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E. Gipson OY CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY ee BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 AuNaiP St. AT Mmnasua, WISCONSIN ERRATA Vol. 25, 1935 Page 84, line 6: after “longa’’ add a comma. Page 84, line 14: after “10” add a comma. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 25 JANUARY 15, 1935 No. 1 PSYCHOLOGY.—The frontier of the mind! Wiuu1aAmM A. WHITE, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Washington, D. C. I have been asked to present to the Academy a communication upon the general subject of the ability of man, from the point of view of his mental make-up, to go on adjusting himself to the ever and rapidly increasing complexities of the world he lives in. I take it that the present state of confusion throughout the world has raised the issue in the minds of many that perhaps man is so constituted that there are limits to his capacity for accomplishment along those lines and that perhaps there are indications that those limits have been reached. I shall be very glad to deal with this subject, but in order to do so I feel that it will be essential to attempt to orient you some- what to the new ways of thinking which have affected interpretations of psychological events in recent years, so that you will know the basic features of this new psychology with which you will be enabled to reach some conclusion with reference to the issues stated. In the first place, I must tell you to begin with that the psychology that many of us were taught in our college days has in large part, and almost entirely in certain very fundamental ways, been super- seded. The psychology of the nineteenth century has rapidly become of interest only from an historical standpoint, and the developments as they are taking place now require an entirely different point of view regarding all things psychological. In the last century the study of the mind was still more or less entangled with its associations with ethics, on the one side, and philosophy on the other; and it is only in the present century that it can be said to have become a really scientific discipline and a branch, in my estimation, of biology which deals with certain aspects of living beings. In changing, however, in this radical way and becoming scientific it has naturally had to break with many traditions, and these traditions still tend to find expression in the language we use and to contaminate our thinking. ! This paper is the manuscript of a lecture delivered at a meeting of the AcApEMY, November 21, 1934. Received November 28, 1934, 1 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 For example, one of the problems that confronted the psychologists of yesterday was the so-called body-mind problem. What was the re- lation between body and mind? The mere asking of the question in- volved the assumption that they were separate one from the other, and, further, that the mind in some way was added to the body in the process of evolution at some particular time—it took up its habi- tation in some special group of living beings and maintained there an existence which was separate from that of the body and yet in a mysterious way intimately related to it. Modern psychology is no longer vexed with this problem, because the way in which we think of man now is such that a query of this sort has ceased to have mean- ing and therefore the question is no longer asked. You will gather, therefore, from what I have said that what has happened in the realm of psychology is that different ways of think- ing have come to pass, which automatically have disposed of many of the problems of the last century but which quite characteristically have raised many new ones in their stead. I think, therefore, that I perhaps can serve you best if I give in brief outline some of the ways in which we now look at matters psy- chological, and you will note how they differ from the psychology of the nineteenth century, which not only considered the mind as a separate entity but dealt with its several faculties—intellect, emotion, and will—as if each of them had an existence of its own and controlled a certain group of phenomena, somewhat after alleged bureaucratic methods. Present-day psychology differs in its way of thinking about the human organism, very much as other disciplines have come to differ in the past few years. It looks upon the organism as a whole, and that aspect of it to which we give the name “mind” we think of as only one point of view, or one facet of a many-faceted surface to which we direct our attention. We do not conceive that mental phenomena were added somewhere in the story of evolution, but because what we call mental are only a part of or only constitute one aspect of the phenomena of living beings, this aspect was present from the first but naturally in a manifestation as simplistic as the correspond- ing bodily structure, so that what we now call mind and body instead of being separate and distinct are merely different aspects of the living organism which have developed together throughout the story of organic evolution. For purposes of convenience, however, we may speak of the mind as such in the sense of the organisms’ reactions at the psychological level and describe its evolution both in the individ- JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 3 ual and in the race, and, also, it can be studied from its earliest mani- festations in the lower animals. We deal with it in this way precisely as we deal with a living organism: a dynamic, expanding group of processes, becoming more complicated along the way as the problems it has to meet require changes in this direction. Now this study leads us to the conclusion that what we ordinarily think of as mind, namely, what I prefer to call conscious awareness, or perhaps, better, self-conscious awareness, is the last thing to occur in a long series of developments, and so it is not difficult to understand that if all the time we have been mistaking this for mind in its totality we have necessarily reached many false conclusions regarding its ways of functioning, if for no other reason than because we have been dealing with only a small portion of the total phenomena. I perhaps can illustrate this by a figure of speech. We are all familiar with the modern searchlight. I have watched it many times from the deck of a river steamer at night as it played along the banks and illuminated first one and then another bit of scenery. Now the area of conscious awareness is like this small area illuminated by the searchlight. The content of the area stands out with clear definiteness. It is perceived in the form of concrete objects, and the functions in this area are equally clear-cut and definite. They constitute reasoning, judgment, discrimination, perception. But you will note that this bright spot is only a minute part of the total situation and that outside it there is a region of twilight or darkness in which we see nothing clearly— perhaps vague outlines, little more. This is the region where all clear- cut distinctions and definitions of outline are lost. This region instead of being the region where reason functions and where clear-cut defi- nitions and differentiations prevail, is the region of the emotions, or, speaking more generally, the feelings. It is in this zone that our instincts manifest themselves, our intuitions have play, and instead of being governed by intellectual processes it is the region in which instinctive forces, natural desires, the avoidance of pain, the seeking of pleasure, prevail; in short, the region where the wish holds sway, unimpeded by the necessity for conforming to the limitations imposed by a world of harsh realities and natural laws. Reasoning gives way to phantasies, and things happen because we want them to. The omnipotence of thought, as we call it, rules here supreme. Things are true because they are thought to be true, and for no other reason. It is the land of dreams and their realization. It is the region above all in which we live as the other region is that in which we think. Now this dark surrounding territory of indefinite extent is just as 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 much a part and parcel of the mind as the small, bright, illuminated spot. In fact it is more necessary because more fundamental; and what we are particularly interested in now is, How valid may be the reasoning from things as they are seen in the illuminated area of the searchlight, with all these forces in the background left out of con- sideration? I seem to have answered my question in the asking. Ob- viously if we wish to arrive at true interpretations, the background against which the brightly illuminated objects are seen can not be neglected. Now for a moment to indicate how in the course of evolution this central nucleus of brilliant illumination has gradually become differ- entiated from this background of instincts and feeling. There is in all living creatures some impulse—define it as we will, we do not understand it—which ensures what we are pleased to call progress, development, evolution. In the course of that evolution a number of things have happened. Those that interest us at the moment are these: In the lower forms of life reproduction took place at a tremen- dous rate and these organisms could afford, so to speak, to make great numbers of mistakes in dealing with the forces of the environ- ment because myriads of them could be destroyed and the species still persist. But as life attained to a more and more complicated structure in response to its adjustment to the various forces which it had to meet, these adjustments became increasingly accurate and at the same time reproduction fell off accordingly, so that finally our capacity for adjustment has reached such a point that reproduction has only to develop single individuals where before it developed mil- lions. This increased accuracy of adjustment is in itself almost the same thing as conscious awareness, because it involves not only clearer and more clean-cut perceptions of the situation to which it is neces- sary to adjust but it also involves the necessity of delaying immediate response, bringing into the picture the results of past experience and so further illuminating the possibilities of choice and then finally reaching a conclusion which can be carried out in action sometimes extending over many years of time. All this requires an intensity of fixation upon the specific problem of adjustment which is in itself an outstanding characteristic of that very clarity of vision which is part and parcel of conscious awareness. Now I think if I have succeeded in making myself clear, but I fear that perhaps I have not—that we have a picture of what we call mind as a developing organism which tends to focus in a point of clear con- sciousness but which has back of that clear consciousness all the JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 5 organized tendencies of the past millions of years, plus those of the individual himself, as motivating factors that modify and control what takes place at that particular locus—a situation already, you see, that involves a complexity which if we try to visualize it is to all intents and purposes infinite. Such a concept naturally leads to still further and very interesting conclusions. I think it was Bergson who said that he did not know how “‘life insinuated itself into dead matter.” Perhaps we need not undertake to answer that question here, but it would seem obvious that the laws of the cosmos in the course of the origin and evolution of living forms have impressed themselves upon life in such wise that these living forms have incorporated within themselves these very laws, only they are expressed under material conditions modified by the existence of what we call life. In other words, tiny man who creeps about on this planet is not the lord of creation, in spite of the fact that he still thinks he is and acts as if he were. The world within is the impress of the cosmos upon him, and if, as some of the psychol- ogists have expressed it, man projects laws, order, meanings upon the world, these projections are in turn but reflections of the world’s impress upon him. You will see, therefore, that I have drawn here the picture of man and the rest of the universe as acting and reacting upon each other in a process of adjustment which continues to proceed along the lines which we are accustomed to in our understanding of development and evolution. One of the outstanding facts in the course of the recent history of man was the realization by the astronomers of individual differences as between different observers of celestial events, with the result that the so-called personal equation was evolved as a corrective to these differences and as an assistance to more accurate readings. It began to be appreciated then that man’s observation of the world was by no means infallible. Not only were his sense organs defective, but the time of transition along his nervous pathways was not always the same, in other words, he was a very defective instrument with which to observe and record the outside world. It was not a very great step from this realization to the further one already implied in my account, that the world only exists for him as this imperfect instrument perceives it and that therefore in a very real sense every individual lives in a world of his own, and that that world is a little bit different from anyone else’s. It has been indicated that the chance of a particular germ plasm combination taking place is one in five million billions. In other words, 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 each of us represented that one chance when we became ourselves. This, from a purely physical point of view, gives us some idea, therefore of what the possibilities of variation are, expressed in terms of chromo- somes and genes. Now, having developed this unique personality different from any other that ever existed or ever will exist, we are confronted by a world which is in constant change and which bom- bards us with a series of sensory impressions, probably by the millions, each hour of our lives, and these impressions are received in a machine which has been built up through millions of years of evolution, as it were, for the purpose of handling this material. The human organism is a receiver, transformer and transmitter of energy, energy that comes from all these myriad sources and is re- ceived into an organism quite as complicated as the world from which it comes. A single portion of the brain, the cerebral cortex, a thin layer of 2 to 4 mm. in thickness covering the cerebral hemispheres, contains cells (incidentally the most complicated cell structures in the body) somewhere in the neighborhood of nine to ten billions in number. And so if you will think of all these things you will have some idea of what the possibilities are, expressible in matter and en- ergy, with which the organism has to contend. Now these figures are so stupendous and at the same time so vague that they can not have a very great deal of meaning, except that obviously there must be in this organism a plastic capacity which has enabled it to proceed thus far on its path; and I may add that as we go from points of definite structure in the organism and proceed in the direction of the last additions which have been made in the evolutionary process, namely, to the possibilities of psychological function, we are moving in the direction from the least modifiable toward the more modifiable, and that therefore we may expect to find, as we in fact do, that man through the years has changed more in his thinking functions than he has either in the functions of his organs or in their structures. To all intents and purposes so far as we are concerned man’s anatomy and physiology remain fixed and unchanging facts, whereas experience teaches us, to the contrary, that psychologically he continues modi- fiable more or less throughout his life, but of course his modifiability is greatest in the early years. From such facts of observation as are vailable to us when dealing with human beings, we know that the possibilities of modification in many instances are very considerable; and I may say merely as a result of the precipitates of experience which control my thinking, without perhaps the ability to bring con- crete evidence to bear upon the subject, that there is no indication JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND a so far as I know of any limitation to this modifiable and adjustable capacity of the human being. There is, on the contrary, all along the way historical evidence that he has always been apprehensive that his adjustment would break down, that he has always seen society as an overwhelmingly complicated affair and felt that the time was coming when he could no longer keep up with the procession. This is his natural response to the pressure which is put upon him to go forward on the path of progress. As he gets older this pressure is felt more and more and develops contemporaneously with lessening pow- ers of adjustment; and then Nature comes forward with her cure for this situation, and her cure is death, and the new generation takes up the problems where the old generation left them. For example, we have today all these new and marvelous results in the realm of physics and mechanics and astronomy which have largely come about as a result of Professor Hinstein’s contributions. There are very few people in the world who are capable of understanding these results, only a handful of people in fact; but if they are true—and I take it they are—I suspect that future generations will understand them as easily as we do that the earth is round. And yet there must have been a time when the fact of the roundness of the earth was quite as difficult of comprehension to the masses of the people as the Theory of Relativity is today; but young, plastic, adjustable minds, un- hampered by the prejudices of yesterday, will grasp these new com- cepts quickly, as they have in the past. There has never been any question about man’s adjustment to life under the seas or in the clouds, or to temperatures at the poles or the tropics. But his most difficult task is to adjust to his fellow men; and in the present century the emphasis that psychology, and particularly psychiatry, has received is an earnest desire for the probable development of his understanding of himself, which will in time be comparable to his understanding of the rest of the world. At the present time, of course, this is not so. It is generally conceded that his knowledge of himself is far below his knowledge of the world about him. When these two fields can be comprehended with something like equal understanding there will be a new capacity for man’s ad- justment to his fellows far in excess of anything that we have ever imagined. So much for fundamental principles. It may interest you at this point to consider with me for a few minutes what light, mental disease in its various forms sheds upon the problem under discussion. In the first place, let us look at the development of our thinking from the 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 standpoint of the way in which medicine has responded. Nineteenth century medicine was outstandingly characterized by the develop- ment of the various medical specialties. The accumulation of knowl- edge about the human organism, the way it functioned and its various diseases, progresses so rapidly that it became a rather hopeless task for individual physicians to attempt to master the whole field, and so they solved their difficulty in this respect by confining their atten- tion to disorders of certain organs or groups of organs. You are famil- iar with this state of affairs. But unfortunately this development con- tained an inherent defect. Organs could not be adequately considered apart from the rest of the organism and when the concept organism- as-a-whole began to develop this fact became outstandingly clear. Perhaps psychiatry has done more to develop this aspect of the situa- tion than any other department of medicine because psychiatry looks upon the organism as a group of organs associated together in a com- mon purpose, and that purpose is none other than to effect a more adequate adaptation to the environment and to so modify that en- vironment by acting upon it as to bend it to the purposes of the organism. In other words, the purpose of the organism-as-a-whole can only be expressed in psychological terms. The functions of all the organs focus in this psychological objective, and therefore psy- chiatry at once became interested in the whole individual. This point of view receives a rather startling confirmation in the statistics of mental disease as we see them represented in our public institutions. To begin with, for the most part our mentally ill patients are not physically sick in the ordinary sense of that term. If they have deviations from the normal in their several functions these deviations are so comparatively small that as yet we either are not able to define them or to interpret them. On the other hand, if we take the great mass of mentally ill we do find the startling fact that despite all our efforts to the contrary they die at a rate something like six times greater than the general population. You see this fact confirms what I have said, and in addition it also confirms what I have implied of the organism; namely, that it is an energy system, and when the flow of energy is impeded and the necessary adjust- ments both within and without the organism are therefore impossible of effecting, the organism-as-a-whole functions at a lowered efficiency and the span of life is correspondingly shortened. Now let us see how this works in a particular situation. Let us revert to the figure of speech I used earlier of the searchlight which brightly illumines only a small spot in an otherwise uniformly JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 9 dark medium. You recall that I spoke in general of the distinction between these two areas, and that intelligence dominated the former and wishes the latter; and you will recall, also, that the wishes that are formulated in this dark territory express the fundamental instincts of life, and the mental processes that occur in the illuminated space represent those more accurate adjustments to the material facts and the natural laws of the environment, physical and personal, in which the individual lives. It is easy to see from this statement how tenden- cies in these two areas not only may be but must necessarily be fre- quently opposed one to the other. Let me imagine an example. An individual is so situated that his only source of water is a stream polluted with the germs of a deadly disease. If he drinks of the stream he will surely die of the disease. He can only preserve his life by not drinking, but, paradoxically, if he does not drink he will die of thirst. The agony of thirst increases as the hours pass. Temptation to drink from the stream becomes intolerable. He resists it as long as possible because he knows that drinking means death. The desire to slake his thirst, to supply his organism with the necessary fluid, originates in the dark region where the instincts and the wishes govern. The fear of drinking, the apprehension of the result if he does—all these things come from the clearly visioned situation as he actually sees it in the world in which he has to live and to which he has to attempt to adapt himself. The desire that emanates from this larger region, which, in harmony with present usage we will call the unconscious, is in conflict with the knowledge that the individual has and the fear resulting from that knowledge of death if he yields. This, of course, is an extreme example, but it shows how a life and death struggle may take place between the opposing demands of these two regions of the mind. In all our nervous and mental diseases we have, among other things, a similar situation with which to deal. We have this so-called conflict between these two great regions at the basis of these disturb- ances, and one of the outstanding results of this conflict, which I am sure you can comprehend easily from the example which I have just given, is that the energies of the individual are used up in a futile battle and are not, therefore, available for those possible adjustments which would make for greater efficiency of living. And the problem of therapeutics at this psychological level with which we as psychia- trists are most concerned is the very problem of helping the patient to effect some kind of permanent solution, or, if not a solution at least a compromise, with these contending forces so that the energy engaged in the conflict may be released for more effective use. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 Just a few words at this point by way of hints, so that you will have some idea how this works out actually. The cruder ways in which this conflict not infrequently manifests itself is in alternating swings between the attempts to satisfy each of the two contenders in this intrapsychic conflict. And so we see that the individual lives for a certain time in accordance with his ideals and gets along very well, but during this period the tendencies from the other side are constant- ly nagging him. They are increasing in strength just exactly in the same way that in the example I have given you the man’s thirst in- creased, until they finally reach a point where they have accumulated so much force by this slow process of impounding that they can no longer be restrained and they break forth, sometimes expressing themselves as the epileptic convulsion, and in this breaking forth they not infrequently express themselves in aggressive and destruc- tive conduct. Quite characteristically this destructive conduct is ad- dressed against the world at large, and in the epileptic furor the patient spreads ruin and destruction all about him, and woe to anyone who attempts to interfere with him. It is as though he were wreaking his vengeance upon a world which had created within him by various stimuli certain desires which he was incapable of fulfilling. Then, equally unfortunately, these same aggressive and destructive instincts are turned upon himself and he would destroy those very parts of his body through which these stimuli to which he can not respond transmitted themselves. And so we find patients mutilating themselves in the most hideous manner, digging out their eyes, biting off their tongues, castrating themselves, and, finally, sometimes by the most painful methods, committing that final act, complete and irrevocable, of self-destruction. These are just some of the more terrible things that we see when serious disharmony affects the organism in the ways which I have described and which result in destroying its efficiency and even in destroying its life. Perhaps with the background thus far developed I can indicate another point of view very briefly, which you may find interesting but which I must warn you, to begin with, is largely speculative. You will see as I have developed my thesis that I have pictured an organism all the several parts of which are constructed for a common purpose, and that purpose only finds its full expression as it heads up in the tendencies which come to expression, in the functions of the mind. In addition to that, the implication seems fairly evident that if I have correctly indicated the forces that are involved in the func- tioning and the purposes of the organism, that this organism is grow- JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 11 ing, expanding, developing, evolving at this head end, not unlike, by analogy, but of course in a very much simpler state of affairs, the way that the root of a plant develops through the intermediation of the root tip. The further implication of this point of view is that the experience to which the living being is subjected by this constant necessity for adjusting to the environment, and which experience has been in process of evolution through living organisms now for millions of years, is gradually, just as we see it in the growth of the individual organism, laid down in what amounts to permanent structural de- tails. In other words, when a given necessity becomes of survival value, the function that satisfies that necessity is precipitated, as it were, in the form of organic structure; and thus we have at the heart of each organism certain definite, well-defined structures that vary only within narrow limits as between individuals and which repre- sent the answers, so to speak, which the organism has developed in its response to the queries presented to it by the environment through the ages. In order that this process of adaptation may continue, not only from generation to generation but from youth to old age, there has to be a certain retained plasticity on the part of the organism, a certain possibility of change; and this possibility, as I have indicated, is greatest when we come to the more recently acquired adaptations, as they are expressed in the functions of the mind. Without laboring this point further, let me draw the conclusion, which might be sup- ported by a great deal of concrete evidence, that this modifiable as- pect of the organism represents a strategic point of attack which offers possibility of modification; and, therefore, when the organism is func- tioning inadequately, it is not beyond the possibilities from our pres- ent knowledge to look forward to a time when the field of psycho- therapy will be much larger than it is now, when illnesses will be attacked from this angle much more frequently than they are at the present time, and that much of the therapy which is now ad- dressed directly to the soma, the more definitely fixed portions of the organism, will go out of use, and, correspondingly, therapy addressed to the psyche, the more modifiable forms, will come into practice. I have given you in this brief paper: first, a discussion of the funda- mentals from which we must proceed if we are to answer the question as to how far we may expect man to go in the future; secondly, some illustrations of how the forces at his disposal may be distorted and impaired in their utilization; and, thirdly, a suggested view of the future. From all of these three points of view I gather a definite feel- 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 ing, and that is that the greatest asset of man today is his mind, that the greatest unexplored and largely unknown territory in all the world so far as we know is this same region, so that I feel today that we are entering upon a new chapter in the history of human develop- ment, that we are pressing forward into the unknown along a new frontier of great and apparently inexhaustible riches, and that frontier is the frontier of the mind. Now just a few words with regard to this frontier territory that we are only beginning to enter upon. What is it like, and what may we expect to find in it? I may reply very generally by saying that it is very much like all frontiers. The explorer who has pushed his way into a new country must always be prepared to meet with hardships and dangers, and the reward of the frontiersman is in proportion to his ability to overcome these obstacles. Extremes of temperature, floods and drouths, great forests and wild animals, to say nothing of tribes of savage men who look upon him as an enemy, represent the types of difficulties he has to meet; but if he succeeds he is rewarded by the fertility of an untilled land and the richness of unexploited deposits of precious metals and the like. It is similar, so far as we know, to this unexplored region of the mind. As soon as we begin to search earnestly, systematically, and assiduously in this territory we find all the terrors and all the obstacles that belong to unsettled and uncivilized regions; and here, as elsewhere, it takes courage to press forward, for, quite contrary to the assumptions which are tacitly made regarding the nature of man, the things that are found are often too terrible to be acknowledged, much less studied and under- stood. Man is neither wholly angel nor wholly devil, but both aspects are intertwined in his character; and just as his capacity for good is very great, so is his capacity for evil. Man prefers to think of himself without these handicapping qualities of which he is not at all proud, and so he lives in a hypocritical atmosphere of self-adulation much of the time. A little thought of the story of man as he has come to be what he is, would make it perfectly understandable why these char- acteristics still cling to him. It is only a very little while ago, compara- tively, in the story of his life on earth, that he himself was a savage, and this savage state existed for hundreds of thousands of years, and before that he was an animal, and that stage lasted much longer. The characteristics of these stages were essentially animalistic, and if he has arrived at what we are pleased to call civilization it is only because he has been able to survive, and if he has been able to survive it is only because through these ages he has been willing to kill. He JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 13 has reached his present estate literally by leaving a trail of blood be- hind him, and naturally we must expect to find at least the remnants of those destructive and aggressive qualities which I have already intimated exist and which I now say characterize him in large part. The frontiersman, if he wishes to conquer Nature, must have the courage of his convictions. He must be willing to face the dangers that are in his path. It is precisely the same way with ourselves. We can not alter ourselves, or reach higher stages of civilization by ignoring our own characteristics. We must appreciate and understand them if we are to deal with them intelligently, overcome them, capture the energies which now are dissipated in their destructive activities and conserve them for socially useful and acceptable ends. And this method of procedure requires work, hard work, continuous work, in order that it may yield valuable results. The frontiersman lived a hard life, but if he succeeded he reaped untold material riches as well as health and happiness; for it is written: “In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.” The difference here from the popular conception is that the real dangers that confront him come from within. The thing in all the world that man is most afraid of is himself, the forces that are in him and which if let loose would express themselves in destruc- tion, ultimately destruction of himself. This you will be able to realize when I suggest that the three great crimes which man has been guilty of through the ages, the crimes which are not made by statute but which are, as the lawyers say, “‘evil in themselves’”—murder, incest and cannibalism, are still with us. I do not need to convince you that murder is by no means a lost art. We only have to think of the last war and read the newspapers. Incest, of course, few of you, I am sure, have had any contact with; but those of us who deal with the illnesses of people, and their defects, know that it is far from rare, while canni- balism still exists in remote places and occasionally crops out at our own level of culture under peculiar conditions of stress. It would perhaps be strange if this were not so, for, after all, the patterns in which man has expressed his fear, his hate and his aggressive and destructive tendencies are probably pretty well a part of our funda- mental make-up which we have carried through the centuries and which is still with us even though buried deep in our natures. There- fore I am sure, you can understand with what good cause man should be afraid of himself, afraid lest these instinctive tendencies should be let loose and fall into their accustomed patterns of expression. When we come to the content of our psychic life we find that for the most part we are quite oblivious of anything that is not within 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 the circle of clear conscious awareness, but those of us who are suffi- ciently honest and sufficiently brave, who really and truly examine our own thinking and feeling processes, are aware that on the fringe of this brightly illuminated area quite a good many things are happen- ing which we ordinarily do not take account of. Perhaps one of the most significant symptoms and one of the most widely dispersed is anxiety, and this symptom of anxiety comes into the picture when- ever our safety and security is in any sense jeopardized. It is the red light that warns us of danger, danger from within and danger of the particular character that I have mentioned, namely, that the instinc- tive forces will break through the barriers that civilization has erected and carry destruction with them. In fact, it would seem that the growth of civilization and the various institutions which have been erected as means by which mankind comes to a more effective han- dling of his environment are all of them, in a sense at least, the result of reactions calculated to protect the individual from anxiety, and that we progress along the path of evolution and development rather timorously, one might say, afraid all the time, threatened from forces both within and without, constantly strengthening our position and seeking always for safety, permanency and equilibrium, goals which can never be attained but which as a result of our continuous seeking bring to pass constantly improved methods of adjustment. Every success, every overcoming of an obstacle, every solution of a problem, makes possible new successes, new obstacles to be overcome and new problems which must be met. So that we have a never-ending process of which we are a part. We must always go forward. We are on the treadmill of life and we must advance or die. Anxiety is one of the symptoms which indicate this mechanism, so that we are beginning to see, at least vaguely, what it is that makes the machine work; of course, not really and fundamentally, perhaps, but at least we get the hint. All these things that I have said to you have grown out of the sug- gestions which the newer developments in our field have thrown up with regard to some of the age-old questions which have con- fronted us. As I have already indicated, my feeling is that we are on the verge of an entirely new era in the development of our under- standing of ourselves, and that the outstanding characteristic of this new era will be our ability to ask of the organism a certain type of questions which we are only beginning to be able to formulate. In other words, we have studied the details of the functioning of the organism now these many years. We are beginning to see back of JAN. 15, 19835 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 15 these details something which we appreciate is the totality of the organism itself, and we have accumulated enough knowledge of this totality by the investigation of these details so that we are beginning to be able to take the next step, which is to ask intelligent questions of this organism which will give some information about it. I hope, if I have done nothing else, that I have convinced you that at least I think that this region of the frontier of the mind is a long, long way from having its possibilities exhausted, in fact that we are just entering upon a vast territory which will be many, many years in the frontier stage of development, and that the winning of this territory holds out the prospect that for the first time man will really have come to some understanding of himself based upon accepted principles of science. PHYSICS.—An apparatus for measuring the magnetic susceptibility of liquids and solids at high temperatures.1 R. B. SosmMan and J. B. Austin, Research Laboratory, United States Steel Cor- poration, Kearny, N. J. The apparatus described in the present paper was developed by the senior author several years ago at the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, and results obtained with it have been published, but no description has yet been put into print. It has been found useful in determining the susceptibility of solids and liquids, both paramagnetic and diamagnetic, through a temperature range from room temperature to 1000°C, and it has the advantage of being quickly adaptable to substances having a wide range of proper- ties. It is now in current use at the Research Laboratory, U. 8. Steel Corporation, at Kearny, N. J. METHOD The method depends upon the familiar principle of weighing the force acting upon a known mass of the substance in the non-uniform magnetic field of a solenoid.? Any paramagnetic or diamagnetic sub- stance is acted upon in a magnetic field by a force proportional to its magnetic susceptibility, to the field intensity, and to the field gradi- ent. If the magnetic field possesses cylindrical symmetry, the resultant 1 Received Oct. 16, 1934. 2 The method was first used for quantitative measurements of susceptibility by BouTzMANN (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Cl. 80, Il: 687-714. 1879) and von ErtinesHavsEN (Ann. Phys. u. Chem. 17: 272-305. 1882) and has not been used since that time, possibly because of the complicated calculations necessary to obtain absolute values. 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. ) Q == loa PO il Be al Key ie a ee (i eee kX jal be RC ee RS | | bx Kx ieee KS TA KX ‘ Kes Ka KS KS | | |] KX ae YX| Kod Fig. 1.—Front elevation, and partial cross-section, of apparatus for measurement of magnetic susceptibility. Arrangement for measurements near room temperature. JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY i, force is along the axis of a cylinder. Hence if the cylinder is set with its axis vertical, the force can be opposed to the force of gravity and weighed with the equal-arm balance, which is one of the most sensi- tive and precise of physical instruments. With a good analytical balance, and with proper attention to out- side disturbances, the force can be weighed to +0.005 milligram. The sample may be from 2 to 50 grams. With the field constants used in our apparatus, the corresponding variation in the mass-susceptibility is 0.1xX10-* to 0.004 x10-*. On paramagnetic (high-temperature) iron and on iron compounds such as ferrous sulfate this is equivalent to a precision of about 0.3 to 0.01 per cent. The corresponding abso- lute accuracy, which involves a knowledge of the field constants as well as the force, is estimated at 1.0 to 0.2 per cent. Many paramag- netic and diamagnetic substances, however, have such a small sus- ceptibility (equal in some cases to zero) that a statement of per- centage accuracy is misleading; the more informative statement is that the susceptibility is measurable within about 1.0 x10~* divided by the weight of the sample. The larger-sized samples can be used only for measurements near room temperature, since the diameter of the furnace tube is necessarily small and the object or container used for high-temperature measurements cannot be more than 14 mm in diameter. With a ferromagnetic substance the force depends not only on the factors mentioned above but also on the size of the individual par- ticles, the shape of the particles, their distance apart, the shape of the charge as a whole, and the previous magnetic history of the sample. Therefore, only somewhat crude comparative results are obtainable by this method with a ferromagnetic powder. The same is true toa greater or less degree of all the other methods applicable to such ma- terial. APPARATUS The apparatus used in making measurements at room tempera- ture, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of an analytical balance from one pan of which is suspended a container located in the axis of the sole- noids which produce the non-uniform field. For convenience in de- scription the apparatus is divided into four sections: (1) Weighing system, (2) Suspension and container, (3) Solenoids and electric cir- cuits, (4) Furnace and apparatus for control of temperature. (1) Weighing System. The force acting on the specimen is weighed directly by an Ainsworth analytical balance (A) sensitive to 0.005 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 mg. This sensitivity is ample for all except the most feebly para- magnetic or diamagnetic substances, for which a microbalance would be preferable. The pointer of the balance is made of a non-ferrous alloy and the knife edges are of agate, thus removing the necessity of correcting for the effect of induction in those parts of the balance that are some- times made of steel. This construction is desirable since experience has shown that the effect of steel parts, even at a considerable dis- tance, is not negligible. While the error caused by a steel knife edge is small and is easily corrected for, the error arising from a steel pointer may be fairly large. To prevent certain irregularities which were found to be due to the accumulation of an electric charge on the balance in cold dry weather, a small amount of carnotite ore is kept in a glass dish in the balance case. The balance itself rests on an Alberene stone slab which is sup- ported on a pipe frame, making part of a heavy table. The frame as well as all other parts of the apparatus is of brass. (2) Suspension and container. The suspension consists of a glass fiber in the portion that is at room temperature, and several links of gold wire in the part subjected to high temperature. The glass fiber hooks into a loop under one stirrup of the balance, the pan-arrest being split to make room for the loop. Below the stone slab the whole suspension is enclosed in two telescoping glass tubes to prevent dis- turbance by air currents. The lower and larger tube carries at its upper end a threaded brass head which may be screwed over the brass head of the upper tube. With this arrangement the lower tube can be raised and held out of the way during any adjustment of the apparatus. The container (B) varies in size, shape, and composition with the substance to be examined, the choice of material being influenced by the temperatures to be used. At room temperature the most satis- factory material for general use is celluloid. A bucket made by cement- ing sheet celluloid combines the advantages of light weight and nearly negligible magnetic susceptibility. Glass may also be used although there is always the danger of breakage to be taken into account. Glass buckets have, however, been employed with success as high as 300°C. Of the metals, iron-free brass has been found satisfactory for measurements at room temperature while gold is the best material available for high temperatures. Gold has a small susceptibility, is stable at high temperatures, and can be easily fashioned into various sizes and shapes. Platinum has too high a susceptibility, while silver changes weight through absorption or release of oxygen. JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 19 The smallest size of charge which gives the desired accuracy is the best. Containers for use at room temperature may be as large as 40 mm diameter; the height should not be greater than approximately 30 mm in order to minimize the error in estimating the magnetic field in which the specimen is suspended. K> P seecete letocenes = 5 Sesesey RS Sogonen legecece, Noseceee Sosocent XS legegeees voce Soseeen logegegey SKS egegecer esenere| SRS ececere| eovetes ovate: eg recoreea| b PROD” 1 2,0,%,8| KO ecetes Noverena } Po Poeoeee] RRS reverend b RSS revered b eeceees logos Noveceed| ieegeues RRR] > oceces P 0.0.0.4) Bees r Presse fo) cm 190 KS fe Roe] ‘| bow tira} Rexx! Rexed RS S08), <———— eerenes oteteces rateea| Soveceet Neeteees ogececes KO) POO] Koes loxeone, soceate Sovetens eS etotates rococo Seo] ROSxe oeceye, veel Sovenest| o ocenege, | RS255d) RSS2K0 KO voeaseet beseoed) be ececere beose logeceees BAY % | 2S Poa Rood Xx 2,0; Neca Nesseeee p eee box) Cd b Rod ex [Sesesed esd Rs nageces| p eet bes) lovecee b besos) x5 iegeces Bese Psoxe] [xs] Netacees| bo bases “ates eseees Peeseseg PSesel Kx iezeten| Roeeoeg ogese ogese x] Se] Sed ex RS [eseoes RS] ogeee KS] Nesacens| igeeecee eee neegal Reseed] eee R525 Kee] acetate eetetee! Rod , oH oS RCS ageces eeeeee| See ese] SK] Eesescod oS Mates See cote ese Los] naeeted| 4 bese] o4 0,0,0,0| Do ;| POO [ese] Roscoe] Besos bey eS Nagecen| "totes regent Res} neovecee| Reese} Pec bes] SC Koes eee RS iegecea| leteree PSeoq neal veteran eveces| Bese be) Keo) ozagee| bees] <— bes) ReSe5e] Kesesesd Sexe, Roe Reseed tates PSese] POO R505] P5524 See) bese] RSeSo52] eesen Kx igegal ReSe5e] Keseoeed Kod 4 4 best RoeSeS2] Leoesesd Rees | 10.0.4) bes) Roose Kesesesd bees Rod iacates roceseee ogee eet oteres Netecere logon bx) REX evens Sones bese) <2 Keser eo KX CS Meseatet besos) bes] cots iotes ee Pees mm os see d Paecoses foene bx) etetee Roose PSeoe) Bl SS Rk Re Sod Reco hx] "aces KS bese Kes] recarens ovaces a Rea BY Ro RS beg Kexoesed beocsed eee bs reece Pace Fig. 2.—Arrangement of solenoids for qualitative study of the form of the magnetization curve of a ferromagnetic powder. In measurements at elevated temperatures the diameter of the bucket is limited to approximately 14 mm by the size of the furnace tube. In this case, particularly, the height should not exceed 30 mm since there is a temperature gradient as well as a field gradient along the furnace. It is useful to provide the container with a plunger, which serves to level the surface of a powdered charge and to define exactly its di- mensions. (3) Solenoids and electric circuits. For measurements of suscepti- bility at a single field intensity the magnetic field is produced by two 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 coaxial solenoids (iS) whose constants are given in Table I. The outer solenoid (O in Fig. 2) is wound with size No. 16 (1.291 mm) and the inner solenoid (JZ in Fig. 2) with size No. 14 (1.628 mm) double cotton-covered copper wire. TABLE I—DImEnsIonsS OF SOLENOIDS Solenoid O Solenoid IL Solenoid IU Total number of turns . 2794 3221 3253 Number of layers of wire 14 20 20 Length, mm 320 318 319 Inside diameter, mm 226 88.5 88.5 Outside diameter, mm 265 156 156 It is frequently convenient to examine a substance in a magnetic field of variable intensity but constant gradient. This is accomplished with the aid of another inner solenoid (JU) similar to the inner sole- noid already described (JL) and resting on top of it. A section is shown in Fig. 2. Since the solenoids have no cores the fields are addi- tive. This arrangement makes it possible to examine the form of the hysteresis loop of a substance, since the field at any point can be varied from zero to maximum while the gradient (produced wholly by the outer solenoid) remains constant.’ It is plain, however, that with a ferromagnetic powder only the qualitative form of the loop can be indicated in this way, the true magnetization curve of the material itself being unobtainable either by this or any other method. It should be remarked here that the particular dimensions given above for solenoids and wire are not the most efficient. The solenoids were built under circumstances where their design was controlled by the available sizes of large brass tubing and also the available sizes of copper wire in pieces of sufficient length. With free choice of ma- terials the solenoids could be redesigned either for a more intense magnetic field or for a more uniform field of force. Account must also be taken of the permissible rate of change of the field with time, because the solenoid is heated by the current and the current there- fore diminishes steadily unless readjusted by manipulating the ex- ternal resistances. The inner solenoids rest on a cross-bar bolted to the under side of the bottom flange of the outer solenoid. The entire assembly of coils, whose relative positions are thus fixed, is carried by leveling screws set in the flange of the outer solenoid and resting on a brass table (D in Fig. 1). The height of the table is adjustable by means of a hand ’ This arrangement was suggested by the late Dr. C. W. Burrows of the National Bureau of Standards. JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 21 wheel, gear system, and screw (@). It has a vertical travel of 30 mm and is adjustable to 0.1 mm with the aid of an indicator on the flange and a scale on the table frame. Fig. 3.—Electrical circuits for control of the magnetic field. The container can be adjusted axially by shifting the balance on its stone slab. Approximate vertical adjustment is made by changing the gold links and accurate adjustment by moving the solenoid table D vertically. The reference level for the container is the horizontal plane surface of the upper flange of solenoid O, transferred across to the axis by means of a levelling bar made of square brass tubing with surface plates at ends and middle. Since this adjustment cannot be 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 Alundum Water furnace tube~—.. — fackeT,~ dj Fig. 4——Water-jacketed furnace for the study of magnetic susceptibility to 1000°C. This furnace is inserted in place of the water-jacket shown in Fig. 1. JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 23 made when the water-jacket or the furnace is in place, it is repro- duced outside the apparatus by means of a micrometer caliper set vertically in a metal block. The handling of the heavy upper solenoid is facilitated by the use of the air lift (L) shown in Fig. 1, which consists essentially of a large brass tube fitted at its lower end with a piston. The lift can be raised or lowered by admitting air under a few pounds pressure at one valve or releasing it through the other. Attached to the tube are two arms upon which rests the carriage holding the solenoid (Cin Fig. 2). The two brass plates supporting the solenoids are perforated by a ring of holes which permit the electrical and water connections for the furnace to pass through. The electrical circuits, including that for the upper inner solenoid, are shown in Fig. 3. When the reversing switch a is closed the outer solenoid (OQ) is connected to the power line through the resistance A and the ammeter Am. Switches b and ¢ are reversing switches for the upper and lower inner solenoids respectively (JU and IL). Switches d are so arranged that the two inner solenoids can be connected singly or combined in series or parallel. At e there is a double-pole double- throw switch flanked by two single-pole single-throw switches, with which a second ammeter (Amz) can be inserted into the circuit of either of the two inner solenoids or can be cut out entirely. (4) Furnace and control of temperature. Since the susceptibility of most paramagnetic substances changes with temperature, some means of controlling the temperature of the container is desirable. In the neighborhood of, or but slightly above, room temperature the water-cooled jacket (J) shown in Fig. 1 is sufficient. This is nothing more than a double-walled brass cylinder through which water flows. For most purposes where close control is not necessary a small stream of water will suffice to hold the temperature within +0.5°C. For closer control water from a thermostat may be circulated. For elevated temperatures, say from 50° to 1000°C, the water jacket J of Fig. 1 is replaced by the furnace shown in Fig. 4. The core of this furnace is an Alundum tube (17 mm i.d.) upon which is wound a helical coil of 0.8 mm platinum wire (resistance = 1.092 ohm, length approximately 3.3 meter). This coil is embedded in a thin layer of Alundum cement. The winding is bifilar and the heating current is alternating, so that the furnace is without appreci- able effect on the magnetic field. The furnace tube is held in place by two Alundum plates (R; and R2) which grip it at the ends. Insulation is provided by packing 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 powdered magnesia around the core. Heat leakage to the solenoids is prevented by the water jacket (J1) which takes in water at the bot- tom (J) and discharges it through the tubes (H) which reach almost to the top. For most purposes a flow of 400 cc per minute is ample. With the furnace operating at 900°C the cooling water when flowing Top 15 S on Distance from bottom, cm Bottom O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 300 Temp erature, °C Fig. 5—Temperature gradients inside of the furnace of Fig. 4. at this rate was raised from 23° to 30°C. The top of the furnace is covered by a divided disk of sheet zine with a small hole at the center through which the suspension passes. The thermocouple T is of platinum against the alloy 90 platinum, 10 rhodium, and has its junction located just below and to one side of the bottom of the container. The upper temperature limit of the furnace is probably well above 1000°C but above this point the zone of reasonably uniform tempera- ture becomes quite short. The power consumed by the furnace is approximately 0.5 kilo- JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 25 watt for a temperature of 300° and slightly over 0.8 kilowatt for 800°C. The temperature gradient in the furnace under various conditions was investigated with a small exploring platinrhodium-platinum thermocouple used in conjunction with an ice bath and a potenti- ometer. The results for four different conditions are shown in Fig. 5. It is apparent from these curves that while a fairly large gradient does exist near the ends of the furnace, particularly at the higher temperatures, there is always a zone approximately 30 mm long through which the temperature is reasonably constant. This zone is usually close to the center of the furnace. If care is taken to keep the container within this zone, satisfactory results can be obtained and reproduced. The curves in Fig. 5 are all taken on an empty furnace. If the fur- nace contains a metal bucket it seems likely that the gradients will be somewhat reduced and that the central zone will be more uniform. CALIBRATION OF THE SOLENOIDS The constants of the solenoids can be obtained in two ways: (1) in absolute measure, by calculation from their dimensions; (2) em- pirically, by weighing the force acting on a charge of a substance of known susceptibility. ABSOLUTE MEASURE OF SUSCEPTIBILITY The ponderomotive force, F,, acting in the direction X upon a small particle of a paramagnetic or diamagnetic substance in a magnetic field in vacuum, is given by the formula‘ SE yee (1) Ox Poe. 2 in which x is the magnetic susceptibility of the substance, V the vol- ume of the particle, H the magnetic field intensity, and 0H /dz the field gradient in the direction X. A more convenient constant is the specific susceptibility or mass-sus- ceptibility, x. If dis the density of the substance, x =x/d. Then f., the force per gram of substance, is given by ‘ First specific statement of the principle is by W. THomson (Lord Kertyin) in Phil. Mag. (3) 37: 241-253. 1850; reprinted in Papers on electrostatics and magnetism (1872, London) pp. 500-513. 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 OH fe =xH_. (2) Ox If the direction X be taken as the vertical, the force can be meas- ured by means of a balance. Then f, = pg and the expression for mass- susceptibility becomes Pg oH H (3) Ox Xi in which p is the vertical pull in the magnetic field, in grams of weight per gram of substance, and g is the force of gravity at the site of the measurement, in dynes. GEOMETRICAL DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS The field intensity and field gradient at a given point depend only on the dimensions of the solenoids and the magnitude of the current. The field and the gradient at any point are most conveniently ex- pressed as constants multiplied by the current: ; oH én i= ele k’’T, hence Hair (4) x in which the constants k’, k’’ and k depend only on the geometry of the solenoid, k being equal to k’k’’. The formula actually used in measurements with a single solenoid then becomes Pg © pre (6) The field-constant k’ for any point M or M’ on the axis of a single- layer circular solenoid (see Fig. 6) will be called k,’. If the current is measured in amperes, and the wire is so small and so closely wound that the corrections due to its shape and helical inclination® are negligible, then Be k,’ = —0.2mn f sin @-d@ =0.27n(cos 42 —cos 41) (6) 61 in which n = number of turns per cm length, 5 Snow, C., U. S. Bur. Stds. Sci. Papers 21: 431-519 (Sci. Pap. No. 537). 1926. JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 27 6=angle subtended at M by the radius a of the solenoid.® 6; and @2 are the terminal values of 6 for the nearer and farther ends of the solenoid, respectively, with reference to the positive direction of the axis (see Fig. 6). Fig. 6.—Geometrical quantities involved in the magnetic field of a solenoid. For additional layers of wire a formula can be similarly developed which gives the total intensity-constant at M in terms of the inner and outer limiting radii.’ On account of irregularities due to the necessity of providing for the anchoring and the exit of the first turns, it was found better in the present case to calculate k’ for each layer and to add the values to obtain.k’ for the entire solenoid. The required dimensions have been given in Table I. The number of turns and the length were separately recorded for every layer during the process of winding, and the calculation of the field constant k,’ for a series of points along the axis was based on these detailed data rather than on the summarized figures given in the Table, but the details of the calculation need not be given here. Given the curve of x,’ for each solenoid against axial distance z from 6 This formula, originating with Ampére and with Bior & Savart before 1825, seems to have been first written in the convenient trigonometric form by AUERBACH, in Graetz’s Handbuch d. Elektrizitat u. Magnetismus (1920) Vol. 4: 960-967. One would expect to find that this improvement had been made at a much earlier date, but we have not discovered an earlier reference. 7 AUERBACH, p. 964 of work cited in note °. n Ho 10 100-— 8 80 7 70 6 60 -3 -2 -1 fo) +1 Axial distance in cm Fig. 7—Constants of the magnetic field intensities and magnetic field gradients along the axes of the solenoids shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Field intensity H=k’I (IJ =current in amperes) Field gradient = IL JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 29 the zero level a curve for the gradient-constant k,’’ is readily obtained graphically or with the aid of interpolation-formulas. Combination of the two then gives the axial force-constant k,. Fig. 7 shows these curves for our apparatus. The combined force exerted by two or more solenoids carrying different currents is proportional to the product of the total field and the total gradient. When the outer and the lower inner coils are used in combination, as in most of our measurements of susceptibility in which no information on hysteresis is desired, the total force is there- fore nearly twice as great as the sum of the forces exerted by each alone. We have usually employed currents of 3.40 ampere in the outer and 4.50 ampere in the lower inner solenoid; the field intensity at —3 mm is then 436 gauss. For a charge of finite size the force varies both axially and radially. If the depth (along the axis) is not more than 15 mm, and if the susceptibility «x is independent of H, as is true for most of the sub- stances studied with this apparatus, the value of k, for the middle point represents the average within the error expected. For a point near the axis the departure of k’ from the axial value k,’ is given by the formula® , , z ot k =i), 105 a ae (7) in which a = radius of solenoid (single layer) r = distance of the point from the axis z=axial distance of the point from one end of the solenoid 1 =length of solenoid. At a point distant 0.1 a from the axis, which would be about 12-14 mm for the outer solenoid and 4-8 mm for the inner, the value of k’ in our apparatus differs from k,’ on the axis by only about 0.01 per cent in the worst case. The axial variation is therefore negligible, even for charges of large diameter. For depths and diameters so large that the value of k at the middle point of the charge cannot be assumed to be the representative aver- age, the formula of Boltzmann® gives an exact result, but the cal- culation is long and complicated and the empirical calibration in terms of a standard substance is usually preferable. 8 We owe the derivation of this formula to Dr. Cuzester Snow of the National Bureau of Standards. So far as we are aware it has not hitherto been published. * BottzMann & von ETTINGSHAUSEN, article cited in note 2. 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 EMPIRICAL CALIBRATION For the empirical method crystalline ferrous ammonium sulfate, FeSO,-(NH,).SO,-6H;O, is the best standard. A known weight of the powdered salt is placed in a small brass bucket and pressed down to a definite depth by means of a plunger. By suspending the bucket at various positions along the axis, with definite currents in the solenoids, the force exerted at each point can be measured, and values of K in the simple formula x =Kp (8) can be calculated. As before p is the vertical pull in grams of weight per gram of substance. Using values of x for FeSO,-(NH,).SO.-6H2O of 32.3 x10-* and 31.8 X10-* at 20° and 25°C, respectively, we have found that values of K for the combined inner lower and outer solenoids (JZ and QO), within the range —30 to +10 mm from the zero level (end of sole- noids), agree within 1 per cent with the values of K obtained by cal- culation from the dimensions, as described in the preceding section. This agreement, together with the demonstrated small axial varia- tion in the force, justifies the empirical calibration of the apparatus for larger charges, such as can be used near room temperature in the water-jacket shown in Fig. 1. The calibration is made with a charge of powdered ferrous ammonium sulfate, corresponding in shape and volume with the unknown material, thus giving fairly high precision and accuracy to the measurements on large charges. Strictly speaking, the comparison should be made using the unknown in powdered form with the same air-filled pore space as the sulfate charge, but in these fairly homogeneous solenoid fields the error due to comparing a dense with a porous material will in most cases be negligible. PROCEDURE IN MEASURING SUSCEPTIBILITY AT HIGH TEMPERATURES The following notes concerning the method of taking readings may be of use to those employing similar apparatus. The solenoids and furnace are adjusted in position so that the middle point of the charge is at the desired level, usually at —3 mm since the gradient of k at this level is small and does not change direc- tion. The furnace is brought to a constant temperature, usually by set- ting the furnace current at a predetermined value and allowing suffi- JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY dl cient time for equilibrium to be established. While with some ex- perience and a little care a close approximation to any desired temper- ature can be obtained, nevertheless if it is necessary to obtain readings very close to a given temperature, it is well to attach an automatic potentiometric regulator to the furnace circuit and the thermocouple. The routine in taking observations may be varied with the opera- tor. One scheme which the authors have followed with success is to take readings in groups of three; first, a weighing of the sample with no magnetic field; second, after a known interval of time, a reading of the weight of the sample with known storage-battery currents through the solenoids, the currents being kept constant by adjustment of the rheostats; third, after an interval of time equal to that between the first and second readings, a reweighing without the field. The dif- ference between the second reading and the average of the first and third gives the force exerted by the magnetic field. This procedure has been found satisfactory and appears to minimize the effects of minor or temporary fluctuations in temperature. In some eases, the force to be measured is less than 0.1 mg or one division of the beam, using a 5 mg rider. A supplementary rider weighing only 1 mg is then used, and the readings are made by the method of swings. It is then often advantageous to leave the balance swinging throughout the set of readings. Blank determinations should always be made on the container through the range of temperatures at which it is to be used. Celluloid (for room temperature) and gold (for higher temperatures) give the smallest blanks. One gold container, for example, weighing 5.1 gram, gave an average blank reading of +0.011 mg in the combined field at the top of the two lower solenoids. SUMMARY An apparatus is described which has been found useful for measur- ing the magnetic susceptibility of materials having a wide range of susceptibilities, at temperatures from 20° to 1000°C. A sensitive analytical balance is used to measure the force exerted upon the sam- ple by the non-uniform magnetic field of a set of solenoids. By com- bining a uniform field with a non-uniform field it is possible to esti- mate the shape of the hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic powder. A water-cooled furnace inserted into the solenoids serves for the higher temperatures. Calculation of the absolute intensity and gradient of the magnetic field from the dimensions of the solenoids yields con- stants for the apparatus which agree well with those determined 32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 empirically by the use of ferrous ammonium sulfate as a standard substance. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The crystal structure of calaverite’ G. TuNELL and C. J. Ksanpa, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The morphology of calaverite has been thoroughly investigated by a number of crystallographers.? Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock® concluded that calaverite crystallizes in the monoclinic system al- though they pointed out that an orthorhombic interpretation was not excluded with certainty by the evidence then available. They deter- mined accurately the following values of the crystallographic ele- ments of calaverite:* a:b:c =1.6298:1:1.1492, 8 =90°08’. Concerning the value of 8 they® wrote: “‘Aus diesen Messungen erhalten wir 89°52’ als besten Mittelwert des Winkels zwischen den zwei Achsen in der Projectionsebene. Dieser Winkel ist so nahe an 90°, dass die Frage, ob der Neigungswinkel von 90° verschieden ist, nicht aus den Messungen entschieden werden kann.” In their comprehensive joint study of the form system of calaverite they report that it has a two- fold axis of symmetry.® From the statements of Penfield and Ford,’ together with his own observations, Peacock® concludes that it has also a plane of symmetry. From its crystal habit, then, calaverite appears to belong to the holohedral symmetry class, 2/m (C',), of the monoclinic system. Crystals of calaverite from Cripple Creek, Colorado, have been studied by the present authors by means of the Weissenberg X-ray goniometer and the two-circle reflection goniometer. The reciprocal lattice of calaverite was established by means of Weissenberg photo- graphs taken with Cr-, Cu-, and Mo-radiation, although the crystals of calaverite were not single individuals. The structural lattice has elements strictly analogous to the fundamental morphological ele- ments of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock (their S-elements). 1 Received December 8, 1934. : ? See V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacuer, and M. Peacock, Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min- eralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie, Beilage-Band 63: Abt. A, S. 50-52. 1931, and M. A. Peacock, American Mineralogist 17: 318. 1932, for references to previous work. * Op. cit., pp. 6, 7, see also M. A. Peacock, op. cit., pp. 324, 325. * M. A. Peacock, op. cit., p. 325. * V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacue, and M. Pzacocx, Op: Cit., p: 5: * V. Gotpscumipt, C. Pauacue, and M. Pracock, op. cit., pp. 6 and 21. ‘Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 236. 1901. * Personal communication to G. Tune, dated April 25, 1934. JAN. 15, 1985 TUNELL AND KSANDA: STRUCTURE OF CALAVERITE 33 The dimensions of the unit cell, determined by purely réntgenographic measurements, are: 2) =7.18 A, bo=4.40 A, co =5.07 A, all +0.03 4, 8 =90° +30’. Our Weissenberg films also yield decisive evidence on the question of the crystal system of calaverite. On the Weissenberg films the planes, hkl and hkl,in general yield diffraction spotsof very different intensity. This would not be possible if calaverite belonged to the or- thorhombic system, irrespective of the space group inthe orthorhombic system with which it might be isomorphous. It is therefore certain that calaverite does not belong to the orthorhombic system. The systematic extinctions of the X-ray diffraction effects on our films limit the monoclinic space groups possible for calaverite to three: C2/m (C2,°), C2 (C2*), or Cm (C,’), the extinctions of these three space groups being identical. The density of calaverite calculated from the X-ray data is 9.31. This agrees well with the measured® densities and fixes the number of molecules of AuTe. in the unit cell as 2. The two gold atoms can only occupy the positions, 0, 0, 0, and 3, 4, 0, no matter which of the three monoclinic space groups listed above is that of calaverite. By means of the intensities alone all arrangements of the tellurium atoms possible in the space group, Cm, have been ex- cluded. From the intensities it is also certain that the tellurium atoms do not occupy fixed positions or positions with one variable param- eter in the space group, C2/m. Hence the tellurium atoms must occupy the positions, m, 0, p; m, 0, p; m+3, 4, p; 3—™M, 5, p, in the space group, C2/m, or the positions, m, n, p; m, n, p; m+4, n+, p; 3—m, n+3, p, in the space group, C2. From the intensities of the successive orders of reflection of (100) and (001) the m- and p-param- eters of the tellurium atoms have been determined to be m=0.69 (217m = 247°) and p=0.29 (2717p =105°) no matter which of the two remaining space groups, C2/m and C2, is that of calaverite. From the intensities of the other reflections the parameter along the b-axis must be close to 0. Thus the tellurium atoms occupy the positions, m, n, p; m,n, p; m+3, n+3, p3 4—m, n+3, p, where m =0.69, n =0.00, and p =0.29, all +0.05.1° The results of the intensity calculations will be given in greater detail in a subsequent communication. ® Cf. S. L. Penrretp and W. E. Forp, Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 246. 1901, Zeit. f. Kryst. und Min. 35: 450. 1901; G. F. H. Smirn, Min. Mag. 13: 149. 1902, Zeit. f. Kryst. und Min. 37: 234. 1902; HE. S. Simpson, Geological Survey of Western Australia, Bulletin 42: 107. 1912. 10 The correspondence between the positive and negative senses of our axes and those of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock has not been established as yet but only the correspondence between the directions of our axes and those of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock. 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1 PALEONTOLOGY.—Argyrotheca gardnerae, new name.' C. WYTHE Cooxkk, U.S. Geological Survey. As the name I applied to a new brachiopod in 1919 proves to be preoccupied, I here propose the new name Argyrotheca gardnerae. The specific name is in recognition of the paleontologic researches of Miss Julia Gardner. Argyrotheca gardnerae Cooke, new name Argyrotheca dalli Cooke, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 291: 152, pl. 16, figs. 5a-c. 1919. not Argyrotheca dalli Aldrich Bull. Am. Pal. 5: 13, pl. 4, figs. 9-10. 1911. Occurrence: St. Bartholomew, B. W. I. Geologic horizon: Upper Eocene. Type: U. S. National Museum, No. 167201. PALEONTOLOGY.—Nanicella, a new genus of Devonian Foramini- fera®. Luoyp G. Hensest, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Com- municated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.) Through the kindness of Prof. A. K. Miller, University of Iowa, an opportunity was offered in 1932 for studying the type specimens of Endothyra gallowayi Thomas (Journal of Paleontology 5: 40. 1931). A close study of the specimens confirmed a notion that I had held for some time that EF. gallowayi belongs to a new genus, but inasmuch as the preservation of the type specimens is hardly adequate for de- termining the shell features with any degree of confidence, it seemed best to wait for better material. Recently, Mrs. F. B. Plummer, Uni- versity of Texas, very generously shared her rich collection of topo- typical material with me, and it now seems appropriate to introduce the generic name Nanicella for the form represented by EF. gallowayz Thomas, which species accordingly becomes the genotype. The name Nanicella refers to the reduced shape and size of the chambers in their subordination to the general architecture of the shell (Latin nanus, dwarf, +cella, chamber). In this respect, Nanicella resembles Orobias, Nummulostegina, and Staffella somewhat more than Endothyra. In external form it resembles Orobias most closely, but differs significantly from that genus by being more discoid and less involute and having a chamber morphology that is less com- pletely subordinated to the general plan of the shell. In comparison + Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received November 15, 1934. ? Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received December 4, 1934. JAN. 15, 1985 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 35 with Hndothyra, Nanicella is considerably more advanced in regard to the degree of chamber subordination, although our present records indicate an earlier existence for Nanicella. Endothyra as represented particularly by EH. bowmani, the genotype, exhibits several so-called primitive traits not possessed by Nanicella in that it is irregularly coiled, its chambers have a somewhat spherical form, and a distinct boundary between the spiral and septal walls is absent. Work is under way to make a detailed study of the shell structure. BOTANY.—Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic palmetto of Louisiana.1 Mrrtam L. Bomuarp, U. 8S. Forest Service. (Communicated by E. P. Kriurp.) Palmettos have always been and are today a conspicuous and familiar part of the Louisiana landscape, especially in the Mississippi Valley. Accounts of early travels through Louisiana show that most of the travelers were profoundly impressed by the vegetation, and mention is frequently made of the palmettos as well as of the large cypress trees, the magnolias, the great vines, and the native cane. As early as two and a half centuries ago, Le Clercq, in his account of La Salle’s discovery and exploration of the Mississippi River, says, “The whole country is covered with palms... .’” The works of Robin, Darby, and Flint, in the first quarter of the past century, give perhaps the most interesting and fullest discussions of the distribution and growth of these palmettos. In 1807, Robin published an account of his travels in the New World together with a flora of Louisiana. William Darby, a surveyor, after a residence of sixteen years in the State, published in 1816 the first detailed map of Louisiana, accompanied by A geographical description of Lowisiana, which is replete with careful and accurate observations based upon an intimate knowledge of the region. Flint, who resided for a time in the State, was also an accurate observer, though he acknowledges his indebtedness to Darby and others whose published works preceded his own. It is interesting to note that the French appellation, latanier or latania, which is commonly used today in Louisiana to designate the native palmettos, appears in the works of most of the early writers. 1 Received November 28, 1934. 2 Le CLERCQ, CHRESTIEN. Premier établissement de la foy dans la Nouvelle France, etc. 2: 229.1691. Paris. Thisisa very rare work. It contains an account of La Salle’s discoveries by two missionaries who accompanied him. The palms were first encoun- tered on the boat trip down the Mississippi in the territory of the Taensa Indians, near the present town of St. Joseph in Tensa Parish. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 Latanier is the French form of the native name of a group of tall, fan-leaved palms* indigenous to certain islands belonging to France, off the southeast coast of Africa. These palms have long been culti- vated in Europe and elsewhere. The French settlers of the New World undoubtedly carried this name over to the fan-leaved palmet- tos in the new country, Louisiana. Flint even uses‘ the combination Chemaerops latanier as a scientific name for the Louisiana palmetto. Robin gives a description of the palmettos, using vernacular names, but he offers no Latin specific names. He writes,° “Louisiana produces, I believe, only two species of this family [Palmae], common in the woods; the first is the camérope or palmier nain (Chamaerops), commonly called latanier, differing from that of southern Europe in that the margins of the leaves are neither toothed nor spiny. The trunk, from which the leaves arise folded in a fan, scarcely emerges from the ground.... [There follows a further description of this species. ] “The second species, less common and less beautiful, divides its leaves into two portions, of which each is folded at the ends, somewhat like an old- fashioned cravat or collar.’’® Although he offers a fairly complete botanical description of his first species, he does not describe the second beyond pointing out a peculiarity of the leaf. Rafinesque, who translated and revised Robin’s Flora and assigned binomial names to many of the species mentioned in it, remarks that Robin “does not appear to have been a professed botanist’’ and, in cataloguing the two palm species, Rafinesque simply places’ the de- scription of Robin’s first species under Sabal adansoni (wrongly as- cribing the binomial to Persoon instead of to Guersent) and applies a name of his own, “‘Sabal ? adiantinum Raf.,” to Robin’s second species, evolving a Latin description partly from Robin’s remarks and, apparently, partly from conjecture, thus: “29. Sabal adansont. Pers.—Palmier nain ou Latanier. Rob. p. 337. Spadix ensiform elastic, rising seven feet, stem-like, branched, flowers trifid __ * These palms, which have been given the generic name Latania, are native to the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and possibly, also Madagascar. 4 “Palmetto, Chemaerops latanier. This is a perennial plant, strongly marking cli- mate. It commences in the same regions with long moss,—that is to say, about 33°.” Fuint, Timotuy. A condensed geography and history of the Western States, or the Mississippi Valley 1: 85. 1828. Cincinnati. 5 Rosin, C. C. Voyages dans Vintérieur de la Louisiane... Suivis de la Flore Louisianaise 3: 337-338. 1807. Paris. 6 This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that, under certain trying growth conditions (open situations exposed to intense insolation and where the ground becomes hard and dry in the summer), the leaves of palmettos in Louisiana are often divided midway into two halves, which curve downward and away from each other. ‘ RaFINesQueE, C. S._ Florula Ludoviciana; or, A flora of the state of Louisiana. Translated, revised, and improved from the French of C. C. Robin. pp. 16-17. 1817. New York. JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 37 white sessile odorate, blossoming in June: berries like a pea, black and sweet. The fibrous netting of the short caudex are used as canvas to clear and scour: the leaves are used to make hats and thatch houses, ete. “30. Sabal ? adiantinum. Raf. Acaule, foliis inermis bipartitis, flabel- latis, plicatis. Raf.—2. Latanier. Rob. p. 338.” In the same work, Rafinesque includes® an Appendix to the trees and shrubs of Louisiana in which he lists and comments upon the plants appearing in Darby’s work. He seems to have been acquainted only with the second edition, which, although somewhat amplified, includes much the same material as the first edition, but has a dif- ferent order of treatment. Darby’s accounts of the topography and general vegetation of Louisiana are not only interesting but particularly clear, and, for the most part, amazingly accurate. Of eight specific references to pal- mettos, the following is® of especial interest and is the one to which Rafinesque alludes: “The Arundo gigantea grows in immense brakes in all parts of the parish of Ascension, not liable to annual submersion. Much of that majestic grass has been destroyed by the clearing of the lands; but a vast quantity still re- mains. Along both banks of New river, in the rear of the plantations on the Mississippi, and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are the places where most of the Arundo yet exists. Here, as well as in every other part of Louisiana, where the land sinks too low for the Arundo, is found the Chamaerops louisi- ana.* The latter vegetable cannot itself exist, where the inundation exceeds in depth 15 or 20 inches. The land is commonly of the best quality. Much of the surface of the country low upon the Mississippi, now cultivated in cot- ton, maize, rice, and sugar, was originally covered with the palmetto. From the greater depression of the surface, the palmetto land is more difficult to reclaim, than that naturally covered with Arundo gigantea; though equal in fertility when reduced to a state of cultivation. “The timber trees most usually associated with the palmetto, are, the Quercus phellos, Quercus rubra, Acer rubrum, Acer negundo, Liquidambar styraciflua, Ulmus aquatica, Cornus alba, and Celtis crassifolia. The Quercus tinctoria, and Quercus virens, are often found growing upon palmetto land, but not so frequent as the preceding. The Nyssa aquatica, and Cupressus disticha, would appear from their general history, to be congenial to the palmetto land; the latter tree is sometimes found intermingled, and the 8 “While the Supplement of this work was under the press, the Geographical De- scription of Louisiana, by William Darby, fell into my hands. Having perceived in it, several elaborate Catalogues of the trees and shrubs, growing in the different parts of the State, some of which had not been observed by Robin, Bartram, etc. and some additional geographical and economical remarks on others, I have been induced to enumerate those additions, for which we are indebted to Mr. Darby; correcting, at the same time, several errors of nomenclature, into which he appears to have fallen... . ”’ Rafinesque. op. cit. 157. ® Darsy, WiuLIAM. A geographical description of the state of Louisiana: . . . being an accompaniment to the map of Louisiana. ed. 1. 