and minor faulting and some reversals of dip are also known in the State. The New Madrid earth- quake in the northern part of the Mississippi Embayment is believed to have been due to faulting in the underlying basement rocks, and it is reasonable to suppose that these movements caused breaks and dis- placements in the overlying Coastal Plain sediments. As we go westward in the Gulf Coastal Plain evidence of former crustal unrest becomes more pronounced. ‘The intensive work of geologists in the past few years in connection with the development of | petroleum resources has brought to light a multitude of faults both small and large in southwestern Arkansas, northern Louisiana, and in Texas, especially in the Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary forma- ocT. 18,1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 473 tions. The Balcones fault zone which extends from north of Austin, southwestward to San Antonio, and westward toward the Rio Grande, and which manifests itself in the present topography as well preserved fault scarps, has long been known. ‘The more important vertical displacements along this fault zone range from 500 to 1,000 feet. The latest pronounced movements in this zone are probably of early Pliocene age. ‘There is in the Texas Coastal Plain another zone of faulting, the existence of which was scarcely suspected until a few _ years ago, when it was discovered as a result of the intensive study of structural conditions carried on in connection with oil developments. This zone is long and narrow and parallels the Balcones fault zone at a distance of 10 to 15 miles, from Uvalde County south of Uvalde, to Travis County east of Austin. North of Travis County no important faults have been discovered along the trend of the zone in Williamson and Milam counties, but from Falls County northward the zone is continued in many pronounced faults, and it is there known as the Mexia-Powell fault zone. In northeastern Texas the zone bends to the eastward and passes out of Texas into southwestern Arkansas. The zone is almost coextensive with the outcrop of the Midway or basal formation of the Eocene, involving, however, the strata of the underlying Cretaceous and the overlying Wilcox divisions. In con- trast to the Balcones faults, the faults in this zone are with rare ex- ceptions scarcely discernible at the surface, due to the fact that erosion has obliterated whatever scarps may have been produced by the faulting. ‘This would seem to show that this zone is older than the Balcones zone, many of whose fault scarps still remain well preserved. Although several of the faults of this greatly attenuated zone had pre- viously been recognized, the game of finding them did not begin in earnest until one of them, discovered in drilling the Mexia oil field, was found to provide the essential conditions for the accumulation of oil. The faults are of all lengths up to 25 miles or more, and the dis- placements range from a few feet to over 600 feet. In general the faults are arranged en-echelon along the zone of faulting, though the trend of most of them makes only a small angle with the trend of the: zone. Some of the faults lie almost parallel to each other for long distances. The downthrow of most of the faults is to the west or northwest, though some of them are downthrown to the east or south- east, and several pairs of faults are known to form definite grabens. Commercial quantities of oil have been found on the upthrow side of 7 or 8 of the faults whose downthrow is to the west. The Mexia, Powell, Wortham, and Luling fields are the most notable examples. 474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17. The faults of the Texas Coastal Plain are by no means confined to the two main zones of faulting Just described, for a goodly number of faults, whose systematic arrangement has not as yet been determined, have been recognized in other parts of the area. In addition to the faults there are several well defined anticlinal folds mostly along or near the raargin of the Coastal Plain, such as the Preston anticline, the Leonard-Celeste anticlinal nose, and several folds between San Antonio and the Rio Grande. Probably most of the faults and folds are related to structural movements in the underlying basement rocks. One of the fascinating features of Gulf Coastal Plain geology, fasci- nating because of the difficulty of explaiming it, is the phenomenon of salt domes. The domes, of which 70 or more are known, are scattered over a wide area in Texas and Louisiana. A few manifest themselves clearly at the surface, but many lie completely buried and hidden. They consist of plugs of salt, ranging in diameter from 1 mile to 3 miles or more, driven like nails in a plank, upward through thousands of feet of Coastal Plain sediments, dragging with them, or pushing ahead of them, fragments of deeply buried formations. In one instance a block of Buda limestone, the uppermost of the Comanche Cretaceous formations, was raised from its normal position of over 5,000 feet below the surface to the surface, as shown by the record of a nearby well. The origin of the salt is still a matter of speculation, though most geologists believe it has been squeezed upward through points of structural weakness, by the weight of surrounding strata, from deeply buried masses of salt of Permian or perhaps of Trinity Cretaceous age. Wells have been drilled to depths of more than a mile in the salt and no well has completely penetrated it. The salt domes of southeastern Texas and southern Louisiana are of particular economic interest be- cause of the occurrence of oil and gas in the sediments surrounding and overlying them. The increase in structural complexity so noticeable in passing west- ward in the Gulf Coastal Plain becomes far more pronounced beyond the international boundary in Mexico. Comparable to the Balcones fault zone in its geologic relations is the great zone of faults along the eastern front of the Mesa Central which stands 2,000 to 7,000 feet or more above sea level. In the latter zone, as in the former, the strata of the Upper Cretaceous are downthrown on the east against upthrown limestones of the Lower Cretaceous on the west. But whereas the vertical displacements in the former may be measured in hundreds of feet, in the latter they amount to thousands of feet. In the Balcones zone, small erosion remnants of Upper Cretaceous strata still remain —— oct. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 475 in places on the Edwards Plateau near its southern margin some 1,100 feet or more above sea level, but in Mexico, notably in the State of San Luis Potosi, great masses of Upper Cretaceous strata have been raised 4,000 feet or more above sea level. The great tract of relatively low country, sometimes referred to as the Huasteca region, which lies between the foot of the eastern front of the Mesa Central and the Gulf Coast, is comparable to the Texas Coastal Plain in that it is composed of Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the same age and origin, and some of the low-lying country along the coast, and in places extending for considerable distances back from the coast, may-.rightly be classed as Coastal Plain. But in contrast to the Texas Coastal Plain a large part of this area has been subjected to pronounced folding and faulting, and many hills and ridges and several mountains of no mean size rise above the general lowland. Among the latter may be mentioned the San Carlos, the Tamaulipas, and the Otontepec Moun- tains. There is also one long tault block mountain range which in early and middle Eocene time stood well above sea level, but which later sank far below sea level and is now completely buried under some 2,000 feet of later Tertiary sediments. This is the great South Fields structure, the Golden Lane, from which prodigious quantities of oil have been recovered. Intrusions of igneous rock, in the form of dikes and larger masses, are also common in many parts of this area. The several greatly elongated structural features, such as the Balcones fault zone, the long line of faulting of which the Mexia-Powell fault zone forms a part, the faulted eastern front of the Mesa Central, the line of structures, including the San Carlos and Tamaulipas Moun- tains, and the buried structure of the south fields in Mexico, all of which roughly parallel the Coast, seem definitely related to the great geosynclinal basin of the Gulf of Mexico. These features of fracture and folding are generally explained as due to overloading and down- sinking in this basin; but downsinking is by no means the complete explanation of the faulting. Back of the great fault zones, in the Edwards Plateau and the Great Plains, in the Rocky Mountain region, and in the Mesa Central, great masses of sedimentary rocks formed in marine waters below sea level have not gone down, but instead have been subjected to positive upward movements which have raised them from 1,500 to 5,000 feet or more above sea level. — Briefly reviewing the structure, we have in the Atlantic and eastern Gulf Coastal Plain a gentle monocline with all formations from Creta- ceous to Recent included in the Coastal Plain itself. In Texas this monocline has been split by the Balcones faulting and part of the 476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 — Cretaceous sediments, chiefly Lower Cretaceous, have been raised to form the Edwards Plateau, too high to be classed with the Coastal Plain. In Mexico Cretaceous sediments, both Lower and Upper, have been raised back of a fault zone which may be regarded as anal- ogous to the Balcones fault zone, to altitudes several times higher than the Edwards Plateau, to form part of the plateau of the Mesa Central. In front of this fault zone a great area of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments comparable in many ways to those of the Texas Coastal Plain have been folded, faulted, and uplifted into minor mountain masses,.in such manner as to exclude them from the Coastal Plain. THE FOSSIL FLORAS AND FAUNAS The subject of the fossil floras and faunas of the Coastal Plain is too big a one for even summary treatment in this paper. Fossil plants and animals occur well distributed in the sediments, both geographi- cally and geologically. The fossil plants are found in both the shallow marine and non-marine sediments along and adjacent to the old shore lines, and the shifting of the shore lines has provided the conditions for the preservation of plants here and there in the sediments of the several periods from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene. But the record afforded by fossil plants is very incomplete. Marine invertebrates are much more completely represented than other classes of organisms, because sediments of marine origin greatly predominate over those of non-marine origin, and also because the conditions of marine sedimenta- tion are more favorable for the preservation of fossilremains. ‘The bones and teeth of vertebrates are found fairly well distributed through the formations of the Coastal Plain but, with few exceptions, are fragmental and incomplete, and while of interest as showing the geo- logic distribution of vertebrates, they have been of little use in solving the finer problems of stratigraphy and correlation. In general there have been progressive changes in the character and composition of the floras and faunas from early Cretaceous to Recent time. Evolutionary development has been constantly taking place, species, genera, and even great groups of organisms have become extinct, and new forms have occasionally entered the area by migration from other regions. It is on the basis of such changes that the time relationships of the formations are determined from place to place in the Coastal Plain, and on the same basis sediments of the Coastal Plain are correlated more or less successfully with those of other parts of the continent and of the world. One of the chief difficulties met with in determining the age relationships of the formations of the Coastal Plain by means of fossils is the differences in contemporaneous oct. 18,1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 477 faunas due to differences in the ecological conditions under which they lived. Many marine species were restricted to rather definite sets of -environmental conditions, so that their fossil remains are not found everywhere in beds of the same age. Fortunately, however, there were also a goodly number which were able to adapt themselves to wider variations, and we find their fossil remains in different kinds of sediments of the same age, as for example, in sands, clays, marls, and chalks, and we are thus able to trace fossil zones through different kinds of sediments. Of the two classes of fossil organisms, plants and invertebrate animals, it can scarcely be denied that the invertebrates afford the more accurate basis for determining time relationships. Some of the conflicting conclusions arrived at by the application of the two classes of criteria may be due to the tendency on the part of invertebrates to respond more promptly and more definitely, in an evolutionary sense, to changing environmental conditions than do plants. Certain it 1s _ that the correlations made on the basis of plants are not always in agreement with those determined by the animal evidence. One of the most striking examples of apparent disagreement is that of the flora of the Ripley formation of northern Tennessee, which, as inter- preted, is of the age of the Emscherian, or possibly as young as the overlying Campanian of Europe, whereas the evidence afforded by invertebrate fossils indicates that the Emscherian is represented in the Coastal Plain, not by the Ripley, but by the much older Eutaw for- mation in the eastern Gulf region, and by the Austin chalk in the west- ern Gulf region, both occupying stratigraphically lower positions than the Ripley. The Ripley plant-bearing beds according to the inver- tebrate evidence should be correlated with either the uppermost Campanian or with the Maestrichtian, both of which zones are much younger than the Emscherian. This is not intended to belittle the importance of fossil plants in stratigraphy, for the evidence afforded by plants is by no means always in disagreement with that afforded by invertebrates. Fossil plants are especially valuable in correlating irregularly-bedded shallow-water sediments in which invertebrates are rare or wanting. The record of the organisms that lived in the Coastal Plain during Cretaceous and later time is incomplete even in the marine sediments, for some forms do not lend themselves to preservation, conditions for preservation are less favorable in some kinds of sediments than in others, and there are gaps in the record marking the times when the sea retreated and land conditions prevailed. These gaps are the un- conformities, some of which have already been mentioned, and the 478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17 | more intensive studies of the past twenty years have shown that there are many more of these unconformities than was formerly suspected. The fossil faunas in the sediments above the unconformities are nearly always different from those in the sediments below, and the magnitude of the differences may, with:certain limitations, be taken as a measure of the time represented by the unconformities. Any given unconform- ity should extend coastward into the buried sediments as far as the strand line retreated at the time the unconformity was formed. Beyond that line there should be no break in the succession. ‘Therefore the farther seaward one goes the more complete should be the succession of sediments. Among the many unconformities that have already been recognized in the sediments of the Coastal Plain, there is one which is of preeminent importance. This is the unconformity which separates the Cretaceous from the Eocene. ‘The strand line may have retreated as far as the edge of the Continental Shelf itself. The time represented is believed to have been of great duration. During this time some important changes took place in the character of the or- ganisms inhabiting the sea. Of mollusks, for example, not a single species is known with certainty to have survived from Cretaceous to Eocene time. Although many Cretaceous molluscan genera are rep- resented in the Eocene by new species, descendants of the earlier species, a long list of genera that became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous may be enumerated, and among these may be mentioned one whole order, the Ammonordea, represented by numerous genera. This great unconformity is not confined to our Coastal Plain, nor even to our continent, but appears to be almost world-wide, at least so far as marine sedimentation is concerned, and constitutes an important gap in the record of the marine life of the earth. CLIMATE In general the climatic conditions along the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain during Cretaceous and most of Tertiary time, were mild, that is warm temperate to subtropical, and there was no sharp separa- tion into climatic zones. Evidence for close approximation to uni- formity in temperature and other living conditions throughout the Coastal Plain in Upper Cretaceous time is clear and positive. This evidence is afforded by the relatively large number of molluscan species that were able to range throughout the area during any given epoch. Emphasis should, however, be placed on the fact that there are also a large number of other species that were not so cosmopolitan in their range. Notwithstanding the close approach to uniformity there were ocT. 18, 1926 STEPHENSON: GEOLOGY OF COASTAL PLAIN 479 evidently conditions, probably both climatic and environmental, that limited the geographic range of many of the species. The watersofthe -Gulf were certainly a little warmer and more tropical than those of the Atlantic during Cretaceous, Eocene, Oligocene, and lower Miocene time, as is shown by the great accumulations of chalk and limestone in the Gulf, and by certain of the fossil organisms. The Chamacea and Rudistacea, for example, which were fairly common in the waters of both of the Lower and Upper Cretaceous in the Gulf, apparently did not venture farther north than Alabama; the larger foraminifera which are abundant in parts of the Eocene and Oligocene, ranged only as far north as the southernmost part of South Carolina,? and the molluscan faunas of the Tertiary as high as the lower Miocene contain many tropical elements which did not range far northward along the Atlantic coast. Toward the latter part of Tertiary time a decided climatic change took place along the Atlantic border, as indicated by the cooler water faunas of the Chesapeake, or upper Miocene, which ranged as far south as northern Florida. This may be regarded as foreshadowing the still colder climate of the Pleistocene. The entire Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain undoubtedly felt the chill of the Pleistocene glaciers, most in the north, least in the south, but the only places where the ice sheet touched the Coastal Plain were along the southern coast and islands of New England, on Long Island, and in northern New Jersey. PROBLEMS OF COASTAL PLAIN GHOLOGY The distribution of the geological formations throughout most of the Coastal Plain has been determined with sufficient accuracy for rep- resentation on maps of 1:1,000,000, or even 1:500,000 scale. Com- paratively small parts of the area have, however, been mapped in sufficient detail to satisfy the standards of the folio publications of the Geological Survey. Great progress has been made in determining the stratigraphic relationships of the formations, but in every Coastal Plain state there are still unsolved problems in stratigraphy which call for detailed field investigations and systematic studies of the fossil faunas and floras. Hundreds of species still remain to be described, and much is yet to be learned about the environmental conditions under which the faunas and floras lived, and the causes of their changes, migrations, and extinctions. The remarkable progress that has been made in the past few years in the discovery of structural features in the Gulf Coastal Plain, where the strata had always been supposed to lie mainly in simple monoclinal attitude, may be taken as a prophesy of the discovery of many more ? Oral communication from Dr. Wythe Cooke, 480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 17. such features as intensive search for them proceeds. Many of these features developed in the older formation are completely concealed by overlapping younger formations and can only be recognized by means of well data, and even the structural features which lie at the surface are in places so effectually obscured by the similarity of mate- rials composing adjacent formations of different ages, and by deep weathering and deep soils, that they can only be discovered by detailed and painstaking study. There is need for more definite criteria for determining the origin of different kinds of marine and non-marine sediments. Were they deposited on alluvial plains bordering the coast; were they deposited off the mouths of rivers, and how far off; or were they drifted along shore for greater or less distances before coming to their final resting place on the ocean bottom? Light- colored irregularly bedded sands and clays, such as the Tuscaloosa and Wilcox formations, are not uncommonly assigned to continental origin, yet some such formations were certainly laid down in whole or in part in shallow lagoons, bays, and even in the shallow waters of the sea it- self. To what extent are the sediments made up of material derived by chemical precipitation from sea water? In short, the mechanical, chemical, and biological processes involved in the formation of sedi- ments are so far from being completely known that they present fascinating fields of research to future investigators. There is yet much to be learned about the changes in sea level, the warping of the land, the consequent transgressions and recessions of the sea, and the unconformities in the sédiments which record these movements; it is safe to predict that many more unconformities will be found in the sediments of the Coastal Plain than are now known. ‘There are in- teresting problems relating to the origin of the extensive blankets of surficial deposits that cover so much of the Coastal Plain, problems that call for years of intensive study, for there are many divergent opinions about them. There are many economic problems in con- nection with the non-metallic mineral resources of the Coastal Plain, for the area abounds in raw materials that will some day be developed far more extensively than they are at present—gravel, sand, clay, marl, chalk, bauxite, peat, lignite, and ground waters, not to mention the vast amounts of petroleum and natural gas which doubtless still remain to be discovered in the Gulf Coastal Plain. The discoveries of the past 15 years have shown that, with future more intensive studies, many new and interesting features of structure, stratigraphy, lithology, and paleontology, and many additional raw materials of economic value, are certain to be discovered, so that extensive as have been the investigations of the past, the Coastal Plain still remains an attractive field for geologic, paleontologic, and economic research. »mé lak the teat of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if. editors by the pe as and the mores dard ivy day of each month. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Radiotelegraphy. eeaectinn determinations of sadapheaal Isthmus of Panama. L. W. AUSTIN.............20ceeeeeees ge spamaais features in the geology of the Atlantic ge é President: Grorce K. Deas Bureau of Standards. “4 Correspcnding Secretary: Francis B. SrusBee, Bureau o Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Treasurer: R. L. 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STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum. No representative of the genus Ilex (holly) had been reported from Central America until 1925, when I published in this JoURNAL? de- scriptions of three new species which I had collected in Costa Rica in 1924. During the Costa Rican trip of that year the genus was not - noticed until nearly the end of the season, consequently few specimens _were collected. It seemed remarkable, however, that a genus repre- sented by three species should not have been detected by some of the numerous botanists who had visited that country. During the winter of 1925-26 I spent several months more in Costa Rica, and it now seems even more remarkable that the genus was not observed there earlier. Special attention was given this season to study of the genus, with the result that shrubs and trees of [lex were found to be plentiful nearly everywhere in the mountains of central Costa Rica, and in some localities probably 30 per cent of the shrub- bery consisted of plants of this genus. Individuals with flowers or fruit are comparatively scarce, and it may be on this account that the group has been overlooked by most collectors. More than 30 numbers of /lex were collected in Costa Rica this season. Study of them indicates that they represent six species, three of which are described here asnew. The following key indicates the relationships of the Costa Rican species, which are the only members of their family known from Central America. It is probable that the genus may be found also in the mountains of western Panama. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received Aug. 3, 1926. 215: 476-477. 1925. 481 482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 a KeryY TO SPECIES Leaves rounded or very obtuse at apex, crenate. Leaves coarsely and conspicuously punctate beneath, not emarginate. 1. J. vulcanicola. Leaves not punctate beneath, usually emarginate at apex... .2. J. tristis. Leaves acute or acuminate, entire, crenate-serrate, or appressed-serrate. Branchlets densely and finely pubescent. Leaves appressed-serrate. 3. I. pallida. Branchlets glabrous. Lesives Qntire} oo. kas ee. sea pe ee 4. I. valerit. Leaves crenate-serrate. Leaf blades elliptic, coarsely crenate-serrate; aye lobes in fruit BIGUEISH. hou. cs Se eye oe i ek ee I. lamprophylla. Leaf blades oblong to oblong-elliptic, remotely onan a with appressed teeth; calyx lobes in fruit broadly rounded. 6. I. carpinterae. 1. Ibex vuucanicota Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 477. 1925. The type was collected at Las Nubes. The following additional collec- tions, at altitudes of 2,000 to 2,400 meters, may be reported: Cerro de las Caricias, Province of Heredia, Standley & Valerio 52021, 52197, 52256, 52291. The type collection was described as an epiphytic shrub, and it is not im- probable that this species may be at times an epiphyte. Usually it is a shrub of 1.5 to 3 meters, growing in wet forest. The leaves are pale green and 1.5 to 5 cm. long. On young plants they are often obovate-oblong, and much narrower than on mature plants. 2. Ilex tristis Standl., sp. nov. Shrub or tree, 3— 12 meters high, the young twigs stout and densely leafy, often sparsely hirtellous: petioles stout, 3-4 mm. long, glabrous; leaf blades broadly elliptic or obovate-elliptic, 2.5-4 om. long, 2-3 cm. wide, broadly rounded and emarginate at apex, rounded or very obtuse at base, coriaceous, coarsely crenate with about 7 crenations on each side, dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous, the costa and lateral nerves prominent beneath; flowers and f ruit unknown. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,406, collected in wet forest on Cerro de las Vueltas, Provincia de San José, Costa Rica, altitude 3,000 meters, Dec. 29, 1925, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 43670). No. 43578, from the same locality, also belongs to this species. It is probable that the following additional collections are referable here: Laguna de la Chonta, Provincia de San José, alt. 2,100 meters, Standley 42169. Near Finca La Cima, north of El Copey, Provincia de San José, alt. 2,400 meters, Standley 42608. Both these collections were taken from immature shrubs, with foliage more luxuriant than on mature trees, some of the leaves being as much as 8 cm. long. Ilex tristis is a common tree in the dense, cold, wet forest bordering the paramos about the summit of Cerro de las Vueltas. 3. Ilex pallida Standl., sp. nov. Shrub 1.5-3 meters high, the branchlets grayish, densely puberulent or short-pubescent, densely leafy; petioles stout, 5-7 mm. Jong, sparsely puber- Nov. 3, 1926 STANDLEY: COSTA RICAN SPECIES OF ILEX 483 ulent; leaf blades oblong-elliptic or elliptic, 4-9 cm. long, 1.7-4 cm. wide, acuminate, often abruptly so, at base obtuse, coriaceous, dark green (pale green and not blackening when dried), remotely appressed-serrate or sub- entire (teeth about 9 on each side; sometimes as many as 18), glabrous in ~age but when very young sparsely pubescent above along the costa; staminate flowers 4-parted, borne in 2 or 3-flowered, solitary or geminate, axillary um- bels; peduncles 5-7 mm. long, glabrous, the pedicels about 3 mm. long; calyx 1.5 mm. broad, the lobes broadly rounded; petals white. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,651, collected on Cerros de Zurqui, northeast of San Isidro, Provincia de Heredia, Costa Rica, altitude about 2,300 meters, March 3, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 50608). The following sterile specimens also belong to this species: Near Finca La Cima, north of El Copey, Provincia de San José, alt. 2,400 meters, Standley 42729. Cerro de las Vueltas, Provincia de San José, alt. 3,000 meters, Standley & Valerio 43753. In general appearance J. pallida is much like I. lamprophylla, but the leaves do not blacken in drying as in that species, the Jeaves of which are coarsely crenate-serrate. The densely pubescent branches of I. pallida dis- tinguish it from all other Costa Rican species. 4. Ilex valerii Standl., sp. nov. Tree 4.5 meters high, glabrous throughout; branchlets densely leafy; petioles stout or slender, 1—2.5 cm. long, reddish; leaf blades elliptic-oblong to broadly lance-oblong or elliptic, 5-8.5 em. long, 3-4 em. wide, rather ab- ruptly acute or acuminate, at base broadly rounded and often short-decurrent, coriaceous, entire, blackening when dried, not punctate beneath; inflores- cences solitary, umbelliform, 3 to 6-flowered, the peduncles 1.8-2.5 cm. long, the pedicels 2-3 mm. long; calyx green, 3 mm. broad, the 4 lobes ovate-del- toid, acutish; petals 4, white, 3.5 mm. long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,251,513, collected on the Cerros de Zurqui, northeast of San Isidro, Provincia de Heredia, Costa Rica, altitude about 2,300 meters, March 3, 1926, by Paul C. Standley and Juvenal Valerio (no. 50582). Ilex valeriz is named for Prof. Juvenal Valerio, in whose company it was collected. Prof. Valerio, an enthusiastic Seeldletit of the Costa Rican flora, accompanied me nearly ail the time that I spent in Costa Rica this year. To him I am deeply indebted for unstinted assistance, and for many attentions which contributed largely to the success of this season’s work. This species is very distinct from all others known from Costa Rica in its long-petioled entire leaves and long-pedunculate inflorescences. 5. ILEX LAMPROPHYLLA Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 476. 1925. The type was collected at La Estrella, Province of Cartago. The following additional collections, at altitudes of 1,400 to 2,400 meters, may be reported: Cerro de las Caricias, Provincia de Heredia, Standley & Valerio 52012, 52200, 52273, 52260. Cerro de las Lajas, Provincia de Heredia, Standley & Valerio 51539. Yerba Buena, Provincia de Heredia, Standley & Valerio 49860, 49816, 49709. Fraijanes, Provincia de Alajuela, Standley & Torres 47443, 484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 47423. El Mufieco, Provincia de Cartago, Standley & Torres 51332, 51275, 51197: . This is the most common Costa Rican species of Ilex, a shrub or tree of 2.5 to 9 meters, with smooth bark, dark green leaves, and greenish white flowers. It grows always in wet forest. 6. ILEX CARPINTERAE Standl. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 477. 1925. ) The type was collected on Cerro de la Carpintera, Province of Cartago. The following new collections, at 1,400 to 2,400 meters, may be reported: Cerros de Zurqui, Provincia de Heredia, Standley & Valerio 50597. El Mufieco, Provincia de Cartago, Standley & Torres 50881, 50918, 50926. This species is very close to I. lamprophylla, and doubtfully distinct: More material will be necessary in order to determine its status. It is a shrub or tree of 2 to 6 meters, with dark green, usually lustrous leaves. BOTAN Y.—WNotes on the Genus Sanchezia.! E. C. Leonarp, U. 8: National Museum. (Communicated by E. P. Kiiu1P.) Sanchezia, a genus of the family Acanthaceae, tribe Ruellieae, was briefly described? by Ruiz and Pavén in 1794, and four years later was formally published by these authors,? two species, S. ovata, the type, and S. oblonga being described. From that time on, no further study of this interesting genus seems to have been made until 1847, when it was redescribed by Nees in Martius’ Flora Brasiliensis‘ under the name Ancylogyne. Nees proposed two species, A. munita and A. macrocnemis; the latter proves to be identical with S. oblonga Ruiz & Pavon. In his treatise upon the family Acanthaceae in DeCandolle’s Prodromus,® published the same year, Nees adds A. peruviana and A. capitata. Hooker in 1866 re-established® the old generic name, Sanchezia, and added the species S. nobilis. The only recent attempt to bring together all the members of this genus is that by Lindau,’ who published a key which included ten species. The genus was named for José Sanchez, a professor of botany at Cadiz. It consists of shrubby or herbaceous plants with large firm leaves, and attractive, bright yellow or purple, sessile flowers in spikes or racemes. ‘The most reliable characters by which the genus may be 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived September 23, 1926. 2B) Peruv: Chil, Prodry 5 tpl; 62.14 1794. oh). Pera, Chiled? -%2, plasfate, bal 798: 4 Mart. Fl. Bras. 97: 63. 1847. SDC» Prodt: 115.2210 A847. 6 In Curtis’ Bot. Mag. 92: pl. 5594. 1866. 7 Bull. Herb. Boiss. ITI. 4: 315. 1904. Nov. 3, 1926 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA 485 recognized are found in the flowers; the corolla is slender and nearly regular with suborbicular, entire or emarginate lobes; the two stamens, _ usually exserted, are accompanied by a pair of staminodes. Natives of tropical America, these plants are confined to the wet forests of the northern Andes, but, being both attractive and adaptable to cultivation, they have reached regions far removed from their natural haunts. Collections have been seen from Costa Rica, Cuba, Java, Siam, and Amboina. Nineteen species are described in the present paper, and there is reason to believe that many more will be discovered when the rich fields of the tropical Andes have been more thoroughly explored. KEY TO THE SPECIES Bracts large, conspicuous, ovate, longer than the bractlets or the sepals, inclosing the flowers in a cuplike involucre. ETRE TOS CEST EE Eg ni Ae mn ee 1.83 - ovata: Leaves glabrous. Corolla 3 cm. long or less; stamens slightly exserted...... 2. S. oblonga. Corolla 4 cm. long or more; stamens distinctly exserted. SmMnOges: 2 Imi. LONG A hy Pe A ORS, 3. S. munita. Staminodes 4 mm. long or longer. Corolla densely pubescent with straight silky appressed hairs 4. S. sericea. Corolla glabrous or sparsely pubescent with minute curved hairs. Corolla pubescent, yellow or purple. Flowers yellow; leaf blades finely undulate-dentate 5. S. macbridet. Flowers purple; leaf blades coarsely undulate-dentate 6. S. peruviana. Corolla glabrous, yellow. Bracts connate at least to middle. | Lateral nerves 15 to 17 on either side of the midrib; corolla lobes 5mm. long......... 7. S. cyathibracteata. Lateral nerves 9 to 12 on either side of the midrib; corolla fobesto mim: ION. 2)... ape eta 8. S. pennellit. Bracts not connate. Leaf blades rounded at base; petiole ae corolla tube PLO Ommin WHOA. Noo ys. cle S. stenantha. Leaf blades gradually narrowed to a as petiole: corolla tube 8 to 9 mm. broad. Staminodes short, about 5 mm. long...... 10. S. nobilis. Staminodes about 2.5 cm. long......... 11. S. speczosa. Bracts small, ovate or oblong, usually shorter than bractlets or sepals or, if much. longer, linear-attenuate, not inclosing the flowers In a con- spicuous cuplike involucre. Inflorescence capitate.....--........... Ree) aed eg Ara abies 12. S. capitata. 486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 Inflorescence spicate or paniculate. Bracts filiform, equaling or larger than the flowers... .13. S. filamentosa. Bracts ovate or oblong, much shorter than the flowers. Staminodes very short, about 2 mm. long; inflorescence spicate 3. S. munita. Staminodes 1 cm. long or more; inflorescence paniculate (sometimes spicate in no. 17). Flowers red or purplish. Corolla 3 cm. long; stamens included........ 14. S. parviflora. Corolla 4 em. long or more; stamens exserted. Calyx lobes oblong, obtuse...........0..- 15. S. loranthzfolia. Calyx lobes lanceolate, acute. Corolla 5 em. long; inflorescence a large elongate branched panicle 3) Sane cee redid aon eee 16. S. longifolia. Corolla 4 em. long; inflorescence very small, a spike or a sparingly branched panicle............. 17. S. sprees. Flowers yellow. Corolla 5 to 5.5 em. long; stamens exserted 5 em. beyond the corolla tube; lateral veins 12 to 14 on each side of the midrib 18. S. parvibracteata. Corolla 4.5 em. long; stamens slightly exserted; lateral veins 9 to 10 on each side of the midrib............ 19. S. ecuadorensis. 1. SancuEzia ovata Ruiz & Pavon, Fl. Peruv. Chil. 1: 7. pl. 8, f. ¢. 1798. Sanchezia glabra Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 24. 1805. A herbaceous plant with glabrous yellow flowers and ovate entire pubescent leaves, reported by Ruiz and Pavén from Cuchero, Pozuzo, and Pillao in the vicinity of Chachauassi, Peru. 2. SANCHEZIA OBLONGA Ruiz & Pavon, Fl. Peruv. Chil. 1: 7. pl. 8, f. b. 1798. Sanchezia hirsuta Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 24. 1805. Ancylogyne macrocnemis Nees in Mart. Fl. Bras. 97: 63. pl. 7. 1849. A herbaceous plant with oblong-lanceolate glabrous leaves and pubescent yellow flowers, reported by Ruiz and Pavén from the same localities as the preceding. 3. SANCHEZIA MUNITA (Nees) Planch. FI. Serr. Jard. 23: 257. 1883. Ancyclogyne munita Nees in Mart. Fl. Bras. 97: 63. pl. 7. 1847. Type collected by Martius in woods along the Madeira River, Province of Rio Negro, Brazil. An erect shrub about one meter high, with red flowers. 4, Sanchezia sericea Leonard, sp. nov. Plant shrubby, 1.5 meters high; stems quadrangular, glabrous; leaves oblong-obovate, 15 to 30 cm. long, 7 to 11 cm. wide, rather abruptly narrowed at apex to an acuminate tip, gradually narrowed from below the middle to a short winged petiole, distinctly undulate-dentate, both surfaces glabrous and bearing numerous cystoliths 0.5 to 0.75 mm. long, the lateral veins 14 or 15 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence terminal, simple, equaling or slightly NOV. 3, 1926 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA 487 exceeding the upper pair of leaves, the rachis glabrous or slightly puberulent, the flowers 6 or more, sessile, crowded in the axils of the bracts and forming fascicles 2 to 5 em. wide; bracts ovate, up to 5 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 cm. broad (the immature smaller), dark red, glabrous, bearing cystoliths; bractlets oblong-ovate, 3 to 4 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 cm. wide, obtuse, pubescent; sepals narrowly obovate, 2.5 to 2.8 cm. long, the 2 outer 5 to 6 mm. broad, the 3 inner 3 to 4.5 mm. broad; corolla pale yellow, the tube 5 cm. long, 7 to 8 mm. wide at throat, gradually narrowed from middle to 3 mm. at base, silky- pubescent without, the lobes 4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, emarginate; stamens 4 to 4.5 em. long, attached to the corolla tube about 4 mm. above the base, slightly exserted; staminodes 4 to 5 mm. long; style 4 to 4.5 em. long, glabrous; ovary 4 mm. long; fruit not seen. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,524, collected on the moist banks of the Pastaza River between Bafios and Cashurco, Province of Tungurahua, Ecuador, altitude 1,300 to 1,800 meters, September 25, 1923, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 21801). Sanchezia sericea differs from other species of this genus in the large, strongly undulate-dentate leaves and densely silky-pubescent corolla. 5. Sanchezia macbridei Leonard, sp. nov. Herbaceous (?), about 1.5 meters high; stem glabrous, quadrangular; leaves elliptic-oblong, 20 to 30 cm. long, 8 to 12 cm. wide (the lowermost probably larger), abruptly acuminate at apex, narrowed to a short winged petiole with a somewhat clasping base, glabrous, entire or finely undulate- dentate, the cystoliths scattered, the lateral veins 14 to 18 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence spicate, or occasionally with a few branches, equaling or slightly shorter than the upper pair of leaves, the internodes 2 to 9 cm. long, the flowers 10 or more, clustered in the axils of the bracts; bracts ovate, 3 to 5 cm. long, 3 cm. or less broad at base, the lower abruptly long-acuminate, the upper obtuse at apex, red, glabrous, bearing cystoliths; bractlets oblong, 2.5 cm. long, about 1 cm. broad, obtuse at apex; sepals ligulate-obovate, rounded at apex, the 3 outer 2 to 2.5 cm. long, 3 to 6 mm. broad, the 2 inner 1.5 to 1.8 em. long, 2 to 4 mm. broad; corolla yellow, the tube 5 cm. long, finely pubescent without, the lobes 4 to 5 mm. long, 2.5 mm. broad, rounded at apex; stamens inserted on the corolla tube about 5 mm. above the base, the filaments 4.5 cm. long, exserted 5 mm. beyond the throat of the corolla, sparingly pilose; staminodes 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long; style 6 cm. long, pubescent toward the base; fruit not seen. - Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 536099, collected on the edge of a sunny motafia, at the mouth of the Chin- chao River, Pampayacu, Peru, altitude about 1,200 meters, July, 1923 by J. F. Macbride (no. 5056). From dried specimens this plant superficially resembles S. peruviana (DC.) Rusby, but, when fresh, it is readily distinguished by its larger yellow, not red, flowers. 6. SANCHEZIA PERUVIANA (DC.) Rusby, Mem. Torrey Club 6: 103. 1896. Ancylogyne peruviana DC. Prodr. 11: 222. 1847. Type collected by Matthews (no. 1221) at Sesuija, Peru. 488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 Specimens examined: Peru: Pozuzo, J. F. Macbride 4665 (N, F).8 Botrvia: San Carlos, Mapiri, Buchtien 1403 (N, Y); Bang 1473 (N, G), 2367 (N, G). JAVA: Cultivated in the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden, 237 (N). S1am: Bangkok, Zimmermann 50 (N). A shrub, often cultivated for its showy purple flowers. 7. SANCHEZIA CYATHIBRACTEATA Milbr. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 9: 267. 1925. Type collected at the mouth of the Capanahua River, eastern Peru, by Tessmann (no. 3134). A shrub with glabrous yellow flowers and large red connate bracts. This species is closely related to the following. 8. Sanchezia pennellii Leonard, sp. nov. Low shrub; stem obscurely quadrangular, glabrous; petioles 4 cm. long, glabrous, scarcely winged; leaf blades elliptic to elliptic-obovate, 10 to 30 em. long, 5 to 13 em. broad, abruptly narrowed at apex to a blunt tip, gradually narrowed at base, shallowly crenate, both surfaces glabrous and bearing cystoliths 0.5 mm. long, the lateral veins 9 to 12 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence spicate, the flowers 6 to 8, sessile, crowded in the axils of the bracts and forming fascicles 3 to 6 cm. in diameter; bracts 5 em. long, connate half their length, loosely inclosing the flower clusters, the free portion broadly ovate, ’3 to 3.5 cm. wide, rather abruptly narrowed to a blunt apex, orange- red on at least the upper portion, glabrous, bearing cystoliths; bractlets elliptic-obovate, 2.5 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, bearing cystoliths; sepals ligulate- obovate, 10 to 15 mm. long, the 3 outer 3 to 5 mm. broad, the 2 inner 2 to 3 mm. broad, rounded at apex, glabrous; corolla yellow, 4 to 5 em. long, 6 to 7 mm. broad at throat, gradually narrowed from middle to 2 mm. at base, glabrous, the lobes oblong, 3 mm. broad, rounded and emarginate at apex; stamens attached to the corolla tube 5 mm. above its base, the filaments 4 cm. long, exserted 8 mm. beyond the throat of the corolla, pilose; staminodes 4 to 5 mm. long; style 5.5 cm. long, glabrous; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,043,822, collected in a sandy loam forest along the Magdalena River at Vuelta de Acufia, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, altitude 125 to 180 meters, January 14, 1918, by F. W. Pennell (no. 3798). Additional specimens examined: Panama: Forests around Pinogana, southern Darién, Pittier 6527 (N). Marraganti, Wzllzams 659 (N, Y). CotompiA: Brazo de Moro, on the Magdalena River above Barranca Bermeja, Niemeyer 1 (N). Boca Verde, on the Sinu River, Depart- ment of Bolivar, Pennell 4573 (Y, G). ; Sanchezia pennellit is closely allied to S. cyathibracteata Milbr. and agrees well with the original description of that species except that it has smaller corolla lobes and fewer lateral leaf veins. The five ample specimens cited 8’ N=U.S. National Museum; Y =Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden; G=Gray Herbarium; F = Herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History. Nov. 3, 1926 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA 489 are uniform and show no variation other than in the size of the leaf blades and inflorescence. There is no indication that the leaves bear as many as 15 lateral veins on each side of the midrib or that the corolla lobes reach 5 mm. in length. Further ground for proposing this new species is afforded by its range. All the specimens examined by the writer were collected in the forests of northern Colombia and southern Panama, whereas the type of S. cyathi- bracteata was collected in the wet forests of the Amazon Basin in eastern Peru, two regions with very different floras. The material in the U. S. National Herbarium was distributed as S. nobilis Hook. f., which, although closely related, has distinct bracts and narrower leaves with more broadly winged petioles. 