193-195. 1816; ed. 2. 81-82. 1817. Philadelphia. The eight references appear on the following pages in the 1816 edition: 68, 77, 88, 193-195, 205, 206, 216, 230. 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1 former growing on inundated land adjacent to; but neither are so com- monly met with on palmetto land, as might be expected. “The palmetto may be correctly considered the vegetable that marks the limit of annual inundation. In all places where we have had good reason to consider the overflow annual, the palmetto ceased. Though able to resist partial and occasional immersion of its roots in water, we are led to believe this shrub would perish if the ground upon which it grew was subject to annual overflow. This does not agree with the writer’s observation. ‘“*/Footnote appears on p. 194 of the original text.] We have given to this vegetable the name of Chamaerops lowisiana in the text; and are of the opinion that there is a specific difference between the Chamaerops palmetto hitherto known to botanists, and that of Louisiana. The Chamaerops ser- rulata of Muhlenberg is certainly not the same with the palmetto of Louisi- ana; the latter bears a much greater resemblance to the cabbage tree, though much more humble in elevation, than to the saw-leaved palmetto of Georgia.” Rafinesque takes sufficient note of Darby’s new specific name to reprint it, but he dismisses!® both it and Darby’s interesting notes in the following manner: “Chamaerops Louisiana! Palmetto or Latania! D. This Palm which Mr. Darby in a note, p. 81, thinks a new species, and to which he gives two er- roneous Latin and French names, is merely the Sabal adansoni sp. 29. It marks the limit of annual inundation, as it grows above the reach of it.” Rafinesque, in spite of his never having seen Louisiana or its palms, did not hesitate to pass judgment upon Darby’s new species. This is especially remarkable in view of Rafinesque’s lack of justification for establishing Sabal ? adiantinum as a species. There seems to be no valid reason for his considering Darby’s binomial name, Chamaerops louisiana, erroneous in any respect. This name appears" five times in the text of both the 1816 and 1817 editions and in his vocabulary of terms (immediately following the last page of the text) he lists ““Cham- aerops louisiana, . . . Palmetto, or latania.” It is worthy of note that Flint later reprints” Darby’s list of plants, as it appears in the vocabu- lary of terms, but without citing the source. In another work of broader scope, Darby gives a general list of trees most likely to be found in Louisiana and adds" “On the banks of the streams immense brakes of Arundo gigantea (great cane), and on the outer margin of the cane, the palmetto or latania (Chamaerops Louisiana), fill the slope between the cane and the dead overflow. . . . The palmetto can support inundation a longer time and deeper than 10 RAFINESQUE. op. cit. 159-160. 4 DaRBy. op. cit. ed. 1. 194 (twice), 205, 206, 216. 2 FLINT. op. cit. 2: 486-488. Appendix, Table II. 18 DarsBy, WILLIAM. The emigrant’s guide to the western and southwestern states and territories, etc. 81. 1818. New York. : ; a JAN. 15, 19385 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 39 the cane. .. .”’ This reference to the occurrence of palmettos in a zone or belt is an accurate picture of their present distribution in certain situations. In discussing Prairie Mamou (mostly included in the present Acadia Parish), Darby says," ‘‘In the low grounds near the river, the palmetto, called by the French latania, abounds, but not of the gi- gantic size of its kindred species on the more eastern waters.” This statement is doubtless to be interpreted as a comparison with the size of the Sabal palmetto of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, which Darby recognizes as a species related to the Louisiana palmetto. A perusal of Darby’s various works should convince anyone who knows Louisiana that he was thoroughly familiar with the material of which he writes. His use of scientific plant names, his references, especially in footnotes, to Miller’s Gardeners Dictionary, to Michaux, Bartram, Muhlenberg, and other botanists show that he was ac- quainted with the botanical literature of that time, and it seems un- likely that he would have suggested a name for the Louisiana pal- metto without due consideration. His descriptions and names of plants are, however, incidental to his discussions of Louisiana, which probably accounts for his giving only informal notes concerning Chamaerops lowisiana. It is unfortunate that Darby gave no formal botanical description of this palm. The following diagnosis, however, may be gleaned from his remarks concerning the Louisiana palmetto: (1) It is fan-leaved— Darby refers to it as the Fan Palmetto” or Latania and also com- pares it with Chamaerops palmetto (Sabal palmetto) and with C. ser- rulata (Serenoa repens); (2) It is unarmed, since Darby expressly states that it is “not the same” as C. serrulata [in, not of, Muhlen- berg]; (8) It develops a trunk, otherwise there is no reason for saying that it is “not of the gigantic size” of the cabbage-tree, but ‘‘much more humble in elevation’’; (4) It is indigenous to Louisiana and a very characteristic part of the vegetation; (5) Definite localities are given for its distribution; (6) The list of associated species, including remarks concerning its association with the live oak, Quercus virens (Q. virginiana), its proximity to tupelo gum, Nyssa aquatica, and bald- cypress, Cupressus disticha (Taxodium distichum), and its occurrence bordering the giant-cane, Arundo gigantea (Arundinaria gigantea), is adequate to cover situations in which the Louisiana palmetto grows today; (7) The definite claim is made that it is a new species allied to, 1 DarBy. seit Time from end of drench ; EEE Se ee aa ee 1934 Nae ee to first to to giving Remedy Effect symptoms} collapse | remedy Aug. min. min. min. 29 1493 | 43.6 1 1.5 | 11.5 | lg nitrite & 2g thiosulphate| Died 29 1537 | 45.9 15 e703) 78 do Died 29 1487 | 39 0.5 2 1 do Survived 29 1485 | 39 1 Mod |) W225) do Died 29 1480 | 34.45) 1 2 3 do Survived 29 105A | 39.5 1 15 9.5 do Died 29 1509 | 43.1 pee Wah) Shore do Died 29 1488 | 45.45) 1.5 3 8 do Died 30 1467 | 40.8 1 15} || B65 do Survived 30 1479 | 41.2 2 4 18.5 do Survived 30 1482 | 31.7 5 Dye 4 do Survived 30 1526) | 37.5 1 3 5 do Died 30 100A | 35.8 15 2 6 do Died 30 101A | 34.9 1 2 7 do Died 30 USI) | Bats 1 3 5 do Died 30 1484 | 36.2 1 2 5 0.5g methylene blue | Died 30 103A | 34.9 15 2 7 do Died 30 1500 | 39.9 1 2 Uf do Died 30 1466 | 48.07} 1 2 4 do Died 1 Received January 3, 1935. 2 This JouRNAL 24: 369- 385, 528-532. 1934. 57 FEB 254 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 2 m.l.d. of potassium cyanide in cattle and 2.75 m.l.d. in sheep. It remained to determine how soon after the cyanide was given the rem- edy must be injected in order that the animal might survive. This paper records only the results obtained with sheep. The results are summarized in table 1. Nineteen experiments were performed with sheep of which 15 were given 1g of sodium nitrite and 2¢ of sodium thiosulphate in water solution, and four were given 50 c.c. each of 1 per cent methylene blue solution for comparison. As previously described the potassium cyanide was given by mouth. The dose of cyanide given was calculated to equal 1.5 m.l.d. or just high enough to ensure death in all cases and yet much smaller than the upper limit of possible protection (2.75 m.l.d.). The remedy was ad- ministered intraperitoneally at varying times following the comple- tion of the drenching. The animals exhibited the first symptoms, accelerated respiration, in from 4 to 2 minutes after the drench, averaging 72 seconds, and collapsed in 1.5 to 4 minutes after the drench averaging 132 seconds. Dyspnea was present in all cases at the time the remedies were injected and was very marked in the de- layed cases. Three cases were encountered in which the course of the poisoning was atypical. Sheep No. 1487 after showing symptoms in 4 minute and collapsing in 2 minutes after the drench, showed improvement, recovered consciousness, rolled upon the sternum and remained there. Six minutes later the sheep began to show dyspnea and one minute after was breathing with considerable difficulty. She was then given the combination remedy 12 minutes after the drench. Forty-eight minutes after the injection of the remedy she rose to her feet and shortly appeared fully recovered. Sheep No. 1467 behaved similarly. After collapsing the sheep re- mained down for 1.5 minutes and then got to her feet and remained standing for 20 minutes before lying down. The animal developed symptoms of dyspnea and 32.5 minutes after the drench was very sick. She was then given the remedy and improved, got on her feet in 51 minutes and recovered. Sheep No. 1479 likewise got to her feet after collapsing and remained standing for 6 minutes when she went down and became dyspneic. In 18.5 minutes after the drench the sheep was very sick. She was given the remedy, got back on her feet in 21 minutes and recovered. In the other cases more regularity was observed. There was a pro- gressive development of symptoms without periods of improvement be- fore the remedy was injected. When 3 and 4 minutes only had elapsed FEB. 15, 19385 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 59 between the completion of the drench and the administration of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination the sheep recovered. A longer interval was followed by death. As methylene blue has been recom- mended as a remedy, for purposes of comparison 4 sheep were treated with 50 c.c. of 1 per cent solution intraperitoneally at 4, 5, 7, and 7 minutes after the completion of the drench and all died. SUMMARY The combination of 1 gram sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate used as a remedy in cyanide poisoning is effective when administered promptly. The combination protected when injected intraperitoneally within 4 minutes after drenching an average sized sheep with 1.5 m.1l.d. of potassium cyanide, but did not protect after a longer interval except in the cases of unusually resistant sheep. One half of a gram of methylene blue in solution similarly administered did not protect in 4 minutes. Three sheep out of 19 showed atypical behavior when poisoned with the cyanide. ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Oochoristica from a skunk. Mary Scott SKINKER, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by E. W. Price.) Members of the genus Oochoristica are found in a wide range of vertebrate hosts, but they occur most frequently in reptiles. Meggitt (1934) gave a comparative table of most of the species of the genus; he did not include 5 species described by Harwood (1932) or O. parva (Sandground, 1926) Meggitt, 1934. He explained that the omission of O. parva was due to the fact that no description was available, and it is probable that none was available for the species described by Harwood. The description of O. thapari Johri, 1934 from Calotes sp. has been published since Meggitt’s paper appeared. Of the species included in Meggitt’s table, 5 (including O. parva) are from carnivore hosts. These 5 species and the one described in this paper represent the known species from carnivores; a comparative table of these is included. Family ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE Cholodkowski, 1902 Subfamily LINSTOWINAE Fuhrmann, 1907 Genus Oocuoristica Luehe, 1898 Generic diagnosis.—Genital pores usually unilateral, only infrequently irregularly alternating. Genital ducts passing between or dorsal to longitu- dinal excretory vessels. Longitudinal excretory vessels variable in number, 1 Received November 6, 1934. 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 frequently with secondary ramifications. Testes numerous, i.e., usually more than 10. Female reproductive organs median; uterus a transverse tube breaking up into egg capsules, each containing a single egg. Adults in pri- mates, carnivores, insectivores, edentates, marsupials, and reptiles; larval stages unknown. Oochoristica mephitis, n. sp. Scoler.—Maximum diameter 429 to 689u; suckers usually somewhat longer than wide; only rarely circular in outline, 159 to 220u long by 130 to 183 wide. General anatomy of strobila.—Length of gravid strobila 11 to 25 mm.; width usually variable, up to 1.3 mm. Neck (unsegmented region) present or absent according to state of contraction, if present usually only slightly Figs. 1-2.—Oochoristica mephitis. Fig. 1—mature segment. Fig. 2.—Region of genital atrium. Drawn from cross section. C., cirrus; C. P., cirrus pouch; G. A., genital atrium; L. Exe. V., longitudinal excretory vessel. narrower than greatest diameter of scolex. Segments about 40 to 70 in num- ber in strobilae with fully developed oncospheres; immature segments 20 to 40 in number, the posterior 5 to 10 segments showing only testes (ie., ovary not yet developed); fully mature segments 2 to 10 in number, usually about 3, these usually widest of strobila; gravid segments 7 to 23 in number, usually narrower than mature segments and usually longer than wide, some- times approximately square; in a specimen 11 mm. long, gravid segments 715 square. Genital papillae about one-third segment length from anterior margin in mature segments, usually in middle of segment margin in gravid segments. Genital atrium (Fig. 2) conspicuous, variable in shape, usually about 35 to 40u in greater diameter. Longitudinal excretory canals incon- spicuous and difficult to demonstrate in whole mounts, variable in number and arrangement, usually 4 to 6 (Fig. 1) on each side, most laterally situated canals usually about 110u from segment margin; transverse canals irregular in arrangement (Fig. 1) but tending to form a somewhat definite posterior canal in each segment. Longitudinal muscular layer poorly developed; trans- verse muscles scattered, few in number. Calecareous corpuscles few in the material available. Male reproductive system.—Testes 44 to 77 in number, sometimes slightly oblong, size varying with stage of development, actively functioning testes up to about 40u in greater diameter, distributed posterior and lateral to FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 61 ovary with tendency toward distribution in two groups in mature segments, poral group smaller, testes not extending laterad beyond most lateral ex- cretory canal. Cirrus pouch usually extending nearly to most lateral longi- tudinal excretory canal, usually approximately spherical, 55 to 65y in di- ameter, sometimes slightly greater in the diameter which lies along trans- verse axis of strobila. Vas deferens without coils in early development, in wide coils in mature segments, sometimes disappearing abruptly in early gravid segments, usually still visible in terminal segments, passing along the middle of ventral surface of ovary. Female reproductive system.—Ovary at first distinctly bilobed, later va- -riable in shape, but with tendency toward crescentic outline. Oviduct (Fig. 3) passing from middle of posterior margin of ovary to vagina, surrounded Lie Vas DEFERENS. —Tlomm. ee UTERINE STEM. serie Lan SEMINAL RECEPTACLE. ar oo4 r ” Uf} ----~--=-==---- 28 = === =~ =~ SHELL GLAND i ee jooseceeeessesssccces VITELLINE Duct, teeseeese ss oscseen set Set ease V1ITELLARIUM. Sterans OSoncnoaecatoo acest scoressssss VAS EFFERENS Boe Seb ea uses s Soe ce dL se See eee TESTIS. 3 Fig. 3—Oochoristica mephitis. Details of median reproductive organs. Ovary not fully developed. by large nucleated cells. Vitellarium at first erescentic in outline, later usu- ally irregular in outline, composed of numerous lobules made up of cells slightly smaller than those of ovary; vitelline duct surrounded by large nu- cleated cells. ‘Shell gland” (Fig. 3) approximately globular in shape, com- posed of (or surrounded by?) large cells. In a gravid specimen 11 mm. long with about 40 segments, other measurements as follows: Typical mature segment 1.23 mm. wide by 0.65 mm. long; ovary about 192 long and 192u wide; shell gland about 40u in diameter; vitellarium about 92u in diameter. Ovary not developing until after testes are well developed; ovary then de- veloping rapidly and disappearing abruptly at appearance of first eggs in uterus. Uterine stem passing from ‘“‘shell gland” along longitudinal axis of segment to a point approximately parallel to anterior edge of ovary, sur- rounded by relatively large nucleated cells; with further development, uter- ine stem (Fig. 3) bifureating anteriorly and forming a transverse tube, the tube eventually breaking down and egg capsules filling entire segment. Va- gina without coils, opening posterior to opening of cirrus sac. Seminal re- ceptacle conspicuous, about 145y to 185u long by 43yu to 50u in maximum width, dorsal to poral lobe of ovary, frequently visible along with vas def- re eT IEIIEET UEIIEIE ISSEY SISSIES GSS SsudIojJop SBA puL BUISGA U99MIOq [essoa dAIOU 04 jeraaes {ArBAo | AIOJOIOXO FEEL “491890 T\ [ery UeA 0} [e19yB, puB [81998] 0SZ 9°01] (9261 ‘punor3s ‘[Izvaig {sypwos DnsvN | ‘[BVSIOd | TEX FS | }Ueseld ro11a3sod {99-07 | puossg | 06 OFT 0gz2 |-0g9 =e -pueg) vawod “IaAB] IB[NGeI Sl -I1 9UO UI ‘AIBAO Jessoa -—O&81 *(BIS1O94)) 80}BIG 0} jereyRy] puvw | ArojoTOXE | GQ Aq 0ZZ| 689 GZ pogtuy Spppbuoja synydapy | [es1od 0g quosoig | 1o11eysod ‘¢y—pF | [B10}BT OT, |-GG -6S1I |-6Z>P @°L I-11 ‘ds ‘u sunydow "BISV *(Z6LT ‘WaV) VayNiavd DINPWOL) ("ez *(a0UBI YY) aroyds AIVAO (e1qQB edoing ‘f(‘qoayog snxn} -00U0) 0} j[etojyey, pue | -[fVAv sul | OST OZI 009 OST 6681 "W “uAg) sajaw sajayy jmeeMjeg 0& [wwg | roneysod :og—gz |-AeIp ON) |-OOT |-08 —0L6 ‘SIL ON ‘QOuVYy vsz0we ‘(wIsopoyy) votayy ‘["ds IOAV] O[SUIS UL xAuojo] Z) ,,,ds snis0ja0y7,, {sjossoa A10J010 “BOTISY [NOG (0g -xo puoseq sur jo uomg ‘(Sgst ‘ed aroyds -pue}xe ‘AIBAO -dny) sywoib 17)]2.10)D4) -00U0) 0} [e1eyB,] pueB F6L ‘lovg (-ddnyy) szponu6 sajsadayy | [es1od OF jyuosqy |1o11e9sod ‘QOT-66 | PAtoU OT, | 00Z — — Py | OOT SYUOULNAUYOL *‘(BIIOSIN) BOY {QT6T ‘seMoyy, tafwids “y Ay[e14 ‘(L061 ‘WoORYSNoIA, pus -U2AOSIOp Sd SseuUloyy,) snpnods ©210]97 7 -Avy] Z Ul ‘AIBAO JOSSOA ‘(uepnog) vouyy ‘ddny 0} ye1eyeT pue | A1oje1oxo LIB ‘Purjoyy snauinbuns sajsadiayT | [BStoq | 8X Lg —— ior1eysod £Q9-0G | [¥1}U9A OF, | 0ZS — | 062 e | 09 sysad.1ay JOssoa dAIOU A10{010X9 “BIPU] ‘(ET ‘WosspoH]) [OF [BSIOp AIBAO 0} | [B10}BT og'0 | OF PGT ‘491999 snyopundoinn sajsadiayy |: WeeMyog og quesqy | 1or1seysod ‘¢z-gz | puosog IIL GOL O12 |-St'O |-ST pyajaqsvyd wun ag Z - (el wy (ut) | (rut) f uu ML ono 909 “TUL Ul “UO UL AjTBIO] PUB §}SOH aeons ms eee ae Are eae Manacneay: Pat as alg tS . ee ae Sate soloadg Jo worye]axy jo qyaue7 | ojourerg | 10joureIC, SUUOAINUVO NI GNOOY VOIMSINOHOOY dO Salomdg FHAL—'T ATAVL FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 63 erens in terminal gravid segments. Eggs, when containing fully developed oncospheres, about 30u in diameter. Hosts.—Definitive: Mephitis elongata; intermediate: Unknown. Location.—Smaill intestine of definitive host. Disiribution.—United States (Georgia). Type specimen.—United States National Museum No. 32859, collected by Dr. Eloise Cram of the Zoological Division. Specific differentiation.—The present writer considers the number and ar- rangement of testes, the size of the cirrus pouch and its position with reference to the other genital organs and especially to the excretory canals and nerve, the presence or absence of a seminal receptacle, the type of genital atrium, i.e., whether massive or with relatively little musculature, the relative po- sition of the genital ducts and excretory canals, and the size of the egg the best characters for specific differentiation. Oochoristica mephitis may be sep- arated from the other members of the genus by comparison of the species with regard to these characters as shown in Meggitt’s table. In some cases such as O. cryptobothria (Linstow, 1906) La Rue, 1911 the description is so inadequate as to prevent comparison, but where relatively complete de- scriptions are given, one or more of the characters listed above will serve to separate all species from O. mephitis. The accompanying table gives only the species found in carnivores, and in it O. mephitis may be distinguished from O. amphisbeteta and from O. ichneumontis on the basis of the presence of a seminal receptacle in O. mephitis; in O. amphisbeteta the testes are dis- tributed lateral to the most lateral excretory canal, whereas in O. mephitis no testes lie outside the most lateral excretory canal. O. herpestis is a much larger worm than O. mephitis and the eggs also are larger. The conspicuous seminal receptacle in O. mephitis separates it from O. incisa which, accord- ing to Baer (1927), has only a very small one, and in O. incisa the genital ducts pass between the excretory vessels, while in O. mephitis they pass dorsal to the excretory vessels. O. parva may be distinguished from O. me- phitis by the testes in the former having a distribution (see table 1) quite unlike that in the latter, and by the cirrus pouch in the former extending well past the excretory vessels; the musculature of the genital atrium of the former also serves to differentiate it from other species. Meggitt (1934) pointed out that the number of testes and the size of the cirrus sac vary, and should, therefore, be regarded as not infallible specific characters. The present writer finds that an accurate count of testes can be made only in young segments before the testes have developed to a size which results in crowding. In O. mephitis the writer does not find the variation in the size of the cirrus pouch greater than the normal limits of variation for sucha character. It is, therefore, considered a relatively constant character. Meg- gitt cautioned against accepting unquestioningly the measurements of eggs and oncospheres since they vary according to the medium in which the eggs are measured. The measurements here given are for eggs mounted in bal- sam. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 The characteristic appearance of these specimens is that of thin, nearly translucent worms, with the width usually greatest in the region of the ma- ture segments, and the transition from mature segments to gravid segments so rapid as to seem abrupt. Discussion of table 1.—Meggitt (1934) considered O. amphisbeteta Meg- gitt, 1924 a synonym of O. erinacei Meggitt, 1920, but in the opinion of the present writer both these specific names are probably synonyms of O. incisa Railliet, 1899. Joyeux (1927) considered O. incisa very similar to O. erinacet and described the egg capsules of O. erinacei var. rodentium as 45y in di- ameter with the oncosphere 23u by 17y. Marotel (1899) described the egg capsules of O. incisa as 45y in diameter and the egg itself as 35y by 22y with the hooks of the embryo as 17y long. Meggitt (1934) did not give the egg size of either O. erinacei or O. amphisbeteta. Baer (1927) gave the diameter of the eggs of O. erinacei as 15y, and that of the eggs of O. amphisbeteta as 30u. With such conflicting data it is difficult to come to any conclusion other than that the measurement “‘15y”’ given by Baer is probably a typograph- ical error. The number of testes recorded by Meggitt (1924) for O. amphis- beteta is 22 to 24 and for O. erinacez is 30 to 50, but it is probable that these were counted in mature segments only, and judging from the variation found by the present writer in young segments of O. mephitis in which the testes could be accurately counted, variations from 22 to 50 is not beyond specific limits. It is on the authority of Baer (1927) that O. amphisbeteta is described as being without a seminal receptacle and O. incisa as having a small one. It seems quite possible, since Meggitt fails to state definitely that the seminal receptacle is absent in O. amphisbeteta, that a small one may be present but demonstrable only in sections or in well extended seg- ments. However, Meggitt described O. erinacei as being without a seminal receptacle, and since he later came to regard O. amphisbeteta as a synonym of O. erinacei for the present both species must be considered as lacking this structure. The specimens of O. incisa which were but 10 mm. long were regarded by Baer as a forma minor. The massive musculature of the genital atrium of O. parva (Sandground, 1926), Meggitt, 1934, appears to be a specific character which would serve to separate this species from other members of the genus. The specific name parva was proposed by Baylis (1929) for a member of the genus Oochoristica, but when Atriotaenia parva Sandground, 1926 was identified as belonging to the genus Oochoristica, it created the necessity of renaming Oochoristica parva Baylis, 1929. Dr. Baylis has suggested, in correspondence which the present writer had with him, that if necessary Oochoristica parva Baylis, 1929 be renamed Oochoristica lygosomatis, and he indicated his willingness to have the new name published by anyone in a position to express a defi- nite opinion that Sandground’s species is a member of the genus Oochoris- tica. Since Oochoristica parva (Sandground, 1926), Meggitt, 1934 possesses no FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 65 characters which serve to separate it from the genus Oochoristica, the pres- ent writer proposes the new name O. lygosomatis for O. parva Baylis, 1929. LITERATURE CITED Bazr, J. G. Contributions to the helminth fauna of South Africa. Thése (Neuchatel), 79 pp., 1 map, figs. 1-48. Pretoria. 1925. Monographie des cestodes de la famille des Anoplocephalidae. 241 pp., figs. 1-43, 1 fold. diagr., pls. 1—4, figs. 1-24. Paris. (Supplements au Bulletin Biologique de France et de Belgique, Suppl. 10.) 1927. Jouri, L. N. Report on a collection of cestodes from Lucknow (U. P. India). Ree. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 36: 153-177, figs. 1-138. 1934. JoYEUX, CHaRLES Epovuarp. Recherches sur las faune helminthologique algérienne (cestodes et trématodes). Arch. de I’Inst. Pasteur d’Algerie, Alger., 5: 509-529, lfig. 1927. Marotet, M. G. Sur un Téniadé du Blaireau. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par., 51: 21-23. 1899. Meseairt, F. J. On some tapeworms from the bullsnake (Pityopis sayi), with remarks on the species of the genus Oochoristica (Cestoda). Jour. Parasitol., 20: 181-189, fig. 1. 1934. ZOOLOGY.—A new species of amphipod of the genus Grandidierella and a new record for Melita nitida from Sinaloa, Mexico.1 CLaR- ENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Mary J. RaTHBuN.) In 1923 Mr. W. E. Chapman, American Consul, at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, sent some amphipods to the U. 8. National Mu- seum which were taken by Mr. Harry Notton in connection with the shrimp investigations which he was carrying on at Mazatlan. The material contained two species, Melita nitida Smith, which is re- ported for the first time from the west coast of America, and a spe- cies that I believe to be new to science and which I designate as Grandidierella nottont. GRANDIDIERELLA Coutiére, 1904 The first species of this genus, when described by Giles in 1888, was placed in the genus Microdeutopus with which it, however, did not agree by the possession of a uniramous third uropod. Coutiére in 1904, when he described his new species, mahafalensis, created the genus Grandidierella to receive it, and considered its affinities closer to the Corophiidae, in which family he placed it. Coutiére, and later Stebbing in 1908, called attention to the close alliance of Grandidierella with both Unciola and Chevreuxius, and Stebbing placed his new spe- cies, G. bonnieri, in the Corophiidae. Chilton (1921, p. 549) said, ‘The 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived December 8, 1934. 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 general resemblance of the animals to Microdeutopus and to Aora is so great that in my opinion the genus should be placed under the Aoridae. The third uropods certainly are one-branched, but I do not consider this sufficient to outweigh the resemblance in all other char- acters which, as will be seen from the following description, is very close.’’ He lays particular stress upon the resemblance of the first gnathopods of the male, the uropods, and the telson to those of Microdeutopus. Schellenberg (1925, p. 164) calls attention to the very indefinite limits of the family Corophiidae as established by Stebbing in Das Tierreich, and suggests the alteration of the family Aoridae to include genera with either biramous or uniramous third uropods in order to include the genus Grandidierella. In comparing Grandidierella with the genera now placed under the Corophiidae, there appear to be so many characters in common that it seems more natural to include it in this family rather than to alter the Aoridae for its reception. Grandidierella is depressed, possesses a very strongly developed second antenna in the male, has very small side- plates which are not in continuity, and has the third uropods uni- ramous. These characters are very strongly emphasized in Grandid- zerella elongata Chevreux (1925, p. 393, fig. 32) and in the present species, and are also possessed by the genera Corophium, Unciola, and Stphonoecetes. Chevreuxius, Ericthonius, Neohela, and Unciolella are depressed with small disconnected side-plates, and have uniramous third uropods, but without the strongly developed second antenna. Camacho is depressed and has the small disconnected side-plates, but has a minute second ramus to third uropods. Cerapus is depressed, has the separated side-plates, and uniramous third uropods, but has the first antennae strongly developed. In the genera Cerapus, Coro- phium, Ericthonius, and Siphonoecetes, the second gnathopods are larger than the first, but in Neohela, Unciola, Chevreuxius, and Un- ciolella the first gnathopods are larger than the second. In the genera Chevreuxius, Unciolella, and Grandidierella the first gnathopod of the male is strongly developed and very similar in structure, the fifth joint being enlarged with a short, transverse palm defined by a strong tooth at the lower distal extremity. The second gnathopods in these three genera are very similar in structure, being weak, slender, and subchelate. In the species of Grandidierella here described, besides other points of resemblance, the fifth or last peraeopod and the sec- ond antenna of the male bear a very close resemblance to Corophium; the fourth and fifth joints of this antenna bearing the characteristic distal tooth of that genus. FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 67 Chevreux (1925, p. 392), when describing his species, G. elongata, placed it in the family Corophiidae. In view of the foregoing considerations, it would seem more natural to place Grandidierella with other closely related genera in the family Corophudae rather than alter the characters of the family Aoridae to accommodate it. Grandidierella nottoni, n. sp. Male.—Head with lateral lobes well developed and bearing the ill de- fined, black eye. Antenna 1 with first joint stouter, but a little shorter than second, third joint about one-third the length of second, flagellum nearly Fig. 1.—Grandidierella nottoni, new species, male. a, anterior portion of animal. b, end of gnathopod 2, greatly enlarged. c, peraeopod 5, same scale asa. d, uropod 3, greatly enlarged. as long as peduncle and composed of fifteen joints, accessory flagellum mi- nute, about half the length of the first joint of primary flagellum. Antenna 2 robust, but slightly shorter than antenna 1, first and third joints very prominent and strongly developed, fourth joint very strongly developed and nearly twice as long as fifth, flagellum shorter than fifth joint and composed of two long joints and four shorter joints. The fourth and fifth joints of the second antenna of the male bear a distal tooth, thus completing the very close resemblance of this antenna to that of the male Corophium. The mouth- parts bear a very close resemblance to those figured by Coutiére (1904, p. 5, figs. 6-9) for G. mahafalensis. Gnathopod 1 is very robust and strong, the fifth joint being produced backward into a very prominent rounding lobe 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Fig. 2—Melita nitida Smith, male from Mazatlan. a, anterior portion of ani- mal. 6, posterior portion of animal. c, accessory flagellum, greatly enlarged. d, maxilla 1. e, maxilliped. f, gnathopod 1. g, gnathopod 2. h, inside of gnathopod 2 showing shallow groove bounded by spines into which the dactyl fits. 7, peraeopod 3, same scale as a and b. j, peraeopod 5, same scale as a and b. k, peraeopod 4 of female. Jl, uropod 3. ™m, telson. — FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 69 much as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and 10,0) for G. megnae but there is not the slightest suggestion of a forward-pointing tooth in the center of the palm either in young or old individuals, nor is the small tooth figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,e) on the posterior margin of the fifth joint present in any of these specimens from Mazatlan; the prominent tooth on the sixth joint of Chilton’s figures (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and 10,0) is not present in any of my specimens. Gnathopod 2 bears a close re- semblance to Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,2), except that in the pres- ent specimens the second joint is comparatively longer and slenderer and the palm is more nearly transverse. Peraeopods 1 and 2 bear a close resem- blance to those of the genera Microdeutopus and Corophium, but the seventh joint is as long as the sixth, as in Corophiwm. Peraeopods 8 to 5 increasing consecutively in length, peraeopod 5 closely resembling that of Corophium, the second joint bearing posterior plumose marginal setae. Side-plates all very shallow, narrower than their respective segments and not in conti- nuity. Pleon segments 1 to 3 with postero-lateral corners broadly rounding. Uropod 1 extending back slightly farther than 2, and the peduncle without a stout spine at distal extremity, as figured by Coutiére (1904, fig. 17) for G. mahafalensis. Uropod 2 extending back very slightly farther than 3. Tel- son wider than long, distally truncate, and having a small seta at either lateral corner. Length.—Male about 7 mm. The female in general like the male. Antenna 2 not so strongly developed, but the lower lateral margin of the head deeply incised to receive the en- larged first peduncular joint as in the male. The fourth joint of antenna 2 bears on the lower inner margin a distal forward-pointing spine and another similar spine nearer the proximal end. In younger females the distal spine only appears to be present. Gnathopod 1 not much larger than 2 and simply subchelate, the oblique evenly convex distal margin of the sixth joint form- ing the palm against which the seventh joint exactly fits. Gnathopod 2 like that of the male, though somewhat proportionately shorter. Peraeopods and uropods as in the male. Female about as long as male. Type.—Male, taken at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, February, 1923, by Harry Notton; water brackish, salinity, 13.5 per mill. U.'S.N.M. Cat. No. 69742. Chilton demonstrated that Grandidierella megnae (Giles) was subject to great variation in some of its characters, and concluded that G. mahafalen- sis Coutiére and G. bonnieri Stebbing were synonyms of Giles’s earlier spe- cies. Later authors have adopted Chilton’s view. Recently Dr. Stephensen (1933, pp. 484 and 446) has reported G. megnae as being extremely common in shallow salt-water pools, and in cisterns, on the islands of Bonaire and Curagao off the coast of Venezuela. As neither young nor old males of the present Mexican specimens show any vestige of a central palmar tooth, nor a tooth on the under side of the sixth joint of gnathopod 1, and as Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,c) of the second antenna of a mature male does not show the Corophium-like development of the present specimens, I have concluded that they represent a new species. 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 The collection of the U. 8S. National Museum contains specimens of what I believe to be G. megnae (Giles) from two new localities from the West Indian region. The first lot, consisting of males and females, was taken in February, 1933, by Mr. R. M. Bond from Etang Saumatre, a brackish lake of Haiti. The largest male, measuring about 5 mm. in length, has in gnathopod 1 only the rudiment of the central palmar tooth, no lower marginal tooth on fifth joint, and no tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint. The largest female with eggs bears on the lower inner margin of the fourth joint of antenna 2 four evenly placed forward-pointing spines. These spines are quite conspicuous, but apparently have not been mentioned in any of the descriptions heretofore. The second lot consists of three male specimens taken from the stomach of a flounder at Tortugas, Florida during the summer of 1933 by Dr. Harold W. Manter. The largest of the specimens has the first gnathopod nearly as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,f). It bears the small central palmar tooth and the small marginal tooth on the lower margin of the fifth joint, but lacks the tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint as does Chilton’s. The two smaller specimens bear the central palmar tooth, but not the small tooth on the lower margin. The largest specimen only retains one of the second antennae which appears to be much slenderer than that figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The first antenna of this male is considerably longer than the second and proportionately much slenderer than that figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The largest of the specimens measures about 3.5 mm. As far as we can learn from the published records of the genus Grandid- verella, it appears to inhabit mainly brackish waters. Tattersall records it from fresh water in China, Stephensen from slightly saline cistern water in Bonaire Island. The specimens from Tortugas, however, were found in the ordinary water of the Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream. The species here described, G. nottoni, was taken in brackish water, salinity 13.5 per mill. MELITA NITIDA Smith This species was described by Prof. S. I. Smith in 1873 from the coast of New England. Since then it has been reported from widely separated localities along the east coast of the United States as far south as Louisiana, by Paulmier (1905, p. 162), Holmes (1905, p. 505), Pearse (1912, p. 371), Fowler (1912, p. 187), and Kunkel (1918, p. 99). The present specimens taken in February, 1923, by Mr. Harry Notton are the first to be recorded from the west coast of America. In 1933 Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, while a member of the Hancock Galapagos Expedition, collected specimens at La Plata Island, Ecuador; Cocos Island, southwest of Costa Rica; and Bahia Honda, Panama. FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 71 In west coast specimens the flagellum of antenna 1 is a little shorter than the peduncle and not longer, as Smith (1873, p. 560) records of the New England specimens. The fourth joint of antenna 2 is slightly longer than the second joint of antenna 1 and not scarcely shorter, as stated by Smith. The seventh joint of gnathopod 1 of the male projects inward nearly at a right angle to the sixth joint, as recorded by Smith, but this joint is per- fectly developed to fit the palm, so it is probable that the animal has the ability to close it against the palm if necessary. In gnathopod 2 of the male, the dactyl closes against a row of short spines on the inside surface of the sixth joint. As in Smith’s specimens, the fifth pleon segment bears posteri- orly a row of three or four short spines on either side of the median dorsal line: In the female the sixth side-plate has the lower front corner produced into a peculiar and characteristic lobe much as that of Melita palmata (Montagu). The largest specimens that I have seen from the west coast of America measure about 6 mm., while Smith gives 7-9 mm. for the New England spec- imens. LITERATURE CITED CuHEVREUX, E. Voyage de la Goélette Melita aux Canaries et au Sénégal 1889-1890. Amphipodes. I.—Gammariens (Suite). Bull. Soc. Zool. France. 50: No. 10: 365- 398, figs. 13-35. 1925. Cuitton, C. Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Mem. Ind. Mus. Calcutta 5: 521-558, figs. 1-12. 1921. Coutirers, H. Sur un type nouveau d’amphipode Grandidierella mahafalensis prove- nant de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. philomath. ser. 9, 6: 1-11, figs. 1-2. 1904. Fowurr, H. W. Crustacea of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. New Jersey State Mus. for 1911: 35-461, pls. 1-150. 1912. Gites, G. M. VII.—WNatural history notes from H. M.’s Indian marine survey steamer “Tnvestigator.”” Commander Alfred Carpenter, R.N., D.S.O., commanding. No. 9. Further notes on the amphipoda of Indian waters. Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. 57: Pt. II, No. III: 220-254, pls. 6-12. 1888. Houmss, 8S. J. The amphipods of Southern New England. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. for 1904. 24: 457-529, text-figs. and pls. 1-18. 1905. Kunxet, B. W. The arthrostraca of Connecticut. State of Conn. State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 26: 1-261, figs. 1-84. 1918. Pautminr, F. C. The higher crustacea of New York City. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 91: Zool. 12: 117-189, figs. 1-59. 1905. Prarss, A. S. Notes on certain amphipods from the Gulf of Mexico, with descriptions of new genera and new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 43: 369-379, figs. 1-8. 1912. ScHELLENBERG, A. Crustacea VIII: Amphipoda. Beitraége zur Kenntnis der Meeres- fauna Westafrikas. 3: 113-204, figs. 1-27. 1925. Smita, S. I. in Verrini, A. E. Report upon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound and adjacent waters, with an account of the physical characters of the region. Rep. Commis. Fisheries for 1871 and 1872, Art. 18: 295-747, pls. 1-37. 1873. StperHEeNsEN, K. Fresh- and brackish-water amphipoda from Bonaire, Curagao, and Aruba. Zool. Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 415-436, figs. 1-8. 1933. SterHensen, K. Amphipoda from the marine salines of Bonaire and Curagao. Zool. Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 437-446, figs. 1-4. 1933. 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of blister beetle from Arizona.' yuIpO G. MaypELL.2, (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.) Epicauta crassitarsis, n. sp. Reddish pitchy brown, clothed with luteous or cinereoluteous pubescence; on each elytron a whitish longitudinal line. Head black, shining, coarsely but sparsely punctate and clothed with a sparse pubescence; median line distinct; eyes large, feebly emarginate anteriorly, coarsely granulated; antennae dark brown, the first joint enlarged apically, reddish except the apex and provided with rather long cinereous hairs, the second joint with the basal half reddish, the third joint elongated not quite as long as the first two combined, the following decreasing in length and somewhat flattened apically. Prothorax subquadrate, a little longer than wide, parallelsided in three-fourths of the length; median line distinct, punctation and pubescence the same as on the head. Elytra parallelsided, finely punctate-granulate; on each elytron a narrow median line of lighter pubescence not quite reach- ing the apex; the sutural, apical and lateral margins also whitish. Abdomen and sterna black, the legs reddish, both sparsely clothed with cinereous pubescence. The hind tibial spurs stout, acuminate to the tip. Length 10-11 mm. Male.—Anterior tibiae with a single short and curved terminal spur. The tarsi of the intermediate legs with the three basal joints bulb-like, enlarged; the first joint the largest and curved in its basal half. Female——The anterior tibiae bicalearate; the tarsi of the intermediate legs normal. Type.—Male, Tempe, Ariz., Sept. 7, 1933, K. B. McKinney (4-145); 3 paratypes, 1 male, 2 females, labelled in the same way, all in the collection of the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. [Just before his death a supplementary series of this species, 20 speci- mens, was received from the same source, but collected by Mr. McKinney on alfalfa Sept. 20, 1934, about a year after the type series above described. Mr. Maydell unfortunately had no opportunity to reconsider his first draft based on only the four above listed types. H.S.B ZOOLOGY.—New nematodes of the genus Longistriata in rodents.’ G. Dixmans, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by Maurice C. Hatt.) Longistriata musculi, n. sp. Figs. 1-7. Specific diagnosis—Longistriata: Worms small, with anterior end of body usually coiled in a loose spiral. Cephalic cuticle slightly inflated and marked with annular striations, inflation extending for a distance of 65 to 75y; beyond this point a cuticular expansion marked by longitudinal striae in- 1 Received December 3, 1934. * During the few days before his sudden death on September 28, 1934, Mr. Maydell had been adding to his manuscript revision of the Meloid genus Epicauta from the data assembled in the U. S. National Museum. The abrupt termination of his labor leaves this revision uncompleted. Among his last written additions the following de- scription of a peculiar southwestern species about which he had spoken with much interest is complete and ready for publication. H. S. Barber. 3 Received December 11, 1934. FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 73 creasing in number from anterior to posterior end. Immediately posterior to cervical inflation longitudinal striae numbering about 6 to 8; in posterior portion striae numbering about 18 to 20, all striae being marked by fine cross striations. Head rounded; mouth and circumoral papillae inconspicu- ous. Esophagus 320 to 450u long by 30 to 40u wide in its terminal portion. Nerve ring near middle of esophagus. Excretory pore near beginning of posterior fourth of esophagus. Male 3.25 to 4.5 mm. long by 95 to 100u in maximum diameter immedi- ately anterior to bursa. Bursa relatively large and symmetrical. Ventro- ventral ray shortest and slenderest, and externo-dorsal longest and thickest, of paired rays; remaining paired rays about equal in size; tips of rays ap- proximately equidistant at margin of bursa except for postero-lateral and externodorsal, these rays approximated to each other. Dorsal ray divided into 2 branches in its distal third, each branch again dividing near tip, ex- ternal branch of second bifurcation longer than inner branch. Spicules 390 to 420u long, straight and filiform, with triangular enlargement at distal ends. Gubernaculum absent. Female 4.25 to 6.75 mm. long and about 100 to 160 wide in region of proximal portion of ovejector. Ovejector single, stout, muscular, about 100y long. Vulva to anus, 90u; anus to tip of tail, 30u. Eggs 55 to 60u long by 30 to 32u wide. Host.—Mus musculus. Location.—Smaill intestine. Locality.—Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A. Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30456. Figs. 1-7.—Longistriata musculi. Fig. 1. Lateral view of bursa. Fig. 2. Dorsal rays of bursa. Fig. 3. Terminal portion of spicules. Fig. 4. Anterior portion of head. Fig. 5. Anterior portion of body. Fig. 6. Posterior portion of body of female, showing pyslector: Fig. 7. Posterior portion of body of female, showing longitudinal striations of cuticle. Figs. 8-12.—Longistriata norvegica. Fig. 8. Posterior portion of body of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 9. Anterior portion of body, showing cuticular inflation. Fig. 10. Terminal portion of spicule. Figs. 11 and 12. Bursa. 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Longistriata norvegica, n. sp. Figs. 8-12. Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually coiled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation characteristic of this group of nematodes, about 75 to 80u long by 25 to 30 wide, the anterior widest portion marked by an- nular striations. Width of head, exclusive of inflation, about 1l6u. Cuticle of body inflated and marked by longitudinal striae, each striation showing cross striations. Esophagus 275 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its distal portion. Nerve ring about 150 to 175y, and excretory pore about 20 to 27p, anterior to termination of esophagus. Male about 4 to 4.5 mm. long by 45 to 50u wide just anterior to bursa. Cuticular inflation extending on ventral side of body to within 30 to 35yu anterior to commencement of bursa. Bursa symmetrical, with 2 lateral lobes and 1 dorsal lobe. Spicules 350 to 375y long, filiform, distal ends divided into 2 branches enclosed in a sheath. Gubernaculum absent. Ventro-ventral ray shortest and slenderest of the paired rays, directed forward and widely separated from latero-ventral ray. Latero-ventral, externo-lateral and me- dio-lateral rays of about equal thickness and length, the first 2 being par- allel and diverging only slightly in their distal portions; externo-lateral the thickest ray; medio-lateral ray the longest ray and directed straight towards margin of bursa. Postero-lateral ray originating from a common stem with medio-lateral and directed dorsally; these two rays widely separated at their tips. Externo-dorsal rays and dorsal ray originating from a common stem, the former being very slender and curving outward from dorsal; stem of dorsal very wide and bifurcating at middle; each branch divided at tip, outer branch longer than inner. None of rays reaching margin of bursa. Females 5 to 5.5 mm. long and about 90y wide in region of vulva. Single ovejector, including sphincter, about 100u long by 40u wide. Vulva about 100. from anus; anus about 30, from tip of tail; tip of tail narrowing ab- ruptly about 5u from end and terminating in a conical, blunt point. Eggs 60 to 65u long by 30 to 35y wide. Host.—Rattus sp. Location.—Small intestine. Locality.— Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A. ee specimens.—U. 8S. National Museum Helminthological Collection 0. 30457 The nematode here described under the name of Longistriata norvegica is very similar to the nematode described by Chandler (2) as Longistriata adunca from the cotton rat, Sigmidon hispidus. Chandler, however, de- scribed an accessory piece or gubernaculum as being present in the nema- tode described by him. No such structure has been observed in the nematode described here as Longistriata norvegica. The writer, therefore, must accept Chandler’s description as correct, pending some reexamination of his mate- rial or a comparative study of these two nematodes. Longstriata carolinensis, n. sp. Figs. 13-17. Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually rolled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation about 50u long by 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated and marked with distinct longitudinal striations or bands, these in turn dis- tinctly marked with cross-striations. Head rounded, mouth opening and circumoral papillae inconspicuous. Esophagus 280 to 310u long by 35 to FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 75 40u wide in its terminal portion. Excretory pore about 120 anterior to ter- mination of esophagus. Nerve ring slightly anterior to excretory pore. Male 2.7 to 3 mm. long and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter immediately anterior to bursa. Bursa symmetrical, 125 to 130u long and 225 to 250u wide when fully expanded. Ventro-ventral rays short and slender, directed forward; latero-ventral ray widely separated from and somewhat larger than ventro-ventral ray and also directed forward; externo-lateral, thickest of the paired rays, widely separated from latero-ventral, but parallel to medio- o1nmmM Figs. 13-17.—Longistriata carolinensis. Fig. 13. Posterior portion of male, showing spicules and gubernaculum. Fig. 14. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 15. Bursa. Fig. 16. Posterior portion of female, showing relative positions of vulva andanus. Fig. 17. Posterior portion of female. Figs. 18-20.—Longistriata dalrymplet. Fig. 18. Posterior portion of female, show- ing ovejector. Fig. 19. Posterior portion of male, showing bursa and spicules. Fig. 20. Anterior portion showing cuticular inflation. lateral except at tip, here the latter two rays diverging slightly, externo- lateral bending ventrad and medio-lateral running straight toward margin of bursa; postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and di- rected posteriorly to margin of bursa, the tips of these rays widely sepa- rated, all these rays reaching margin of bursa. Externo-dorsal rays originat- ing separately from dorsal ray; dorsal ray divided into rather long branches, each of these bifurcated at tip; branches of bifurcation equal in size. Spicules 400 to 450u long, filiform, with expanded proximal ends. Gubernaculum about 25uilong by 15u wide. Female about 3.5 mm. long. Ovejector single, about 80u long. Vulva 60 to 65u from anus; tip of tail 40 to 50u from anus. Tail narrowing abruptly shortly before its termination and ending in a blunt point. Eggs 58y long by 30 to 35u wide. Hosts.—Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse), and Microtus ochrogaster (Prairie meadow mouse). Location.—Small intestine. 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Localities —Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina, and Vincennes, Indiana, U.S. A. Type specimen.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30458. Longistriata dalrymplei, n. sp. Figs. 18-20. Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, usually rolled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation 45 to 60u long by 27 to 43u wide. Cutic- ular inflation with prominent longitudinal lines marked with cross-stria- tions. Esophagus about 250 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its terminal portion. Position of nerve ring and excretory pore not determined owing to condition of specimens. Male 3.7 to 4 mm. long and 40 to 50u wide in maximum diameter. Bursa symmetrical, about 1254 long and 300u wide when fully expanded. Ventro- ventral ray directed forward and widely separated from latero-ventral ray at the tip; latero-ventral ray slender and pointed, directed ventrad and ex- tending to margin of bursa; externo-lateral thickest of bursal rays, directed toward lateral margin of bursa, but bending slightly forward before reach- ing margin. Medio-lateral ray straight and directed toward margin of bursa; postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and directed dorsad, tips of two latter rays far apart. Externo-dorsal ray slender, originating from dorsal ray 30u from its base; dorsal ray about 75y long, dividing into 2 branches about 20u from distal end, each branch bifurcating at the tip; outer secondary branch longer than inner branch. Spicules straight, fili- form, 340 to 360u long. Gubernaculum small, almost colorless, about 25 to 30u long by 154 wide. Genital cone well developed and prominent. Female 4 to 4.7 mm. long, and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter in region of ovejector. Ovejector single, well developed, about 100u long. Vulva to anus, 50 to 60u; anus to tip of tail, 40 to 60u. Tail ending in a sharp point. Eggs 55 to 65y long and 35 to 40y wide. This nematode closely resembles Longistriata vexillata (Syn. Heligmoso- mum vexillatum Hall, 1916). It differs from the latter in the possession of a ~ gubernaculum, in the absence of spurs on the dorsal ray between the origin of the externo-dorsal rays and the bifurcation, and in the absence of maculae on the bursal membrane. Hosts—Ondatra zibethica (Muskrat) and Mrucrotus pennsylvanicus (Meadow mouse). Location.—Small intestine. Localities —New Jersey, Indiana, and Minnesota, U.S. A. Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30459. Longistriata noviberiae, n. sp. Figs. 21-27. Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, spirally coiled, bright red in color when freshly collected. Cephalic cuticle slightly in- flated, showing distinct transverse striations; inflation 45 to 60u long by 25 to 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated, showing longitudinal striae marked with cross-striations. Esophagus 270 to 300u long by 25 to 32u wide near its termination. Nerve ring 165 to 175u from anterior end. Excretory pore situated from 15y anterior to 25u posterior to termination of esophagus. FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA a Male 4 to 5 mm. long by 55 to 654 in maximum diameter. Bursa sym- metrical, about 130 to 150u long and 240 to 2604 wide when expanded. Ventral rays of approximately the same size, divergent at tips and directed forward, reaching margin of bursa; latero-ventral ray terminating in a slight projection on bursal margin; externo-lateral and medio-lateral rays close together and parallel for greater part of their length, diverging near Figs. 21-27.—Longistriata noviberiae. Fig. 21. Female. Fig. 22. Bursa. Fig. 23. Terminal portion of female. Figs. 24 and 26. Anterior portion of body, showing cerv- icalinflation. Fig. 25. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 27. Male. their termination; externo-lateral ray bending sharply ventrad, and medio- lateral ray continuing straight to bursal margin; postero-lateral ray origi- nating from medio-lateral ray, diverging sharply from latter, and directed dorsad, reaching posterior margin of bursa, tips of these two rays widely separated; externo-dorsals originating from a common stem with the dorsal ray and approaching posterior margin of bursa in close proximity to termina- tion of postero-lateral rays; dorsal ray bifurcated, forming 2 fairly widely divergent branches, the latter also bifurcating to form 2 terminal branches. Bursal margin slightly indented in region of dorsal ray. Spicules slender, filiform and equal, 420 to 430u long. Gubernaculum present, about 35u long by 15y wide. Female 5.5 to 6.5 mm. long by 75 to 80u wide in region of vulva. Tail pointed and bent sharply ventrad in all specimens examined. Vulva with 2 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 prominent lips, about 100 to 120y from tip of tail; anus 45 to 55 from tip of tail. Ovejector single, about 165y long. Eggs 70 to 75y long by 35 to 40 wide. Host.—Rabbits (probably Sylvilagus floridanus alacer and Sylvilagus palustris littoralis). Location.—Small intestine. Locality. Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A. Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30460. THE GENUS LONGISTRIATA In their key to the genera of the family Heligmosomidae, Yorke and Maplestone (1926), regard the spiral rolling of the body as a generic char- acter, and on the basis of that character they separate the genera Helig- mosomum and Viannaia. The acceptance of this feature as a character of generic value has led to confusion and has resulted in the inclusion in the genus Viannaia of nematodes which obviously do not belong to it. Schulz (4) proposed, therefore, the subgenus Longistriata in the genus Viannaia to include those nematodes in which the body is spirally rolled as in Viannaza, and in which there are comparatively long spicules and a cuticle distinctly marked with longitudinal striations as in Heligmosomum. Travassos and Darriba (6), after noting that the spiral rolling of the body cannot be con- sidered as a distinguishing character, raised Schulz’s subgenus Longistriata to the status of a genus, with Longistriata depressa (= Strongylus depressus Dujardin, 1845) as type, transferred several nematodes placed by Travassos (1921) in the genus Heligmosomum to the genus Longistriata, and made the genus Heligmonella Monnig, 1927, a synonym of the genus Viannella Tra- vassos, 1918. The genus Heligmonella was created by Monnig (3) with the following diagnosis: ‘‘Heligmosominae: body red, spirally coiled, cuticle with marked longitudinal striations; cephalic cuticle inflated and transversely striated. Male: bursa with ventral rays separate and diverging, postero-lateral di- verging from externo- and medio-lateral, externo-dorsal arises from a com- mon dorsal trunk, dorsal bifurcated near its extremity, the branches also bifurcated; spicules slender, gubernaculum distinct. Female: vulva near anus, a single uterus. Parasites in stomach and intestine of rodents.” The genus Heligmonella differs, therefore, markedly from the genus Vian- nava in the character of the spicules and in the course and direction of the bursal rays, and its proposed inclusion in the genus Viannaia appears to be unwarranted. The genera Longistriata and Heligmonella resemble each other in the possession of (1) transversely striated cephalic inflation, (2) an expanded and longitudinally striated cuticle, (3) comparatively long and slender spicules, and (4) comparably directed bursal rays, and on the basis of these resemblances the genus Heligmonella is here made a synonym of the genus Longistriata. FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 79 Baylis (1) described a number of new species in the genus Heligmonella. These species also are here transferred to the genus Longistriata. It is recognized that the nematodes described in this paper as Longistriata muscult, L. norvegica and L. carolinensis, while resembling other members of the genus Longistriata in the possession of an inflated and transversely striated cephalic cuticle, an expanded and longitudinally striated body cuticle, and long and slender spicules, differ from each other and from other members of this genus in the character and direction of the bursal rays, and that their inclusion in this genus may seem to be unwarranted. However, since only a limited amount of material was available for study it was not considered desirable to create new genera for them at the present time. Heligmostrongylus hassalli Price, 1928, also is here placed in the genus Longistriata because in all other species of the genus Heligmostrongylus the dorsal ray is completely doubled and in Heligmostrongylus hassalli this feature is absent. The generic diagnosis is amended as follows: LONGISTRIATA Generic diagnosis.—Heligmosomidae: Body more or less strongly rolled in a spiral. Cephalic cuticle inflated, marked with annular striations. Cuticle of body expanded and distinctly marked with transversely striated lon- gitudinal lines, continuous or interrupted at intervals. Bursa symmetrical or asymmetrical, with well developed single bifurcated dorsal ray. Spicules comparatively long and slender. Gubernaculum present or absent. Female with well developed single ovejector close to posterior end of body. Vagina short. Vulva close to anus. Type species.—Longistriata depressa (Duj., 1845). KEY TO SPECIES OF LONGISTRIATA 1. Gubernaculum present and well developed......................--- 2 Gubemacuilumpabsentienmudimentanya sme teres ae ae 16 2. Longitudinal striae interrupted at regular intervals....... L. hassalli Honertudimalistriae continous.) ce oe oe sit eo oteted eee 3 So Gubermeacnlum asyammetrical. “2... 3.2. oa. nae L. seurate GuberiacwlumrsyANINSLMCA ys 00s. ae ch du sa eee oR Re oot 4 APE SPICULES Melas TIN w LOM Ggair, soucyle Be Las atys oe. . ceo etary L. monnigt Spicules varying in length from 230 to 450yu.....................--- 5 5. Dorsal margin of bursa deeply indented.................. L. cristata Dorsal margin of bursa only slightly indented or without indentation. .6 6. Externo-dorsal rays originating separately from dorsal ray........... 5S Atcuies PRONG Tie TURNER OREN Ss ce: SS eee 7 SO ey ae L. carolinensis Cio, LBAUIGSED, Bash ans eA Scie) Ee Nee eh ee eg a 8 JBXUIERS EER GrnNga CS H tells ape pene A eae ce eee, ee 9 80 14. 15. 16. Wi: 18. fo? 20. 21. 22. 23. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Bursa large, 500 to 600u wide; branches of dorsal ray close together and each provided with 2 terminations............. L. streptocerca Bursa about 2504 wide; branches of dorsal ray fairly wide apart and each provided with 3 terminations................. L. trifurcata Branches of dorsal ray as long as or longer than main stem.L. intermedia Branches of dorsal ray shorter than main stem................... 10 . Externo-dorsal rays very slender..................... L. dalyrmplet Externo-dorsal rays comparatively stout... ./....... 2.5 a) =e 11 . Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................: L. wolgaense Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal... -> 2°22... .--> eee 12 . Males 2.6 to 3.25 mm. long; females 3.4 to 3.9mm. long............. 13 Males 3.8 to 5.5 mm. long; females 5.5 to 9.2 mm. long............. 14 . Spicules 400u long by 4 to 5yu wide; vulva 120 from tail end. L. affinis Spicules 230 to 280u long by 2.5 wide; vulva 150yu from tail end..... er em OME eres teh hdog 9 PASS Se oes L. gracilis Spicules 270 to 360u long; vulva 150y from tail end....... L. impudica Spicules 410 to 430u long; vulva either 120u or 165y from tail end... .15 Spicules 410y long; vulva 165y from tail end; ovejector 310y long..... s Be ' W e Sig ok Soe eae L. spira Spicules 420 to 430u long; vulva 120u from tail end; ovejector 165y LOWE Sie oo soe care Rete: heeled ona os Ste ee eae ee L. noviberiae Dorsal ray with accessory branch.....>. +522 see eee ee L. vexillata Dorsal ray without accessory branchy. 1+... .-.. > 4-2 eee 7, Stem of dorsal ray 20, wide... ./2-2.0 ee eee L. norvegica Stem of dorsal ray 5 to 15 wide. ....... °.2 22 ae 18 Externo-dorsal rays largest of bursal rays; distal ends of spicules en- Jargedis. oui: vc cp5toa/ane ee ketenes ce eee L. muscula Externo-dorsal rays larger than some and smaller than other bursal rays; distal ends of spicule not enlarged...................-- 19 Spicules 600 to S00p lone... -. 26a. 2 ese eee 20 spicules 340 to 5602 longs. 42. . 7. ee eee eee 22 Dorsal ray doubled for more than half its length... . .L. nematodiriforme Dorsal ray divided into 2 branches, each less than half the length of dorsal, Taye. 25 oie ec dot Ce ee eer eee Pei Externo-dorsal ray very slender; inner branch of terminal bifurcation of dorsal ray with slight projection................. L. didelphe Externo-dorsal ray stout; inner branch of terminal bifurcation of dorsal ray without projection:.../.0.c).- 2 eee eee ee eee L. alpha Terminal branches of dorsal ray not divided.............. L. gamma Terminal branches of dorsal ray divided................--++----+- 23 Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................---. L. delta Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal, outer branch longer. L. beta Longistriata adunca Chandler, 1932, is similar to L. norvegica, differing only in the presence of a gubernaculum described for L. adwnca. FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 81 LITERATURE CITED (1) Bayuts, H. A. On a collection of nematodes from Nigerian mammals (chiefly rodents). Parasitology 20: 280. 1928. (2) CHanpuER, A.C. A new species of Longistriata (Nematoda) from the cotton rat, Sigmidon hispidus, with notes on the division of the Heligmosominae into genera. Jour. Parasitol. 19: 25. 1932. (8) Monnic, H. O. Ona new Physaloptera from an eagle and a trichostrongyle from the cane rat, with notes on Polydelphis quadricornis and the genus Spirostrongylus. Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa 16: 262. 1927. (4) Scuunz, R. Ep. Zur Kentniss der Helimninthenfauna der Nagetiere der U.S.S.R. Proc. Gov. Exper. Vet. Inst. 4: 5. (In Russian with German Summary) 1926. (5) Travassos, Lauro. Contribuigoes para o conhecimento da fauna helmintolojica brasileira. Ensaio monografico da familia Trichostrongylidae Leiper, 1909. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 13: 5-125. 1921. (6) Travassos, L., » Darripa, A. R. Notas sobre Heligmosominae. Sciencia Med- ica 7: 432. 1929. BOTAN Y.—Certain Desmonci (Palmae) of Central America and Mex- ico,| H.H. Barruert, University of Michigan.’ The genus Desmoncus provides one of the characteristic features of tropical American vegetation. It is often remarked that in the west- ern hemisphere the Desmonci take the place of the far more viciously armed climbing palms of the Oriental tropics, such as Calamus and Daemonorops, which are systematically not closely related, but in their climbing habit, armature, and ecological relations offer some points of resemblance. To secure specimens of the climbing palms takes much of a col- lector’s time and effort, since they are often not found in fertile con- dition or easily secured even if found, because of their spininess and difficulty of disengaging them from the limbs of the trees through which they clamber. Good specimens are therefore disproportionate- ly rare in our herbaria, in consideration of their importance in the composition of the tropical forest. Many of the described species are inadequately known, and it has become customary to use a few names as catch-alls for very distinct plants. It appears that the species of Desmoncus are in reality rather local in distribution, and that much careful work on the part of collectors and herbarium botanists will be required to ascertain their ranges and characteristics. In British Honduras and Guatemala the writer came in contact with a group of Desmonci related to D. chinantlensis Liebm., which 1 Received November 20, 1934. 2 Papers from the Department of Botany and the Herbarium of the University of Michigan, no. 508. 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 was described from Mexico and remains very inadequately known. These related plants of northern Central America are called “‘basket tie-tie’’ or “basket whist’? by the inhabitants of British Honduras and ‘‘bayal”’ by the Spanish-speaking people and the Maya. In Brit- ish Honduras any vine is a “‘tie-tie,’”? and the Desmonci are the par- ticular ‘‘tie-ties’’ of which baskets are made—whence the name. Either there are many local species with rather slight distinc- tions, as the writer believes, or else there is a very wide-spread species, Desmoncus chinantlensis Liebm., made up of a group of va- rieties, or (as some botanists might even conclude) of taxonomically negligible variations. Several of these minor species are here describ- ed. There are indications in the herbaria that other species of the same order of distinctness remain to be described, but unfortunately entirely satisfactory material is lacking. In addition to the species related to D. chinantlensis there are others farther south in Central America which have quite different relation- ships. It is evident that the alliance of D. chinantlensis does not hold the field alone much south of Guatemala, although Bailey’ found a species in Panama which he has tentatively referred to it. There is some question as to the interpretation of Liebmann’s D. chinantlensis which might best be cleared up by renewed collecting and study at the type locality. Bailey refers to a sheet at Copenhagen as the type specimen (Liebmann no. 6595), and remarks that it does not agree with two specimens in the United States National Her- barium (Liebmann nos. 6594 and 6596). Since the original description (Martius, Historia Palmarum 3: 321. 1850) cites no specimen what- ever, it seems best to typify the species by a specimen or specimens conforming as closely as possible with the original description, and from this standpoint the specimens in the United States National Herbarium may be fairly viewed as cotypes. I have considered them as such in my interpretation of the species. The justification for so doing lies in the fact that the Desmoncus from Barro Colorado Island, Panama, which Bailey figures and which agrees with the particular Liebmann specimen (no. 6595) that he regards as the type of D. chin- antlensis, does not conform to the original description. It appears to lack the beard of spines on the upper side of the base of the leaflet, which is characteristic of the entire alliance of D. chinantlensis, and which Liebmann refers to in the description (“‘pinnis . . . antice juzta nervum aculeatis’’). Bailey’s Barro Colorado plant also agrees with Liebmann’s no. 6595 in having “‘thin, not stiffly veined glabrous pin- ° Barney, L. H. Certain palms of Panama. Gentes Herbarum 3: 31-116. 1933. FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 83 nae 8 inches or less long.’’ On the contrary, the two Liebmann spec- imens in the National Herbarium have, as Bailey says, “different looking, very costate pinnae and much smaller spines.” Referring again to Liebmann’s original description, we find that the lower leaf- lets should be 9 inches long, not 8 or less, and that the pinnae should be strongly plicate (‘“‘pinnis ... valde plicatis’’) rather than ‘‘thin, not stiffly veined.” Furthermore, Liebmann describes a type with dimorphic spines on the petioles and lower rhachis, and with the leaf- lets irregularly aggregated, whereas Bailey’s species, which agrees with Liebmann 6595, has (according to the figure) spines of a single type and pinnae ‘‘mostly opposite or subopposite.”’ In view of the discrepancies between Bailey’s plant and the Liebmann description of D. chinantlensis, I have preferred to interpret the latter as being really represented by Liebmann’s nos. 6594 and 6596 in the United States National Herbarium. The entire alliance of Desmoncus chinantlensis lacks hooked prick- les, has a beard of aciculae on the upper surface of the leaflet near the base, and is presumably characterized by nine rather than six stamens, although not all of the species are known from flowering specimens. Leaving out a couple of species which are doubtless dis- tinct, but of which the material is inadequate for description, the group may be arranged as follows: Corolla of female flower containing at one side of the ovary a fimbriate, oblong, basally attached scale as long as the corolla lobes; leaflets only OO Ute ae CHAR O TOA: A avelse swat oo 4scre maha eee: Eien as D. anomalus Corolla of female flower containing no such scale; leaflets over 2.5 cm. broad. Axis and branches of inflorescence thick and somewhat fleshy.......... Siocc B.S Bae Ger Poe Aer ae Damen Ct cee ene Sher ir ee PRR D. chinantlensis Axis and branches of inflorescence thin, not fleshy. Rhachis even if short-aciculate also armed below the middle with a few distant retrorse or subretrorse spines which are the longest ones on the plant. Inferior spathe aciculate: female flowers with annuliform-cupulate calyx, very obtusely 3-apiculate and corolla broader than high, nearly evenly truncate, but sharply though minutely 3-apic- WHEN og Pi Lies tee On en ....D. Lundell Inferior spathe entirely or nearly unarmed: female flowers with acutely triangular-cupulate calyx and corolla higher than broad with margin 3-apiculate from deep rounded sinuses......... by eta: enone ober obese hh, Ne rab fy Sow, | Se aba cols D. quasillarius Rhachis sparsely to densely aciculate with spines no longer than those on other parts of the plant, and not clearly dimorphic. 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Inferior spathe almost unarmed............... D. uaxactunensis Inferior spathe aciculate: corolla of female flower broader than high, obtusely 3-apiculate with shallow obtuse sinuses.....D. ferox Desmoncus anomalus sp. nov. Seandens pergracilis. Vaginae pars superior (ochrea) 12 mm. diam., 22 em. longa albida, cinnamomeo-furfuracea, subappresse aciculata, aciculis majoribus 8 mm. longis, juventate ferrugineo-pubescentibus. Petiolus 1.5 em. longus, debiliter et breviter aciculosus. Rhachis petiolo similis 165 em. longa subtus subinermis, furfuracea, supra sparsim armata, aciculis majori- bus 12 mm. longis. Foliola utrinque ca. 19, basi debiliter aciculata inferiora ca. 22 em. longa, 7 mm. lata in filum attenuata; mediocria ca. 21 em. longa, 10-12 mm. lata; superiora 24 cm. longa, 8 mm. lata, caudato- acuminata. Foliolorum paria intermedia in uncos transeuntia reflexa, ca. 14 em. longa, 2 mm. lata. Uncorum paria 10 debilia, inferiora ca. 12 cm. inter se distantia, 6 cm. longa, superiora 1.5 em. distantia, 2.5 em. longa. Cirrhus omnino inermis. Spatha inferior 28 em. longa, 14 mm. lata, sparsis- sime breviterque appresso-aciculata. Rami fertilis pars inter spathas 29 em. longa, 10 mm. lata, compressa, sparsim appresso-aciculata. Spatha superior deest. Pedunculus 6 cm. longus, aciculas 4-10 mm. longas ferens. Rhachis ramifer 20 em. longa, albida, sparse ferrugineo-furfuracea; ramis floriferis ca. 35 valde flexuosis, inferioribus 12 em. longis. Flores inferiores terni, bracteolis 1 vel 3 firmis brevissimis anguste lunulatis vel canaliculiformibus apiculatis subtenti. Flores feminei centrales; gamopetali et gamosephaili. Calyx subannuliformis vel circumscriptione rotundato-triangulus, angulis obtusissimis rotundatis. Corolla (solum vetusta fructibus delapsis visa) obtusissime apiculata, unilateraliter includens squamam lobis corollae 2.2 mm. longis propriis aequilongam et 2 mm. latam apice fimbriatam. Stami- nodia vestigialia basi corollae connata. Pistillum et fructus desunt. Flores masculi omnes delapsi sed eorum cicatrices in ternis inferioribus laterales et in ramorum apicibus singuli. Specimen typicum in U. 8. Nat. Herb. in Guatemala legerunt O. F. Cook et C. B. Doyle, no. 97, ad Secanquim, in Alta Vera Paz. Desmoncus Lundellii sp. nov. Scandens caule sursum vaginis tecto 2.5 em. diam. nudato ca. 1.7 em. Folia caulem imbricate vaginantia. Vaginae supra petioli insertionem in ochream apice in fibros dissolutam 18 em. longam productae, pallide griseo-cinnamomeae, aciculis ex papillis anguste conicis vel subcylindricis orientibus, subascendentibus atris juventate sordide furfuraceo-pubescenti- bus, longioribus 16 mm. longis dense armatae. Petioli pars libera 2 em. longa 12 mm. lata et rhachis pars basalis subtus sparsim supra densius aciculatis cum duarum aciculis specierum aut pergracilibus ca. 6 mm. longis aut validis 3.5-5 em. longis. Rhachis ca. 1.75 m. longa foliolis utrinsecus ca. 20, lanceolatis, acutis, gregatim alternis, infimis ca. 17 em. longis 2.5 em. latis; mediis ca. 32 longis 3.4 em. latis; supremis 26 em. longis, 3.0 cm. latis; transitionalibus retroflexis 1-jugis 14 em. longis 4.5 mm. latis; amnibus longitudinaliter subplicatis ca. 20-venosis utrinque obscure transverse venulosis, supra prope basin horride aciculatis, aciculis ca. 20-30, longiori- bus 3.0-4.0 em. longis, subascendentibus, etiamque in venae mediae tertia parte basali aciculas 24 ferentibus. Cirrhus sparsim longiaciculatus uncos jugatim ferens, basi valde incrassatos, lateraliter compressos, rigidos, FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 85 majores 3.5 em. longos, secus rhachin 11 cm. separatos; intermedios 2.5 em. longos, 7 cm. separatos; ultimos non visos. Spatha inferior fere glabra apice sparse et appresse breviaciculata. Spatha superior fusiformis 22-30 cm. longa, 3-4 cm. diametiens, dense armata, aciculis atris rectis diverse directis majoribus ca. 12 mm. longis. Pedunculus 4-10 em. longus aciculis subascendentibus vestitus. Inforescentiae pars ramosa 18-20 em. longa, solum ad basin aciculata ramis simplicibus ca. 30, longioribus 10 cm. longis, hand carnosis valde acutangulatim contortis vel flexuosis. Flores superiores solitarii staminei sessiles bracteolis rigidiusculis subretroflexis .9-1.0 mm. longis subtenti, ex calyce membranaceo gamosepalo, corolla longe pyramidato tripetala et staminibus (9?) constituti, calyce excentrico, horizontaliter 3.3 mm. lato (si applanato), longitudinaliter 2.3 mm. di- ametiente; petalis carnosis, deltoideis 9 mm. longis, longe acutis. Flores inferiores terni unus femineus medius alii 2 staminei (delapsi) lateraliter et superiuscule positi et bracteolis minutis triangulis subtenti. Floris feminei calyx symmetricus membranaceis 3 mm. diam. annuliformis apices sub- obsoletos sepalorum unitorum obtusissimos obscure exhibitantes. Corolla carnosa sympetala cyathiformis 2.8 mm. diam. 2.5 mm. alta, margine minutissime triapiculata. Stamina vel staminodia nulla. Ovarium unilocu- larium ellipsoideum apice acuto breviter 3-stigmatosum. Fructus ovoideus 13 mm. longus, 11 mm. diametiens, pericarpio tenui carnoso, endocarpio osseo paululum supra aequatorem foraminibus 3, placentis parietalibus op- positis, perforatis. Specimen typicum in Herb. Mich. legit C. L. Lundell prope El Paso de Petén, Petén, Guatemala, 26 Apr. 1932. Desmoncus quasillarius sp. nov. Scandens, caule vaginato ca. 3 cm. crasso. Vaginae pars supra petioli insertionem (ochrea) ca. 15 em. longa, apice in fibros dissoluta, griseo-cin- namomea, aciculis atratis plerumque quam 1 em. brevioribus modice tecta. Petiolus 22 mm. longus minus aciculatus quam ochrea. Rhachis ca. 1.9- 2.0 m. longa, tenuiter ferrugineo-furfuracea, supra aciculas specierum duarum ferens, paucas compressas fere 14 mm. longas et alias breviores, omnes patentes vel subascendentes; subtus solum infra medium spinas longiores pauciores retroflexas 2 cm. longas validas ferens, sursum in cirrhum omnino inermem transeuns. Foliola subplicata, glabra, utrinsecus ca. 22, inferiora irregulariter aggregata, superiora pariter subalterna vel subop- posita; infima 23 em. longa, 14 mm. lata, supra ad basin barbatim aciculata, aciculis ca. 6-10 longioribus 15 mm. longis, apice longe attenuata, et subtus, caudam apicalem versus, acicula solitaria 13 mm. longa instructa; media ca. 30 em. longa, 3 em. lata acuminata ad basin minus barbata, solum 4-6 aciculas, longiores ca. 20 mm. longas, ferentia; suprema 24 cm. longa, 32 mm. lata, basi et apice longe angustata, leviter barbata, aciculas solum 1—3 breves ferentia. Foliola 2 transeuntia in uncos recurvata base incrassata non barbata 18.5 em. longa 18 mm. lata. Uncorum paria 9 infima 7 em. longa, inter se 10 em. distantia, sequentia gradatim breviora et propin- quantia. Spatha inferior inermis vel sparsissime et breviter aciculata, ca. 14-18 mm. lata; pars aperta ca. 7 em. longa. Ramus fertilis infra spatham superiorem sparse et breviter aciculatus. Spatha superior fusiformis ca. 27 cm. longa, 22 mm. crassa, deorsum angusta ferrugineo-furfuracea, breviter (2-4 mm.) aciculata, sursum horride aciculata, aciculis diverse directis plerumque porrectis. Pedunculus 5 em. longus, patenter et breviter aciculatus, aciculis longioribus ca. 4 mm. longis, haud retrosis. Inflor- 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 2 escentiae axis simpliciter ramifer inermis, tenuiter ferruginosus, ramis valde angulatim flexuosis ca. 35, deorsum flores ternatim sursum singulatim ferentibus, gracilibus, haud carnosis. Flos centralis femineus, laterales staminei, omnes bracteola subeartilaginea communi probabiliter composita, anguste lunata, obscure 3-apiculata vel integra, subtenti. Flores feminei conici vel subeylindrici, gamosepali, gamopetali; calyce cupuliformi 2.5 mm. diam. (si non applanato) 1 mm. alto, margine minute et distanter triapic- ulato; corolla 3.5 mm. alta, 2.3 mm. lata, apice profunde (tertia parte) tricuspidata, apicibus triangulo-subulatis, sinubus rotundatis; staminodiis vestigialibus minutissimis; ovario corollam excedente, anguste ablongo, breviter tristigmatoso. Flores masculi in parte rami floriferi terminali singuli, bracteolis singulis vel binis brevibus acutis divergentibus subtenti. Flores staminei 10-12 mm. longi, calyce membranaceo gamosepalo cupuli- formi acute triapiculato, si applanato asymmetrice triangulo, angulis acutis. Petala 3 distincta cartilaginea basi subovata apice sublutao longe producta. Stamina 9. Pistillodium nullum. Specimen typicum fructiferum in Herb. Mich. legit Percy Gentle, no. 348, in Dist. Corozal, British Honduras, et specimina alia florentia prope San Andres, Corozal, British Honduras, no. 4750, et fructifera, no 528. D. quasillarius is the “basket tie-tie’ or ‘‘basket whist” of northern British Honduras. Desmoncus uaxactunensis sp. nov. Seandens maturitate 5-15 m. altus, caule vaginis tecto ca. 4-5 cm. ecrasso, nudato 2-3 em. crasso. Folia caulem imbricate vaginantia. Vaginae sursum in ochream ca. 30 em. longam, griseo-cinnamomeam furfuraceo-pubescentem, apice demum in fibros disolutam dense aciculis tenuibus atratis sub- ascendentibus 4-18 mm. longis praeditam productae. Aciculae juventate fur-furaceae demum nitidae rectae ex papillis bulbiformibus orientes. Petioli para libera ca. 9-12 mm. lata 2 em. longa et rhachis pars inferior colore vaginae similes furfuraceo-pubescentes aciculis quam eis vaginae brevioribus postice subsparsis antice densius positis obtectae Rhachis ca. 2.25 m. longa, foliolis utrinsecus ca. 25, infimis 25 em. longis 2 em. latis; mediis ca. 30 cm. longis 4 cm. latis; supremis ca. 35 cm. longis 4 em. latis, omnibus utrinque concoloribus vel subtus pallidiusculis, proper margines vel glabratis vel evanescenter furfuraceo-pubescentibus, obscure subplicatis, basi angustatis replicatis apice acuminatis, ven media sola prominenti venis aliis longitudinalibusa equaliter evidentis supra cum venulis obliquis trans- versis subtus absque venulis transversis, supra prope basin aciculos ca. 10 graciles atratos 2 em. longos vel breviores barbatim ferentibus etiamque 2 vel 3 alios in nervo medio infra mediam folii partem. Foliola irregulariter alternantia abrupte per solum 2 intermedia 18 em. longa 18 mm. lata exacte foliacea sed retrorsa transeuntia in uncos 9-jugos subrigidos lateraliter compressos et applanatos non foliaceos, infimos 6 em. longos, 15 cm. secus rhachin separatos, supremos 1-2 em. longos, 1 em. separatos. Cirrhus in extremitate solum modo uncis armatus, deorsum sparsissime spinis gracilibus 2 cm. longis armatus vel subinermis. Ramus fertilis infra spathas semicylin- dricus 10-13 mm. latus 35-40 cm. longus brunneo-lepidotus omnino in vagina occultus. Spatha inferior etiam semicylindrica, ca. 20 mm. lata, 40 em. longa, facie plana interiore glabra, pallida, dense longitudinaliter venosa, facie con- cava tenuiter brunneo-lepidota, apice aperto angustata exfimbriata. Spatha superior fusiformis 28 mm. longa 4 em. crassa furfuraceo-pubescens et dense FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 87 spinis atratis varie aggregatis in tuberculos sedentibus valde flexuosis vel rectis armata. Inflorescentia spatham superiorem non excedens. Pedun- culi pars libera 5 cm. longa, 5 mm. crassa, lepidoto-furfuracea spinis 3-5 mm. longis tenuissimis ascendentibus tecta. Axis in parte inflorescentiae ramosa inermis, furfuraceus, 20 em. longus, ramulos 40-50 floriferos sim- plices 4-12 cm. longos valde acute angulatim flexuosos ferens. Flores ad ramuli basin ternatim aggregati, ferior et centralis fertilis, staminei bini laterales. Fructus maturus ovoideus 15 mm. longus 12.5 mm. diametiens, minute apiculatus. Specimen typicum in Herb. Univ. Mich. conservatum legit H. H. Bart- lett in vicinitate oppidi Uaxactun Mayarum antiquorum, Petén, Guatemala, 18 Apr. 1931, no. 12576. Desmoncus unaxactunensis differs from the closely related D. chinantlensis Liebm. most obviously in the much more slender and more sharply zig- zagged branches of the fruiting inflorescence. Under a lens the prophyllum subtending the flower groups is seen to have a sharply triangular retrorse tip which is lacking in D. chinantlensis. The beard of slender spines on the base of the top of the lamina consists of a larger group of more closely placed spines. Doubtless other distinctions of flowers and fruit would be obvious if more complete material of D. chinantlensis were available for comparison. Desmoncus ferox sp. nov. Seandens gracilis, 2 cm. crassus, caule vaginis obtecto. Pars vaginae su- perior (ochrea) 25 em. longa, apice demum in fibris dissoluta, sordide albida ferrugineo-furfuracea et dense armata, spiculis ca. 12-22 mm. longis, atris, gracilibus, Juventate derosum pubescentibus, basi ex tuberculis cylindricis orientibus. Petioli pars libera 2-3 cm. longa Rhachis tenuiter ferrugineo- pubescens supra aciculis interdum 20-28 mm. longis armata subtus subinermis vel spiculis multum brevioribus praedita, ca. 2.5 m. longa, utrinque usque ad cirrhum (ca. 1 m. longum) foliolos ca. 24 ferens. Foliola inferiora ca. 30 em. longa, 1.5 cm. lata longe attenuata in caudam fili- formem 8 em. longa; intermedia ca. 29 cm. longa 4 em. lata, apice solum acuminata non filiformi-caudata; superiora ca. 36 cm. longa, 46 mm. lata acuminata sed sub lente bifida vel praemorsa; omnia longitudinaliter sub- plicata et venosa, utrinque sub lente tenuissime minutissimeque atro- pubescentia et transverse venulosa, subtus inermia, supra prope basin ferociter multiaciculata, aciculis longitudine eis vaginae rhachisque simili- bus interdum 30 mm. longis, utrinque acicula sola brevi (ca. 8 mm. longa) in vena media infra folioli medium instructa. Foliola in uncos transeuntia solum 2 subopposita, foliacea, 27 em. longa, 12 mm. lata, basi uncis similiter tumida et reflexa. Uncorum paria 10, rigida, lateraliter compressa, inferiora 9 cm. longa 26 cm. inter se distantia, intermedia 4.5 cm. longa, 7 cm. distantia. Spatha inferior 22 mm. lata, pars clausa plus quam 21 cm. longa, pars aperta 13 cm. longa, sursum ferrugineo-furfuracea et mediocriter aciculata, aciculis de causa compressionis in vagina plerisque appressis sed prope orificium patentibus 7 mm. longis. Ramus fertilis infra spatham superiorem 11 mm. crassus, appresse et breviter aciculatus, ferrugineus. Spatha superior fusiformis, ca. 40 cm. longa, 3 em. diametiens, cinnamomeo- albida et ferrugineo-furfuracea, apice breviter filiformi-caudata, deorsum ap- presse et breviter aciculata sursum valde horride patenter aciculata, aciculis 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 atratis, diverse directis, longioribus 18 mm. longis. Pedunculus ca. 7 em. longus deorsum inermis sursum aciculatus, aciculis majoribus 13 mm. longis. Axis inflorescentiae pars ramosa ca. 24 em. longa, inermis, albida et tenuiter ferrugineo-pubescens, ramos ca. 40 inferiores 15 em. superiores 6 cm. longos simplices floriferos ferens, ramis (siccis) angulatis, valde angulatim flexuosis, deorsum flores sessiles ternatim sursum singulatim ferentibus. Flores feminei centrales inter 2 masculos siti depresso-globosi 3 mm. lati 2.5 mm. alti gamosepali gamopetali. Calyx subrotundus annulatus breviter margine 3-apiculatus symmetricus 3.3 mm. diam. Corolla cyathiformis margine con- stricta ovarium includens sessile breviter 3-stigmatosum. Staminodia nulla. Flores staminei calyce gamosepalo membranaceo symmetrico 3.5 mm. diametiente fere perfecte triangulo, angulis productis acuminatis, petalis 3 distinctis carnosis deltoideis, 8-10 mm. longis, acuminatis, basi 1.5-3.0 mm. latis, latioribus subcordatis. Stamina 9, sagittata, filamentis 1 mm. longis tenuissimis antheris profunde sagittatis gravidis 2 mm. longis, i.e. corolla occultis. Pistillodium nullum. Specimen typicum ad oppidum Mayarum antiquorum Tikal lectum, Petén, Guatemala, H. H. Bartlett 12584, 12-15 Apr. 1931, in Herb. Mich.: La Libertad, Petén, Guatemala, C. L. Lundell 2646 (6 Apr. 1933; florens) et 3421 (27 Maiae 1933, cum fructibus). PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 518TH MEETING The 518th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 31, 1934, Vice- President GOLDMAN presiding. Informal communications: L. G. HENBEsT showed lantern slides of pseudo- morphs of halite from the De Queen limestone member of the Trinity forma- tion, De Queen, Arkansas. Program: W.T. ScHaLuer: Kramer borate deposits, California. Discussed by Messrs. GotpMAN, JoHNSTON, HEeNprRicks, R. C. WeELLs, GILLULY, Hewett, and BaILey. R. C. Wetts: The abundance of certain elements, especially radioactive elements, and related geologic problems. The first attempt to compute the average chemical composition of known terrestrial matter was made by F. W. Clarke in 1889. Chemists have been adding to the compilation ever since. A recent publication by the Russian chemist A. E. Fersman lists the average abundance or scarcity, as the case may be, of 88 elements, and if account is taken of isotopes, there are now 262 species of matter to be considered. More elements occur in ten-thousandths of a percent than in any other rank of abundance. The radioactive elements have been of great aid in determining the abundance of several elements. These elements have pedigrees. Also, as they evolve heat continuously, there must be a definite limit to their quantity in the earth. They appear to be concentrated near the surface and hence it may be inferred that there is a similar limit to the abundance of elements generally associated with the radioactive elements in the earth’s crust. Recent work in the Geological Survey has involved FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 89 more particularly the elements uranium, thorium, lead, tin, barium, columbium, tantalum, cesium, and rubidium. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs Mertin and WASHBURNE. 519TH MEETING The 519th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 14, 1934, Vice-President GOLDMAN presiding. Informal communications: GEORGE TUNELL told of his visit, during the summer, to laboratories engaged in crystallographic work in Oslo, Stock- holm, Helsingfors, Leningrad, and Moscow. D. F. Hewerr described a manganese depositing hot spring at Hot Springs, Arkansas. Program: W. P. Wooprine: Geomorphology of the Palos Verdes Hills, California. Discussed by Messrs. BRapLEY, Huss, ALDEN, and Cooke. H. T. Stearns: The geologic history of Oahu (Hawaiian Islands). Oahu consists of two dissected voleanoes known as the Koolau and Waianae Ranges. The sequence of events in the geologic history of Oahu is summarized as follows: TERTIARY TIME 1. Building of a dome-shaped island about 3,000 feet high by the extru- sion of the lower basalt member of the Waianae volcanic series from south- east and northwest rifts with the center of activity at their intersection near the present site of Kolekole Pass. Extrusion of basalt of the Kailua voleanic series from a rift passing through the site of the present Mokulua Islands forming another island at about the same time. 2. Collapse of the Waianae dome and extrusion of the middle basalt member from the Waianae rifts. The cliffs formed by the collapse ponded the middle basalt and forced most of it to flow north and east. Beginning of erosion to the west of these cliffs, starting the valleys of Nanakuli, Lualualei, Waianae, Makaha, Keaau, and Makua. Shift of voleanic activity a mile south of the Kailua rift with the extrusion of the older layers in the Koolau volcanic series probably about this time. 3. Extrusion of the upper lavas of the Waianae voleanic series and continued erosion of the valleys named above. The main bulk of the Koolau series was probably extruded at this time. 4. Extinction of the Waianae Volcano and the beginning of erosion all over it. Continued extravasation of lava from the Koolau Volcano. 5. Overlapping of the Waianae dome by lavas from the Koolau Volcano resulting in the partial filling of its windward valleys and the joining of the two volcanoes to form a single island. Continued erosion of the leeward side of the Waianae dome. EARLY (?) PLEISTOCENE TIME 6. Cessation of activity of the Koolau Voleano. Continued erosion of the Waianae dome. 7. Long cycle of erosion resulting in the sweeping away by streams of most of the windward side of the Koolau and part of the leeward side of the Waianae domes. High cliffs formed on the end of interstream divides by marine abrasion. Coral reefs started growing about this time if not before. 8. Gradual submergence of Oahu by more than 1,200 feet result- ing in the drowning and sedimentation of the valleys and the formation of the Koolau Pali by the partial burial of interstream divides ef large amphi- theatre-headed valleys. Continued marine abrasion on exposed headlands and growth of coral reefs. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 MIDDLE (?) AND LATE PLEISTOCENE TIME 9. A halt of the sea at 55 feet above present sea level known as the Kahuku stand. 10. Recession of the sea probably about 300 feet below pres- ent sea level, known as the Kahipa stand. Erosion of the coastal plain de- posits. 11. Rise of the sea to 95 feet above present level known as the Kaena stand, extrusion of some of the Honolulu voleanies, vigorous growth of coral reef off shore, and grading of valley floors to this level. 12. Recession of the sea to 70 feet above present level, known as the Laie stand, more eruptions of the Honolulu voleanies, growth of coral reef off shore, and erosion con- tinued. 13. Halt of the sea at the 40-foot (?) level known as the Waialae stand. 14. Recession of the sea to about 60 feet below the present level known as the Waipio stand, additional eruptions of the Honolulu voleanies, dissection of coastal deposits, vigorous wave attack on headlands, and prob- ably inhibition of coral growth. 15. Rise of the sea to about 25 feet above the present level known as the Waimanalo stand, further eruptions of the Honolulu voleanics, drowning of the mouths of valleys, continued erosion of coastal deposits above the 25-foot level, and growth of coral off shore. LATEST PLEISTOCENE OR RECENT TIME 16. Recession of the sea to the present level. Koko Fissure and Tantalus- Sugar Loaf eruptions, continued erosion, and probably slowing down in rate of growth of coral off shore. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. STEPHENSON and ALDEN. 520TH MEETING The 520th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 28, 1934, Vice-President SCHALLER presiding. Informal communications: Miss M. D. Fostrr displayed a map showing the distribution in the United States of the disease known as ‘‘mottled teeth.”” The endemic areas do not coincide with areas of known fluorspar deposits. In Arizona, ground water containing 1 to 2 parts per million of fluoride causes mild cases, and over 2 parts per million severe cases. Program: Miss A. I. Jonas: Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland and eastern North America. Discussed by Mr. G1ILLuty. G. W. Stosu: Comparison of Cambrian section in Northwest Scotland with that of the Northern Appalachians. Discussed by Miss Jonas and Messrs. MertTIE and RuBEY. T. L. Kester: Granitic injection processes in the Columbia quadrangle, South Carolina. Older rocks of the eastern ‘“‘slate belt’? have been intruded by a biotite granite. Northward these older rocks were traced almost continuously into North Carolina where detailed study in several localities has proved them to consist mainly of rhyolitic and andesitic tuffs and breccias with interlayered flows and sills. Southwestward from the quadrangle, the belt was traced farther into Saluda County where its original character is well preserved. The “slate belt” has been altered throughout most of the quad- rangle, though original bedding may be frequently recognized. Normal strike averages about N. 55 E. except where deflected by granite masses and dips are steeply N. W. except for local reversals considered to be of little struc- tural significance. The granite has caused recrystallization parallel to bedding in wide areas of the older rocks where bedding may still be recognized. This is FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 91 believed to be due to the ascension of magmatic emanations along the con- venient steep dip. It was suggested that the general schistose condition of the older rocks may be thus explained with the development of sericite, biotite, chlorite, and hornblende oriented with their long axes parallel to bedding. Recrystallization is wide-spread, and is believed to indicate a general sub- jacent source of which the isolated granite masses are satellites. In com- parative proximity to these masses, the schists have been subjected to lit- par-lit injection and replacement by granitic material. Still nearer the granite, an advanced stage of injection is expressed by granitic rocking which the structure of the older rock is preserved through inheritance of parallel platy ribbons of biotite or the linear arrangement of hornblende. Where the process has been carried to an extreme, replacement and re- crystallization have obliterated most of the inherited structure, but the re- sulting granitic rock contains traces of the older rocks. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Miss Jonas and Messrs. JOHNSTON, CARL Brown, GILLULY, LOUGHLIN, STOSE, and CURRIER. 521sT MEETING The 521st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 12, 1934, Vice-President GoupMAN presiding. N. H. Darton presented a deferred presidential address: Hrosion plans and overlaps in the eastern Maryland region. 42D ANNUAL MEETING The 42nd annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club ofter the adjourn- ment of the 521st regular meeting, Vice-President GoLpMAN presiding. The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his an- nual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1443.38 on De- cember 8, 1934. The auditing committee commended the Treasurer on the condition of his books. The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows: President: W. T. ScHaLuER; Vice-Presidents: M. I. GotpMaN and H. D. Miser; Treasurer: C. WytHE Cooks; Secretaries: W. D. Jounston, Jr., and GrorcEe TuNELL; Members at large of the Council: A. A. Baxmr, C. L. Gazin, R. M. Leceerrte, 8. W. Lonman, and J. 8. Winttiams; Nominee as Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society: H. G. FERGuson. T. B. Nouan and W. D. Jounston, Jr., Secretaries. BOTANICAL SOCIETY 254TH MEETING The 254th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 2, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 103. DorotHy BLAISDELL, MARIE CLARK, BowEN CRANDALL, and ARTHUR C. FosTER were elected to membership. Notes and reviews: Davin GrirFiTtHs reviewed The fantastic clan by Thornber and Bouker, a naturalist’s treatment of the cactus family. H. B. Humpueey called attention to a new book, William Bartram, the interpreter of the American landscape, by N. Bryllion Fagin. Program: ANNIE M. Hurp Karrer: Selenium injury to wheat and its inhibition by sulphur.—A so-called alkali disease of livestock in certain re- 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 stricted areas of the Northern Great Plains area has been traced to the pres- ence of selenium in the vegetation. The grain and straw of wheat plants grown in soil at Arlington Farm to which only 1 part per million selenium was added as sodium selenate gave no external evidence of having been affected by the selenium, but were extremely toxic to experimental animals. In order to produce visible symptoms of injury to the plants the selenium concentration in the soil had to be increased to between 10 and 20 parts per million. The characteristic symptom of injury is a snow-white chlorosis of the young leaves. With extreme injury the entire leaf may be white, maintain- ing its normal turgidity for some time before withering. More often the tip of the leaf remains green, as does the midvein. A striking symptom occur- ring sporadically in the selenized seedlings of both wheat and corn wasa pink coloration on the chlorotic parts of the leaves. When the selenate was added to pots containing older plants the white chlorosis appeared only on leaves emerging subsequent to the addition of selenium, those already formed merely turning yellow if the selenium concentration was high enough to affect them at all. The toxicity of sodium selenate for wheat grown in sand and water cultures varied inversely with the amount of sulphur, as magnesium and ammonium sulphate, in the nutrient solution. In water cultures selenium concentrations of 1 p.p.m. are fatal after a few weeks in nutrient solutions made up without sulphate whereas 96 p.p.m. were required for this degree of injury in solutions containing 192 p.p.m. sulphur. There was no visible selenium injury in any solution where the proportion of selenium to sulphur was 1:12 or less, whereas chlorosis was marked in all where the ratio was 1:8 or greater. The point of minimum detectable injury was between 1:9 and 1:11 in all the experiments. In soils, selenium injury was always inhibited by the addition of excess sulphur either as calcium, magnesium, potassium, or ammonium sulphate, or as elemental sulphur. The amount required for a given addition of selenate varied with the latter’s toxicity in the particular soil. (Author’s abstract.) CHARLES THom: An endomycete parasitic to man.—Histoplasmosis was described by Darling as due to an intracellular parasite, Histoplasma capsu- latum, apparently unicellular and protozoan in character. The organism isolated by DeMonbreun from a case of histoplasmosis grew in ordinary cultures as a mold, which was found to belong in or near the Endomy- cetaceae. Ascospores were not found, but chlamydospores characteristic in shape and markings were interpreted as morphologically analogous to asci. The parasite thus falls in a broad group which includes such species as Coccidioides immitis. The organism as described presents a unique type of chlamydospore, which will insure its recognition when isolated from future cases. (Author’s abstract.) Vera K. Cuarues: Microsporum of the cat causing ringworm in man.— Published in full in this Journa 24: 222-227. 1934. 255TH MEETING The 255th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, February 6, 1934, President Smiru presiding; attendance 65. Program: A. 8. Hircucock: Taxonomy as a fundamental factor in botanical research.—All comparative scientific research should be based upon defi- nitely known material, and this principle applies emphatically to botanical research. Taxonomy is fundamentally related to botany in the same sense FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 93 that arithemetic is fundamental to other branches of mathematics. Much confusion has resulted, often involving much expense and waste effort, be- cause of failure to secure accurate identifications of sources of drugs, fibers, and other economic plants. Discussed by Messrs. SwINGLE and WaItTE AGNES CHASE: Some seeds caught in the upper air.—Seeds taken in insect traps released at different altitudes from an airplane were sent to the De- partment of Agriculture for study. More than half were those of grasses, for the most part Paspalum urvillet and P. dilatatum. Of 30 collections, made at from 200 to 5,000 ft., all included spikelets of the first species and about half included the latter species as well. One collection each of P. pubiflorum and Hordeum pusillum were obtained. Discussed by Messrs. Norton, THONE and D1I5Hu. E. B. Lampert: Climatic phases in the ecology of the compost heap.—Gas samples taken from all parts of mushroom compost heaps indicate an in- crease of carbon dioxide and decrease of oxygen toward the lower central part of the heap. In flat heaps three feet deep anaerobic conditions are usu- ally found in areas deeper than one foot and more than three feet from the side of the heap. The highest temperatures (160° to 180° F.) are usually confined to a region two to four feet from the sides of the heap and one foot to three feet from the top. The outer layers are cooler because of the lack of insulation from the outside and the lower central region is cooler because the lack of oxygen retards the microbial activity. At ground level, tempera- tures (100° to 120° F.) are usually lower than in the higher strata, presumably also because of lack of oxygen. A more uniform distribution of oxygen and wider distribution of the high temperature region is induced by placing ventilating tiles at ground level. In all probability conditions such as these influence the suitability of the finished compost for mush- room culture by establishing the trend of the microbial and insect popula- tion of the conpost heap. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Mr. Warre. 256TH MEETING The 256th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, March 6, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 85. RALPH C. STAEBNER was elected to membership. Notes and reviews: M. B. Waiter discussed low temperature injury to peach buds and exhibited a branch of Ligustrum lucidum, showing character- istic recovery from freezing injury. W. T. SwInGuz discussed an introduction of date palms from Persia into the United States in 1818, some of which still survive in the sea islands of Georgia. Program: M. L. Bomuarp: Recent palm discoveries in Louisiana.—More than 25 species of palms are cultivated successfully in Louisiana, the most extensive plantings being in the southern part of the State, particularly around New Orleans. The hardy species most frequently cultivated include Washingtonia robusta, W. filifera, Phoenix canariensis, P. dactylifera, Livistona chinensis, Butia capitata and its relatives (known ‘‘to the trade” as types of Cocos australis) including some that have edible fruits, Trachy- carpus excelsa, Chamaerops humulis, and Sabal palmetto. Other species which are well adapted to the lower part of the State, but which are not yet so widely planted as those just listed include Sabal exul, S. blackburniana, S. causiarum, S. texana, Rhapis excelsa, Rhapidophyllum hystrix, Phoenix reclinata, P. sylvestris, Acrocomia totai, and Erythea armata. All of these, with the exception of Hrythea armata which flowers only in occasional years, regularly flower and fruit annually, at least in the New Orleans vicinity. A 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 35-year old specimen of Phoenix rwpicola may be seen outdoors in New Orleans, but it is given protection during cold weather. The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, and the Royal palm, Roystonea regia, have not been grown successfully for periods of more than a few years. Cocos plumosa (Arecas- trum romanzoffianum) is no longer cultivated outdoors in New Orleans, but it may be seen in the orange-country fifty miles to the south. The town of Monroe in Northeastern Louisiana, where the winters are sometimes severe, achieves a striking tropical effect through extensive plant- ings of one of the hardiest of palms, Trachycarpus excelsa. There are a great many more specimens of the true date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, growing in the southern part of the state than most persons realize. These trees flower annually and edible fruits are produced, including some excellent seedless forms. (Author’s abstract.) Loren G. PotHamus: Goldenrod and rubber.—Following Edison’s dis- covery that goldenrod contains rubber the cultivation and propagation of species of goldenrod have been studied. Variations in growth habit have been found and the possibility of selection on vegetative characters has been demonstrated, but no correlation has been found between growth character and rubber content. Studies have shown that variations in soil and climate affect the rubber content. Outstanding species from the standpoint of rubber content are Solidago leavenworthii, S. edisoniana, S. altissima, S. serotina, S. fistulosa, S. nashii and S. sempervirens. It has been found pos- sible to propagate goldenrod readily by means of the underground stolons, as many as 500 new plants having been obtained from a single plant of S. leavenworthi in one year. Stem cuttings have failed to root but it has been ud ee to propagate several species freely by layering. (Author’s abstract. J. I. Laurirzen and R. T. Baucu: Influence of environmental factors on inversion of sucrose in harvested cane——The results from experiments con- ducted during the grinding season: 1930-31, 1931-32, and 1932-33 in Louisiana showed very little inversion of sucrose in sugarcane kept wet by sprinkling irrespective of the variety used. There was less loss of sucrose through inversion during rainy than during dry weather. There was an in- timate relation between the loss of moisture and inversion of sucrose; the greater the rate of loss of moisture the greater the proportionate rate of in- version. By adding moisture to cane in which inversion was proceeding rapidly as a result of drying during various periods of time, inversion of sucrose was checked. In cane kept wet during storage at temperatures of 45°, 55°, 65°, and 75° F., very little inversion of sucrose occurred and the amount was similar at each of the temperatures. Among the commercial varieties of sugarcane grown in Louisiana Co. 281 showed the greatest re- sistance to inversion of sucrose; P.O.J. 36M, and C.P. 807 the least, with P.O.J. 213, P.O.J. 234, Co. 290 ranging between these extremes. No chem- ical or physiological changes took place during storage that were inimical to sugar manufacture. (Authors’ abstract.) 257TH MEETING The 257th regular meeting and annual dinner was held in the ballroom of poe cmiedy: Warren April 3, 1934, President SmirH presiding; attend- ance Program: ORAN RaBER: Teaching botany and botanizing around the world on a floating university. FEB. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 95 258TH MEETING The 258th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, May 1, 1934, President Smrru presiding; attendance 90. H. P. Barss, F. A. McCuurs, Jonn Monteirau, Jr., and Loren G. PotHamus were elected to membership. Notes and reviews: M. B. WatreE discussed the life history of the large red oak trees formerly lining 12th St., S.W., noting particularly evidence of injury from the extraordinary cold weather of 1899, and the slow growth since the advent of paved streets. H. B. Humpurny presented a summary of the precipitation in Washington for the period January 1930 to April 1934, emphasizing the deficiency of 17 inches for the period. J. B. S. Norton discussed the effect of altitude on opening English elm buds. F. Wetss ex- hibited greenhouse grown Ixias and called attention to the suitability of this plant for outdoor culture. Program: A. K. Loneuny: The chromosomes of maize. F. V. Covitue: The Death Valley of California after forty years. 259TH MEETING The 259th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, October 2, 1934, President Smiru presiding; attendance 73. Notes and reviews: A. S. HircHcock reviewed Agnes Arber’s new book The Gramineae. M. B. Watte discussed the effects of prolonged and exces- sive rainfall with high humidity during the record-breaking September with especial reference to the curing of tobacco in Maryland. W. T. SwinecLEe reviewed. the classical work on horticulture and botany of Brazil, edited by M. Pio Correa, Diccionaire das Plantas Uteis do Brasil et das exoticas Cultivados. A. A. Birancourt, subdirector, Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, Brazil, made a brief address in response to the welcome extended to him by the President on behalf of the Botanical Society. J. A. Stmvenson exhibited some of Mr. Bitancourt’s publications on Citrus diseases. Program: L. H. Fuint: Sensitivity of dormant lettuce seed to light and temperature—In typical cases of seed dormancy internal processes are effective after a longer or shorter period in overcoming the seemingly in- animate state without special agencies. In the case of lettuce seed which appears subject to classification as dormant, however, it has been found that light is a factor promoting germination. The sensitivity of such lettuce seed to light a few hours after soaking in water is so great that a few seconds’ exposure to sunlight is sufficient to insure germination in subsequent dark- ness at 20° C. This sensitivity is thus comparable with that of photographic film. It has been found that the longer wave-lengths of visible light, ranging in length from about 5200 to about 7000 A and characterizing yellow, orange and red light, are effective in promoting germination. The shorter wave-lengths of visible light, ranging from about 5200 to about 4000 A and characterizing green, blue and violet light, have been found to be effec- tive in inhibiting germination. Seeds exposed to red light for a time suffi- cient to insure subsequent germination in darkness would not germinate in blue light. The role of temperature in relation to light-sensitivity in dormant lettuce seed was studied by soaking seeds in water at various periods and then ex- posing each lot to a uniform illumination. All seeds were put in a moist 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 chamber at 20° C. following this illumination. The results obtained indicated that whereas at 5° C. the sensitivity of the seed to light was maintained for several weeks, at 25° C. the sensitivity was so altered after 24 hours that the standard illumination was without appreciable effect. This relation- ship may account for some of the beneficial effects ascribed to soaking seed at low temperatures. The establishment of a definite inhibitory effect of certain wave-lengths of light on germination appears of added significance because of the fact that these same inhibiting rays have been found to be the ones effecting the phototropic response of green plants. The results thus emphasize the view- point that green plants turn toward light of specified wave-lengths not be- cause they could thereby utilize more illumination, but rather because the light inhibited growth on the side of the stem directly exposed to the light. (Author’s abstract.) E. H. Waker: Some problems and methods in the taxonomy of Chinese plants. 260TH MEETING The 260th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, November 6, 1934, President Smirx presiding; attendance 72. Notes and reviews: F. THONE exhibited Wild flowers by Homer D. House a work similar to The Wild Flowers of New York issued some years ago by the New York State Museum. L. H. BartLey was present as a guest and, after being welcomed by the President, addressed the Society informally. He gave a synopsis of recent botanical history contemporaneous with his own career, expressing judg- ment on present botanical work and forecasting the future. He referred to his college days under the tutelage of Asa Gray, his service as professor of horticulture ‘‘in spite of which he remained a botanist,’”’ his term as Dean of the New York State College of Agriculture. He spoke of the enthusiasm of the older botanists and naturalists for their work. He urged the impor- tance of knowing the habits and range of variation of plants in the field. In discussing evolution, he said that we must get back to nature; as yet we can not apply the discoveries of the laboratory to influencing the course of evolution. In commendation of present-day taxonomy, Dr. Bailey spoke of the attention now given to the proper collection of specimens, and in de- termining the variation and the range of species; he especially recommended the care and completeness shown in modern taxonomic descriptions. Program: Earu 8. JoHNsTON: Wave-length effects of light on phototro- pism.—Experiments on the evaluation of the wave-length of light in its effect on phototropism were carried out, using an improved plant photom- eter. Oat seedlings were grown between two lights, one standard, the other of a restricted wave-length range. The intensity of the standard was ad- justed until seedlings showed no phototropic bending. At such balance points the intensity ratios of one light to the other were determined. The phototropic sensitivity curve rose from 4100 A to a maximum at 4400 A. It then dropped off to a minimum at about 4575 A and again rose to a sec- ondary maximum in the region 4700 to 4800 A. The fall was quite rapid from this point to 5000 A, from where it tapered off very gradually to the threshold on the long wave-length side at about 5461 A. C. F. AnpRws: Cell and nuclear behavior in Ceratostomella and certain other fungi.—A discussion of cell multiplication and nuclear behavior in the ascus of the species of Ceratostomella and Endoconidiophora, with some review of FEB. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 97 chromosome number and reduction in other Ascomycetes. Various types of direct and indirect cell cleavage that occur previous to ascus formation in C. moniliformis were described. The crosier type of cell division is modified to conform to the detached and unwalled condition of the dividing proto- plast. Changes in cell shape accompanying cell division were emphasized. A description of nuclear divisions in the ascus included remarks on chromo- some structure and number. The vesiculate nature of the spore-producing region of the ascus and the manner of ascospore formation in C moniliformis and C. fimbriata seem to distinguish the group from more familiar genera of the Ascomycetae. (Author’s abstract). 261ST MEETING The 26lst meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, December 4, 1934, President SmrrH presiding; attendance 50. Program: N. R. Smitu: Present trends in soil bacteriological research. (Ad- dress of retiring President). 34TH ANNUAL MEETING The 34th Annual Meeting was held immediately following the adjourn- ment of the 261st meeting. The recording secretary reported that the So- ciety closed the year with an active membership of 206 and an honorary membership of 4. The names of 8 members had been placed on the absentee list because of temporary absence from the city. The Society lost two mem- bers by death, H. C. SkrrLs and Kart KELLERMAN. Twelve new members were elected; three members retired from professional work and were elected to honorary membership under the terms of the By-laws: Miss Mary K. Bryan, Dr. Wm. Taytor and Mr. C. O. TowNsEnp. The following officers were elected to serve for the ensuing year: Presi- dent, W. W. Drext; Vice-President, FREEMAN Weiss; Recording secre- tary, Cuas. T. SwineLe; Corresponding secretary, Netitizr A. Brown; Treasurer, Nettie W. Nance; N. R. SmitH was nominated as vice-presi- dent for the Botanical Society to the Washington Academy of Sciences. Freeman Weiss, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Novres The Midwinter Meetings—Washington science was well represented at the various midwinter meetings, especially those of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science and affiliated societies at Pittsburgh. The principal address, at the first formal meeting on Thursday evening, December 27, was delivered by Dr. Winu1am A. Wait», superintendent of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, on the subject, Man, the great integrator. On Friday afternoon, December 29, an illustrated lecture was presented by W. R. Cuap- LINE, chief, range research, U.S. Forest Service, on Forestry fosters new ap- proach to watershed conservation. Many scientists from Government depart- ments, research institutions and the several universities in the District of Columbia presented papers before the various section and society meetings. In the exhibit hall, six Washington institutions had displays illustrating some of their many activities. The American Association for the Advance- 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACALEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 ment of Science itself had an exhibit showing various phases of its work in encouraging the development of science, and also giving information on plans for future meetings. Exhibits sponsored by members of the Smith- sonian Institution included a model of a solar heating apparatus, a demon- stration of the work of the Laboratory of Radiation and Organisms, and a display of lepidoptera. The exhibit of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton was devoted to the recent rapid developments in the fields of genetics and embryology, particularly in the field of chromosome topography and gene mapping. The National Bureau of Standards demonstrated work done on deuterium or heavy hydrogen, and also displayed a set of new resistance standards. The U. S. Bureau of Mines set forth work done along five sepa- rate lines of research on coal and other minerals. The National Geographic Society’s exhibit consisted of models and the stratosphere balloon and ap- paratus used in their joint exploration flight with the U. 8. Army Air Corps last summer. Of special interest at the Annual Science Exhibition of the American As- sociation for the Advancement of Science was an exhibit of research on deuterium and its compounds by laboratories which have been principal contributors in this field of investigation. In this exhibit covering the fields of physics, chemistry, and biology, 13 laboratories were represented, 6 of these having major sized exhibits. Other midwinter meetings in which Washington scientists participated included those of the Geological Society of America (New York), the So- ciety of American Bacteriologists (Chicago), the Archaeological Institute (Toronto), the American Astronomical Society (Philadelphia), the Chemi- cal Engineering Symposium on Distillation (Cambridge), and the American Historical Association. Science Advisory Board.—Broad scientific foundations are being sought by the Government, for its future policies of land use. In this search scien- tists on the Land Use Committee of the Science Advisory Board are taking an active part. The Land Use Committee acted as a sort of informal liaison organization, enabling fifteen separate government agencies concerned with different as- pects of land use to pool their knowledge and obtain an approach to the problem as a whole. The Committee employed Dr. Cart O. Saver of the University of Cali- fornia, to make a comprehensive study of the subject as it is known in this country at present. With Dr. Saver was associated W. L. G. Jorre of the American Geographical Society. Outstanding on the agenda of problems recommended for first-order in- vestigation is a refinement of studies of climatological records already in existence, to give more reliable bases for decisions as to the habitability of marginal and submarginal lands. If such lands, still in the public domain or now in process of re-purchase, can be withheld from re-settlement when they do not give reasonable promise of yielding a living, repetition of the tragedies of recent drought, and the older ones of the grasshopper years of the last century, can be spared the nation. Important also is the project for a study of permanent natural means of checking soil erosion. At present, major effort is being bent to the construc- tion of gulley dams, partly because the situation in many localities is des- perate enough to require engineering works to help it, partly in order to supply jobs for unemployed men. But in the long run, erosion must be held FEB. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 99 in check by the roots of grasses, bushes and trees; and it is one of the ob- jectives of contemplated study to find the right species and develop the right planting methods. National Resources Board.—The National Resources Board has issued a series of reports, on the relation of public works to land and water resources, on land planning, on water planning, on mineral policy, and on a national mapping plan. Reversal of the traditional method of land development is advocated in the land planning report; it calls for the reabsorption into public domain of much land now badly settled and socially expensive, greater care in the release of lands for future settlement, and social control over private transactions in real estate. The necessity for erosion control is also emphasized. In the mineral resources report, stress is lid on the de- sirability of holding back in the use of such minerals as exist in this country in insufficient quantities for normal needs, and at the same time controlling the exploitation of deposits where present surpluses exist. Studies of tariff readjustments and foreign trade agreements as they affect mineral resources are also recommended. The mapping report calls for a ten-year plan to com- plete the topographic survey of the United States. Only 26 per cent of the total area of the United States exclusive of Alaska and island possessions has been adequately mapped; the rest is mapped either inadequately or not at all. The working program proposes zones of first, second and third pri- ority, based on the urgency of the need for completion. The National Re- sources Board functions under the chairmanship of Secretary Ickzs; its personnel includes Secretaries DERN, WALLACE, Roper and PERKINs, Re- lief Administrator Hopkins, FrEpERIc A. DELANO, CHARLES EH. MERRIAM and WeEsLEY C. MITCHELL. National Bureau of Standards—A new method for investigating the effects of radium rays and X-rays in deep tissues has been developed at the National Bureau of Standards by L. 8. Taytor. It stimulates conditions in the human body with wax blocks, which have been named “phantom bodies,” and a mixture of carbon bisulphide, tetrahydronaphthalene and ligroin to serve as the radiation-absorbing fluid. An ionization screen, im- mersed in the fluid, obtains a measure of the degree of ionization caused by the radiations. With further development the instrument may prove of great value in determining the nature and dosage of radiations to be used in treating deep-seated tumors. Smithsonian Institution.—Thirty ancient Indian village sites and numer- ous island graveyards along the lower Columbia river have been explored by Hrerpert W. Kriecer, who returned to Washington in January, after six months in the field. The expedition was undertaken in order to salvage archaeological data and material in the area which will be flooded upon the completion of the Bonneville Dam. The region proves to have been thickly settled. In one area, now arid and unpopulated, Dr. Krrmcrr counted the remains of more than five hundred houses. One island cemetery, he learned, had been burned by early white settlers; here he found evidences of fire in- tense enough to fuse glass beads. U. S. National Park Service-—Reports of measurements made of glaciers in national parks this past fall by Park Naturalists indicate continued re- cession. In each instance glaciers were found to have moved and melted back from ten to fifty feet or more. 100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2 Geological Survey.—A contract was awarded the Fairchild Aérial Sur- veys, Incorporated, for furnishing aérial photographs, to be taken with a single-lens camera, of about 5,800 square miles in South Carolina. The photographs will be used to supplement ground surveys for topographic mapping provided for in the Public Works program of topographic surveys. The possibilities of langbeinite, a potassium-magnesium sulphate identi- fied in certain drill cores from Federal land and private land in New Mex- ico, as an important fertilizer material, are receiving considerable indus- trial attention at this time. As this mineral is slowly soluble, it is believed suitable for direct application with the seed, in lieu of the customary ap- plication of potash fertilizer at the side of the seed row, and offers advantages in the reduced amount of fertilizer required and in the longer period that the potash remains available to the plant during the growing season. News Briers The Bureau of Mines has awarded contracts for the drilling of a new gas well on the helium-bearing Cliffside structure, in Potter County, Texas, which is expected to bring in a material increase in the Government’s avail- able helium supply. The U. 8. Army Air Corps and the National Geographic Society wile undertake another stratosphere balloon flight this spring, it is announced’ A precision cosmic-ray meter, has been installed at the Cheltenham Mag- netic Observatory by Dr. RicHarp L. Doan, Dr. A. H. Compton’s assist- tant at the University of Chicago, 8. E. Forspusx of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, and Grorce Hartneut of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, during the first week in January and is now in operation. PERSONAL ITEMS By action of the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington at their annual meeting in December, Dr. Joun A. FLEMING was made Di- rector of its Department of Terrestrial Magnetism beginning January 1. . Dr. Hucu L. DrypeEn has been promoted to the position of chief of the division of mechanics and sound of the National Bureau of Standards. \ CONTENTS 7 kare t* OrtamnaL Papers Pharmacology.—The relationship between time of administration and effec ness of remedies for cyanide poisoning. James F. Covcn, H. Bunrma, A. B. CLAWSON.. Boe Oe 6's 60) OPS. 6 0) 618 nie Sonat a Re eee Cer ee ce ee Zoology.—A new species of Oochoristica from a skunk. Mary Scorr Sxm cE Pia Zoology.—A new species of amphipod of the genus eit pelea and anew rt for Melita nitida from Sinaloa, Mexico. CuARENcE R. SHOBMAKER..... Entomology.—A new species of blister beetle from Arizona. Guo G. os D! Zoology.—New nematodes of the genus Longistriata in rodents. G. D Botany.—Certain Desmonci Pal of Central America and Mexico. BARTONTT. bb shh o orem + + S02) paling ngs CH, eee aaah a PROCEEDINGS * #, ieee Geological Society.......... AeA 2 oSe/ sie eng Rimes ota tN. ie Tiga Rete eee Botanical Society.......... ee Ta Scientiric Notes aNp Nuws..........- 1 £2 0Gi Hegackt oe Wea e oeet 5 Y a es otk it en ahs y eg - ¥ - ~ 4 . bs ‘] Pe 48 i” ~ ‘ * : £5 ih ae? Reh ae Rees” p ate z >. + ie - tis ? No. 3 IN ACADEMY | iors BOARD OF EDITORS — ida @ he BRICK WEDDE Routanp W. Brown - BURBAU or STANDARDS U. 8. GHOLOGICAL SURVEY --ASSOCI ATE EDITORS Haroutp Morrison ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY W. W. Rosny pe "GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY R. E. GIBson CHDMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY Sao : BY THE bcs one ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Annar Sr. at Menasna, ‘Wisconsin ‘hth Sonn 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNnAt, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; e proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3 notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNAt is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors: they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References 4 should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. To facilitate ; the work of both the editors and printers it is suggested that footnotes be numbered serially and submitted on a separate manuscript page. TIilustrations in limited amount will be accepted, drawings that may be reproduced by zinc etchings being preferable. Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication one proof will generally be sent to authors in or near Washington. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Author’s Reprints.—Fifty reprints without covers will be furnished gratis. Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, and additional reprints, will be furnished at cost when ordered, in accord- ance with the following schedule of prices. Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 stents gine Pe nae $2.00 100 $ .75 $1.20 $1.50 $2.00 2.75 150 1.25 1.90 2.55 3.25 3.50 200 Lb 2.60 3.60 4.50 4.25 250 2.00 3.30 4.65 5.75 5.00 An author’s request for extra copies or reprints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. Envelopes for mailing reprints with the author’s name and address printed in the corner may be obtained at the following prices. First 100, $4.00; additional 100, $1.00: Subscription Rates: ——Per volume. .°.\5 ao/Dp/yu. At very low zpV 22D? Reynolds Numbers Cp is approximately constant and equal to about 0.5. At Reynolds Numbers within a range of values dependent on the turbulence the coefficient decreases rapidly to values in the neigh- borhood of 0.1. To obtain a definite numerical value it has been pro- posed to define the Reynolds Number for which Cp is equal to the average of these two values, namely 0.3, as the critical Reynolds Number and to use it as a measure of the turbulence. The measurement of the resistance of a sphere in wind tunnels of varying size is somewhat inconvenient and in any case there is some complication because of the forces on the supports. Therefore there has recently been introduced a pressure-sphere, in which a simpler measurement of differential pressure is utilized. The difference in pressure Ap between an impact hole at the front of the sphere and a hole (or preferably a number of holes) on the downstream side at an azimuth angle of about 1574 degrees from the impact hole is divided by the velocity pressure g=pV.? to give a pressure coefficient. The critical Reynolds Number is defined as that for which Ap/q =1.22. The values obtained are approximately the same as those for which Cp =0.8. The first comparisons between these methods of measuring turbu- lence showed extremely good correlation, but as more information be- came available it became apparent that the critical Reynolds Number of a sphere as defined above depends on the size of the sphere and on other properties of the fluctuations as well as on the root-mean- square amplitude. In some recent work on this problem at the Na- tional Bureau of Standards, artificial turbulence was introduced in an airstream by a series of geometrically similar wire screens. For each screen, identified by the mesh distance, different values of the root- mean-square amplitude of the fluctuations were obtained by working at different distances. To avoid variations of mean speed and of tur- bulence across the stream, the distance had to be greater than 70 times the diameter of the screen wire. The relation between the criti- 110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 cal Reynolds Number of a 5-inch sphere and the hot-wire value of the turbulence for the several screens is shown in Fig. 5. Measure- ments on a larger sphere show that the correlation is a function of the ratio between the mesh distance and the sphere diameter. It thus NEM COIYN I (RON st L [aN GP jO JZ. (4, WE 9S" Con ee. Jae mol 10 ~ Rerit: Fig. 5.—Critical Reynolds Number for pressure sphere as a function of root-mean- square fluctuation of speed. Measurements behind geometrically similar wire screens of varying mesh distance M. Square-mesh screens were used; appears that the wire screens introduce some characteristic pattern (not that of the screen wires which disappears at a distance of 70 wire-diameters) or average size of eddy in the turbulence which af- fects the flow around a sphere. Recently Dr. Schubauer at the National Bureau of Standards has introduced a third method of measuring turbulence which promises MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 111 to be quite useful. He found that the temperature distribution at some distance downstream from a hot wire of small diameter was a function of the turbulence. The dynamic wake of the small wire dis- appears at short distances, the wire acting substantially as a line source of heat in a uniform stream. The thermal wake widens at a rate dependent on the turbulence, and the width of the thermal wake be- tween points where the temperature rise is one-half the maximum temperature rise furnishes a suitable measure of the turbulence. The correlation with hot wire measurements is very good and the equip- ment required is relatively simple, a thermocouple and sensitive gal- vanometer being the essential elements. It is perhaps obvious that a completely satisfactory method of measuring turbulence can not be developed until we understand more completely the mechanism of the transition from laminar to eddying flow and the influence of this transition on the flow, pressure distribu- tion, and force acting on bodies immersed in a fluid stream. We have already noted the effect of the transition on the skin fric- tion. Another basic effect is that on the process of separation. When, for example, air flows around a cylinder, there is a thin well-defined boundary layer only over the forward part. The flow separates from the surface somewhat forward of the median plane, the air near the surface in the region just downstream from the separation zone mov- ing forward in a direction opposite to that of the main stream. Separa- tion occurs when the pressure increases in the downstream direction and the essential features can be derived from the boundary layer equations of Prandtl. The retarding effect of the adverse pressure gradient finally predominates over the frictional transfer of momen- tum from the faster moving particles. The reversal of flow, on ac- count of the consequent accumulation of fluid, separates the flow from the surface. If transition to eddying flow in the boundary layer occurs before the separation zone for laminar flow is reached, the process of separa- tion is delayed to a greater azimuthal angle. The eddying flow pro- motes a more thorough mixing and transfers momentum more readily to the fluid layers near the surface of the cylinder. The behavior of the resistance coefficient or pressure coefficient of a sphere is to be attributed to the effect of the transition on the process of separation and the influence of turbulence on the coefficients is to be attributed to the influence of turbulence on the transition. The boundary layer at the front of a cylinder differs from that on the skin-friction plate because of the presence of a pressure gradient 112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 3 in the direction of flow which arises as a result of the increasing speed. This pressure gradient acts to accelerate the flow within the boundary layer and to retard the increase in thickness of the layer. The presence of a small pressure gradient in the wind tunnel airstream is responsi- ble for the supposed discrepancies between experiment and theory in some experiments on skin-friction plates. The theoretical equations show that small pressure gradients have effects much larger than one might suppose. The existence of an accelerating pressure gradient also affects the transition, delaying it to higher values of Voxp/y. The few experi- ments available indicate that the transition is controlled by the value of Vodp/u where 6 is a suitably defined thickness of the boundary layer, for example {,°(1—V/V.)dy. Much more work remains to be done to verify this hypothesis and to study the influence of other fac- tors, such as the curvature of the flow, temperature gradients, etc., on the transition. The equations of Prandtl describing the flow in a boundary layer are adequate to account for the experimental results so long as the flow is laminar. The unsolved problems of the laminar boundary layer are principally mathematical in character. In the case of eddying flow, even the basic equations are unknown, at least in usable form. Some suppose that the eddying flow represents an unsteady motion which satisfies the fundamental equations of Stokes-Navier for a viscous fluid. Others consider it necessary to introduce additional hy- potheses. Notable advances have been made by combining theoretical considerations with empirical results obtained by experiment. All of these methods begin from the hypothesis of Osborne Rey- nolds that the flow could be regarded as consisting of a mean flow and a superposed fluctuating motion which could be clearly distinguished. The equations of the mean motion are identical with the equations of Stokes except for certain terms depending on the so-called eddy stresses. The eddy shearing stresses for example are pu’v’, pu’w’, and pv'w’ where the bar denotes mean value, p is the density, w’, v’, w’ are the components of the fluctuations at a point. Obviously these stresses are zero unless there is a correlation between the several components. The eddy shearing stress is analogous to the viscous shearing stress, the eddy fluctuations being analogous to molecular fluctuations. The effect of molecular motions appears in the smoothed equations of mo- tion as the viscosity coefficient. While the viscosity depends only - on the temperature, the eddy stresses vary from point to point, being unknown functions of the mean flow. Reynolds general theory MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 113 gives no information about the fluctuations themselves, showing only the effect of known fluctuations on the mean motion. One hypothesis as to the relation between the fluctuations and the mean motion which has been often used is implied in the introduction of the eddy viscosity, a quantity which relates the eddy shearing stresses to the mean motion in the same way that the viscosity relates the viscous shearing stresses to the mean motion. This procedure im- plies certain relations between the components of the fluctuations at a point, but the eddy viscosity may still vary from point to point. Al- though a formal simplification results, some assumption must still be made as to the variation of the eddy viscosity throughout the flow. The analogy between the molecular motions and the eddy motions was pushed somewhat further by Prandtl in the introduction of the mixing length, which plays the same part in the eddy motions as the mean free path in the molecular motions. The isolation of small fluid masses and the mixing length itself actually exist only in a statistical sense. Prandtl’s reasoning led to the result that the eddy viscosity was equal to pl? times a function of the mean motion which for a parallel flow reduces to the transverse velocity gradient. The varia- tion of the eddy viscosity from place to place is replaced by a varia- tion of the mixing length / from place to place, which at first sight offers no advantage. But experiment shows that at large Reynolds Numbers the mixing length is practically independent of the speed and simple assumptions as to the spatial distribution give reasonably accurate results. A further step was taken by von Karman, who assumed that in the eddying motion the fluctuations at all points were similar, differing only in the linear scale and in the intensity of the fluctuations. This assumption led to an expression for the mixing length in terms of the mean flow and a universal constant. The consequences of the assump- tion have been worked out rigidly only for the case of parallel flow. The formulae for the skin-friction and for the velocity distribution ob- tained from Karman’s theory are in remarkably good agreement with experiment. Until comparatively recently the only experimental information available on the characteristics of eddying flow consisted of measure- ments of mean values of speeds, pressures, or forces. A beginning has now been made on the experimental study of the fluctuations them- selves by several independent methods. The use of the hot-wire anemometer has been studied at Delft, G6ttingen, Teddington, Cali- fornia Institute of Technology, and at the National Bureau of Stand- 114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 ards. Fage has applied the ultramicroscope with rotating objective. Townend has developed a technique using small sparks which give hot-spots that are rendered visible by the Schlieren method. Lindvall utilized the effect of the wind on a glow discharge between two elec- trodes. It seems certain that within a few years a considerable amount of information will be available to serve as a guide to the further de- velopment of the theory of eddying flow. The expedition into the unknown begun by Dr. Zahm thirty years ago has thus been followed by others into the same regions, and we feel that we know something more about the territory. New inter- relations have been discovered, and we feel that we have the key to the general geographical structure of the country beyond. It is as- tounding that the study of such a simple problem as the flow of air past a skin-friction plate should lead so far. But as the germ cell con- tains within itself the possibility of development into a rather intri- cate structure, so a single problem in aerodynamics contains within itself the possibility of answering many aerodynamic problems. The account which has been given of studies in this particular sec- tion of the northern frontier could be repeated for other sections. One might, for example, describe the further development of another field of investigation to which Dr. Zahm contributed, the behavior of air at speeds near and above the speed of sound. Or one might describe the explorations, which are practically just beginning, on accelerated and unsteady motion, such as is associated, for example, with the pitching of an airplane wing. But we must now turn to the frontier on the east, bordering on the neighboring sciences. Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics occupy much territory in com- mon and are often regarded as essentially the same. It is true that the language and habits of thought are in large measure identical, but in the details of experimental technique there is sufficient difference that the experimenter in one field is not at home in the other without a season of apprenticeship. The theoretical workers intermingle more freely. Then too there are certain more or less isolated regions in both sciences, for example, the field of compressibility effects in aerody- namics and the fields of free-surface phenomena and of cavitation in hydrodynamics which are distinctive in character. The indebtedness of the younger science, aerodynamics, to the older is very great. In water, events occur in slower tempo, a given flow-pattern occurring at about one-thirteenth the speed which would be necessary in air. The internal motions of water are readily made visible by small amounts of dye and the eye can in many cases readily MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 115 follow the motion. In air, on the other hand, it is necessary to use large volumes of smoke, to take photographs with a high speed motion- picture camera, and to view the pictures at a much reduced speed, if one wishes to observe the motion at reasonably large values of the Reynolds Number. Thus aerodynamics owes not only the underlying theoretical background, but also many of its mental pictures and ex- perimental methods to hydrodynamics. The benefits have not been altogether one-sided. The circulation theory of lift developed from the stimulus of an aerodynamic problem has found repeated application in hydrodynamic problems relating to hydrofoils, pump and turbine blades, etc. The boundary-layer theory is finding fruitful application in hydrodynamics as well as in aerody- namics. All that has been said about the transition from laminar to eddying flow and the effect of turbulence can be carried over word for word to the flow of water. Even the experimental techniques de- veloped for studying fluctuations in eddying motion in air are begin- ning to be adapted to similar studies in water. The sciences of meteorology and oceanography are coming under the influence of aerodynamic ways of thinking. I shall give only one or two illustrations. Atmospheric winds near the Rock of Gibraltar have been found hazardous to aircraft, especially when the wind blows from certain quarters. It occurred to someone to make a model of the rock, put it in a wind tunnel, and explore the flow in detail for several wind directions. The general features were checked by observations in natural winds at the full-scale rock. About two years ago C. G. Rossby, Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a paper entitled A generalization of the theory of the mixing length with applications to atmospheric and oceanic turbulence. The title is self-explanatory. In this paper we find reference to boundary-layers from a 1000 feet to several miles in thickness. In a paper soon to be published by A. M. Kuethe of the Daniel Guggenheim Airship Institute at Akron, we may read of measurements of speed fluctuations within such a bound- ary-layer. At the Fourth International Congress of Applied Mechanics, L. Prandtl presented a paper on the application of the laws of turbulent friction to atmospheric phenomena. He treated a number of special problems as well as the problem of the general atmospheric circulation on a rotating earth. Schlichting gave a theory of the stability of the laminar flow in a heated boundary layer and compared the results with measurements by Reichardt at Gottingen. These measurements 116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 were made with a view to their application in meteorological prob- lems. The theory of heat transfer in forced convection has undergone a veritable revolution by the introduction of the boundary layer as a substitute for the hypothetical film. With the introduction of the con- cepts of laminar and eddying flow, and of transition as dependent on initial turbulence, many apparent contradictions have been explained. As indicated by Pohlhausen and Latzko, we can now proceed several steps beyond the convenient assumption of uniform mass flow of the fluid in studying the theory of forced convection. Thermal boundary layers are recognized as well as dynamic boundary layers. There is a mixing length involved in the transfer of heat as well as in the transfer of momentum and the two may or may not be the same. We intro- duce an eddy conductivity as well as an eddy viscosity and inquire as to their relationship. The analogy between heat-transfer and skin-friction has been found very useful. Closer examination is revealing that the analogy has been perhaps pushed too far, ignoring the fact that pressure gradients affect the dynamic but not the thermal boundary layer and that momentum is a vector quantity whereas heat energy is a scalar. This interchange of information is proving beneficial to both sciences, the heat-transfer measurements throwing considerable light on the characteristics of eddying motion. The study of evaporation and of diffusion has been facilitated by the introduction of the concepts of the laminar sub-layer and of mix- ing length. The experimental study of the relation between the mixing lengths involved in the transport of momentum, heat, water-vapor, solid particles, etc., promises to throw light on the mechanism of all. Such are some of the contacts on the eastern frontier. While I do not claim that aerodynamics has always been benefactor and never beneficiary, I do think it is clear that the extension of the knowledge of how air moves near solid bodies immediately makes possible cor- responding advances in the neighboring sciences. We turn now to the western frontier, a region more familiar perhaps than those which we have been considering. Aerodynamics, of course, became of practical importance in the world with the development of aviation, and by far the larger share of aerodynamic research looks to aeronautics for its support. Until very recently, this territory was the only one with which there was efficient inter-communication. However, an adequate discussion of the interchange between aero- nautics and aerodynamics, which after all are different fields of en- MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 117 deavor, would require much more space than can be given here and is perhaps superfluous for the purposes of this paper. The borderland here has long since ceased to be a frontier. We shall accordingly turn to those regions which are still frontier in character, the first being the borderland between aerodynamics and the practical art of ventilation. The principal aerodynamic problems of ventilation may be briefly stated as (1) the design of fans, (2) the reduction of friction losses in ducts, and (8) the distribution of air from a small number of inlets throughout a large space. The design of fans involves the same fundamental principles as the design of air- plane propellers, but a good airplane propeller is not a good fan. Nevertheless, in certain applications, such as in cooling towers used for cooling the water from condensers of steam-turbines, where large quantities of air are required to be delivered against comparatively small pressures, the simplicity and low initial cost of an inexpensive propeller mounted directly on the shaft of an electric motor led to several installations about five years ago. Soon after, aerodynamical principles were applied by one of the manufacturers, leading to a fan with comparatively large hub (one-third to one-half the diameter of of the fan) and with blades whose pitch increases toward the hub, with a very considerable improvement in efficiency. Very recently, Professor Marks and his colleagues at the Harvard Engineering School, have shown that an axial flow fan, with a diffusor and guide vanes, can be constructed to have an efficiency of 80 per cent. There has also been much interest in the use of fans of this type for forced-draft installations, and for mine ventilation. Multi-stage fan wheels, with alternate rotating and stationary blades, have been pro- posed. There are, of course, disadvantages as well as advantages. The noise is much greater than for slower speed, multi-blade fans and the power-characteristic curve has some undesirable features. However, the application of aerodynamical knowledge to fan design is only in its infancy. Information on air friction is immediately applicable in the design of ventilating ducts. However, the exigencies encountered in actual installations lead to many installations where the principal losses are due to obstructions or bends rather than to friction. When air flows around the usual pipe-bend, secondary motions are produced by the action of centrifugal force which destroy the approximately uniform flow. Large-scale turbulence is produced, with large energy losses asso- ciated with the dissipation of energy of this turbulence into heat. It has been found that these secondary motions may be largely elimi- 118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 3 nated by using guide vanes arranged as a series of curved parallel blades which divide the airstream into a number of smaller streams which are separately guided around the bend. I believe these guide vanes were first developed at Gottingen in connection with the return- circuit wind tunnel, a set being installed at each bend. They have since found application not only in wind tunnel design, but in the de- sign of ventilating ducts for large electrical generators. The theory of the action of these vanes is well worked out. The possibilities of their application have not been exhausted. As an illustration of the reduction of losses due to obstructions, the ventilating ducts of the Holland vehicular tunnel may be mentioned. The exhaust duct is formed by the use of a false ceiling suspended from the top of the tunnel. In the original design the ceiling was to be suspended by cylindrical rods. A simple calculation showed that the resulting losses could be greatly minimized by a partial streamlining of the obstructions, accomplished by substituting flat strips edge on to the airstream for the cylinders. The study of the distribution of air from fresh-air inlets is a virgin field. The investigation of turbulent mixing of jets by Tollmien and others should find immediate application. Another frontier field is the application of aerodynamics to the de- sign of windmills. Betz in Germany has taken the lead in the study of windmill wheels of few blades suitable for driving electric generators with only moderate gear ratios between the generator and windmill- wheel. His studies have illustrated the possibilities of theoretical com- putation of the performance and the value of wind-tunnel tests on models as a guide to further development. Two unconventional types, the Savonius rotor and the Flettner rotor, have received some study. In this field, aerodynamics has served to restrain somewhat the ex- pectations of those enthusiasts who feel that because the wind is free, power from the wind should likewise be free. Simple principles show that the structure required to secure reasonable amounts of power from the wind is comparatively large. Initial cost, depreciation, and insurance against damage in high winds must receive careful consid- eration. A field to which we have devoted some attention at the National Bureau of Standards is that of determining the wind pressure exerted on structures in wind storms. In the design of tall buildings, radio masts, water towers, chimneys, and similar structures, the allowance to be made for wind pressure is a matter of serious concern, first, in relation to the safety of the structure, and second, in relation to its MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 119 cost. To obtain information on wind pressure from observations on a building in a natural wind would require years of measurement and a statistical study of the results. The data so obtained would be limited to buildings of similar shape with a similar exposure. The only prac- ticable procedure is to utilize the long series of observations of the Weather Bureau to forecast the probability of the occurrence of winds 6.—Models of Empire State7Building and surrounding structures for wind-tunnel measurements. of specified speed. To obtain the pressure on the building, the relation between the pressure and the speed must be known. This relation may be determined by experiments on models in wind tunnels or by ob- servations in natural winds. Each method has advantages and disad- vantages. The principles of aerodynamics are invaluable in the inter- pretation of experiments by either method to avoid erroneous con- clusions. The use of both methods is illustrated in the publications of the 120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 Bureau.” The wind-tunnel measurements on the model of the Empire State Building were undertaken with the expectation that measure- ments in natural winds would ultimately be made on the actual build- ing for purposes of comparison. Completion of the project has been delayed by matters beyond our control. To illustrate the extent to which model experiments may be carried, there is shown in Fig. 6 a photograph of the model in the 10-foot wind tunnel with a crude but reasonably accurate representation of the territory for several blocks around. The scale is 1 to 250, the model being 5 feet high. The results of these experiments and similar experiments abroad are slowly finding their way into building codes and in handbooks on design. The results are even having an influence in the design of houses, barns, and other farm structures as agricultural engineers rec- ommend and insurance companies insist that houses be anchored to foundations, and that roofs be securely fastened to side walls to avoid failure as a result of suction and uplift produced by the wind. Per- haps more surprising is that at least one structure, the airship hangar at Akron, Ohio, has been especially designed to reduce the wind load, streamlined if you wish, on the basis of wind-tunnel tests. As the final frontier region to be discussed, we come to the applica- tion of aerodynamical principles to the streamlining of automobiles and trains. When an automobile is driven along a level road, the power developed by the burning of the fuel is used in part to over- come the friction of the gears and bearings and of the tires on the road. The remainder of the power is used to overcome the resistance of the air. At speeds of 35 or 40 miles per hour the rolling resistance and air resistance are approximately equal and at higher speeds the air resistance becomes of the greatest importance. If the air resistance of an automobile were due solely to air friction, the air resistance would be less than one-tenth that actually present in a typical modern automobile. It is not feasible to reduce the resist- ance of an actual automobile to this amount for practical reasons, but considerable improvement can be made. Halving the resistance is easily possible. The possibility of improved fuel economy or higher speed through streamlining has been known for 10 years or more, and several experi- mental cars have been constructed. None of these cars has been com- mercially successful, and the so-called streamlining of present-day cars is essentially only a talking point. The accomplishments are trivial in comparison with the reduction that is easily possible. The 2 Scientific Paper 523, Research Papers 221, 301, 545 and 637. MARCH 15, 1935 DRYDEN: AERODYNAMICS 121 reason for the delay in introducing truly streamlined cars lies in the repugnance of the public to radical changes in appearance. Attempts are being made by manufacturers to make a gradual transition. I do not wish to give the impression that there are no engineering problems involved in the change. There are many, but their discussion is out of place here. Their solution is in sight, if not already accom- plished by some of the manufacturers. The railroad groups are also much interested in streamlining. The new streamlined trains, which really owe much of their advantage to the reduction in weight made possible by the use of new materials and new methods of construction, have caught the public fancy. An ex- periment, which will be of more significance from the standpoint of streamlining alone, is the construction of a streamlined steam locomo- tive by one of the large manufacturers on the basis of wind-tunnel experiments. In 1933, the National Bureau of Standards constructed for the Cen- tury of Progress Exposition in Chicago a small exhibition wind tun- nel, in which were placed two models, one conventional and one streamlined, designed and constructed by W. H. Boyd of the aerody- namics section. Visitors were able to operate the wind tunnel and ob- serve the very great difference in the air resistance of the two models. This exhibit aroused considerable interest and my colleague, R. H. Heald, has investigated not only the head-on air-resistance, but also other aerodynamic characteristics in side-winds. Mr. Heald has also made some studies of methods of representing the ground effect. These studies? illustrate the application of the experimental methods of aerodynamics to the streamlining problem. In the application of aerodynamic methods to aeronautics, ventila- tion, windmill design, wind-pressure measurements, and streamlin- ing, the contribution of the results obtained from basic research in aerodynamics may not be apparent to the casual observer. A little reflection, however, will show that the discovery, for example, of the very considerable effect of initial turbulence on many aerodynamic measurements must modify both the experimental procedure and the interpretation of the results. Similarly, with other advances in our knowledge of how air flows. Of course, engineers do not stop building airplanes, buildings, or automobiles until the new procedures are developed. The next generation of engineers will take the information which now seems new and use it, forgetting its origin. The present 3 Research Papers 591, 748, and 749. 122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 generation may continue to feel that basic research is useless, since it does not quickly answer their immediate problems. And so we end the 1077th meeting. Thirty years from now, at the 1573rd meeting, perhaps someone will again review these frontiers. BOTANY.—New species and varieties of Sedum from China and Tibet. N. FrROpERSTROM, Stockholm. (Communicated by E. P. Ki.u1P.) The United States National Museum recently submitted to me a number of specimens of Sedum from China and Tibet, several of which prove to represent undescribed species and varieties. Most of these novelties were collected by Dr. Joseph F. Rock on his expedi- tions to the interior of China for the National Geographic Society and the Department of Agriculture. Sedum aizoon L. var. obovatifolium Fréd., var. nov. Kiangsi Province, Lu Shan; A. N. Steward 2602, July 20, 1922. (U. S. Nat. Herb. 1,345,868, type). Planta robusta, 15-20 cm longa. Folia caulina confertim alterna, obovata, crebre dentata, obtusa, 25-35 mm longa. Inflorescentia densa, multiflora, lata, circ. 1.53.5 cm. Probably but a stout local form of var. latifolium Maz., with exceedingly broad leaves. It seems to be nearest to a specimen from the Province of Kwei-chau, near Tschingdshen, about 1200 meters attitude (Handel-M zazetti 10498 June 1917, Herb. Vienna and Fréderstrém), but the leaves of that specimen are more spathulate-ovate. Sedum concarpum Frdd., sp. nov. Yunnan, Likiang, China, alpine meadows, Rock 5434, 1922. (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. S. Nat. Herb., no. 1,512,062). Planta perennis, glabra, inferne decumbens et radicans, aphylla, in parte media rosulam foliorum et caulem floriferum, erectum, 8-9 cm longum, edens. Specimen nondum florens suberectum, multicaule, apice confertim foliosum. Folia caulium sterilium longe petiolata, fere orbicularia, apice obtusa et mamillata, basi breviter calcarata, 5-25 mm longa. Folia caulis floriferi subpetiolata, obovata, 5-10 mm longa. Inflorescentia (unius speci- minis) dense corymbosa, involucrata. Flores anisopentameri, breviter (3-4 mm) pedicellati; bracteae foliis supremis similes. Sepala basi non producta, oblanceolata, prope basin leviter dilatata, apice obtusa vel subacuta, mamil- lata, aequalia, circ. 5 mm longa. Petala late lanceolata, sutura basali con- creta, apice recurva (mitellata), 7-8 mm longa, lutea; stamina interpetala 5.5-6 mm longa, stamina epipetala circ. 2 mm supra basin inserta; antherae subovato-reniformes, circ. 1 mm longae. Squamae nect. late lineari-spathu- latae, apice obtusae, circ. 1.10.4 mm crassae, in sicco rubrae. Carpella fere erecta, e basi circ. 3 mm connata, non gibbosa, satis longistyla, 5-6 mm longa; 1 Received January 17, 1934. MARCH 15, 1935 FRODERSTROM: NEW SPECIES OF SEDUM 123 folliculi 4—6—seminati, placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina subovoidea, brevi- ter funiculata, glabra, cire. 1X0.4 mm. Species distincta, ad S. chawveaudi Hamet et quodammodo ad S. leuco- carpum Franch. spectans, folia autem petiolata laminis suborbicularibus, sepala aequalia et carpella ad medium connata. Sedum jupaernse Frdd., sp. nov. Eastern Tibet, Jupar Range: among rocks on Totuch nira, north of Ba Valley, 13900 ft. Rock 14365, July 1926 (U.S. Nat. Herb. 1,509,461, type). Planta perennis, glabra, monoica?: flores masculos et femineos separatim ferens (an specimen gemellum e duabus plantis dioicis compositum?). Rad- ices plures, percrassae, perpendiculares, usque ad 25 em longae. Caudex epigaeus pluries divisus, caespitem densum, fere orbicularem formans, basi squamis desiccatis late triangularibus obtusisque cinctus. Caules desiccati valde numerosi, graciles, caules novos fere aequantes. Caules steriles vel nondum florentes erecti vel dispersi, apice confertim foliosi, 1.5—3 cm longi. Caules floriferi numerosi, flabelliformiter dispersi, 2-4 cm longi. Folia omnia lineari-lanceolata, basi non producta, integerrima, apiculata et acuta, 3-5 mm longa. Inflorescentia conferta, pauciflora; bracteae lineares, acutae, 2-2.5 mm longae. Flores omnes pentameri, breviter pedicellati. Flores mas- culi: Sepala semioblonga, subobtusa, 1.5-2 mm longa. Petala subobovata, basi leviter contracta, apice obtusa et submucronata, circ. 2.5 mm longa, in sicco lutea; stamina omnia petalis fere dimidio breviora, 1.5-1.8 mm longa, epipetala 0.5 mm supra basin inserta; antherae late reniformes. Squamae nect. quadratae, apice profunde emarginatae, circ. 0.91 mm in sicco luteae. Carpella minuta, late ovata, brevistyla, sterilia, vix 1 mm longa. Flores feminei: Sepala ut supra. Petala late ovata, infra medium parum contracta, apice obtusa, 2.5-3 mm longa, in sicco pallide lutea; staminodia interpetala circ. 1 mm longa, apice obtusa, epipetala 0.5 mm supra basin inserta, deinde 0.5 mm longa, apice obtusa. Squamae nect. quadratae, apice leviter emargi- natae, circ. 0.75 0.80 mm, in sicco luteae. Carpella suberecta, longitudine parum inaequalia, subovoidea, brevistyla, 2.5-38 mm longa; folliculi 1—3— seminati, placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina solitaria subovoidea, utrinque alata, glabra, 20.7 mm; semina alia ovoidea, 10.35 mm. Species vero peculiaris, habitu ad formas chinenses Sedi quadrifidi Pall. maxime spectans. Ab omnibus autem differt: flores monoici?, petala lata, stamina floris masculi petalis breviora, flores feminei staminodia ferentes et eorum carpella pauciseminata. Sedum likiangense Fréd., sp. nov. Yunnan, Likiang, Rock 4991, 1922 (U. S. Nat. Herb. 1,512,574, type). Planta perennis, glabra, dioica. Radix simplex, gracilis, circ. 10 cm longa. Caudex epigaeus multoties divisus, densissime caespitosus, caespitem fere orbicularem, circ. 10 cm diametro, formans. Squamae basales? Caules desic- cati numerosi, graciles, breves. Caules steriles vel nondum florentes stellatim * dispersi, apice dense foliosi, 2-3 em longi. Caules floriferi suberecti vel dispersi, numerosi, 2-3.5 em longi. Folia omnia lineari-lanceolata, basi breviter calcarata, apiculata et acutissima, 4-7 mm longa. Inflorescentia uniflora vel conferte pauciflora; bracteae lineares, acutae, 3-3.5 mm longae. Flores omnes feminei, tetrameri, breviter pedicellati. Calycis fundus cire. 124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 1 mm altus, sepala semioblongo-triangularia, acuta, 3 mm longa. Petala late oblonga, basi breviter obtuseque producta, apice obtusa, 3-4 mm longa, in sicco rubra; staminum nullum vestigium. Squamae nect. trapezoideae, latiores quam longae, apice planae et emarginatae, 0.6 0.8-1 mm, in sicco rubrae. Carpella suberecta, subovoidea, brevistyla, stylis recurvis, basi circ. 0.56 mm connata, 4-4.5 mm longa; folliculi multiseminati, centis rite ligamentosis. Semina ovoidea, utrinque alata, glabra, cire. 20.75 mm. Habitu valde ad Sedum juparense Fréd. spectans, itaque e vicinitate Sedi quadrifidi Pall., a quo tamen differt habitu caespitosissimo, foliis acutissimis et inflorescentia vulgo uniflora. Sedum megalanthum Frdd., sp. nov. Type sheets: & 8. W. Szechuan, Mt. Konka, Risonquemba, Konkaling, 3960-5335 m; cushion plant, flowers red; Rock 16415, June 1928. 