9. Sanchezia stenantha Leonard, sp. nov. A glabrous shrub about 1 meter high; stems quadrangular; petioles slender, 4 to 6 em. long; leaf blades ovate, 10 to 20 cm. long, 8 to 13 cm. wide (the lower probably larger), abruptly acuminate at apex, rounded at base, un- dulate, the cystoliths more numerous on the upper surface than on the lower, the lateral veins 9 to 11 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence a terminal interrupted spike, the internodes 3 to 7 cm. long, the flowers 6 or more, crowded in the axils of the bracts; bracts ovate, 3 to 4 cm. long, up to 2.5 em. broad at base, acute at apex, with few cystoliths; bractlets oblong-obovate, slightly shorter than the bracts, the cystoliths few; sepals equal, narrowly obovate, rounded at apex, the 2 outer 6 to 8 mm. broad, the 3 inner 4 to 5 mm. broad; corolla bright yellow, glabrous, 4.8 em. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad at base, 6 to 7 mm. wide above middle, narrowed at throat, the lobes oval, 3 mm. long, 3.5 mm. broad, emarginate, reflexed; stamens inserted on the corolla tube 5 mm. above its base, 4 cm. long, exserted 8 to 12 mm. beyond the corolla tube, sparsely pilose; anthers 5 mm. long, pubescent; staminodes 1.3 to 1.4 em. long; style equaling or slightly longer than the stamens, glabrous; fruit not seen. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 535709, collected in a stream at Pozuzo, Peru, altitude about 650 meters, January, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4634). This species is a very distinct one, easily recognized by the broad ovate leaf blades with round bases, the slender wingless petiole, and the narrow corolla tube. 10. SANcHEzIA NOBILIS Hook. f. in Curtis’ Bot. Mag. 92: pl. 5594. 1866. The original description was based on material collected by Pearce in Keuador. Although there is little in this description to differentiate S. nobilis from closely related glabrous yellow-flowered species, the accompanying plate discloses a number of important and interesting facts. The branched inflores- cence and distinct bracts of the plant pictured in this colored plate contfast sharply with the large spike and connate bracts of S. pennellii Leonard and S. cyathibracteata Milbr. The resemblance to S. speciosa Hook. f. is, however, much closer. In the original description Hooker states that the leaf blades are either oblong-obovate or oblong-lanceolate. The colored plate shows a 490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 plant with leaves strongly oblong-obovate, very different from the oblong- elliptic leaves of S. speciosa. Figure 2 in this plate is a longitudinal section of a flower, showing clearly the very short staminodes, scarcely 5 mm. long, which are characteristic of S. pennelliz and S. cyathibracteata, but not like the long slender ones found in S. speciosa. It is interesting to note that this species is not represented in the U. S. National Herbarium, although the majority of the specimens of Sanchezia had been determined as S. nobilis, and doubtless much of the material referred to S. nobilis in other herbaria belongs to other species. 11. Sanchezia speciosa Leonard, sp. nov. Plant shrubby; stem quadrangular; leaves oblong-elliptic, 10 to 25 cm. long, 3 to 7 cm. broad (the lowermost probably larger), tapering to a slender blunt apex, gradually narrowed to a short winged petiole (sometimes rather abruptly narrowed at base), both surfaces glabrous and bearing curved cys- toliths 0.5 mm. long, undulate or shallowly undulate-dentate, the lateral veins 9 to 12 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence an interrupted spike (or with a few short branches), equaling or exceeding the upper pair of leaves, the internodes | to 3 cm. long, the flowers 3 or more in the axils of the bracts and forming fascicles 1 to 2 cm. broad; bracts ovate, blunt at apex, glabrous, bearing cystoliths; bractlets about 2 cm. long, 8 mm. broad, obtuse at apex; sepals ligulate, 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide, rounded at apex; corolla yellow (?), the tube 4 to 5 cm. long, 7 to 8 cm. broad at throat, narrowed below the middle to 3 mm., glabrous, the lobes 3 to 4 mm. long, rounded, emarginate; stamens inserted about 5 mm. above the base of the corolla tube, the filaments 4 to 4.5 cm. long, exserted 5 to 15 mm. beyond the throat of the corolla, sparingly pilose; anthers 5 mm. long; staminodes 2.5 cm. long; style about 5 cm. long, equaling or exceeding the stamens; fruit not seen. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 522,248, collected in the Botan- ical Garden of Havana, Cuba, January, 1905, by A. H. Curtiss (no. 622). Another specimen was collected from the same place and probably from the same plant by Van Hermann (no. 2700). Additional specimen examined: MarTINIGUE: Duss 835 (Y). Both the type and Van Hermann’s no. 2700 had been referred to S. nobilis. They differ from this species in having much longer staminodes and narrower, more pointed leaves. The colored plate of S. nobzlzs Hook. f. in Curtis’ Magazine shows a plant with obovate leaf blades gradually tapering to a broadly winged base. The type was collected from a plant grown in cultivation and its native country is unknown. It was probably procured from the Andean region in Peru or Ecuador, the center of distribution for the genus Sanchezza. 12. Sancnezia capiraTa (Nees) Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 315. 1904. Ancylogyne capitata Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 222. 1847. Type collected by Matthews (no. 1230) at Pangoa, Peru. This peculiar capitate-flowered Sanchezia has red flowers with long-exserted stamens. Nov. 3, 1926 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA 49] 13. SANCHEZIA FILAMENTOSA Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 314. 1904. Type collected by Ernst Ule (no. 6401) near Ponge de Cainarachi, Province - of Loreto, Peru. A shrub 1 to 3 meters high, producing pubescent purple flowers with long- exserted stamens. It is very distinct from all other species of Sanchezia in the long-attenuate bracts, bractlets, and sepals. 14. Sanchezia parviflora Leonard, sp. nov. A glabrous shrub; stem quadrangular; leaves oblong-elliptic, 10 to 25 cm. long, 3 to 6 cm. broad (the lower probably larger), obliquely acuminate at apex, narrowed at base to a short winged petiole, entire or undulate, bearing eystoliths on both surfaces, the lateral veins 10 to 11 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence small, paniculate, 10 to 15 cm. long, the flowers 1 to 3 in the axils of the bracts; bracts oblong to linear-lanceolate, 1 to 2 cm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, acuminate; bractlets about 1 cm. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide; - sepals oblong-lanceolate, about 2 cm. long, 3 to 5 mm. broad, acute at apex; corolla pale scarlet, the tube 3 cm. long, 6 to 7 cm. broad at throat, narrowed to 3 cm. at base, glabrous or sparsely pubescent without, pubescent at the insertion of stamens within, the lobes oblong, 4 mm. long, 2.5 cm. broad, emarginate; stamens inserted on the corolla tube about 5 mm. above the base, the filaments 2.2 to 2.5 em. long, included or but slightly exserted, glabrous or sparsely pilose above, densely pubescent below, the anthers 5 mm. long, pubescent; staminodes 6 to 7 mm. long, pubescent below; style 2.5 to 2.7 cm. long, glabrous; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,194, collected between Santa Rosa and La Chorita, Province of Oro, Ecuador, altitude below 100 meters, August, 1923, by A. S. Hitchcock (no. 21127). This species is well marked by the small red corolla, small inflorescence, — and obliquely tipped leaves. Sanchezia ovata Ruiz & Pavén is described as having flowers 3 cm. long, but it has yellow flowers, a spicateinflorescence, and pubescent leaves. 15. SANCHEZIA LORANTHIFOLIA Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 314. 1904. Type collected by Ernst Ule (no. 6820) along the Cumbaso River near San Pedro, Province of Loreto, Peru. A shrub 1 to 3 meters high with red flowers and long-exserted stamens. 16. SANCHEZIA LONGIFLORA Hook. f.; Planch. Fl. Serr. Jard. 23: 257. pi. 2460. 1888. Ancylogyne longiflora Hook. in Curtis’ Bot. Mag. 92: pl. 5588. 1866. _ This plant was introduced into Europe about 1868 by Pearce, who collected it near Guayaquil, Ecuador. It is very well marked by the “bright vinous- purple” corolla and the lance-subulate sepals. 17. SANCHEZIA SPRUCEI Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 648. 1894. Type collected near Tarapoto, eastern Peru, by Spruce (no. 4325). Speci- men of type collection seen in the Gray Herbarium. S. sprucez is related to S. parviflora Leonard but differs in having smaller leaves, larger flowers, and tomentose stems and sepals. 492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 18. SANCHEZIA PARVIBRACTEATA Sprague & Hutchinson, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 2538.',.1908: Sanchezia sprucet salvadorensis Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 44: 116. 1907. The original description was made from a plant cultivated at Kew. Its type locality and original collector are not mentioned. The type of S. sprucez salvadorensis, cultivated in the city of San Salvador, Salvador, was collected by Velasco (no. 6985). So closely does the short original description of this plant agree with S. parvibracteata that the writer, although he has not seen the type specimen, has reduced it to synonymy. Sanchezia glaucophylla is a horticultural variety introduced into Europe from Brazil. It was mentioned? in a report of the Russian International Horticultural Exhibition, held in St. Petersburg in 1869, and there described as a plant with “ large ovate-acuminate leaves, veined with yellow” and with a red line on the midrib. This plant was undoubtedly what is now called S. parvibracteata. . A shrub about 1 meter high, commonly cultivated for its large panicle of beautiful yellow flowers and its yellow-veined leaves. Specimens examined: GUATEMALA: In garden, Department of Quezaltenango, Rojas 165 (N). Ex Satvapor: Cultivated in San Salvador, Standley 19362 (N, Y, G); Calderén 588 (N, G). Cultivated in Santa Clara, Department of Ahuachap4n, Padilla 173 (N). JAVA: Cultivated in the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden, Merrill in 1902 (NG aY)3 AmBOINA: Robinson 1787 (N, G). , Cultivated: Botanical Garden of Harvard University in 1874 (GQ). 19. Sanchezia ecuadorensis Leonard, sp. nov. Shrub 2 to 3 meters high; stem quadrangular, glabrous; petioles about 2 cm. long, glabrous, winged, connate at base; leaf blades obovate, about 25 cm. long, 8 to 10 cm. wide (the uppermost leaves much smaller, obovate-lanceo- late), rounded and abruptly acuminate at apex, gradually narrowed at base, shallowly undulate, both surfaces glabrous and covered with cystoliths 0.5 to 1 mm. long, the lateral veins 10 to11 on each side of the midrib; inflorescence sparingly branched, the flowers 2 to 4 in the axils of the bracts and forming fascicles 1 to 1.5 em. wide; bracts obovate, 14 to 16 mm. long, 7 to 8 mm. _ wide, dark red, glabrous; bractlets similar, 11 to 12 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad; sepals narrowly oblong-obovate, 15 to 20 mm. long, 4 to 7 mm. broad, obtuse at apex, the tip pubescent; corolla yellow, the tube 4 to 4.5 em. long, 8 mm. wide at throat, narrowing below the middle to 4 mm. at base, minutely pubescent above, glabrous below, the lobes 5mm. long, 3 mm. wide, emargi- nate; stamens slightly or not at all exserted, the filaments 16 mm. long, at- tached to the corolla tube 8 cm. above the base, pilose; staminodes 10 to 13 mm. long; style 4 cm. long, glabrous; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,196,543, collected on the banks of the Pastaza River, between Bafios and Cashurco, Province of Tungurahua, Ecuador, altitude, 1,300 to 1,800 meters, September 25, 1923, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 4833). Sanchezia ecuadorensis is related to S. loranthifolia Lindau. It closely resembles that species in many respects but differs in having yellow, not red, flowers and included or very slightly exserted stamens. 9 Gard. Chron. 587. 1869. 4 Nov. 3, 1926 SWANTON: MENTAL ASSIMILATION OF RACES 493 ETHNOLOGY .—Notes on the mental assimilation of races. JOHN R. SWANTON, Smithsonian Institution. Since physical race mixture may be detected and in some degree weighted by means of measurements and color charts, the question naturally arises whether there are analogous differences of a psy- chological character which may also be identified. If so, one good test should present itself when individuals of a certain race have been adopted or captured at an early age by those of another and have been brought up wholly immersed in the culture of that other. If there is an actual psychological distinctness between the two, it should be recognized in the adopted or captured individuals as an element un- accountable on the basis of their cultural surroundings. In the course of a somewhat extended reading of miscellaneous works dealing with the Indians of North America the writer has gone over a number of narratives of white children brought up among the natives and during this work it occurred to him to take notes of these cases along with the impressions which the individuals in question made upon those who observed them. In a few cases we have the testimony of the in- dividuals themselves. Jt must be remembered that no idea can be given of the number of captives who never became reconciled to their new surroundings and who escaped or died, but the general testimony of early writers is that such failure to assimilate seldom occurred in the case of a child provided it was able to endure the hardships of its first years of captivity. It may be well to begin with the experiences of John D. Hunter, whose Memoirs, in spite of the over-polished style into which his editor has cast them, bear upon the whole the stamp of reliability. Hunter himself was a white captive of the class with which we are concerned. Carried away, when a boy, by a band of Kickapoo, he passed temporarily into the hands of a body of Pawnee and then in succession to the Kansa and Osage tribes. While he ultimately returned to live among the whites and, as in many another case, became something of a lion there, it is evident from his narrative that a slight change in the course of events would have resulted in a per- manent sojourn with his adopted people. More important than Hunter’s own experience, however, are several cases of white captives mentioned by him in the course of his narra- tive. Thus, in the band of Kickapoo which originally took him 1 Received Oct. 1, 1926. 494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 prisoner was a white woman, married to a chief, who, he says, ‘‘joined with, and I believe surpassed, the squaws in the extravagancy of her exultations and rejoicings on account of the safe return of the warriors with prisoners, scalps, and other trophies obtained from their van- quished foes,”’ i.e., the whites.2- Farther on we find the following: I may here observe that I met three or four white children, apparently of my own age, while travelling among the different tribes. They appeared, like myself, to have been at first forced to assume the Indian character and habits; but time and a conformity to custom had nationalized them, and they seemed as happy and contented as though they had descended directly from the Indians, and were in possession of their patrimony. . . . . It isa re- markable fact, that white people generally, when brought up among the Indians, become unalterably attached to their customs, and seldom after- wards abandon them. I have known two instances of white persons, who had arrived at manhood, leaving their connections and civilized habits, assuming the Indian, and fulfilling all his duties. These, however, happened among the Cherokee.® Another white captive, John Tanner, like Hunter, broke away from his adopted people, the Chippewa, long enough to have his memoirs incorporated into a book, but he afterward returned to the forest and Schoolcraft says of him that he had “‘lost every virtue of the white man, and accumulated every vice of the Indian (!).’’ Among the Indians living near the Wabash in the eighteenth century, Gerard Hopkins, a missionary belonging to the Society of Friends, saw a white girl captive who could only be distinguished from the Indians by her gray eyes. In the same region, Charles Johnson, himself a captive of the Wyan- dot, noted two others living like all the rest, and one of them able to use only broken English. The other had been promoted to the rank of a chief.® Isaac McCoy, in id History of the Baptist Missions, recounts the case of a white man “by the name of Fish, who had lived with the Shawanoes from a small boy, and was in all respects identified with them, had become a principal chief of a clan who had lived many 2 Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America, Joan D. Hunter. London, 1823, p. 6. 3Tbid., p. 14. 4 Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes. Henry R. ScHootcraFT. Philadelphia, 1851, p. 316. 5 A Mission to the Indians from the Indian Committee of Baltimore Yearly Meeting, to Fort Wayne, in 1804. GErrarp T. Horxtns, Philadelphia, 1862, p. 64. 6 A Narrative of the Incidents Attending the Capture, Detention, and Ransom of Charles Johnson. New York, 1827, pp. 61, 67. NOV. 3, 1926 SWANTON: MENTAL ASSIMILATION OF RACES 495 years in the State of Missouri, and which was in a good degree civilized.’’? ; 7 The Rev. David Jones in “A Journal of Two Visits Made to Some Nations of Indians on the West Side of the River Ohio, in the Years 1772 and 1773,” speaks of meeting a white lad, who was a captive, and says, ‘‘When I spoke to him [I] was very sorry to see him shake his head and reply, ‘Motta keeno toleeh neekaana,’ 1.e., | do not understand you, my friend.’’? He also speaks of two white women among the Indians, one of whom had married a chief. He adds, ‘““These women were captives, and it is likely from childhood, for they have the very actions of Indians.’’® One of the Gilbert family, Benjamin Gilbert, jun., who had been carried away by the Iroquois, came to be ‘‘considered as the king’s successor, and entirely freed from restraint, so that he even began to be delighted with his manner of life; and had it not been for the frequent counsel of his fellow captives, he would not have been anxious for a change.’’!° Better known than any of the above is the case of Eunice Williams, taken by Iroquois in the massacre at Deerfield, Mass., in 1704. Her father was a minister, and she had been brought up in the strictest principles of Puritanism, but three years after she had been carried off she was unwilling to break with her new life. This refusal was re- peated several times, and in 1713 she married a young Indian. In 1740, in company with other Indians, she revisited the scenes of her childhood and repeated the journey twice afterwards, but she had lost her knowledge of English entirely and even refused to sleep in a white © man’s dwelling." Another instance is that of John Slover, who was among the Indians from his eighth to his twentieth year. He says, “‘At the treaty of Fort Pitt, in the fall preceding what is called Dunmore’s War . I came in with the Shawanese nation to the treaty, and meeting with some of my [white] relations at that place, was by them solicited to relinquish the life of a savage, which I did with some reluctance, this ’ History of Baptist Indian Missions. Isaac McCoy. Washington and New York, 1840, p. 405. 8A Journal of Two Visits Made to Some Nations of Indians on the West Side of the River Ohio, in the Years 1772 and 1773. Rev. Davip Jones. New York, 1865, pp. 85, 86. 9 Tbid., p. 88. 10 A Selection of Some of the Most Interesting Narratives of Outrages, Committed by the Indians in thetr Wars with the White People. ARcHIBALD Loupon. 2 vols., Carlisle, 1808 (reprinted in 1888), 2: 126. 1 An Unredeemed Captive. CuIFTon JOHNSON, 1897, pp. 41-52. 496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 18 | manner of life having become natural to me, inasmuch as I had scarcely known any other.’’” That there was little natural sympathy between white captives at times, is shown by the experience of John M’Cullough, who was also captured when a boy. He was accused of killing an Indian boy, he says, “which I always denied, but Queek-queek-co-mooch’-que, a little white girl (a prisoner), who lived with the family that the deceased belonged to—was like to be the worst evidence against me, she told them that she saw me have the pistol in my hands several times.”’ When M’Cullough was purchased from the Indians by his father, instead of being grateful, he wept bitterly and had to be carried away tied to a horse. Later he escaped and returned to his adopted people. He reports the same of two other white captives.? John Brickell was carried off by some Delawares and lived with — them in Ohio for many years. In the narrative of his experiences he commends the Indian method of bringing up children in the highest terms and says ‘“‘I know I am influenced to good, even at this day, more from what I learned among them, than what I learned among people of my own color.’’ When his Indian father asked him if he would return to the whites or remain with him, he “Was silent a few minutes, in which time it seemed as if I thought of almost everything. ~ I thought of the children I had just left crying; I thought of the Indians I was attached to, and I thought of my people which I remem- bered; and this latter thought predominated, and I said, ‘I will go with mv (white) kin.’ ’’"4 In a band of Chippewa living near the Assiniboine River Harmon saw a white captive of whom he says, “‘this fellow is lost, beyond recovery, for he now speaks no other language, but that of the Indians, among whom he resides, and he had adopted all their manners and customs; and it would now be as difficult to reconcile him to the habits of civilized life, as it would be, were he a real Indian.’’® At a much later date Col. Henry Inman reports the case of a white girl who had been left among the Blackfeet when a baby and who ap- peared to be no different psychologically from the Indians about her.'* — 122 LoupoNn, ARCHIBALD. Op. cit., 1: 21. 18 Ibid., p. 264. 14 Narrative of John Brickell’s Captivity among the Delaware Indians. The American Pioneer, ed. 2.1: 46-48, 54, Cincinnati, 1842. 15 A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interiour of North America, etc. DANIEL Wiiiiams Harmon. Andover, 1820, p. 141. 16 Buffalo Jones’ Forty Years of Adventure. Col. Henry InMAN. Topeka, Kans., 1899, pp. 282-286. Noy. 3, 1926 SWANTON: MENTAL ASSIMILATION OF RACES 497 Fanny Kelly, a captive among the Dakota, tells of another white girl whose family had been destroyed by cholera and who had been found and reared by that tribe. She lived and acted exactly like _ those who had adopted her. OGDEN, PETERSKENE. Snake Expedition Journal, 1826-1827. (As copied by Miss Agnes C. Laut in 1905 from original in Hudson’s Bay Co. House, London, England.) Quarterly, Oregon Historical Soc., 11: (No. 2) 213, June, 1910. 6 Ibid., p. 214. 7 Ibid., p. 216. 8 Trans. Amer. Ethnological Soc., New York, vol. 2, 1848. 524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 19 ments but also from the maps of Arrowsmith (1832 and 1834), Wilkes (1841), and Gallatin (1848), this part of which is avowedly based on information from Ogden. In 1835, Michel L. Framboise, a French-Canadian trapper and inter- preter, gave Dr. Gairdner, then stationed at Fort Vancouver, a list of Indian tribes which includes both ‘‘Clamet’’ and ‘‘Sasty.”’ Of the location of the latter tribe he says, ‘‘On a river of the same name to the west of No. 30. [No. 301s the “Clamet.”’]* La Framboise, in common with other Hudson Bay trappers of the time, was of course familiar with Ogden’s names. Prior to 1851 much confusion existed in relation to the courses of the rivers of southwestern Oregon and northern California. Bonne- ville’s Map of 1837, entitled ‘‘The Territory West of the Rocky Moun- tains,’ puts the name ‘“‘Claymouth’’? on Rogue River for its entire course—ten years after it had been named Sasty or Sastise by Peter Ogden. Several maps issued in the forties and early fifties show the upper reaches of Klamath River in approximately the correct position, but follow Bonneville, Hale, and others in deflecting the middle course to the northwest, making it a tributary of Rogue River. But B. F. Butler’s ‘“Map of the State of California” showing the Gold Region, published in San Francisco in 1851, reverses the usual practice by showing the upper part of Klamath River as rising from the western slopes of Mt. Pitt in Oregon, thus confusing it with the Sasty River of Ogden [Rogue River], which is made to flow southwesterly [across the Siskiyou Mountains!] to reach the proper lower course of Klamath River in northern California; while the actual upper part of Klamath River is labeled Shaste River! The earliest map I have examined in which the name Shasta River appears on the stream now known by that name—a tributary to _ Klamath River from the south—is a manuscript ‘‘Sketch Map of the Northwest part of California,’ drawn by George Gibbs in 1851 (photostat in my possession from original in Indian Office). It has been shown that the word Saste is the Klamath (Lutuami) name for the tribe which since the publication of Hale’s “Ethnog- raphy” 80 years ago has been commonly known as Saste (Shaste, or Shasta). It is known also that Peter Skene Ogden after spending two months among the Klamath Indians in the winter of 1826-1827, ° Notes on the Geography of the Columbia River by the late Dr. GAIRDNER. Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. London, 11: 256, 1841. Nov. 18, 1926 BUSHNELL: ANCIENT SOAPSTONE QUARRY 525 and consequently familiar with their name for the adjoining tribe on the west, entered the territory of that tribe and deliberately gave its name to the river on which he found them [now known as Rogue River], and to the great mountain at its head [now known as Mt. Pitt]. It is one of the tragedies of geographic nomenclature that these names, by reason of a break in the continuity of local knowledge of the region, have been transferred to features remote from those upon which they were originally bestowed. Still, it is something to be thankful for—from the standpoint of anthropology—that both the great mountain and the river to which the name was transferred are still within or bordering on the territory of the Shaste tribe. While the name of the tribe is now firmly established as Shaste (or Shasta), it should be kept in mind that this is not the name by which members of the tribe call themselves. ‘Their name for themselves is Ge’-kahts or Ke’-katch (once given me as Gik’-kahtch). Roland Dixon got it in the form Krkatszk. ARCHEOLOGY.—Ancient soapstone quarry in Albemarle County, Virgima.! Davin I. BUSHNELL, Jr., Washington, D. C. Steatite, often called soapstone, is encountered in many localities from Georgia and Alabama northward through the eastern states to the Canadian boundary and beyond. It was known to the Indians long before the coming of Europeans, and as it was easily quarried with the use of the crudest of stone implements it was obtained and employed by them in making bowls, tobacco pipes, and ornaments of various sorts. The extent of the use of soapstone by the Indians is indicated by the large number of ancient quarries located in different parts of the region in which it occurs, and seldom are masses of the stone discovered with- ‘out finding traces of their work—evidence of the use of stone tools on the exposed surfaces. But necessarily such sites vary greatly in size, and although the more extensive were probably visited and revisited through generations others were far less important and appear to have furnished material for very few objects. A quarry of much interest, one where many soapstone vessels had been made by the Indians, was discovered some years ago when Con- necticut avenue, in the city of Washington, was opened, about one half mile north of the present bridge over Rock Creek. This was quite similar to others at that time known to exist in different parts of 1 Received October 5, 1926. 526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 19 the country, many of which were described by Holmes in the Fif- teenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1897. Other quarries have been discovered since that time, including the one which forms the subject of this note. Soapstone is found in many parts of the piedmont section of Virginia and in recent years has been quarried extensively in Albemarle and Nelson Counties, localities where it had been obtained by the Indians generations ago, probably long before the settlement of Jamestown. When that part of Virginia first became known to Europeans it was claimed and occupied by Siouan tribes belonging to the Monacan group or confederacy, and one of their most important villages, Rasawek, was situated on the banks of the James at the mouth of the Rivanna, some distance to the eastward. But undoubtedly other tribes had occupied or frequented the region before the Siouan people had reached the country east of the mountains, and consequently it is not possible to identify the workers of the ancient quarries. | Very extensive quarries are now being operated by the Virginia Alberene Corporation in the vicinity of Schuyler, Nelson County, and another is about to be opened some two miles in a direct line north of east from Schuyler, on a high ridge a short distance south of Damon in Albemarle County, between five and six miles northwest from the Fic. 1.—(U. 8. N. M. 332,023). nearest point on the James. Through the courtesy of Mr. H. N. Covell, of the Corporation, I was enabled during the past summer to make several visits to this very interesting site. Here great masses of soapstone, outcropping on the surface, follow the general direction from southwest to northeast and have a dip of about 60° to the south- east. The area is heavily timbered, the surface very irregular and broken, with one or more springs near by. For a distance of nearly a thousand feet along the ridge it is possible to trace pits dug by the Indians, generations ago, when getting soapstone. More than twenty Nov. 18, 1926 BUSHNELL: ANCIENT SOAPSTONE QUARRY 52 such excavations were discovered, the majority being within the north- ern half of the distance, and becoming less clearly defined southward. They vary in diameter from ten to thirty feet and at present are from two to four feet in depth, some are distinctly separated while others merge and may in reality be parts of a greater excavation. The sur- face surrounding the pits is covered with pieces of stone which had evidently been rejected and thrown from the quarries, but now all is covered with thick vegetal mold, the spaces between the pieces are filled, and very little of the stone is visible between the mold and moss. The ancient pits are similarly covered and consequently it was not possible to ascertain the actual extent of the quarries. See Saree eee La SS ee Sa Fie. 2.—(U. S. N. M. 332,025). Part of a flat-bottomed vessel, x i dia. The site gives the appearance of great age and centuries have prob- ably elapsed since it was last worked by the Indians. Many broken vessels have been discovered in the vicinity of the pits, all broken in the process of making and abandoned as useless, but such pieces now prove of interest as they show the marks of the crude stone implements on the rough, unfinished surfaces, and thus reveal the manner in which the vessels were made. The majority appear to have been oval in form with knobs projecting from the narrower ends to serve as handles, a type of vessel which was evidently made extensively in Virginia and Maryland, but of which no finished example is known to exist. Typical examples of fragments of unfinished bowls collected on the site, in the vicinity of the pits, are shown in the accompanying sketches. Figure 1 represents a large specimen, very rough, measuring about 17 inches in length. One side had been broken but the knobs remain at both ends. This would probably have had a flat bottom. Figure 2 shows part of a flat-bottomed bowl with rather straight sides. Handles project from the upper edge as in the preceding. Two forms of bowls were made, as indicated by the fragments, one had a flat bottom with handles projecting from the upper edge, as represented in figures 1 and 2. The second type may have been 528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 19 smaller, the bottoms were rounded and the handles extended from the sides an inch or more below the rims. Figure 3 shows a fragment of a rather small vessel with rounded bottom and sides. The surface was probably finished, ready to be smoothed or polished when broken. Several quartz implements, used in working the cigabeal were discovered on the surface near one of the northernmost pits. One Fig. 3.—(U. 8. N. M. 332,024). Fragment of a round-bottomed vessel, x 4 dia. Fie. 4.—(U. 8. N. M. 332,027). Grea quartz tool, X 3 dia. example, a very crude tool which may have been used in preparing the insides of vessels, is shown in figure 4. Much work was done at this interesting site, quantities of soapstone were removed from the pits and innumerable objects, both large and small were made, but very few have ever been recovered from village sites, mounds or burials. ae TINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND Fat the aftleated encietios will ia ane et h and the twenty-seventh day of each month.» ~ ~ CONTENTS Ontanyar, Paere is see oe seer e eres OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Grorce K. Burcuss, Bureau of Standards. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. Sruspex, Bureau of § Recording Secretary: W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Geodetic Treasurer: R. L. 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Special rate< are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 DECEMBER 3, 1926 No. 20 GEHOPHYSICS.—The tides on the north Siberian shelf: their bearing on the existence of land in the Arctic Sea, and their dynamics.' H. U. SverpRup. (Communicated by W. J. Prrsrs.) The study of the Arctic tides attracted wide attention when the late Dr. Rollin A. Harris of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1911 concluded from his investigations that there was an extensive area of land within the unexplored area of the Arctic region. This conclusion was contrary to that of Fridtjof Nansen whose studies of the oceanography of the part of the Arctic Sea which he traversed with the FRAmM during 1893 to 1896 had led him to believe in the existence of a deep polar basin. Since Harris’ conception became known the hypothetical Harris _ Land loomed before the eyes of the explorers who made it their task to solve one of the last of the geographical riddles of the globe, but their search was fruitless. McMillan, on his Crocker Land Expedition, and Stefansson, on his remarkable journeys over the sea-ice north of Alaska, both touched the outskirts of the unknown region without finding anything but broken sea-ice. Apparently Harris was wrong in his conclusion. However, the available data from the wide region west of Alaska and from the great north Siberian shelf were very scanty in 1911; there was practically only one tide-station, viz., Ben- nett Island. It was chiefly from the observations at this station that Harris drew his bold and far-reaching conclusions. Since 1911 new information has been gathered from this region, mainly through the work of the MAup expedition in the years 1918-1925. The maup spent four years at various places on the coast of northern Siberia and drifted for two years with the ice distant 400 miles from the coast. 1 Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, October 2, 1926. Re- ceived for publication Oct. 13, 1926. 529 030 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 20 - The investigation of these observations combined with the earlier data indicated a tidal wave differing entirely from that deduced by Harris and led to the conclusion that the tidal phenomena do not indi- cate the existence of any extensive masses of land within the unex- plored area. This conclusion was first mentioned in a radio message from the MAuD in 1923 and was further confirmed by the observa- tions in 1924-1925. It was proved to be correct when in May 1926, Captain Amundsen, Lincoln Ellsworth, and General Nobile crossed from Spitzbergen to Alaska in the dirigible NoRGE and passed over the central part of the unexplored area without seeing any land. Figure 1 shows the available data for conditions at spring-tide for the entire region; spring-tide conditions were used since the most 105° E.Gr. ‘120° pO] | 300 | / 3 “00 Vi Cane Chelyuskin am / Nee Qi os = om . Gate i a Git Til 2 712 18 *=. one *. . e eS Waal s peo sr XS = Ges DP, hae New,- Siberian 1 as 2WSSSE. CR 1) LOSES ES ze: 180° W. Gr. _ Fig. 1.—Tidal observations and co-tidal lines at spring tide on the north Siberian Shelf. reliable observations on the open shelf are obtained around spring- tide, when the difference between high-water and low-water is greatest and the tidal currents are most strongly developed. The earlier data indicated were obtained at Point Barrow (Alaska), Pitlekaj, and Bennett Island, while all the others result from the work of the MAUD expedition. The mMaup work was at the coast stations Cape Chelyuskin, Bear Islands, and Ajon Island, at three offshore stations where the time of high-water and the rise of the tide were determined by soundings, and at nine stations where the tidal currents were ex- amined. ‘The directions of the maximum tidal currents at spring-tide are plotted as arrows and the times of maximum current are expressed DEC. 3, 1926 SVERDRUP: TIDES ON THE NORTH SIBERIAN SHELF 531 in Greenwich lunar time. The characters of the tidal currents are indicated by ellipses, meaning that the currents are rotating; the directions in which the currents rotate are indicated by arrow- heads. The ratio between the axes of each ellipse is equal to the ratio between maximum and minimum currents. The ellipses when full drawn represent the mean current from the bottom to the surface; when dashed they represent the current at selected levels. The time of high-water is given at all stations in terms of Greenwich lunar time. A line joining the points where spring high-water occurs at the same Greenwich lunar time represents the crest of the tidal wave at this particular time, a co-tidal line at spring. These lines, furthermore, have been drawn so that they run perpendicular to the directions of maximum currents. The heavy black lines represent the co-tidal lines drawn according to these rules. They represent the observations in a very satisfactory way and it can not be doubted that the co-tidal lines in this figure actually represent the front of the tidal wave at the stated hours. What conclusions can be drawn from this picture regarding the existence or non-existence of land within the Arctic? Harris from his discussion concluded that the tidal wave proceeded from Bennett Island to Point Barrow, that is, practically from west to east and that this course necessitated the existence of an extensive area of land. Our result shows that the wave does not proceed from west to east but that it enters the entire region from the north. The tidal wave has the same character as the tide of the northern Atlantic. There- fore it can not be doubted that the tidal wave from the northern Atlantic enters the opening between Spitzbergen and Greenland and erosses the Arctic Sea without meeting any obstruction formed by extensive masses of land. However, no definite conclusion can be drawn that smaller islands may not exist. The figure reveals the striking fact that the tidal wave reaches the region of De Longs Islands five hours before it reaches Point Barrow though the direct distance from the Spitzbergen opening is nearly the same in both cases. This would indicate strongly that the sea is more shallow between Point Barrow and the Pole than between De Longs Islands and Spitz- bergen, indeed perhaps so shallow that we might expect islands in places; however, any such conclusion may not be definitely drawn because we do not know enough about the progress of a long wave across a deep sea. The only certain conclusion, therefore, is that no extensive masses of land exist and this conclusion has already been verified by the results of the flight of the NORGE. 532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 The co-tidal lines in our figure combine, as already mentioned, all observations in a satisfactory way and, together with the curves showing the motion of the water-particles, give a complete picture of the wave which enters the shelf from the north. In dealing with the tidal waves on the continental shelves one may neglect the direct action of the tidal producing forces, because this is proportional to the body of water upon which the forces act and the body of water on the shelves is negligible compared to that of the large oceans. Generally it is assumed that the tidal waves proceed across the continental shelves under the action of gravitational forces only. However, the picture in Figure 1 deviates greatly from that of a long wave proceeding under the influence of gravitational forces only. Attention may be drawn to the main characteristics as follows: (1) The tidal currents do not run alternatingly in the direction in which the wave proceeds or against this direction but within the whole region they rotate clockwise. Over the open shelf there is very little difference between the strongest and the weakest currents, but where the wave runs parallel to a coast the currents are almost alternating. (2) The currents are not uniform from the bottom to the surface. This is not evident from the entries in this figure, but we shall later return to this very important fact. (3) The velocity of progress of the wave does not stand in the simple relation to the depth which is characteristic for a gravita- tional wave. (4) The range of the wave varies within wide limits, from 210 cm. north of the New-Siberian Islands to only 3 cm. at Bear Island. A closer inspection shows that the range varies both along and per- pendicularly to the wave-front. Referred to the direction in which the wave proceeds the range decreases from right to left, from 210 cm. to 14 em. between the New-Siberian Islands and Point Barrow andit also decreases in the direction of progress, for instance from 18 cm. 400 miles off the coast to 5 em. at Ajon Island and to 3 cm. at Bear Island. All these features can be explained if the effect of the forces of: inertia arising from rotation of the Earth and the resistance due to the eddy-viscosity are taken into account. I shall show how this can be done in the present case. The upper left equations in figure 2 represent the hydrodynamic equations for a long gravitational wave. The X-axis of the co- ordinate system has been placed in the direction of progress of the DEC. 3, 1926 SVERDRUP: TIDES ON THE NORTH SIBERIAN SHELF 533 wave, and wu and v represent the velocities of the water-particles in and perpendicular to the direction of progress, respectively. The elevation of the wave above the normal level is called ¢, the depth is called h, and the acceleration of gravity is called g. The two upper equations show that the only gravitational forces are acting upon the particles while the third equation represents the equation of con- tinuity. HYDRODYNAMIC WAVE EQUATIONS FOR A NON-VISCOUS FLUID ON A RESTING OR ROTATING DISC, AND SOLUTIONS sin (ot - px) sin (ot - x) Fig. 2.