2 Yunnan, eastern slopes of Likiang Snow Range, Yangtze watershed, 14500-15000 ft; Rock 9848, 1923-24 (types in my herbarium; duplicates in U. S. Nat. Herb., nos. 1,333,815 and 1,512,070). Co-sheets: o Yunnan, Yangtze watershed, western slopes of Likiang Snow Range, 12000-13000 ft; flowers carmine red; Rock 4346, May—June 1922. co’ Yunnan, between Likiang, Tungshan, Tuinaoko, and Tsilikiang, dry Yangtze drainage basin, 14500 ft; flowers red; Rock 9780, May 1923. & Muli, 8. W. Szechuan, Mt. Mitzuga, west of Muli Gomba, 3050-4875 m; rock plant, flowers purplish red; Rock 16596, June 1928. o& Muli, 8. W. Szechuan, Mt. Siga, northeast of Kulu, 4770-4900 m; flowers red; Rock 17923, June 1929. Planta dioica, perennis, 15-20 em longa. Caudex robustus, erectus, supra terram brevis et latus, paulum divisus, apice squamis siccis, late triangulari- bus acutisque cinctus. Caules desiccati plures, nigricantes, robusti, 10-15 em longi. Caules steriles vel nondum florentes erecti, robusti, 15-17 em longi, apice convertim foliosi, eorum folia media spathulato-ovata, sub- acuta, 25-30 mm longa. Caules floriferi numerosi vel pauci, erecti vel flabel- latim dispersi, satis robusti, 10-20 em longi. Folia media et superna sub- petiolata, laminis ovatis vel suborbicularibus, margine integris vel undulatis vel crenatis, apice apiculato-obtusis, 6-25 mm longa. Inflorescentia dense corymbosa, lata, 10—15—flora, foliis supremis involucrata; bracteae?; pedi- celli sparse papillosi, calyce aequales vel longiores. Flores pentameri, magni. Flores masculi: Sepala late linearia vel lanceolata, apice obtusa, 2-2.56 mm longa. Petala pseudounguiculata, usque ad basin libera, oblanceolata vel parum latiora, integra, apice obtusa, 7—-7.5 mm longa, in sicco lucide rosea. Stamina omnia fere aequilonga, petala parum superantia, epipetala cire. 2.5 mm supra basin inserta; antherae ovatoreniformes, circ. 1 mm longae. Squamae nect. rectangulares, basi parum dilatatae, apice divisae vel pro- funde emarginatae, cire. 1.50.45 mm. Carpella sterilia, brevistyla, lanceo- lata, 3-3.5 mm longa. Flores feminei: Sepala e basi dilatata lineari-lanceo- lata, spice subobtusa, cire. 3 mm longa. Petala basi parum dilatata, ob- lanceolata, apice obtusa, 5-5.5 mm longa, in sicco lutescentia; stamina nulla. Squamae nect. quadratae, crassae, apice planae et leviter emarginatae, circ. 1X1 mm. Carpella erecta, brevistyla, late lanceolata, basin versus parum attentuata, 9-10 mm longa, in sicco rubra; folliculi multiseminati, placentis rite ligamentosis. Semina subovoidea, glabra, utrinque alata, apice elongata, 1.5-2 mm longa. MARCH 15, 1935 FRODERSTROM: NEW SPECIES OF SEDUM 125 Species habitu Sedo rotundato Hemsl. valde similis, differt autem floribus majoribus, petalis pseudounguiculatis, et staminibus alte insertis. Sedum yunnanense var. muliense Fréd., var. nov. Muli, Mt. Siga, northeast of Kulu, 4300 m; flowers purplish: Rock 17915, June 1929 (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 8. Nat. Herb., no. 1,510,322). Caules floriferi suberecti, 50-60 em longi; folia quaternata vel superne ternata, integra vel undulata, obovata vel lanceolata, obtusa, 12-30 mm longa; inflorescentia laxe thyrsoidea, e cymulis paucifloris composita; flores masculi, 5-6—meri, petala subovata, 3 mm longa. Ad var. forresti Hamet spectans, sed habitu, foliorum forma et inflores- centia satis distincta. Sedum yunnanense Franch. var. papillocarpum Fréd. var. nov. Yunnan, prope Chungtien, circ. 3600 m. C. Schneider 3025, Sept. 1914, (U.S. Nat. Herb., no. 776,718, type). Planta “20-35 cm” longa, quinquecaulis; folia ternata, oblonga, dentata vel sublobata, acuta, 10-30 mm longa. Flores feminei pro specie magni, pentameri; carpella turgida, papillis altis dense instructa, stylis longis re- curvisque, 5 mm longa; semina lanceolata, glabra, 1.9X0.45 mm. Var. forresti Hamet proxima, folia autem ternata, carpella magna, dense papillosa, et semina lanceolata. 2 Sedum yunnanense var. rotundifolium Fréd., var. nov. Yunnan, Tungshan, Yangtze drainage basin, east of Likiang; flowers yellowish; Rock 10517, 1923 (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 5. Nat. Herb., no. 1,512,078). Caulis solitarius erectus, 45 em longus; folia verisimiliter opposita, denti- culata, orbicularia, obtusissima, 20-40 mm longa et lata; inflorescentia paniculata, 13 cm. longa, e cymulis longe pedunculatis, paucifloris composita; flores feminei, 4-5—meri, carpella 3 mm longa stylis recurvis. Between var. henryi Hamet and Sedum sinicum Diels (which is probably but a variety of Sedum yunnanense), but the leaves are decidedly orbicular and very blunt, and the inflorescence elongate, almost thyrsoid, as in the head species. Q Sedum yunnanense var. strictum Frod., var. nov. Muli, Mountains of Kulu, 4150 m; flowers red; Rock 18214, Sept. 1929 (type in my herbarium; duplicate in U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1,510,623). Caules stricte erecti, usque ad 30 em longi; folia ovata vel lanceolata, sublobata, apice obtusa, inferiora circ. 10 mm longa, media 15-20 mm. superiora ignota; inflorescentia thyrsoidea, angusta, interrupta, 12 cm longa, e cymulis parvis, confertis composita, flores feminei, 5-6—meri, sepalis petalisque fere aequilongis, 1.2-1.4 mm; squamae nect. longiores quam latae; cire. 0.80.6 mm, apice obtusae, in sicco rubrae; carpella basi lata, turgida, stylis longis recurvisque, 3-3.5 mm longa; semina lanceolata, glabra, utrinque breviter alata, circ. 1.20.4 mm. 126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 Planta unica defecta, itaque non satis dignoscenda. Ad var. forresti Hamet spectans, sed fortasse species distincta ob habitum et structuram floralem. PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil plants from the Malacatos Valley in South- ern Ecuador... Epwarp W. Berry, The Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. In my discussion of the Flora of the Loja Basin in Southern Ecuador? I mentioned the possible presence of late Tertiary conti- nental deposits around the source of the Rio Catamayo in southern Ecuador near Malacatos (Valladolid) and Vileabamba south of the Sierra Cajanuma, which separates the headwaters of the Rio Zamora, an Amazon tributary, from those of the Rio Catamayo, a Pacific stream. This suggestion was based on Wolf’s early work.* Recently through the kindness of Professor Clodoveo Carrién of Loja I have received material from two localities in the Valley of Rio Malacatos as the Catamayo is here called, one 2 km. north and the other 1 km. south of the town of Malacatos. The material from the former, the exact locality being along the motor road under construction between Loja and Malacatos, con- sists of but 4 specimens containing well preserved foliage in a fine grained silt or tuff, whitish in color with some yellowish iron stains, and of a sort which is identical with some of the lithologic facies of the plant-bearing material around Loja. Four clearly recognized spe- cies are represented. These are the terminal part of a pinnule of the fern Goniopteris cochabambensis Berry, a leaf of the polygonaceous genus FRuprechtia identical with Ruprechtia braunii described by Engelhardt from the Pliocene tuff at Potosi, Bolivia , a leaflet of Cas- sia linearifolia described originally from Loja by Engelhardt, and a leaflet representing a new species of Pithecolobium which may be de- scribed as follows: Pithecolobium ecuadorensis n. sp. Leaflets small, sessile, inequilateral, elongate elliptical in outline, some- what coriaceous in texture, with entire margins. Length about 2.6 centi- meters. Maximum width 10 to 11 millimeters. The tip is somewhat narrowly rounded and except for its asymmetric attitude is practically equilateral. The base is very inequilateral, being ascending on one side and truncately rounded on the other. Midvein stout and curved. Secondaries well marked; there are 6 or 7 on the concave side of the midvein and 7 or 8 on the convex t | .Received December _10, 1934. : poe Howany W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology 10: 79-134, pl. 1-6. f 3’ Wor, T. & Ratu, G. von. Zeit. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. 28: 392. 1876. | MARCH 15, 1935 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS SA) side; except at the base they are regularly spaced, diverging from the mid- vein at angles in excess of 45 degrees and camptodrome; toward the base they are more crowded, those on the concave side being straighter and di- verging at a more acute angle, those on the convex side are curved and diverge at a wider angle. The tertiaries are thin but distinct and comprise 1 or more from the midvein between adjacent secondaries connected with the latter by more or less percurrent nervilles. This is a very characteristic form. Among previously described fossil species it is very close to P. oxfordensis Berry of the lower Eocene Wilcox group of southeastern North America. Among existing forms it is identical with P. gracilliflorum Blake of Central America, although I have not com- pared the fossil with all of the existing species and it may well be that there are upper Amazon species equally similar to the present fossil form, in fact there is a great similarity among the leaflets of all of the existing species. The genus Pithecolobium, or Pithecellobtum as Martius spelt it, contains over 100 existing tropical species, three-fourths of which are American where they range from the Florida Keys to northern Argentina. In recent years 14 fossil species, all American, have been described. The oldest com- prise 4 forms from the lower Eocene of southeastern North America. There is an Oligocene species in the same region; Miocene species in Porto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Colombia; Pliocene species in Bolivia and eastern Peru; and a Pleistocene form in Trinidad. The second locality is 1 km. south of Malacatos on the west side of an irrigation ditch known as “‘La toma de agua del Dr. Aguierre.”’ The matrix is a rather dense, bluish, secondarily iron-stained clay, considerably deformed and consequently hackly, but whether due to tectonic forces or slumping can not be stated. This clay has failed to yield any traces of dicotyledonous leaves, but is packed with the pinnules of the fern Elaphoglossum carrioni Berry already known in abundance from several localities around Loja, and from its method of occurrence obviously a compound and not a simple fronded type. In addition there are several specimens of Goniopteris cochabambensis Berry and Poacites magnus Englehardt, the last a large Chusquea- like grass. 128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 3 The present collection also contains several specimens of the fish Carrionellus diu-mortuus Ivor White from the nudo of Cajanuma at the southern end of the Loja Basin. All of these forms, with the exception of the new species of Pithe- colobium and the Ruprechtia, are common elements in the flora of the Loja Basin, and the deposits of these inter-montane basins in the Ecuadorian Andes are evidently all of approximately the same age. Recently I described several occurrences of fresh water mollusks and land plants from the Cuenca Basin in Ecuador.’ These came from near the town of Biblian in the Azogues valley, so that there is now definite evidence of the presence of similar late Tertiary continental deposits of probably fluviatile palustrine and lacustrine character, and possibly eolian as well, largely made up of volcanic ash, over a north and south distance of upwards of 150 miles. It seems very prob- able that similar fossiliferous deposits of approximately the same age may be expected in the other inter-Andean basins north of the Cuenca Basin. Malacatos has a present altitude of 5187 feet which is from 1800 to 2100 ft. lower than the plant bearing outcrops in the Loja Basin and about 2800 ft. lower than the similar outcrops in the Cuenca Basin. At the present time the climate at Loja and Cuenca is arid temperate, while that at Malacatos is subtropical. In all cases the fossil plants are mesophytic tropical types and the evidence is clear that there has been a considerable amount of vertical uplift since these deposits were laid down. Whether or not their present altitude is to be ascribed to differential uplift or to deposition at originally different levels can not be stated, although it seems clear that all occurred at the same physi- ographic stage in the geological history of the region. ‘ Berry, Epwarp W. This Journau 24: 184-186. 1934. ZOOLOGY.—Life history of Longistriata musculi, a nematode para- sitic in mice.| BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ and JosEPH E. ALICATA, Bureau of Animal Industry. This paper contains a brief account and discussion of the life his- tory of a trichostrongyle, Longistriata musculi, parasitic in the intes- tine of the mouse, Mus musculus, and readily reared to fertile matu- rity in white mice. In addition to the conventional account of the life history, the writers have included in this paper information on the course of infection, including a consideration of such problems as the 1 Received December 10, 1934. MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 129 egg production, susceptibility of the host to reinfection following the apparent termination of egg production, and a discussion of the re- sults obtained. METHODS USED Live infested mice were shipped to Washington, D. C., from Jeaner- ette, Louisiana. The feces of these animals were mixed with moist animal charcoal, and the mixture was placed on moist filter paper in covered petri dishes. The infective larvae migrated to the edges of the filter paper which were turned up at right angles to the bottom of the glass dishes. The larvae were readily detected along the edges of the filter paper, usually in clusters, adhering to the paper by their tails and waving the anterior portions of their body. By cutting off por- tions of the filter paper on which larvae had accumulated and placing the bits of paper in a glass dish containing a small quantity of water, the larvae could be counted readily when comparatively few were present. When large numbers of larvae were obtained in this manner they were counted by the dilution method. In studying the development of the free-living stages, the writers isolated single eggs with the aid of a capillary pipette, and placed each egg in a drop of very dilute fecal emulsion in a small stender dish hav- ing an inside diameter of 20 mm. The dishes were kept in a moist glass chamber containing several layers of wet filter paper. The in- dividual dishes were taken out of the moist chamber as often as neces- sary and examined microscopically to ascertain the progress in de- velopment. The individual mice were kept and fed in large battery jars, a folded paper hand towel being used as bedding. The animals were fed on oats, and this was supplemented by cabbage twice a week. The feces, bedding and remnants of food particles were removed daily, and the jars were scalded with hot water and then dried. This pro- cedure precluded the possibility of extraneous infection. In experimental percutaneous infections, the infective larvae in a small quantity of water were placed on various portions of the skin of white mice anesthetized with ether, the mice being kept under anesthesia until the water containing the larvae had evaporated. The larvae were placed on portions of the skin from which the hair had been clipped or shaved. Larvae were introduced into the mouth in a small quantity of water with the aid of a pipette. The lungs, liver, portions of the wall of the alimentary canal and other organs were examined post mortem for larvae with the aid of the Baermann ap- 130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 paratus and in press preparations. The heart’s blood and other fluids of the body were removed to glass slides with the aid of capillary pipettes, after being diluted with physiologic saline and examined for larvae. Mature worms were obtained from the lumen of the intestine by slitting the wall of this organ in a glass dish containing physiologic saline and removing the worms from the solution as well as from the lining of the intestine. The Stoll dilution technique was used in making egg counts. The total fecal output for 24 hours of the mice involved in this investiga- tion in no case exceeded 0.22 gms., and usually weighed about 0.2 gms.; in a few cases the weight was as low as 0.05 gms. In making fecal dilutions for the counts, practically the entire fecal sample was used in nearly all cases. For the purpose of ascertaining the presence of eggs, the salt flotation technique was used. PREPARASITIC DEVELOPMENT The segmented eggs eliminated with the feces of infested mice hatched in about 24 hours in laboratory cultures maintained at a temperature of 24°C. The newly hatched larva feeds almost continu- ously and grows considerably during the feeding period which lasts about 4 days during the summer months. The molting larva is en- cased in a sheath, the cuticle of the first-stage larva, which apparently is not discarded in water. On solid culture media, consisting of moist animal charcoal to which mouse feces have been added, the sheath is discarded. The exsheathed larva is infective to mice, and is morpho- logically and physiologically identical with the third-stage larva of other strongyles; as will be shown in connection with its morphology and in the discussion, it should be regarded as corresponding to a third-stage rather than a second-stage larva, on the assumption that the first molt has been suppressed. EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS THROUGH THE MOUTH Experiment 1. Each of two mice (nos. 1 and 2) was fed 500 infective larvae. Five days after the experimental feeding, the feces of these mice were still free of eggs; 7 days after the experimental feeding a few eggs of L. musculi were found in the feces of mouse no. 1 and numerous eggs were found in the feces of mouse no. 2. Experiment 2. Mouse no. 3 was given 6 feedings of 100 larvae each as follows: May 23, 1 P.M.; May 24, 9 A.M.; May 25,9 A.M.,4 P.M. and 9 P.M.; May 26, 9 A.M. The mouse was killed on May 26, MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 131 11:30 A.M., 703 hours after the initial feeding and 23 hours after the last feeding. Post-mortem examination for worms yielded the fol- lowing results: Thirty-five larvae showing no increase in size and no progress in development beyond those of the infective larvae, were found in the stomach; in the small intestine there were present 143 larvae, some showing no evidence of growth beyond that of the infective larva, others showing an increase in size, and some showing early signs of the first parasitic molt, in addition to 140 preadult worms correspond- ing morphologically to fourth-stage larvae of other strongyles; of these worms 63 were males and 77 were females. The large intestine contained 9 living infective larvae. The liver, lungs and heart’s blood were examined for larvae with negative results. Experiment 3. Mouse no. 4 was given 2 feedings of 100 larvae each on May 29, 2:30 P.M., and May 31, 2:30 P.M. This mouse died some time between 4:30 P.M., May 31, and 9 A.M., June 1. Post-mortem examination revealed 30 larvae in the stomach showing no evidence of growth beyond that attained by the infective larvae, 80 worms in the small intestine, of which 49 (18 males and 31 females) were in the preadult stage and 31 were in the infective stage. No larvae were found in the liver and lungs. Experiment 4. Mouse no. 5 was given 200 infective larvae on June 2. On June 7, 5 days after experimental feeding, this mouse was killed and examined for evidence of infestation with the following results: The small intestine contained 32 worms of which 22 (15 males and 7 females) were in the preadult stage, but were already in the third or final ecdysis, while the remaining 10 worms (6 males and 4 females) were in the final, or adult, stage, having discarded the sheath of the last molt before the host animal was killed. The females did not as yet contain eggs in the uteri. No worms were found elsewhere in the alimentary canal. The lungs were free of worms. It is evident from these data that the entry of Longistriata musculi larvae through the oral route not only leads to the development of these worms to fertile maturity, as evidenced by the appearance of eggs in the feces of the experimental host animal on the seventh day following the administration of the larvae (experiment 1), but that the entire development takes place in the small intestine, as shown in ex- periments 2, 3 and 4. All the developmental stages, beginning with those indistinguishable from the infective stage, through the various growth changes in that stage, the first parasitic ecdysis, the preadult 132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 stage, which follows the casting off of the sheath, growth changes dur- ing the preadult stage, the second parasitic ecdysis, and adult or final stage which follows the final exsheathing, were found in the small in- testine. No evidence was found of a migration of the larvae from the alimentary canal to the liver or lungs. Longistriata musculi is, there- fore, capable of achieving its full development in the intestine follow- ing the ingestion of the infective larvae. The latter reach the stomach first, and in this organ some of them, and perhaps all of them, linger for a while and then pass into the small intestine where sexual ma- turity is attained following growth and development accompanied by 2 molts. Preadult worms were already present in experimentally in- fected mice about 48 hours after experimental feeding, and adult worms, not yet fully grown, were found 5 days after experimental feeding. The entire parasitic development, commencing with the in- gestion of infective larvae and ending in egg-laying maturity, was completed in 7 days. EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS THROUGH THE SKIN Mice were exposed to experimental infections through the skin with a view to (1) determining whether the skin is a suitable portal of entry of Longistriata musculi larvae into the body of the rodent host; (2) tracing the course of migration of the parasites from the skin to the small intestine; and (3) ascertaining the precise locations in the body where the development of the larvae is resumed after being sus- pended following the preparasitic molt. The results of experimental percutaneous infections involving 17 mice, examined at various inter- vals following the exposure of the skin to infective larvae, the inter- vals ranging from 3 hour to 7 days after infection and corresponding to the periods during which migration, growth and development take place, are summarized in table 1. An examination of the data presented in table 1 shows among other things (1) that the larvae which were placed on the intact skin ac- tually penetrated this tissue and that some of them were still present in the skin layers 4 hours after having been placed on the surface; (2) that at least one larva was found in the stomach as early as one hour after the exposure of the skin to larvae and that fairly large numbers of larvae were found in the stomach 3, 43 and 6 hours, re- spectively, following the placing of the larvae on the skin; (3) that the larvae were found in the stomach before they were seen in the small intestine or that many more were present in the stomach than in the small intestine up to 6 hours following skin infection; (4) that MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 133 some larvae reached the small intestine as early as 3 hours after they had been placed on the skin and that 10 hours after skin exposure the number of larvae which were present in the intestine was in ex- cess of those present in the stomach; (5) that 24 hours following ex- posure of the skin to larvae, the latter were localized exclusively in the small intestine, in which organ they continued their development; (6) that preadult worms were present in the intestine about 48 hours TABLE 1.—ReEsuU.ts oF PERCUTANEOUS INFECTIONS OF 17 MicE Mouse Number ales denvee, Boos Lot Post-mortem results’ 6 150 - 1 hour 20 larvae in skin and 1 in stomach; all in in- fective stage a 500 2 hours 24 larvae in skin 8 800° 1-3 hours 26 larvae in stomach and 5 in intestine; all in infective stage 9 600° 144-316 hours | 22 larvae in skin; all in infective stage 10 800¢ 14-4 hours 1 larva in lungs, 2 in esophagus, 15 in stom- ach, 7 in intestine; all in infective stage 11 1,000 4 hours 4 larvae in skin; all in infective stage 12 1,000 4 hours Negative 13 1,000 41% hours 6 larvae in stomach; all in infective stage 14 1,000 6 hours 76 larvae in stomach; all in infective stage 15 "150 10 hours 11 larvae in stomach, 27 in intestine; all in infective stage 16 1,000 10 hours 34 larvae in stomach, 94 larvae in intestine; all in infective stage ile 1,000 24 hours 228 infective larvae 18 1,000 24 hours 109 larvae in intestine; stage not noted 19 1,000 48 hours 103 preadult worms in intestine 20 1,000 72 hours 72 preadult worms in intestine 21 200 120 hours 38 worms in intestine; 11 males and 11 fe- males in final stage, and 9 males and 7 females in preadult stage 22 500 7 days 86 fully developed worms (41 males and 45 females in intestine) § Larvae placed on skin as follows: 400 at 11 A.M.; 200 at noon; 200 at 1 P.M. Mouse killed at 2 P.M. Four consecutive infections of 150 larvae each at intervals of one hour. Mouse killed 30 minutes after final exposure to infections. ° Four consecutive infections of 200 larvae each at one-hour intervals. Mouse killed 30 minutes after final exposure to infection. after skin exposure; (7) and that 5 days after experimental infection the majority of the worms were already in the final (adult) stage, and that 7 days after infection all the worms present in the intestine had attained the adult stage. Although the data on mouse no. 10 appear to indicate that the path followed by the larvae from the skin to the intestine was the route usually followed by skin-penetrating nematodes, namely from skin to the lungs by way of the circulation and from the lungs to the intestine by upward migration in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea, and thence back to the alimentary canal, the post-mortem data on the re- 134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 Fig. 1-14.—Stages"in the development of]Longistriata*musculi. Fig. 1.—Egg from fresh feces. Fig. 2—Newly hatched larva. Fig. 3.—Anterior end of preinfective larva. Fig. 4.—Preinfective molting larva. Fig. 5.—Infective larva. Fig. 6.—Tail of infective larva (lateral view). Fig. 7.—Tail of infective larva (ventral view). Fig. 8.— Male larva showing the beginning of the first parasitic molt. Fig. 9—Female larva showing the beginning of the first parasitic molt. Fig. 10.—Posterior portion of preadult male, 3 days after experimental infection. Fig. 11.—Posterior portion of preadult male in the final molt, 5 days after experimental infection. Fig. 12.—Pos- terior portion of preadult female. Fig. 13.—Anterior portion of preadult male. Fig. 14.—Bursa of young adult male, 5 days after experimental infection. MARCH 15,1935 |= SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 135 maining mice given in table 1 do not support this assumption, despite the evidence that the larvae reached the stomach before they ap- peared in the intestine in some of the experimental infections. Careful examination of the hearts’ blood, the fluid of the peritoneal and tho- racic cavities, the lymph glands, lungs, liver, spleen, pancreas, kid- neys, and other organs and tissues in which larvae might be present if they were carried in the circulation, yielded consistently negative results in all cases in which such examinations were made, and prac- tically all the mice involved in this investigation were examined with a view to determining the probable path of migration. Aside from this negative helminthological evidence, no lesions suggestive of lung in- vasion by nematode larvae were noted in any of the mice involved in this investigation. There was a complete absence of petechial and ec- chymotic spots in the lungs, lesions usually associated with the inva- sion of the lungs by nematode larvae. While the possibility of a direct migration to the alimentary canal through the tissues and cavities of the body must be considered as an alternative to migration through the lungs, the available evidence, especially the failure to find larvae in press preparations of the wall of the stomach and small intestine, lends no support to this possible migratory route. The question of the path followed by the larvae of Longistriata from the skin to the alimentary canal must be left open for the time being. MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT The outstanding morphological features in the development of L. musculi are shown in the illustrations (figs. 1-14). The brief descrip- tions which follow help to clarify the illustrations. Egg.—The egg (fig. 1) has a morphology characteristic of other tri- chostrongyle eggs; it is 61 to 68u long by about 38y wide, elliptical in shape, thin shelled, and segmented when found in fairly fresh feces. Preinfective larva.—This larva (fig. 2) resembles those of other members of the family Trichostrongylidae. It is slender, cylindrical, tapering slightly anteriorly and more so posteriorly, and is provided with a long filamentous tail. The newly hatched larva is from about 296 to 311y long by 17y wide. The mouth opening leads into a cylin- drical buccal cavity or pharynx (fig. 3) about 15y long; the esophagus is characteristically rhabditiform, 91 to 95yu long, its bulb being pro- vided with the usual Y-shaped valve; the intestine, about 120u long is followed by a short rectum. The nerve ring is about 65 to 79u, and 136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 the genital primordium 152 to 167y, respectively, from the anterior extremity. The tail is 60 to 68u long. The first preinfective larva grows considerably, attaining a length of 750u, including the long filamentous tail. At this stage the larva is already ensheathed (fig. 4), the sheath inclosing a short-tailed infec- tive larva. Infective larva.—Though the infective larva undergoes only one molt, it must be considered as the homologue of the third-stage infec- tive larva of other Trichostrongylidae since it presents morphological features typical of third-stage larvae. In the life cycle of L. muscula the molt corresponding to the first molt of other strongyles is evi- dently suppressed, the molt which takes place being the homologue of the usual second molt since it gives rise to an infective larva. The infective larva (fig. 5) has the general features of the first- stage larva, differing from the latter principally in the structure of the esophagus and the shape of the tail. It is 610 to 677y long and 26y wide. The mouth is closed and leads into a buccal cavity or pharynx about 8u long, which in turn communicates with a club-shaped esoph- agus about 163 to 171 long; the intestine, about 425y long, is fol- lowed by a rectum about 38yu long. The nerve ring, excretory pore and genital primordium are 110y, 121 to 129, and 350 to 587y, respec- tively, from the anterior extremity. The tail (figs. 6 and 7) is rela- tively short and blunt, from 47 to 57y long, and is provided with two subventral processes located about 10u from its tip. Growth of infective larva in host.—In the intestine of the host the third-stage larva increases gradually in length and in width, attaining a size of 750u by 34u about 24 hours after experimental infection. Evi- dence of the first parasitic molt was found in two larvae 725y long by 26u wide and 750yu long by 34u wide, respectively, the smaller worm (fig. 8) being recognizable as a male and the larger worm (fig. 9) as a female, by the respective positions of the genital primordia, that of the female having migrated posteriorly. In the preadult stage the vulva and vagina are seen in the relative position taken up by this genital primordium. Preadult stage-——The larvae grow considerably during this stage, and show unmistakable sex differentiation. The anterior portion of the larva (fig. 13) shows a small provisional buccal capsule and a cuticular inflation around the head extending to a distance of about 25u posteriorly. The posterior portion of the male (fig. 10) is dis- tended; the swollen portion forms the bursa and the indistinct folds are the precursors of the bursal rays. In the female (fig. 12) the vulva MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 137 and other accessory parts of the reproductive system, as well as the ovary, are well developed about 3 days after experimental infection. At this time the males are 1.38 to slightly over 2 mm. long by 40 to 77 wide in the swollen posterior portion, and the females are 1.8 to 2.35 mm. long by 50 to 75u wide. Five days after experimental infec- tion, the preadult worms, already showing evidence of the last ecdysis, are about 3.2 to 3.4 mm. long by 78 to 83y wide. The rays of the male bursa are fully developed in the worms undergoing the final molt (fig. 11). In a small series of measurements involving only 2 worms of each sex, the males were 3.11 to 3.4 mm. long by 78 to 93u wide and the females were 3.2 mm. long by 76 to 83y wide. Young adult stage—In young fifth-stage worms, 5 days after ex- perimental infection, the largest females measured 5.1 mm., whereas the largest males were only 4.1 mm. long. In the male at this stage (fig. 14) the bursa and spicules have the characteristic morphology of those of the fully developed adult worm. DISCUSSION OF LIFE HISTORY The life history of Longistriata musculi presents several interesting features in its development, namely, (1) a deviation from the usual four molts which characterize the development of nematodes gen- erally; (2) the adaptation of the infective larvae to entrance into the host through the mouth and through the skin, either avenue of infec- tion leading to development of the worms to fertile maturity; (3) the migratory course of the larvae following skin penetration, in which the usual route through the lungs is apparently followed only excep- tionally; (4) the speed with which the infective larvae reach the stomach and intestine following percutaneous infection; and (5) the failure of the larvae to undergo any evident extraintestinal develop- ment following percutaneous infection. With regard to the number of molts involved in the life history of L. musculi, this case is paralleled by the development of Nippo- strongylus muris as determined by Yokogawa (7). The latter species molts only once during its free-living existence, and the larva is in- fective to rats after discarding its sheath. Yokogawa regarded the in- fective larva of N. muris as a second-stage larva and considered the development of the worm in the lungs as involving 2 stages, though only one molt was present. Following the first parasitic molt in the lungs, Yokogawa regarded the exsheathed larvae as fourth-stage larvae, a view which fits their morphological status. As already indi- cated, the writers disagree with Yokogawa’s interpretation of the 138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 morphological status of the infective larvae and with his assumption that the growth in the lungs which culminates in a molt involves two stages, one molt being suppressed and, instead, regard the infective larva of N. muris as well as that of L. musculi as morphologically and physiologically identical with other third-stage strongyle larvae. The morphological identity is evident from the structure of the esophagus which is club-shaped and lacks a masticatory apparatus, in contrast to the rhabditiform esophagus containing a masticatory apparatus which is characteristic of second-stage as well as first-stage strongyle larvae. Moreover, the mouth of third-stage strongyle larvae is closed, whereas in the first and second stages the mouth is open. In this re- spect, too, the two species under consideration agree with third-stage rather than with second-stage larvae. In addition to the facts already cited, the time which elapses between the hatching of the larvae and the attainment of the infective stage, 4 days in the case of L. musculi and 4 to 5 days in the case of N. muris, lends additional support to the view that one molt has been suppressed. Under favorable condi- tions, strongyle larvae molt about 2 days after hatching and molt again two or three days later, the entire preparasitic development be- ing completed in about 4 to 5 days. From the viewpoint of their behavior, the exsheathed free-living larvae of N. muris and of L. musculi show the characteristic habits of third-stage larvae. The exsheathed larvae of both forms migrate upwards in culture dishes and bottles and are capable of infecting susceptible hosts, behavior features not exhibited by any known sec- ond-stage strongyle larvae. In the opinion of the writers, the prepara- sitic development of N. muris and L. musculi, which culminates in a molt, corresponds to the preparasitic development of other strongyles, the first molt being suppressed; the single ecdysis which takes place corresponds to the second molt of other strongyles. It is perhaps sig- nificant that the only two species of strongyles of which the free-living development involves only one molt, so far as known at present, are rather closely related and belong to the family Heligmosomidae. It is possible that the suppression of the first molt may be found to be a common feature in the life history of the members of this family. Since the various stages in the development of nematodes after hatching are separated by molts, the infective larvae of Longistriata and Nippostrongylus are actually second-stage larvae having a mor- phology characteristic of third-stage strongyle larvae. However, in order to avoid the designation “third-stage larva” for a worm which has molted only once, the writers propose the following terms for the MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 139 stages in the development of strongyles after hatching: First prein- fective larva; second preinfective larva; infective larva; preadult; adult. In the two species under discussion, the first two stages are not separated by a molt and only four stages appear after hatching, namely, (1) preinfective larva, (2) infective larva, (3) preadult, and (4) adult. The proposed designations, which have been used in this paper, have the additional advantage of eliminating the term “fourth- stage larva” for a stage in development which can no longer be re- garded as larval, since sex differentiation is not only well established but is readily apparent even on superficial examination. It is quite evident, in view of the rather ample data available on the post-mortem findings in mice at various intervals following per- cutaneous infection, that the larvae of L. muscult become arrested in the lungs only exceptionally even if they do migrate through the respiratory tract. This, as well as the probability of a more direct course of migration to the alimentary canal, accounts for the excep- tionally rapid appearance of the larvae in the stomach and intestine following skin penetration. As is well known, the migratory course of various species of hookworms following percutaneous infection is from the skin to the lungs and results in a considerable delay of the larvae in these organs. The boring of the larvae through the pulmonary capillaries, their migration into and from the alveoli, along the ramifying bronchioles, up the bronchi and the trachea and thence into the esophagus, is evidently time consuming and accounts for the relatively long interval elapsing between the penetration of the larvae into the skin and their arrival in the intestine. The essential facts in the development of L. musculi following the entry of the larvae through the skin are in striking contrast to those observed by Yokogawa and others with reference to the development of N. muris. The infective larvae of the latter species develop in the lungs, molt there, and enter the intestine as preadults. In fact the writers (4) have shown that infective larvae of N. muris are incapable of surviving in the digestive tract of rats, and if they fail to reach the lungs after being swallowed, they pass into the large intestine where they die and are expelled with the feces. L. musculz, on the other hand, undergoes its entire parasitic development in the small intestine re- gardless of the portal of entry into the body of its host. The ability of the infective larvae of this species to penetrate the skin is not cor- related with an extraintestinal developmental phase as it is in the case of N. muris. The infective larvae of the latter, as a matter of fact, are not well adapted to utilizing the mouth as a portal of entry into 140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 rats, as shown by Yokogawa (7), Africa (1) and by the writers (5). Nippostrongylus is a striking example among strongyles of an almost obligatory skin penetrator, since this avenue of entrance into its hosts leads to the lungs whereas an entry through the mouth results as a rule in only a slight infestation or in a failure of the worms to become established in the host. COURSE OF INFECTION WITH L. MUSCULI The course of infection with L. muscult, in so far as this can be de- termined by quantitative studies in the form of counts, made at more or less regular intervals, of the number of worm eggs in definite amounts of the feces of the experimentally infected white mice, was studied in 5 host animals of which 3 were infected percutaneously and 2 through the oral route. Each mouse received an initial dose of 500 larvae, and the 3 mice which were superinfected received a similar sec- ond dose. The feces of these mice were examined on the sixth day fol- lowing experimental infection, with negative results in all cases. Eggs were found by the salt flotation technic on the 7th day and the counts were begun either on that day or the next day. Figure 15 is a graphic representation of the rise and fall in the egg output of the worms in mice nos. 23, 24 and 25 which were infected through the skin. The graphs show that the peak of egg production in the case of mice nos. 23 and 24 was reached on the 9th day after experimental infection; or 2 days after eggs were first noted in the feces, and that eggs were no longer demonstrable in the feces on the 14th day in case of mouse no. 24 and on the 16th day in the case of mouse no. 23. The two mice were superinfected through the skin 18 days after the first infection. Mouse no. 23 was kept under observation until it died, 69 days after superinfection. During this period only one egg was discovered in the feces on the 9th day and three eggs on the 15th day after super- infection; these eggs were demonstrated by the salt flotation tech- nique. At necropsy no worms were found in the intestine of this mouse. Mouse no. 24 began to discharge eggs 7 days after superinfection and was still discharging eggs 41 days after superinfection; two days later this mouse died and post-mortem examination showed 18 gravid females and 13 males in the small intestine. Mouse no. 25 reached a peak of egg elimination 8 days after ex- perimental infection and showed no eggs in the feces 5 days later. Two days after the mouse became negative it was superinfected MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 141 percutaneously. An inspection of the graph shows that the slight egg output from the worms of this mouse, beginning 9 days after super- infection, disappeared after a few days, and that following this no eggs were demonstrable in the feces for 30 days, except once as noted on the graph. This was followed by the reappearance of small num- bers of eggs in the feces during a period of 15 days at the end of which, 65 days after superinfection, the mouse died. Post-mortem co “->~ om ra) ~- vv i=) SES Zz Li =a zs $3 ‘&8 of se Mouse 25 SS a aA « | ow | a o ot = : ott — ee — jh 5 30 35 40 50 55 60 65 70 75 u SO DAYS AFTER INFECTION Mouse 94 (500 larvae) <— Superinfection | <——.—._, —— +s _o ———s _ . EGGS PER Yo GRAM OF FECES (THOUSANDS) ge oS 6 2b ao S ee DAYS AFTER INFECTION wn ° (500 Jarvae) Mouse 95 +— superinfection Te ee ee Ses en hae Can epee DAYS AFTER INFECTION EGGS PER Yo GRAM OF FECES (THOUSANDS) Fig. 15.—Graph of eggs per one-tenth gram of feces of mice nos. 23, 24 and 25, each infected percutaneously with 500 larvae, and superinfected percutaneously with 500 larvae as indicated. x indicates 1 to 3 eggs in total fecal output. examination showed 22 worms in the intestine, 9 males and 13 gravid females. From these data it is evident that following percutaneous infection of mice with LZ. musculi, the egg output quickly reached a peak and that this was followed by an equally rapid decline. A superinfection, in so far as available data show, either failed to reestablish egg pro- duction, or reestablished egg production at a level lower than that attained during the initial infection. However, the egg output follow- ing the second infection, was more stable and persisted for a rela- 142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 tively long time. The egg output of the worms in mouse no. 25, fol- lowing superinfection, involved a prolonged negative phase between 2 positive phases, due perhaps in part to a delayed development of 38 36 34 32 30 ° | | | \ I 1\ ! 28 ’ | | | 1 l | { Mouse 97 a EGGS PER Yo GRAM OF FECES CTHOUSANDS ) o 55 60 6s 70 DAYS AFTER INFECTION Fig. 16.—Graph of eggs per one-tenth gram of feces of mice nos. 26 and 27, each infected through the mouth with 500 larvae. some of the worms, similar to the delayed development of Nzppo- strongylus muris following superinfection, as determined by Schwartz, Alicata, and Lucker (5), in 1931, and subsequently confirmed by Chandler (2), Spindler (6), and Graham (8). MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 143 The graphs shown in fig. 16 are of the egg output of mice nos. 26 and 27 infected through the mouth. An inspection of these graphs shows not only a tremendously large output of the eggs as compared to that of the mice infected percutaneously, but shows also a prolonged persistence in egg production at high levels. Eggs appeared in the feces of mouse no. 26 seven days after experimental infection and were still being discharged in large numbers 25 days later when the last egg count was made. Two days subsequent to the last egg count this mouse died. Post-mortem examination showed 53 worms in the small intestine, 18 males and 35 gravid females. In mouse no. 27, infected on the same date as mouse no. 26, eggs appeared 7 days following percutaneous infection. The increase in egg output was more gradual than that in mouse no. 26. Egg produc- tion was still on the increase 63 days after experimental infection, the date on which the last count was made. Three days later the mouse died; post-mortem examination showed 103 worms in the intestine, 41 males and 62 gravid females. It is evident from an inspection of the graphs (figs. 15 and 16) and from the data given in the text, that while eggs were first demon- strable in the feces of the mice 7 days after experimental infection, regardless of the portal of entry of the larvae, the number of eggs discharged by the worms and the duration of egg production are cor- related with the portal of entry of the larvae. The percutaneous route resulted in a relatively slight egg output which lasted but a few days, whereas the entry of the larvae through the mouth resulted in a rela- tively tremendous output of eggs which persisted at high levels as long as the mice survived. The rapid disappearance of eggs from the feces of percutaneously infected mice can not be accounted for on the assumption of slighter infections resulting from the entry of the larvae through the skin, as compared to those resulting from the ingestion of larvae. In a series of experiments involving 5 mice (nos. 28 to 32) infected percutaneously with 300 to 500 larvae, post-mortem worm counts made from 7 to 16 days following infection, yielded 102, 158 and 86 worms, respectively, in the mice given 500 larvae each, and 47 and 55 worms, respectively, in the 2 mice given 300 larvae each, with males and females present in fairly equal numbers in all cases. These figures compare favorably with the number of worms re- covered from mice nos. 26 and 27 following infection through the mouth. Assuming, therefore, that the wide discrepancy in the number of eggs produced by the worms following the two avenues of en- trance into the host are not due to differences in the percentage of 144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 larvae which actually reached the intestine and developed there to maturity, it is probable that the migration of the larvae from the skin to the intestine, involving a passage through various tissues and cavities, stimulated the defense mechanism of the body. The response to this stimulation is apparently of a sort which interferes with egg production even before the worms die and are eliminated from the intestine. The amazingly low egg output from the worms in mice nos. 24 and 25, despite the presence of 18 and 13 female worms, respec- tively, in these two animals, as compared to the egg output of the worms in mouse no. 26 which had approximately only twice as many females, or even as compared with the egg output of the worms in mouse no. 27 which harbored 62 females, is certainly suggestive of a host resistance involving among other things inhibition of egg pro- duction. In the case of N. muris, the inhibition of development and of egg production has been confirmed by several workers, as already stated, since Schwartz, Alicata and Lucker (5) called attention to this fact. Experimental percutaneous infection of rats with Nippostrongylus, as determined by these workers, resulted in most cases in the rapid attainment of a peak in egg production followed, as a rule, by an equally rapid decline. In superinfections, produced following this de- cline, but few or no eggs were demonstrable in the feces of a large proportion of rats, despite the presence in the intestine of relatively large numbers of worms, including gravid females. The course of in- fection with Nippostrongylus in rats following the invasion by larvae through the skin is similar, as a rule, to the course of infection with Longistriata in mice following the same portal of entry. This general similarity in egg production coupled with the same avenue of entrance into the body, suggests that the passage of the larvae of the two species under discussion through the tissues of their respective hosts brings about a defense reaction to the invasion of the parasites which terminates the egg production and, therefore, the multiplicative capacity of the worms, in a few days. SUMMARY Under favorable conditions, the eggs of Longistriata musculi hatched in about 24 hours after they were eliminated from the host, Mus musculus, and the larvae attained their full development in 4 days. Following one preparasitic molt, the larvae were infective to mice. Although the infective larva has molted only once, its morphology MARCH 15, 1935 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: LONGISTRIATA MUSCULI 145 and behavior are similar to known third-stage trichostrongyle larvae. The view is advanced that the first molt has been suppressed, and the molt which takes place corresponds to the second preparasitic molt of related nematodes. As established by visible molts, it is a second- stage larva, but, as established by morphology and behavior, it is the equivalent of the infective third-stage larva of trichostrongyles in general. The following designations are proposed in this paper for the stages in the development of strongyles: (1) First preinfective larva; (2) second preinfective larva; (3) infective larva; (4) preadult; and (5) adult. The suppression of one molt during the free-living period re- duces the life cycle to 4 stages. White mice were infected with Longistriata through the mouth and through the skin, either portal of entry leading the worms to the small intestine, where they undergo their entire development, ac- companied by two molts. A few hours after percutaneous infection, larvae were found in the stomach and intestine and they became localized in the intestine ex- clusively 24 hours after having been placed on the skin. The precise route taken by the larvae from the skin to the intestine has not been determined; evidently, the migratory course usually followed by skin-penetrating nematodes, involving a passage through the lungs, was followed only exceptionally by L. musculz, so far as available data show. Preadult worms, showing unmistakable sex differentiation, were found in the intestine of white mice about 48 hours after experi- mental infection through the mouth or skin, and final stage worms (adults), not fully grown, were found in these host animals 5 days after entry by either portal. Regardless of the portal of entry of the larvae, eggs were first noted in the feces of experimentally infected mice 7 days after the adminis- tration of larvae. The period of egg production in 3 white mice infected percutane- ously with 500 larvae was limited to approximately two weeks. Super- infection with 500 larvae following the apparent cessation of egg pro- duction, yielded practically negative results in one case coupled with absence of worms in the intestine, and resulted in only a small out- put of eggs in the two remaining mice which harbored worms of both sexes, the egg output being far below the expected output, consider- ing the number of females present. Following infection with 500 larvae through the mouth, the egg 146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 output from 2 mice reached a far higher level than that attained fol- lowing percutaneous infection. Moreover, the high level of egg pro- duction persisted until the mice died, 32 and 63 days, respectively, following the ingestion of larvae. It is suggested that the glaring differences in egg production by the worms, the differences correlated with the portal of entry of the larvae into white mice, is probably due to a marked stimulation of the de- fense mechanism of the host coincident with the migration of the larvae through various tissues following percutaneous infections. This stimulation is either lacking or is not marked following ingestion of larvae. LITERATURE CITED (1) Arrica, Canptipo M. Studies on the activity of the infective larvae of the rat strongylid, Nippostrongylus muris. Jour. Parasitol. 17: 196. 1931. (2) CHanpunrR, Asa C. LHxperiments on resistance of rats to superinfection with the nematode, Nippostrongylus muris. Am. Jour. Hyg. 16: 750. 1932. (3) Granam, G. L. Resistance studies with the nematode, Nippostrongylus muris, in laboratory rats. Am. Jour. Hyg. 20: 352. 1934. (4) ScHwartz, BENJAMIN, and AuicaTA, JosppH E. The development of the tricho- strongyle, Nippostrongylus muris, in rats following ingestion of larvae. Jour. Wash. Acad. Se. 24: 334. 1934. (5) Scuwarrz, Bensamin, AticaTa, JosepH E., and Lucker, JoHn T. Resistance of rats to superinfections with a nematode, Nippostrongylus muris, and an appar- ently similar resistance of horses to superinfection with nematodes. Jour. Wash. Acad. Se. 21: 259. 1981. (6) Sprnpuer, L. A. Relation of vitamin A to the development of a resistance in rats to superinfections with an intestinal nematode, Nippostrongylus muris. Jour. Para- sitol. 20: 72. 1933. (7) Yoxoaawa, Sapamu. The development of Heligmosomum muris Yokogawa, a nematode from the intestine of the wild rat. Parasitol. 14: 127. 1922. MARCH 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 147 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 259TH MEETING The 259th meeting of the AcADEMy was a joint meeting with the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, held in the Auditorium of the New National Museum on Wednesday, November 21, 1934. About two hundred and fifty persons were present. President TuckERMAN introduced Dr. Wituiam A. Waite, Superintendent of St. Elizabeths Hospital, who de- livered an address on The frontier of the mind, which has been published in full in this JouRNAL 25: 1-15, 1935. 260TH MEETING The 260th meeting of the AcapEMy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, on Thursday, December 20, 1934. About 60 persons were present. President TucKERMAN called the meeting to order and an- nounced the nature of a series of programs planned for the future before presenting THomas R. Henry of The Evening Star, who spoke upon, Intro- ducing science to the public, and Austin H. Cuarxk of The Smithsonian Institution, who discussed, Science and the public. 261ST MEETING The 261st meeting of the Acaprmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 17, 1935. About sixty-five persons were present. Doctor ArtHuur L. Day, director of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, delivered an illustrated address on Public safety in earthquake regions. At the close of the address the President declared a recess, and asked the members to remain for the 37th annual meeting of the AcaDEmy. 37TH ANNUAL MEETING The thirty-seventh annual meeting of the Acaprmy was called to order by President TucKERMAN at 9:15 p.m., January 17, 1935. Thirty-five mem- bers were present. The minutes of the 36th annual meeting were read by the recording secretary and approved by vote of the Academy. The corresponding secretary reported on the membership and activities of the year 1934 as follows: Twenty-eight persons were elected and qualified as regular members. Twenty-two resignations were accepted; twelve of these were resident and ten non-resident members. The Acapemy stood in respect as the Secretary read the list of six mem- bers lost by death: J. M. AupRicH ARTHUR SCHUSTER K. F. Ke_uuERMAN Homer C. SKEELS E. W. NELSon H. D. Giszs On January 1, 1935, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members, 3 patrons, and 536 members, one of whom was a life member. The total membership was 554 members, of whom 398 reside in or near the District of Columbia, 133 in other parts of the continental United States, and 23 in foreign countries. The net loss of membership was 1. 148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 The recording secretary’s report summarized five public meetings, two of which were joint meetings, one with the Philosophical Society, the other with the Medical Society. The treasurer’s report detailed the financial operations of the AcADEMy with an itemized list of the assets. A summary of the report showed: Cash balance, January 1) (O54: eee aee $1,365.35 Cash receipts to December 31, 1934................ 5, loge Hotalicash tobe accounted tot. emer eee 6,497.52 Total disbursenients.< 42-2 bee ee ee ae 3,970.98 Cash balance, December 31, 1934.................. 2,526.54 Investments, cost at time of purchase, total......... 21,096.37 F. B. Scurrrz, chairman, read the report of the auditors verifying the operations of the treasurer’s office and the assets of the Acapemy. On motion of C. J. HumpHreys, both reports were accepted and ordered filed. Joun A. STEVENSON, senior editor, read the report of the Journal which covered the publication of Volume 24, for the year 1934. Volume 24 con- sisted of 576 pages, including an eight page index. This compares with 588 pages in 1933, 572 in 1932, 552 in 1931; and 520 in 1930. It contained 78 original papers, as contrasted with 77 in 1933, 79 in 1932 and 80 in 1931. Forty-five papers were by members of the Academy, and 33 were communi- cated, of which latter number it should be noted six were by authors who became members of the AcapEmy following the time of publication of their papers. The original papers were illustrated by 42 line cuts and 27 half tones. Space in the volume was distributed among the different sciences as follows: Pages 2 papers.on Mathematicsh: 4 sac a. see oe ese ee 25.3 I paper on Physical ceorraphvercias-... see ee ao eee 6.5 5 papersvon (Physicstand seoplysieses . 22e-ea 5-1 oe soe 44.3 9 papers on Chemistry, including pharmacology........ 37.6 3 papers on Geology, including hydrology and petrology 43.5 Ll paper on Biglosycc. ree or ee es oe een he ele 1a 15 papers on Paleontology and paleobotany............. 67.2 14 papers‘on Botany. 2 fe ogak ee oe Seer ee eee 109.6 20: papers on Zoologycos Ae ee ao ee ee 90.2 5 papers on Ornithology, malacology, entomology...... 42.9 3 papers on Ethnology and archeology................ 12.1 Proceedings of the Academy and affiliated societies occupied 53.4 pages, as follows: The Academy... See ee eee eee 4.6 Anthropolopical Society....45.0 505 eee ee eer ih.33 Botanical Societys [<..... ci nc see eee eee 3.9 Geological Societys:< 2... :. ccc. oust dn eee 18.6 Philosophieal-Society? = 2... 55202 ss0 65 soe ee ee 15.0 Scientific notes and news, and obituaries occupied the remaining 44.1 pages. The recording secretary read the report of the tellers showing the election of the following officers for 1935: President, G. W. McCoy; non-resident vice-presidents, W. M. Crarx, E. D. Merritz; corresponding secretary, Paut E. Hows; recording secretary, CHARLES THom; treasurer, H. G MaRcH 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 149 AvERS; managers for the term of three years ending January, 1938, R. S. BassueER, C. A. BROWNE. The corresponding secretary read the nominations for resident vice- presidents representing the affiliated societies, as follows: Philosophical Society of Washington, O. H. Gisu Anthropological Society of Washington, MatrHmw W. STIRLING Biological Society of Washington, Cuas. E. CHAMBLISS Chemical Society of Washington, J. F. Coucu Entomological Society of Washington, HArRoLD Morrison National Geographic Society, F. V. CoviLiE Geological Society of Washington, H. G. Frrcuson Medical Society of the District of Columbia, Henry C. MacatTEer Columbia Historical Society, ALLEN C. CLARK Botanical Society of Washington, NatHan R. SmitH Archaeological Society of Washington, WaLtrErR HoucH Society of American Foresters (Washington Section), S. B. DmTwILER Washington Society of Engineers, Paut C. WHITNEY American Institute of Electrical Engineers (Washington Section), Herspert G. Dorsry American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Washington Section), Hersert N. HAton Helminthological Society of Washington, G. STEINER Society of American Bacteriologists (Washington Section), H. W. SCHOENING Society of American Military Engineers (Washington Post), C. H. BIRDSEYE Institute of Radio Engineers (Washington Section), J. H. DELLINGER On motion, the recording secretary was instructed to cast the vote of the Academy for the nominees, and they were declared elected. President TucKERMAN appointed past presidents WeTMorRE and ADAMS to escort Dr. McCoy to the Chair. President McCoy made a brief address and declared the meeting adjourned. CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held on January 15, 1935, elected the following officers for the ensuing year: President, MattHEw W. StTiruinG; Vice-president, FRANK H. H. Roperts, JR.; Secretary, Frank M. Srrzuer; Treasurer, HENRY B. Couuins, JR.; Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, MattHEew W. STIR- LING; Members of the Board of Managers, C. W. Bisnop, G. 8. Duncan, H. W. Kriszcer, T. D. Stewart, W. D. Strona. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the annual meeting held on January 16, 1934 follows: Membership: ATE EEME MID ENS nee ear Tee ove VON mails base pucloleas fue lewerexancro bre 3 INCULVERIECTUD CTS 5 PoE ON eR Tere orn ote etelie ree SP aaotete euch oisheeis 45 AISSOCIALERIIEIIUD CLS eee weet MRM eee te ae ercehnce chet ae ic ten shies Chal sseh gs 8 laloynopehAe TNs io cols aoc > 6a mee Goo 6 Plena oe ome nme Aoi 18 (Correspondincamemberseee eect beter ietetneicr riers 18 150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 3 Deceased: ACELVG: MMCINDEOLS iz ios 5 aid coo 5 levies pono cae s VOICI EEN AMO Le ne pee 1 New Members: Active members: + ...:.2DBr > rate of H.+Cl.—-2HCl rate of D2+Cl.>2DCl 5.0 at 308°C. 13.4 aun 07: 2 This Figure and Tables I, I], and III were taken from Hydrogen isotope of atomic weight two by H. C. Urry and G. K. Tra, Rev. of Modern Physics, 7: 34. (1935). 160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 rate of H:+Cl.—-2HCl rate of D.+Cl.>2DCl rate of 2H.+O.—-2H.O rate of 2D.2.+0.—-2D.0 . To demonstrate the usefulness of deuterium in tagging or distin- guishing hydrogen atoms let us consider the simple reaction that takes place when ammonia is dissolved in water: NH;+H.O=NH,.OH. Ammonium hydroxide is formed and since the reaction is reversible this decomposes into NH3, dissolved, and H.O. Now it is of interest to ask whether or not the same three H atoms are attached to the N atom of an ammonia molecule after the decomposition of NH,OH as were originally attached to it. Or it may be asked if the four H atoms attached to the N of an NH,OH molecule are equivalent. Let us consider what should happen if we dissolve ammonia in D.O. If the four H atoms attached to the N of NH.OH are not equivalent and the same three original H atoms are attached to the N atom after the decomposition of ammonium hydroxide, the following reaction will take place: 9.8 Fy ems ac! Ole 25 at 560°C: NH;+D;0—NH;DOD~>NH;+D.0. There will be no exchange of the hydrogen of the ammonia with the deuterium of the water. If, however, the four H atoms attached to the N are equivalent then the following reactions will occur: NH; +D,0— NH;,DOD— NH; +D.0 NH:DOD—NH.D+HDO0O, and as a result the D and H atoms of the water and ammonia will mix. Experiment shows that they do mix and that when equilibrium is reached, the relative concentrations of hydrogen and deuterium atoms in the water and ammonia are the same. This shows that all three hydrogen atoms of ammonia are in exchange with hydrogen atoms of the water. In Tables I and II are tabulated a number of exchange reactions. In the field of physiological chemistry, this ability to tag hydrogen atoms should prove useful. For example we can determine how rapidly a drug taken into the system is absorbed by the blood stream and then eliminated. This can be done by replacing some of the H atoms of the drug with deuterium and then analyzing for the drug by de- APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 161 TABLE I.—ExcuancEe REACTIONS BETWEEN WATER AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Compound Observation CH;COONa No exchange CH;COOH “ “ CH;CHO 1 hydrogen atom exchanges slowly CH.O 2 hydrogen atoms exchange slowly CH;COCH; Very slow exchange in neutral solution Faster exchange in acid solution Very fast exchange in alkaline solution CH;COCH.COCH; All hydrogens exchange 2H, Exchange in alkaline solution Glucose and Cane Sugar Hydroxyl hydrogens exchange immediately (CH20H),. One-third of hydrogens exchange immediately Egg albumen All hydrogens attached to N atoms exchange Cellulose All hydroxyl hydrogens exchange TABLE II.—InoreGanic ExcHance REACTIONS Reaction Observation H2(g)—H.0(l) and (g) Exchange in presence of platinum Exchange observed in 6 weeks without addition of catalyst No exchange observed in 19 days without catalyst Exchange in 1-9.5 hours under 340-370 atmospheres pressure Exchange observed without catalyst in Pyrex and quartz vessels at 800° Abs. H.(g)—HI(g) Exchange observed at 400°C and above H2(g)—HCl (g) Exchange in presence of palladium at 180°C H,0(I)=N Hs? (sol.) All hydrogen atoms exchange H.0 (l)J=NH;(1) All hydrogen atoms exchange H2(g) + D2(g)=2HD (g) Exchange at high temperatures and on catalytic surfaces. Ni, chromium oxide, Pd, Hg, Pyrex and soft glass, and charcoal at liquid air temperatures do not promote ex- change KH,PO.—H,0 No exchange [Co(NHs3)6](NO3z)3—H2O All hydrogens exchange termining the D content of the blood. Of course the exchange reac-, tions of the drug must have been previously investigated. The usefulness of deuterium in biological chemistry can be illus- trated by another example. Sodium formate is decomposed by enzyme hydrogenlyase of Bacterium coli with the formation of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The mechanism of decomposition previously accepted for this was: HCOONa+H,0— HCOOH +Na0OH HCOOH—> H, +CO.. If this is correct then replacing H.O with D.O the following reaction would result: 162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 HCOONa+D.0— HCOOD+Na0D HCOOD—> HD +C0O:. No Hz or D2, but only HD would be formed. Experiment shows that H:, D. and HD are evolved in the equilib- rium concentrations presented in Fig. 1. Moreover it has been found that in a gaseous mixture of H, and D.» over water the Bacterium coli acts like Pt-black as a catalyst in establishing an equilibrium be- tween H;, D. and HD. It must be concluded that the previously sup- posed mechanism of the decomposition is not correct and that the Bacterium coli can react with hydrogen in the atomic form. It there- fore seems probable that the decomposition of the formate by Bac- tervum coli occurs through atomic reactions with the formation of H and D atoms. Because of the extreme sensitiveness of certain biological reactions to changes in environment, it was early realized that isotopic water might produce marked changes in many cases. At first biological effects of high concentrations of D,O were observed by some chem- ists. The striking observations of drunk mice, the failure of tobacco seeds to sprout, and the death of guppy fish and tadpoles in D.O, were reported. Fermentation by yeast cells was found to be so much slower that bread made with heavy water would take about one week to rise. Later, biologists realizing that experiments carried out with low concentrations of deuterium should be more significant biologically in determining the effect of deuterium under approximately normal conditions, subjected various organisms to water containing 0.5 per- cent and less of D,O. All experimenters have not found the same effects. It has been reported that Spirogyra, or pond scum, lives * twice as long in 0.06 percent D.O, and that some flatworms, Phagocata gracilis, placed in ordinary water without food shrank to 1/5 their size in five months, whereas in 0.06 percent heavy water there was only a slight diminution in size. It has also been reported that the growth of Aspergillus niger; the germination of conidia of the pow- dery mildew of wheat, Erysiphe graminis tritici; the root growth of wheat and the O, consumption by wheat seedlings showed no sig- nificant difference between the influence of ordinary water and that of water containing 0.05 and 0.5 percent D.O. Other experiments, however, indicated that in the case of some bacteria low concentra- tions of D.O—of the order of 0.5 percent—have a stimulating effect on the rate of oxygen absorption, whereas in high concentra- APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 163 tions—approaching 100 percent—the reverse is true, the rate of oxygen absorption being decreased. In the field of nuclear physics deuterium has found one of its most important applications. It has added to the material particles used in the investigation of the structure of the nucleus, namely, the proton, neutron and a-particle, another, the deuteron (deuterium nucleus) which can be given great speeds in high voltage tubes and then used to bombard and transmute nuclei of other elements. In some respects the deuteron has proved to be more interesting than the proton. The highest energy material particles ever produced in a laboratory under controlled conditions are the helium nuclei resulting from the bombardment of Li® with deuterons. (The superscript desig- nates the atomic weight of the isotope.) The two helium nuclei formed by this nuclear reaction D? + Lié = 2He* have ranges in air of 13.2 cm. This is greater than the range of the longest a-particles from any of the radioactive elements. It would require 23,000,000 volts to give them their observed speeds. The transmutations resulting from the bombardment of deuterium with deuterons is unique in that it is the only known case in which a trans- mutation results from the bombardment of a particle with an identical particle. Two nuclear transformations can take place D? +]? =T3 +H?! D?+ D? = He? + neutron. The symbol T denotes tritium, the hydrogen isotype of atomic weight 3. The first of these is the most abundant of all known nuclear re- actions, 1.e., a far greater number of transformations result per million bombarding particles than in the case of any other known reaction. The first reaction is the only one known in which another isotope of the same element is formed, instead of another element. In the strict sense of the word this is not a transmutation. In the production of artificial radio-activity, deuterium surpasses a-particles and protons in effectiveness. It is reported that high speed deuterons render 14 of the lighter elements (Li, Be, B, N, C, O, F, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, Cl and Ca) radioactive emitting positive electrons in their disintegration. Of these elements only B and C become radio- active under proton bombardment. Just as deuterium made possible the investigation of the effect of mass apart from chemical nature upon chemical properties, it makes 164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 possible the investigation of mass upon physical properties. Pre- viously this was not possible. The change in physical properties due to difference in mass in going from one element to another is far overshadowed by the change due to the difference in chemical nature. A pure effect of mass on physical properties is illustrated in Table TABLE III.—Prorerties or H,O anp D.O Property 0 D.0 Density2575 1.0000 1.1079 T of maximum density 4.0°C 11.6°C Molar volume at temperature of maximum density 18.015 em? 18.140 cm?* Lattice constants of ice a 4.525A 4.505A b 7.39A 7.36A Volume of the ice cell 131.0A4 129.3A4 Mole volumes of the ices 0°C 19.65 cm? 19.32 cm? Dielectric constant 81.5 80.7 Surface tension 72.75 dynes/em 67.8 dynes/em Viscosity in millipoises 10°C 13.10 16.85 20°C 10.09 12.60 30°C 8.00 9.72 Molar magnetic susceptibility liquid at M.P. 12.93 12.66 solid at M.P. 12.65 12.54 at 20° 12.97 12.75 Refractive index 20°C NaD line 1.33300 1.32828 Molar refraction 20°C NaD line 3.7121 3.665 Verdet constant \=5893A 0.013067 0.012556 Min./gauss: cm \=5460.7A 0.015395 0.014793 et 0.0 3.802 BSE 100.0 101.42 Heat of fusion 1436 cal. 1510 cal. Heat of vaporization 25°C 10484 cal. 10748 cal. Equivalent conductance at 18°C H+ in H20 315.2 | Dtin D,O 213.7 Kt 64.2 54.5 Cl- 65.2 ope Solubilities, molalities NaCl 25°C 6.145 6.145 X0.92 BaCl, 20°C 1.72 1.72 X0.88 III in which the properties of H,O and D.O are compared. The differ- ence between the values of these properties for H,O and D,O are larger than was expected and as yet are not quantitatively explained. The effect of mass is even more striking in the case of molecular hydrogen and deuterium at low temperatures. The boiling and freez- ing point temperatures, in degrees absolute, of hydrogen and deute- rium and their corresponding vapor pressures are given in Table IV. Table V contains the latent heats of transition and the densities of the solids. At the freezing point of hydrogen, 13.92° Abs., the vapor pressure of solid deuterium is only 5 mm of Hg or 1/11 of that of solid hydrogen. Before the vapor pressure of deuterium was measured it APRIL 15, 1935 BRICKWEDDE: DEUTERIUM 165 TABLE IV.—Boriine AND FREEZING PoIntTs T Vapor Pressure in Degrees mm of Hg Absolute i D; Boiling point of deuterium 23 .59° Abs. W753 760.0 Boiling point of hydrogen 20.38 760.0 256.2 Freezing point of deuterium 18.71 447.5 128.7 Freezing point of hydrogen 13.92 54 5.2 TABLE V.—Mo.ecuntarR VouUMES AND LATENT HEATS OF TRANSITION H, D, Volume of 1 gram molecule weight of solid 26.15 cm$ 23.15 cm$ Heat of fusion 28 cal/mol 47 cal/mol Heat of vaporization of liquid at 20.38° Abs. 216 cal/mol 307 cal/mol was calculated from theory. The theory predicted that at this temperature the vapor pressure of deuterium would be 16 mm or only a little less than 1/3 of that of solid hydrogen. The ob- served values were introduced in the theoretical equations, and quantities were derived which could be compared with the results of other experiments. Assuming the validity of the vapor pressure theory, it was shown that the coefficient of expansion of solid hydro- gen must be abnormally large and that for solid deuterium small. From the derived data, the specific heat at constant volume for solid hydrogen, a quantity which is difficult to measure and previously unknown, was calculated. In Table VI are listed values of the specific heats at constant pressure, C,, and at constant volume, C,. For solid hydrogen at 14° Abs. C,—C, is 2 times C,, and at 10° Abs., 2.7 times C,, whereas for most solids the difference between C’, and C, is negli- gibly small in comparison with C,. This anomaly in solid hydrogen is a consequence of its large coefficient of expansion. TABLE VI.—Sprciric Heats or Sotip HypROGEN at CONSTANT PRESSURE AND Constant VOLUME T Cp Cy Degrees Absolute Observed Calculated 10° Abs. 0.59 cal/mol 0.16 cal/mol 13.92 1.32 cal/mol 0.42 cal/mol The differences between the physical properties of hydrogen and deuterium and their compounds are in general larger than was ex- pected. In cases where the differences have been accounted for, new or further knowledge concerning hydrogen itself has been acquired. 166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 As an example: It has been learned from a comparison of the vapor pressures of hydrogen and deuterium that solid hydrogen has an unusually large coefficient of expansion, and that for solid hydrogen C,—C, is much larger than C, itself, whereas in the case of most solids, the difference is negligibly small. This new line of isotopic research in physics will not stop with deuterium but will be extended to the isotopes of other elements. Experiments are already under way to separate the isotopes of Ne, C, N and O in quantities large enough to determine their physical and chemical properties. The observed differences between the biological, chemical and physical properties of hydrogen and deuterium and their compounds appear all the more striking when we recall the time when it was thought that all properties, reduced to the gram molecular basis, with the exception of those properties which depend upon the velocity of motion of the molecules, as the viscosity of a gas, were the same for all isotopes of the same element. Indeed Soddy, the discoverer of isotopes, does not call deuterium an isotope of hydrogen, because he looks upon the indistinguishability of properties, reduced to the gram molecular basis, as an essential characteristic of isotopes. It must be conceded to Soddy that hydrogen and deuterium behave like different substances but we have today a more fundamental definition of isotopes and a better understanding of the effect of mass on physical and chemical properties. As Lord Rutherford has put it, ““much water has flowed under the bridge’”’ since Soddy’s discovery of isotopes in 1913. GEOLOGY.—Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland and eastern North America.t ANNA I. Jonas, U. S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by W. W. RuBEy.) Scotland, although covering a small area, about 40 miles wide and 250 miles from north to south, is of great interest geologically because it contains parts of several pre-Devonian belts of sedimentation with a complicated tectonic history. The structures which trend both northwestward and northeastward are cut off abruptly at the coast in both directions and their continuations have been sought in ad- joining lands, Fennoscandia, Spitzbergen, and Greenland. This brief discussion is based largely on the work of others and is given as the result of my participation in the second excursion of the 1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received January 5, 1935. APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 167 Pre-Cambrian Association held in Scotland August 18, 1934, under the leadership of Professors Bailey, McCallien, Read and Tilley. “The International Association for the study of the pre-Cambrian and Old Mountain Chains,” as it is called, was organized by Seder- holm in 1930 and holds its excursions the year following the meetings of the International Geological Congress. The next field meeting will be in Czechoslovakia under the leadership of Radium Kettner of Prague. An account of the present position of the organization of the Pre-Cambrian Association and of the second excursion was published in December, 1934 (1).? Pre-Devonian rocks of Scotland.—Scotland is made up from south to north of the Southern Upland, the Midland Valley, and the High- lands. The last major folding was pre-Devonian, Caledonian, in age, and all younger rocks show relatively unimportant disturbances. The Midland Valley, occupied by down-faulted Devonian and Carbonif- erous rocks and their intrusives and extrusives, separates the folded belts of the Southern Upland and the Highlands. The Southern Upland contains Ordovician and Silurian rocks. The Highlands are divided into 3 parts; the Southern and Central Highlands contain the Moine and Dalradian Series, both metamorphosed and folded, as were the rocks of the Southern Upland, during Caledonian orogeny. The Southern Highlands are separated from the Midland Valley south of them by a normal fault, the Highland border fault. The Central Highlands is cut in two by the Great Glen which extends along another normal fault, the Glen fault of Jurassic or younger age. The Caledonian canal follows the Glen and connects Loch Linnhe on the southwest with Loch Ness on the northwest. In the Northwestern Highlands the Moine series has been thrust northwestward over the rocks of another orogenic belt. These rocks include the Lewisian basement of early pre-Cambrian age, composed of an igneous complex intruded into metamorphosed schists and marbles, and is overlain unconformably by late pre-Cambrian Tor- ridonian sandstone. Both series of pre-Cambrian rocks are overlain unconformably by Lower Cambrian quartzites and the Durness limestones whose resemblance to rocks of the same age in the Appa- lachian Valley will be discussed later. Moine thrust—The Moine thrust (2) and its branches forming lower planes of disruption, the Glencoul and Ben More thrusts, produce a belt of imbricate structure 6 to 8 miles broad lying east of an undis- turbed tract of Torridon sandstone and Lewisian rocks. The Moine 2? Numbers refer to the Bibliography given at the end of this paper. 168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 gneiss and the Lewisian igneous complex on the soles of the over- thrusts have been ground out into mylonite gneisses and mylonites which were recognized and defined by Lapworth in this area in 1885. These mylonites on the Moine and Glencoul thrusts are well exposed near Knockan and on the shores of Loch Glencoul. The unravelling of the stratigraphy and tectonics of this complicated region is a monument to two great Scottish geologists, Peach and Horne (3). Undisturbed rocks northwest of Moine thrust—The Lewisian igneous rocks are well exposed on the shore of Loch Assynt to the Coast at Lochinver and are in large part a light and dark-banded gabbro with pink granite layers. It is a primary gneiss and according to Eskola, a product of the first crystallization of a basic magma followed by differentiation and later intrusion of the types of medium and acid composition. The gneiss is cut by ultrabasic dikes, and contains shear zones which strike northwest across the flow banding of the gneiss which is crushed to a mylonite or augen gneiss in the disturbed zones. The Lewisian gneiss (4) is exposed along the northwest coast of Scot- land and in the Isle of Lewis in the Hebrides and all the igneous intrusion and folding in that area was early pre-Cambrian, pre-Tor- ridonian, and the Torridon sandstone was deposited on the deeply eroded surface of this old land area. This sandstone series, which re- sembles the Triassic of the eastern United States and the Devonian of Scotland, was called Devonian before it was found that Lower Cam- brian rocks unconformably overlie it. It also resembles the Jotnian sandstone of Finland and the Sparagmite formation of Norway, the youngest pre-Cambrian rocks of Fennoscandia. The folded structures of the Lewisian gneiss trend west and northwest while all younger rocks of Scotland trend northeastward. Suess (5) and others have suggested that the Lewisian basement belongs to Laurentia and in pre-Cambrian times was connected with the Canadian Shield by way of Greenland, and the whole was part of Eria, an inferred northern continent. The crystalline schists of Loch Maree into which the granite-gabbro complex of the Lewisian was intruded, have been compared to those of the Grenville. The Lewisian igneous complex where I saw it on the shores of Loch Assynt bears a striking resemblance to the igneous complex of the Reading-Boyertown Hills in eastern Pennsylvania, which lie in the Highland belt of the Appalachian Mountains. The excursion did not visit Loch Maree and therefore I can make no comparison of the sedimentary Lewisian schists with the crystalline schists into which the igneous rocks of the Reading-Boyertown region APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 169 are intruded. The Lower Cambrian rocks of northwestern Scotland are lithologically like those in the main Appalachian Valley. The fauna in the two areas also is the Olenellus fauna of Arctic type. Relations of the pre-Devonian Highland rocks southeast of the Moine thrust to those of other areas.