—Hydrodynamic wave equations for a non-viscous fluid on a resting or rotating disc, and solutions. The first column in the lower part of figure 2 gives a solution of above equations. If the deformation of the surface is represented by a simple sine function, then the velocities of the particles will be directed alternatingly in the direction of progress or against the direction of progress of the wave, the maximum velocity being reached when the wave reaches maximum height. No transversal velocities (v = 0) are developed. The wave itself proceeds with a velocity c = Vgh. _ A wave proceeding in an infinitely long rotating channel does not differ very much from the wave here considered. The hydrodynamic equations are more complicated because we now have to add the terms which represent the so-called Corioli’s force, namely, the 534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 force of inertia which arises on account of the rotation. The solution of these equations derived by Lord Kelvin is given in the lower part of figure 2. We find now that the amplitude of the wave varies across a section of the channel. The effect of the rotation is evidently to press the wave towards one side of the channel, the forces of inertia arising from the rotation being balanced by a slope of the wave-crest. The velocities of the water-particles are still alternating and the velocity of progress is equal to the square root of gh. These waves can be represented schematically by a simple figure as in figure 3 S= 0 4 { Velocity- scale ual -10 0 | x Sa Nee Y 2 %e As , %<—_<_“= | “o X | A B Fig. 3—Schematic representation of a long wave in a non-viscous fluid on a resting dise or in a rotating channel. where A is to represent a vertical section showing the velocities of the particles in the direction of progress. It is seen that these are uniform from the bottom to the surface. B shows that the velocities are alternating. C shows a section of the wave with the vertical dimensions extremely exaggerated. The hydrodynamic wave-equations can also be given a solution with a definite physical meaning when referred to conditions on an unlimited rotating disc. This solution is found in the lower right DEC. 3, 1926 SVERDRUP: TIDES ON THE NORTH SIBERIAN SHELF 539 part of figure 2. The wave itself is now supposed to have the same character as on a resting disc, the elevation above normal level being supposed to vary in the direction of progress only. The velocities of the particles will then become rotating as is evident from the equa- tions for wandv. The velocity of progress of the wave is also modi- fied becoming greater than on a resting disc. It may here be re- marked that the given solution is valid only as long as o, the frequency of the wave, is smaller than 2w, the double angular velocity of the disc. Waves of the type here dealt with cannot exist on a rotating disc if this condition is not fulfilled. The meaning of these results can also be expressed in another way. Ona resting plane the orbit of inertia is a straight line but on a rotating disc the orbit of inertia referred to a coordinate system which takes part in the revolution is a circle. The time required for one complete revolution in the circle of inertia is equal to half the time required by the disc for one revolution. If a wave proceeds across a rotating disc we will meet a phenomenon of resonance be- tween the gravitational oscillation and the oscillation in the circle of inertia. ‘The particles will no longer describe straight lines back and forth, but will describe ellipses which will become larger and larger and approach circles more and more as the periodic length of the wave approaches half the time required by the disc for one revo- lution. At the same time the wave-length will increase, or since the periodic length is assumed to remain constant, the velocity of progress will increase. On a resting disc one-half of the energy of the wave is present as kinetic energy, the other half as potential. On a rotating disc the forces of inertia tend to preserve the kinetic energy and on an un- limited disc where this tendency is unhindered by boundaries the major part of the energy of the wave will be present as kinetic. These conditions are represented graphically in figure 4. The vertical section shows that the motion still is uniform from the surface to the bottom, while the horizontal section B shows that the velocities have a rotating character. These two solutions, which are valid for a wave in an infinitely long rotating channel and on an unlimited rotating disc, represent the fundamentals for the discussion of the influence of the Earth’s rotation on the tidal wave. We have now to discuss the influence of the eddy-viscosity. It is well known that the viscosity of water is far too small to affect the currents in the sea, but it is also known that if the motion of a fluid is turbulent, then an exchange of mass 536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 takes place between the various layers of the fluid with the result that the fluid appears to have a very great viscosity. We can by dealing with the average velocities introduce a new coefficient, the eddy-viscosity, which has the dimensions of the ordinary coefficient of the viscosity but is from 1,000 to 100,000 times larger. The eddy-. S=06 Fig. 4.—Schematic representation of a long wave inanon-viscous fluid on a rotating disc. viscosity is not constant. It is a measure for the exchange of mass between neighboring layers and the numerical value will therefore depend upon the vertical stability of the layers. However, in the mathematical treatment it is necessary to assume the eddy-viscosity constant, and even then the study of its influence on long waves must be limited to the special case of conditions on an unlimited rotating disc and even then leads to complicated formulae. Figure 5 shows the hydrodynamic wave-equations for a wave on a rotating disc including the term for the influence of the eddy-viscosity. The equation of continuity now takes the form of an integral equation because the velocities of the particles are no longer uniform from the surface to the bottom. The lower part of the figure gives a solution of these equations. The wave itself now takes the character of a DEC. 3, 1926 SVERDRUP: TIDES ON THE NORTH SIBERIAN SHELF 537 damped wave, the amplitude decreasing in the direction of progress. The velocities are still rotating but depend upon the vertical co- ordinate, z; the velocity of progress, c, which can be computed by means of the last equation, is no longer a simple function of the depth but depends also upon the eddy-viscosity. The complex con- stants C, to C, have to be determined by the boundary-conditions. Figure 6 illustrates the conditions under certain assumptions. From the vertical section A it is seen that the motion is not uniform from the surface to the bottom. The velocity increases from the bottom HYDRODYNAMIC WAVE EQUATIONS FOR A VISCOUS FLUID ON A ROTATING DISC, AND THEIR SOLUTIONS 2 ow ye ae ou ov = - 2ou + 7 gy ot oz2 =-i 5, ar Se a 1+i ~ (144 (14i)Boz -(1#4) Boz : : Pe + oye ee - Ce Be + C,e 5 es sje Hx) epetifoye . oe -40e ¢ t =9x (1+4) B72 ~(1+1)B,z (14+4)B pz -(1+1)B5z Het) o ik 1 2 2 ot-px oils eve (pet) |-c4¢ - Coe + Ce + C,e = ze} e & Seca 1 = ( SSS I ee age of Sian ee Ke Fig. 5.—Hydrodynamic wave equations for a viscous fluid on a rotating disc, and their solutions. and up and in the vicinity of the bottom the maximum velocity is reached at an earlier moment than at a greater distance from the latter. ‘The horizontal sections for two levels show that the velocities have the rotating character in both levels, but nearer to the bottom the ellipse which joins the ends of the vectors 1s narrower and turned to the right when referred to orientation of the upper ellipse. When applying the results of these theoretical considerations to the tidal phenomena on the north Siberian shelf we must remember that the results, strictly speaking, are valid only for waves in a fluid of constant depth and of constant eddy-viscosity on an unlimited rotat- ing disc whereas actual conditions involve a limited region on a rotat- ing sphere with the depth and the eddy-viscosity subject to great variations. Despite this the main features are readily recognized. 5388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 Returning to figure 1 we find that the perfect development of the rotary currents at great distance from the coast and the dwindling of the transversal currents, where a coast to the right of the wave prevents their development, is in agreement with what we should expect. The great velocity of progress where the currents are rotat- ing and the small velocity where they are alternating is also in agree- ment. The great range of the tide which we find where the wave z-h Fig. 6.—Schematic representation of a long wave in a viscous fluid on a rotating dise rolls along a coast is the result of the wave being pressed against the coast by the deflecting force of the Earth’s rotation, while the de- crease of the range which accompanies the development of the ro- tary currents tells that the action of the forces of inertia here tend to preserve the major part of the energy as kinetic. The decrease of the range in the direction of progress is due to the dissipation of the energy through the eddy-viscosity. I have mentioned that the tidal currents showed great variations with depth. As an example I shall show the currents observed in the central part of the shelf. The upper part of figure 7 shows ob- served tidal currents. The vertical section A represents the com- DEC. 3, 1926 SVERDRUP: TIDES ON THE NORTH SIBERIAN SHELF 539 ponent of the currents in the supposed direction of progress. The ice took no part in the tidal movement and down to 35 meters the SE 42m. Siete 0: . 8 210152 see : ee _Ice nt Me 0 ve NE SW GO nie nm " ou 20 He Ge Ht) ii mi m ul mw peta 30 wi Fig. 7—Examples of tidal currents observed on the north Siberian shelf (upper part) and theoretically computed tidal currents (lower part). currents were too weak to be observed. Under this level we found strong tidal currents which again rapidly decreased towards the 540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 bottom. The two horizontal sections show that the currents were rotating in all depths but close to the bottom the ellipse was narrower and turned to the right referred to the ellipse of the upper layer. There is evidently a close relation between the distribution of the density and the development of the tidal currents. The density is indicated by the heavy curves marked o;. It is seen that the density remains constant from the ice down to 38 meters, after which we find a sud- den and very rapid increase and later a slow increase as we approach the bottom. Where the density is constant we must expect a very great eddy-viscosity because the conditions for formation of eddies are here very good but where the density increases rapidly with depth the eddy-viscosity must be small because vertical eddies can not be developed. We can therefore consider the water as formed of three layers of different eddy-viscosity and on this assumption we can compute the tidal currents by means of the general equations. The result of the computation is represented graphically in the lower part of figure 7. The computed currents differ naturally from the observed, partly because the theory supposes discontinuous transi- tions from one layer to another while these transitions in nature are continuous. However, the main features agree so well that it can not be doubted that rotation of the Earth and the varying eddy- viscosity are the factors which are responsible for the peculiar cur- rents which were observed. | _ Summing up it can be said that the tidal wave on the north Siberian shelf has all the characteristics of a long gravitational wave in a viscous fluid on a rotating disc. The theoretical considerations which have been sketched here naturally may find application to the tidal phenomena on other continental shelves and, in addition to those carried out by other in- vestigators as Taylor, v. Sterneck, and Defant, serve to give a better understanding of the laws according to which the tidal waves cross the continental shelves before reaching the coast. This knowledge is indispensable for the whole theory of the tides. We must know how the wave proceeds over the shelf in order to find the character of the wave at the moment it reaches the border of the shelf. And the facts regarding the character of the tides at the borders of the continental shelves are those with which we must test any theory dealing with the fundamental but exceedingly difficult problem, namely, the creation of the tidal waves in the big oceans under the action of the. tidal creating forces. DEC. 3, 1926 PEARL: TIME RECORDER FOR ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 541 BIOLOGY.—A time recorder for quantitative work in animal be- havior... RAYMOND PEARL, Institute for Biological Research of the Johns Hopkins University. The piece of apparatus shown in figure 1 has been constructed for use in connection with certain problems regarding the normal behavior and activity of Drosophila melanogaster, which are being studied in this Institute. It has proved so useful in practice, and has so many obvious applications in various sorts of biological research, that a brief description of it seems warranted. The essential element of the apparatus is a 15 pen ‘“‘Strip chart electric operation recorder’? made by The Bristol Company of Water- bury, Conn. This instrument draws a ruled strip of paper, by means Fig. 1.—Apparatus for recording time relations in animal behavior studies. A, strip chart electric recorder. B, base board. C, row of radio switches. of an accurate clockwork, under the 15 pens at a constant rate of speed. By suitable adjustments of the mechanism this rate may be as slow as one inch per hour, or as fast as 6 inches per minute, with a 1 Received Oct. 26, 1926. 542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 number of intermediate speeds. Each pen is controlled by a small © relay magnet, in such a way that when a current is passed through the coil of the magnet the end of the pen is drawn about 1 mm. to the side of its normal resting position. In the apparatus shown in figure 1, each of the pens of the operation recorder has been wired to a small radio switch set in the base board. Therefore the path of each pen is controllable separately by throwing the appropriate switch in this series. ' The manner in which we have used the apparatus is this. On a strip of white adhesive tape alongside the row of switches are written catchwords for the different categories of activity in which a Dro- sophila indulges, such as ‘‘flying,’’ ‘“‘walking,’”’ ‘“‘cleaning forelegs,” etc. The switch opposite each such designation is devoted to the recording of that particular kind of activity. A glass beaker or jar, with internal arrangements suitable to the experiment in progress, and containing the fly (or flies) to be observed, is placed upon a stand on the base board. ‘The condition of the room in respect of light, temperature, and quiet, is made suitable to the obtaining of normal results. The observer, having started the strip recorder in motion, then watches the fly. As any particular sort of activity on its part is entered upon, the observer throws the corresponding switch and leaves it on until the fly stops that kind of activity and starts some other, complete rest being regarded, for purposes of record, as a form of activity. When there is a change in the kind of activity the previously thrown switch is returned to normal and at the same time the appropriate new switch thrown on. When an observation period of an hour or two is completed, the clock-work is stopped. After the ink has been given about 24 hours to dry, the strip may be removed from the roll, and the amount of time spent in the dif- ferent forms of activity determined from the pen records. In prac- tice we have found it desirable to calibrate the apparatus against an accurate stop watch, and measure the pen lines on the paper strip with a millimeter rule, rather than to depend upon the rulings printed. on the paper and the stated clock rate. The dimensions of the apparatus shown in figure 1 are as follows: Length of base board, 86 cm.; width of base board, 51 em.; height of upright, 60 cm.; width of upright, 29 cm. On the back of the upright board are a resistance box, a knife switch in the lead-in line, and a fuse block. These are merely for the purpose of establishing a safe connection with the lighting cir- cult of the laboratory. DEC. 3, 1926 LONGLEY: TRIPLOID CITRUS 543 Besides the use of this apparatus described in detail above we have employed it for various other physiological and behavior observations, in which it was essential to record the time relations. It would seem to have a wide range of applicability in biological work. GENETICS.—Triploid citrus. A. E. Lonetey, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by G. N. CoL.ins.) The work of producing new types of citrus fruits by hybridization is seriously handicapped by the presence of nucellar embryos in the seed. Swingle’s? early work showed that many citrus hybrids pro- duce only apogamic progeny when selfed. More recently Frost? in his genetic studies of citrus seedlings finds that a large percentage of his plants from both selfed and crossed seed prove to be of apo- gamic origin. These apogamic individuals are merely reproductions of the seed parent. This prevalence of polyembryony necessitates the growing of many valueless seedlings almost to maturity in order to distinguish the asexual forms from the desired hybrids. Therefore any method that will distinguish the true ee from the asexual forms at an early stage is valuable. Recently much interest has been awakened in the plant groups with varying chromosome numbers and citrus has recently been found to possess a few individuals with double the usual chromo- some number. In most citrus forms the haploid number is 9, but Frost? has shown that tetraploid plants occasionally appear among seedling citrus, and Longley® found that the Chinese kumquat, Fortunella hindsi1, has 18 as its reduced chromosome number. Dr. Swingle of the office of Crop Physiology, Bureau of Plant Industry, called my attention to the prevalence of sterility in trip- loid plants. This caused him to hope that new seedless varieties of citrus might appear in this aberrant group. Since a cross between a tetraploid and a diploid should produce triploids, i.e., have a chro- mosome number intermediate between the two parent forms, a special interest is attached to crosses between this Chinese kumquat or any tetraploid form and the more prevalent diploid citrus. 1 Received Oct. 16, 1926. *Swinete, W.T. New types of citrus fruits for Florida. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 23: 36-41, illus. 1910. 3 Frost, H. B. Polyembryony, heterozygosis and chimera in cttrus. Hilgardia 1: 365-402, illust. 1926. *Frost,H.B. Tetraploidyin Citrus. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 11: 535-537, illus. 1925. 5 LoneLEy, A. E. Polycary, polyspory and polyploidy in citrus and citrus relatives. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 15: 347-351, illus. 1925. 544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 In Dr. Swingle’s extensive collection of bigeneric citrus hybrids there were three young plants, the result of crossing a limequat, Fortunella margarita * Citrus aurantifolia, with Fortunella hindsir. Although to the trained eye there was evidence of a dual parentage, it was realized that they might be the result of nucellar buds. As a means of distinguishing between a true hybrid and a plant of apogamic origin the author attempted a determination of the chromo- some numbers in these plants. The first flower buds that appeared were collected at the stage when the pollen mother cells were undergoing the reduction divisions. . A Cc D Fig. 1.—Pollen development in limequat (Fortunella margarita X Citra aurantifolia) x Fortunelia hindsti. A, Homotypic metaphase, 13 chromosomes showing in one plate (<2000). Band C, Heterotypic metaphase, 13 bivalent and one univalent chromosome (X650). D, An abnormal pollen tetrad (X650). (Figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida, using a Leitz 1.5 objective, and for Aa X18 ocular, for B, C and D a X15 ocular. Reduced about 3 in reproduction.) The anthers were opened in acetocarmine solution and counts were made as soon as the chromosomes were sufficiently differentiated from the surrounding plasma to make determinations possible. The first counts were made from cells in the metaphase of the homotypic division. Figure 1 A shows one plate with 13 chromo- somes. Unfortunately no counts could be made of two plates in the same cell and, although 13 stands intermediate between the diploid and tetraploid numbers, it required additional counts to settle defi- nitely the chromosome number of this plant. Months later other buds from this plant were available and figure 1, B and C, are draw- ings of the chromosomes in the metaphase of the heterotypic divi- sion. Both figures show 13 bivalent and a single univalent chromo- some. Such clear figures were not often met with. Frequently the DEC. 3, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: NEW SPECIES OF COTTON 545 chromosomes were clumped together into what appeared to be tri- valents, and at other times pairing failed causing several univalents to be present at diakinesis. The chromosomes of citrus are very small and it was almost impossible to distinguish between large bivalent and trivalent chromosomes. It was only from such clear figures as are pictured that satisfactory counts could be made. Many counts, however, have assured me that the plant studied is a trivalent citrus and represents a cross. A few tetrads were studied (figure 1 D) in order to determine the prevalence of polyspory. It was found that about 17 per cent had five and 1.5 per cent had six grains in a pollen tetrad. These counts and the presence of only a small percentage of abnormal appearing grains in mature pollen indicate that very little irregularity in chromo- some distribution occurs during meiosis in this triploid plant. The finding of this triploid hybrid shows that it is possible to produce triploid citrus by appropriate crosses. It is, moreover, hoped that in this or similar crosses the much desired seedless Kum- quat will be produced. BOTANY.—WNew species of cotton from Colombia and Ecuador.! O. F. Cook and J. W. Hupsarp, Bureau of Plant Industry. The wealth of natural forms in the genus Gossypium receives fur- ther illustration in new types of cotton plants collected recently in several localities on the west coast of South America, in Colombia and Eeuador. The native cottons of this region apparently are not closely related to the series of Mexican species described in this JOURNAL under date of June 19, 1926, but show other peculiar char- acters not previously recognized among the species of Gossypium. The new features include specializations of the involucral bracts and extrafloral nectaries, as well as of the leaves, bolls and seeds. One of new species has involucres with the margins of the bracts turned outward, so that the buds and young bolls are exposed, while another has very small involucres, and very narrow bracts, with only 3 to 5 teeth. In striking contrast with such involucres, other South American species have very large many-toothed bracts, cordate at base, with broad auricles united along their inner margins or over- lapping across the pedicel. Other outstanding features are very large and prominent involucral nectaries, large auriform crests or ex- panded bractlet-like organs surrounding the base of the calyx, bolls 1 Received Oct. 16, 1926. 