—The rocks of the Moine and Dalradian series have only thrust relations with the rocks of Northwestern Scot- land, and since they contain no fossils, their age and relations are not definitely known. The Moine series (6), composed of siliceous gneisses and schists, is considered to be pre-Torridonian by Clough, Horne, Gregory, Read, and Eskola, and to be Lewisian by Barrow and Read, and metamorphosed Torridonian by Bailey. It was in- truded by the Older granites of the Inchbae and Carn Chuinneag complex (7), perhaps of pre-Cambrian age, before it was folded and metamorphosed. The Moine series at the contact with these intru- Sives is a hornfels with its current bedding preserved. Later deforma- tion has affected both the intrusives and the Moine in zones striking across their contacts. Read believes that the metamorphism of the Moine series is not Caledonian because the Moine gneisses were metamorphosed before the intrusion of the Ben Loyal alkaline rocks, which are thought to be Ordovician and equivalent to the syenite rocks of the Loch Borolan area where they intrude the Durness lime- stones of Cambro-Ordovician age. The dislocation metamorphism along the Moine thrust has affected both the syenite and Moine gneisses. The Newer granites, of Silurian age, the Helmsdale granite, Rogart diorite, and the Strath Halladale injection (8) complex also were intruded into the Moine series after the metamorphism. At Cnok na Bieste zenoliths of Moine mica schist are included in the Strath Halladale granite and sillimanite is developed in the adjoining Moine schist. The large granite intrusions near Aberdeen belong also to the Newer granites. The Dalradian series of quartzites, limestones, slates, and schists overlies the Moine, in part of the Highlands south of the Great Glen fault and extends to the Southern Highland border fault. Bailey be- lieves that it is a pre-Cambrian series, younger than the Moine and overlies it, and that it was metamorphosed and folded and thrust during Caledonian orogeny into four great nappes (9). These struc- tures the members of the excursion studied in the Appin Country south of Loch Linnhe where the Dalradian is not much metamor- phosed. The more metamorphosed Dalradian described by Tilley (10) occurs in the Southern Highlands farther south and southwest of Loch Linnhe. 170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 Robert Campbell and other Scottish geologists recognize that the Dalradian series may be Paleozoic and perhaps the metamorphosed equivalent of the folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks of the Southern Upland. This area contains no lower Cambrian rocks but was folded during Caledonian orogeny. In Western Norway where Caledonian folding has been recognized also, a metamorphosed clastic series of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks, first described by Stormer at Ustao- set in 1925, appears in the Bergen arches and has been compared by Kolderup to the Dalradian series. It carries Cambrian fossils of the Fjeld facies of the Baltic type which occurs also in the larger Cam- brian belt on the border of Sweden and Norway. In Sweden, east of the border area of Lower Cambrian, is the black carbonaceous shale type of Cambrian of the normal facies of the Baltic type (Olenus fauna) which appears in the Midlands of England, in Wales and in Eastern North America in Eastern Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Boston area. This type of Lower Cambrian in Sweden and Great Britain lies south and east of the Caledonian orogeny and is not folded. The age of the Upper Cambrian Kolm of the normal series has been determined on the basis of its lead ratio as 425 million years (11). Southern England was involved in a younger orogenesis than the Caledonian, the Armorican (Hercynian) of Pennsylvanian age, which extends into Western Europe south of the Baltic shield. It contains Mediterranean facies of the Atlantic Province not found in Eastern North America. Caledonian folding has been recognized not only in Scotland and western Norway and Sweden but its continuation has been found in Spitzbergen and perhaps in northern Greenland. In each country the folded belt is cut off by the sea but similar formations and se- quence of diastrophism appear across the water. Holtedahl (12) and other workers have established the Caledonides in Spitzbergen. Koch (13) refers the folding in northern Greenland to the Caledonian in the region between 80° and 83° North Latitude where it extends north of Pearyland across Grantland and Elsemereland on the north side of the pre-Cambrian basement that forms central Greenland. The faunas in northern Greenland are Appalachian, Arctic in type, hence belong to another trough from that of the Caledonian folded belt of Scotland and Norway. Thorolf Vogt and Resser therefore question the extension of the Caledonides to northern Greenland. Orogenic interpretations of the structure of Scotland—In Norway and Sweden, according to Vogt and others, the direction of movement APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 171 in the Caledonian folding is southeastward towards the Baltic Shield. Franz E. Suess (14) regarded the major direction of the movement as also southeastward. Bailey considers the Dalradian series as in part overlying the Moine, but Suess, on structural and metamorphic grounds, regards their contact as plane of dislocation. He suggests also that the Moine was the creative block which overrode southeast- ward over the Dalradian series which were back folded on the Moine in the process. He regards the folded non-metamorphic Paleozoic rocks of the Southern Uplands as part of the outer zone of the move- ment where directed pressure and not load was operative. The Baltic Shield was the foreland for the movement in Scandinavia, but in Great Britain none of the foreland is exposed. The Moine thrust in northwestern Scotland cuts obliquely across Caledonian structure and Suess (14) believes the Moine thrust is independent of it and younger. He suggests that the Moine thrust has moved northwestward with a greater transport than is apparent and carried the rocks of the main Caledonian trough over the north- western belt in which there are rocks of another sedimentary trough. In other words, the Caledonides are a one-sided orogen with Fenno- scandia as their foreland and the northwestern movement of the Moine thrust is an unrelated and later event. Early Paleozoic troughs of Scotland and of the eastern United States.— In the early Paleozoic, as has been said, there were two troughs of deposition in Scotland,—the northwestern with an Arctic fauna, the same as that of the main Appalachian belt, and a southern trough with a Baltic facies of the Atlantic Province. It is probable that these troughs were separated in Scotland by a low barrier in the region of the central part of the Highlands. In eastern North America similar conditions existed in the Cam- brian. The main Appalachian belt was open at the north to receive an Arctic sea and fauna like that now found in northwest Scotland and in the Hecklahook formation in Spitzbergen, part of which Holte- dahl (12) considers is equivalent to the Durness limestone (13). Koch and Paulsen (15) have reported from Inglefield Land in northwestern and northeastern Greenland such trilobite forms as Kootenia, (Dory- pyge) and Wannerza, and the brachiopods, Paterina, (Qutorgina), etc., characteristic of the Lower Cambrian of the York and Lancaster Valley, Pa. (16). In the Lower Paleozoic the main Appalachian trough continued northeast across eastern New York, western New England, the St. Lawrence Valley, and the Straits of Belle Isle. Schuchert (17) 172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 reports in the Lower Cambrian rocks of Labrador and western New- foundland such forms as Micromitra, Kutorgina, and Nisusia, a fauna that is typically developed in the Lower Cambrian of the York and Lancaster Valley and also in the Shady limestone (18) of the Southern Appalachians. Resser (18), in his paper on the generalized Cambrian time scale, discussed these faunas and their routes of migration. The St. Lawrence seaway, until it was blotted out in the Devonian, lay west of the Green Mountain axis and its continuation in Canada, the Sutton and Notre Dame Mountains. In the basin west of the Green Mountain axis the Central Sequence of Keith (19) contains a Lower Cambrian Olenellus fauna the same as that of the Appala- chian Valley and western Scotland. The Taconic argillaceous sequence of western New England with the Rysedorph Hill fauna of the Atlan- tic province of Trenton age, according to Prindle and Knopf (20), probably was deposited east of the Green Mountain axis, and owes its present position on the west side of the Green Mountains to over- thrust faulting. The Cambrian found in the Boston Basin, south- eastern Nova Scotia and Newfoundland contains the normal fauna of the Baltic facies of the Atlantic Province found in the area south of the Caledonian belt in Great Britain and Sweden. Fragmentation of Eria.—Such faunal similarities in areas now wide- ly separated by deep ocean basins have led paleontologists to the view that in Paleozoic time a land mass, Eria, extended across the northern Atlantic Ocean and afforded a means of migration for shallow-water faunas. It is known that Scotland in Tertiary time was subjected to block faulting and warping which was accompanied by the great lava flows of that period. At that time the Hebrides were cut off from the mainland by rifting. It has been suggested that this period of block faulting completed the breaking up of Eria (21). In the east- ern United States similar block faulting began in early Mesozoic time at the beginning of Triassic and when the movement was com- pleted the coastal areas of New England, Nova Scotia and Newfound- land became table lands cut off by the shore lines. The eastern part of Appalachia which may have extended 100 miles east of the present shore line, also is believed to have foundered into the depths of the Atlantic Ocean during Middle Mesozoic time. The geologic similar- ities on the two sides of the Atlantic have furnished the greatest sup- port also for the Wegener hypothesis of continental drift. The Weg- ener hypothesis presents difficulties of acceptance perhaps even greater than that of continental fragmentation and does not come under the scope of the present discussion. APRIL 15, 1935 JONAS: PRE-DEVONIAN ZONES 173 LITERATURE CITED Krancxk, HE. H., Barney, E.B., and McCauiien, W. J. Pre-Cambrian associa- tion. Geol. Magazine 71: 548-557. 1934. Guide to the geological model ofthe Assynt Mountains. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. 1-32. 1914. Pracu, B. N., and Horns, J. Chapters on the geology of Scotland. Oxford Uni- versity Press. 1930. Getkn, A. The geological structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain 155-171, 399-304, 508-525. 1917. Suzss, E. Das Antlitz der Erde. 3: pt. 1, 454. 1885-1909. Horne, J. The geological structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Chap. ii. 1907. Reap, H. H. The geology of Strath Oykill and Lower Loch Shin. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. 112-117. 1926. Reap, H. H. Age-problems of Moine Series of Scotland. Geol. Mag. 71: 302- 317. 1934. Op. cit. 304-5. Geology of Central Sutherland. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. 154-156, 195, 217-218. 19381. Batuny, E. B. Structure of the Southwest Highlands of Scotland. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. of London 78: 82-1381. 1922. Battey, E. B. New light on sedimentation and tectonics. Geol. Mag. 67: 77— 92. 1930. Euues, G. L., and Tinuny, C. E. Metamorphism in relation to structure in the Scottish Highlands. Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh 56: 621-646. 1930-381. Lang, A. C. Report of the Committee on the Measurement of Geologic Time. National Research Council. 2: 1984. HourepAuL, Ouar. Some points of structural resemblance between Spitzbergen Great Britain and between Europe and North America. Mat. Nat. Klasse. No. 4, 5-7. 1925. Kocu, Lauer. Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 5: 190. 1923; 12: 271-286. 1925. Sugess, F. E. A suggested interpretation of Scottish Caledonide structure. Geol. Mag. 66: 71-81. 1931. Kocu, Lauer. The geology of Inglefield Land. Meddel. om. Grénland 73: 23- 29. 1933. Srosrz, G. W., and Jonas, A. I. Geology and mineral resources of the Middletown quadrangle, Pennsylvania. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 840: 21-26. 1933. Scuucnert, C. and Dunpar, C. O. Stratigraphy of Western Newfoundland. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 1:19-82. 1934. Resser, C. E. Preliminary generalized Cambrian time scale. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 44: 740-741, 747-748. 1933. Keita, Artuur Stratigraphy and structure of northwestern Vermont. This JOURNAL 22: 369-372. 1932. Prinpuz, L. M. and Knopr, E. B. Geology of the Taconic quadrangle. Amer. Jour. Sci. 24: 297. 1932. BaRRELL, J. On continental fragmentation. Amer. Jour. Sci. 13: 299. 1927. 174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 GEOLOGY.—Comparison of Cambrian rocks of northwest Scotland with equivalent formations of the Appalachians... G. W. Stross, U.S. Geological Survey. During the field excursion of the Pre-Cambrian Association across the Highlands of Scotland in August 1934, the Cambrian section in northwest Scotland was examined at several places, and the writer noted the close resemblance to formations in the Appalachians with which he is very familiar, having described and mapped them in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The Dalradian series, gen- erally regarded as pre-Cambrian, which lie east of the Moine over- thrust, were also examined and the writer suggests their possible equivalence to formations in the Appalachians. GENERAL GEOLOGY The Paleozoic rocks of northwest Scotland are exposed in a narrow belt that extends from Durness on the north coast to the east side of the Isle of Skye on the west coast, and lie in a zone between the Torridonian mountains which rise above the Lewisian upland on the west and the great Moine overthrust on the east. Members of the Pre-Cambrian Association saw only the lower part of this section, which comprises quartzites and limestones of Cambrian age, exposed in the vicinity of Loch Assynt and Loch Glencoul. Here the basal Cambrian quartzites rest unconformably on nearly horizontal Tor- ridon sandstone, a late pre-Cambrian red grit and conglomerate closely resembling the Triassic red beds of the Appalachians and little more consolidated than those much younger rocks. These little dis- turbed red beds lie unconformably on Lewisian gneiss, which is ex- posed on the lower slopes of the mountains. The Cambrian quartzites dip gently east and form the dip slopes of the east ends of high east- west Torridonian ridges between which are deep narrow valleys, many of them occupied by long picturesque bodies of water or lochs. In the lowland east of these mountains are exposed the upper softer calcareous sandstones and overlying limestones of the Cambrian. In the vicinity of Loch Glencoul the Lewisian gneiss is thrust west- ward over the Cambrian rocks on the flat Glencoul thrust, a split of the great Moine thrust which lies at a higher level in the mountains to the east. The Cambrian rocks dip gently eastward under the over- thrust mass, but the formations are repeated several times in shingle- like imbricate plates or schuppen structure, due to the drag of the 1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Jan. 5, 1935. APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 175 overthrust mass. The formations examined on the excursion are shown in the chart below. The faunas of the Paleozoic rocks of the Scottish Highlands have been compared with those of the Appala- chian section by Grabau, Ulrich, Resser, and others, who recognized their close similarity, but comparison of the lithologic characters of these rocks has not come to my attention. THE ROCKS The formations studied on the excursion and those in America with which they are compared are listed in Table 1. TABLE 1.—Comparison or SrrRatTa IN Scorrish HigHLaANDS AND NORTHERN APPALACHIANS Scottish Highlands Northern Appalachians Durness limestone Middle Cambrian Sailmhor group. Lower part 100’+ Elbrook limestone 500’ Lower Cambrian Hilean Dubh group 200’ + Ledger dolomite 100’ Kinzers formation (largely shale) 150’ Grudie (Ghrudaidh) group 50’ + Vintage dolomite 500’ Serpulite grit 30’ Antietam quartzite and Harpers Fucoid beds 50’ phyllite 1200’ Pipe rock 500’ Chickies quartzite 1500’ Lower quartzite Torridon sandstone Pre-Cambrian schist Lewisian gneiss The quartzites and overlying beds were examined chiefly on the north side of the east end of Loch Assynt. The basal quartzites are cross-bedded and granular. and contain coarse grains of glassy quartz and pink feldspar. A few feet of coarser beds or conglomerate are reported at the base, but were not seen by the party. The higher quartzites are massive bedded and contain numerous Scolithus tubes and are therefore known as Pipe Rock. Worm tubes of several sizes are described, some large ones are said to be 3 to 4 inches in diameter. The total thickness of the quartzites is about 500 feet. These beds are comparable with the Scolithus-bearing Chickies quartzite in the York-Lancaster region of east-central Pennsylvania, except that in the American section the quartzite is much thicker and therefore 176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 makes higher ridges and the basal beds are generally coarser, in places a cobble bed. The next overlying formation, Fucoid beds, are described as dolo- — mites, shale, mudstone, and thin beds of dolomite, weathering rusty. What was seen at outcrops is a gray to yellow fine-grained earthy rock with fine black argillaceous streaks, closely resembling the lower part of the Antietam quartzite and the sandy parts of the Harpers phyllite of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Fucoid-like markings on the bedding, whence the name, are now regarded as flattened worm casts. Salterella and Hyolithes occur throughout this formation and Olenellus is reported in the top layers. The next succeeding formation, Serpulite grit, is an exact duplicate in physical appearance of certain typical quartzite beds of the Antie- tam of Pennsylvania and Maryland. These characteristic beds include massive white quartzites with slender straight Scolithus tubes a yard long; calcareous coarse grit made of round glassy quartz grains, laminated by porous fossiliferous layers, rust-stained on bedding surfaces. These beds contain many Salterella hence the name Serpulite, and also numerous fragments of Olenellus. All these features are duplicated in the Antietam quartzite, one of the key rocks in Lower Cambrian Appalachian stratigraphy and structure. Five species and varieties of Olenellus as well as other trilobites, and shells reported from these beds closely resemble, if they are not identical with, forms found in the Lower Cambrian of the Appalachian Valley. The Serpu- lite grit was seen to grade upward into the overlying dolomite, be- coming calcareous at the top and containing rusty fragments of Olenellus, just as the Antietam passes into the Vintage or Toms- town dolomite in Pennsylvania. The next overlying formation, the basal part of the Durness lime- stone, is called the Grudie (Ghrudaidh) group and is described as a dark, lead-colored mottled dolomite containing numerous Salterella. This dolomite seen at a number of places around Inchnadamph and Lake Assynt is a calcareous mud-lump rock and in appearance dupli- cates the knotty Vintage dolomite of central-eastern Pennsylvania, or the lower part of the Tomstown dolomite of southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The Grudie is much thinner than the Vintage in America. The Eilean Dubh group, next in ascending order, is described as a fine-grained white flaggy argillaceous dolomite and limestone. In the area visited we found most of this formation to be a dense massive APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 177 light-gray to white pure granular dolomite, weathering creamy, close- ly similar to the pure massive granular Ledger dolomite extensively quarried in the York-Lancaster Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The highly fossiliferous Kinzers shale and limestone, which lies between the Vintage and Ledger dolomites in the York-Lancaster Valley, is not represented by similar rock in Scotland. All the rocks above de- scribed are of Lower Cambrian age. Above the pure dolomite beds of the Grudie are thin layers of black oolitic chert, pitted on weathering by dissolved fragments of limestone and possibly of fossils. This is followed by buff siliceous finely wavy laminated calcareous shale or shaly limestone with inter- bedded thin platy layers of light gray to white fine-grained marble, which is the lower part of the Sailmhor group. This type of limestone was seen by some of the party at only one place, southeast of Inch- nadamph, where they pass under a detached remnant of the Glencoul thrust block (klippe) of Torridon sandstone and Cambrian quartzite forming a mountain peak (Beinn nan Cnaimhseag). In lithologic character these beds closely resemble the Elbrook limestone, which also has chert at its base, in southeastern Pennsylvania, and which extends northeastward to the eastern part of the State and southward into Maryland and Virginia. No fossils have been found in these beds in Scotland, but the Elbrook limestone in Pennsylvania contains a scant fauna of Middle Cambrian age. The upper limestones of the Durness group are not exposed in the area visited because, as previously said, they are cut off by the Glen- coul overthrust. As the writer did not see these upper limestones he cannot make a lithologic comparison with the probably equivalent formations in the Appalachians, but fossils reported from them are assigned by Ulrich and others to the ‘‘Canadian,” or Lower Ordo- vician, of the Appalachian Valley. It should be emphasized that the most striking feature about the Cambrian rocks in northwest Scotland, seen by the writer, is their close similarity in lithologic character, sequence, and faunal content with formations of the same age in the Appalachian Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The only noticeable difference is that their thickness is not so great. It seems reasonable to conclude that all these Cam- brian rocks were deposited in a connected basin, probably in the same geosyncline, under very similar climatic and shore conditions, although they are now widely separated by the north Atlantic Ocean. 178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 DALRADIAN SERIES The Dalradian series, lying east of the Moine thrust in the Southern Highlands, is composed of thick quartzites and boulder beds, lime- stone, slate, phyllite, and schist that are closely folded and have a very complex structure. Apparently this series was first folded into great recumbent folds or nappes, accompanied by shearing and thrust faulting on their flanks and these flat lying overthrust beds were later closely folded. The Dalradian series is regarded by Pro-’ fessor Bailey, the leader of the excursion, and by some others present on the trip, as pre-Cambrian, which was the reason for their study by the pre-Cambrian Association. We saw the Dalradian series near Ballachulish, on the shores of Loch Leven and of Loch Linnhe, and at Schichallion in the Grampian Mountains. The section as at present established in the Ballachulish and Appin nappes is given below: BALLACHULISH AND APPINN APPES SCHICHALLION SECTION Cuil Bay slates Loch Tay limestone Appin limestone Ben Lui schist Appin quartzite Ben Lawers schist Striped series Ben Eagach schist Ballachulish slate Carn Mairg quartzite Ballachulish limestone Killiecrankie schist Leven schist (phyllite) Upper Schichallion quartzite Glencoe quartzite Tremolite limestone bed Binnein schist Lower Schichallion quartzite Binnein quartzite Main boulder bed Hilde schist Tempar limestone Eilde flages (Moine) Banded series Gray limestone Gray schist Tremolite limestone Meall Dubh quartzite Meall Dubh schist Professor Bailey in his paper in the Quarterly Journal of the Geo- logical Society of London, 1910, which is accompanied by a geologic map and sections, states that it is not known which is the top or bottom of the section, but he listed the formations in the reverse order from that in the preceding table, Hilde flags at top and Cuil Bay slates at the bottom. In his 1922 paper published in the same journal he stated that he believed the order and sequence published in the earlier report (1910) was correct because it harmonized with his interpretation of the slides as thrusts and with his conclusion that the nappes moved southeastward. In 1924 Vogt presented con- vineing evidence in the form of current bedding, ripple marks, etc., APRIL 15, 1935 STOSE: CAMBRIAN ROCKS 179 in the quartzites that the section as published by Prof. Bailey was upside down, and in 1930 Professor Bailey in a paper in the same journal accepted this inversion of the section to the order given in the chart above. It is surprising if such a complete change in order of sequence does not make necessary extensive modification of the interpretation of the structure as shown in the published sections and of the conclusions as to the direction of movement. On the excursion, Professor Bailey did not express an opinion as to the direction of movement of the nappes and where the roots of the detached nappes lay. The section in another nappe at Schichallion, now being studied in detail by Professor McCallien of Glasgow University, is given in a parallel column for comparison, but it is not yet correlated with the Ballachulish section. Only those who have tramped the moors of the Highlands under the adverse conditions of mist and rain can appreciate the labor of the men who have toiled to unravel this complicated geology and the accurate detailed geologic maps they have produced. A thick series of quartzites and schists at or near the base, 1000 or more feet thick at Schichallion, some quartzites containing pink feldspar grains and some beds at Schichallion containing scattered granite boulders suggesting tillite, impressed the writer in the field as having a Cambrian aspect and the finding of a possible Scolithus tube at one place strengthened this impression. The Leven schist, well up in the section near Ballachulish is only a phyllite, much less meta- morphosed than the older Bennein and Eilde schists, which is added evidence of the inversion of the column. The black Ballachulish slate, quarried at Ballachulish for roofing purposes, is not so much meta- morphosed as the Arvonia slate of Virginia, of Ordovician age. A slaty blue limestone and interbedded carbonaceous slate, called the Ballachulish limestone, impressed the writer as closely resembling the Conestoga limestone of eastern Pennsylvania, also of Ordovician age. Although no fossils have been found in these rocks, the writer ventures to suggest that the Dalradian rocks may be lower Paleozoic formations deposited in a trough southeast of the barrier represented by the overthrust Moine series, and that they may correspond to the Cambrian and Ordovician formations in the Piedmont of the Ap- palachians, east of the Blue Ridge-Catoctin Mountain barrier. In the Islands of Islay and Jura, on the southwest coast of Scotland, the belt of Dalradian rocks includes thick quartzites with boulder beds, limestones, slates, and phyllites, similar to the Dalradian at Ballachulish and Schichallion, but the quartzites contain Scolithus 180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 tubes, and are called Pipe rock, and other beds, containing worm castings, are called Fucoid beds. They are thus closely similar to the Cambrian rocks of northwest Scotland. Miss Elles, in a paper read at the 1934 meeting of the British Association in Aberdeen, made the statement that she believes these Dalradian rocks on Islay and Jura are Cambrian, and that similar rocks at Schichallion are probably also Cambrian. Peach and Horne, in their posthumous volume on Scotland, 1930, also assign these rocks on Islay and Jura to the Cam-— brian. At the British Association meeting Doctor Robert Campell also stated that he is of the opinion that beds of the Dalradian series which he has studied northeast of the area seen on the excursion are Paleozoic and he believes that fossils will some day be found to prove its GEOLOGY.—A recent backshore and shoreface terrace along the Severn River, Maryland.|| Vernon E. Scuerp, University of Idaho. (Communicated by W. W. RuBEY.) The ability of unusually large waves to cut a bench and build a terrace in a short time at a higher level than normal was brought to the writer’s attention during June, 1934 while at the north shore of Round Bay, Severn River, Maryland. The bay, which is an enlarge- ment of the Severn River seven and one-half miles from its mouth, measures two and one-half miles from northwest to southeast and one and one-half miles from northeast to southwest. The ordinary width of the river is one-half to three-fourths of a mile. Mouthward the river flows southeastwardly in an almost straight line to enter the Chesapeake Bay at Annapolis. The alinement of Round Bay and the lower portion of the Severn River creates a length of fetch of five miles across which the waves may gain in height and energy. The north coast of the bay is at the end of the five-mile fetch and extends in a general east-west direction from Riggs Point to Cedar Point, a distance of slightly less than one mile. Thus when the wind is from the southeast this coast is subjected to the full force of the wave attack. This section of Maryland is part of Atlantic Coastal Plain and is here underlain by unconsolidated Upper Cretaceous sands and clays with an occasional lens of iron-cemented conglomerate. The shore of the bay is typical of the embayed coastal plain of the Chesapeake Bay region and is the result of shore processes upon a partially sub- merged youthful topography. The coast line is slightly crescentic and 1 Received January 16, 1935. APRIL 15, 1935 SCHEID: SEVERN RIVER TERRACE 181 there are hills at and occasionally between the points of the crescents. These same hills have been cliffed by wave action so that the cliff- line? presents an undulatory aspect when viewed from the water. The center of the violent storm of August 21—23, 1933, which damaged the whole eastern seaboard, passed northward over the Chesapeake Bay region. It culminated on the 23rd with southeast gales and exceptionally heavy rain. In twenty-four hours, 7.62 inches of water fell at Baltimore and 5.00 inches at Annapolis.* The wind was from the northeast on the 21st and 22nd, but early in the morning of the 28rd it shifted to the southeast and attained a maximum veloc- ity of 50 miles per hour.’ The unusually strong winds from the southeast backed up the tidal waters into the many small rivers and inlets of the bay. This action combined with the excessive rains produced very high tides and caused extensive river and lowland floods. For example, in the Baltimore harbor, 16 miles north-northwest of Round Bay, the high tide, which was 7.3 feet! above mean high tide, flooded the whole harbor section. Damage from the storm was very heavy. The State Conservation Commissioner, Mr. Swepson Earle, has estimated that about two square miles of coast land was lost in Maryland by wave action. The shift of the wind to the southeast had the same effect at Round Bay as at Baltimore. The southeast-northwest direction of the five-mile fetch allowed the storm waves to reach unusual pro- portions. Two young men who were at the north shore of Round Bay during the storm informed the writer that there was no exceptional wave activity while the wind was from the northeast, but when the wind veered to the southeast the water level rose approximately six feet and pounded the coast so hard as to destroy a pile-driven pier, several small sheds, and to wrench a one-half horsepower electric water pump from its fastenings and throw it fifteen feet inland and six feet higher. They report that it was during this one day (23rd) that the high-level bench and terrace described below were cut and built. The profile of the existing backshore (BCDE) and shoreface (EFK) terraces fashioned by normal yearly wave action from the high-level bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) produced by the storm of August ? Cliff-line: The line of the top of a cliff or series of cliffs, i.e., the line resulting from the intersection of the face of a cliff, or series of cliffs, with the land surface above. Other technical terms follow the usage in Johnson, D. W., Shore processes and shoreline development, 1919. 3U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Weather Bur. Climatological Data—Maryland and Delaware Section 38: 29-32. 1933. 4 Oral communication; Mr. Frank Kipp, Harbor Engineer, Baltimore, Md. 182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 93 is shown in Figure 1. The profile has been made through one of the cliffed hills and shows the present cliff (AB) the top of which is 25 feet above the normal high tide level (EH). It also indicates the changes in the profile of the shore resulting from the wave activity of the storm of August, 1933, and the subsequent normal storms of the winter of 1933-34. BCDE represents the present backshore ter- race which varies from zero to six feet wide. It is generally composed 25° 90' /5* =a Scale in Feet ~~ Tare 3} 10 20 Yertica/ 0 Fig. 1.—Profile of the north shore, Round Bay, Severn River, Md., June 1934. of two parts; BC, the high-level wave-cut bench now partially cov- ered by cliff debris, and CDE, which is the wave-built portion de- posited during the storm. At places either part may form the com- plete backshore terrace. CE lies beneath CDE and is the basal por- tion of the pre-storm cliff. The top of the erosion scarp (DE) of the backshore terrace (BCDE) measures two and one-half feet above the present beach created by normal wave activities of the winter of 1933-34. The short-lived high-level terrace that was probably de- posited during the storm is indicated as CDNPE. The pre-storm shoreface terrace is shown as EGK while the present shoreface terrace is shown as EFK. The material deposited by wave activity subsequent to the storm is bounded by EFKG and was probably obtained from DNPE, a part of the high-level terrace (CDNPE). The backshore terrace (BCDE) extends the full distance from Cedar Point to Riggs Point and when seen from a few hundred feet APRIL 15, 1935 SCHEID: SEVERN RIVER TERRACE 183 from shore it has the even appearance of a board walk. The terrace is evidently the result of both cutting and building by the storm waves. The unusually high waves attacked the pre-storm cliffs at the cliffed hills and cut the high-level bench (BC). The material resulting from the cutting of the new bench was immediately deposited on the pre-storm beach or carried along shore by the littoral currents and deposited on the lowland shores. With the subsidence of the storm waters a high-level bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) remained on the coast side of the shore. The normal yearly high tides and storm waves of the winter of 1933-34 have cut away much of the high-level terrace (CDNPE) so as to leave the present backshore terrace (BCDE). At some places where the sea cliff is unusually steep and bold no trace of the backshore terrace (BCDE) is seen. This absence may mean that the normal waves of the winter of 1933-34 were able to cut away from the exposed places not only the high- level terrace (CDNPE), but also the bench (BC) that may have been formed during the big storm. Another effect of the storm observed by the writer was the unusual shallowness of the present shoreface. Formerly, at a distance of 90 feet from the normal high tide shore line (E), the water was four feet deep (G). At present the shoreface at the same spot is only two and one-half feet (F) below normal high tide level (EH). The depth of water at a point 105 feet from the high tide shoreline (E) was formerly and is now 15 feet (K). The new shoreface terrace (EFK) has no doubt been built by normal yearly wave activity. The high-level bench (BC) and terrace (CDNPE) left by the storm of August 23rd was cut into by the waves of the 1933-34 winter and furnished such an excessive load of debris that the waves were not able to remove it completely. This aggraded the former shoreface to form the present shoreface which at point F is two and one-half feet higher than before the storm of August 23rd, 1933. The above described terrace is certainly not the result of an ordi- nary large storm unaccompanied by change in the water level. Such a storm would have attacked the pre-storm beach and would have deepened the water. But the severe storm of August, 1933, acted at a high level and probably had very little effect on the pre-storm shore- face and foreshore beach. Instead the waves immediately attacked the pre-storm cliff at a higher level than would ordinarily have been the case. The waves were supplied with an abundance of debris from the cliff so that they built out a small but high-level terrace (CDN PE) upon the surface of the pre-storm beach. The upper surface (CDN) 184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 of the newly built terrace was quickly established as the temporary profile of equilibrium for the storm. With the recession of the storm waters the normal waves began their attack upon the newly estab- lished high-level terrace and carried much of the material seaward to aggrade the shoreface as shown in the profile. GEOLOGY.—Occurrence of Triassic sediments on the rim of Grand Canyon... Epwin D. McKes, Park Naturalist, Grand Canyon National Park. (Communicated by JoHn B. REEsSIDE, JR.) In 1858, Dr. J.S. Newberry, geologist on Lieutenant Ives’ exploring expedition, recognized in the valley of the Little Colorado River where he crossed it about 40 miles below the present town of Winslow a series of rocks which was definitely above and of later age than the highest which he had seen exposed in the walls of Grand Canyon. These rocks, 500 feet thick, were for the most part red sandstones and shales and he referred to them as the “‘Saliferous series” or ‘“‘red sandstone series.’ During the past sixty years many geologists working in the Grand Canyon region have noted the presence of Newberry’s “‘Saliferous series’ in various localities and have contributed to our knowledge of the history and extent of these rocks. Among a large accumulation of data, two things appear to have especial significance. First, since the remnants of these strata are found north, south, east, and west of Grand Canyon and since they are considered on the basis of fossils to have been formed during the Lower Triassic period, it is clearly evident that rocks of this age once covered the entire Grand Canyon area. Second, these remnants furnish evidence that a long period of erosion and wearing away of the region occurred just prior to the beginning of actual Grand Canyon cutting. South of Grand Canyon isolated remnants of the “‘Saliferous series” of Newberry, now known as the Moenkopi formation, are found in about nine scattered localities, the farthest southwest of which is in Sycamore Canyon. Both there and in Anderson mesa farther east the exposures are quite extensive laterally and in both cases are pro- tected by lava caps. Since these and the other Moenkopi remnants have considerable bearing on the history of the region, their extent and nature is here summarized: 1 Published by permission of the Director, National Park Service. Received January 16, 1935. APRIL 15, 1935 TABLE 1.—PrincrpaL Ourcrors or Triassic Rocks SoutTH oF MCKEE: TRIASSIC SEDIMENTS 185 GRAND Canyon Locality Thickness Overlying Beds Recorder Sycamore Canyon 300-400’ Moenkopi Basalt Robinson (1) Cap of Shinarump Anderson Mesa N. Side} 400’ Moenk. & Shin. Basalt Robinson (1) Anderson Mesa 5S. Side | 550’ Moenk. & Shin. Basalt Robinson (1) Flagstaff 25’-150’ Moenkopi Basalt Robinson (1) San Francisco Peak ? 700’ Moenkopi Basalt Gilbert (2) Shin. & Chinle Cedar Ranch N.E. of 280’ Koenkopi Basalt Robinson (1) Kendrick 365’ Shin. & Chinle Plateau between Dia- | Outlier Moenkopi None Newberry (3) mond and Cataract Creeks Red Butte 14 mi. §.8.E.| 600’ Moenkopi Basalt Ward (4) Grand Canyon 210’ Shinarump Grand Canyon Rowe’s | 50’ Moenkopi None McKee Well Grand Canyon west of | 32’ Moenkopi None McKee Moran Point Near Grand Canyon, outliers of rocks of Triassic age such as Red Butte to the south and Cedar Mesa to the east have long been recog- nized for what they are. Remnants of such rocks occurring actually on the rim of Grand Canyon, however, have not heretofore been recorded but since the writer has recently discovered their presence there he takes this opportunity of making known the details. Just west of the Hance trail and east of the steep hill formed by the Grand- view monocline is one such exposure extending along the rim for approximately half a mile (Fig. 1). It includes the basal conglomerate member, 8 to 20 feet thick, and a maximum of 12 feet of red to yellow, thin-bedded, argillaceous sandstones above. These red sandstones are also to be seen along the Bright Angel fault not far back from the canyon rim on the road to Havasu Canyon (about two miles S.W. of Rowe’s Well) but there the underlying conglomerate and the Kaibab formation are not exposed. One important feature of the discovery of the Moenkopi formation on the rim of Grand Canyon is that it clearly shows that only a very small part of the Kaibab formation has been removed over much of this area by recent erosion. Beneath the Moenkopi is found only a thin exposure of the so-called A-member or Harrisburg gypsiferous 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 member of the Kaibab. It consists in this locality of two ledges of limestone, each containing abundant casts of Permian pelecypods and gastropods, separated from each other by a red sandstone. This sandstone is seen at Yaki Point and on the Buggeln hill along the Desert View road where it has been mistaken for Moenkopi sand- stone because of its color. It is massive, crumbly, and irregularly- bedded, however, so there is no need for confusion if one compares Fig. 1—Moenkopi basal conglomerate and red sandstone resting on Kaibab forma- tion, rim of Grand Canyon, west of Hance Trail. lithologic characters. The underlying limestone is the rock that covers a major portion of the plateau surface. Along the rim of Grand Canyon west of Hance trail the contact between the Moenkopi and Kaibab formations, representing a break between two great eras of geological hitsory, is plainly visible. The subangular pebbles at the base of the former, ranging in diameter up to 23 inches but averaging about 4 inch, completely cover the flat limestone surface of the latter and in places fill small depressions and channels cut into it. These pebbles are all of the most durable types of rock—yjasper, chert, quartz, etc.—varying greatly in color but probably derived mostly from the Kaibab formation and transported only a short distance. A similar bed of conglomerate has been noted at the base of the Moenkopi where the writer has examined it north of Cedar Mesa, along the Little Colorado Canyon, near Cedar Ridge Trading Post, in Sycamore Canyon and in the valley of the Little APRIL 15, 1935 CHASE: GRAMINEAE OF BRAZIL 187 Colorado. Robinson (1) records a similar bed, 5 feet thick, at Anderson Mesa to the south while to the north and northwest it has been noted in numerous localities by other geologists so it probably represents a fairly constant unit at the base of the Moenkopi formation. The discovery of rocks of the Moenkopi formation on the rim of Grand Canyon adds one more geological period to the remarkably great number already known to be represented in this classical cross- section of the history of the earth. Even more than ever before can the Grand Canyon of Arizona be looked upon as a most impressive open book, recording the story of the ages. LITERATURE CITED 1. Roxstnson, H. H. The San Franciscan Volcanic Field, Arizona. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 76:27. 1913. 2. GritBerRt, G. K. Report on the geology of portions of Nevada, Utah, California, and Arizona, examined in the years 1871, 1872, and 1873. U.S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer. 3: 17-187, 503-567. 1875. 3. Newserrry, J. 8. Report upon the Colorado River of the West, explored 1857-58 by Lt. J. C. Ives. Govt. Printing Office, pt. 3, Geological Report. 1861. 4. Warp, L. F. Geology of the Little Colorado Valley. Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser. 12: 401-413. 1901. BOTAN Y.—Studies in the Gramineae of Brazil—I.!_ AGNES CHASE, Bureau of Plant Industry. The grass flora of Brazil is of especial importance to American agrostology. Except for Muhlenberg’s Descriptio Graminum, pub- lished in Philadelphia in 1817, the earliest work on American grasses (which in those days included sedges) was Agrostografia Brasiliensis by Giuseppe Raddi, published in 1823. More intensive botanical ex- ploration was carried on in Brazil in the first three decades of the last century than in any other part of America.? Many species first de- scribed from Brazil are found in the North American tropics, for which reason it is necessary for one studying the grasses of the latter region to have a fairly detailed knowledge of the family as found in Brazil. Since the early Brazilian collections were but poorly represented in American herbaria, three trips have been made to Brazil for the study and collection of grasses, two by the writer, in 1924—25' and in 1929— 1 Received February 7, 1935. 2 See Cuasn, Identification of Raddi’s grasses —This JouRNAL 13: 167-169. 1923. 3 See Cuasn, Hastern Brazil through an agrostologist’s spectacles. Smithsonian Re- port 1926: 383-403. 1927. 188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 4 CES aie ee aN Eat “ses 2 Fig. 1.—Lithachne horizontalis from type. Plant 3; staminate spikelet, pistillate spikelet with immature fruit, and two views of mature fruit, X10 dia. APRIL 15, 1935 CHASE: GRAMINEAE OF BRAZIL 189 30, and one by Jason R. Swallen in 1933-34. As a result of this work and of helpful cooperation from the Jardim Botanico, and the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, from the Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, and of Professor Bento Pickel, Tapera, Estado de Pernambuco, in addition to numerous collections of Gardner, Glaziou, Salzmann, and many others, the Grass Herbarium in Washington now has the largest collection of Brazilian grasses in the world. The study of this material has brought to light many species pre- viously known from but a single, often fragmentary, specimen, and also a number of undescribed species. The volume on Gramineae for the Flora Brasilica, projected by Dr. Frederico C. Hoehne, chief of the section Botanica e Agronomia of the Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, is to be prepared by the writer. It is proposed to publish in this JOURNAL from time to time the new species and notes.on some of the little known ones. Duplicate type material of new species will be deposited in the herbarium of the Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, and so far as material allows in the herbaria of the Instituto Biologico and of the Museu Nacional. Specimens of species from the state of Minas Geraes will also be deposited in the Escola Superior de Agricultura y Veteri- naria, Vicosa, and those from Northern Brazil in the Museu Goeldi, Para. Lithachne horizontalis Chase, sp. nov. Perennis, glabra, caespitosa; culmi steriles 10-30 cm. alti; culmi florentes longe repentes, 30-100 cm. longi, internodiis elongatis; vaginae breves; ligula minuta, fimbriata; laminae planae, oblongo-lanceolatae, 2.5-6.5 em. longae, 8-13 mm. latae, basi inaequaliter in petiolum brevissimum subito contracta; panicula mascula terminalis, 3-4 ecm. longa, 2 cm. lata, spiculis 4-6 mm. longis purpureis; spiculae feminae in nodis culmorum repentium solitariae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile 5-6 mm. longa; lemma fertile 3 mm. longum, 2mm. latum, 3 mm. crassum, album, maturitate fusco-variegatum, cucul- latum, gibbum, apiculatum; palea angusta. Glabrous perennial in tufts of several erect sterile culms, 10 to 30 cm. tall and 1 to 4 vinelike flowering culms, these 30 to 100 em. long, running on the ground and rooting at the nodes, simple or sparingly branching, the internodes elongate; sheaths short, slightly auricled; ligule minute, fimbri- ate; blades horizontally spreading, flat, 2.5 to 6.5 em. long, 8 to 13 mm. wide, abruptly narrowed at the asymmetric base into a minute petiole hispidulous on the upper surface, the blades scabrous on the margin, espe- cially toward the acute to acuminate apex; staminate panicles 3 to 4 cm. long, about 2 cm. wide, terminal on mostly relatively short culms, the spike- lets short pediceled on the subcapillary branches, 4 to 6 mm. long, the lemma and palea purple, acute, the 3 stamens with anthers almost as long as the spikelets, the filaments very short; pistillate spikelets solitary on slender peduncles, borne at the nodes of the long creeping culms, protruding from the side of the sheath or from its summit, rarely one or two borne on the 190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 4 culms producing the terminal staminate panicles, the glume and sterile lemma equal, 5 to 6 mm. long, acuminate, the glume 5-nerved, the lemma 3-nerved, both with a few obscure cross veins; fruit 3 mm. long. about 2 mm. wide and 3 mm. thick, smooth, dull white, becoming strikingly mottled with grayish brown, the lemma 5-nerved, cucullate, strongly gibbous, abruptly apiculate; palea narrow; rachilla joint remaining attached at base, as a white porcelain-like callus. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,255,920, collected on a moist gentle slope above streamlet, near Bello Horizonte, Minas Geraes, Brazil, March 25, 1925, by Agnes Chase (no. 9057). Known only from the type collection. Field notes state that the plants were firmly rooted, forming a colony under coarse herbs and Paspalum paniculatum L., the long pistillate culms tangled under vegetation, very slender but not readily breaking in un- tangling; staminate panicles relatively few, the spikelets falling readily; blades flat but curling almost instantly when plants were dug. The colony was found about half a kilometer beyond the end of the Calafate bonde [street car line]. The specific name refers to Bello Horizonte, the beautiful capital of Minas Geraes, and also to the widely creeping pistillate culms. This third species of Lithachne is strikingly different from the two previ- ously known species, L. pauciflora (Swartz) Beauv., rather widely dis- tributed in the American tropics, and L. pineti (Wright) Chase, known only from Cuba. Lithachne pineti, to which it is the more nearly related, is a much smaller, more delicate species, with smaller blades and spikelets, the fruits smaller, the palea pubescent with thick hairs toward the base. Otyra SAMPAIANA Hitche. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 17: 215, f. 1.—1927. The type specimen, collected at Reeve, Estado do Espirito Santo, by José Vidal, is almost without underground parts. Specimens collected in 1929 at Alegre, Espirito Santo, about 20 kilometers west of Reeve (Chase 10049), show that the roots bear fleshy potato-like bodies, 1 to 2 em. long and 5 to 8 mm. thick. BOTAN Y.—Centrochloa, a new genus of grasses from Brazil... JASON R. SwWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry. Material of a new genus of the tribe Paniceae was collected by the author in the state of Maranh4o, Brazil, during a collecting trip in the early part of 1934. It occurs rather commonly on sterile sandy soil in the states of Maranh4o and Goyaz in the valley of the Tocan- tins river, in the region of Carolina. The name of the genus is taken from the Greek xevrpov spur, and xXoa, grass, referring to the pointed callus which extends well below the articulation between the pedicel and the spikelet. 1 Received for publication February 7, 1935. APRIL 15, 1935 SWALLEN: CENTROCHLOA 191 Fig. A.—Centrochloa singularis, from type. 1. Panicle, X1. 2. Two views of spikelet, a, from side of sterile lemma, showing the glabrous summit and the scar (at summit of callus) of attachment to pedicel; 6, from side of second glume, X10. 3. Three-quarter view of spikelet attached to the narrowly 3-winged rachis, showing the base of callus free from the rachis; pedicel (to right) from which spikelet has fallen; Cross section of rachis (above), X10. 4. Fruit, X10. 5. Two views of mature spike- lets and fruit, X10, from Swallen 3704. B.—Spheneria kegelii, from Spruce 884. 1. Panicle, X1. 2. Spikelet, from side of sterile lemma, about to fall from the pedicel, showing the oblique articulation from the relatively long pedicel, X10. 3. Spikelet from the side of second glume showing linear sear of attachment to pedicel, X10. 4. Fruit, 10. 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 Centrochloa Swallen, gen. nov. Spiculae solitariae, biseriales, breviter pedicellatae pedicellis infra spic- ulam articulatis, lemmate fertile a rachi averso; callus infra articulum elongatus, arcuatus, acuminatus; gluma prima nulla; gluma secunda sub- hyalina, cucullata, inter nervos dense hispida; lemma sterile glumae secundae simile, pilis brevioribus; lemma fertile oblongum, marginibus planis. Gramen annuum, laminis conduplicatis, racemis 2-7 subdigitatis di- vergentibus. Spikelets solitary, with the back of the fertile lemma turned away from the rachis, short-pedicellate, readily disarticulating from the pedicel, in two rows on one side of a narrowly winged rachis, the rows separated by a wing on the midrib; callus elongated below the articulation, slender, acu- minate, arcuate, pointed; first glume wanting; second glume and sterile lemma equal, thin, prominently 3-nerved, hoodshaped, enclosing the fruit, ap- pressed-hispid between the nerves; fruit indurate, oblong, brown at ma- turity, minutely striate, the margins of the lemma tightly enclosing the palea, not inrolled. Annuals with conduplicate blades and two to several sub-digitate, slender, ascending or spreading racemes. Centrochloa singularis Swallen, sp. nov. Annua; culmi erecti, 10-75 cm. alti, glabri, ramosi; vaginae compressae, carinatae, glabrae vel margine papilloso-pilosae; ligula truncata, 0.5 mm. longa; laminae conduplicatae, glabrae, 5-15 cm. longae, 3-8 mm. latae, suprema valde reducta; racemi 2-7, 3-14 cm. longi, rachi 0.5 mm. lata, marginibus scabris; spiculae 3.5-4 mm. longae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile 3-nervia, inter nervos dense hispida, pilis glumae secundae quam spiculis longioribus, pilis lmmatos sterilis quam spiculis brevioribus; lemma fertile 2-2.3 mm. longum, viride vel fuseum, apice minute hispidum. Annual; culms 10-75 cm. tall, mostly single, sometimes 2 or 3, erect, glabrous, branching at all the nodes, the branches enclosed in the sheaths until after maturity of the primary panicle; sheaths compressed-keeled, glabrous or sparsely papillose-pilose on the margins, the lower ones short, overlapping, the two upper elongate but shorter than the internodes; ligule truncate, 0.5 mm. long; blades conduplicate, arcuate, ascending to spread- ing, glabrous, 5-15 cm. long, 3-8 mm. wide, or smaller in depauperate speci- mens, the uppermost blade much reduced; racemes 2-7, 3-14 cm. long, the rachis narrowly winged, 0.5 mm. wide, glabrous, the margins scabrous; spikelets obconic, 3.5-4 mm. long, the pedicel very short; second glume and sterile lemma equal, covering the fruit, prominently 3-nerved, appressed- hispid between the nerves, glabrous at the summit, the hairs golden or purple, those on the second glume exceeding the spikelet, those on the sterile lemma shorter than the spikelet, at maturity becoming purplish- black, clustered into stiff points standing away from the spikelet, appearing like a tiny crown; fruit 2-2.3 mm. long, oblong, striate, minutely hispid at the tip, pale green, turning chestnut brown at maturity. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium no. 1,611,707, collected in open, sandy places between Barra do Corda and Grajahi, Maranhao, Brazil, March 4, 1934, by Jason R. Swallen (no. 3703). Open sterile sandy land, northeastern Brazil. MaranuAo: Between Barra do Corda and Grajaht, Swallen 3703, 3704; between Carolina and Riachéo, Swallen 4006, 4008, 4021. APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 193 Goyaz: Philadelphia, Swallen 3921. Centrochloa is closely related to the monotypic genus Spheneria.? These two genera apparently present a case of parallel development, the first from Axonopus since the spikelets are placed with the back of the fruit turned away from the rachis, and the second from Paspalum since the back of the fruit is turned toward the rachis. In both Spheneria and Centrochloa, the spikelets readily disarticulate from the pedicel, the articulation in the first being long and oblique and in the second small and round. Furthermore, the spikelets of Spheneria are not spurred as are those of Centrochloa, and the base of the fruit is long acuminate, while that of Centrochloa is blunt as in Axonopus. 2 Spheneria Kuhlm. Comm. Linhas Telegraph. Estrat. Matto Grosso 67: 57. 1922. Based on a single species S. setzfolia (Doell) Kuhlm. Spheneria kegeli Pilger, Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 26: 228. 1929. Based on Paspalum kegelit C. Muell. Paspalum kegelit C. Muell. Bot. Zeit. 19: 324. 1861. “Surinam, in arenosis prope Mariepaston Majo 1846: Kegel (Coll. no. 1316).” Paspalum setifolium Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. 2?: 61. 1877. “Habitat in regione Amazonica prope Manaos (Spruce n. 884 et 13860).” Spheneria setifolia Kuhlm. Comm. Linhas Telegraph. Estrat. Matto Grosso 67: 57. 1922. Based on Paspalum setifolium Doell. BOTANY.—WNew species of the genus Dimorphandra Schott section Pocillum Tul.1. ApotpHE Ducks, Jardim Botanico, Rio de Janeiro. (Communicated by E. P. Kruurp.) The genus Dimorphandra may be divided into two sections: Hudi- morphandra and Pocillum, which are so natural that it would perhaps be better to consider them as subgenera. They are chiefly distin- guished by the fruits, and each has a different geographical distri- bution. The species of Hudimorphandra occur throughout the Ama- zonian hylaea inclusive of Guiana and in tropical Brazil as far south as Rio de Janeiro and the State of 8. Paulo. Pocillum, however, is strictly limited to the hylaea. This latter section now contains 15 species, 10 of which are found in the Brazilian states of Par&é and Amazonas, and 5 in British Guiana. One of them, D. macrostachya of the slopes of Mount Roraima must be included in the flora of both countries, as well as in that of Amazonian Venezuela. Here occurs also the Brazilian D. pennigera. The sole species found in French Guiana, D. polyandra, is, according to Sandwith, probably an anomalous form of D. hohenkerkii of British Guiana. D. pennigera, collected in the Brazilian and Venezuelan Upper Rio Negro, must certainly exist in the neighbouring Colombian territories, and D. gigantea grows at the frontier of Peru. 1 Received January 17, 1934. 194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 The habitat of the majority of the species is the upland forest with moist sandy soil, having a surface layer of acid black humus. Here the red-flowered species may be counted among the most elegant and showy trees. Some species, however, are small trees of dry savannas (in Brazil, campinas) of white sand. None of them was found in the periodically overflooded Amazonian lowlands. I have examined herbarium samples of 9 Brazilian and one British Guiana species (D. congestiflora, cotype, received from Kew Gardens.) For the four or five remaining species, I am content with the good descriptions in Sandwith’s review? of the British Guiana Dimorph- andra. The type specimens of the new species described below are preserved in the Jardim Botanico of Rio de Janeiro; cotypes or duplicates of all species I collected have been distributed to the United States National Museum and to the principal botanical in- stitutions of Europe. Cotypes of D. gigantea have been sent to Yale University School of Forestry, accompanied by a wood sample. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF DIMORPHANDRA SECTION POCILLUM A—Laminae of the staminodes coherent in the bud, forming a hood-like piece, deciduous at the opening of the flower. Staminodes anantherous. Flowers relatively large, distinctly pedicellate, white, later becoming yellowish or dirty reddish. Pinnae 13-21-jugate, leaflets 21-48-jugate. Racemes very long. Amazo- nian estuary and environs; Rio Trombetas. D. velutina Ducke. Pinnae 6-10-jugate, leaflets 20-30-jugate. Racemes shorter. Rio Negro, Cassiquiare and environs of Roraima. D. pennigera Tul. Pinnae 1-2-jugate, leaflets 4-8-jugate. Racemes shorter than those of the first species. Man4os. D. vernicosa Benth Staminodes with a rudimentary anther. Flowers pedicellate. Pinnae 9-12- jugate; leaflets 20-40-jugate. Not seen. British Guiana. D. cuprea Sprague & Sandw. B—Staminodes free. Staminodes anantherous. Flowers pedicellate, white; petals sericeous- pilose within. Pinnae 2-jugate; leaflets 3-5-jugate, large for this genus. Not seen. British Guiana. D. davisii Sprague & Sandw. 2 Kew Bull. Mise. Inf. 1932: 395. 1932. APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 195 Staminodes with a rudimentary anther. Petals glabrous within. Pinnae 1-3-jugate; leaflets 4-7-jugate, fairly large. Flowers pedicellate red. Manaos. D. ignea sp. nov. Pinnae 3-5-jugate; leaflets 7-12-jugate, smaller. Flowers pedicellate, red. Plants not seen. Fertile stamens 5. British Guiana. D. hohenkerkii Sprague & Sandw. Fertile stamens 8-10 (perhaps anomalous?). French Guiana. D. polyandra R. Ben. Pinnae 3-10-jugate; leaflets 10-33-jugate, small. Flowers sessile. Leaflets nearly glabrous. Spikes very long and thin; flowers fire-red; calyx distinctly pubescent. Eastern part of the State of Para. D. glabrifolia sp. nov. Lower surface of leaflets sericeous-pubescent. Spikes very long and thin; flowers orange-red; calyx distinctly pubescent. British Guiana. D. congestiflora Sprague & Sandw Lower surface of leaflets red brown, ciliolate. Spikes shorter but thicker; flowers of a palish orange color; calyx nearly glabrous. Northwestern part of the State of Para. D. campinarum Ducke. Pinnae 11-17-jugate; leaflets 22-33-jugate, small. Flowers subsessile (pedicel about 0.5 mm. long), red. Man4os. D. coccinea sp. nov. Pinnae 13-22-jugate; leaflets 30-54-jugate, very small. Flowers arange- ferruginous, subsessile (pedicel about 0.5 mm.). Indumentum of young branchlets, petioles, peduncles, ete., relatively thin, tomen- tous. Rio Curicuriary tributary of the Upper Rio Negro. D. ferruginea sp. nov. Pinnae 18-17-jugate; leaflets 32-54-jugate, very small. Indumentum of young branchlets, petioles, peduncles, ete., velvet; leaflets nearly glabrous. Tabatinga. D. gigantea sp. nov. C—Incompletely known species, of the affinity of pennigera according to Bentham. Laminae of the staminodes deciduous, unknown. Pinnae 6-12-jugate; leaflets 17-25-jugate, small. Flowers pedicellate, red (ac- cording to Schomburgk). Not seen. Environs of Roraima. D. macrostachya Benth 196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 Dimorphandra ignea Ducke, sp. nov. Arbor 20-35-metralis ramulis foliisque novellis et inflorescentiis tenuiter canoferrugineo-tomentellis. Folia petiolo modice longo, crasso; pinnae 1-3- (saepius 2)-jugae; foliola 4-6-(rarius 7)-juga, brevissime (1-2 mm.) petio- lulata, 40-90 mm. longa et 15-45 mm. lata, oblonga vel elliptico-oblonga, basi acuta, apice minime acuminata vel acuta vel obtusa et saepe retusius- cula, coriacea, supra nitida, subtus subopaca et pallidiora, tenuissime pen- ninervia. Racemi 2-7, vulgo 200-300 mm. longi, anthesi plena ad 15 mm. crassi, sat breviter pedunculati, rhachidibus crassis. Flores ignei, numero- sissimi, pedicellis 1-1.1/2 mm. longis; calix 1.1/2-2 mm. longus et latus, campanulatus, lobis brevissimis, extus canopuberulus; petala 3-4 mm. longa extus sparsim griseopuberula caeterum glabra; stamina 5, vulgo 4-5.1/2 mm. longa, glabra, petalis longiora; staminodia 5, circa 6 mm. longa, libera, glabra, clavato-spathulata, basi longe stipitata, apice anthera rudimentari coronata; ovarium subsessile dense fulvovillosum. Legumen ut in D. verni- cosa, sutura superiore fortius bialato-dilatata. Habitat cirea Man4os (civ. Amazonas), sat frequens in silva non inunda- bili leviter paludosa solo silico-humoso secus rivuli Mindti cursum superi- orem et prope cataractam altam fluminis Tarum4 ubi 27-5-1932 florifera (leg. A. Ducke, H. J. B. R. no. 23,265). This new species agrees in the leaves with D. vernicosa, but belongs, on account of its flowers, to a very different group of species. Dimorphandra glabrifolia Ducke, sp. nov. Dimorphandra macrostachya Ducke, Archiv. Jard. Bot. Rio de Janeiro 4: 39. 1925, non Benth. 1840. Arbor magna usque 40 m. alta, rarius mediocris. Ramuli novelli, foliorum petioli et rhaches inflorescentiaeque tenuiter cano-vel ferrugineo-tomentosi. Folia vulgo breviter petiolata; pinnae 3-10-jugae; foliola 10—-26-juga, sessilia, maiora usque ad 22 mm. longa et 6 mm. lata at saepius 16 mm. longitudine et 4 mm. latitudine non excedentia, apicalia et praesertim basalia gradatim minora, lineari-vel subobovato-lineari-oblonga, basi obliqua apice levissime retusiuscula, margine revoluto, coriacea, supra rugulosa glabra nitida, subtus pallidiora opaca subglabra (pilis minimis sparsis) costa prominente. Spicae 1-6, usque ad 380 mm. longae anthesi plena 10-14 mm. crassae, vulgo breviter pedunculatae, rhachidibus crassis. Flores inodori ignei numerosissimi, sessiles vel subsessiles pedicello 1/2 mm. longo; calix 1-1.1/2 mm. longus, 2-21 /2 mm. latus, cupularis, breviter dentatus, tenuiter pubescens; petala 3-3.1/2 mm. longa, glabra; stamina 5, glabra, 3.1/2-4.1/2 mm. longa: staminodia 5, libera, 4.1/2-5 mm. longa, glabra, longe stipitata laminis clav ato- spathulatis apice anthera rudimentari coronatis; ovarium subsessile dense et longe fulvidovillosum. Legumen forma ut in reliquis hujus sectionis speciebus, usque ad 200 mm. longum et ad 90 mm. latum, adultum glabrum, seminibus 14-18 mm. longis, 8-10 mm. latis crasse al- buminosis. Habitat sat frequens in silva non inundabili at plus minus paludosa solo silico-humoso secus rivulos “nigros, ” in civitatis Para parte orientali: prope flumen Arama in aestuario amazonico, H. J. B. R. no. 20,203 (speciei typus) ; prope Belem do Parad, Herb. Amaz. Mus. Para no. 2, 149 et 16,846; in insula Collares, H. A. M. P. no. 12,651; prope Sao Caetano de Odivellas ad ostium fluvii Para, He J) BUR mot 817; sub radicibus montis Parauaquara inter Prainha et Almeirim, H. J. B. R. no. 10,956. Specimina omnia legit A. APRIL 15, 1935 DUCKE: GENUS DIMORPHANDRA 197 Ducke, exceptis no. 2,149 et 11,817 a M. Guedes et P. Le Cointe lectis. Prope Santa Izabel viae ferreae inter Belem et Braganga, et circa Gurupaé visa. In horto botanico Rio de Janeiro culta, This species was erroneously identified as D. macrostachya Benth, by Huber and by myself, according to the original diagnosis where the in- | florescences are described as spikes and not as racemes; we have distributed it under this name and I have mentioned it under the same name in various papers. Recently, Sandwith’ in his most valuable revision of the Mora and Dimorphandra of British Guiana re-established the true identity of D. macrostachya and re-described the type~ According to the same author, the Para species is a very different plant, closely allied to D. congestiflora Sprague et Sandw.; this latter, however, has the under surface of the leaflets densely yellowish-sericeous. The leaflets of the numerous specimens of the Para plant vary considerably in their dimensions, but are constantly glabrous or subglabrous; their lower surface is scarcely paler than the upper, and not sericeous. Dimorphandra coccinea Ducke, sp. nov. Arbor mediocris vel magna, ramulis junioribus, foliorum petiolis et rhachidibus inflorescentiisque canotomentellis. Folia petiolo sat longo et robusto; pinnae 12-16 (rarissime 11-vel 17)-jugae; foliola 22-33-juga, sessilia, 7-11 mm. longa et 2-4 mm. lata (basalia et apicalia gradatim breviora), lineari-oblonga, basi obliqua et auriculata, apice retusiuscula, coriacea, supra nitida saepe rugulosa, subtus pallidiora costa prominente et margine revoluto puberula, adulta caeterum subglabra. Spicae 2-7 rarissime 1, vulgo 280-380 mm. longae anthesi plena 12-16 mm. crassae, longiuscule peduncu- latae rhachidibus crassis. Flores laete coccinei numerosissimi, subsessiles vel vix ad 1/2 mm. pedicellati; calix circa 1 1/2-2 mm. longus et parum magis latus, cupuliformis lobis brevissimis latis, minime puberulus; petala 3-4 mm. longa extus minime griseopuberula caeterum glabra; stamina 5, glabra, 4-5 mm. longa; staminodia 5, libera, glabra, ad 6 1/2 mm. longa laminis clavato-spathulatis longe stipitatis apice anthera rudimentari coronatis; ovarium subsessile dense et longe fulvidovillosum. Legumina vidi in arbore, forma ut in reliquis hujus sectionis speciebus. Habitat cirea urbem Mandéos (civ. Amazonas) sat rara in silva non inun- dabili solo silico-humoso secus rivulos, locis Cachoeira Grande, Estrada do Taruma et Colonia dos Francezes, loco ultimo florifera 20-8-1931, legit A. Ducke, H. J. B. R. no. 23,968. Allied to D. glabrifolia, but with very elegant multipinnate and multi- jugate leaves. The flowering tree is of a remarkable beauty. Dimorphandra ferruginea Ducke, sp. nov. Arbor parva vel vix mediocris como ampla umbelliformi, ramulis novellis, foliorum petiolis et rhachibus inflorescentiisque tenuiter et brevissime cano- ferrugineo-tomentosis. Folia sat longe petiolata; pinnae 13—22-jugae; foliola 30—54-juga, sessilia, maiora usque ad 5 mm. longa et ad 1 mm. lata (basalia et praesertim apicalia minora), lineari-oblonga parum falcata, basi parum obliqua subauriculata, apice subtruncata minime retusiuscula margine revo- 8’ Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1932: 395-406. 1932. 198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 luto, coriacea, supra nitida saepe rugulosa glabra, subtus opaca sat dense pilosa costa prominente dense ferrugineovillosa. Racemi 1—5, vulgo 300- 400 mm. longi, anthesi plena 12-14 mm. crassi, longiuscule pedunculati rhachidibus crassis. Flores anthesi incipiente dilute aurantiaci demum fer- ruginei, numerosissimi, pedicellis anthesi circa 1/2 mm. demum 1 mm, longis; calix 1-1.1/2 mm. longus, 2—2.2/3 mm. latus cupuliformis breviter dentatus, extus ferrugineo-puberulus; petala 3-3.1/2 mm. longa, glabra; stamina 5 glabra, 4-5 mm. longa; staminodia 5 libera, ad 6 mm. longa, glabra, laminis clavato-spathulatis longe stipitatis, apice anthera rudi- mentari coronatis. Ovarium dense et longe fulvovillosum. Legumen ignotum. Ad ripas saxosas et arenosas fluminis Curicuriary, Rio Negro superioris affluentis (civ. Amazonas), 26-12-1931 flor., leg. A. Ducke, H. J. B. R. no. 23,969. Allied to D. campinarum in the structure and color of the flowers, but differing in the much more numerous pinnae and leaflets. Dimorphandra gigantea Ducke, sp. nov. Arbor 50-metralis et forsan altior, trunco basi radicibus tabularibus alte emersis. Ramuli novelli, petioli, pedunculi rhachidesque foliorum et inflo- rescentiarum pilis densis rufis subvilloso-velutini. Foliorum petiolus sat longus, validus; pinnae 18—27-jugae; foliola 32-50-juga, maiora 7 mm. longa vix ultra 1 mm. lata (basalia et apicalia semper minora), sessilia, lineari- oblonga leviter falcata, basi truncata parum obliqua subauriculata, apice obtusa vel acutiuscula, margine non revoluto, subcoriacea, supra glabra parum nitida, subtus pallida opaca subglabra costa minime pilosula. Racemi 7-14, in speciminibus nostris juveniles, usque ad 300 mm. longi, longe longe (usque 130 mm.) pedunculati, tenues rachidibus crassis. Flores solum in alabastris novissimis adsunt, subsessiles (anthesi forsan breviter pedicel- lati), numerosissimi, canopilosuli, petalis nondum e calice exsertis, stam- inibus fertilibus 5 glabris, staminodiis jam bene evolutis 5 liberis glabris lamina anthera rudimentari coronata, ovario fulvidovilloso. Leguminis valvas putredine plus minus destructas vidi sub arbore, iis speciei D. velutina similes. Habitat in silva non inundabili prope Tabatinga (ad civitatis Amazonas fines occidentales), leg. A. Ducke 28-9-1931 cum ligno no. 22, H. J. B. R. no. 23,789. One of the tallest trees of the forest near Tabatinga. At first glance it suggests, in its indument and leaves, D. velutina, a species with hood-like anantherous coherent staminode-laminae. The proposed species is fairly closely allied to D. ferruginea, but is at once distinguished from that species by its size and by the velvety indument of the young branchlets, which form a contrast with the nearly glabrous leaflets. The flowers I have collected, but their color is not apparent. APRIL 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service NoreEs Last Winter’s Weather.—A survey of the winter of 1934-35 by the U. 8. Weather Bureau shows that the season was warmer than usual over almost the entire United States. Between 85 and 90 per cent of the country had super-normal temperatures for the months of December, January and Feb- ruary. Lower-than-average temperatures ruled in a limited area in the Northeast, and along a narrow Atlantic coast strip the records show a just- about-average winter. This warm-winter trend has now lasted for nearly twenty years. February in particular was warmer and drier than average. This was espe- cially the case in the Northwest. For example, at Bismark, N.D., only one February in the past sixty years has been warmer than the month just closed. Eleven of the past twelve Februaries in that region have been warmer than normal, and the average temperature for all twelve has been ten de- gress above the normal for the month. Weather observers in the mountain areas of the West, where summer ir- rigation must depend on snows of the preceding winter, reported encourag- ing conditions at the end of winter. In the mountains of the Pacific Coast states especially the snow packs were deep and heavy, and on the whole much greater than last year’s; at the same time the water already in the soil was more abundant. Farther east, in the Great Basin and Rocky Moun- tain regions, soil water was not so nearly up to standard, due to cumulative drought of several years, but the snow supplies on the upper slopes were encouragingly large. National Bureau of Standards—New knowledge of propeller vibration and the possible causes of why propellers break in midair is reported by Dr. Wa.ttTEeR RampereG, Pavut 8. Baturr and Mack J. West. Such propeller failures, while rare compared with the number of propellers in service, usually have serious consequences. Often the flying broken parts rip through the wings of a plane, cause a wreck and sometimes loss of life. Because it was almost hopeless to try to measure the size of propeller vibrations and the forces in blades while they were whirling rapidly, the government scientists produced a comparable effect by working backward. Instead of the propeller receiving its vibrations during actual flight the experimental test was performed with a fixed propeller made to undergo the vibrations by having its propeller shaft twisted back and forth mechanically. Thus strains and stresses similar to those encountered during normal opera- tion were set up and could be measured. It was found the vibrations were those of resonance wherein tiny forces, timed at just the right period, built up and amplified one another until the total effect was enough to snap the blade. For the experimental propellers two vibration periods were found; one at the frequency of 35 times a second and the other 130 times a second. For the lower frequency of vibration it was found that the greatest stresses occurred at the middle of the propeller blade. Smithsonian Institution —Iroquois murderers were compelled by tribal code to remain on the scene of the crime until discovered, J. N. B. Hewitt of the Bureau of American Ethnology has learned in his studies of the cus- 200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 4 toms of the Iroquoian tribes. When found by the relatives of the deceased, the criminal might either be killed on the spot, or he might be haled before the tribal council and payment of blood-money be arranged by his relatives. The latter procedure was the one more usually adopted. Children’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor.—The large number of deaths of American mothers in childbirth as compared with mothers in other countries cannot be explained away by laying the blame on methods of reporting, it appears from a study conducted by Dr. Exizasernu C. TANDY. “The official figure of the United States, which in the last few years has exceeded that of every country except Scotland, remains high no matter what method of assignment is used,’’ Dr. Tandy states. Differences in methods of assigning causes of deaths are not enough to explain the high maternal mortality rate in the United States, as compared with foreign countries. Even if the method of the country assigning the smallest proportion of deaths to the puerperal state were in use in the United States, the United States figure would still exceed that of all 16 coun- tries included in the study, except Australia, Canada, Chile and Scotland. Lack of exact knowledge of the antirachitic effect of foods fortified with vitamin D, especially the so-called vitamin-D milk which is now being prepared by three different methods and widely distributed, has made it imperative to work out a method by which the relative merit for infant feeding of these various milks could be determined and comparisons made with standard substances such as cod-liver oil and viosterol containing vitamin D. The children’s Bureau through its division of child and maternal health, is now carrying on, in preparation for future studies of vitamin-D milks, a series of clinical tests of the antirachitic value of cod-liver oil and viosterol. These substances are provided for the purpose by the Food and Drug Administration of the Department of Agriculture, which carries out the biological assays for vitamin D. Assistance and advice are being given by the Senior Chemist of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. News Briers The recently organized Washington Chapter of the Society for Experi- mental Biology and Medicine held its first scientific meeting at the Cosmos Club on February 25. The officers of the chapter are: president, Dr. VINCENT pu VIGNEAUD; secretary, Miss SARAH BRANHAM. PERSONAL ITEMS Dr. Isatanh Bowman, director of the American Geographical Society, chairman of the National Research Council, and director of the Science Advisory Board, has been elected president of the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. : Prof. Ropert F. Grices of George Washington University lectured on Dionaea before the Royal Canadian Institute, Ottawa, on the evening of March 16. . k : tie CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS General Science—Some Rie spate of deuterium. F. Gs Barc SW HDD; .)2 Ws we were wa. befalls fon Sieapich oig ee eRe 10a nee hay ea ICK- > Geology.—Pre-Devonian structural zones in Scotland seid: eastern North Am oa. »ANNA To ONAGs 82:0 9 amines Cicteiw ae tetetohals a eaten et atenn ae ei Geology.—Comparison of Cambrian rake of northwest Scotland with equi formations of the Appalachians. G. W. Srosp.................. Geology.—A recent backshore and shoreface terrace along the Severn 1 Maryland. . Vornon 8. SCHEED: A) ..ce 6 uo tease alten oy oa ie eee ee Geology.—Occurrence of Triassic sediments on the rim of Grand Canyon. _ Ep- P ; wan D> Mekim. (20a, sce oe einen ere Rk rare 184 ee ge species of the genus Ditnorphaniira Schott section iPad Tal ADOLPHE DUCKE............ et: Scrpntiric Notms anp News...... = Vou. 25 May 15, 1935 No. 5 JOURNAL OF THE OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Joun A. STEVENSON F. G. Brick wEDDE Rotanp W. Brown BURBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS ; H. T. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vow, 25 May 15, 1935 No. 5 PHYSICS.—What 1s electricity?!?, Pauut R. Hey, National Bureau of Standards. I trust that there is no one so optimistic as to suppose that because I have asked this question I am going to answer it, nor so pessimistic as to fear that because I have asked a question which I cannot answer I can offer you nothing but platitudes. I believe it possible in this case to avoid both Scylla and Charybdis. This question, said the late Professor John Trowbridge’ of Harvard University, is often asked as though it were capable of a short and lucid answer which might be understood by any person of liberal education. Many answers have been given, but it is interesting to note that the more definite and confident the answer the older it is, and that as we ascend the ladder of time toward the present day such answers as we encounter are less definite and more cautious. It will be interesting to review, perhaps rather briefly, the ideas which have been held at various times as to the nature of electricity, and then, looking over the wealth of physical discovery which has been amassed in the past forty years, to endeavor to select from it such facts as may be of importance in guiding and controlling future speculation on this question; for though such speculation has been at a minimum, if not a stand-still, during the twentieth century, it will doubtless revive again. Speculation, or as it has been otherwise termed: ‘‘apt conjecture, followed by careful verification,’ has been behind much of the advance of science. Such was the method of Faraday and of Darwin. The conjectures of the ancients, having little in the way of observed fact to guide them, might range far and wide, and had small heuristic value, but with the growth of experiment the range of conjecture has continually narrowed and its value as an aid to further progress has steadily increased. 1 Publication approved by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards of the U.S. Department of Commerce. Received March 30, 1935. 2 This is the fifth of the Joseph Henry Lectures of the Philosophical Society pre- sented March 30, 1935, in honor of the first president of the Philosophical Society. A : Ut ene What is electricity? London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and o. 1897. 201 202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 The beginning of our knowledge of electricity is lost in the mists of antiquity. What we can recover of it is excellently told by Park Benjamin in his history: The «intellectual rise in electricity.4 It is customary to credit Thales (600 B.c.) with the first observation of the attractive power of rubbed amber, but Benjamin shows that amber was widely known among the ancients for centuries before Thales. Beads of amber have been found in the ancient lake dwellings of Europe, in the royal tombs at Mycenae (2000 B.c.) and throughout northern Italy. The identity in chemical composition of these relics with the amber of the Baltic sea coast is significant of the esteem in which this substance was held and of the distance over which it was thought worth while to bring it. The golden glow of the polished beads suggested the beaming sun, called by Homer 7\éx7wp, which doubt- less gave rise to the Greek name for amber, 7\exrpov. It is incredible, as Benjamin points out, that this widespread ac- quaintance of the ancients with amber should have existed so long without its electrical property being often noticed. It is probable that Thales but shared the knowledge of his time in this respect, for his acquaintance with the things of Nature in general was such as to enable him to make the first recorded prediction of an eclipse of the sun. Thales left no writings of his own, and all we know of him we have learned from those who lived several centuries later. It appears from these authorities that the ancients regarded elec- tricity as a soul or spirit resident in an otherwise lifeless substance. This was in harmony with the prevailing thought of the times, which regarded all motion as evidence of life. The air was inanimate, but the wind was the breath of Aeolus; the waves of the sea were excited by the wrathful strokes of Neptune’s trident; the lightning was the thunderbolt of Zeus. This animistic explanation of the nature of elec- tricity was simple and definite enough to be understood by any one, and lasted for several millenniums, in fact until the revival of learn- ing and the growth of experimental science supplied material upon which to base a rival theory. We are helped to realize this animistic point of view when we read in a translator’s footnote to Gilbert’s book on The Magnet® that a certain ancient physician recommended the administration of doses of powdered lodestone in cases of estrangement between husbands and wives. Given the premises of the time, such a conclusion was perfectly logical. It was obvious that the patients exhibited a defi- * London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1895. 