546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 with large numbers of seeds per lock, bolls with only 2 locks, the absence of simple or 3-lobed leaves, and pubescence of simple hairs, instead of the stellate pubescence usual in Gossypium. Descriptions of some of these characters, with natural-size photographs of their occurrence in the different species, have been prepared for the Journal of Heredity, to follow the paper on characters of new cottons from Mexico which is being printed in the Journal of Heredity for Novem- ber, 1926. While most of the tropical cottons are not adapted to conditions in the United States, it is of interest and importance to breeding to know the range of characters represented in the genus. The need of basing botanical descriptions of cotton plants on the living material, growing under conditions of natural adaptation, as explained in the previous paper, becomes still more obvious after the study of these South American forms. Some of the most striking and distinctive characters could not be recognized or described from dried specimens, though some can be shown in photographs. Sey- eral important differences of leaves and involucres must be treated in three dimensions, not merely in terms of size and outline. The pressing of the specimens obliterates some of the most distinctive positional features. Some of the native cottons of the northern districts of Peru were described by Richard Spruce,? in a paper published in 1865, but the species were not named and apparently are not the same as those here described. No other botanist appears to have observed and recorded the characters of cotton plants in South America from living material. Key To Species Here DESCRIBED Involucral bracts very small and narrow, with a strong flexure or stand- off at base and with few marginal teeth, only 3 to 5; bolls mostly 4-locked, nearly round, the apex blunt or retuse, surface nearly uniform light green, the oil-glands deeply immersed in the green tissue; pubescence of simple hairs; seeds fuzzy: Gossypium tridens. ; Involucral bracts large and broad, with a slight basal flexure, marginal teeth numerous, 9 to 19; bolls mostly 3-locked, oval, ovate, or fusiform,, acuminate or apiculate, deeply pitted, exposing the black oil-glands dis- tinctly; pubescence of stellate hairs; seeds nearly naked after removal of lint, the fuzz very thin or confined to small tufts or bands... 2-2: oer Involucres with small nectaries, located in slight depressions; leaf nec- taries small, usually confined to the midvein even on large 7-lobed leaves of the main stalk or vegetative branches; fruiting branch leaves all 5-lobed; bolls oblong-oval, abruptly acuminate, ‘the surface even, the oil-gland punc- tations small and scattering: Gossypium quinacre. 2 Spruce, Ricuarp. The culture of cottonin northern Peru, The Technologist, May 1, 1865, pp. 431-445. DEC. 3, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: NEW SPECIES OF COTTON 547 Involucres with large, prominent nectaries; leaf nectaries often large, commonly 3 on large 5-lobed and 7-lobed leaves of the main stalk and vege- tative branches; fruiting branch leaves commonly 3-lobed; bolls conic-oval, acuminate, the surface irregular with large pits which are often crowded or (NESE Scala ane Me aa MR Ae i 2 eet a OU a a a Involucral bracts with margins strongly everted, exposing the buds and young bolls; seeds with lint confined to the upper half or two-thirds of the surface, and with little or no fuzz except in a short band in the lower part of the lint area: Gossypium evertum. Involucral bracts with plane margins, inclosing the buds and young bolls; Peraernehe iris, of fuzz ab the base Or apex... . 4st. cl ae ee ee ee eee Inner nectaries large, longer than broad, connected by large auriform processes or crests extending around the base of the calyx; auricles of bract moderately developed, united at base, not overlapping the pedicel: Gos-. sypium calycotum. Inner nectaries broader than long; not connected by processes or crests, rarely subtended by narrow bractlets; auricles of the bracts very large, the inner margins curved inward, overlapping across the pedicel, forming circles around the outer nectaries; bolls ovate-oblong, abruptly acuminate: Gossypium auritum. Gossypium tridens sp. nov. Plant large and tree-like, about 15 feet in height with an erect trunk 4 inches in diameter at base, light green open foliage, and rather long fruit- ing branches, the numerous short joints bearing small rounded bolls, often with 6 to 8 bolls on a branch. Leaves small, simple or with 2 to 5 lobes, usually 3-lobed on vegetative branches and 2-lobed on fruiting branches; simple and 5-lobed leaves very few; lobes rather long, narrow, acuminate; midlobe? slightly constricted, up- folded around the sinus : forelobes usually unequal, one often twice as large as the other; auricles very short, the basal sinus open; callus strongly de- current; surface of leaves entirely glabrous, with a fringe of hairs on the mar- gins and scattering hairs on the larger veins above and below; petioles and young branches rather densely pilose; hairs mostly simple, rarely two or three together, instead of stellate; pubescence very persistent, remaining on the year-old wood; length on the midvein of large 5-lobed leaf 16 cm., on the greatest expansion of auricle 17.5 cm., width on points of forelobes 23 em., on points of sidelobes 13.5 em., length of petiole 9.5 cm., leaf nectary single, rather small, with prominent rim, oval or ovate, about 1 cm. from base of vein; stipules fugacious, small, falcate, about 1 cm. long, 1 mm. wide at base those of fruiting branches shorter and broader. Involucral bracts very small and narrow, sublanceolate, slightly auricu- late, with strong flexures or off-sets at base; usually free, but sometimes con- nected for about | mm.; teeth usually 3, sometimes 4 or 5, the median tooth as long or longer than the body of the bract, with one or two small teeth on each side; bractlets not present; pedicels cylindrical, short, solid, triangular only near receptacle. Outer nectaries broadly oval or transverse, sunken; inner nectaries very broadly triangular, often reduced to a transverse slit. Calyx very short, with shallow rounded lobes; flowers not seen. 3 To designate the successive lobes of the leaves, beginning at the middle, the terms midlobe, forelobes, sidelobes and backlobes are used. The principal veins of the lobes are designated correspondingly as midvein, foreveins, sideveins and backveins. 548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 20 Bolls small, usually as broad as long, subrotund, abruptly narrowed to a blunt point or with a small apical depression; fissures deeply marked at the tip, the divisions bulging beyond the insertion of the stigma; surface smooth, light green, with shallow punctations, the oil-glands deeply immersed; locks 3 and 4, usually 4, seeds per lock 5 to 7. Seed small, densely covered with long greenish fuzz; lint white, about 1 inch long, fine and silky, not fluffing out. Type in U. 8. National Herbarium nos. 1,282,030, 1,282,031, and 1,282,032 collected from the same plant at Buenaventura, Colombia, May 28, 1925, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard (no. 169). The outstanding features of this plant are the small, narrow, free, in- volucral bracts, the small round bolls, the numerous 2-lobed leaves, and the pubescence of simple hairs. Gossypium quinacre sp. nov. Plant moderately robust, about 2 meters high, of rather low, spreading “herbaceous” habit, main stalk short-jointed, bearing numerous short- jointed horizontal vegetative branches, and strong fruiting branches, attain- ing 85 em., with rather long basal joints; also with fruiting branches near the ground on the vegetative branches; foliage and general appearance of the plant suggesting Sea Island cotton. Leaves large, subglabrous, with pale venation, surface Strongly upfolded between veins; lobes 5 to 7, with long acuminate points, none of the leaves 3-lobed; the forelobes often equal to the midlobe; auricles large, usually over- lapping; midlobes occasionally with teeth, but these confined to a few leaves of the main stalk, the teeth usually above the middle of the lobes; length of large leaf on midvein 23 cm., on greatest expansion of auricle 25 em., width on points of forelobes, 33 cm., on points of sidelobes 26 em., length of petiole 16 cm. Leaf nectaries, only 1 on fruiting branch leaves, 1 to 3 on main stalk and vegetative branch leaves, even large 7-lobed leaves some- times with only 1 nectary; midvein nectaries long, elliptical to lanceolate, located about 2 cm. from base, forevein nectaries very small, ovate, located about 1 em. from base. Petioles papillate with prominent oil-gland. Stip- ules long, linear, but on fruiting branches sometimes broad and strongly curved, occasionally bidentate. Involucral bracts very large, ovate, deeply cordate, the auricles slightly curved inward, but not overlapping; the short inner margins united, usually for only 1 or 2 mm., sometimes for 4 or 5 mm.; teeth 13 to 19, very long and slender, attaining 3.5 em. on bracts with total length of 8 cm.; three middle teeth not prominent, margins of auricles entire; bractlets of common occur- rence; outer nectaries prominent, subrotund; inner nectaries subtriangular; pedicels rather short, attaining 3.5 cm., triangular, with deep grooves run- ning down the angles, making six nearly equal grooves and ridges; calyx short, with five very shallow sinuate lobes. Flowers very large, not opened beyond a cylinder, 9 to 9.5 cm. from the outer nectary to end of corolla; petals pale yellow, with small petal spots. Bolls oblong-oval, abruptly acuminate, 3-locked or often only 2-locked, the surface somewhat lighter green, smoother and more even, and with smaller and more scattered punctations than in related species; mature open bolls not present. Type in U. 8. National Herbarium nos. 1,282,039, 1,282,040, and 1,282,041, DEC. 3, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: NEW SPECIES OF COTTON 549 collected from a single plant at Bahia de Caraquez, Ecuador, May 12, 1926, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard (no. 112). The plant grew among ivory-nut shells, and was so healthy and vigorous that a full development of vegetative branches would be expected, as well as full numbers of leaf-lobes, nectaries, and carpels, so that the peculiarities in such characters appear significant. The vegetative branches, though numerous, did not behave like the erect or strongly ascending, stiff woody shoots of the “tree” cottons, but showed a modified fruiting habit, soon spreading into horizontal or decumbent positions, with flowers and bolls near the ground, like a cultivated “annual” or “herbaceous” type of cotton. There were 18 vegetative branches, the lower about 1.5 meters long, the upper 1 meter, also vegetative shoots on some of the lower fruiting branches, from the basal or second joints. On a fruiting branch 85 cm. long, eight succes- sive joints measured in centimeters as follows: 22, 10, 10, 9,9, 10, 10,3. The main stalk internodes and those of the vegetative branches were. 4 to 5 em. long. The outstanding features are the spreading low-fruiting habit, the ab- sence of 3-lobed leaves, the slight development of nectaries, both on the leaves and the involucres, the narrow oblong bolls, often with only 2 locks; and the very large involucral bracts greatly exceeding the bolls, with the teeth very numerous and long, and with the auricles deep and broad. Con- sidered as a member of the South American series, the characters presented by this plant may afford an indication of the relationship of the Sea Island type of cotton. Since only one plant of this type was seen, it may have been a hybrid, but it presents such an interesting series of characters that a description seems warranted. ‘The large leaves and bracts, and the narrow, few-locked bolls, are not inconsistent with hybridism, but the rather spreading habit and the specialized character of the vegetative branches, short-jointed, and pro- ducing numerous fruiting branches near the ground, do not suggest a hybrid: Gossypium evertum sp. nov. Plants large and spreading, attaining a height of 10 or 12 feet, with stalks 3 or 4 inches in diameter at base; foliage dense, light green, glabrous; fruiting branches many-jointed, the basal joint usually long, from 12 to 18 cm., other joints from 2 to 5 em. Leaves a rather light, fresh-green, glabrescent; very young leaves sparingly covered with short stellate hairs below; lobes 3 to 5, usually 5, rather long, with long-acuminate points; sidelobes usually at right angles to the mid- lobes; auricles short, sinus open, basal curves or margins of the auricles often distinctly undulate; veins pale, prominent below; surface often bullate between veins near base; length of large 5-lobed leaf, on the midvein 18.5 cm., on the greatest expansion of the auricle 21 cm., width on points of fore- lobes 28 cm., width on points of sidelobes 20 cm. ; - leaf nectaries small, usually 3 on leaves of the main stalk and vegetative branches, but only one on leaves of fruiting branches; nectaries of the midveins rather large and deep, 550 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 20 © with prominent rims, located about 1.5 em. from base; nectaries of foreveins very small, 3 to 5 mm. from base, usually ovate or oval, sometimes reduced to a small narrow groove; stipules large, linear, fugacious, usually shorter and broader on the fruiting branches, often very irregular and unequal, one of a pair sometimes twice as large as the other. Involucres light green, glabrous; bracts oval or ovate, subcordate, strongly concave or everted, exposing much of the inner surface, which is pale green and glossy; teeth 9 to 18, irregularly arranged, the 3 middle teeth not prom- inent; auricles very short, with entire margins, the inner margins regularly united; no trace of bractlets found; outer nectaries rather large, rounded or transversely oval, prominent above the surrounding surface, especially before flowering; inner nectaries rather large subtriangular; pedicels short, distinctly triangular, with a small groove running down each ridge; calyx, truncate or with only slight indications of lobing. Flowers large, cylindrical, not opening widely; petals broad and widely overlapping, with a distinct lateral lobe or tooth at the point of the section exposed in the bud, pale yellow with small red petal spots and numerous golden yellow oil-glands, the venation very distinct; staminal column 2.5 em. long, with small scattering yellow oil-glands; stamens not numerous, filaments rather short, in five distinct rows; anthers pale, medium size, pollen deep yellow; style long, stigma exserted about 1 cm.; oil-glands of styles in two widely spaced rows, the glands in one row alternating with those in the other. Bolls 3-locked, about 5 cm. long by 2 cm. wide, narrowly conic-oval, acuminate, oil-glands large and scattering, surface slightly rugose, shining; ripe bolls open widely, the points curving backward, forming sharp hooks; seeds per lock 7. Seed small, dark brown, naked at the base or nearly so, with a narrow band of short brownish fuzz near the middle, and sometimes small tufts of fuzz at either end; lint faintly tinged with buff, about 1% inches in length, slightly harsh; the lint is confined to the upper portion of the seed, from the band of fuzz to the tip. Type in U. 8. National Herbarium nos. 1,282,028 and 1,282,029, collected at Buenaventura, Colombia, April 30, 1926, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hub- bard (no. 63). The distinctive characters are the light, fresh-green glabrous foliage, the strongly everted involucre, the lateral petal tooth and the distribution of — fuzz and lint on the seed. The lower part of seed usually is entirely naked, the fuzz mostly restricted to a belt around the seed, where the lint begins. The open involucres, with strongly everted bracts, may be considered as an adaptation to a humid tropical climate. Closed involucres appear dis- advantageous, especially under humid conditions, because of the protection afforded to insect pests and plant diseases. Diseases like anthracnose and bacterial boll-rot are very common and destructive in tropical America. Gossypium calycotum sp. nov. Plants large, spreading, 8 to 10 feet high, the large fruiting branches with long basal joints like Egyptian cotton, though the foliage appears more like Upland cotton. Leaves light green, simple or 3 to 5 lobed, the upper surface subglabrous, the lower surface rather densely covered with very short stellate or tufted DEC. 3, 1926 COOK AND HUBBARD: NEW SPECIES OF COTTON 551 hairs; lobes rather short, subtriangular, acuminate, sidelobes often repre- sented only by a tooth; sinus between lobes rounded and open, the surface of the leaf usually flat; sidelobes often extending backward at an angle of about 50 or 60 degrees to the midvein and closing the basal snus, though the auricles are rather short; length of blade on midvein 19 cm., on greatest ex- pansion of auricle 24 em., width on points of forelobes 30 cm., on points of sidelobes 20.5 em.; veins prominent below; nectaries usually 3, appearing as long narrow slits, those on midvein located about 2 cm. from base, and attaining about 5 mm. in length, about twice as large as those on foreveins; petioles papillate, especially near base of leaf; stipules rather large, fugacious, very broad and strongly curved on fruiting branches, often broader than long, sometimes toothed. Involucral bracts large, with 10 to 13 rather large teeth; at base cordate with an abrupt, deep sinus formed by the straight united inner margins of the auricles extending back along the pedicel for 8 to 10 mm.; lower margins open and slightly flared, forming nearly a right angle with the inner margins, _ lateral margins entire, often to the middle of the bracts; calyx rather short, subtruncate, with very slight indications of lobing; pedicels short, stout, triangular, 2 to 2.5 cm. long; outer nectaries subrotund, rather large, prom- inent, inner nectaries subtriangular or trapezoidal, usually slightly longer than broad; large auriform crests subtending and connecting the inner nectaries, the crests appearing occasionally like braetlets, but usually as ruffle-like appendages irregularly curled or rolled outward, extending around the base of the calyx, the bractlet-like crests apparently of the same texture as the calyx, with numerous small black oil-glands, but the more continuous crests with lower surface very pale and usually without oil-glands. Flowers not seen. Bolls of medium size, attaining 5 em. long, rather broadly conic-ovoid, with stout acuminate points, the surface rather closely and irregularly pitted; locks 3, with 9 or 10 seeds per lock. Seeds dark brown, with a small tuft of ight brown fuzz at base. Lint white, about 14 inches long. Type in U.S. National Herbarium nos. 1,282,033, 1,282,034, and 1,282,035, collected from a single plant at Esmeraldas, Ecuador, May 11, 1926, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard (no. 105). The remarkable broad auriform crests extending around the base of the calyx between the inner nectaries are the outstanding feature of this species. The crests are not parallel to the insertions of the bracts, but rise rapidly, usually to about half the height of the calyx, and sometimes to the full height, forming a semicircle between two of the inner nectaries. In many cases the crests are interrupted and occur as small separate sections be- tween the nectaries, but always on a curve, like a complete crest. Below the complete crests the surface of the calyx is pale and without oil-glands. Gossypium auritum sp. nov. A large spreading perennial shrub, attaining 8 to 10 feet in height and 3 to 4 inches in diameter at base, the large fruiting branches with long basal joints, often attaining 18 to 20 em.; foliage deep green, subglabrous. Leaves large, usually with 5 lobes, even on rather small leaves; midlobes large, ovate, oblong, abruptly acuminate, often apiculate; the forelobes large sometimes nearly equal to the midlobes: the sidelobes usually short, 552. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 20 broadly triangular; auricles ample, often overlapping; texture rather heavy, upper surface glabrous, strongly upfolded between the bases of the primary veins; callus and veins whitish, lower surface pale green, with few stellate hairs: length of large leaf on midvein 19 cm., on the greatest expansion of the auricle 24 cm., width on points of forelobes 30 cm., width on points of sidelobes 23 cm.; leaf nectaries short, broadly ovate or cordate, sometimes 3, usually only one even on large 5-lobed leaves, inserted low on the midvein, often 1 cm. or less from the base, nectaries of foreveins sometimes only 3 to 4 mm. from the base; petioles long, stout, attaining 21 cm. in length, with a distinct pulvinus at each end, the upper pulvinus papillate; stipules large, fugacious, linear on vegetative branches, much broader on fruiting branches, sometimes nearly as broad as long, and strongly curved, occasionally bidentate. Involucral bracts large, subrotund, broadly ovate; the auricles unusually large and broad, united only slightly at base, the inner margin strongly curved, meeting or overlapping across the pedicel, thus forming a complete circle around the outer nectary; teeth rather small, usually 17, sometimes 19 or 20, the margins of the auricles entire; bractlets often present; outer nec- taries very large, prominent, cuneate, inner nectaries large, triangular, with a border of black oil-glands; calyx with five distinct, very short, rounded lobes. Flowers large, 7 to 8 cm. long, the petals pale yellow, with small petal spots; staminal column rather long, about 2.8 em., naked section at base about 8 mm.; stamens numerous, filaments short, anthers small, light brown- ish; stigma exserted about 5 mm. above stamens, the apex divided for about 3 mm. into 3 distinct lobes. Bolls large, attaining 6.5 em. by 3 cm., ovate-oblong, abruptly acuminate; usually 3-locked, sometimes 4-locked, with 12 or 13 seeds per lock; fissures deeply grooved near the tip; surface rather dark green, shining, rather coarsely and deeply punctate, with the oil-glands distinct. | Seed small, brown, gradually narrowed to a sharp beak, with a long spur on the funicle, the raphe often quite prominent, irregularly covered with short brownish fuzz, usually longer and more dense towards each end, with irregular patches near center, in places almost naked; lint white, very fine, silky, about 14 inches long, but rather sparse and uneven. Type in U. 8. National Herbarium nos. 1,282,036, 1,282,037, and 1,282,038, collected from a single plant at Esmeraldas, Ecuador, May 11, 1926, by O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard (no. 108). Specimens and photographs were also secured from a large plant in a door yard at Bahia de Caraquez, Ecuador. The outstanding characters of the species are the deep broad auricles and numerous teeth of the involucral bracts, and the large 3-locked bolls containing 12 or 13 seeds per lock. The inner margins of the bract auricles often overlap across the pedicel, thus forming complete circles around the outer nectaries. | Several characters of this species suggest the Ica cotton described by Spruce from northern Peru, particularly the large bolls and the large num- bers of seeds in each lock, but the bracts of the Ica cotton are described as “laciniate all round the margin,” and the outer nectaries as ‘‘obsolete.” ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, December11. The Philosophical Society. Program: IL. H. Apams: What we know about the interior of ihe earth. (Illustrated.) The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on a page if sent to the editor by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month, i oH, CONTENTS ORIGINAL ParEers- Geophysics.—The tides on the north Sean shelf: their bance ¢ of land i in the Arctic Sea, and their dynamics. H. U. 'SVERDE Genetics.— —Triploid citrus. A. E. ee i EE Botany.—New species of cotton from Colombia and Ecuador. oO. W. HIDE ABD ea bot ssh es ster ees eg ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. Peed: Gerorce K. Buresss, Bureau of Standards. — ee Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SinsBer, Bureau of Sta: Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic S | Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. — | Vol. 16 DECEMBER 18, 1926 No. 21 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS D. F. Hewett S. J. Maucaiy AGNES CHASE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. Ronwrer PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLtpMAN G. W. Stross BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY R, F. Grices J. R. SWANTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Raa Sg foros E, WicHERS a CHEMICAL SOCIETY LON { % = Fees 13 bea A i PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY ae EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY 1 INAL | BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Roya AND GUILFORD AVES, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as Second Clase Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., undee the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of pierre provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy 5 * 4 4 My a JOURNAL - , OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mot. 16 DECEMBER 18, 1926 No. 21 HYDROLOGY and BOTANY.—Plants as indicators of ground water.. OscarR Epwarp Mertnzer, United States Geological Survey. PHREATOPHYTES Perhaps the most outstanding feature of the flora of the desert is its relation or lack of relation to the water table. On the one hand are the true xerophytes, which have adaptations for extreme economy of water, depend on the rains that occur at long intervals for their scanty supplies of water, and during prolonged periods of drought maintain themselves in a nearly dormant condition. On the other hand are the plants that habitually grow where they can send their roots down to the water table or to the capillary fringe immediately overlying the water table and are thus able to obtain a perennial and secure supply of water. . The term phreatophyte is used by the writer to designate a plant that habitually obtains its water supply from the zone of saturation, either directly or through the capillary fringe.2 The term is obtained from two Greek roots and means a “well-plant.”’ Such a plant is literally a natural well with pumping equipment, lifting water from the zone of saturation. The term ground water is used in this paper to designate the water in the zone of saturation—that is, below the water table. | 1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received Oct. 29, 1926. 2 MeEInzER, O. E., Outline of ground-water hydrology, with definitions, U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 494: 55. 1923. In so far as the writer is informed, the term phreatophyte was first used by him in a mimeographed edition of the paper which was later issued, in revised form, as Water-Supply Paper 494. 503 554 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 The phreatophytes form a fairly definite and well recognized ecologic group in the desert regions but a much less definite group in the humid regions where water supplies from other sources are more abundant. In the most arid deserts they stand in sharp contrast to the true xerophytes, which do not utilize water from the zone of _ saturation. As one passes, however, into less arid and then into more and more humid regions the control of the water table becomes pro- gressively less rigid, until its discipline, as it were, becomes quite demoralized, and even its most subservient vassals wander away and live at will in all sorts of situations where they are entirely beyond its control. | . Even in the desert regions many if not all phreatophytic species will spread more or less to localities where they are not in reach of the water table, such as irrigation ditches, irrigated fields, streams and dry washes that are far above the water table, or even alluvial slopes and hillsides. It is also true that plants of species which do not habitually utilize ground water may do so under certain circumstances and may flourish, at least for a time, on such a water supply. More- over, there is not always a wholly definite distinction between ground water and other soil moisture because of the existence of a great variety of perched and temporary water tables and of gravity water that may be in transit from the surface to the water table. However, these exceptions and complicating conditions do not alter the important fact that there are certain plant species which habitually feed on ground water and others which do not, and that in the arid regions there is a very real and conspicuous distinction between these two groups. HISTORY OF THE SUBJECT — As might be surmised, the subject of plants as indicators of ground water is by no means a new one. Vitruvius, who lived about the time of Christ and who is credited as being the first writer to advocate the modern theory of the origin of ground water, called attention to the value of certain plants in locating water supplies. Statements on the same subject are found in the writings of Pliny, in the first century A. D., who virtually quoted Vitruvius, and in those of Cassiodorus, in the sixth century, who obtained his ideas largely from a professional water finder that came to Rome from the arid regions of Africa. | The subject has, however, received little attention in modern times in the European countries in which the science of ground-water hydrology has been developed. Most of the French and German DEC. 18, 1926 MEINZER: PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF GROUND WATER = 9500 treatises on ground water either do not mention it at all or else dispose of it very briefly. The reason for this is doubtless that the hydrologic work in these countries was done chiefly where relatively humid condi- tions prevail and where, therefore, the subject of plants as indicators of ground water does not have much significance. It may be noted that Cassiodorus became interested in the subject through an “aqui- lege” who came to the court of Theodoric from Africa. ‘Because of the great aridity of the terranes of his country,’ wrote Cassiodorus, “the art of discovering springs is there cultivated with the greatest care.’ The most definite and thorough study of the subject seems to have been made by a Frenchman named Amy,’ who published a comprehensive paper on his observations in 1861. The proposition that plants of certain species more than others utilize water from the zone of saturation has been recognized by various eminent botanists, such as Warming, who based his statements largely on the work of Fielberg, Raunkiar, and Massart. In the desert region of the United States, which covers about half a million square miles, the relation of the native vegetation to ground water is a subject of great scientific and practical importance, yet even in this region it has received but little systematic study. Coville,‘ in a report on a botanical reconnaissance in the Mohave Desert and Death Valley in 1891, described the zonal arrangement of the vegeta- tion surrounding playas and divided the plants found in the desert into two significant classes—those of humid habitat and those of arid habitat. His list of plants of humid habitat probably comes nearer to being a catalogue of desert phreatophytes than anything else that has been published in this country. The botanists of the Desert Botanical Laboratory, which was established in 1903, have generally recognized the relation of certain species to the water table, and the subject has been given especial attention by Spalding’ and Cannon.‘ In a valuable investigation made by the Department of Agriculture 3 Amy, F., Voyages d’un hydroscope, ou l’art de decouvrir les sources. Paris. 1861. - 4Coviiiez, F. V., Botany of the Death Valley expediiion. Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 4: 23, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 47. 1898. > Spaup1ne, V. M., Distribution and movements of desert plants, Carnegie Institution of Washington Pub. 113: 5-17. 1909. 6 Cannon, W. A. The root habits of desert plants, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 131. 1911. Some relations between root characters, ground water, and species distribution, Science new ser. 37: 420-423. 1923. Tree distribution in central California, Popular Science Monthly pp. 417-424, 1914. 556 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 of the indicator significance of native plants in Tooele Valley, Utah,’ the relation of the principal phreatophytes, such as greasewood, to the water table was recognized, and some precise information was obtained bearing on the subject of plants as indicators of ground — water. Valuable work has more recently been done by Shantz, Aldous, Piemeisel, and others on the general subject of the indicator signifi- — cance of native plants in the arid and semiarid regions of the United States, including some reference to ground water. Much of this recent work has been done in connection with the classification of the public domain by the Geological Survey with respect to its irrigability and its value for grazing. In the older water-supply papers of the Geological Survey dealing with ground water no mention is generally made of discharge by plants or indeed by evaporation from the soil. In recent years, however, in the investigations in the desert regions the great importance of these processes has been fully recognized and attention has necessarily been given to the plants that feed on ground water. The numerous water-supply papers that have resulted from these investigations contain considerable specific information on the subject, especially those of J.S. Brown, Kirk Bryan, Everett Carpenter W. O. Clark, C. H. Lee, C. W. Riddell, C. P. Ross, A. T. Schwennesen, © D. G. Thompson, and.G. A. Waring. Decisive data on certain species have been obtained through the use of water-stage recorders over wells by G. E. P. Smith, irrigation engineer in the University of Arizona, and by W. N. White, of the United States Geological Survey. The present paper is based chiefly on observations made by the writer during 19 years of hydrologic work in the desert region, but also in large part on the data published in papers by the investigators that have been mentioned. EVIDENCES OF PHREATOPHYTIC HABIT® The evidences that plants of certain species possess the phreato- phytic habit or adaptation whereas those of other species do not may be grouped as follows: (1) Observations of the root habit of different species showing their relation or absence of relation to the water table 7 Kearney, T. H., Briaes, L. J., Seantz, H. L., McLanz, J. W., and PIEMEISEL, R. L., Indicator significance of vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah. U. S. Dept. Agri. Journ. Agric. Research 1: 365-417. 1914. 8 Detailed data on the subject are given in a comprehensive paper by the writer which has been approved by the Director of the United States Geological Survey for publica- tion as a water-supply paper. DEC. 18, 1926 MEINZER: PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF GROUND WATER 557 and showing the ability of some species to send roots to great depths; (2) experiments with certain species in which the quantities of water they absorb from the zone of saturation are measured or the effects of their growth in lowering the water table are recorded; (3) deter- minations of soil moisture during dry periods in an arid region, showing that certain species grow chiefly or exclusively in soil which contains moisture that could not have been supplied by rains but must have risen from the zone of saturation, whereas other species are found chiefly or exclusively with their roots in soil that is not moistened by ground water; (4) observations in arid regions of the relation or absence of relation of the period of growth of different species to the rainy season, showing that certain species (commonly growing where the ground water is beyond the reach of the plant roots) become dormant after the supply of soil moisture derived from the rains has been exhausted, whereas other species (growing where the ground water is within reach) continue to grow actively throughout the summer; and (5) observations in arid regions of the depth to the water table, showing that certain species are confined almost completely to areas with specific depth limits, whereas others show no relation to the water table and may grow where the water table is at a great depth or is entirely absent. The zone of shallow ground water surrounding a desert playa can generally be subdivided into several concentric belts of vegetation, in each of which one or more phreatophyte species is dominant. The successive belts vary in texture and alkalinity of soil as well as in depth to the water table. However, the main factor in the control of the vegetation over the area of shallow ground water is the depth to the water table. This fact is proved by the existence of otherwise similar basins which, on account of subterranean leakage, do not have shallow ground water in their interior lowlands. In these basins there may be a barren central playa with clayey, alkaline soil, surrounded by belts of soil having essentially the same texture as that of the soil in the basins that have shallow ground water, yet the familiar phreatophytes are essentially absent and the ordinary desert species extend to the margins of the playas. Doubtless there are some differences in the amount and distribution of the alkali in the soil resulting from the absence of shallow ground water, but in view of the characteristic growth of phreatophytes in many well-drained areas of shallow ground water it is certain that the absence of these species in the basins having deep ground water is not due to a difference in soil alkali. | 558 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 RELATION OF PHREATOPHYTES TO OTHER ECOLOGIC GROUPS Relation to hydrophytes—Water-loving plants might be divided into (1) those which grow entirely under water, (2) those which have only their roots under water, (3) those which have their roots in saturated soil, and (4) those which grow where there is a zone of aerated soil between the land surface and the water table but where the zone of saturation or the overlying capillary fringe is within reach of their roots. The phreatophytes consist of the last two of these groups. If the term hydrophyte were used in a very inclusive sense to comprise all four groups then the phreatophytes would, of course, become a subdivision of the hydrophytes. However, the distinction as to whether the body of water that feeds the plant 1s surface water or ground water is perhaps less important than the relation of the roots to the body of water—a question on which there is still great lack of information. Many phreatophytes probably develop a root system in the capillary fringe and avoid, so far as possible, sending their roots into the zone of saturation, thus differing in an important respect from true hydrophytes, whose roots are normally under water. However, the phreatophytes which are closely allied to the hydrophytes and which grow where the water table is very near the surface doubtless have functional roots in the zone of saturation. Moreover, G. E. P. Smith found both cottonwood and mesquite roots highly developed below the water table. The water table everywhere fluctuates. In most places within the areas occupied by phreatophytes the seasonal fluctuation amounts to as much as 2 or 3 feet and in some places it amounts to more than 25 feet. — This fluctuation is probably beneficial because on the whole it produces a thicker belt of aerated soil that is moistened by ground water. It, however, raises interesting and important questions as to how the root system is adjusted to the fluctuations of the water table. Relations to halophytes—The halophytes in the arid regions virtually form a subdivision of the phreatophytes because the alkaline soils in which they grow are nearly confined to the areas that have ground- water discharge. Nevertheless many of these halophytes resemble the xerophytes in having to subsist on small quantities of water. It is well known that a plant in order to absorb’ soil water must have a tissue fluid of higher osmotic pressure and, therefore, of higher salt content than the soil water. For this reason the highly concentrated soil water is relatively unavailable to the plants, and the soil that DEC. 18, 1926 MBEINZER: PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF GROUND WATER 359: contains such highly concentrated water is said to be physiologically dry even if it is saturated. Because of the slow rate at which these halophytes absorb water they *require adaptations for controlling transpiration similar to those of xerophytic plants. ‘The high con- centration of the tissue fluid itself retards transpiration. The soils and subsoils underlying many of the playas and adjacent. belts of succulent halophytes are, moreover, very clayey and. tight, and therefore have only small supplies of available water in spite of the high water table and abundant water supply of the surrounding belt of more permeable soil. Thus the supply available to plants may be meager because of the fine texture and impermeability of the soil and subsoil as well as the high concentration of the soil water. It is known, however, that in the more permeable belts surrounding the clay cores a very alkaline soil may be underlain by ground water that is not excessively mineralized and that may indeed be very pure. Grasses that flourish on alkaline soil, such as salt grass and alkali saccaton apparently have considerable transpiration. This fact leads — to the suggestion that they may obtain most of their water supply not from the physiologically dry soil but from the relatively pure water of the zone of saturation. Deep rooting plants that are found in alkaline soils may also be relatively independent of the alkali in the top soil and may feed on the relatively pure ground water. Relation to xerophytes——The desert phreatophytes have a humid environment for their roots but they resemble the xerophytes in having a dry environment for their transpiratory organs. Moreover, some phreatophytes, chiefly those which send their roots to. great depths to reach the water table, have considerable ability to endure adverse soil-moisture conditions when they are not in contact with an adequate ground-water supply. The young plants of these species, if they have grown from seeds, must be able to withstand drought until their roots reach the ground water; moreover, if they find ground water only at great depth the rate at which they can lift the water to their stems and leaves may be too low to allow rapid transpiration. However, the reward of a perennial water supply comes to the indi- vidual plants that are not only thrifty in their use of soil moisture, but are also effective in sending down their roots. The individuals that reach the water table are likely to survive and to reproduce their kind _ In preference to those that were less successful in developing deep roots. Moreover, among the individuals that reach the water table the vic- tory will, as a rule, be to those which are the most capable in utilizing 560 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 ground water. Hence, natural selection should produce a species which has xerophytic adaptations but which nevertheless is an efficient phreatophyte with a capacity to sed strong roots to great depths rapidly and to pump ground water effectively up through these roots. Relations to mesophytes.—A number of species, chiefly forest trees such as birch and sycamore, are widely distributed through the humid regions and also grow in arid regions where ground water is within reach. They are generally regarded as mesophytes rather than hydrophytes. They are mesophytes in the sense that they can not tolerate much alkali and apparently have no special adaptations for resisting drought. In the arid regions they are found in the mountain canyons and large arroyos that have an underflow and in other places that have shallow ground water but fairly good drainage. ‘They are commonly not associated with salt grass and greasewood, on the alkaline soils, nor with mesquite in areas of good soil where the water table is at considerable depth. Even casual observations of the forests in humid regions will show that the trees of this type have an affinity for the water table in humid as well as in arid regions. If it were not for their ability to utilize water from the zone of saturation and the poor development of this adaptation in other trees it could _ reasonably be expected that the other trees would be the most suc- cessful and the water-loving trees the least successful in establishing themselves in the arid regions. VALUE OF PHREATOPHYTES AS INDICATORS OF GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS _ Occurrence of ground water.