5 Translation by P. Fleury Mottelay. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1893, p. 56. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 203 ciency of a certain spiritual element which was found in the lodestone, and the administration of that medicine followed as naturally as a modern prescription of cod liver oil because of its vitamin content. It was the middle of the sixteenth century before the next answer on record was given to the question: What is electricity? This answer came from Cardan,°® whose name is familiar to mathematicians (per- haps more so than it deserves to be). Cardan was the originator of the fluid theory of electricity which held the stage in one form or another for over three centuries, and survives to-day in popular par- lance in the term the electric fluid or, still more colloquially, the juice. Cardan passed from the spiritual to the material in his explanation, which was that amber “‘has a fatty and glutinous humor which, being emitted, the dry object desiring to absorb it is moved towards its source, like fire to its pasture; and since the amber is strongly rubbed, it draws the more because of its heat.’’” In this last sentence we see the influence of Cardan’s profession. He was, among other things, a physician, and was accustomed to warm the cupping glass in drawing blood from his patients. The laws of pneumatics were not yet understood at that time, and it was generally supposed that the cupping glass acted because of its heat. The fact that this fatty and glutinous humor was intangible and in- visible seems to have caused Cardan no embarrassment. We may perhaps view this the more charitably when we think of the contra- dictory attributes that later scientists have found it convenient to assign to the luminiferous ether. The year 1551 in which Cardan published this theory may be taken as marking the end of the first era, in which electricity was regarded as a soul or spirit. Its beginning goes back beyond recorded history. The concept of electricity as a material substance contained in certain bodies known as electrics was strengthened by the experiments of Gilbert (1600), who showed that many substances besides amber were to be included in this class, but the full development of the fluid theory of electricity did not come until the middle of the eighteenth century. In the meantime, von Guericke (1672) had invented his sulphur globe electrical machine, which made electrical experimen- tation easy on a large scale. With the facilities thus placed at his dis- posal he discovered electrical conduction and electrostatic repulsion, the latter destined to be a phenomenon of prime importance in later speculation on the nature of electricity. 6 Carpan. De subtilitate, lib. X XI, Paris. 1551. 7 ParRK BENJAMIN, op. cit. p. 248. 204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 In the eighteenth century development of the fluid theory two names are prominent, those of Du Fay and Franklin, each typifying a separate trend in theory. Du Fay’s experiments (1733 and later) chronologically preceded those of Franklin. His most important discovery was that glass when rubbed behaved in one respect quite differently from amber; a bit of gold leaf excited by contact with the glass tube is then repelled by the glass but attracted by excited amber. ‘And this,’”’ said Du Fay, “leads me to conclude that there are perhaps two different electrici- ties.’’ These he distinguished accordingly as vitreous and resinous, and laid down the law that like electricities repeal each other and unlike attract. To explain the same phenomenon Franklin (1747) postulated a single electric fluid of which all bodies were normally full. If a body acquired more than this normal amount he called it plus, or positively electrified, and if its charge was less than normal, minus, or negatively electrified. Franklin’s hypothesis had simplicity in its favor; it required one less assumption than that of Du Fay. In this respect it obeyed more closely the rule laid down by Newton: “We are to admit no more causes of natural things, than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances... for Nature is pleas’d with simplicity and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.’’® This simplicity of Franklin’s hypothesis, added to the reputation which he himself rapidly attained in scientific circles, gave the one- fluid theory an advantage over its competitor for the time being, but a serious theoretical objection was soon raised against it. Since on this theory a negative charge meant a deficiency of electric fluid, there must be a limiting value of negative charge, namely when the body is completely emptied of the electric fluid; but two such bodies, both being negatively charged, should repel each other—and why? There was much hesitancy on the part of the one-fluid advocates about pushing this argument to its logical conclusion. It remained for a bold German named Aepinus (1759) to seize the bull by the horns and assert that matter devoid of electricity is self-repellent. This doctrine came as a shock to a generation many of whom could remember Newton. It was useless to point out that Newton had deduced the law of gravitation by observation of bodies that pos- sessed their normal amount of electricity, and that the behavior of matter with the maximum negative charge was something which no ® Newton. Principia, Book III: Rules of reasoning in philosophy. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 205 one had ever observed. The one-fluid theory had received a serious jolt from which it never recovered; this argument was used against it as late as the 1830’s. The attention of theoretical physicists of the eighteenth century was turned toward the two-fluid theory, and during the closing years of that century and the early part of the nineteenth the work of Coulomb, Laplace, Biot and Poisson produced an elabo- rate and elegant mathematical theory which so well described all the electrostatic phenomena then known that by 1830 the two-fluid theory was generally accepted. But it often happens that as soon as one theory is comfortably set- tled on the throne another rises up to challenge its supremacy. We shall see the reign of each successive theory of electricity growing shorter. The thousands of years of the first era were followed by three centuries of the second. In the first half of the nineteenth century great things were happening. In 1820 Oersted had discovered that an electric current could produce a magnetic effect, thus tying to- gether what had previously been regarded as separate phenomena. In 1822 Seebeck showed that electricity could be generated by heat. These discoveries impressed themselves on the mind of Faraday, then at work in the Royal Institution. He was familiar with the work of Davy in producing chemical decomposition by electricity, and the converse phenomenon of Volta, the production of electricity by chemical action. Faraday was also aware of the converse of See- beck’s discovery, the production of heat (and light) in the electric are, and his thoughts turned naturally toward the undiscovered converse of the Oersted effect. He says himself at a later time® (1845): “‘T have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in common I believe with many other lovers of natural knowledge, that the various forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest have one common origin; or, in other words, are so directly related and mutually dependent, that they are convertible, as it were, into one another, and possess equivalents of power in their action. In modern times the proofs of their convertibility have been accumulated to a very considerable extent, and a commencement made of the determination of their equivalent forces.”’ Such were the considerations which led Faraday. to attempt the generation of electricity by means of a magnet (1831). The story is familiar to all of us; how he placed a magnet in a helix of wire and found that no current was produced except momentarily while the magnet was being placed in or taken out of the coil. This discovery seems to have made quite an impression in other than scientific circles, as is evidenced by some verse which has come down to us: 9 Farapay. Hxperimental researches in electricity, 3: 1. London, 1855. 206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 ‘Around the magnet, Faraday Is sure that Volta’s lightnings play. To bring them out was his desire. He took a lesson from the heart; ’Tis when we meet, ’tis when we part, Breaks forth the hid electric fire.” Encouraged by this success, Faraday later (1845) sought and found a correlation between magnetism and light. Twenty years later this in its turn furnished the inspiration for Maxwell’s electro- magnetic theory, by means of which the domain of optics was an- nexed to that of electricity. The publication of Maxwell’s paper in 1865 may be considered as closing the second era of electrical theory, that in which electricity was regarded as a material fluid, and the opening of the third era in which the concept of electricity assumed a less material and more elusive form. i By 1865 the two great doctrines of nineteenth century physics, the conservation of energy and the correlation of physical forces (as foreshadowed by Faraday) had been enunciated and were well on the way to general acceptance. During the seventies and early eighties, electricity, in common with heat and light, was sometimes called, in the phrase of the day, a mode of motion, which meant a form of energy. The adoption of this view was, of course, a matter of slow growth. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory had a long struggle for acceptance, so long, in fact, that Maxwell himself did not live to see its final triumph. He died in 1879, and it was not until 1886, when Hertz produced experimentally the electromagnetic waves which Max- well’s theory demanded, that its acceptance may be said to have be- come complete. Against this concept of electricity as a mode of motion, that is to say, a form of energy, Lodge?® in 1889 entered a protest. He pointed out that water or air under pressure or in motion represents energy, but that we do not therefore deny them to be forms of matter. He emphasized an important distinction between two terms: electrifica- tion, which is truly a form of energy, as it can be created and destroyed by an act of work, and electricity, of which none is ever created or de-. stroyed, it being simply moved and strained like matter. No one, said Lodge, ever exhibited a trace of positive electricity without there being somewhere in its immediate neighborhood an equal quantity of the negative variety. 10 LopeE. Modern views of electricity, p. 7. London, Macmillan and Co., 1889. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 207 Lodge did much to crystallize the ideas of the time concerning the nature of electricity. These ideas, since Maxwell’s merger of optics with electricity, had been, as Lodge pointed out, not clearly defined, but in general the idea was that electricity was in some way a phenom- enon of the ether. Lodge enlarged upon this idea, explaining electro- static phenomena as due to ether stress, electric currents as ether flow and magnetism as ether vortices. Electricity, which had been previously regarded as a material fluid, now became an immaterial one, and in consequence this third period of electrical theory may be called the ethereal era. As we mount toward the present time we see the different eras of electrical theory rapidly shortening in duration. While the spiritual era lasted several milleniums and the fluid theory three centuries, the ethereal era lasted only a few decades. The fourth era is that which is still with us. It may be called the atomic or quantum period, in which it is noteworthy that but little attention has been paid to the ultimate nature of electricity and a great deal to its structure. It is difficult to say when this period began, as, in fact, the ethereal era began to die almost as soon as it began to live. Wilhelm Weber," in 1871, in developing his theory of magnetism, pictured to himself light positive charges rotating about heavy nega- tive ones, much like a satellite about a planet; and in 1874 Johnstone Stoney read before Section A of the British Association a paper en- titled: The physical units of nature, which was not printed until seven years later.’ In this paper he asserted the atomic nature of electricity and made a rough calculation of the elementary charge on the basis of Faraday’s law of electrolysis. Ten years later!’ he was the first to use the term electron. Helmholtz," in his Faraday lecture at the Royal Institution in 1881, further developed this line of thought, saying (p. 290): ‘““Now the most startling result of Faraday’s law is perhaps this. If we accept the hypothesis that the elementary substances are composed of atoms, we cannot avoid concluding that electricity also, positive as well as negative, is divided into definite elementary portions, which behave like atoms of electricity.” Maxwell himself saw that his electromagnetic theory was essen- tially continuous in its nature, and recognized the difficulty arising from the implications of Faraday’s experiments. In his Treatise on 1 Mruyikan. The Electron (2ndedition) p.20. University of Chicago Press. 1924. 2 Srongey. Phil. Mag. 11: 381-390. 1881. 18 Sronny. Sci. Trans. Royal Dublin Society, 11th series, IV: 563. 1891. 4 HeL~MHOLtTz. Journ. Chem. Soc. (London) 39: 277-304. 1881. 208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 electricity and magnetism (1: 318. Chap. IV. 1873), in the chapter on electrolysis he says: “It is extremely improbable that when we come to understand the true nature of electrolysis we shall retain in any form the theory of molecular charges.”’ For Helmholtz, however, the atomic nature of electricity was be- yond question. Electricity, as he saw it, was a special chemical ele- ment!’ whose atoms combine with those of other elements to form ions. Moreover, it appeared to be.a monovalent element, for it seemed that a monovalent element combined with one electron, a bivalent one with two, and so on, exactly as a chlorine atom combines with one atom of hydrogen and an oxygen atom with two atoms of hydro- gen. Helium, with its zero valence and double electrical charge, was as yet unknown. The inevitable process of reconciliation of these contradictory theories was early begun by Lorentz,'®° who suggested for this purpose his electron theory of electricity. On this theory all the effects of electricity inside bodies were explained on the assumption of elec- trons, and all the effects of electricity at a distance, electrostatic, electromagnetic and inductive, required the help of the ether. To unite these two classes of phenomena he assumed that each electron was closely bound up with the ether, and that any change in con- figuration of the electrons produced a change in the ether which was propagated with the velocity of light, and thus produced action at a distance. About this time an entirely new line of experimental research was developing which was destined eventually to make the atomic con- cept of electricity dominant for a time. This was the study of the electric discharge in high vacua. Several workers had investigated this field without attracting much notice, but it remained for Crookes to direct widespread attention to this class of phenomena by an ex- hibition of novel and beautiful effects in vacuum tubes which he gave at the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield in 1879. Crookes unquestioningly assumed these effects to be due to electrified mole- cules of residual gas in the tube. It was shown later by others (J. J. Thomson, Townsend, Wilson, Millikan) that the negatively charged particles in a Crookes tube were not molecules or even atoms, but bodies of a minuteness previously unknown, about the 1/1800th part of a hydrogen atom in mass, and bearing a definite negative 1° GraETZ. Recent Developmentsin Atomic Theory. London, Methuenand Co. 1923. 1° Lorentz. Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Weten- schappen, Amsterdam, 8: 323-327. 1891. Also Archives Neérlandaises, 25: p. 432, Chap. IV. 1892. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 209 charge of electricity. For these tiny bodies the term electron, intro- duced by Stoney, was revived. Still later work brought to light the proton, with an equivalent positive charge but larger mass than the electron and, in our own day, the positive electron. As the result of this new line of investigation it became clear that a great many electrical phenomena required the atomic theory of electricity for their explanation. A great many, but not all; for a large number refused to fall in line under a corpuscular explanation, but could be simply and completely explained on Maxwell’s theory as ether disturbances. The discovery by Hertz of the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell did much to swing the pendulum back in this direction. The reconciliation of these contending views has been carried on much along the line originally taken by Lorentz. It is of interest to note that his idea of an electron inseparably bound up with the ether is found today in all essentials in the theory of wave mechanics. We have now brought this somewhat hurried survey of electrical history up to the present day. We have seen that past speculations as to the nature of electricity fall into four classes, each corresponding to an era of thought. In the first of these eras, beginning probably with the earliest observations of electrical attraction, and terminating in the middle of the sixteenth century, electricity was regarded as a soul or spirit. The second era may be said to have been opened by Cardan in 1551 and closed by Maxwell in 1865. During these three centuries electricity was regarded as a material fluid of one or two kinds. It is worthy of note that during this period the concept of the electrical fluid showed a trend toward the immaterial, from Cardan’s fatty and glutinous humor to the impalpable and imponder- able fluid of the early nineteenth century. In the third era electricity in its various manifestations was regarded as some kind of an ether disturbance of a continuous nature. The fourth concept emphasized the atomic or discontinuous structure of electricity without any sug- gestion as to the ultimate nature of these atoms. But though speculation as to the ultimate nature of electricity has been in abeyance since the opening of the twentieth century it will certainly arise again, and within limits it is well that it should. We may therefore turn now to an examination of the wealth of material which the last forty years have placed at our disposal and see what it may contain that is likely to be of importance in guiding and sug- gesting future speculation as to the nature of electricity. The emphasis laid by the twentieth century on the structure rather 210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 than the nature of electricity is natural, for structure is much more easily determined than nature, and moreover a knowledge of the first is likely to give us some useful hints as to the second. It appears that the discontinuous structure of electricity goes almost hand in hand with that of matter. A tabular view of the known elementary particles of matter with their associated charges of electricity will be useful. CHARGE + _ 0 MASS: HBAVY PROTON wee NEUTRON MASS: LIGHT ++ ELECTRON — ELECTRON (NEUTRINO) The heavy particles now known, the proton and the neutron, have a mass equal to that of a hydrogen atom; the light particles have about 1/1800 of this mass. The light neutral particle has not yet been discovered, but so urgent is the demand for it in current nuclear theory that it has been named before its advent. According to the idea that has prevailed for two centuries, positive and negative electricity should be merely reflected images of each other, their properties being equal and opposite. The behavior of the negative electron and the proton shows nothing inconsistent with this concept as far as electrical properties go. On the discovery of the positive electron it was at first thought that it was shorter lived, or as a chemist might say, more reactive than its negative counterpart, but this has not been borne out by subsequent investigation.!’ The mass associated with the positive charge in this case has been in- vestigated by several persons. The latest work is that of E. Rupp" who finds that the mass is within five per cent of that of the negative electron. Rupp appears to have found one point of difference between the two which, if confirmed, will be of importance. It has been found that the passage of negative electrons through thin films of metal is accompanied by a diffraction effect, photographs of the electron beam after transmission showing a series of concentric rings. Rupp passed negative and positive electrons through the same films of gold and aluminum, and found that while the negative par- ticles gave the usual rings the positive particles showed a continuous scattering. We will return to the interpretation of this later. As to the neutron, it is still uncertain whether it is a proton which has acquired a negative electron or whether it is to be regarded as an independent entity without electric charge. The latter, as we shall 17 Allowing for relative abundance. 18 Rupp. Physikal. Zeit. 35: 999. 1934. But in Zeit. f. Physik. 93: 278. 1935, Rupp has withdrawn his earlier article for further verification. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 211 see later, would be in serious conflict with present accepted electrical theory. There was a time, not so very long ago, when the atom of matter was considered to be its ultimate structural unit. The discovery of the proton and the electron gave meaning to the term sub-atomic. With this in mind, the question naturally arises as to a possible further sub- division of the electron. Several observers have claimed to have found evidence of smaller charges than that carried by the electron, but Millikan,’® after an exhaustive discussion of the subject, came to the conclusion that up to 1924 there had been adduced no satisfactory evidence of this smaller charge. In the early years of the present century there was some discus- sion as to whether the electron was to be regarded in shape as a rigid sphere (Abraham) or as contractile. The latter hypothesis was ad- vanced by Lorentz to explain the negative result of the Michelson- Morely experiment. Lorentz supposed the electron, by motion through the ether, to flatten into an oblate spheroid. Experiments by Bucherer?® in 1909 were interpreted as favoring the hypothesis of Lorentz. But in 1927 a new line of experimental evidence as to the structure of the electron was opened up by Davisson and Germer,” soon fol- lowed by G. P. Thomson.” These investigators found in brief, that electrons (of the negative variety) might be scattered by reflection or diffracted by passage through very thin films of metal in such a way as to suggest that an electron is at least as much like a little bunch of waves as it is like a particle, and that neither aspect can be ignored. This is well brought out by G. P. Thomson’s diffraction rings. The electron must have a wave aspect, or there would be no interference pattern; it must have a charged particle aspect, or the whole ring system would not be deflected by a magnet, as it is found to be. The whole situation, in fact, had been foreshadowed theoretically by the wave mechanics of de Broglie and Schrédinger. A number of explanations have been offered for this dual behavior. Perhaps the most completely worked out is that of J. J. Thomson,” based upon the diffraction rings obtained by his son, which lend themselves particularly well to theoretical treatment. On this view the electron is associated with and accompanied by a group of waves 19 The electron, Chap. VIII. 20 BUCHERER. Annalen der Physik 28: 513; 29: 1063. 1909. 21 Davisson and GerMER. Phys. Rey. 30: 705. 1927. 22 G. P. THomson. Proc. Roy. Soc. 117: 600. 1928. 23 J. J. THomson. Beyond the electron. Cambridge University Press. 1928; Phil. Mag. 6: 1254. 1928. 212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 which guide and direct its motion. Now it was found by a study of the speed of the electrons and the associated wave lengths in the diffrac- tion rings that a curious and complicated relation existed between these quantities. If wu is the velocity of an electron and its associated wave length, this relation is: Ur =o (1) V1 =w/e in which ¢ is the velocity of light and C is a constant. But this, as J. J. Thomson shows, is exactly the relation that should hold for the group speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium such as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, containing a multitude of electric charges, positive and negative. J. J. Thomson therefore suggests the following structure for the negative electron: I. A nucleus which, like the older concept of the electron, is a charge of negative electricity concentrated in a small sphere. II. This nucleus does not constitute the whole of the electron. Surrounding it there is a structure of much larger dimensions which may be called the sphere of the electron. This sphere contains an equal number of positive and negative charges, forming a little Ken- nelly-Heaviside layer around the nucleus. Measurements on the diffraction rings indicate a diameter for this sphere at least 10,000 times that previously accepted as the diameter of the electron. III. The nucleus is the center of a group of waves and moves with the group speed in its atmosphere of electric charges. At the time that J. J. Thomson proposed this hypothesis the posi- tive electron was not known. Here comes in the importance of Rupp’s work’ previously referred to. On their face, these experiments indi- cate either that the train of waves that accompanies a negative elec- tron is absent from the positive electron, or that all possible wave lengths are present. Just as the atom, once regarded as an ultimate structural unit, is now recognized as a complex of electrons, protons, neutrons and pos- sibly neutrinos, so the electron, it seems, must be regarded as a similar complex. Much more, doubtless, is to be learned about its structure before we can hope to answer the question: What is electricity? Perhaps the most outstanding fact in modern physical theory is the dominant position occupied by electricity. In the nineteenth century one spoke of matter and electricity as two separate and in- may 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 213 dependent entities; nowadays electricity has become the funda- mental entity of which matter is merely an aspect. Matter, once supreme, has lost its individuality and has become merely an electrical phenomenon which electricity may exhibit more or less according to circumstances. It is obvious that our answer to the question: What 1s electricity? will be fundamentally influenced according to whether we hold an electrical theory of matter or a material theory of electricity. It will therefore be worth our while to examine the foundation for the present view that electricity, whatever it may be, is the sole world- stuff. So radical has been this change in our thinking that it would seem a foregone conclusion that it must be based upon the clearest and most unequivocal of experimental evidence. This change in our concepts did not come suddenly. Its beginning dates back to 1893, when J. J. Thomson** showed on theoretical grounds that a charged sphere in motion through the ether would en- counter a resistance which to all intents and purposes would appear as an increase in the sphere’s inertia, i.e., in its mass. Calculation in- dicated that this effect would become appreciable only if the velocity of the charged body was comparable to that of light. In 1898 this suggestion was of academic interest only, no bodies moving with sufficient speed being then available for experiment. A few years later conditions had changed. The study of radioactive sub- stances and of the discharge of electricity through gases had placed at our disposal positively and negatively charged particles moving with unprecedented speeds, which in the case of the negative par- ticles were in some cases comparable with the speed of light. Here, it would seem, was an opportunity to test Thomson’s theory of in- creasing mass. Unfortunately, the conditions of the problem were such that it was not at first possible to obtain a measure of the mass of such a par- ticle, but only a determination of the ratio of the electric charge to the mass which carried it (e/m). Kaufmann” found, however, that for the swifter particles this ratio was less than for the slower ones. There were only two ways of ex- plaining this fact, both equally radical: either the mass increased or the charge diminished as the speed of the particle became greater. In this dilemma opinion inclined generally to the first alternative, 24 J. J. THomson. Recent researches in electricity and magnetism, p. 21. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1893. 25 KAUFMANN. Gesell. Wiss. Géttingen, Nov. 8, 1901; July 26, 1902; March 7, 1903. 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 largely because there was in existence a theoretical reason to expect it, while no one as yet had been ingenious enough to suggest any reason why a moving charge should alter. It is of importance to note that Kaufmann’s experimental result, because of its equivocal char- acter, cannot be accepted as more than half proving J. J. Thomson’s theory. Kaufman calculated that such particles as he experimented with might have, when moving slowly, an electrical mass equal to about one fourth their total mass. In making this calculation he assumed that a particle behaved as though it were a little metallic conductor, but he was careful to point out that a different assumption might lead to an- other result. J. J. Thomson, on the assumption that a particle had no metallic conductivity, but acted like a point charge, found that Kaufmann’s results indicated that the whole of the mass of the particle might be accounted for electrically. This was the origin of the electrical theory of matter. Its pedigree goes back to J. J. Thomson’s theory, which in turn was derived from the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell. Kaufmann’s experiments only half proved Thomson’s theory, which in addition was complicated by a special assumption with regard to the distribution of the charge on the particle. Without this assumption only a part of the mass could be accounted for electrically. But much water has run under the bridge since 1893. Forty years is a long life for any physical theory in these days, and the recent dis- covery of the neutron has brought with it a challenge to the electrical theory of matter. In J. J. Thomson’s original theory of the increase in mass of a moy- ing charge it was an essential point that the lines of force should be free to adjust themselves as the motion demanded. As a leaf or a card tends to flutter down through the air broadside on, so the lines of force, originally distributed radially and symmetrically about the charge at rest, will tend to set themselves in a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charge. They will not all be able to lie in this plane because of their mutual repulsion, but the density of the lines will be a maximum in this plane and a minimum in the direc- tion of motion, and a certain space distribution will result, of such a nature that the apparent increase of mass can be completely ac- counted for. But it is essential for this result that the lines of force shall be per- fectly free at their outer ends; in other words, only a single isolated MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 215 charge is considered. Now in a structure like the hydrogen atom, com- posed of a negative and a positive particle, there is bound to be some interference with this freedom of adjustment. In a neutral, non-ion- ized atom it would appear that all of the lines must begin and end within the atomic structure. J. J. Thomson must be given credit for foreseeing this difficulty, though the Bohr atom was as yet years in the future. He had an atomic concept of his own in mind at that early date, and pointed out that the distance between the particles constituting an atom must be thousands of times the diameter of a particle. In consequence, he said, almost all of the mass will originate where the lines have their greatest density, near each particle; and the particles are relatively so far from each other that the parts of the lines of force in their im- mediate neighborhood will have almost perfect freedom of orientation with the motion of the atom.” This is a quantitative question; but it is clear that only under the most favorable conditions will we have a freedom of motion in the atom which approximates that around an isolated charge, and in con- sequence the electrical explanation of matter, on J. J. Thomson’s theory, must be in the same degree approximate. With the neutron, conditions are more rigid. Assuming the neutron to consist of a proton and a negative electron, the union of these must be almost as close as possible, as the neutron, on modern theory, may form a constituent of an atomic nucleus. Here we are dealing not with atomic magnitudes but with sub-atomic dimensions, which is quite another thing. Freedom of motion of the lines of force in such a struc- ture must be almost non-existent. And if we make the alternative as- sumption that the neutron is an independent, non-electrical entity, the electrical theory of matter must admit of an important exception. But an electrical theory of matter to be acceptable must admit of no exceptions. It must obey the all or none principle. If it is approxi- mate in even the slightest degree, we are confronted with the existence of two kinds of matter, ordinary and electrical, and we are violating the rule of simplicity in reasoning laid down by Newton. But has there not been later evidence supporting this theory? It has sometimes been said that Millikan’s oil-drop experiments, by which he measured the charge on a single electron, prove the con- stancy of this charge, and hence the variability of the mass alone in Kaufmann’s experiments. It is true that Millikan found that the charge on an ion after it had been transferred to the oil-drop was the 26 J. J. THomson. Electricity and matter, p. 51. New York: Seribner’s. 1904. 216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 same whatever the source of the original charge. Ions of different gases, unquestionably of different speeds, gave the same charge to the drop. But it is to be remembered that the measurement of this charge was made, not at the speed of the ion, but at that of the oil- drop, which was of the order of a few hundredths of a centimeter per second. The special theory of relativity is sometimes quoted in support of the constant charge and variable mass. It is true that Einstein?’ in his original paper of 1905 gives a formula for the change of mass with the speed of a moving electron, which, like J. J. Thomson’s formula, becomes infinite at the speed of light, and that he gives no similar formula for a change in the charge. It will be interesting for us to see how he obtained this result. In section 10 of his paper Einstein derives the following formula for the x-component of the acceleration of a moving charged particle, to- gether with formulas for the other components: in which e is the charge on the particle, m its rest mass, X the com- ponent of the electric vector and 6 the familiar 1+/1 —v?/c?. It is evident that the quantity e/m is altered by the factor 1/6%, but whether the charge or the mass or both are changed is not obvi- ous. Einstein without comment assumes e to be constant and m to bear the full effect of the modifying factor, and on this basis derives his formula for the change of mass. This assumption, of course, was orthodox in 1905, but it is of inter- est to note that as a matter of logic the electrical theory of matter can claim no supporting evidence from the special theory of relativity. On the basis of this result of Einstein’s, Sommerfeld?® introduced a modification into Bohr’s theory of the atom. On Bohr’s theory the hydrogen atom was regarded as consisting of a negative electron re- volving in a Keplerian ellipse around a positively charged nucleus, the attraction between the two charges being balanced by the centrif- ugal force of the revolving electron. Sommerfeld (page 45) makes the orthodox assumption that the electrical charges remain constant, but that the mass of the revolving electron varies with its speed according to Einstein’s formula. In consequence the mass of the electron fluc- tuates as it describes its orbit, being greatest at perihelion and least 27 Einstein. Ann. d. Physik 17: 891. 1905. 28 SOMMERFELD. Ann.d. Physik 51:1. 1916. MAY 15, 1935 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 217 at aphelion, and its centrifugal force will vary slightly from that in a non-relativistic Keplerian ellipse. Because of this the orbit becomes an ellipse with a moving perihelion, like that of the planet Mercury. The effect of this will be to split up the spectral lines, producing what Sommerfeld called the relativistic fine structure. This predicted effect has actually been found in the spectra of hy- drogen and helium, the number of the component lines and their rela- tive separation being in accordance with theory. As to the value of this result as a confirmation of the electrical theory of matter, it is to be observed that Sommerfeld would have obtained exactly the same modification of the Keplerian ellipse if he had assumed the charge to decrease and the mass to remain constant, thereby disturbing the balance by reducing the centripetal attraction instead of increasing the centrifugal force. The logic of the whole situation is that the electrical theory of mat- ter can claim no independent support from Millikan, Einstein or Som- merfeld. It rests for the present on J. J. Thomson’s theory, and even this theory assumes tacitly that the charge is unaltered by the motion. It is remarkable that every one we have mentioned, from J. J. Thom- son onward, when confronted with the necessity of making a choice, prefers to keep the charge constant and let the mass take the conse- quences, and this without comment or apology. Of course, there must be a reason for this; and although it is ex- plicitly stated by no writer that I have seen, the reason is doubtless to be found in a fundamental law of electricity, that of the conserva- tion of electrical charge, with its corollary, the exact equivalence of positive and negative electricity. This law states that no one has ever produced the slightest trace of a positive charge without the simul- taneous production of an equal and opposite negative charge some- where in the neighborhood. This law has been the subject of some very searching experiments. We may operate within a large conducting cube, such as was built by Faraday at the Royal Institution; perform within it all the usual electrical experiments, excite a glass tube by rubbing it with fur, draw sparks from an electrical machine, and yet a sensitive gold leaf electroscope connected to the cube will remain undisturbed. It seems impossible to create or destroy an electric charge without a com- pensating creation or destruction of an equivalent charge of the op- posite sign. And yet the era of thought which has not hesitated to question the conservation of energy can hardly be expected to respect this elec- 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 trical principle; and in fact this law has been brought under fire from several quarters. If these points of order are sustained they will have an important bearing on future answers to the question: What is elec- tricity? It is well to remember in this connection that all the experiments upon which is based the law of conservation of electric charge have started with neutral bodies. The glass tube and the fur were at first neutral, but exhibited equal and opposite charges after being rubbed together; the electrical machine was at first neutral, but on being operated its two sides became equally and oppositely charged. Suppose a chemist should announce that as a result of the analysis of several thousand neutral salts he had come to the conclusion that acid and basic radicals existed in equal amounts in nature; we would likely think him ignorant of such syntheses as that of the acid radical cyanogen (CN) from its elements in the electric arc. But is there any known electrical analogue of such a synthesis or its reverse dissocia- tion? No, nothing that we have so far been able to produce in the laboratory; yet if we imagine some race of children of the gods who could play with planets as we with pith balls, something of this kind might come to their notice. Among the phenomena of atmospheric electricity there is an un- solved mystery. Many fruitless attempts have been made to explain it consistently with the principle of conservation of electrical charge. Continual failure has led more than one physicist to look for the ex- planation in a slight departure from this principle, and it has been shown that a departure so slight as to be beyond laboratory detection would yet, on the large scale, solve this mystery. The difficulty in _ question is to account for the negative charge of the earth. Our earth is not a neutral body. Its entire surface is negatively charged to such an amount that there exists near the surface a po- tential gradient of 150 volts per meter. The conductivity of the at- mosphere is small, but not zero; and because of this conductivity and the potential gradient there is a continual conduction of negative elec- tricity away from the earth amounting, over the whole surface of the earth, to a current of about 1000 amperes. Small as this may appear, it is sufficient to bring about a loss of 90 per cent of the earth’s charge in ten minutes if there were no means of replenishing the loss. The nature of this replenishment is the mystery referred to. So great has been the difficulty of accounting for this replenish- ment that in 1916 G. C. Simpson,?* now Director of the British 22 G. C. Smupson. Monthly Weather Review 44: 121. 1916. MAY 15, 1985 HEYL: ELECTRICITY 219 Meteorological Office, raised the question of a possible spontaneous production of a negative charge in the earth’s interior, but offered no suggestion as to how this could be brought into line with existing theory. In 1926 Swann,*° who had worked unsuccessfully with the same problem, followed Simpson’s lead, but chose the other alternative of a slight annihilation, or as he called it, death of positive electricity. He was able to bring this into connection with existing electrical theory by generalizing Maxwell’s equations. His fundamental idea was that there might be a very slight difference in the properties and behavior of the two electricities. Here again we are reminded of the difference apparently found by Rupp. Such a suggestion was not without precedent. Lorentz*! in 1900 had postulated a difference between the attraction of unlike charges and the repulsion of like charges to account for another mystery—gravita- tion. It must be admitted that the accepted idea of the absolute equivalence and mirror-image character of the two electricities had weakened somewhat when such men as the Director of the British Meteorological Office, the Director of the Bartol Research Founda- tion and a Nobel prizeman could join in expressing doubt of its ac- curacy.” Swann’s theory of the maintenance of the earth’s charge is, from the theoretical point of view, the most successful that has yet been advanced. He modifies the equations of Maxwell by introducing two small terms, amounting respectively to one part in 10” and five parts in 10'° of the main term of the classical theory. These additional terms involve the acceleration and time rate of change of positive charge. Swann assumed no similar terms for the negative charge, his idea being that there is a slight differential effect in behavior. For simplic- ity, therefore, he introduced a differential term applying only to posi- tive electricity. This assumption enabled him to account for a slow death of positive electricity due to the centripetal acceleration pro- duced by the earth’s rotation. To account for the known electrical facts, there is necessary an an- nihilation of less than one proton per cc per day, equivalent to a loss of 0.5 per cent of the earth’s mass in 10?° years. This would also ac- count for as much of the earth’s magnetic field as is symmetrical 80 Swann. Jour. Frank. Inst. 201: 143. 1926. Phil. Mag. 3: 1088. 1927. 31 LorENTZ. Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Proceed- ings of the Section of Sciences 2: 559. 1900. % Additional references: Morr. Phil. Mag. 21, 196. 1911. Gunicu. Ann. d. E bya’: 247. 1927. W. ANDERSON. Ibid. 85: 404. 1928. A. Press. Phil. Mag. - . 1932. a __ _— rrr rrr 220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 about the earth’s axis, and would give the correct ratio for the mag- netic fields of the earth and the sun. Moreover no development of charge or magnetic field could be detected with a sphere of laboratory size rotating at the highest practicable speed. And finally, Swann’s scheme is consistent with the special theory of relativity. Whatever may be thought of Swann’s fundamental assumption, it must be admitted that his theory is experiment-proof. Moreover, even though it should be definitely disproved, it would have the lasting merit of impressing upon us caution in extrapolating laboratory re- sults to the cosmic scale. The relations of newly discovered fact and existing theory are, as we have seen in this somewhat brief survey, rich in suggestion. Specu- lation is not dead, but sleeping. If the past is still an indication of the future, it will awake again to renewed activity, and when this occurs we will need a wide acquaintance with fact and a good sense of per- spective to guide and direct future speculation on the question: What as electricity? CHEMISTRY.—3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and some of its esters.1 RaymMonp M. Hann, Laboratory of J. P. Wetherill, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by GrorcE 8. JAMIESON.) The present communication reports the extension of the study of derivatives of 5-chloroveratric aldehyde (3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro- benzaldehyde) to include the synthesis of 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro- cinnamic acid. The new acid was prepared by condensation of the aldehyde with malonic acid in the presence of pyridine and piperidine according to the Knoevenagel reaction, the intermediate 3, 4-di- methoxy-5-chlorobenzalmalonic acid losing carbon dioxide during the reaction process to yield the desired substituted cinnamic acid. The acid was characterized by preparation of several of its esters. EXPERIMENTAL 3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid.—A solution of 10 grams of 5-chloroveratric aldehyde and 13 g of malonic acid in 10 cc of pyridine was treated with 5 drops of piperidine and heated for one and one- half hours on the steam bath under a reflux, carbon dioxide being copiously evolved. The reaction was completed by refluxing for 15 minutes, the reaction mixture cooled, and treated with 15 cc of con- centrated hydrochloric acid in 85 cc of water. The precipitated yellow 1 Received February 18, 1935. MAY 15, 1935 HANN: DIMETHOXY CHLOROCINNAMIC ACID 221 oil rapidly solidified, and after standing overnight in the ice box it was filtered and dried. Yield 12.0 g, quantitative. The acid may be recrystallized from water or 50% ethyl alcohol, separating in ball-hke clusters of gelatinous needles, but it is prefera- ble to dissolve it in 10 parts of ether, then concentrate to about half volume, when upon standing it separates in colorless glistening prisms melting at 126—7° C (corr.) to a clear oil. Anal. Caled. for CuHnO.Cl: C, 54.4; H, 4.6. Neutralization equivalent, 242. Found: C, 54.2; H, 4.7. Neutralization equivalent, 241. Methyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—One g of 3, 4-dimethoxy- 5-chlorocinnamic acid, 10 ce of absolute methyl alcohol and 1 ce of concentrated sulfuric acid were refluxed for four hours, the solution cooled, and the ester precipitated as an oil by addition of 50 ce of water. On standing it crystallized, and upon recrystallization from 10 parts of 80% methyl alcohol was obtained in colorless needles melting at 63° C (corr.). Yield 2.0 g, 95% of theory. Anal. Caled. for Ci2H30.Cl: Cl, 13.8. Saponification equivalent, 256. Found: Cl, 18.8. Saponification equivalent, 251. Ethyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—The ethyl ester was ob- tained by the general procedure used for the methyl homologue. It crystallizes from 50% alcohol in colorless glistening prisms melting at 165° C (corr.) to a clear colorless oil. Anal. Caled. for Ci3Hi;0.,Cl: Cl, 13.1. Saponification equivalent, 271. Found: Cl, 13.0. Saponification equivalent, 265. Phenacyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloroconnamate.—One gram of acid was dissolved in 10 cc of 95% alcohol and titrated with N sodium hydrox- ide to phenolphthalein alkalinity (4.3 cc), then 0.1 g of acid (to pre- vent formation of phenacyl alcohol) and 1.0 g of w-bromo aceto- phenone in 10 ce 95% alcohol were added and the reaction mixture refluxed for one hour. On cooling the phenacyl ester separated and was recrystallized from 40 ce of 95% alcohol, being obtained in glis- tening, colorless needles melting at 132° C (corr.). Anal. Caled. for Ci9Hi;O;Cl: Cl, 9.8. Found: Cl, 10.0. p-Fluorophenacyl 3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—A solution of the sodium salt of the acid prepared as outlined for the phenacyl ester and 0.7 gram of p-fluoro-w-chloro acetophenone? were refluxed for one hour. The fluorinated phenacyl ester crystallized from alcohol in ball- like clusters of long, colorless needles, and melted at 135° C. Anal. Caled. for CysHis0;CIF: Cl, 9.4. Found: Cl, 9.2. 2 Hann and Wetherill, This JouRNAL, 24: 526. 1934. nn CSCi.:titstCCtiCCCCCiasaéa#éé......w4weeeeeee 222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 5 p-Chlorophenacyl 3,4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—This ester was prepared by the same general method from p-chloro-w-bromoaceto- phenone and crystallized from 40 parts of boiling 95% alcohol in fine, glistening needles melting at 137° C (corr.) to a clear oil. Anal. Caled. for C19His0;Cl.: Cl, 17.9. Found: Cl, 17.8. p-Bromophenacyl 3,4-dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamate.—This ester crys- tallizes in long, colorless acicular needles melting at 132° C (corr.) to a clear oil. Anal. Caled. for Ci.H,O;ClBr: Saponification equivalent, 439. Found: 437. SUMMARY 3,4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and its methyl, ethyl, phe- nacyl, p-fluorophenacyl, p-chlorophenacyl, and p-bromophenacyl esters have been synthesized and described. GEOLOGY .—Outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western high- land rim of Tennessee! KENDALL E. Born, Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo. (Communicated by RoLtanp W. Brown.) During the summer of 1933, while mapping the areal geology of Dickson County in the western Highland Rim area of Tennessee, sev- eral patches of unrecorded water-worn gravels were noted capping some of the higher hills and interstream areas. These gravels un- doubtedly represent remnants of the Tuscaloosa formation of Upper Cretaceous age, which formerly overlay the Highland Rim plateau. The present paper calls attention to these newly recognized occur- rences since most of them are farther east than any areas of the for- mation previously mapped. The term Tuscaloosa was first applied by Smith and Johnson? to the basal Upper Cretaceous deposits in the vicinity of Tuscaloosa, Alabama. In western Alabama and Mississippi the Tuscaloosa, con- sisting of irregularly bedded clays, sands, and gravels, has an esti- mated thickness of approximately 1,000 feet. The formation becomes more gravelly toward the north and was formerly considered to thin out in the vicinity of the Alabama-Tennessee line. The presence of this Upper Cretaceous formation on the western Highland Rim was shown by the work of Miser* in 1913. Miser determined the age of the 1 Received January 28, 1935. Published by permission of the State Geologist of Tennessee and the Board of Graduate Studies of W. ashington University. 2 Smiru, E. A. and Jonnson, L. C. Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of the Tusca- loosa, Tombigbee, and Alabama rivers. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 43:95. 1887. 3’ Miser, H. D. in Drake, N. F. Economic geology of the Waynesboro quadrangle (Tennessee). Tenn. Geol. Survey, Resources 4: 107. 1914 = MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 223 gravels exposed in the Waynesboro quadrangle by tracing the overly- ing red sands (Eutaw formation) into Hardin County where he found a locality showing Cretaceous fossils. STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS Deposits of Upper Cretaceous age in Tennessee outcrop in a roughly wedge-shaped area which crosses the State in an approximate north-south direction, the greatest areal distribution of the Upper Cretaceous being west of the Tennessee River. This area is about 70 miles wide along the southern boundary of the State, but narrows un- til at the Kentucky line it is only about 15 miles in width. In the southern counties bordering the Tennessee River the following strati- graphic and lithologic units of the Upper Cretaceous have been recog- nized: Owl Creek tongue Ripley formation eae 2 McNairy sand member Coon Creek tongue Selma clay Eutaw formation enn C Olcersandsme»n ber, EA ae ere re Tombigbee sand member Tuscaloosa formation The Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland Rim rests un- conformably upon Mississippian limestones of Warsaw and St. Louis ages. In the southern counties the Tuscaloosa is overlain by the red micaceous Eutaw sand. In north-central Tennessee the Eutaw is defi- nitely known only as small remnants in Stewart County along the divide between the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. LITHOLOGY The Tuscaloosa formation in Tennessee is represented by well- rounded gravels, consisting essentially of chert with some limestone pebbles. Quartzitic pebbles are not uncommon. In the southwestern corner of the Waynesboro quadrangle Miser‘ noted that the top 30 feet of the Tuscaloosa consisted of “‘loose gravel, mostly sandstone, quartzite, and quartz in red sand. Quartz pebbles are in greatest abundance.” Jewell’ observed pebbles of quartzite and glassy vein 4 Miser, H. D. Communication. December, 1934. 5 JewELL, W. B. Geology and mineral resources of Hardin County, Tennessee. Tenn. Div. of Geol. Bull. 37: 45. 1931. 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 5 ral ye wi Ke CALLOWAY TE WA Rot t LEGEND a4 TUSCALOOSA fee EUTAW FORMATION ———! FORMATION Scale K E Born—1935 10 20mi. Fig. 1.—Sketch map showing exposures of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland Rim of Tennessee. The numbers indicate new exposures and refer to de- scriptions in the text. The size of some of the smaller outliers has been exaggerated. MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 225 quartz in southeastern Hardin County. These pebbles have appar- ently had a distinct origin, but their source is speculative. The writer has noted quartzitic pebbles in exposures of the Tuscaloosa gravel on the northern part of the Rim, but always in rather small amounts. All of the pebbles show definite evidence of water-wear, some of them closely approximating a sphere in shape. A few are polished. The average diameter is between one and two inches, although di- ameters of 6 to 12 inches have been observed. The color of the pebbles ranges from almost white to a very dark gray, the majority of them being light gray in color. Locally, the gravels are intimately associated with sands and clays which generally occur as small lenses and pockets. The amount of sand and clay present decreases to the north. For the most part the constituents are poorly sorted although Jewell® observed that the lower portion of the Tuscaloosa in Hardin County was coarser than the top. The matrix of the gravels consists of finely divided calcareous and siliceous material, much of which is clay. In certain localities, espe- cially in the southern counties of the Rim, hydrous iron oxides have cemented the pebbles into a highly indurated conglomerate. DISTRIBUTION OF THE TUSCALOOSA FORMATION Miser’ found that the Tuscaloosa gravels in the Waynesboro quad- rangle were 150 feet thick and covered extensive tracts in the south- western part of that area. In 1914 Wade® mapped the Tuscaloosa formation in Tennessee as far north as Perry and northern Lewis counties. Later he® traced remnants of the Tuscaloosa as far north as Trigg County, Kentucky. In 1920 Wade? gave a summary of his Up- per Cretaceous studies in Tennessee in which the distribution and lithology of the Tuscaloosa formation were discussed. More recently Roberts" has described the Tuscaloosa and Eutaw formations of western Kentucky. Formerly, the Tuscaloosa formation was considered to have a very 6§ JewELL, W. B. Op. cit., p. 45. 7 Miser, H. D. Mineral resources of the Waynesboro quadrangle. Tenn. Geol. Survey Bull. 26: 25. 1921. 8 Wapk, Bruce. Geology of Perry County and vicinity. Tenn. Geol. Survey, Re- sources 4:173. 1914. 9 Wave, Bruce. The occurrence of the Tuscaloosa formation as far north as Ken- tucky. Johns Hopkins Univ. Cire. 3: 102-106. 1917. 10 WapE, Bruce. Recent studies of the Upper Cretaceous of Tennessee. Tenn. Geol. Survey Bull. 23: 51-64. 1920. 4 Roserts, J. K. The Tuscaloosa formation in Kentucky. Amer. Jour. Sci. 14: 465-472. 1927; Cretaceous deposits of Trigg, Lyon, and Livingston counties, Kentucky. Kentucky Geol. Survey 31: 281-326. 1929. 226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 limited areal distribution east of the Tennessee River. However, more detailed studies have revealed isolated exposures of the Upper Creta- ceous gravel some 30 to 40 miles east of the river. (See Fig. 1.) An important link in this chain of outlying areas of gravels of Up- per Cretaceous age is the gravels and sands in the vicinity of McEwen and Tennessee City on the central part of the western Highland Rim. Fig. 2.—Exposure of the Tuscaloosa gravels in a new road cut, about 13 miles east of Tennessee City. Width of the exposure is about 36 inches. In this region the Tuscaloosa gravels cover several square miles and have a thickness of more than 25 feet. The gravels are well exposed in most of the new highway cuts between Dickson and McEwen. (See Fig. 2.) Just east of McEwen some 30 feet of the gravels are exposed which are underlain by the highly weathered St. Louis limestone and chert. In 1930, while working on the brown iron ores of the western High- ee j 4 ; MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 227 land Rim, the writer’ noted the Tuscaloosa gravels capping the higher hills near Louise in southern Montgomery County (1).* This occurrence of the Upper Cretaceous is some 10 miles farther east than any previously recognized in Tennessee. During the summer of 1933 several more unmapped outliers of the Tuscaloosa gravels were found in Dickson County. In the extreme northwestern corner of the county, about 43 miles northwest of Slay- den, a small area of Cretaceous gravels occur at an altitude of 650- 700 feet. This outlier is more or less continuous into southern Mont- gomery and eastern Houston counties (2). About three-fourths of a mile south of Cumberland Furnace, in northern Dickson County, some 25 feet of the Tuscaloosa have been exposed by stream erosion near the crest of a ridge (3). In this expo- sure the gravels are especially well-rounded, light in color, and have been firmly embedded in sand and clay. At various places along the north-south ridge bordering the road between Pond and the small village of Hortense, Tuscaloosa gravels were observed (4). Since no bed-rock is exposed in this immediate locality, the thickness of the gravels could not be determined. South and east of the rather extensive outlier of the Tuscaloosa in western Dickson and eastern Humphreys counties, several small rem- nants of the Upper Cretaceous gravels were noted forming a veneer on some of the higher hills of the interstream area between Garner Creek and Piney River (5). In these localities, the finer sand and clay have been removed leaving the pebbles scattered as a mantle over the upland and embedded in the residual clays. During the field season of 1934 a small exposure of gravels, very typical of the Tuscaloosa, was observed just north of the old Johnston iron ore pits, about 4 miles south of Wrigley Furnace in Hickman County (6). This is within 15 miles of the Central or Nashville Basin and is the most easterly occurrence of the formation yet discovered. ORIGIN OF THE TUSCALOOSA FORMATION The gravels of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland Rim of Tennessee have been derived from Mississippian limestones and cherts. Mississippian fossils are commonly found in the pebbles. The coral, Lithostrotion canadense, indicative of the St. Louis lime- stone, has been observed towards the center of several pebbles. 2 Born, K. E. The brown iron ores of the western Highland Rim of Tennessee. Jour. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 7: 22. 1932. * The numbers in parentheses refer to numbers of localities on the map, Fig. 1. 228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 Berry,” basing his conclusions on certain resemblances to present deltas, believes that the Tuscaloosa formation in Alabama represents a series of Cretaceous deltas. This interpretation may be correct for Alabama, where the amount of sand and clay is greater and where paleobotanical evidence is present, but in Tennessee, and especially the northern part of the Highland Rim region, the clays and sands become much less abundant and the Tuscaloosa consists of gravel with only subordinate amounts of sand and clay. Roberts noted this same constitution of the Tuscaloosa in Kentucky and he suggested a marine origin of the gravels. Field observations by the writer point toward a similar origin for the Tuscaloosa formation on the western Highland Rim of Tennessee. The Tuscaloosa gravels in this region are believed to be shore gravels deposited through overlap by the advanc- ing Upper Cretaceous sea. During the late Carboniferous and early and middle Mesozoic time the western Highland Rim is believed to have been a land mass. Dur- ing this long geologic interval the land suffered erosion and Wade suggested that the general area was a low-lying land. Wells'® believes the region was reduced to a peneplain. In western Kentucky Sutton’’ has pictured the topography at the beginning of Tuscaloosa time as an irregular land surface in a mature stage of development. In the south- western part of the western Highland Rim, Miser! interpreted the pre-Tuscaloosa topography as an uneven surface on which sink holes and underground channels were common. As the result of downwarping, the Upper Cretaceous was initiated in the Embayment region by a transgressing sea which rounded the Mississippian limestones and cherts. The eastern limit of the Tusca- loosa sea in Tennessee is not definitely known, but the present recog- nized distribution of these basal gravels indicates that the sea en- croached far upon the western flank of the Nashville arch. The size and degree of rounding displayed by many of the pebbles appear to warrant a marine rather than a deltaic origin for the Tusca- 13 Berry, E. W. The delta character of the Tuscaloosa formation. Johns Hopkins Univ. Cire. 3: 18-24. 1917; Upper Cretaceous floras of the eastern Gulf region in Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 112: 26-30. 1919. 144 Roperts, J. K. The Tuscaloosa formation in Kentucky. Amer. Jour. Sci. 14: 470-472. 1927. 1s WapE, Bruce. Geology of Perry County and vicinity. Tenn. Geol. Survey, Resources 4: 176. 1914. 16 WeLLs, F. G. Ground water resources of western Tennessee. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 656: 22-23. 1933. 17 Surton, A. H. A pre-Cretaceous soil horizon in western Kentucky. Amer. Jour. Sei. 22: 450-451. 1931. 18 Miser, H. D. Mineral resources of the Waynesboro quadrangle. Tenn. Geol. Survey Bull. 26: 58-59. 1921. MAY 15, 1935 BORN: TUSCALOOSA FORMATION 229 loosa gravels on the western Highland Rim. Although our present knowledge of the Upper Cretaceous geography of this area is meager, it is believed, as suggested above, that the western Highland Rim was then a region of little or moderate relief. Considerable relief must be assumed to account for cobbles, many of which are 5 and 8 inches in diameter, to be washed into deltas. At present we have no basis for the assumption of any great amount of relief during the early Upper Cretaceous in west-middle Tennessee. No large pebbles are known in the present day stream gravels and it is probable that the present relief of the Rim region is greater than that of Cretaceous time. It appears, therefore, more likely that this rounding of Mississippian limestones and cherts has resulted from wave and tidal action of a sea transgressing a deeply weathered land area. The width of the Tuscaloosa belt in Tennessee is also suggestive of a marine origin for the gravels. Very extensive deltas would be necessary to account for the rather wide distribution of the Tusca- loosa as indicated by the chain of outliers already known, and further detailed study of additional areas on the western Rim will probably reveal other outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation. In the southern counties of the Rim and in the area west of the Tennessee River, the Tuscaloosa is overlain conformably by the Eutaw sand whose origin is certainly marine. In Hardin County, Jewell!® has noted sands, similar to those in the Tuscaloosa, inter- calated with the gravels and finer sands of the Eutaw formation. Continuous deposition is strongly suggested. The presence of the Eutaw in Stewart County and in western Ken- tucky strongly suggests that these sands were deposited by the Up- per Cretaceous sea when depth became favorable for the deposition of finer sediments. It is probable that the Selma and Ripley, and per- haps even younger formations, were laid down over a portion of the western Highland Rim. Since the Tuscaloosa gravels form a basal conglomerate of a trans- gressing sea, the formation becomes progressively younger from south to north. The gravels in Dickson and Stewart counties are undoubt- edly younger than any part of the gravels in northwestern Alabama and northeastern Mississippi. The Eutaw outliers in Stewart County and western Kentucky may be as young as basal Ripley. The withdrawal of the Cretaceous sea from the Embayment area again subjected the Highland Rim to erosion and during the pene- planation of the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary most of the de- 19 JewnuL, W. B. Personal communication. August, 1934. 230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 posits of Upper Cretaceous age were removed. The existing patches of the Tuscaloosa and Eutaw in this region represent remnants of these formations which were probably continuous at one time over most or all of the present western Highland Rim. BOTANY.—A new species of Dracaena from the Department of Petén, Guatemala! C. L. LunpDELL, University of Michigan. (Com- municated by H. H. BARTLETT.) While collecting in the savanna country of the Department of Petén, Guatemala, in 1933, I discovered a grove of very interesting monocotyledonous trees in Monte Hiltun, a strip of forest separating Sabana Hiltun and Sabana Zotz. The trees were not in flower or fruit so that only sterile material was obtained. The species is apparently referable to the genus Dracaena. Dracaena petenensis, sp. nov. Arbor solida 6 usque ad 12 m. alta. Caulis 20-30 cm., basi expansa 70-90 em., diam. Cortex tenuis fissuris irregularibus aliquantulum angustatisque et fastigiis paucis, inaequalibus, acutis, humilibus, griseus fusco-maculatus sub folia circulis griseis, fuscis vel rubris irregulariter cireumdatus. Rami pauci, crassi, 15 em. sub apice 10-15 mm. diam. Folia ramorum apice con- gesta, pendula, minutissime, serrulata glabri, griseo-viridia, 115-140 cm. longa, 18-20 mm. lata, basta dilata, amplexicaulia, integra scariosa, laminis linearibus, supra basin angustatis apice in aciem late setiformem coarctatis. Type in the herbarium of the University of Michigan, C. L. Lundell 3271, collected in Monte Hiltun, Department of Petén, Guatemala, May 17, 1933. Cotype deposited in the United States National Herbarium, Washington, IDRC? The characters which distinguish Dracaena petenensis are (1) the massive trunk with expanded base, (2) the few, thick branches, and (3) the crowded, pendent, minutely serrulate, linear leaves 115 to 140 cm. long and 18 to 20 mm. wide. The other New World representative of the genus, Dracaena americana Donn. Smith, is occasionally encountered in the same region. It is a smaller tree with entire leaves 20 to 30 cm. in length. 1 Received February 7, 1935. Papers from the Department of Botany and the Herbarium of the University of Michigan, No. 527. ZOOLOGY.—The histology of nemic esophagi. IV. The esophagus of Metastrongylus elongatus.. B. G. Cuirwoop, Bureau of Ani- mal Industry and M. B. Currwoop. This is the fourth paper of a series? dealing with the structure of the 1 Received November 18, 1934. 2 Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuirwoop, M. B. The histology of nemic esophagi. I. MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 231 esophagi in various groups of nematodes. In this paper, insofar as possible, the same nomenclature for the various nuclei and cells will be used as in the previous papers. GROSS MORPHOLOGY The esophagus of Metastrongylus elongatus is clavate and may show erossly 3 indistinct regions, an anterior moderately narrow part or corpus, a very slightly narrower part, or isthmus, and a posterior wide part or bulbar region. The length of the esophagi in specimens studied varies from 262u to 616; however, in the description a single specimen with an esophagus 450u long has been used, since relative positions and lengths are fairly constant. In this specimen the corpus is approximately 162u long, the isthmus 90u long, and the bulbar region 198y long. The dorsal esophageal gland opens into the lumen at the anterior end of the esophagus, while the subventral glands open into the lumen 126y from the anterior end or 36u from the posterior end of the corpus. The lumen is triradiate throughout the length of the esophagus; in the anterior part of the corpus the ends of the radii are very slightly rounded (Fig. 1b) and the cuticle is thickened. NUCLEAR DISTRIBUTION The corpus may be subdivided into 2 regions, a precorpus and a post- corpus, on the basis of nuclear distribution, these regions approximating the parts of the corpus of Rhabditis. Precorpus. In the anterior part of the corpus, 22 nuclei, comprising 6 radials (7:5) and 16 nerve cells (m1-16) have been constantly observed. In addition to these there are 4 questionable bodies (s:_4), possibly nuclei of nerve cells, and 1 nerve cell nucleus (”s,) which sometimes appears to be distinct and sometimes identical with ns. The radial nuclei (7_.) are ar- ranged in a single group of 6, 1 nucleus on each side of each sector 9 to 18u from the anterior end of the precorpus. The nerve cell nucleus m is situated slightly to the right of the medio- dorsal position, 74 from the anterior end of the precorpus; n2_3 are situated near the center of the subventral sectors at the same level as m1; m4-5 are situated about 15u from the anterior end, near the center of each sector; n; is about 9u from the anterior end of the precorpus and in the center of the dorsal sector, while ng_y are near the same level as nz, 1 nucleus in the center of each subventral sector; mio is immediately posterior to ms, while Nsz 1S immediately posterior to ns or possibly identical with ms; mu—13 are approximately 38u from the anterior end of the precorpus, 1 nucleus near The esophagus of Rhabdias eustreptos (MacCallum, 1921). Zeit. f. Zellf. u. Micro. Anat. 22: 29-37. 1934. Ibid. II. The esophagus of Heterakis gallinae. Zeit. f. Zellf. u. Micro. Anat. 22: 38-46. 1934. Ibid. III. The esophagus of Oesophogostomum dentatum. This JouRNAL 24: 557-562. 1934. 232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 the center of each sector; and, finally, ns_15 are about 45u from the anterior end. The bodies s,4 are near the external surface of the esophagus, s;» being about 18 from the anterior end of the precorpus, 1 nucleus near the center of each subventral sector, while s3;_4 are about 26y from the anterior end of the precorpus and arranged similar to s\_». Fig. 1.— Nuclei of esophagus, diagrammatic representation. 7, m, s, g, n, various types of nuclei; a—c, nuclei of precorpus; d—h, nuclei of postcorpus; 7-j, nuclei of pre- valvar region; k—m, nuclei of postvalvar region; 7, nuclei of esophago-intestinal valve. Postcorpus. The postcorpus contains 22 nuclei comprising 6 radial nuclei (7712), 3 marginal nuclei (m_3), 9 nerve cell nuclei (77-25), and 4 nuclei (ss_s), possibly those of nerve cells. The marginal nuclei (m_3) are arranged as a group of 3, 1 nucleus at the end of each esophageal radius, about 72 to 80u from the anterior end of the esophagus or about 18 to 26u from the an- terior end of the postcorpus. The radial nuclei (r7_12) are arranged similar to the radials (71s) of the precorpus and are about 6 to 12u posterior to the marginal nuclei. The nerve cell nuclei consist of 2 groups of 3 nuclei (717-19 and 20-22), 1 nucleus near the center of each sector, the first group situated approxi- % ri 4 * MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 233 mately at the anterior end of the postcorpus, and the second group about 6 to 10u posterior to the first group; a pair of subventral nerve cell nuclei (M2324) Situated about 18 to 25u from the anterior end of the postcorpus; and a single dorsal nerve cell nucleus (72;) posterior to the orifices of the sub- ventral glands, about 134u from the anterior end of the corpus or 284 from the posterior end of the corpus. In addition to the above, there are 4 nuclei (s;_s) which appear similar to those of nerve cells, but no cell body was observed. The first pair (s5_¢) is situated 6 to 10u posterior to the radials r7_12, 1 nucleus in each subventral sector, while the second pair (r7_s) is near the posterior end of the postcorpus, about 6 posterior to the last dorsal nerve cell (725). Isthmus. As indicated by the distribution of nuclei, the isthmus is a region 90u long between the corpus and the anterior part of the bulbar re- gion, and contains no nuclei. Prevalvar region. The anterior part of the bulbar region, the prevalvar region, contains 10 nuclei comprising 6 radial nuclei (7131s), 3 marginal nu- clei (ms_s), and 1 gland cell nucleus (g:). The radial nuclei are arranged in 2 groups of 3 nuclei each, 1 nucleus of each group near the center of each sector; the first group (ri3_15) is about 6 to 12u from the anterior end of the prevalvar region, while the second group (ri¢_1s) is situated 138 to 1504 from the anterior end of the region. The marginal nuclei (m4_.) are arranged like those of the first group (m_3), and are situated at about the same level as the second group of radials (ris_1s) of this region. The dorsal esophageal gland nucleus (g;) is about half way between the 2 radial groups (ri3-15 and is_1s) of this region. However, g: is quite variable in position, and in other specimens it may be situated further posterior, even at the level of the subventral gland nuclei. Postvalvar region. The postvalvar region of the esophagus usually contains 16 nuclei as follows: 6 radials (719-24), 3 marginals (m7_9), 2 gland cell nuclei (g2-3), and 5 nerve cell nuclei (76-30). In addition to these, 1 more nucleus (sg), possibly that of a nerve cell, has sometimes been observed. The radial nuclei are arranged in 2 groups of 3 nuclei each, 1 nucleus near the center of each sector; the first group (ri9_21) is situated 18 to 24u from the anterior end of the postvalvar region, while the second group (722-24) is situated at the posterior end of the esophagus. The marginal nuclei (m7_9) are arranged like the other margins (m,_3; and 4), and situated 6 to 10u from the posterior end of the esophagus. The subventral esophageal gland nuclei (g:_3) are in the center of their respective sectors, at the anterior end of the postvalvar region in the particu- lar specimen described here. Sometimes, however, these nuclei are situated in the prevalvar region, 6 to 10u anterior to the last group of radials of that region (7i¢_18). The subventral nerve cell nuclei (m2s_27) are symmetrically placed, 1 nu- cleus near the center of each subventral sector, situated at approximately 234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 the anterior end of the postvalvar region; the dorsal nerve cell nuclei (Neg_29) are situated just anterior to my», with 1 nucleus (%2s) anterior to the other (29); the ventral nerve cell nucleus (zo) is a little to the left of the ventral esophageal radius, 6 to 12u anterior to ms. In addition to these nuclei, a right subdorsal nucleus (sy) was observed in 1 series of sections; it appeared similar to the nucleus of a nerve cell but no cell body was observed. Esophago-intestinal valve-—-The esophago-intestinal valve consists of 2 parts, an anterior part with a trilobed lumen the wall of which contains 3 nuclei, 1 nucleus near the center of each lobe, and a posterior part with a rounded lumen the wall of which contains 4 nuclei, of which 1 nucleus is dorsal, 2 left subventral, and 1 right subventral. CHARACTER OF NUCLEI The radial nuclei each contain a moderate sized nucleolus lying in a finely granular, very delicately basophilic nucleoplasm. In cross section the radial nuclei of the corpus (ri_12) are elongated, 7.94 long by 3.7 to 4u wide, their long axes corresponding to the radius of the esophagus; those of the pre- valvar region (rj3_1s) are subtriangular, 6.2 to 7u long by 5 to 5.8y wide, while those of the postvalvar region (ri9_24) are ellipsoidal, 6.2 to 7u long by 2.9 to 3.3 wide. The marginal nuclei are similar to the radial nuclei except that the nu- cleolus is slightly larger in proportion to the nucleus, and sometimes a second, smaller nucleolus is present. All of the marginal nuclei are ellipsoidal to slightly subtriangular. The nuclei of the first group (m1_3) are about 3.4y long by 3.34 wide, those of the second group (mz), 7.94 long by 5yu wide, and those of the third group (m7_9), 4.54 long by 2.5u wide. The gland cell nuclei are the largest nuclei of the esophagus, the dorsal (g:) 6.2u long by 6.2u wide, and the subventrals (g2_3) 7u long by 8.7u wide. Each of these nuclei contains a proportionally large nucleolus in avery homogenous, basophilic nucleoplasm. The nerve cells consist of several types, the nuclei varying greatly in size and character. A brief description of these nuclei may be clarified through reference to figure 4. The dorsal nerve cell nuclei of the corpus are of 3 types, as follows: nz is of a type containing a nucleolus in a nucleoplasm which shows no affinity for stain; 74,717, and »; are of a type containing a bilobed, irregular nucleolus, or 2 nucleoli in a nucleoplasm basophilic at the margin; mu 14, and 20 are of a type containing a deeply basophilic nucleo- plasm without distinct nucleolus. Of these, m2; appears to be a cell of the com- missure at the base of the postcorpus, the cell body being large and the cyto- plasm homogenous and eosinophilic; ns and ; have similar cytoplasm or cell bodies, but are apparently bipolar; the remaining cells have a very small cell body and are spindle shaped and bipolar. The subventral nerve cells of the corpus contain 2 types of nuclei, 2_3,5-6, 1s—16,23-21 having a nucleoplasm basophilic at the margin, while ms_9,10,12-13, MAY 15, 1935 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 235 1s-19,21-22 Contain a few basophilic granules but the nucleoplasm is not basophilic at the margin. All of the subventral nerve cell nuclei contain a bilobed nucleus or 2 separate nucleoli; the cells appear to be bipolar and the Fig. 3.—Nerve cells of esophagus. Labelled as in fig. 1. cell bodies homogenous and basophilic, but the size and shape varies with the individuals cell (Fig. 4). The bodies of the corpus labelled s are not all of the same character. Those labelled s\4, possibly nerve cells, are strongly basophilic and somewhat similar to mu, but no cell bodies were observed (the writers are not entirely 236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 , certain that they are nuclei); s;_. are obvious nuclei with lobed nucleoli and clear nucleoplasm, 1 body lying near the inner ventral side of the anterior part of each subventral gland and surrounded by deeply staining cytoplasm, but no cell wall observed; s7_s are similar nuclei situated ventral and medial to the subventral glands. Nuclei in similar positions and of similar character are present in other nematodes, but a comparison of these nuclei will not be taken up until later. Lor F S od i ; fa? | (/ seat ae | Sain ¢ 5 \ Sat I he Le \ ~ Se J Fig. 4.—Esophageal gland mass as seen in cross section. a, dorsal gland near ori- fice; b, dorsal gland immediately posterior to a; c, dorsal gland at level of m1; d, sub- ventral gland anterior to orifice; e, subventral gland at level of orifice; f, subventral gland in section immediately posterior to e; g, subventral gland in anterior part of bul- bar region. The nerve cell nuclei (mss_30) of the bulbar region are, in general, larger nuclei than those of the corpus (Fig. 3); all contain a lobed nucleolus in a clear nucleoplasm having a few basophilic granules. The cell bodies are large, the cytoplasm lightly eosinophilic and sometimes vesicular (see so of Fig. 4). All of these cells appear to be commissural cells; they have 2 chief processes which come off at the same side of the cell body and then diverge. The single s nucleus (ss) of the bulbar region appears to be similar to the nuclei of the nerve cells of the same region but no cell body has been observed. MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 237 ESOPHAGEAL GLANDS The dorsal esophageal gland has a very short narrow duct lined with cuticle which is continuous with a protoplasmic central tubule having a thick deeply basophilic wall. This tubule becomes wider and bifurcates posterior to the orifice of the gland, each branch giving off numerous short branches which are continuous with the coarsely reticulate, deeply basophilic cytoplasm of the gland (Fig. 4a—b). In the anterior part of the precorpus the dorsal gland is rather wide and circumscribed, and occupies a central position in the dorsal sector. In the remainder of the corpus the dorsal gland is narrow (Fig. 4c) and the gland mass finely reticular to alveolate; it be- comes a narrow strand in the region of the isthmus, and again larger in the anterior part of the bulbar region. Near the level of its nucleus, the dorsal gland becomes multilobed and occupies a large part of the dorsal sector; in this region the cytoplasm is dense and contains a few alveoli. The subventral glands extend some distance anterior to their orifices; in this region the cytoplasm is very finely reticulate (Fig. 4d). Near the level of their orifices the subventral glands become multilobed but the finely reticular structure remains. Each gland has an extremely short duct lined with cuticle, and continuous with this duct is a thick-walled protoplasmic tube which is immediately multibranched, the branches continuous with the reticulum. Posterior to this region the gland mass, like the dorsal gland, becomes smaller until it is finally reduced to a delicate strand of protoplasm in the isthmian region. The subventral glands become enlarged in the posterior part of the prevalvar region, become lobed in the region of their nuclei, and then continue to be large and lobed nearly to the base of the esophagus. The protoplasm is dense throughout this region except in the part adjacent to the lumen. In general, the mass of the subventral glands is less basophilic than that of the dorsal, and sometimes appears to be very slightly eosinophilic. ZOOLOGY.—Development and morphology of the cestode, Hymeno- lepis cantaniana, 7n coleopteran and avian hosts... M. F. JoNES and J. E. Anicara, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communi- cated by Exoisg B. Cram). Previous to the preliminary note by Alicata and Jones? in 1933, the life history of the poultry cestode, Hymenolepis cantaniana, was un- known. There was reported at that time the finding, in the dung beetle Ataenius cognatus, of proliferating larvae which consisted of a my- celium-like structure, numerous buds, and partially or completely de- ! Received March 12, 1935. 2 AuicaTA, J. E., and Jones, M. F. The dung beetle, Ataenius cognatus, as the intermediate host of Hymenolepis cantaniana. Jour. Parasitol. 20: 244. 1933. 238. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 veloped cysticercoids (Fig. 1). The larvae developed to maturity in chicks and were identified as H. cantaniana. The present paper gives a more detailed account of the development and morphology of the proliferating larva of this cestode in the intermediate host, Alaenius cognatus. Since the previous report, 2 additional beetles, Ataenius stercorator from Puerto Rico and Choeridium histeroides of local origin have been found to harbor similar proliferating larvae, presumably those of H. cantaniana. The larvae from Ataenius stercorator were col- lected by Dr. H. L. Van Volkenberg and sent to the Zoological Di- vision for identification, with the statement in a personal communica- tion that this material was identical with that which he reported, but Fig. 1—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Natural in- festation. a, b, c, developing cysticercoids; d, e. f, apparently mature cysticercoids still attached to branching larval tissue. After Alicata and Jones, 1933. did not describe in 1931.' In the present paper, geographical distribu- tion and seasonal occurrence of the intermediate hosts are discussed briefly. A short description of the adult worm, with data regarding its development, subsequent to laboratory feedings, in the chicken, gui- nea fowl, and bobwhite quail, also are included. The authors wish to thank Dr. E. A. Chapin of the U. 8. National Museum for identifying beetles and for supplying data regarding dis- tribution of the 3 beetles reported as intermediate hosts. SOURCE OF LARVAL MATERIAL The greater part of the cestode larvae available for study occurred as natural infestations in numerous specimens of Ataenius cognatus; larvae were observed also in one specimen of Choeridium histeroides. 3 VAN VOLKENBERG, H. L. Report of parasitologist. Report Puerto Rico Agric. Exp. Sta. 1930: 38-40. 1931. MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 239 These beetles were collected in or near poultry yards, in particular at the Beltsville Research Center of the U.S. Department of Agriculture near Beltsville, Maryland. Three specimens of Ataenius stercorator, infested with proliferating larvae, were sent to the Zoological Division from Puerto Rico; the total number of infested beetles of this species, found in that locality by Van Volkenberg, is not known. No labora- tory-reared beetles of any of these species were used. A few specimens of A. cognatus, after being kept in the laboratory for 2 weeks or longer after collection, were fed eggs of H. cantaniana and subsequently har- bored young larvae in various stages of development. With one excep- tion, the early stages of development described below were obtained from these experimentally infected beetles. Following experimental feeding, larvae were found in beetles after 24 hours (2 beetles), after 8 days (1 beetle), after 9 to 12 days (1 beetle, fed August 2, 4, and 5, and examined August 14), and after 11 to 14 days (1 beetle, fed August 2, 4, and 5, and examined August 16). A larva, less developed than those observed in the beetles fed 8 days previously, was found in a naturally infested beetle which also contained larvae of more ad- vanced development, some of which exhibited completely formed cys- ticercoids. Larvae were examined as fresh material and also as both stained and unstained permanent mounts. Two beetles were sectioned for ob- servation of larvae in situ. DEVELOPMENT OF LARVA IN INTERMEDIATE HOST The youngest larvae of H. cantaniana observed were obtained from a beetle 24 hours after experimental infection; the identification of the larvae was based on the embryonal hooks which were 13 to 14u long. One larva, observed soon after it was recovered from the body of a beetle, was slightly elongate and became rounded during observa- tion; as unfixed material it was undifferentiated in appearance and disintegrated quickly. A similar elongate specimen measured 106y long by 54u wide. A third larva (Fig. 2) was trilobed, being about 160u along its greatest axis; another larva (Fig. 3), more definitely lobed, measured about 200u along its greatest axis. At least 6 small lobes or branches were exhibited by a smaller larva (Fig. 4) of unknown age which measured about 140 along its greatest axis after having been mounted and stained with methylene blue. It is considered typical of early branching or proliferating larvae of this species; its nuclei are comparatively large and are definitely more concentrated near the tip of each branch. Apparently the first few branches elongate (Fig. 5) B. ——_—_ 240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 5 Figs. 2-6.—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Figs. 2-3.—Obtained 24 hours after experimental feeding. Fig. 4:-—Young larva, natural infestation. Fig. 5.—Sketch of branching larva, 8 days after experimental feeding. Fig. 6.—Completely formed cysticercoid. Sectioned material. before many new buds arise. A larva recovered from a beetle fed 8 days previously had a maximum axis length of 605y and exhibited considerable proliferation, there being 4 distinct elongate branches and 2 rounded buds. Larvae from a beetle fed 9 to 12 days previously con- MAY 15, 1985 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 241 sisted of numerous branches and a few buds which represent partly developed cysticercoids. Larvae recovered from a beetle of the same lot fed 11 to 14 days previously consisted of numerous branches, buds, partly formed and completely formed cysticercoids, the latter repre- senting the infective larvae proper. : To summarize briefly on the basis of observations on numerous larvae, the hexacanth embryo develops into lobes, then a branching, mycelium-like structure, the branches of which bear buds which may develop into new elongate branches or directly into cysticercoids. In general, on the branching larval stem, the development of a bud into a cysticercoid resembles the more commonly observed develop- ment of hexacanth embryo into cysticercoid of other species of tape- worms, except that the embryonal hooks of H. cantaniana remain in the basal stem, or are lost, and consequently are not involved in the development of bud into cysticercoid (Figs. 1, 7,8). A larva early in its development, still somewhat globular except for the area of at- tachment to the stem, is about 35 to 50u in diameter; the cell nuclei are closer together than are those of the proliferating stem itself. These globular structures, while remaining attached to the stem, elongate and become ovoid; with further elongation constrictions ap- pear; the first constriction results in a larva made up of a smaller proximal region, nearer the stem, and a larger distal region (Fig. Ic). Such larvae, with one constriction, may be 70 to 85yu long by 35u in diameter through the proximal region and about 40 to 45u in diameter through the distal region. Cells of the distal region are the more con- centrated; in the median and proximal regions the outer cells lie close together, but the inner cells have elongate projections and form a loose tissue which represents the “primitive cavity”’ of the developing eysticercoid. While the first constriction, mentioned above, is becom- ing more marked, there occurs cell differentiation in the distal region in 4 areas which represent the future suckers. At the distal tip, a few large cells are to be observed which later develop as a projection repre- senting the future rostellum; at an early stage this projection is 10.5y long by 7y in diameter. A second constriction appears proximal to the suckers, and differ- entiation progresses. The region of loose fibrous tissue becomes more marked, suckers become more distinct, and a narrow cavity appears in the projecting rostellum, the latter 22u long by 8u in diameter. An individual specimen at this stage of development is 112y long, 102u in diameter through the suckers, 42.5u through the median region, and 52.5u through the posterior region. 242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 A cysticercoid apparently just beginning to invaginate is 120y long. Suckers appear to be completely formed, or nearly so, but the rostel- lum is not completely developed. H. cantaniana evidently belongs to the group of cestodes in which scolex differentiation of the larva is partially but not entirely completed before invagination. Invagina- tion itself occurs rapidly, to judge from the comparatively few larvae observed in the process. The region of attachment to the main stem elongates as the bud de- velops into a cysticercoid; it is fragile and breaks or disintegrates easily during observation of fresh material. Calcareous corpuscles are first observed in young rounded forms; larvae with one constriction may contain 4 to 10 calcareous corpuscles which, as a rule, are median or distal in position. In completely formed cysticercoids as many as 40 have been counted; these are lo- cated in the inner cyst wall and thus are in the neck region of evagi- nated specimens. Completely formed cysticercoids or infective larvae (Fig. 6) are spherical or ellipsoidal in shape or, in heavy infestations, may be ir- regularly compressed. They are comparatively small, 90u by 68y to 140u by 102u in diameter. The cyst wall consists of a thin cuticula, an inconspicuous basal membrane and sub-cuticular layer, a fibrous zone with irregular spaces representing the old ‘“‘primitive cavity,” and the inner cuticula. The scolex, lying in a small invagination cay- ity, is about 50 to 72u in diameter; suckers are 20 to 26u in diameter, the rostellum is about 22 to 24u long, only the small rosteller cavity being easily observed in most material. No hooks could be seen on the scolex, although wrinkles of the cuticular lining of the rostellar cavity suggested minute hooks in certain specimens. Completely formed cysticercoids may remain attached to the pro- liferating larval tissue by short stems or may lie free in the body cavity of freshly dissected beetles. Although cysticercoids become de- tached readily during the examination of the material, they do not evaginate readily in tap water, even when stimulated by tapping or heating the slide. Cysticercoids of H. cantaniana differ in this respect from those of H. carioca or Raillietina cesticillus, which evaginate much more readily. On the basis of the limited material derived from experimental in- fections of beetles, it is concluded that at room temperature during mid-summer, in Washington, D. C., 11 to 14 days, as a minimum, are required for the cysticercoid to become completely formed. The time necessary for development at lower temperatures is not yet known. MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 243 Larval proliferation and development of cysticercoids appear to con- tinue for at least 4 weeks, since in one lot of beetles, collected in mid- October and held so that re-infection was not possible, both com- pletely formed and developmental stages were observed until early in December when the last beetle was killed. However, in some beetles, Figs. 7-9.—Larvae of Hymenolepis cantaniana from Ataenius cognatus. Natural infestations. Fig. 10.—Section through specimen of A. cognatus containing numerous larvae of H. cantaniana. Natural infestation. it has been noted that there were numerous completely formed cys- ticercoids (Fig. 9) along the branching structures, but only very few developing forms; this might be interpreted as indicating that there is a limit to the period of proliferation of the larva. Surprisingly large numbers of cysts may be found in a single beetle (Fig. 10). As re- ported previously, the number of cysticercoids counted in one beetle 244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 was 1163, and in another individual, 2217; developing cysticercoids were not included in either count. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF INTERMEDIATE HOSTS The dung beetle, Ataenius cognatus Leconte, has been collected near Beltsville, Maryland, from April to November, inclusive. According to information supplied by Dr. E. A. Chapin, this species is very com- mon and widely distributed in the United States and is known to oc- cur as far south as Mexico. In the vicinity of Washington, D. C., it may be collected at any time during the year when weather condi- tions are favorable. Ataenius stercorator Fab. is believed to occur from Texas to Brazil and more generally in the West Indies. It has also been reported from Madeira. Choeridium histeroides Weber has been collected in poultry yards near Beltsville, Maryland, but less frequently than Ataenius cognatus or Aphodius granarius. It is considered as being moderately common in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., and it may be found at any time during the year if the weather is favorable. Numerous specimens of Aphodius granarius and Onthophagus spp., which also were collected from poultry yards near Beltsville, have been found consistently negative for larvae of H. cantaniana. Of 10 specimens each of Aphodius granarius and of Ataenius cognatus which were collected at the same time, from the same poultry yard, the specimens of Aphodius granarius were negative while 8 of the speci- mens of Ataenius cognatus contained larvae of H. cantaniana. Efforts to infect specimens of Aphodius granarius with H. cantaniana in the laboratory have been unsuccessful. On the basis of our present infor- mation, Hymenolepis cantaniana appears to exhibit more specificity as to its intermediate host than do other poultry tapeworms which use beetles in that capacity. DEVELOPMENT OF HYMENOLEPIS CANTANIANA IN DEFINITIVE HOSTS Birds were fed larvae from the beetle, Ataenius cognatus, as listed in table 1. No cestodes other than H. cantaniana were found in any bird and control birds remained free of cestodes. As noted in table 1, one chick (a), which was examined 11 days after experimental feeding with H. cantaniana larvae, contained immature specimens of H. cantaniana about 3.5 mm. long. Chick G7068 passed eggs of H. cantaniana 14 days after experimental feeding; chick No. 91 passed eggs in droppings, and chick G7047 contained mature speci- MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 245 TABLE 1.—DrvELOPMENT Or HYMENOLEPIS CANTANIANA DESIGNATION OF HOST DATE OF FEEDING DATE OF AUTOPSY POST-MORTEM FINDINGS Chick 1 Oct. 26; 1932) Nov. 2; 1932 Negative Jom Octa2o 932 Novel 932 About 10 almost mature tapeworms a Oct. 28,1932 Nov. 8, 1932 About 12 immature tape- worms b Nov. 10,1982 Dee. 2, 1932 Negative 91 Nov.15,1982 Dec. 7, 1932 Tapeworms present (eggs in feces, Dec. 1) G7047 = Nov. 16, 1932 Dee. 2, 1932 21 mature tapeworms (ca. 500 cysts) G7068 Nov. 16,1932 Dec. 20, 1932 44 mature tapeworms (eggs (ca. 230 cysts) in feces, Nov. 30) 365 June19,1933 Died July 3, 1933 ? (Bird decomposed) 305 = July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 Few mature tapeworms 310 §©July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 Few mature tapeworms 316 §=July 8, 1933 Aug. 17, 1933 About 10 tapeworms 345 July 21,1933 Oct. 3, 1933 Tapeworms present 324 Aug. 21,1933 Sept. 21, 1933 Tapeworms present 406 Sept. 20,1933 Nov. 14, 1933 Numerous tapeworms 407 Sept. 20,1933 Jan. 4, 1934 Negative 445 Sept. 20,1933 Jan. 4, 1934 Negative 421 Sept. 20,1933 Mar. 10, 1934 Few tapeworms Bobwhite quail 219 Aug. 27,1934 Sept. 28, 1934 About 113 tapeworms Guinea fowl 294 Aug. 27,1934 Nov. 20, 1934 About 15 tapeworms mens of H. cantaniana, 16 days after experimental feedings. Chick J3, examined 19 days after experimental feeding, contained specimens with egg-filled segments, but with the eggs apparently still unripe; no eggs or gravid segments were found in the posterior regions of the in- testine. It is concluded that the time necessary for development of H. cantaniana in its definitive host probably varies from 2 to 3 weeks. In all, 12 chickens, 1 guinea fowl and 1 bobwhite quail have be- come infested with H. cantaniana after being fed beetles containing proliferating cestode larvae. Four chicks remained negative after be- ing fed and a fifth chick (365), which died, was so decomposed when examined that although no worms were found the negative results are somewhat inconclusive since, had specimens been present, they might well have been disintegrated by the time the bird was examined. It is interesting to note that one bird (421) remained infested from Sep- tember 20, 1933, to March 10, 1934, a period of about 53 months. Three birds were fed eggs of H. cantaniana in an attempt to demon- strate a direct life cycle, but all three birds remained negative for tapeworms. 246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 MORPHOLOGY OF ADULT Hymenolepis cantaniana (Polonio, 1860) Ransom, 1909. Hymenolepis: Worms up to 2.2 em. long by 400u wide. Scolex 120 to 160y in diameter; suckers unarmed, 60 to 70u in diameter; rostellum unarmed, 80 to 85y long by 35. wide, sac-like, the narrow cavity lined with cuticula sometimes wrinkled and striated in appearance. Genital pores unilateral, anterior to middle of segment margin. Testes 3, 1 aporal, 2 poral, usually arranged in a transverse row, but 1 aporal testis may be anterior and median, or dorsal and median, to other aporal testis; testes obscured rapidly by developing ovary and uterus, and at no time conspicuous in strobila. External seminal vesicle near median line; internal seminal vesicle nearly filling cirrus pouch. Cirrus pouch thin-walled, elongate, 70 to 95y long, extending nearly to mid- dle of mature, but not of gravid, segments. Vagina ventral to cirrus pouch, expanding into comparatively large oval seminal receptacle, for a time the most prominent structure in the segment. Ovary, when mature, sometimes extending to lateral excretory vessels and to anterior border of segment. Uterus sac-like, eventually filling nearly the whole segment and containing about 10 to 20 eggs. Eggs spherical, 45 to 60u in diameter; oncosphere 22 to 25u in diameter; embryonal hooks 13 to 14y long. Individual gravid segments or groups of 2 or 3 segments are found oc- casionally in droppings; however, as a rule, segments disintegrate early and individual eggs are found in the posterior portion of the intestine and in droppings. Embryonal activity has been observed in eggs still present in gravid segments of freshly collected strobilae, in eggs from fresh droppings, and also in eggs kept as long as 6 days in a refrigerator (45° to 50°F.). Embryos are not easily activated on a slide as are those in gravid segments of Davainea proglottina and Raillietina cesticillus. Hosts—Definitive: Galliformes (Gallus gallus, Meleagris gallopavo, Pavo eristatus, Phasianus colchicus, Colinus virginianus and Numida meleagris). Intermediate: Coleoptera (Ataenius cognatus, A. stercorator, and Choe- ridium histeroides). Location.—Small intestine, usually duodenum of definitive host; body cavity, connective tissue and, less commonly, muscular tissue of inter- mediate host. Geographical distribution Europe (France, Spain, Italy, Jugo-Slavia and U.S.S. R.), Asia (Japan and Indo-China), South America (Brazil), and North America (United States, including Puerto Rico). SUMMARY Early developmental stages of proliferating larvae were obtained from 5 specimens of the beetle, Ataeniws cognatus, which were dis- sected at varying periods after having been fed eggs of Hymenolepis cantaniana. The hexacanth embryo was found to develop into a larva of several lobes, the latter elongating to form a somewhat branched, mycelium- like, structure; buds arose along the branches which developed into new branches or directly into cysticercoids containing the unarmed scolex characteristic of the species. Development of the bud into the cysticercoid resembles in general the development of other Hymeno- lepis larvae; the process consists of elongation, slight cavity forma- tion, constriction, differentiation of scolex in most details and in- MAY 15, 1935 JONES AND ALICATA: CESTODE DEVELOPMENT 247 vagination of cephalic region, resulting in a rounded cysticercoid. Scolex differentiation of H. cantaniana is partially, but not entirely, completed before invagination. On the basis of the experimental findings, the minimum time re- quired for development of an infective larva in the beetle host is from 11 to 14 days; proliferation of the larva and development of new cys- ticercoids apparently may continue for at least 4 weeks. Development of the adult worm in the chicken requires at least 14 days and the time probably varies from 2 to 3 weeks. Twelve chickens, 1 quail and 1 guinea fowl became infested with Hymenolepis cantaniana as a result of feeding branched cestode larvae obtained from naturally infested specimens of the beetle, Ataenius cognatus. The beetles Choeridium histeroides and Ataenius stercorator are re- ported as additional intermediate hosts, on the basis of their harbor- ing larvae similar to those found in Ataenius cognatus and known to be larvae of H. cantaniana. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETY BOTANICAL SOCIETY SPECIAL MEETING A special meeting was held in the auditorium of the Interior Department Building on December 11, President W. W. D1eutu presiding; attendance 80. Ne F. A. McCuure: A garden of oriental bamboos (illustrated with antern). H. H. Bartuerr, University of Michigan. Professor Bartlett discussed the activities and recommendations of the subcommittee on the reorganiza- tion of the National Botanic Garden. He emphasized the fact that the pres- ent appropriation for the botanic garden was sufficient to maintain a garden of high professional standards, especially in view of the availability of co- operating agencies in Washington. Under the proposed plan the garden would be administered by a botanist of recognized standing, as Director, under the auspices of the Joint Congressional Committee on the Library. An advisory board of directors with representatives from the Smithsonian Institution, the Department of Agriculture, and various scientific societies would also be appointed. Following Professor Bartlett’s remarks, discussion of the proposed plan ensued, and the Society took formal action approving the reorganization of the National Botanic Garden along the general lines outlined in Professor Bartlett’s report. The secretary was directed to notify the Chairman of the Joint Congressional Committee on the Library of the Society’s action. 262ND MEETING The 262nd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 8, 1935, President Dienu presiding; attendance 95. J. E. McMorrrey was elected to membership. 248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 Notes and reviews: Brief reports on the Pittsburgh meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science were presented as follows: Mycology, J. A. Stevenson; Phytopathology, H. P. Barss; General Botany, A. 8. Hircucock; Plant Physiology, C. F. Swineue; Horticulture, G. M. Darrow; Publicity, Frank THone. A report of the Chicago meeting of the American Society of Bacteriologists was presented by N. R. Smiru. Program: J. R. Curistre: The development of nematode root galls (illus- trated with lantern).—Abstract published in Phytopathology, December 1934. To be published in full in Phytopathology. J. R. SwaLuen: The arid regions of northeastern Brazil (illustrated with lantern). 263RD MEETING The 253rd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, February 5, 1935, President D1nHu presiding; attendance 80. Harry A. AuuARD and Henry E. ALLANSON were elected to membership. Article IX of the by-laws was amended authorizing the executive committee to reinstate absentee, resigned, and expelled members. Notes and reviews: C. L. SHEAR reviewed Monographia Discomycetum Bohemiae, by Jos. VELENOVSKY. (Praha 1934, 2 parts, text and plates.) This work includes 1471 species, of which 800 are new, with 40 new genera. R. K. Breartie reviewed the forthcoming book on systematic botany being published in English and Siamese, by H1npa 8S. CunnNIFF. Program: F. C. Meter: Spore collections in the atmosphere over the North Atlantic and Greenland made during the Lindbergh flight of 1932 (with lantern) —Published in full in Scientific Monthly, January 1935. C. E. Corram: Present status of the eelgrass disease along the Atlantic Coast of North America.—Published in full as Wildlife Research & Management Leaflet BS-3, February 1935. C. O. Ertanson: An adaptation of the moss, Tetraplodon for the dispersal of its spores by carrion flies. 264TH MEETING The 264th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, March 5, 1935, President D1EHt presiding; attendance 100. The fol- lowing were elected to membership: E. G. BrrnHart, H. W. Barre, C. O. ERLANSON, RaupH M. LinpeGren, F. Sipney BEECHER, SABURO KATSURA, W. C. Lowpermiix, F. L. Muurorp, Hitpa §. Cunnirr, MARGUERITE Wiucox, Guy E. YERKES. Notes and reviews: J. B.S. Norton reviewed the new edition of Webster’s dictionary from the standpoint of its usefulness in strictly botanical work. M. C. Merritt reviewed the latest number (Vol. 8) of the Transactions of the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. Program: Ropert F. Griaes: Dionaea’s place in Nature (with lantern). A. 8. Hitrcucock: The Grasses of the United States (with lantern).—There are in the United States 159 genera and 1100 species of grasses. By means of slides about 40 species of grasses were shown, chosen to illustrate the ad- vance in structure from the simple to the complex. The Bambuseae are re- garded as the most primitive and the Andropogoneae the most complex, with Indian corn (Zea mays) the culmination of the series—Author’s abstract. 265TH MEETING The 265th meeting consisted of the annual banquet and dance, held in the ball room of the Kennedy-Warren, April 2, 1935; attendance 187. Program: Wm. H. Weston Jr.: Sex in the lower fungi. Cuarues F. SwInciE, Recording Secretary MAY 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 249 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Norers Geological Survey.—L. M. PRInDLE has been engaged on an examination of the Enoree Purchase Unit for the Forest Service and is now undertaking a study of the saprolites or deeply rotted crystalline rocks of the gold belt in the Southern Appalachians, especially in Georgia. It is thought that a study of the heavy minerals in the saprolite will help direct the search for the most favorable gold-bearing localities. He has turned in for transmittal to the Forest Service reports on the Uharie Unit, N. C., as well as on the Enoree tract. Soil Erosion.—All work aiming at the control of soil erosion has been con- solidated in a new soil erosion unit established by order of Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Watuacr. Under-Secretary RExrorp G. TUGWELL has undertaken the administrative task of organizing the new unit, which is under the immediate direction of H. H. Bennett. The consolidation affected the Soil Erosion Service, formerly under the Department of the Interior, and various phases of soil erosion investigation hitherto carried on by the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, the Bureau of Agricultural Engineer- ing and the Bureau of Plant Industry. Research will be conducted at ten field stations, and the large-scale demonstrations already in progress will be continued and extended. Aviation Weather—More detailed weather news for fliers, at slightly longer intervals, began on May 1. Observations, maps, and forecasts pre- pared by the U. 8. Weather Bureau now go out every six hours, instead of every four hours as formerly, over the teletype circuit maintained by the Bureau of Air Commerce along the airways of the United States. Each main airport station receives, every six hours, enough information for the preparation of a weather map of the whole United States, as well as the details of conditions in a wide area around it. All pilot balloon observations have been advanced one hour, so that the six hour reports and the airplane observations may be received in time to be checked and analyzed for use in making the maps. Lengthening the periods of teletype transmission makes it possible to send over circuits west of Kan- sas City and Chicago full weather reports from ships in the Pacific and also permits some increase in reports from Canada and Mexico. Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—tIn order to expedite the transmis- sion of scientific data between the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and its magnetic observatory at Watheroo, Western Australia, the Australian Government has recently authorized the installation at the observatory of an equipment of sufficient power for direct communication with Washington, D.C. The installation has been completed and communication established with radio stations at Washington Grove, Maryland (just outside of Washington) and Fresno, California. During periods when direct communications through Washing- ton Grove is not possible, messages are relayed through the West-Coast station. Thus it is possible for scientific information obtained at Watheroo to be transmitted to Washington without delay and schedules are main- tained for this purpose. 250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 There have been received recently in Washington an extensive series of magnetic records, control-observations, absolute determinations at field sta- tions in Antarctica during sledge trips, etc., successfully carried out by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, during the period February 1934 to February 1935. New Non-Magnetic Ship.—A first instalment of 10,023 pounds, towards the construction by the British Admiralty of a non-magnetic vessel has been included in this year’s Naval Estimates presented to the House of Commons on March 6. The purpose of this new vessel is to resume the ocean magnetic- survey work which was carried on by the CARNEGIE, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, before her destruction by explosion and fire on November 29, 1929, in harbor at Apia, Western Samoa. The magnetic charts published by the British and other governments for use at sea have been based in recent years to an increasingly large extent upon data provided by the Carnuaiz. There are, however, serious gaps in the present data which would have been filled if the CarNreGIE had com- pleted her last cruise. These gaps together with a recent rapid change in the secular variation in the Indian Ocean, render the extrapolated values of the magnetic elements in the southern Indian Ocean unreliable and indicate the possibility of serious errors in future charts of this and other ocean areas. Since the Carnegie Institution of Washington has decided not to replace the CarNnzEGIE, the British Government, in view of her large maritime inter- ests, has assumed the responsibility. The details of the design of the new non-magnetic vessel, the primary purpose of which will be the determination of magnetic data at sea, have not yet been made public, though it is prob- able that the new vessel will be larger than the CARNEGIE. National Park Service-—J. Thomas Schneider, at the special request of the Secretary of the Interior is working on legislation calling for the preserva- tion of historic sites and buildings. Mr. Schneider recently made a survey of European historic sites. Study of Maternal Care—The Children’s Bureau has completed what is expected to be the first of a series of studies of community provisions for maternal care. This first study, in Hartford, Conn., was undertaken at the invitation of the Hartford Medical Society, which appointed an advisory committee of five members for the study, representing also the local hospi- tals. Data was obtained as to all deliveries of women resident in the city of Hartford that occurred during two periods of three months each—May, June and July, 1933, and January, February, and March, 1934, a total of about 1,200. The necessary information was obtained by means of inter- views with the attending physician, by study of the hospital records, by reports from the visiting-nurse association, and by interviews with the mothers themselves three months or more after the delivery. These inter- views were always obtained with the consent of the physicians attending the women. The purpose of this series of studies is to ascertain: the type of maternal care received by an unselected series of mothers in different localities; and the proportion of these mothers having abnormalities or morbidity. The results of the present study are now being analyzed in preparation for the writing of the report. MAY 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 251 Paleontological Society—The Paleontological Society of Washington was organized Wednesday evening, December 19, 1934, in the U. S. National Museum. The purpose of the Society is to promote a closer understanding between the fields of biology and paleontology; to offer opportunity for open, informal discussion of biological and paleontological theory; and to provide a suitable place for the presentation of original and technical papers of general interest to research workers in both of the fields of science. The following officers were elected: Honorary President, Davip WHITE (since deceased); President, CHARLES W. GiLtmoreE; Vice-President, REM- INGTON KeELLoaG; Secretary, Luoyp G. Henspest; Treasurer, G. ARTHUR Cooper; Member of the Council, 8. F. Bhaxn. Meetings are held the third Wednesday evening of each month. The programs at present are planned to include brief communications, reviews, etc.; regular papers; and to provide at least one-half of the time for informal discussion on a previously an- nounced subject. International Zoological Congress —The Twelfth International Zoological Congress will be held in Lisbon, Portugal, under the patronage of the Presi- dent of the Portuguese Republic from Sunday, September 15th to Satur- day, September 21st, 1935. Sessions of the Congress will be held at the University of Lisbon under the presidency of Dr. A. Ricarpo Jorex, Pro- fessor of the Faculty of Sciences of the University and Director of the Zoo- logical and Anthropological Department of the National Museum of Natural History. Field Conference of Pennsylvania Geologists —The fifth annual meeting of the Field Conference of Pennsylvania Geologists will have its headquar- ters at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia on Friday, May 3lst-Sunday, June 2nd. Registration and museum tours will take place from 9 a.m. to 12 m. on Friday, May 31st, and at 2 p.m. the first of the trips will leave Philadelphia to observe the physiography of the Piedmont upland and the adjacent Coastal Plain terraces around Philadelphia. An alternative trip to localities of mineralogic and petrologic interest to the north of Philadelphia will also be conducted on that afternoon. On Satur- day, June Ist, the Conference will leave the Academy at 8 A.M. on a general trip through the crystalline and intrusive rocks of the Piedmont Belt in the Philadelphia area. On Sunday, June 2nd, they will leave at the same time to examine the lower Paleozoic formations and their relations to the pre-Cambrian rocks in the area west of Philadelphia. This trip will go as far west as Quarreyville which is the type area of the Martic overthrust. On Monday, June 3rd, a post-Conference optional excursion to the Coastal Plain of New Jersey will be conducted. News BrizErFs A Pan-American pact for the protection of art galleries and scientific museums during war was signed at the White House on April 15 by repre- sentatives of Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, the United States and Uruguay. By the terms of the pact, certain cultural buildings, sites and monuments, marked with a banner of peace, are to be considered neutral zones in time of war, and as such shall be immune from airplane bombing and other acts of hostility. 252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5 The National Zoological Park has received an allotment of $680,000 from PWA funds. It is planned to build an addition to the bird house, a new ele- phant house and a house for small mammals, with special accomodations for apes. It is also planned to provide a machine shop. Two unusual meteorites, both seen to strike the earth in North Carolina, have just been received by the Smithsonian Institution, which will cooper- ate with the North Carolina State Museum in their analysis. PERSONAL ITEMS Dr. Nouan D. C. Lewis, director of laboratories at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, has been given leave of absence for the purpose of making a survey of existing research projects and methods of treatment and control of dementia praecox, as a preliminary step in a campaign against this disease financed by the Scottish Rite Masons of the northern jurisdiction of the United States. The Remington Honor Medal, highest award in pharmacy, has been given for 1935 to Samuret Louis Hixon, retail pharmacist of this city, in recognition for his many years of service to his profession, and in particular for his efforts in connection with the building of the American Institute of Pharmacy, recently completed. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Physics.—What is electricity? Paun R. Hnyn........... 22 ee Chemistry.—3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-chlorocinnamic acid and some of its esters. Raymonp M. Hann Geology.—Outliers of the Tuscaloosa formation on the western high- land rim of Tennessee. KenpatL E. Born Botany.—A new species of Dracaena from the Department of Petén, Guatemala. C. L. LunpELL Zoology.—The histology of nemic esophagi. IV. The esophagus of Metastrongylus elongatus. B. G. Currwoop and M. B, Cart- Zoology.—Development and morphology of the cestode, Hymenolepis cantaniana, in coleopteran and avian hosts. M. F. Jonus and» J. E. Aticata , . Botanical Society Screntiric Norres AND NEws.......... Nia ns daee Son ae Rew ae Sine This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals ¥ a | 3 ry wie , ee ie , ‘| fe ERO Ls fs et outed ; ae As ee. Se NaF ue < ae fate x a tt: PV de Vou. 25 JuNnE 15, 1935 No. 6 JOURNAL OF THE (E WASHINGTON ACADEMY a OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Joun A. STEVENSON F. G. BRickwEDDE . Rouanp W. Brown BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. T. WensEeu Haroutp Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GotpMan W. W. Rusny BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY AGNES CHASE J. R. 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Oe Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences” and addressed to 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis., or to the Treasurer, H. G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. Ezxchanges.—The Journat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within thirty days after date of following issue. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: G. W. McCoy, National Institute of Health. Corresponding Secretary: Pauu E. Hown, Bureau of Animal Industry. Recording Secretary: CHARLES THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 25 JUNE 15, 1935 No. 6 BIOLOGY.—Biology and human trends.1. RayMonpd PEARL, The Johns Hopkins University. I To discuss adequately in a brief address the assigned subject “biology and the social consequences of its advances”’ is plainly a large order, and one beset with considerable difficulties. For on the one hand biology as a science is still largely in the descriptive and historical phase of its development, and sociology is even more so, with the consequence that an account of the significant achievements of these sciences cannot be expressed in the concise and rational short hand that is so useful in physics; and, on the other hand, to appraise the theoretical consequences of scientific discoveries implies a certain skill in the dangerous art of prophecy. Not having any noteworthy aptitude as a prophet I can only put before you, in all modesty, the views of one biologist about some of the more evident relations be- tween certain well-established biological facts and principles and some of the more characteristic features of the collective behavior of man- kind. While I cannot speak with officially sanctioned authority for more than one particular biologist it does seem absolutely certain that just in proportion as any of the sciences, including biology, suc- ceed in their effort to establish sound general principles and laws, just in that proportion will their advances be inevitably reflected in col- lective human behavior. The thoughts and actions of all mankind were permanently and irreversibly altered from what they were before, after the Origin of Species had been published in 1859. A correspond- ing alteration, more or less significant as the case may be, occurs whenever a real discovery in science is made, or a sound generalization established. a In the great Svmphony of Life there appear to be three, and only three, main, basic biological themes, out of which come all the pleasant or harsh, useful or harmful, simple or complex counter-melodies, 1 Received March 22, 1935. 253 YUN 47-1995 4g 254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 harmonies, and dissonances of the business of living. These main basic themes are: First: The urge to individual personal survival here and now. This appears to be an attribute of all living matter. Second: The urge to reproduction which again appears to be a prop- erty of all that lives. Third: Variability, once more common to all living matter, in both its genetic and somatic aspects, the one leading to the observed differ- ences or variations between individual organisms, the other embody- ing the differences in the same individual at different times in its life. Finally, it is to be remembered that it is impossible to discuss or even to imagine life or living things without taking into account the rest of the universe in which they exist. So then we must add to our material for discussion one more item that corresponds roughly to the fiddles, flutes, horns, printed music, desks, and other impedimenta not musical per se but without which a symphony would never reach the ears. This item is: Fourth: The environment that conditions and in some degree deter- mines all vital phenomena. Let us now examine each of these four items in some detail. The urge to survival? may fairly be regarded as the most funda- mental attribute of living things and is therefore placed first in the list. It may be well to point out at the start that in its essence this urge to survival is rather completely and uncompromisingly selfish. To the best of its ability the individual organism so conducts its affairs as to continue living just as long as possible, regardless of what other organisms may do or think about it. When extinction threatens, every resource is brought to bear to fend it off. Basically this is what underlies the struggle for existence. Out of it, associated with it, and because of it come great ranges of biological phenomena that we have, for combined reasons of convenience and pedantry, departmentalized: such as food getting, metabolism and nutrition, cellular and humoral defense mechanisms furnishing immunity and resistance to disease, protective shelter seeking and building, natural selection, and in good part evolution itself. ? There are curious aspects to this universal urge to individual survival. One of them is the biological uselessness of much of it. It would be extremely difficult, if not im- possible, to find any rational biological purpose served by the survival of the individual after it has reproduced itself. Yet in not a few organisms, including man, there is normally a considerable part of the life span lived after adequate reproduction has been accomplished. Living grandparents, great grandparents and celibate clergymen are among Nature’s gaudier examples of Thorstein Veblen’s ‘‘conspicuous waste”’ in the realm of pure biology. JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 255 As a matter of observed fact this survival urge is primal and deeply rooted. Whenever and wherever we see its fundamental selfishness apparently in abeyance or even much abated, and seemingly replaced by altruism or “mutual aid” as it has been called, we may be sure, I think, that one or the other of two things has happened. Either, as among the invertebrates (especially the social insects) and the lower vertebrates, the ‘‘mutual aid” is not individually motivated but is a mechanistic group consequence of caste differentiation and integra- - tion, with no more (and no less) of an altruistic element in it than _ there is in the cellular differentiation and integration in the embryonic development of the individual; or, as in man and to some extent among his nearest relatives, complex psychological elements have been added to the picture in the course of evolution, which may seem at times to overwhelm and obliterate the more primitive and deeply rooted biological urge. The most obvious of these added factors . amounts really to a more enlightened self interest—that is to say a belief that for the present and until times get much worse it will be likely to conduce more effectively to individual survival to play along with and help one’s neighbors in the crowd. This statement is, from the necessity of brevity, much too bald and apparently dogmatic in its form, and wants more explanatory elucida- tion and development than we shall have time to give it. But I think it essentially conforms to at least a part of the reality. It is reasonable to suppose that the individual soldier ant is unaware of the fact that its activities and efforts are of benefit to the social group (the colony) to which it belongs. On the contrary it seems likely that when it fights it does so because it is its inherent and entailed nature so to do. In fighting it is expressing its own will-to-live or urge to survival, and in the only way of which it is capable. On the human side, in thinking of the personal motivation of altruistic behavior I am always re- minded of a speech of Brotteaux in Les Dieux ont Soif, perhaps the greatest novel Antole France ever wrote. It is (I quote from Allinson’s translation) : ‘What I am doing now, the merit of which you exagger- ate,—is not done for any love of you, for indeed, albeit you are a loy- able man, ..., I know you too little to love you. Nor yet do I act so for love of humanity; for I am not so simple as to think. . . that humanity has rights. . . . I do it out of that selfishness which inspires mankind to perform all their deeds of generosity and self-sacrifice, by making them recognize themselves in all who are unfortunate, by dis- posing them to commiserate their own calamities in the calamities of others and by inciting them to offer help to a mortal resembling them- 256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 selves in nature and destiny, so that they think they are succouring themselves in succouring him.” Man’s behavior, and particularly his social behavior, is motivated by so complex a set of physiological and psychological factors, ap- petites, emotions, and reasons, as to be extremely difficult to disen- tangle in a particular instance. But it may safely be said that when- ever he curbs his primal urge to personal survival, he does it for secondary reasons superimposed upon his natural, protoplasmic will- to-live. Many of these reasons are, collectively, what we call social. They represent purposeful adaptations in what Wheeler has convinc- ingly argued is the next emergent level above the individual organ- ismal. In most human beings these secondary social adaptations of behavior are still somewhat incomplete and imperfect, as clearly appears in times of great stress or danger. And the extent to which the highest forms of human altruistic social adaptations have real and enduring survival value, has yet to be measured. It can be argued with some plausibility that why they give the appearance of having some survival value, or at least of not being positively harmful, is because they became even moderately widespread only during that recent portion of human history in which living has been relatively easy for all mankind. It has been relatively easy for two reasons: Low density of population, in general; and rapidly increasing knowledge of applied science with its accompanying industrial developments. In a world where getting a living was easy, altruistic social relations were cor- respondingly easy. Instances and localities of a real struggle for exis- tence between individual men (other than during large caliber wars or in the processes incident to the assumption of the ‘“‘white man’s burden’’) have been rare in this world since the beginning of the nine- teenth century. And few have ever seriously alleged that war is an altruistic enterprise; nor is it at all uncertain that the pleasures of “civilizing’”’ backward peoples are, like those of condescension, singu- larly one-sided. The urge to reproduce is second in power, if at all, only to that for survival. This basic attribute of living material, like the other, in- cludes in its scope great ranges of academically labeled and pigeon- holed biological phenomena—of which among the more important are perhaps population growth with its part in the struggle for exis- tence and natural selection; and heredity with its concomitants of development and growth. For heredity is most clearly to be appre- hended as an aspect of reproduction. Living things do not merely reproduce; they reproduce themselves. This fact makes it clear that, JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 257 philosophically viewed, the urge to reproduction is really a part—an extension if you like—of the primal urge to survival. If the individual cannot ensure his own indefinite earthly immortality he can and does try his very best to see that his stirp shall keep on living forever and ever. Naturally this self-reproductive process tends towards social as well as biological stability. Genes are almost incredibly stable and resistant to alteration in the natural and usual circumstances of life. For something over fifteen years there has been going on in my laboratory a continuous experi- ment designed to test this point in a simple and direct way. Tonight I make the first public statement about it. This experiment has now included over 300 successive generations—perhaps the longest bit of controlled breeding ever carried out, with the results in each succes- Sive generation carefully observed and precisely recorded. Allowing 30 years as a round figure for the average duration of a human genera- tion the time equivalent in human reproduction of this experiment would be of the order of 9000 years—considerably longer than the total span of man’s even dimly recorded history. The objective of this experiment with Drosophila has been to see whether a simple Men- delian ratio involving but one character would or could be altered in the passage of time by such natural forces as selection, different sys- tems of breeding (such, for example, as that called “‘grading up” by livestock breeders), and wide alterations of the environment nearly up to the limits of the organism’s ability to go on living at all. The plan of the experiment is a simple one. It started by crossing a normal fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) possessing the normal wings char- acteristic of the species, with the pure mutant form Vestzgzal, so-called because the wings are reduced to non-functional vestiges. This wing characteristic is associated with a single gene. In the next generation all the flies produced by the pair with which we started had normal standard wings, normal being dominant to vestigial. These flies of the first cross-bred generation were then mated to pure vestigials (back-crossed to the recessive parent, in technical genetic language) to produce the second cross-bred generation. Of the offspring of these matings approximately one-half had normal wings, because they carried the original normal wing gene, and the other half had vestigial wings, all this being in accord with regular Mendelian expectation. The vestigial winged flies of this and all later generations were killed and thrown away as soon as they had emerged and been counted. The normal winged flies were again mated to pure vestigials to pro- duce the next generation. And so on with undeviating regularity for 258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 more than 300 generations. What the plan means in briefest terms is that since the rather stupendously long time (measured in genera- tions) when the experiment began the only hereditary determiner (gene) for normal wings that has ever been in the system is the one that was contributed by the one single normal wild type fly with which we started. All the normal winged flies now appearing in the populations of the successive generations of the experiment have normal wings only because their Urgrossvater had them 300 genera- tions ago, and for no other reason. The net result of the experiment has been to show that the gene involved has preserved its initial characteristics unaltered. So also has the cellular mechanism for the shuffling and sorting of the genes in each generation. The approximately 50-50 ratio of normal winged to vestigial winged flies appears generation after generation with somewhat wearisome regularity. The demonstration of the inherent stability of the genic mechanism of heredity that this experiment has given is extremely impressive. Analogous phenomena of organic stability are observed in nature. There are considerable numbers of firmly established instances of organisms living today that are specifically identical with their pro- genitors in earlier geological eras. Among the Foraminifera one species (Lagena sulcata) has persisted unchanged from Silurian times down to the present; one species (Globigerina bulloides) from the Devonian to the present; two species from the Carboniferous; two from the Permian; four from the Triassic; seven from the Jurassic; and fifteen from the Cretaceous. The significance of these cases cannot be over- emphasized. When it is comprehended that organisms now living have not changed by a perceptible amount from what they were millions upon millions of years ago in paleozoic times in those m7- nutiae of structure upon which systematists base their specific distinc- tions and descriptions, the conservatism and stability of nature be- gins to be realized. In human biology the conservative and stable element of true biological heredity is supplemented and reinforced by what has been variously called ‘‘social heredity,’ or tradition, or the mores of the group to which the individual and his stirp belong. This is, of course, not inheritance at all in a proper biological sense. It is rather an en- vironmental matter at bottom. A born Englishman transported to America as a child may, and in fact usually does, come as a man to think and act like an American. But to make him do this if he lives his whole life in England among the people of his kind would be vir- JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 259 tually impossible. And it is a matter of statistical fact that vastly more human beings live out their lives not far from where they were born and among their kind of people, than migrate or are transplanted into realms of other traditions and mores. In consequence “‘social inheritance” or tradition plays an enormous, but usually underesti- mated part in determining the individual and collective behavior of human beings. Its effects have not infrequently been confused with those of true biological heredity. Masses of data have been collected to show that near relatives, particularly fathers and sons, frequently follow the same professions or callings. It is often quite erroneously concluded that such facts prove a biological inheritance of talent or ability, either in general, or for a particular calling, or both. Such data are inherently incapable of proving any such a conclusion. The obser- vations can be much more simply and satisfactorily accounted for in the main by the operation of the purely environmental factors of familiar contact from childhood, training, easy opportunity of en- trance, and the social pressure of tradition; in short by “‘social” not biological inheritance. Our third unique and universal biological principle, variability, has two aspects, as has already been pointed out. No two living organ- isms are exactly like each other in all particulars, and no single or- ganism is precisely the same at any two moments in its lifetime. The first of these aspects is the only one that is conventionally called variability. It is mainly caused by the combined interaction of genetic shufflings and recombinations and the environment. The second as- pect of organic variability is usually and conveniently called adapta- bility. It is an odd and remarkable phenomenon. The unique thing is not that organisms are more or less fitted or adapted to the circum- stances in which they find themselves. Inanimate objects of various sorts, and particularly that category of them that we call machines are this. It is true that the adaptations of organisms and machines are brought about in different ways. But the fact of adaptation is present, and in principle identical, in both. We are, however, not concerned here with adaptation, but with self-started and self-con- trolled adaptability, which organisms have and machines do not. Organisms incessantly change and alter themselves to meet the fleet- ing changes in their circumstances. No living organism ever stays put. When it does it is dead, and in dying has passed into a wholly different category of matter. The process goes even deeper than change and adaptability in ae havior. The very material substance itself that makes up the living 260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 organism is constantly changing. What then does ‘personal identity” connote? What we are pleased to call the same identical man at the age of 70 years is composed of extremely little if any of the same ma- terial substance that made him up when he was 20 years old. Probably there is not a single molecule in him at 70 that was there at 20. In the intervening years the only thing about him that has survived is his pattern, a sort of transcendental or spiritual wraith through which has flowed a steady stream of matter and energy. There is a profound truth embodied in Cuvier’s old comparison of a living organ- ism to a whirlpool. It is the pattern that is the essence of the business. It alone endures. And it is constantly altering and adapting itself to changing circumstances. Especially is this true and important of the psychological panel of the total pattern of the human organism. It is this aspect of adaptability, the capacity of organisms for change ending only with death, that seems to be more important in its social consequences than its teleological aspect, if indeed we are prepared to admit the reality of the latter at all, as some are not. We may conclude this hasty survey of basic principles with a word or two about the environment. The effective environment of any particular living organism is determined by the pattern of that or- ganism, just as truly as the pattern of the organism is in part at least determined by the environment. For a particular man, and for a group of similar men, but not for any mouse, the relative honesty of his banker and the urbanity of his dean are highly important elements in the effective environment. And what makes them so is not the bank- ishness of the banker nor the deanishness of the dean, but the pattern of the particular man of whom we are speaking—a pattern not shared by the mouse. In short the relation between organism and environ- ment is everywhere and always mutually reciprocal and as man is the most complicated and manifoldly diverse in his capabilities of all organisms, so also is his effective environment the most complicated. More extensively and more effectively than any other organism he makes his own environment. He is constantly altering it in the hope of making it better. But such is the interplay of the contradictory biolog- ical elements in his nature that he dislikes and resists any alteration of his environment by anyone else than himself or the group of people similar to himself to which he belongs. The social and political con- sequences of these opposing attitudes are far-reaching and encompass within their range the greater part of our communal troubles in this imperfect world. The full implications of the reciprocally determinative influences of JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 261 organism and environment seem to me to have been generally some- what less than adequately valued in the last century’s development of biological thought, and certainly an extremely inadequate amount of first-rate research has been put upon the matter. This is partly an obvious consequence of the trend given to biological philosophy by Darwin, Galton, Weismann and Mendel, with their emphasis upon the entailed or endowed element in the whole biological picture. In human biology particularly the rdle played by heredity has come to take on many of the aspects of religious dogma. Indeed it has been urged that eugenics should be overtly espoused and developed as a religion. And all this has been going on in a world where consciously planned and directed alterations of environmental conditions have had far-reaching and profound biological effects upon whole popula- tions, not alone in the field of public health but in many others. Every geneticist knows that the final expression in the individual of each hereditary determiner is conditioned by the environmental circum- stances under which its development is undergone. Yet very little has been done in the way of attempting to analyze thoroughly and penetratingly the biological effects of environmental conditions upon human beings. In truth science, perhaps in common with all other modes of human thought, has a seemingly ineradicable tendency to crystallize its temporarily successful philosophies into dogma, and having accom- plished the crystallization proceeds to the scourging of whatever skep- tics and heretics may appear. Public health workers sometimes display a religious attitude toward their achievements as intense as the crusading zeal of the eugenists for their dogmas. Only a few hardy souls throughout history and at the present time seem able to realize for longer than brief periods that new knowledge is more often than in any other way engendered out of skepticism by hard work, and that religious attitudes and modes of thought for however noble a purpose enlisted not only have nothing whatsoever to do with science, but are the most effective hindrances to getting new knowledge yet heard of. WU Let us now turn to the examination of some of the more conspicuous and far-reaching social consequences of the basic biological principles we have briefly reviewed. The three most obvious and important ones are, I think, that: 1. Man is enjoying better health and individually surviving longer 262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 than ever before, likes it, and intends to go farther along the same road. 2. He is vaguely conscious of being more crowded than ever before, and finds the various consequences of this crowding increasingly unpleasant, but chiefly because it threatens that enhanced survival that is always his first and deepest biological concern. 3. Therefore he is groping about to find ways to alleviate the pro- gressive overcrowding and preserve the health and survival gains he has made; trying a great variety of experiments, some of which are sensible, others highly dubious, and a few completely idiotic. For the sake of clarity these three statements need a little expan- sion. The urge to survival is the ultimate biological motivating factor that has transferred the maintenance and improvement of health from an individual to a social concern. The gains in this field have been enormous. How enormous perhaps only a statistician can ap- preciate. This is not the place, nor is there any need, to go into the question of how they have been achieved. But the interesting thing about the case, broadly viewed, is that without the abatement by a single bit of that basic individual selfishness in which the biological urge for survival is rooted, it has been perceived that this urge can be most effectively served so far as health is concerned by making a social matter of a great part of it. Assuring a pure water supply and innocuously disposing of the waste matters of living are things that the individual simply cannot do well. Society can. And the social progression of the urge to survival in the field of health is by no means at an end yet. In two directions we may confidently look forward to great further changes and advances in the rather immediate future. In the first place, whether we or the physicians like it or not, it seems clear that the maintenance and improvement of individual health is going to become more and more completely a social matter. The basic reasons are two-fold, partly because of the continued normal evolu- tionary further growth of the same ideas and considerations that have brought us to where we are now regarding public health; partly be- cause of economic and political considerations. The number of persons who at the present time get inadequate medical care because they cannot individually afford to pay for adequate (and lacking it en- danger other peoples’ health) is so large that as a group they are al- ready in a position politically to demand and get necessary medical service, and may reasonably be counted upon shortly to do so. In the second place it seems reasonable to suppose that advances in medical science are going to continue. The last seventy-five years —an exces- JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 263 sively small fraction of mankind’s earthly history—have witnessed more progress in knowledge of disease and its effective treatment and prevention, than was made in all the time that went before. And objectively viewed the rate of advance in medical discovery seems plainly to be accelerating rather than slowing. Turning now to the consideration of the social consequences of the urge to reproduce it is immediately to be noted that the growing consciousness of overcrowding—too many people in the world for comfort—is not the resultant of such simple matters as lack of space in which to build dwellings or to move about, or of inability to pro- duce food enough to satisfy the collective hunger. It is true that the total number of living human beings on the globe at this moment is probably something closely approaching two billion. But the gross land area of the globe is about 35 billion acres, so that on an equal parcelling each individual man, woman and child would have over 17 acres. If the total population of the earth were to be forcibly put upon the smallest of the continents—Australia—there would still be, on an equal division, well over an acre for each individual. Similarly relative to food whatever trouble there is relates to distribution rather than production. Such famines as occur now happen not because there is not enough food produced to feed everyone, but because the complex economic mechanism of getting it to the hungry works imperfectly. The social consequences of population growth present a much more subtle and complicated problem than mere space or food. The sugges- tion just made that the total land area of the globe might be equally divided per head of population is an obviously fantastic one, with only a sterile arithmetic meaning. Not all the land is equally useful for sustaining human life either directly or indirectly. Some of it is of no use whatever. And this brings us to the crux of the population prob- lem, which is that each unit of the population must somehow or other get its living. All other forms of life except man get their living by one or the other or a combination of two direct ways. These are (1) by preying upon other living things, plant or animal; or (2) directly converting inorganic materials into living substance. Man today gets his living by indirect processes conveniently labelled economic. He is in the main employed in doing things that he can trade with some- body else for the biological requisites for living. The population of the world has now become so large, and the discoveries and applications of science have made the producing of the things that can be traded so much easier than it used to be, that great numbers of people all over the world find themselves unable to get a living by this process 264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 that was formerly so relatively simple. The rapid development of the industrial type of civilization in the nineteenth century made the gloomy prophecies of Malthus at its beginning look silly. The popula- tion grew at a tremendous pace when he thought its growth would be checked by want and misery. And people were having, by and large, a grand time while their number was increasing; because they were experiencing the enormous improvements in the physical comforts of living that came with the advance and applications of science. But these very factors, plus the enhanced survival rate coincident with the development of public health, caused the ugly spectre of unem- ployment to rear itself higher and higher until it has now become the most serious problem that humanity faces. It is to be noted at this point that in modern civilization, as a nor- mal consequence of the relation of individual man’s biology to his age, approximately 50 per cent of all human beings have to earn the livings not only of themselves but also the major part of that of the other 50 per cent. Man develops slowly. Children are incapable of earning their own livings before they are about 15 years old, and have passed approximately a sixth of their total life span, and between a third and a fourth of their average life duration. At the other end of life, for the great majority of human beings over 50 years of age their living must come in whole or in considerable part either from the efforts of the active workers between 15 and 50, or from what they themselves were able to save while they were in their productively efficient ages. In practically all countries the sum of the numbers of persons under 15 and of those over 50, is almost exactly equal to the number of those between 15 and 50 years of age. But over and above this burden, that may fairly be called a normal biological one, the world’s workers are now called upon to support the unemployed. A considerable part of the unemployed are so because they are unem- ployable—not sufficiently fit and able in a biological sense to make an honest living in a world organized as this one is. These unfit organisms are kept alive by the rest of society for no realistically demonstrable reason other than that they were once born, and by being born some- how placed upon the rest of mankind what has gradually come to be regarded as a permanently binding obligation to see that they do not die. The remainder of the unemployed are so because there are too many fit, able and employable people in the world to do the necessary world’s work, the aggregate amount of which has been, is being, and will continue to be steadily reduced by discoveries and improvements in the sciences and arts. JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 265 Mankind is trying in several ways to meet this situation. The first and in the long run perhaps the most important way is by reducing its reproductive rate through the practice of contraception—birth control. It has been seriously alleged and with at least some justifica- tion, that even the admittedly imperfect techniques of contraception as they are now known constitute the most important biological dis- covery ever made. While historians of the subject attempt to show that the practice of contraception is almost if not quite as ancient as man’s recorded history, actually the birth rates of large population ageregates did not begin to be sensibly affected by it until roughly the last quarter of the nineteenth century; that is to say since the begin- ning of the rapid development of the highly organized, integrated and urbanized industrial type of civilization. At the present time the effects of contraception oh the birth rate are plainly apparent over large and leading parts of the world’s population, and are growing at a rather rapid rate. The practice of birth control is a thoroughly sound, sensible, and in the long run effective method of meeting the problem consequent upon the biological urge to reproduction operating in a universe of definitely limited size. The only objection of importance that can be urged against it is that it has led to an unfavorable differential fer- tility. The socially and economically more fortunate classes of man- kind have practised contraception more regularly, frequently, and effectively than the less fortunate social and economic classes, with consequently reduced reproductive rates. It is contended that this has brought about a steady deterioration and degeneration of man as a species, and will continue to do so until all progress is stopped. After prolonged study of the matter it is my opinion that the alleged detrimental consequences of this class differential fertility upon the aggregate biological and social fitness and worth of mankind, while doubtless present in some degree, have probably been greatly exag- gerated in the reformer’s zeal to make his case. This is not the place, nor is there time, to state and document all the reasons that have led me to this view. But there are certain considerations that must be mentioned because they have been so consistently overlooked or suppressed. The first is the tacit assumption that lies at the very root of the argument. This assumption is that generally speaking and with negligible exceptions the more fortunate social and economic classes are in that position because they are composed of not only mentally, morally, and physically, but also genetically superior people. But it may be alleged with at least equal truth that these very people who 266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 are regarded as mentally, morally, and physically superior are that way in no small part only because they and their forebears have been fortunate socially and economically. The analogy often drawn be- tween human breeding and live stock breeding is in part specious and misleading. In animal breeding it has been learned that the only re- liable measure of genetic superiority is the progeny test—the test of quality of the offspring actually produced. Breeding in the light of this test may, and often does, lead to the rapid, sure, and permanent improvement of a strain of livestock. But when the results of human breeding are interpreted in the light of the clear principles of the prog- eny test the eugenic case does not fare so well. In absolute numbers the vast majority of the most superior people in the world’s history have in fact been produced by mediocre or inferior forebears; and furthermore the admittedly most superior folk have in the main been singularly unfortunate in their progeny, again in absolute numbers. No one would question the desirability of the free multiplication of people who are really superior genetically. But in human society as it exists under present conditions of civilization many a gaudy and im- posing phenotype masks a very mediocre or worse genotype, and vice-versa. And most eugenic selection of human beings is, and in the nature of the case must be, based solely upon phenotypic manifesta- tions. Naturally it is to be understood that what has been said does not refer to the problem of the really biologically defective and degenerate members of society. There the eugenic position is sound and admi- rable in principle. The breeding of such people must be stopped; and by compulsory measures. Voluntary birth control will not help ap- preciably to the solution of the problem, for the persons concerned are not of a sort to make effective use of contraception. If all the con- traceptive techniques in the world were made fully available to them they would still go on breeding. There are but three ways, all some- what imperfect, of dealing with them; they must be segregated, or sterilized, or denied any aid in the struggle for existence and thus al- lowed and encouraged to perish because too unfit biologically to make livings for themselves with their own unaided resources. One final point and I shall have done with this phase of our sub- ject. It is a curious fact that at every stage of man’s history from at least the time of Plato, and indeed of Theognis of Megara a century before that, there have been those who have been just as certain as some present day eugenists are, and just as deeply grieved, that man- kind was going rapidly to the dogs because the right kind of people JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 267 were not breeding enough and the wrong kind of people were breeding too much. Perhaps men are nearer the dogs now than they were in the Alexandrian age; but I venture to doubt it. The evidence seems to me overwhelming that mankind is, on an average, mentally, morally, and physically much superior today to what it was when Socrates was abated as a public nuisance. So much for birth control and the eugenic objections to its alleged consequences. We turn now to the most ineffective, cruel, and alto- gether foolish large scale method by which society tries periodically to ameliorate the consequences of the biological urge to reproduction, namely war. If this characterization is reasonably in accord with reality why do we go on having wars? The reason has been stated with precision by a clear thinking human biologist, C. C. Walker, in the following words: “The natural striving after security by one people, that is to say its natural endeavors to exist, must affect the security of other peoples. Because when a people endeavors to ensure its existence, by reason of its automatic reactions to the problems connected with food- supply, security, and social stability, its endeavors will conflict with the strivings of other peoples who are also subject to the same en- vironmental problems. Each people is only trying to exist. When a people considers that its existence is threatened by a particular en- vironment, ... to such an extent that no adaptation to the environ- ment will suffice, it is forced to attempt to alter that environment. But other people may consider that any alteration of that environ- ment affects its own existence. The result is war.” Is there any reason to suppose that this biologically natural process, with its characteristic of almost rhythmic recurrence, will ever come to an end? It seems to me there can be such a hope only in the long —very, very long—run. And the only reason I can see for even this deferred hope is the already great and rapidly increasing ease, speed, and cheapness of transportation and communication between all parts of the world. The slow but steady and sure biological effect of easy getting about will inevitably be more and more interbreeding, with a gradual lessening of the racial and national differences between human beings. In the far-off end all mankind will presumably be a rather uniform lot; all looking, thinking, and acting pretty much the same way, like sheep. National or racial isolation has even now be- come extremely difficult to maintain; indeed in a quite literal sense the attempt to maintain such isolations already threatens group survival in not a few instances. In the long run they cannot and will 268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 not be maintained. Just in proportion as they diminish so will the frequency of wars diminish. But the diminution seems likely to be at a fearfully slow rate; it will be a long time yet before the last war is fought. And a low cynic might suggest that even war, horrid and stupid as it is, would be preferable to that deadly uniformity among men towards which we are slowly but surely breeding our way. Society here and abroad is just now experimenting with a whole series of internal readjustments that are being forcibly imposed upon temporarily dazed but always adaptable populations, in the hope that out of them will come a real and permanent solution of the problem that man’s urge to reproduction has saddled upon us. All of these experiments appear to fall into a few simple categories when realis- tically examined. They all stem from and put into practice one or the other of two ideas, neither of which finds unqualified support in the science of biology. The first of these ideas is that it is best to let one individual in a group run the group’s affairs; permanently, absolutely and without interference, on the philosophy that averaged opinion and averaged action are as stupid, inefficient and unreal as an aver- aged egg is innutritious and unreal. The other and opposite idea is that it is best to have the whole group run the business as a whole, allowing no individual any powers except as a merely mechanical executor of the group’s will, on the philosophy that no individual is really superior to another and that therefore in averaged opinion and action wisdom alone resides. In their practical implementation, per- formance, and effects both ideas turn out to be singularly alike. Both alike scorn the intermediate idea of true democracy. And finally both attempt to solve the problem that is pestering the world by a simple procedure universally regarded as criminal when practiced by an individual. It is that the more abundant life is to be assured to a too abundant people by stealing goods from the prudent and efficient, and then giving them to the imprudent and inefficient. Since there are always a great many more of the latter kind of people than of the former this turns out temporarily to be the most effective political device ever heard of. Whether it will prove to be so permanently is less certain. It has been pointed out earlier in this paper that adapt- able as man is there are nevertheless elements of conservative stability in his biological make-up whose roots go back to the very beginning of his evolution. And in that perfect state of society envisaged by our major prophets, where “‘economy of plenty’’ will assure, as we are told, that no one will have to work much for a living, and where the higher philosophy that holds “human rights above property rights” JUNE 15, 1935 - PEARL: BIOLOGY 269 (without perhaps clearly understanding what it means by either) assures that in any event everybody shall be kept alive at public expense whether he works or not, is there not the barest possibility that there might appear a somewhat general inclination on the part of the more intelligent members of the group to opt for the philosophy rather than for the communal work (however slight in amount)? If anything like this should happen might not the economy of plenty some day find itself once again in a parlous state of unplenty? Not being myself a dependable prophet I venture no answer. But in any case, and regardless of details, it is difficult to convince a biologist that a social philosophy will endure for any great length of time that de- liberately and complacently loads upon the always weary backs of the able and fit an evergrowing burden. If there is one thing certain in the science of biology it is that no species or variety of plant or animal has long survived that was intrinsically incapable of making its own living. There is somewhere a biological limit to altruism, even for man. A large part of the world today gives the impression that it is determined to find the exact locus of that limit as speedily as possi- ble. IV Up to this point the discussion has been of the social consequences of firmly established biological principles. In what regions of biology may there be expected with some confidence developments new in principle, and with important implications for human behavior, thought, and social relations? Probably not, one is fairly safe in say- ing, in such fields as morphology, embryology, or taxonomy. The ad- vances in the field of genetics, which has to a considerable degree dominated biological thought during nearly a half century and will probably continue to for some time yet, will inevitably have an in- creasing influence on human affairs as the meaning of its advances is better understood. But this influence seems on the whole likely to be more of a negative than positive character—a matter of avoidances, taboos, and prohibitions rather than of positive contributions to hu- man biological progress. Heredity represents the entailed side of biol- ogy—things given—about which it is extremely difficult really to do anything effective in the face of other compelling elements of human life and living, especially those elements belonging in the psycho- biological realm. It seems probable that advances likely to be made in physiology and psychobiology may profoundly alter human affairs and outlooks 270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 in the not very distant future, and particularly in the direction of the greater release and more effective control of the energies and poten- tialities of man (and of other living things at will). In recent years the investigations and deductions of the psychiatrists, endocrinolo- gists, and psychobiologists have thrown a beginning glimmer of real light upon the underlying biological bases of the activities and con- duct of living things, and especially of man. We are beginning to un- derstand in some detail and particularity how, conduct, normal and abnormal, moral and immoral, is the expression of “‘animal drives” or urges—themselves resultants of subtle chemical and physiological changes in the body—rather than of either free will or terrestrial and heavenly precepts. It does not seem extravagant to expect that as this understanding broadens and deepens ways may be found to bring it about that men will act somewhat more intelligently and less harm- fully in politics, business, society, religion, and elsewhere generally, than they sometimes have in the past. The ever widening and deep- ening flow of biological knowledge is plainly furnishing a solid, sci- entific groundwork for a philosophy of life based on releases, in con- tradistinction to the philosophy of life based upon inhibitions and prohibitions that has so long held us enthralled. I am not unaware that current political philosophies in various parts of the world look backward in this regard, and insist on more prohibitions and regimen- tations. But they are going against biology, and if I read the history of evolution aright, biology will win. Nature is never in a hurry. And that odd bird the Blue Eagle was much shorter lived than even the poorest dinosaur. This current trend of biology of which we have just been speaking has many different aspects. There are some who will recall the wide- spread interest and discussion stirred up many years ago by an essay of the late William James entitled The energies of men. It dealt with the release of normally untapped and unsuspected potentialities of men under certain conditions, sometimes those of shock and stress, sometimes under the impulsion of the will. Examples were given of men who, though enfeebled by poor health, performed feats of strength and endurance that would tax the finest athlete, when they encountered conditions that imperatively demanded such a perform- ance. We are working in the laboratory on another angle of the same gen- eral problem. We have experimented with seedlings, grown under very exactly controlled conditions such that all the matter and energy for growth and living (save for water and oxygen) come from the nutri- JUNE 15, 1935 PEARL: BIOLOGY 271 tive materials stored in the cotyledons of the seed planted, which themselves are an integral part of the plant. Under these experi- mental conditions the seedling goes through a complete life cycle of germination, growth, adulthood, senescence, and eventual death. This life cycle corresponds quantitatively very closely to the normal life cycle of the plant in the field, except that it is greatly compressed and fore-shortened in time. By appropriate aseptic surgical procedures we have removed carefully measured parts of the food resources stored in the cotyledons of the cantaloup seeds we have used, and then ob- served the relative performance of such mutilated seedlings as com- pared with the normal controls, in respect of growth and duration of life. The net result is to demonstrate that the mutilated plants grow much larger and live many times longer, as compared with the normal controls, than they would be expected to in proportion to the amount of matter and energy for living available to them after the operation. The results indicated clearly that the operated seedlings utilized their available food resources much more effectively than the normal plant does. It is as though an inhibitor had been removed from the plant, freeing its potentialities for more adequate expression. The possibilities suggested by these experiments seem far-reaching, though admittedly the exploration of the field has only just begun. Work in this direction on plants and lower animals may result in such an understanding of the physiology of releasing normally inhibited biological potentialities as to enable man to unleash effectively and usefully more of his own energies. In the field of human biology the admitted and crying need is for adequate synthesis of existing knowledge. It is an obvious truism that we know more in detail about the biology of man than about that of any other organism. Anatomists, physiologists, anthropologists, psy- chologists, sociologists, and economists, have by analytical methods piled up a body of detailed information about man that is literally colossal. But what does it mean for humanity? Every thoughtful per- son will admit that there is a kind of moral necessity to go forward in the attempt to get a better and more comprehensive understand- ing of the whole nature of man. The material, mechanized civilization he has evolved may easily become a monster to destroy him unless he learns better to comprehend, develop, and control his biological nature. If inventions and discoveries cannot be intelligently managed after they are made, they are likely to be a curse rather than a bless- ing. The bulk of scientific effort is, and always has been, directed to- 272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 oJ wards analysis unaccompanied by synthesis. Scientific men have mainly left it to philosophers and literary men to be the synthesizers of their data, shirking the task themselves with a few notable excep- tions, of whom perhaps the greatest was a biologist, Charles Darwin. But analysis at best leads only to knowledge; while synthesis may furnish wisdom. And mankind sorely needs more wisdom right here and now! PHARMACOLOGY .