—The phreatophytes are of great practical value as indicators of the occurrence of ground water in arid regions. They give evidence which supplements that furnished by the topog- raphy and geology and is more specific as to the precise localities where the water occurs near the surface. ‘They can not properly be ignored or. relegated to casual consideration in any ground-water survey of a desert region. Many inhabitants of desert regions have a keen ap- preciation of the value of plants as indicators of ground water and an almost intuitive sense of the significance of particular native species. Doubtless some of this practical knowledge was possessed by primitive men long before the dawn of human history, and indeed as long ago as man first essayed to dwell in the desert regions or to cross the vast — expanses of these dread regions. : DEC. 18, 1926 MEINZER: PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF GROUND WATER 561 These plants are also of great value to travelers in the desert in directing them to existing watering places. In an uninhabited region in which the distance between watering places may be 10, 20, or 50 miles, it is sometimes difficult for a stranger to locate the precise spot where the water occurs, even with such clues as are furnished by roads and animal trails. Clumps of cottonwoods or of tall stately palm trees may be visible from a great distance, and much help and comfort may also be afforded by so humble a phreatophyte as salt grass, either by being visible as a green patch at a distance, or at closer range by giving the traveler definite assurance of the proximity of ground water and virtual assurance that the watering place is not far away. Depth to the water table-—The clues as to depth to ground water that can be obtained from the different plant species are of considerable practical value, and for persons in distress they may be a matter of - life or death. Thus a person without tools and in a weakened condi- tion might be unable to dig down to the water that supplies a mesquite bush although he would have a good chance of finding water where salt grass and palm trees are growing. In estimating for a given area the acreage of irrigable land within certain feasible limits of lift, invaluable use can be made of the clues furnished by the successive belts of native vegetation. The limits of depth for all species are somewhat indefinite and are affected by the texture of the soil. With a few exceptions the greatest depth below the surface from which ground water is known to be lifted by plants is about 50 feet. GENERAL LIMITS OF DEPTH TO WATER TABLE INDICATED BY PRINCIPAL PHREATOPHYTES IN AREAS INVESTIGATED ~ Rushes and sedges— Water at surface or water table within a few feet. Giant reed grass (Phragmites communis) —Water at surface or water table within a few feet—probably not more than 8 feet. Giant wild rye (Elymus condensatus). Water very near surface to a depth of 12 feet or more. In subhumid regions wild rye may grow without rela- tion to water table. Salt grass (Distichlis spicata).—Water very near surface to a maxi- mum depth of 8 to 12 feet or rarely more. Mexican salt grass (Hragrostis obtusiflora) .—Water very near surface to depth of about 15 feet. Pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis)—Water generally within a few feet but sometimes at a depth of 20 feet and more. 562 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 Arrow weed (Pluchea sericea).—Water at surface or water table at depths ranging to 10 feet or more—probably as much as 25 feet. Palm trees (Washingtonia filifera)—Water table within a few feet. Willow.—Water at surface or water table 12 feet or more below surface (?). Alkali saeccaton (Sporobolus avroides)—Water less than 5 feet to depth of 25 feet and in some places much more. Most luxuriant growth where depth is between 5 and 15 feet. Alkali saccaton that occurs where depth is much more than 25 feet probably does not send roots to ground water. Rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus graveolens).—Water about 2 to 15 feet below surface, 8 feet or more for most. luxuriant growth. Also grows extensively as a non-phreatophyte. Big greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus).—Water 3 feet or less probably to depth of 40 feet or more. Abundant and luxuriant growth ~ between 10 feet (or less) and 20 feet. Greasewood that occurs where depth is more than 50 feet probably does not send roots to ground water. | Mesquite.—Water less than 10 feet to 50 feet or more below sur- face. Mesquite that grows where depth is much more than 50 feet probably does not send roots to ground water. Quality of ground water—That certain plants indicate the quality as well as the occurrence of ground water is widely believed by people in arid regions, and there is doubtless some basis for this belief. In general the rushes, sedges, and reeds indicate fairly good water, but there are probably many exceptions to this rule. The succulent alkali- — resistant plants, such as pickleweed and samphire, are likely to indicate highly mineralized water immediately under the water table, but the water a little deeper down may be much better. Where salt grass or alkali saccaton is growing the water may be good or it may be very bad. Palm trees and greasewood also indicate water of doubtful quality, but potable water can generally be obtained in the vicinity of vigorous palms. Mesquite generally though not invariably indi- cates good water. The meso-phreatophytes, such as birch and sycamore, commonly indicate good water. The data obtained by the writer show that the species which he in- vestigated, with the possible exception of pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis), may grow where the upper layer of ground water contains only small amounts of mineral matter and is of good quality. Thus, of 13 samples of ground water obtained in Big Smoky and Ralston pEc. 18,1926 MEINZER: PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF GROUND WATER 563 Valleys, Nevada, at points where salt grass was growing, 11 samples contained less than 1,000 parts per million of total solids, 8 contained less than 500 parts, and 5 contained less than 300 parts, the minimum being only 137 parts. Of these 13 samples more than half contained less than 35 parts per million of chloride, the minimum being only 4 parts. Greasewood and rabbit brush, in Big Smoky Valley, and alkali saceaton and mesquite in Sulphur Spring Valley, Arizona, have equally good records. On the other hand, the data show that all these species may be found growing where the ground water is highly mineralized, even mesquite not being an exception. This is not surprising when one considers the usual high concentration of soil moisture in comparison to that of ground water. Even though the plants may to some extent avoid the soil alkali by getting their roots close to the water table they can not wholly avoid it, especially at times when a part of the alkali is washed down to the water table. For this reason it is perhaps futile to expect that any definite relations can be found between the occurrence of phreatophytes and the quality of the ground water or that any species that can grow in even moderately alkaline soil will invariably indicate potable water. Quantity of ground water.—In many of the arid valleys of the WwW est projects for pumping large quantities of water from wells for irrigation or public supplies have been carried out or are under consideration. For these projects it is necessary to know as nearly as possible how much ground water can be recovered year after year without seriously depleting the supply stored in the underground reservoirs. As a rule the pumpage should not exceed the natural discharge but should merely salvage the ground water that would otherwise be disposed of by natural processes. In these valleys the ground water is naturally dis- charged largely by transpiration. ‘To estimate the quantity annually discharged from a given valley it is necessary to determine both the areas occupied by these plants and the rate at which they give off water by transpiration. _ The areas occupied in a given valley by the different associations of phreatophytes can readily be determined by a survey of the valley. The information thus obtained, even without any definite information as to the rate of transpiration, is of great practical value in estimating the probable safe yield of the valley and in determining the magnitude of pumping projects to be undertaken. For example,in Steptoe Valley, Nevada, in which exploratory drilling was done several years ago by 564 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 21 the Geological Survey,’ it was found that ground water is being dis- charged, through evaporation from soil and the growth of native plants such as salt grass, rabbit brush, and greasewood, over an area of about - 115,000 acres. ‘The discharge per acre is probably much less than the quantity of water required per acre to irrigate useful crops, such as alfalfa, grain, or vegetables, and, moreover, not all of this water can be salvaged by pumping from wells. Nevertheless, the great extent of the area of discharge and the luxuriant character of its vegetation give reliable evidence that a substantial supply of ground water is available. The rate at which ground water is discharged by plants may reason- ably be expected to vary with the plant species, the depth to the water table, the texture and alkali content of the soil, and the weather condi- tions. Each of these factors is somewhat complex, especially the last two. Various ingenious methods have been devised for determining the rate of ground-water discharge by transpiration, and some of these methods are now in use by the Geological Survey. DEVELOPMENT OF PHREATOPHYTES OF ECONOMIC VALUE The extensive investigations of the Geological Survey have shown that very large supplies of ground water occur in practically all the western States. In California about a million acres are irrigated with ground water pumped from wells, but in the other arid States com- paratively little irrigation has hitherto been accomplished with water from wells because of the prohibitive cost of pumping, and, therefore, most of the annual supply of ground water goes to waste or supports plants of very low value. The investigations in Big Smoky and Step- toe Valleys, Nevada, indicate that not far from 10 per cent of the drainage basins of these valleys contain plants that live on ground water. If these basins have anywhere near average conditions it follows that there are a few million acres of phreatophytes in Nevada alone. 207, Ilex, Costa Rican species of. P. C. STANDLEY. 481. Indicators of ground water, plants as. O. E. Metnzer. 553. Melampodiinae, new American. 8S. F’ Buake. 418. Palms, new genus (Denea) based on Kentia forsteriana. O.F. Coox. 392. Piperaceae, new from South America and Mexico. W. TRELEASE. 204. 7Pollination in cotton. T. H. KEARNEY. 103. Prickly-pear, new circumneutral soil species from Middle Atlantic States. Hy. PoWumery: C11; Rubus, new South American species of. A. BERGER. 160. Sanchezia, (Acanthaceae), new species of. E. C. Lronarp. 484. South America, new plants from west- ern. EH. P. Kiuuip. 565. Tetrastylis (Passifloraceae), new species of. E.P. Kini. 365. Valeriana, section Porteria, Venezuelan species. of. H. Pirrrer and E. P. Kiuuip. 422. Verbesininae, new South American. S.-F. Brakes (215. TWild flowers, exploring for, in Gulf States. E. T. Wuerry. 429. Wild rice [Zizania], food plants of birds and man. C. E. CHamBLiss. 310. 580 Botany (Continued) See also Biology, Genetics. Chemistry. Aldehydes, condensation of, with diphenyl isothiohydantoin. R. M. Hann and.K. 8. Marxizy. 169. tCryogenic Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, work of. C. W. Kawno.r. 282. tHelium, work on, at Bureau of Mines. C. W. Kanotr. 282. jLead tetraethyl, toxicity of. VEDDER. 279. Mathematics, chemistry as a branch of. L. H. Apams. 266. Thiazolidone, 2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)- BSaB. 4-keto, and some of its derivitives. RUM ANS dle Crystallography. Optical properties of some sugars. G. L. Kernan. 483. Ethnography. Shasta, source of name. C. H. Merriam. -522. Ethnology. Algonquian languages, prin- ciples of. T. MicHELSon. 369. Mental assimilation of races. * Swanton. 493. Piscataway royalty: stone age govern- JEP SIN. ment and inheritance rulings. W. C. MacLeop. 301. Subjective element in magic. J. R. Swanton. 193. See also Archeology, Anthropology. Entomology. tCollections, entomological, in museums of Denmark and Sweden. A. G. Bovine. 106. +‘‘Insect,’”’ use of term. R. C. SHANNON. 106. tInternational Congress of Entomol- onists: vat ( Zurich, .~@hirds: thsy -O. Howarp. 105. tMosquito, salt marsh, problem. L. O. Howarp. 100. tMoth, European pine-shoot, distribu- tion of. C. Hernricu. 104. Myrmecophiles, new neotropical. W. M. Mann. 448. {Parasites of pine-tip moth. R. A.. Cusuman. 104. Phlebotomus, occurrence of, in Panama. R. C. SHannon. 190. Physiology, insect. C.H. Ricnarpson. 103. Taxonomy, entomological: aims and failures. S. A. RoHwmER, 53; economic SUBJECT INDEX viewpoint, A. C. Baxnr, 58; educa- tional viewpoint, E. D. Batu. 64. Termites, new, from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Colombia. T. E. Snypsr. 18. jTermites, oviposition in. T. E. SnypER. 105. tTiphia punctata collected in Dominican Republic. S. A. RonwmrR. 107. General Science. {Sumatra eclipse ex- pedition. W. W. Cosienz. 372. Genetics. Triploid citrus. A. E. Lone- LEY. 9543. Geodesy. Deflection of the vertical in Porto Rico. W. Bowlin. 29. Equilibrium theory of earth’s crust. G. R. Putnam. 285. Gravity work at the second meeting of the International Geodetic and Geo- physical Union. E. Souter. 261. jInstruments, geodetic, from viewpoint of physicist. L. V. Jupson. 51. Geology. tAlaskan studies, fields for future. P. S. Smuirx. 79. Anguilla, Island of, geology of. VAUGHAN. 345. | Choptank formation in the Nomini POW: Cliffs, Va. W. C. Mansrietp. 175. Coastal Plain, Atlantic and Gulf, geology of. L. W. STEPHENSON. 460. tErosion in San Juan Canyon, Utah. H. D. Miser. 68. . Glaciation and physiography of Wind. River Mts., Wyo. W.C. ALDEN. 73. {Green River formation, interpretations of. W. H. Braptry. 74. Guanténamo Basin, Cuba, geology of. N. H. Darton. 324. tHot springs, nature of. E. T. ALLEN. 74, §International Geological Congress at Madrid, May 24-31, 1926. 80, 199, 260, 264. +Kilauea Volcano, explosions in 1924. H. T. Stearns. 502. tLithium pegmatite, genesis of. W. T.. SHALLER. 76. tMiocene climate of tropical America. W. P. Wooprina. 77. 7Odlites. F. L. Hess. 76. Ostrea multilirata, restoration of. J. GARDNER. 513. SUBJECT INDEX Geology (Continued) Paleozoic geology of interior Alaska. J. B. Mertis, Jr. 78. Photography for the field geologist. E. BLACKWELDER. 93. {Pleistocene ice sheet development in North Amerca, geologic factors affect- me. Ds Ware,’ 69..~ Pleistocene vertebrates found at Vero and Melbourne, Fla., geologic age of. oP Hay. 387. Recent deposits in Chaco, N. Mex., in relation to life of prehistoric peoples of Pueblo Bonito. K. Bryan. ToL 7Robson Peak section. C.D. Watcort. FoR {Stratigraphic use of conodonts. R. S. BASSLER. 72. +Temperatures, deep earth, and geologic structure. C. E. Van Ostranp. 503. Tuolumne Table Mt., geological age of. Oo.P Hay... 358. West Indies, igneous rocks of northeast- ern. T. W. VauGHaNn. 345. See also Geophysics, Mineralogy, Petrology, Vulcanology. Geophysics. §American Geophysical Union, officers for 1926-1929. 375. Gravity work at the second meeting of the International Geodetic and Geo- physical Union. E. Souter. 261. Pressures in planetary atmospheres. P. G. Nurrine. 254. Tides on the north Siberian shelf. | H. U. SverpRup. 529. See also Geology, Physics, Terrestrial Magnetism, Vulcanology. Hydrology. Ground water, plants as indicators of. O. E. Mrrnzer. 553. Mammalogy. jAlaska, wild life of, and its protection. E. P. WaLKkrer. 429. 7Man and higher apes, confused nomen- clature of. C. W. Stites and M. B. ORLEMAN. 312. Washington, mammals of vicinity of. V. Battery. 441. See also Zoology. Mathematics. Chemistry as a branch of mathematics. L. H. Apams. 266. Curves, simple formula for welding, in - graduating observational data. J. R. Miner. 141. 581 Transformations associated with the Lorentz group. C. Bararr. 81. Transformations associated with the Lorentz group and their invariants. C. BaRaFrF. 377. Meteorology. Lightning stroke, a. Dorsry. 87. tMammato-cumulus, unusual display of. W. L. Humpnureys. 51. {Solar eclipse, total, of Jan. 24, 1925, meteorology of.S. P. Fergusson. 46. NYE. {Thunderbolt and its results, a. N. E. DorsEy. 49. Mineralogy. Petrographic and X-ray study of thermal dissociation of dumortierite. N. L. Bowen and R. W. G. Wycxorr. 178. Necrology. jtHUNTER, W. D. 106. §KuapHaak, Prrer. 108. Knowt- Ton, F. H. 573. §Ler, Winuis T. 375. PIPER, CHARLES V. 574. {RAN- som, Brayton Howarp. 105. Sar- FORD, WILLIAM E. 80. Optics. {Mental completion of patterns suggested by geometrical arrange- ment. L. B. Tuckerman. 48. Ornithology. tAlaska, observations on birds in. H. W. Branpt. 311. tAlaska, wild life of, and its protection. EK. P. WaLKer. 429. yAmerican Ornithologists Union, report of meeting in New York, Novy. 1925. T. S. Patmer. 101. Blackbirds vs. rice in Louisiana. E. R. Katmpacn. 318. {Brazilian cardinal in Washington. T. S. Patmer. 342. 7Dry Tortugas, birds of. P. Barrtscu. 348. jFarallon Islands, birds of. H. C. OBERHOLSER. 102. tHeath hen on Marthas Vineyard, threatened extinction of. A. O. Gross. 430. tInternational Ornithological Congress at Copenhagen. T. S. Paumsr. 311. tIntroducing foreign and American birds into new localities. J. C. Puituips. 348. tLife history of birds, intensive study of. S. P. Baupwin. 456. jLife history of house wren. BaLpwin. 456. SP, "582 Ornithology (Continued) 7Panama, jungle life of. 430. Passerine birds, new, of East Indies. H. C. Osrruouser. 515. 7Reservations, bird, of Louisiana. H. C. OBERHOLSER. 102. A. O. Gross. tUpper Mississippi River wild life and fish refuge. H. C. OBERHOLSER. 100. See also Zoology. Paleontology. Elephant, remains of, found at Port Williams, Wash. O. P. Hay. 148. Eocene mollusks, new from Jackson, Miss. W. Cooks. 182. 7Fossil man associated with mammoth in Florida. J. W. Gipiey. 310. {Fossil tracks from the Grand Canyon. C.W. Gitmors. 314. Mastodons, two new Pleistocene. ERA YA" 130. Petrology. Granites of central Spain. H. 8S. WasHineton. 409. Igneous rocks of northeastern West Indies. T. W. VauaHan. 345. Rocks of eastern China. H. 8. Wasu- INGTON and M. G. Kryss. 291. See also Geology. Photography. Geologist, photography for the field. E. BLuackWELDER. 98. OP. Physics. {Cryogenic Laboratory of Bureau of Mines, work of. C. W. KANOLT. 282. Diffraction by a grating. G. Brett. 201. jEarth currents, 27 day intervals in. W. J. Peters. 378. jElectrification of dust clouds, studies in. V.E.WuHITMAN. 98. {Hearing and deafness, physical ob- servations on. B. E. Exprep. 258. tHelium, work on, at Cryogenic Labo- ratory, Bureau of Mines. C. W. KANOLT. 282. tInstruments, geodetic, from viewpoint of physicist. L. V. Jupson. 51. Ly Ly levels of atoms Si, P, S, Cl, note on. 8. K. ALLison. 7. tMeasurement of performance of desk fans. H. L. DrypEn. 372. TPeriodic systems of the elements, recent developments in theory of. O. Lavorte. 341. ‘ SUBJECT INDEX tPerpetual motion in the twentieth eentury. | P. R: Hey. | 52. tPropagation of radio waves over the earth. E.O. Huxtsurr. 198. TQuantum theory, new methods in the. M. Born. 339. }Radio-acoustic ranging, recent results with. J. H. Smrvicr. 198. tRadio evidence of existence of Ken- nelly-Heavyside layer. G. Brett and M. A. Tuve. 98. tRelative frequencies of a tuning fork and a pendulum, method of compar- ing. ©.Moon. 48. Spectrum of hydrogen in the stars and in the laboratory. E. O. Huxsourrt. 373. tSunspots and earth’s magnetic storms. L. A. BavEr. 282. tThunderbolt and its results, a. Dorszy. 49. tTouch as substitute for hearing in interpretation and control of speech. R. H. Gavuut. 50. See also Geophysics, Meterology, Optics, Spectroscopy. Population Statistics. Progressive ad- justment of age to fecundity. A. J. Lotka. (505. Radiotelegraphy. Atmospheric disturb- ances at the Bureau of Standards in 1925, long distance radio receiving measurements and. L. W. AvsTIN. 398. Atmospheric disturbances on Isthmus of Panama, direction determinations of. L. W. Austin, 457. Atmospheric disturbances, radio, pres- ent status of. L. W. Austin. 41. Atmospheric electricity, application of radio transmission phenomena to problems of. J. H. DELLINGER. 162. Austin-Cohen transmission formula, proposed changes in constants of. L. W. Austin. 228. . +Kennelly-Heavyside layer, radio evi- dence of existence of. G. Breit and M. A. Tuve. 98. Propagation of radio waves over the earth. E. O. Huxpurt. 198. tRadio-acoustic ranging, recent results with. J. H. Service. 198. N. E. SUBJECT INDEX Radiotelzgraphy (Continued) Scientific Notes and News. 28, 52, 79, 107, 140, 168, 199, 231, 259, 283, 315, 344, 375, 432, 504, 573. Seismology. Earthquakes: retrospect, F. A. Tonporr, 233; outstanding prob- lems in seismology, N. H. Hrcx, 240; iso-static viewpoint, W. Bowtsn, 245; difficulties in study of local earth movements, A. L. Day. 250. Statistics. Frequency distribution of scientific productivity. A. J. LotKa. 317. ‘ Progressive adjustment of age distribu- tion to fecundity. A.J. LotKa. 505. Spectroscopy. tHydrogen, spectrum of, in the stars and in the laboratory. E. O. HuLsurt. 373. Ruthenium, are spectrum regularities for. W.F.Meraaers and O. Laporte. 143. Terrestrial Magnetism. {Earth currents, 27 day interval in. W. J. PETERs. 373. Magnetic and electric survey of the earth, physical and cosmical bearings and development. J. A. FLEMING. 109. 083 tSunspots and earth’s magnetic storms. L. A. Bauer. 282. Volcanology. {Kilauea Volcano explo- sions. in 1924. H. T. Stearns. 502. Santorini eruption in 1925. H. S, WASHINGTON. 1. Zoology. {Bear, big brown, in Alaska. Oy J Muriz.’ 309. }Beaver farming, two years’ progress in. V. Bartry. 99. TElk, Jackson Hole herd. W. C. HENDERSON. 102. tInvertebrates, collecting, in South America. W. Scumipt. 314. jKaibab deer, overbrowsing by. HE. A. Gotpman. 101. Mammals of vicinity of Washington. -V. Battey. 441. Pelobatid batrachian from Borneo, new. D. M. Cocuran. 446. Toad, new, from China. 445. TYellowstone National Park, proposed changes in boundary of, in relation to wild life. W. B. GrEeEtey. 102. See also Biology, Entomology, Mammalogy, Ornithology. | L. STEJNEGER. ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND ) AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Wednesday, December 29. The Medical Society. Friday, December 31. The Geographic Society. Tuesday, January 4. The Botanical Soeiety. The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will apens on this page if sent to the editor by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Page Hydrology and Botany.—Plants as indicators of ground water. Oscar Epwarp MINER 2 3.52655 8d on, ee ha Pettey PEN ls soar meee ee 553 Botany.—New plants mainly from western South America. Exitsworta P. FREGLAR. ie vs nes o'b's nin vip cis dap Mitty Rie Deda © pon Oe A deeitia coe bie t aete Sue ut err 565 Screntiric Norns anp N@WS8ii5 5.5.0 ave + bees uk ere cons 6 Os als Eu 573 OBA icicle UN Oo. 0 i FR) Pe ee Se oe 574 INDEX Avithor Indexes. 60 Le ees ee Se C a Ee EE a ee a 575 Subject Inder so sie eta 6 Bee whe eiwtale big wie vcs Wins aialne athe ee ees @ aoe ar 579 OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: GEorarE K. Burarss, Bureau of Standards. Corresponding Secretary: Francis B. SrtusBEE, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Se Se TE = i SF HN ear ya Phas Fs wer i whe uf % J ‘S < j ' . . 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