—The toxicity for sheep of water solutions of hy- drocyanic acid and the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate com- bination as a remedy.! JAMES F. Coucu, A. B. Clawson and H. Bunyea, Bureau of Animal Industry. The results of a considerable number of experiments in which solu- tions of potassium cyanide were administered to sheep have previ- ously been reported.” The potassium cyanide was administered as a drench and the quantity given in each base recorded as milligrams per kilogram of animal weight. In these experiments information was obtained concerning the smallest quantity of potassium cyanide that will produce symptoms in sheep, the smallest quantity that will kill and also concerning the effectiveness of a combination of sodium ni- trite and sodium thiosulphate as a remedy for animals poisoned by potassium cyanide. In the present paper data are presented concerning the toxicity for sheep of hydrocyanic acid in water solution and the remedial effec- tiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination. The solution of hydrocyanic acid used was prepared by mixing cold solutions of the calculated quantities of potassium cyanide and of tar- taric acid in water and filtering off the precipitated potassium acid tartrate which was washed with a little cold water. The filtrate and washings were combined and diluted to a definite volume. The cya- nide content of the solution was then determined by titration with N/10 silver nitrate solution and the strength was adjusted so that one cubic centimeter of solution contained 15.5 mg. of hydrocyanic acid. The solution contained less than 0.05 per cent of dissolved potassium acid tartrate which, in the doses given, was negligible. A fresh solution was made each morning before experimental work, although analysis showed that there was no appreciable change in the strength of the solution when preserved for 72 hours in a cold place. 1 Received February 28, 1935. 2 This JoURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934. 3 This JOURNAL 24: 528-532. 1934. 4 This JoURNAL 25: 57-59. 1935. JUNE 15, 19835 COUCH, CLAWSON AND BUNYEA: HYDROCYANIC ACID 273 TOXIC AND LETHAL QUANTITIES In all, 29 experiments were made on 20 sheep. In 17 of these no remedies were administered, the experiments being made primarily to determine the effects of various quantities of hydrocyanic acid as compared with those produced by potassium cyanide. The general results obtained in the 17 cases are shown in table 1. TABLE 1.—QvantitTies or Hyprocyanic Actp GIVEN TO SHEEP AND THE EFFECTS PRODUCED WHEN NO REMEDIES WERE USED ae Sheep Quantities® given mg./kg. and effect ate SE No. perien Symptoms Sickness Death Remarks Jan 14 1451 34.47 Byte) 14 1462 38.55 3.10 14 1460 41.72 PY 1) 14 1461 43 .54 2.74 14 1463 38.55 2E09) 14 1459 43.99 2.64 14 1465 3¥3). ILI 203 14 1452 49.89 7) (395) 14 1458 41.72 2.41 16 1456 330) oP 2.382 18 1474 37.64 2 Bil A very poor sheep 14 1464 48 .98 2229 14 1457 34.92 PA PY 14 1454 46.49 2.03 14 1453 36.73 i 7il 14 1455 30.84 1.36 14 1456 Sy) Br 1.05 Very slight effect sare quantities are given as milligrams of hydrocyanic acid per kilogram of animal weight. The effects produced on sheep 1456 by 1.05 mg. per kg. of animal weight were so mild that the quantity for this animal was apparently very close to the minimum toxic dose. The fact that 2.29 mg. killed while 2.27 mg. produced only symptoms indicates that 2.29 mg. is the approximate minimum lethal dose for sheep. That 2.31 mg. did not kill sheep 1474, a very poor, underweight animal, is not consid- ered as valid evidence against this conclusion. Were the dosage for this animal based on its normal weight when in good flesh, it would be much lower than the figure considered as the minimum lethal dose. To compare, on a common basis, the toxicity of hydrocyanic acid with that of potassium cyanide, the dosages of the two substances may be reduced to the cyanide (CN) equivalents. On this basis the toxic and lethal doses of cyanide in the two forms are essentially the same. 274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 Following the administration of hydrocyanic acid in 29 cases, symptoms appeared in from 20 seconds to 2 minutes, the average time being 50 seconds. The time to prostration or collapse varied more widely, it being 50 seconds in the shortest case and 514 minutes in the longest. The longest period was with a sheep given slightly more than 1 m.l.d. Twenty-three cases had an average time of 5 minutes 52 seconds. In the average the animals given the larger quantities showed symptoms and collapsed in a shorter time than those given the smaller doses. The average time to symptoms in the sheep given 3 to 4 lethal doses was 42 seconds; with those given 1 to 1.5 lethal quantities, it was 55 seconds; and with sheep given toxic but sub-lethal doses, 56 seconds. The average period to collapse in those sheep given from 3 to 4 lethal quantities was 1 minute 31 seconds, while with those given less than 1.5 minimum lethal doses it was 9 minutes 13 seconds. The longer average was due in part, but not entirely, to the inclusion of two re- sistant and somewhat unusual cases. Of the sheep which received no remedy, 11 died. The time between the drenching with cyanide and death varied between 12.5 minutes and 1 hour 22 minutes, and averaged 37 minutes 50 seconds. RESULTS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE REMEDY To test the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy in cases of poisoning by hydrocyanic acid, 12 experiments were made on 10 sheep. For experimental use a water solution con- taining 1 gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate per 15 c.c. of solution was prepared. Based on 2.29 mg. per kg. as the minimum lethal dose, these animals were given doses of hydrocyanic acid ranging from 3 m.].d. to 4.0 m.].d. In periods varying from 0.8 to 4 minutes after being drenched with the cyanide they were then in- jected intraperitoneally with 15 c.c. of a solution of the nitrite-thio- sulphate combination as a remedy. The results of the administration of the nitrite-thiosulphate com- bination are shown in table 2. In 10 cases the remedy was given after the animals had collapsed. Of these, six (or 60 per cent) recovered. One sheep was given the remedy as soon as symptoms were apparent and before collapse, and one was treated at the time of collapse. Both died. JUNE 15, 1935 cOUCH, CLAWSON AND BUNYEA: HYDROCYANIC ACID 275 TABLE 2—Suowine THE EFFECTS OF THE NITRITE-THIOSULPHATE COMBINATION ADMINISTERED INTRAPERITONEALLY AS A REMEDY FOR SHEEP PorisoNnEeD BY HyprocyaNnic AcID Time from drench— D Abe D To first AN To givi 0 ‘0 givin i938 tt sated: DESH collapse nenete Effect Weight No. kg. Minutes Jan 16 1457 34.92 Bic ORS eS) 1.8 Recovery 14 1469 43 .99 3. 1.0 56) i do 16 1470 43 .54 Be i (0) 1.8 PD ll Death 17 1466 35.83 B oll 5) od 105 do 17 1469 43 .99 3.25 .8 il oo 2) tD) Recovery 17 1473 40.82 3 oA) Ao Lo 7s Die Death 17 1457 34.92 Bo 24D) 05) PAP 4. Recovery 17 1453 36.73 3.50 ath I, I & do 17 1455 30.84 3.50 Bh I 705) 2 Death 17 1454 46.49 SO 3 08 2. 2. do 17 1474 37.64 4. aD) il, 1.5 Recovery LZ 1475 40.82 4. 2(¢) SE 1.8 .8 Death For the sake of comparison with the results obtained using the same remedy for sheep poisoned by potassium cyanide as given in a former paper,” table 3 is included. This is a summary of table 2. In it the doses of hydrocyanic acid are arranged in classes, and the number of survivals and deaths in each class shown. TABLE 3.—EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REMEDY AGAINST VARYING QUANTITIES OF HypRocyanic AcID Dose of HCN Number of Number that Number that Per cent m.l.d. animals survived died survived 3 4 2 2 50 335745) 3 2 1 67 3.5 2 1 1 50 3.75 1 1 0 4 2 1 1 50 Total 12 6 6 50 From table 3 it will be noted that the remedy was 50 per cent effec- tive against as much as 4 minimum lethal doses of hydrocyanic acid. When compared with the results obtained with sheep poisoned by potassium cyanide, in which 2.75 m.].d. was the largest dose against which protection was secured in 50 per cent or more of the cases,° it would appear that the remedy is more effective against poisoning by hydrocyanic acid itself than against poisoning by potassium cyanide. 5 This JoURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934. 6 This JOURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934. 276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 SUMMARY When administered in sheep in a drench the minimum toxic dose of pure hydrocyanic acid is shown to be approximately 1.05 mg. per kg. of animal weight, and the minimum lethal dose is approximately 2.29 mg. per kg. When compared on a cyanide (CN) basis the differ- ences in toxicity between hydrocyanic acid and potassium cyanide are slight and well within the limits of experimental error. Following the administration of pure hydrocyanic acid, symptoms appear in an average of 50 seconds. The time to collapse is very vari- able. In the cases here reported the average time was 5 minutes 52 seconds. When no remedy was given the average time to death was nearly 38 minutes. The nitrite-thiosulphate combination was 50 per cent effective as a remedy against from 3 to 4 m.1.d., and when injected intraperitoneally within 4 minutes after the hydrocyanic acid was administered. GEOLOGY.—WNotes on the structure of the Erin shale of Alabama.* C. F. Park, Jr., U. S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by W. W. RuBEY.) ABSTRACT The Erin shale of east-central Alabama has previously been mapped as a strati- graphic unit in the Talladega slate. Fossils found in the Erin shale have been the basis for assigning a Carboniferous age to part or all of the Talladega slate and other erystal- line rocks in the eastern part of the State. Evidence is presented to show that the con- tact between the Erin shale and the Talladega formation is a thrust fault dipping at a low angle eastward. The Erin shale is exposed by erosion through the overthrust block. The type locality of the Erin shale of east-central Alabama is an area about 6 miles long and less than 1 mile wide. The exposure is in the valley of Talladega Creek along the east base of the Talladega Mountains in Clay County, Ala., about 8 miles northwest of Ashland. The Hillabee chlorite schist and the Ashland mica schist lie east of the Talladega formation (fig. 1). The Wedowee formation is east of the Ashland schist but is not shown on the map. The Erin shale was described in 1903 by E. A. Smith, who consid- ered it a lenticular mass in the Talladega slate, which he called “Ocoee.” Fossil plants were collected by Dr. Smith from the Erin shale and were determined by David White to be of Carboniferous age. Practically all papers treating of the Talladega slate that have appeared since 1903 have assigned a Carboniferous age to at least 1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received March 30, 1935. 2 Smitu, E. A. Science, new ser., 18: 244-246. 1903. 3 JUNE 15, 1935 PARK: ERIN SHALE 277 part of the formation, on the assumption that the Erin shale is strati- graphically enclosed in the Talladega. As a result of study of the rela- tions between the Talladega formation and the crystalline rocks to the east (the Hillabee schist, the Ashland schist, and the Wedowee formation) the several crystalline formations have been assigned to periods ranging from pre-Cambrian to Carboniferous.? Talladega fates if 265 Ue aes Erin “Shale fe Lise *\ Thickness compu- . ted /046 feet. (7 Tn 327 hse r WY gi pin ee ve 428 / / A se Vi A Ge se /Hillabee/ 2% Talladega , l eS _/ chlorite eeu formation 20 50 37 ko 7 schist, b s - VY schist ano ¢. RE, coe veg oe AF KS Pes eZ es Talladega wi 7 Zz CEMIRMIONT oS formation 55 Aw, BE EXPLANATION N °2 Dip and strike of schistosity (ie 25% Dip and strike of bedding ? Thickn gos ex compute . 2 20 feet 474 illabee _-- OO Thrust fault chlorite -~ T Overthrust side A schist -“Ashland y mica schist exy feet A Contact clean and tight e00cit ce. no sign of faulting. s Fig. 1.—Sketch map of part of the Erin shale, showing relation to the Talladega formation. Slightly altered Erin shale is exposed in numerous cuts along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Coast Railroad. This shale is a fine-grained black material that in thin sections shows a few small grains and bands of fine quartz in a carbonaceous matrix. Nothing is seen that would indicate that the rock had been metamorphosed except the 3 Proury, W. F. Geology and mineral resources of Clay County, Ala. Alabama Geol. Survey County Rept. 1: 38-41, 61-63. 1923; Age of Talladega slates of Alabama. Pan- Am. Geologist. 37, n. 5: 363-366. 1922. Apams, G. I. Geology of Alabama. Alabama Geol. Survey Special Rept. 14: 30, 33, 36-39. 1926. Burts, CHARLES, idem, 59-61, 217-219. Brown, J. A., Graphite deposits of Ashland, Ala. Econ. Geology. 20: 208-229. 1925. 278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 6 shale parting planes; no evidence of recrystallization is found. The Talladega formation is, by contrast, a thinly laminated schist com- posed almost entirely of sericite and quartz with a little chlorite; it is much more intensely metamorphosed than the Erin shale and ap- pears to be almost entirely recrystallized. Both the Erin shale and the Talladega formation weather to a white or buff clay, but the out- crops of weathered Talladega schist generally contain some partly al- tered mica. The fact that the Erin shale weathers white or buff indi- cates that the carbon present has not been fixed as graphite. Graphite is a common constituent of the Ashland and Wedowee schists and is known to occur in the Talladega formation. West of the Erin shale the Talladega formation contains beds of quartzite and conglomerate in addition to the schist. There is a discordance in strike between the cleavage in the Erin shale and the schistosity in the Talladega formation, locally amount- ing to nearly 90°. The Talladega formation just east of the eastern contact with the Erin shale is intensely silicified and rises in a cliff that in places is about 30 feet high. The Talladega formation is wedge- shaped in outcrop; near the northeastern border of the area mapped its thickness is about 1,000 feet and near the southwestern border, about 600 feet. This wedge-shaped block has been explained by Adams as the result of a thrust fault between the Talladega forma- tion and the Ashland mica schist to the east. The Hillabee schist is considered to be a basic rock intruded along this thrust plane.* The schistosity in the Talladega is approximately parallel with that in the Hillabee and Ashland schists, but the strikes in the Talladega and the Erin are divergent. It has been stated by Charles Butts that C. W. Hayes considered the Erin shale to be an infolded bed in the Talladega slate. Butts’ notes, however, indicate a fault along the southeast contact of the Erin shale and the Talladega slate, but he states that Hayes’ inter- pretation seems equally probable.’ C. W. Hayes and David White concluded, after field study, that the Erin shales were unconformable with the Talladega slates.° Miss Jonas has recently described and mapped the Erin shale as a fenster in the Talladega slate but does not discuss it in detail.’ 4 Apams, G. I. op. cit., p. 38. ® Burrs, Cuarues. Personal communication, January, 1935. qin H. D. Some gold deposits of Alabama. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 340: a “ Jonas, A. I. Structure of the metamorphic belt of the Southern Appalachians. Am. Jour. Sci. 24: 243. 1932. Geological map of the United States, southeastern quarter. U.S. Geological Survey, 1934. rfl JUNE 15, 1935 MUESEBECK: NEW HYMENOPTERA 279 There is sufficient evidence to indicate a fault between the Talla- dega formation and the Erin shale in this area. The evidence also justifies the suggestion that the Talladega formation has been thrust over the Erin shale along a fault plane that dips slightly eastward (3°-5° as determined by differences in altitude along the contracts). The Erin shale is thought to have been exposed by erosion of the thin overthrust plate, thus forming a window. The faulting along the line of outcrop of the Hillabee schist is considered a complementary thrust fault in the overthrust block. The mineralization along the fault in the Hillabee schist is therefore thought to be post-Erin shale. The assign- ment of part of the Talladega slate and other crystalline rocks in east- ern Alabama to an age as recent as the Carboniferous, on the supposi- tion that the Erin shale is a lenticular mass originally deposited in the Talladega, is believed to be unwarranted by the field relations here described. ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new reared parasitic Hymenoptera, with some notes on synonymy.' C.F. W. Murseseck, Bureau of En- tomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by Haroup Morrison.) The new species described below have been reared in the course of studies in economic entomology. In order to make the names avail- able for use the descriptions are published at this time. SERPHOIDEA SCELIONIDAE Telenomus catalpae, new species In the female sex very similar to sphingis Ashmead, but distinguished by having the occipital carina only very narrowly interrupted at the middle, by the yellowish mouth region, and by the somewhat stouter thorax. In the male sex at once distinguished from all related species by the entirely red- dish-yellow head and thorax. Female.—Length, 1 mm. Head transverse, more than twice as broad as long; viewed from in front much broader than long; eyes finely hairy, rather strongly divergent below; frons smooth, delicately reticulated laterally be- low middle of eyes; malar space half as long as scape; vertex finely reticu- late, punctate and subopaque; ocelli in a low triangle, the lateral ones touch- ing the eyes; temples flat, polished except for a narrow reticulated border along the eyes; antennae 11-segmented; scape not reaching summit of ver- tex; pedicel at least one-third as long as scape; first segment of funicle dis- tinctly a little shorter than pedicel; second and third segments of funicle subequal, shorter than first and barely or not longer than broad; fourth shorter than second or third and about as wide as these; fifth to ninth seg- 1 Received March 20, 1935. 280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 ments forming a distinct club, the fifth much the smallest, strongly trans- verse and somewhat narrower than the following; sixth, seventh and eighth subequal, distinctly somewhat broader than long, the apical segment conical. Thorax narrower than head; mesoscutum evenly convex, minutely reticu- late punctate, finely hairy and subopaque; scutellum smooth and polished; metanotum finely sculptured and opaque at the middle; propodeum with a prominent oblique carina on each side from near middle of base of pro- podeum to a point beyond middle of lateral margin; stigmal vein more than twice as long as marginal and about half as long as postmarginal; submar- ginal vein with about 10 long setae. Abdomen hardly shorter than thorax and nearly as broad, more or less truncate at apex; first tergite four times as broad as long at the middle, smooth and polished except for a row of elongate pits bordering the basal margin; second tergite about one and one-half times as long as broad, smooth and polished except for a row of foveae at the base and a few weak short striulae medially at base; remaining tergites very short; ovipositor sheath slightly exserted. Black; mandibles, clypeus, and a spot between bases of antennae yellow- ish; scape black, pale at apex; remainder of antenna dark brown; all coxae and femora blackish; anterior tibiae pale, the middle and posterior pairs more or less infuscated; tarsi brownish yellow, the apical segment black; wings hyaline. Male.—Essentially like the female except in the structure of the antennae and in color. Antennae 12-segmented; pedicel and basal three flagellar seg- ments subequal, slightly longer than broad, fourth to ninth flagellar seg- ments shorter, moniliform; the apical segment conical. Reddish yellow; an- tennae and legs a little paler; apical half of abdomen more or less blackish. Type locality—Takoma Park, Md. Type.—U. 8. National Museum No. 50795. Host.—Eggs of Ceratomia catalpae Bdv. Described from 32 females and 51 males (type, allotype, and paratypes) reared by J. W. Bulger at the type locality September 27, 1932; and 2 females and 3 males, likewise reared from eggs of C. catalpae, by W. J. Baerg, August 5, 1933, at Fayetteville, Ark. ICHNEUMONOIDEA BRACONIDAE Apanteles epiblemae, new species This species is exceedingly similar to epinotiae Viereck, with which it is easily confused. It may be distinguished from that species, however, by its complete and strong propodeal costulae, by its relatively longer intercubitus, by its more definitely punctate face, mesoscutum, and mesopleurum, by the prominence of the posterior lateral angles of the propodeum, and by its longer ovipositor. Female.—Length, 2.5 mm. Head strongly transverse, temples narrow; face flat, definitely closely punctate and subopaque; malar space equal to basal width of mandible; eyes long; vertex minutely punctate, opaque; ocellocular line and postocellar line subequal, twice the diameter of an ocellus, antennae slightly shorter than body. Thorax, stout, broader than head; mesoscutum finely confluently punc- tate, minutely longitudinally rugulose posteriorly; disk of scutellum longer than broad at base, smooth and polished; polished areas on lateral face of JUNE 15, 1935 MUESEBECK: NEW HYMENOPTERA 281 scutellum very large, triangular, extending nearly to the base; propodeum finely rugulose, with a large, sharply margined median areola which is open at the base and is traversed by several low transverse rugae, and with strong, complete costulae; posterior lateral angles of propodeum very prominent; mesopleurum anteriorly confluently punctate and opaque; first abscissa of radius about one and one-half times as long as transverse cubitus; metacar- pus distinctly longer than stigma; nervellus strongly curved; posterior coxae smooth; inner calcarium of posterior tibia hardly half as long as basitarsus. Abdomen a little narrower than thorax; first tergite considerably longer than broad, nearly parallel sided, truncate at apex, closely rugulose; plate of second tergite strongly transverse, longest at the middle, its median length about one-fourth its apical width, very weakly, indefinitely sculp- tured; third and following tergites polished, the third much longer than the second; ovipositor sheath slender, fully as long as the abdomen and as long as posterior tarsus. Black; palpi pale; anterior legs beyond trochanters testaceous; middle femora apically, middle tibiae and posterior tibiae, except at apex, and mid- dle tarsi, except apical segment, reddish-yellow; tegulae yellowish-white; wings whitish hyaline; stigma hyaline margined with brown; veins mostly hyaline; costa whitish; metacarpus brown. Male.—Like the female in all essential respects; however, the second ter- gite is smoother, the legs, especially the middle and posterior tibiae, are darker; and the antennae are longer than the body. Type locality—Meade County, Kans. Type.—U.S. National Museum No. 50796. Host.—Epiplema strenuana Walker. Described from 7 females and 6 males. The type, allotype, and one male and one female paratype reared in February 1933 from the above-named host at the type locality by Sam G. Kelly; three males and one female from Clark County, Kans., likewise reared by Mr. Kelly in February 1933; one male from Riley County, Kans., and one female from Manhattan, Kans., reared by Mr. Kelly in August 1933; one female from Bridgeville, Del., reared from EH. strenuana by A. O. Baker, August 10, 1933; one female reared from the same host by William Rau Haden at Camden, Del., August 14, 1933; and one female reared from Grapholitha molesta Busck by O. I. Snapp, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, at Fort Valley, Ga., June 16, 1925, under Quaintance No. 21938. In the female paratypes the color of the legs ranges from almost entirely testaceous beyond trochanters to mostly black. Apanteles thujae, new species In my key to the Nearctic species of A panteles? this species runs directly to monticola Ashmead, which it very closely resembles. It may be distin- guished from that species, however, by its somewhat depressed thorax, shorter malar space, punctate scutellum, and the rugulose punctate, rather than more or less striate, sculpture of the basal two abdominal tergites. Female.—Length, 1.8 mm. Head slightly narrower than thorax; eyes a little convergent below; malar space shorter than basal width of mandible; face smooth and shining, with only indistinct setiferous punctures; temples narrow but convex; ocell-ocular line twice diameter of an ocellus; antennae about as long as body. 2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 58: 487. 1920. 282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 Thorax stout, distinctly somewhat depressed; mesoscutum broader than long, opaque, evenly, minutely, and shallowly punctate; suture at base of scutellum very narrow, minutely foveolate; scutellum flat, subopaque, sculp- tured like mesoscutum though more weakly; propodeum convex, more than twice as broad as long, without a median areola, smooth and shining, with only a little weak rugulosity along posterior margin; mesopleurum smooth and polished except anteriorly, where there are some shallow punctures; in- ner calearium of posterior tibia not longer than outer and not quite half as long as metatarsus; stigma slightly shorter than metacarpus; radius issuing from middle of stigma, perpendicular to anterior margin of wing and slightly longer than intercubitus. Abdomen narrower than thorax; chitinized plate of first tergite narrowing a little toward apex, twice as long as broad at apex, gently excavated at base, where it is smooth and polished, the apical two-thirds finely rugulose pune- tate, and with a more or less distinct, though very narrow and shallow, me- dian longitudinal groove on posterior half; lateral membranous margins of first tergite very broad on apical half; plate of second tergite strongly trans- verse, more than three times as broad on posterior margin as long, defined laterally by indistinct oblique grooves, more weakly sculptured than first tergite, its posterior margin straight; following tergites smooth and shining; ovipositor sheath at least as long as posterior femur but hardly as long as posterior tibia, rather strongly broadened toward apex; ovipositor a little decurved at apex. Black; antennae entirely black, also tegulae; apex of anterior femur, more or less of anterior tibia, the anterior and middle tarsi, and posterior tibia at extreme base, yellowish brown; calcaria of tibiae whitish; wings clear hya- line, stigma and veins brown. Male.—Essentially like female, but having antennae considerably longer than body. Type locality—Bar Harbor, Maine. Type.—U.S. National Museum No. 50797. Host.—Recurvaria thujaella Kearfott. Described from seventeen females and one male (Type, allotype, and 16 paratypes) reared by A. E. Brower at type locality July 15-19, 1933, and two females, likewise reared by Dr. Brower, July 8, 1933, at Mt. Desert Island, Maine. (Macrocentrus laspeyresiae Mues.) = Macrocentrus instabilis Mues. Macrocentrus instabilis Muesebeck, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 80: 34. 1932. Macrocentrus laspeyresiae Muesebeck, loc. cit., p. 37 (aew synonymy). Since the publication of the paper in which znstabilis and laspeyresiae were described I have seen a large number of additional specimens, reared from Grapholitha molesta Busck and Carpocapsa pomonella L. This material ex- hibits complete intergradations between typical instabilis and typical las- peyresiae, and has convinced me that the two are merely variants of an ex- tremely variable species. (Aneurobracon Brues) = Mesocoelus Schulz Coelothorax Ashmead (not Coelothorax Anceys). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 4: 165. 1898. | JUNE 15, 1935 DRAKE AND POOR: RUBBER TINGITID 283 Mesocoelus Schulz, Zool. Ann. 4: 88. 1911. Aneurobracon Brues, The African Republic of Liberia and the Belgian Congo, based on the Harvard African Expedition, 2: 1002 (new syn- onymy). Mesocoelus Muesebeck, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 45: 227. 1932. At the time of my brief discussion of this genus I had not seen the paper by Brues in which Aneurobracon was described. His description and figures leave no doubt that the genotypic species, Aneurobracon bequaerti, is con- generic with the genotype of Mesocoelus. It appears to be very similar to philippinensis Mues., but differs in the complete absence of a medius and the slightly longer antennae. ENTOLOMOGY.—An undescribed rubber tingitid from Brazil (He- miptera).1 C.J. Drake and M. E. Poor, Iowa State College. (Communicated by HaroLtp Morrison.) Through the kindness of Mr. H. G. Barber of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, the writers have received a series of 40 specimens of an undescribed species of lace bug from Brazil. The insect was taken in large numbers on the leaves of the rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis Muell. Arg. Leptopharsa heveae, sp. nov. Fieceele Hlongate, moderately broad, whitish. Antennae very long, dark brown to brownish black, clothed with numerous fine, short, pale hairs; segment I long, moderately stout, almost straight, nearly six times as long as II, the latter very short; III very long, slender, nearly straight, two and a half times the length of one; IV very long, slender, scarcely stouter than three, clothed with longer hairs, one and one-half times the length of one. Head brown, largely covered with whitish exudation, armed with five long, pale testaceous spines; frontal spines sub-porrect, blunt, the tips contiguous; me- dian and lateral spines more or less resting on the surface of the head. Buc- culae whitish, reticulate, closed in front. Rostral laminae widely separated on meso- and metanotum; rostrum extending on the basal portion of meso- sternum. Orifice distinct. Body beneath ferrugineous, more or less covered with whitish exudation. Legs long, slender, testaceous, the tarsi darker. Pronotum moderately tumid, deeply and closely pitted, reticulate on triangular portion, tricarinate; me- dian carina thicker and more strongly elevated, without distinct areolae; lateral carinae distinct, sub-parallel, faintly converging posteriorly. Para- nota moderately broad, biseriate, moderately reflexed, the lateral margin rounded and finely serrate. Collum distinct, raised at the middle, reticulate. Calli black, often covered with white exudation. Elytra widening posteriorly, finely serrate along the costal margin, extending considerably beyond tip of abdomen, the areolae not very large and clear; costal area broad, mostly quadriseriate, with five rows at widest part, the areolae not arranged in very regular rows; subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area moderately 1 Received March 22, 1935. 284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 large, faintly impressed, not quite reaching middle of elytra, narrowed at apex, with five to six rows of areolae at widest part; sutural area rather widely reticulated. Wings subequal to abdomen in length. Length, 4.00—4.20 mm.; width, 1.35-1.50 mm. Fig. 1—Leptopharsa heveae sp. nov., type, o. Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Boa Vista Rio Tapajo, Brazil, on leaves of rubber tree, collected by Dr. C. H. T. Townsend. Paratypes, taken with type and from Para, Brazil, on rubber tree, taken by H. W. Moore. Types in U.S. National Museum. This is the first record of a tingitid pest of the rubber plant. It is a very distinct species and probably most closely allied to L. abella Drake from Brazil. From the latter or other closely allied forms, L. heveae may be dis- tinguished by its larger size, white color and wider costal area. The genus Leptopharsa Stal contains about 70 described species, largely from tropical America. BOTANY.—The genus Cremosperma.! C. V. Morton, National Museum. (Communicated by Wiiu1am R. Maxon.) Bentham’s genus Cremosperma has always been considered as doubtfully valid. Thus, Hanstein in his monograph of the family Gesneriaceae? listed it among the dubious genera; Bentham and Hooker? reduced it to a section of Besleria; and Fritsch,’ although he 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived March 11, 1935. 2 Linnaea 34: 429. 1865. JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 285 had seen no specimens, listed it a doubtful genus related to Besleria. Very recently Fritsch’ has described as new Besleria (Cremosperma) cinnabarina, reducing the genus to Besleria outright. For some time I have been engaged in a monographic study of Besleria and have had an opportunity to examine most of the species. During this investigation I came across numerous specimens of Cre- mosperma, which had been variously identified as belonging to the genera Besleria, H'piscia, Achimenes, Tydaea, and Koellikeria, all of which (with the exception of Besleria) are quite remotely related. These specimens, all from the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, were distinguished by a low herbaceous habit and a distinctive racemose- capitate inflorescence, and were obviously congeneric with Bentham’s Cremosperma hirsutissimum. Further study has convinced me that Cremosperma represents a perfectly valid generic type, perhaps of not even very close affinity , with Beslerza in spite of the similar disk and anthers of both. In addi- tion to a very different habit and inflorescence, the species of Cremo- sperma all have small, usually pale-colored corollas with widely flaring limb and usually non-ventricose tube. The usually highly colored corollas of Besleria have a small inconspicuous limb except in the two species belonging to the subgenus Macrobesleria, in which the corolla lobes are larger and patent; in these two species, however, the corolla tube is markedly ventricose and the plants are otherwise very differ- ent from Cremosperma. The calyx also differs from that of any species of Besleria, being turbinate or cylindric-turbinate with short equal lobes and ten conspicuous costae, these in a few species sometimes ob- scured by the dense pubescence. The fruits of Cremosperma will ap- parently afford technical characters of importance also. Those of Besleria are fleshy berries with a thick skin. Bentham originally de- scribed those of Cremosperma as capsules opening by two valves, but an examination of the few mature fruits available indicates rather that they are capsules with thin membranous walls, not really two- valved but rupturing irregularly. I have not been able to study any mature seeds. The number of species must now be increased from two to ten and there are indications that further exploration of Colombia will reveal still others. The species are apparently very local in distribution and many are known from a single collection only. : 3 Genera Plantarum 2: 1016. 1876. 4 Engl. & Prantl. Pflanzenfam. 48>: 159. 1895. 5 Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 11: 976. 1934. 286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 Cremosperma Benth.°® Herbae perennes vel fruticuli perpusilli, caulibus erectis vel adscenden- tibus vel repentibus. Folia opposita vel quaternata, aequalia vel inaequalia, saepe ovata vel elliptica, interdum orbicularia vel oblanceolata, plerumque basi subcordata, saepe hirsuta, petiolata, paucinervata. Inflorescentia race- moso-capitata (vel raro flores solitarii?). Pedunculus communis brevis vel elongatus. Calyx tubulosus, turbinatus vel cylindrico-turbinatus, 10-costa- tus, lobis parvis, erectis, integris, acutis. Corolla alba, flava vel raro rubes- cens vel coccinea (?), parva, tubo cylindrico vel infundibuliformi, lobis mag- nis, patentibus, rotundatis. Stamina 4, didynama, loculis confluentibus. An- nulus hypogynus annularis vel semi-annularis, glandulis discretis nullis. Ovarium glabrum. Capsula subglobosa, membranacea, irregulariter de- hiscens. TypPE SPECIES: Cremosperma hirsutissimum Benth. KEY TO SPECIES Flowers racemose-capitate on a common peduncle. Mostly lowland species. Leaves mostly borne in whorls of 3 or 4, equal, acute at base and apex. Corolla white, the tube ampliate upwardly; calyx lobes deltoid. . LEAS ES Les eee eve te be Cree eae 1. C. pusillum. Leaves opposite, never in whorls. Leaves of a pair unequal, the smaller one much reduced, sometimes auriculiform; corolla tube hardly at all ampliate. Larger leaves oblanceolate, acute at base, glabrate above; calyx lobes ovate-deltoid; disk reduced to a bilobed posterior gland.... Be ee EE eC stn Me oe Ra Bee 2. C. congruens. Larger leaves obliquely oval, obliquely subcordate at base, densely sericeous-pilose above; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate; disk an- STUNDE aes cs A Seca hg: hh eS Re i te gee aie 3. C. cotejense. Leaves of a pair equal, subcordate or rounded at base; corolla tube ampliate (except in C. Castroanum). Calyx glabrous, except for the ciliate lobes, glaucous; common pe- duncle about 10 cm. long; corolla reddish, glabrous........ 2 RECON oe oe is RE cles e Rees enc ee ee 4. C. jucundum. Calyx hirsute or hirsutulous, not glaucous; common peduncle not more than 5 em. long; corolla white or yellow, pilose. Corolla 8-10 mm. long, yellow, the lobes 1.5-2 mm. long. Leaves ovate or elliptic, not tuberculate above. Leaves glabrous above; calyx lobes deltoid, much shorter than Uneicalyx tribes o¢ ets. ae ..5. C. ignotum. Leaves hirsute above; calyx lobes lanceolate, almost equaling the Galyex Miley ct tegen ee yas, ha nee 6. C. Castroanum. Corolla 12-15 mm. long, the lobes 3-6 mm. long. Calyx about 8.5 mm. long. Leaves elongate-tuberculate above, about 4.5 em. long; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate.................. 7. C. nobile. 6 Plant. Hartw. 234. 1846. JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 287 Leaves not tuberculate above, 7.5-8.5 cm. long; calyx lobes ODIGIG et Mae ae eee ee 8. C. hirsutissimum. Calyx about 5.5 mm. long, the lobes ovate, broad. Leaves not tuberculate above, suborbicular, up to 6.2 em. wide; CoLnollagwdanite wer, cqeictrdks sori der ce Cua 9. C. album. Flowers aggregate in the leaf axils, a common peduncle absent. Calyx deeply parted, the lobes lanceolate; corolla deep red. High mountain species. RT SN i a Na SA ae Pr ihe st 10. C. cinnabarinum. 1. Cremosperma pusillum Morton, sp. nov. Frutex pusillus, usque ad 20 em. altus; caules crassi, teretes, hirsuti, inter- nodiis brevissimis, nodis perspicuis; folia ternata vel quaternata, aequalia, parva, lamina anguste elliptica, maxima ca. 20 mm. longa et 7 mm. lata, evidenter crenata, basi apiceque acuta, supra sparse hirsuta, saepe bullata, subtus reticulata, imprimis in nervis villosa (nervis secundariis 4 vel 5 jugis), petiolata, petiolo usque ad 15 mm. longo, hirsuto, gracili; pedunculus com- munis tenuis, usque ad 3 cm. longus, glaber vel sparse pilosus; flores race- moso-capitati, pauci, pedicellis usque ad 4 mm. longis, parce pilosis; calyx campanulatus, ca. 5 mm. longus, sparse pilosus, tubo 2.5-3 mm. longo, lobis deltoideis, obtusis; corolla alba, erecta, tubo cylindrico, ca. 11 mm. longo, ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum ampliato et ca. 4 mm. lato, extus glabro vel parce piloso, lobis magnis, ca. 5 mm. longis et 4 mm. latis, patentibus, rotundatis, utrinque glabris; ovarium glabrum; stylus glaber; discus tenuis, altus, uno latere interruptus; fructus deest. Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected at Tambo de Savanilla, probably Province of Narifio, Colombia, Dec. 18, 1876, by E. André (no. 4572); dupli- cate in the New York Botanical Garden. A second collection of this species is Kalbreyer 1470, in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of Antioquia, Colombia. This agrees in all particulars with the André speci- mens. Easily distinguishable by its very small ternate or quaternate leaves, in contrast to strictly opposite leaves of the other species. A somewhat larger specimen collected in Ecuador by Jameson appears varietally distinct: var. ecuadorense Morton, var. nov. Differt a var. typica foliis majoribus (usque ad 5.3 em. longis et 2.7 cm. latis), magis hirsutis, calycibus longioribus (ca. 9 mm. longis) et disco an- nulari nec interrupto. Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected on Mt. Pichincha, Ecuador, ca. 1,800 meters altitude, Jan. 21, 1856, by W. Jameson. 2. Cremosperma congruens Morton, sp. nov. Herba parva, usque ad 15 cm. alta; caules teretes, strigosi, internodiis brevibus; folia opposita, cujusve paris saepe valde inaequalia, alterum lamina oblanceolata, usque ad 3.5 em. longa et 1.4 em. lata, apicem versus serrata, acuta, basi attenuata, supra primum parce pilosa, mox glabrata, subtus imprimis in nervis strigosa (nervis secundariis ca. 6 jugis), petiolata (petiolo brevi, usque ad 3 mm. longo, strigoso), alterum parvum vel auri- 288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 culiforme, lanceolatum, integrum, vix petiolatum; pedunculus communis tenuis, usque ad 27 mm. longus, glaber vel parce pilosus; flores racemoso- capitati, pedicellis brevibus vel usque ad 7 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx tur- binatus, 4.5 mm. longus, sericeo-strigosus, tubo 3.5-4 mm. longo. intus glabro, lobis ovato-deltoideis, obtusis; corollae tubus erectus, cylindricus, ca. 7 mm. longus et 1.5 mm. latus sursum non ampliatus, extus pilosus, lobis magnis, ca. 3 mm. longis et 2 mm. latis, patentibus, rotundatis; filamenta libera, glabra; antherae parvae, connatae; ovarium globossum, glabrum; stylus glaber; stigma capitatum; discus in glandulam posticam bilobam re- ductus. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,185,005, collected at Paime, Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, altitude about 1,000 meters, by Brother Ariste Joseph (no. A923). There is in the Hooker Herbarium at Kew another specimen of this species collected at the same locality by Goudot. 3. Cremosperma cotejense Morton, sp. nov. Herba parva, usque ad 30 cm. alta; caules crassi, teretes, sparse pilosi; folia herbacea, cujusve paris valde inaequalia, alterum oblique ovale, usque ad 6 cm. longum et 2.5 em. latum, serratum, apice acutum, basi oblique sub- cordatum, supra dense pilosum, subtus imprimis in nervis pilosum (nervyis secundariis ca. 4 jugis), petiolatum, petiolis gracilibus, usque 12 mm. longis, alterum auriculiforme, ca. 8 mm. longum, parum serratum, vix acutum, basi subcordatum, vix petiolatum; pedunculus communis usque ad 2.5 em. longus gracilis, sparse pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevissimis, ca. 2 mm. longis, gracilibus, sparse pilosis; calycis tubus ca. 2 mm. longus, an- gustus, extus hirsutus, intus glaber, lobis lineari-lanceolatis, ca. 2mm. longis, hirsutis; corollae tubus ca. 4 mm. longus, ca. 1 mm. latus, anguste cylind- ricus, sursum vix ampliatus, glaber, in calyce inclusus, lobis ca. 3 mm. longis, patentibus, albis, extus pilosis; antherae in fauce dispositae, connatae, par- vae; filamenta glabra; ovarium glabrum; stylus glaber; discus annularis, in- teger, glaber; fructus deest. Type in herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected in dense, damp forests around Coteje on Rio Timbiqué, Province of Cauca, Colombia, altitude 100-500 meters, by F. C. Lehmann (no. 8888). Lehmann’s field note reads as follows: ‘‘Stems up to 30 em. in length, poorly ramified, procumbent at base. Leaves soft herbaceous, black-green, on the upper side with a greasy sheen. Flowers white.” : 4. Cremosperma jucundum Morton, sp. nov. Herba vix 15 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, lanati; folia opposita, fere aequalia, lamina ovata, usque ad 10 cm. longa et 6 cm. lata, membranacea, leviter crenata, apice rotundata, basi subcordata, supra hirsuta, paullulum bullata vel tuberculata, subtus imprimis in nervis lanata, nervis secundariis ca. 6 jugis; petiolus brevis, usque ad 7 mm. longus, crassus, dense hirsutus; pedunculus communis elongatus, usque ad 10 em. longus, gracilis, hirsutus; flores racemosi-capitati, numerosi, pedicellis ca. 6 mm. longis, fere glabris, glaucescentibus, apice incrassatis; calyx campanulato-turbinatus, ca. 4.5 mm. longus, glaber, glaucus, lobis deltoideis, ciliatis; corolla rubescens, glabra, ca. 11 mm. longa, tubo cylindrico, sursum gradatim ampliato, non ventricoso, lobis magnis, patentibus, rotundatis; ovarium glabrum; discus annularis, integer, glaber. JUNE 15, 1935 MORTON: GENUS CREMOSPERMA 289 Type in the Kew Herbarium, collected in the Province of Antioquia, Colombia, in 1879, by Kalbreyer (no. 1821). Kalbreyer’s field note reads: “Herb in tufts; leaf blackish-green with velvety lustre; flowers in umbels, reddish. Forest shade, 2,700—3,000 feet.” 5. Cremosperma ignotum Morton, sp. nov. Herba parva, usque ad 9 em. alta, caules perbreves, lanati; folia opposita, cujusve paris aequalia, elliptica, maxima 5.8 em. longa et 3.2 (raro 3.8) cm. lata, membranacea, integra vel parum denticulata, apice acuta vel rotun- data, basi subcordata, supra glabra, subtus imprimis in nervis appresso- pubescentia (nervis secundariis ca. 4 jugis), breviter petiolata, petiolo crasso, ca. 7mm. longo, lanato; pedunculus communis tenuis, usque ad 4 em. longus, ‘fere glaber vel parce pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevibus vel usque ad 3.5 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx turbinatus, ca. 3.5 mm. longus, 10- costatus, imprimis in costis strigosus, tubo ca. 2.5 mm. longo, lobis ca. 1 mm. longis, deltoideis, acutis, paullulum inaequalibus; corolla flava, 8-10 mm. longa, extus parce pilosa, tubo cylindrico, fauce ampliato, lobis ca. 2 mm. longis, patentibus, rotundatis; antherae parvae, connatae; ovarium glabrum; discus annularis, altus, integer; fructus deest. Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, no. 642,556, collected in forest along Rio Caballete, Santa Rosa, Dagua Val- ley, Department of El Valle, Colombia, altitude 200-300 meters, Sept. 22, 1922, by E. P. Killip (mo. 11540). A duplicate is in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. 6. Cremosperma Castroanum Morton, sp. nov. Herba erecta, usque ad 20 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, dense hirsuti; folia opposita, aequalia, lamina ovata vel elliptica, usque ad 9.5 em. longa et 6 cm. lata, membranacea, dentata, apice late obtusa vel rotundata, basi rotundata, supra hirsuta, plana, subtus pilosa, nervis secundariis ca. 5 jugis; petiolus usque ad 3 em. longus, hirsutus; pedunculus communis usque ad 5 em. longus, tenuis, pilosus; flores racemoso-capitati, numerosi, pedicellis brevissimis, 2—2.5 mm. longis, pilosis; calyx eylindrico-turbinatus, ca. 5 mm. longus, hirsutus, intus glaber, lobis lanceolatis, tubum fere aequantibus; corolla flava, parva (usque ad 8.5 mm. longa), sparse pilosa, tubo cylindrico, ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum vix ampliato, lobis semioblongis, 1.5 mm. longis, rotundatis, patentibus; filamenta tenuia, glabra; antherae parvae; ovarium glabrum, stylus glaber; stigma capitatum; discus annularis, brevis, integer, glaber. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,517,374, collected at Tutun- endo, 20 kilometers north of Quibd6, Intendencia de Chocé, Colombia, alti- tude 80 meters, May 19-20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2151). I have seen the following additional collections, all from the Intendencia de Choco: Triana 2546; R. B. Whites. n.; La Concepcion, 15 kilometers east of Quibddé, Archer 1998, 1970. Named in honor of Senor Rudolfo Castro, of Quibdé, who was of great assistance to Dr. Archer during his stay in Colombia. Similar in aspect to C. album Morton, with which it grows, but easily dis- tinguishable by its very small yellow corollas. The corolla tube is cylindric and hardly at all widened upwardly. The larger, white corollas of C. album have a markedly ampliate corolla tube and very wide throat. 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 7. Cremosperma nobile Morton, sp. nov. Herba parva, vix 20 em. alta; caules crassi, teretes, dense lanati; lamina foliorum ovata, maxima ca. 4.5 em. longa et 3 em. lata, plus minusve crassa, apice acuta, basi rotundata, perspicue crenata, supra hirsuta, elongato- tuberculata, subtus hirsuta, nervis secundariis 5-8 jugis; petiolus erassus, usque ad 2 em. longus, dense lanatus; pedunculus communis crassus, brevis, ca. 12 mm. longus, dense lanatus; flores racemoso-capitati, pedicellis brevis- simis, paucis, hirsutis; calycis tubus ca. 3.5 mm. longus, extus hirsutus, intus glaber, lobis lineari-lanceolatis, ca. 5 mm. longis, acuminatis, extus hirsutis; corollae tubus gracilis, ca. 8 mm. longus, anguste cylindricus, ca. 1 mm. latus, sursum gradatum ampliatus, ca. 1.5 mm. latus, glaber, lobis magnis, ca. 6 mm. longis, patentibus, extus pilosis; ovarium cylindricum, glabrum; discus annularis, integer, glaber; fructus deest. Type in herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at Armada, Province of Narifio, Colombia, May 22, 1876, by E. André (no. K43). A peculiar species by reason of the elongate-tuberculate upper surfaces of the leaves, in which respect it is analogous to Besleria princeps Hanst. 8. CREMOSPERMA HIRSUTISSIMUM Benth. Plant. Hartw. 234. 1846. Founded on a Hartweg specimen collected in the Andes of Popaydan, Colombia. This, the type species of the genus, has not since been recollected. 9. Cremosperma album Morton, sp. nov. Herba repens, usque ad. 20 cm. alta; caules teretes, crassi, hirsuti; folia opposita, aequalia, lamina suborbiculari, maxima ca. 9 em. longa et 6.2 em. lata, membranacea, apice dentata vel subintegra, late rotundata, basi sub- cordata, supra hirsuta, subtus imprimis in nervis hirsuta, nervis secundariis ca. 5 jugis; petiolus crassus, hirsutus, usque ad 2.2 em. longus; pedunculus communis usque ad 4 em. longus, dense hirsutus; flores racemoso-capitati, numerosi, pedicellis brevibus, 1.5-3.5 mm. longis, hirsutis; calyx late tur- binatus, ca. 5.5 mm. longus, hirsutus, lobis ovatis, latis; corolla alba, 12-15 mm. longa, pilosa, tubo basi cylindrico, ca. 2 mm. lato, sursum subito am- pliato et 8 mm. lato, lobis magnis, ca. 3 mm. longis, patentibus, late rotunda- tis, ovarium glabrum; discus annularis, altus, irregulariter erosus, glaber. Type in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, no. 642,503, collected at Cordoba, Dagua Valley, Department of El Valle, Colombia, altitude 80-100 meters, May 8, 1922, by E. P. Killip (no. 5242). Duplicates in the Gray Herbarium, the herbarium of the New York Bo- tanical Garden, and the U. 8. National Herbarium. An additional specimen was collected in the Intendencia de Chocé by Triana. 10. Cremosperma cinnabarinum (Fritsch) Morton, comb. nov. Besleria (Cremosperma) cinnabarina Fritsch, Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin. 11. 976. 1934. Type collected in glades of dense forests in the Montafa de Caramanta, Dept. of El Valle, Colombia, August, 1891, altitude 2,300-2,600 meters, by F. C. Lehmann (no. 7441). JUNE 15, 1935 COVILLE AND MORTON: A NEW MAURANDIA 291 The present species, of which I have seen no material, may not be con- generic with those above described, the axillary flowers, as well as the corolla color, being anomalous. The habit also is apparently different, the stem be- ing described as up to one meter long, whereas the stems of none of the other species exceed 30 cm. in length. Lehmann’s note is as follows: ‘‘ Weed with fleshy stems up to 1 m. in height. Leaves dull yellow green. Flowers light vermilion.”’ BOTAN Y.—A new species of Maurandia from Death Valley.:. Frep- ERICK V. CoviLLE and C. V. Morton, U. S. Nationat HEr- BARIUM. The genus Maurandia of the family Scrophulariaceae consists, ac- cording to the monograph? by Prof. P. A. Munz of Pomona College, of eight species, all natives of Mexico with the exception of M. antir- rhiniflora H. & B., a peculiar species which has been shifted back and forth between Maurandia and Antirrhinum for many years. At the time of publication of this monograph M. antirrhiniflora was the only species known from the United States, but shortly thereafter a second species, M. acerifolia® Pennell, was described from Arizona. During the course of field work in Death Valley under the auspices of the National Geographic Society the senior author in company with Mr. M. French Gilman found a plant of this alliance which at first was considered to represent a new generic type, because of its one-celled ovaries and capsules. Later collections by Mr. Gilman have shown, however, that occasionally both cells of the ovary are fully developed and fertile. It has seemed best, therefore, to consider this plant, de- spite its peculiar characters, as a new species of Maurandia, although future studies may show that it is as distinct generically as Hpiai- phium and Rhodochiton, monotypic genera segregated from Mau- randia. That our knowledge of the flora of the arid Southwest is as yet far from complete is well shown by the fact that the only yellow-flowered species of Maurandia known, viz., M. flaviflora, M. acerifolia, and M. petrophila, have all been discovered within the last few years. M. petrophila does not resemble the other two very closely. The original specimens were growing in a crevice of the north-fac- ing, vertical rock wall of Titus Canyon, composed at that point of a almost white limestone. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived April 30, 1935. 2 The Antirrhinoideae-Antirrhineae of the New World. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. IV. 15: 323-397. 1926. 3 This JOURNAL 19: 69. 1929. 292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 PLANTS OF DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA TG FREDERICK V. COVILLE * > aa? Ne 5 gs od M. FRENCH GILMAN } Cottec tors Apcieed > 1932 Maurandia petrophila Coville & Morton, sp. nov. (Type specimen; about two-thirds natural size) Maurandia petrophila Coville & Morton, sp. nov. Section Lophospermum. Herba perennans, erecta, usque ad 17 cm. alta, basi ramosa; caules pallido-virides, ca. 2mm. diametro, villosuli, pilis hya- linis articulatis eglandulosis, internodiis saepissime brevibus; folia alterna, petiolata, petiolis usque ad 3 em. longis, villosulis, apice dilatatis; laminae a JUNE 15, 19385 COVILLE AND MORTON: A NEW MAURANDIA 293 ambitu suborbiculares, usque ad 3 cm. longae et latae, membranaceae, pal- lido-virides, basi in petiolum attenuatae, apice rotundatae vel acutae, mar- gine irregulariter et acriter spinuloso-dentatae, utrinque molliter villosulae; flores in axillis foliorum solitarii, pedicellati, pedicellis brevissimis; calycis segmenta fere libera, lineari-lanceolata, per anthesin usque ad 15 mm. longa et 2.5 mm. lata, acuminata, margine valde spinulosa, pallido-viridia, utrin- que villosula; corolla lutea, tubulosa, usque ad 3.5 cm. longa, basi non saccata, tubo ca. 5 mm. lato, extus fere glabro vel apicem versus villosulo, intus glabro vel pilis paucis hyalinis praedito, sursum gradatim ampliato, fauce 7-9 mm. lato, plicis duobus aurantiacis vix puberulis instructo, lobis patentibus, magnis, usque 9 mm. longis, imbricatis, basi paullulum angusta- tis, apice late rotundatis, integris; stamina 4, didynama, inclusa, filamentis sparse stipitato-glandulosis, apice recurvatis, antheris semicircularibus, locu- lis explanatis, discretis, glabris; staminodium nullum; ovarium glabrum, ovoideum; stylus tenuis, glaber; discus hypogynus brevis, annularis; cap- sula sphaeroidea, ca. 9 mm. diametro, glabra, stylo peristente coronata, uni- locularis (loculo altero abortivo, sterili) vel rarissime bilocularis, placenta magna intrusa persistente, irregulariter apice dehiscens, textura mem- branacea; semina numerosa, subpyramidalia, ca. 2.5 mm. longa, 2mm. apice lata, pallido-flava vel cinerea, apice alulis brevissimis non nunquam trans- versalibus praedita, dense tuberculata, tuberculis spongiosis, in lineis irregu- laribus longitudinalibus dispositis. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,565,465, collected in Titus Canyon, Grapevine Mountains, Death Valley, California, April 25, 1932, at 2100 feet elevation, by Frederick V. Coville and M. French Gilman (no. 441). Mr. Gilman has since collected this species at the type locality, on April 17 and April 29, 1984 (Gilman nos. 1108 and 1195 respectively). The following key will serve to separate the present species from M. acerifolia: Leaves conspicuously spinulose, suborbicular; pedicels very short; corolla up to 35 mm. long; calyx lobes linear-lanceolate, spinulose; seeds pale, ASO UG RRO RIVMIN OIG ens rele oh statue Sei an See rcam set rete M. petrophila. Leaves shallowly dentate or lobed, cordate or reniform; pedicels 10-20 mm. long; corolla up to 22 mm. long; calyx lobes triangular-ovate, entire; seeds gray or blackish, 1-1.5 mm. long....... M. acerifolia. 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Notes U.S. Department of Agriculture.—A systematic search for the best existing strains of cultivated plants and domestic animals has been undertaken by the Department, in cooperation with the 48 state agricultural experiment stations, genetics research institutions in foreign countries, and private plant and animal breeders. The initial task undertaken is the compiling of a cata- log of plant and animal superior germ plasms. A committee under the chair- manship of O. E. Rreep, chief of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, and includ- ing Dr. A. F. BLAKESLEE of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, is now assembling and analyzing a mass of data from experiment stations and else- where. The results of this analysis will appear in the 1936 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. The next step will be to concentrate on those plant and animal problems most capable of solution by genetic improve- ment, and to work out effective research methods. The final step involves distribution of breeding stocks to the best possible advantage. U. S. National Park Service—Late in April Assistant Director HaroLp C. Bryant made a tour of inspection of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park with a view to laying the ground work for educational activities to be carried on when that area receives full national park status. It is the opinion that trips afield to study plant and animal life will become very popular with visitors because of the wide variety and unique forms to be found there. Park naturalist ArTHuUR StupKa of Acadia National Park has been de- tailed to the National Capital Parks Office for a period of six weeks to in- stitute a series of educational programs similar to those given last Spring. A complete series of field trips and campfire programs in Rock Creek Park has been arranged. National Bureau of Standards.—Dr. Lyman J. Brices, Director of the National Bureau of Standards, is serving as chairman of the advisory com- mittee of the 1935 stratosphere flight, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and the U. S. Army Air Corps. Dr. Brices left Wash- ington on May 28, to deliver the baccalaureate address at the South Dakota State School of Mines, Rapid City, S. D., on May 30, before proceeding to the stratocamp in time to supervise the final arrangements for the flight which will take place on the first favorable opportunity after June first. Dr. F. L. Mouuer of the optics division of the National Bureau of Stand- ards spent the week of May 5 in Rochester, N. Y., for the purpose of in- specting the two spectrographs which will be used in the 1935 stratosphere flight. The National Geographic Society has asked Dr. Mouuer to be pres- ent at the stratocamp to make the final adjustments of these instruments. Dr. W. G. BromBacuer is at the stratocamp at Rapid City, South Da- kota, at the invitation of the National Geographic Society to assist in the installation of the instruments for measuring air pressure and air tempera- ture. The instruments to be installed on the stratosphere balloon include a resistance thermometer, a U-tube type mercurial barometer about 6 inches high and a precision aneroid barometer of unusual design constructed this year. Dr. BROMBACHER will also serve as the directing official for the Na- tional Aeronautic Association through which organization certification is JUNE 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 295 made of the altitude attained in order to obtain international recognition. Dr. H. C. Dicxrnson, chief of the heat and power division, has been ap- pointed to represent the National Bureau of Standards in connection with the organization of a sectional committee under A. S. A. procedure on stand- ards for the inspection of motor vehicles, at the invitation of the American Standards Association of New York City. U.S. Geological Survey—The Interior Department through the Geological Survey has released the regular report of monthly and annual production of electricity for public use in the United States for 1934. This report shows for each State the monthly production of electricity for public use by the use of water power and the use of fuel and the amount of coal, oil, and gas consumed in generating electricity. The total production in 1934 was 91,150,000,000 kilowatt-hours, an increase of 6.7 per cent over the output for 1933 which in turn was 2.7 per cent above the total output for 1932. The output for 1934 was 6.4 per cent less than the record output of 97,352,000,000 kilowatt-hours in 1929. George Washington University and Carnegie Institulion of Washington.— A conference on theoretical physics was held in Washington, D. C., on April 19, 20, and 21, under the joint auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington and the George Washington University. This was the first of a series which it is hoped may be held annually in Washington. The discussions at this first conference were devoted to various topics in nuclear physics. Re- searches in this field are being conducted at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Institution and George Washington University. In addition to interested men of science from Washington, the following were present: G. Breit, University of Wisconsin; E. U. Conpon and R. LApDENBURG, Princeton University; P. A. M. Dirac, Princeton and Cam- bridge universities; S. Goupsmit and G. E. Ustenseck, University of Michigan, A. Lanp&, Ohio State University; L. Norpurim, Purdue Uni- versity; H. A. Breton, Cornell University; G. Brcx, University of Kansas, I. I. Rasi, Columbia University; O. StprN and 8. A. Youne, Carnegie In- stitute of Technology; J. H. Barruett, University of Illinois; D. R. IneuIs, University of Pittsburgh; E. Frrnspure, Harvard University; W. K. Houston, California Institute of Technology; E. O. Lawrencz, Univer- sity of California; Lro Sziuarp, Oxford University; L. H. Gray, Cambridge University. News Briers The quick healing of bad wounds brought about by fly larvae introduced into them is at least partly due to the secretion of allantoin by the larvae, Dr. Witu1aM Rosinson of the Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, has discovered. Allantoin has long been used in the treatment of ulcers and infected wounds. The School of Medicine of George Washington University announces the acceptance of several grants for various research projects as follows: From the Rockefeller Foundation the sum of $25,500 in support of studies in the department of biochemistry; a renewal of the Kane-Kotz Fund of $1,700 for studies on clinical endocrinology in the department of obstetrics and gyne- cology; from the Eli Lilly Company the sum of $1,200 for a fellowship in biochemistry, and a grant of $1,800 for the study of the post-pituitary hormones from Parke, Davis and Company. 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 6 PERSONAL ITEMS Dr. Frank Rarrray Litwin, of the University of Chicago and the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory and Oceanographic Institute, has been elected President of the National Academy of Sciences and Chairman of the National Research Council. Dr. IsatAH Bowman, retiring Chairman of the National Research Coun- cil, has been elected President of the Johns Hopkins University. Dr. Vernon Kewuoae, Secretary Emeritus of the National Research Council, was elected Honorary Vice President of Science Service upon his retirement from the board of trustees of that Institution. New trustees elected are: Dr. Hartow SuHap.ey, director of Harvard College Observa- tory, representing the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. Hunry B. Warp, permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, representing that institution, and Dr. Lupvig Hexrosmn, director of the John McCormick Institution for Infectious Diseases, representing the National Research Council. At the commencement exercises of Washington College, Chestertown, Maryland, the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on Dr. Joun M. H. RowLanpD, dean of the Medical School of the University of Maryland, and on Dr. Ropert L. Swarn, Deputy Commissioner of Food and Drugs of Maryland and past president of the American Pharmaceutical Society. The Walter Rathbone Bacon traveling scholarship of the Smithsonian In- stitution has been awarded to Dr. RicHarp E. BLAcKWELDER of the U. 8. National Museum, for an intensive study of the staphylinid beetles of the West Indies. CONTENTS ORIGINAL Papprs Biology.—Biology and human trends. RAYMOND PHARL.................++ ; 4 253 ; Pharmacology.—The toxicity for sheep of water solutions of hydrocyanic acid — and the effectiveness of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy. ; James F. Coucn, A. B. CLawson and H. Buny@a.. dis ate he kee Geology.—Notes on the structure of the Erin shale of Alabama. C.F. pad ane) Entomology.—Three new reared parasitic Hymenoptera, with some notes on aia synonymy. C.F. W. MuUnsmRECK, Jit: ach tht J ee ee : Entomology.—An undescribed rubber tingitid from Brazil (Hemiptera). Cc J Drake and M. E. POOR: = ties oes ots 5s agh 2a tien sae sie ate ‘ Botany.—The genus Cremosperma. C. V. MorRTON...........es0s0-- ey oh Botany.—A new species of Maurandia from Death ‘Valley. _FREDERICE Covina and. O.: V-GMORTON 2. divs Cooks, C. W. Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. (in course of publication). 5 Wentworth, C. K. The fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site, Connecticut Ave. and DeSales St., Washington, D.C. This JourNat 14: 1-11. 1924. 334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY 265TH MEETING The 265th meeting was held at the Kennedy-Warren Apts., April 2, 1935. Program: Wm. H. Wuston, JR.: Recent advances in our knowledge of the sexuality of certain lower fungi. Since Blakeslee in his epoch-making paper of 1904 first recognized, demonstrated, and defined heterothallism in the Mucorales, the experimental period in the study of sexuality in the fungi which he ushered in has been notable chiefly for the discovery of this condi- tion by other workers, not only in other groups of Phycomycetes but also in the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Recently, however, a much more complex sexual condition of hermaphroditism involving self sterility with cross fertility toward compatible opposites has been found to obtain in certain Ascomycetes and has been worked out in detail in Sclerotinia, where the ascospores are uninucleate and there is a consequent segregation of compatibility or fertility therein; and in Pleurage, where the normal binu- cleate ascospores involve the somewhat more complex situation of the presence in the same binucleate spore of two hermaphroditic entities, each self sterile but reciprocally cross fertile. This condition is much more com- plex than either the homothallism or heterothallism recognized by Blakeslee, as each individual is not one single separate sex, either male or female ex- clusively, but is hermaphroditiec with highly specialized and differentiated male and femal sex organs and a definite self sterility and cross fertility, the situation on the whole resembling that in some of the flowering plants. This illuminating condition found in the Ascomycetes is of course too com- plex to cast any light on the more primitive condition from which these more elaborate ones have evolved. As might be expected, we must turn for such primitive phylogenetically significant situations to the aquatic Phycomy- cetes. Here Kniep, in Allomyces javanicus, has found a condition more primi- tive and hence probably of more phylogenetic significance, a condition of hermaphroditism with self fertility between heterogamous planogametes distinctively different in size, color and activity and borne in definitely ar- ranged gametangia, notably dissimilar in size and shape. This interesting condition has been corroborated by Hatch in A. arbuscula and by Emerson and Weston in other tropical species of the genus. The situation presents a close parallel to that revealed by recent studies in the green algae and is of interest in bridging the gap between the isogamous planogametic fusions in some of the Chytridiales and the hitherto anomalous situation of oogamy in Monoblepharis involving large non-motile eggs and small motile sperms. Of the several examples considered in this discussion these two, at least, give the impression that far more significant and interesting sexual condi- tions are to be found in the lower fungi than might have been expected from consideration of the classic situations defined as heterothallism and homo- thallism by Blakeslee thirty years ago. SPECIAL MEETING A special meeting was held April 24, 1935, in the Auditorium of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, President Wm. W. Dreut presiding. Program: L. O. Kunxeu.—Plant viruses (illustrated). Some recent ad- JuLY 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 335 vances in studies on plant virus diseases have been made possible by the discovery that primary lesions are produced by the virus of tobacco mosaic and by many other viruses, that large numbers of closely related strains of viruses are prevalent in nature, and that any one strain of a virus protects against other strains of the same virus, but not against any other virus. Necrotic primary lesions produced by the virus of tobacco mosaic on leaves of Nicotiana glutinosa and Phaseolus vulgaris are conspicuous and easy to count. The number of lesions that appear following inoculation with any sample of virus furnishes a measure of the infectivity of the sample, and therefore indicates the concentration of virus in the sample. This method of measuring concentration facilitates quantitative studies on the tobacco- mosaic virus. By choosing appropriate test plants, the method becomes applicable for quantitative studies on a considerable number of other plant viruses. Many different plant virus diseases have been recognized and studied. The several diseases have usually been distinguished by characteristic symptom differences. The discovery that a large number of different strains of tobacco- mosaic virus may be isolated from bright yellow spots that occur on the leaves of plants having ordinary tobacco mosaic, and similarly that yellow strains of cucumber mosaic may be isolated from plants having ordinary cucumber mosaic, has focused attention on virus relationships. Recognition of these relationships has simplified certain virus disease problems. Tobacco plants infected with any one of a large number of different strains of tobacco-mosaic virus become immune from other strains of this virus. They are not immune from cucumber-mosaie virus, or from other viruses to which tobacco plants are susceptible. Similarly, tobacco plants infected with any one of several different strains of cucumber-mosaic virus become im- mune to other strains of this virus, but are not immune from tobacco- mosaic virus, or from other viruses to which tobacco is susceptible. The immune reaction is specific and furnishes a dependable means for the identi- fication and classification of plant viruses and the diseases they produce. Little is known regarding the nature of immunity from virus diseases ac- quired by plants, but the discovery that peach-yellows virus in diseased peach trees can be destroyed by heat treatment that does not injure the trees has furnished favorable material for further work on this phenomenon. (Author’s abstract.) Earu B. McKinury.—Animal viruses (illustrated). 266TH MEETING The 266th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, May 7, 1935, President Dieu presiding; attendance 75. The following were elected to membership: CoRABEL Biren, ARNOLD 8. Daunu, Juan B. DEMAREE, Lorenzo D. Eacurs, CHARLES R. ENtow, Lewis A. FLETCHER, D. Victor Lumsprn, Eucenr May, Max A. McCauu, Exvizaseru R. PENDLETON, SHIO SAKANISHI, Dean R. WIckKEs. Program: ANNIE M. Hurp-Karrer.—Plant physiology involved in the problem of the selenium disease of livestock. Sulphur or sulphate applications to soil containing selenium so reduced the amount of selenium entering wheat plants as to render their grain non-toxic to rats, the selenized control plots without sulphur yielding toxic grain which produced the typical selenium disease on the rats of parallel feeding tests. Other factors influencing selen- ium absorption by wheat were type of soil and form of selenium. The selen- 336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7 ates are more toxic than the selenites, and of the former, the potassium salt was invariably less toxic than those of sodium and calcium. The selenates produce a white chlorosis and pink coloration of the leaves. The selenites on the other hand do not ordinarily produce this chlorosis, but often cause the roots to become reddened. The theory is advanced that the selenites are the more easily reduced in the root, borne out by the fact that more selenium gets into the tops in the case of the selenates. Plants with a high sulphur requirement, notably the Cruciferae, take up the most selenium, and those with the lowest sulphur requirement, certain of the Gramineae, absorb the least. Other crops tested were intermediate, the rate of absorption of the two elements varying together. A theory is proposed to explain the quantitative aspects of the selenium-sulphur antagonism, which suggests the possibility that the toxicity of a non-essential element may in general be conditioned by the relative availability of an essential element sufficiently similar chemi- cally to permit substitution in some synthesized compound and to preclude discrimination by the root. (Author’s abstract.) J. E. McMurrrey.—Distinctive effects of deficiency of certain essential elements on the growth of tobacco plants. This is a report of the distinctive deficiency effects of N, P, K, Mg, Ca, B, 8, Fe and Mn on the growth of tobacco plants. A deficiency of nitrogen is shown by the whole plant assum- ing a light green color, with more or less yellowing and drying up or “‘firing”’ of the lower leaves to a light brown color. A shortage of phosphorus on the contrary, produces a plant that is abnormally dark green in color with in some instances a yellowing or drying up of the lower leaves to a greenish brown to black color. A shortage of potassium and magnesium in contrast with nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency results in localized effects, with chlorosis of the lower leaves as the dominant characteristic. Typical potas- sium hunger is distinguished from magnesium hunger by the appearance of small necrotic spots or specks at the tips and margins of the chlorotic leaves in the case of the former. In contrast with the deficiency effects of the above elements which are general or occur on the older or lower leaves, are those typically occurring on the new growth or bud leaves and caused by deficiency in Fe, Mn, §, B, or Ca. A deficiency of Fe, Mn or S produce characteristic chlorosis on the younger leaves. The chlorosis resulting from shortages of Fe or Mn resemble each other in that the veins tend to retain their green color but in the case of the latter a necrotic spotting occurs scattered over the leaf which is not true with Fe chlorosis. The chlorosis resulting from $ deficiency differs from those just mentioned in that the veins are lighter green in color than the tissue between the veins. A shortage of Ca first be- comes apparent as a peculiar hooking downward of the tips of the young leaves composing the bud, followed by a breaking down of these leaves at the tips and margins. If later growth takes place, the tips and margins show a cut out appearance. In contrast with these effects, a deficiency of boron produces a light green color at the base of the young leaves of the bud, fol- lowed by a breakdown, which, if not too severe is followed by later growth, thus causing the young leaves to become distorted or twisted at their bases. The tip of the leaf usually remains alive for some time after the base has broken down. The final result with extreme shortages of boron and calcium is the death of the terminal bud. The foregoing contrasts have served as a basis ae construction of a key to the deficiency effects studied. (Author’s abstract. M. A. Rarnes.—Some experiments with roots. The elongation of the young JULY 15, 19385 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 337 radicles of many plants varies consistently, and under many environmental conditions quite sensitively. The amount of elongation (conveniently ex- pressed as a ratio comparative to the elongation in water-saturated air, as a readily reproducible control condition) promises to have value in descrip- tions of and specifications for environmental conditions and root-environ- mental relationships. Radicles for test purposes are obtained by germinating seeds on strips of blotting paper which are suspended in a moist chamber, with the upper ends of the strips dipping into a water trough, so that they are kept moist by capillarity downwards. The seeds are held in position on the strips of blotting paper by means of pieces of wet absorbent tissue paper. Representative data are given of the elongation ratios of the radicles of lentil, tomato, squash, cress, green pea, and wheat under a variety of com- mon experimental conditions. Test interval, 24 hours; volume of test solution 10 ml. per radicle. Disturbances were regularly caused in the elongation of some radicles (notably lentil, tomato, squash, cress, by such substances as “‘vaseline,” paraffine, and white mineral oil coming into contact with the water in which the roots were growing. Other substances found to cause dis- turbances in root elongation were lubricating oils, waxes, asphalt, resins, metals, and plant products such as sawdust. In addition, the roots were affected in their growth by the vapors given off at ordinary room tempera- tures (25°C +5°) by paraffine, ‘‘vaseline,’”’ mineral oils, and various waxes present in an enclosed space in which the roots were growing, but not in contact with the water containing them. In experiments on the signifi- cance of the difference in the elongation of the radicles in water and in the moist chamber, it was found that the smaller the amount of water used per radicle, the closer does the elongation of the root approach that in the moist chamber. This is interpreted as indicating the exertion of a conditioning influence by the growing root on the water around it; and that, in the case of the radicle growing in the moist chamber, it is growing not in air but ina thin film of water which is in equilibrium with the root in the matter of such conditioning influences. (A uthor’s abstract.) ; CuHarLES F. Swineaun, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service NovTeEs Army Medical Research Board.—The transfer of the Army Medical Re- search Board from Manila, P.I., to Ancon, C.Z. has recently been effected. The Research Board was organized in Manila in 1900, with Lizur. RicHarp P. Strona, Medical Corps, now head of the School of Tropical Medicine, Harvard University, as its first president. The activities of the board in Manila included research and investigations largely in the field of tropical medicine, particular attention being paid to the dysenteries, cholera, plague, yaws, dengue fever, malaria, filariasis, beriberi, surra and rinderpest. The latter two are diseases of animals. The contribu- tions of the board are too numerous to mention here, as the bibliography uae over 150 titles of scientific articles published in various journals and ooks. It is believed that at this time the Canal Zone offers a more promising opportunity for the board than the Philippine Islands. In the Canal Zone 338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 7 the board will initiate its work with investigations relative to the epidemi- ology and control of malaria beyond the limits of the sanitated area—an extremely important problem to the Army during tropical maneuvers and campaigns. It has been recognized for many years that several fevers of short duration, but a fruitful source of incapacity, identical with or closely resembling denque and papatacci or sanifly fever are prevalent at certain seasons in the Canal Zone. The board will also make an effort to identify these fevers with a view to their prevention or abatement in the future. Mycotic skin diseases are extremely common in Panama and a study and investigation of these ubiquitous dermatoses are under way. Bureau of Fisheries—At the Chicago meeting of the National Planning Council of Commercial and Game Fish Commissioners, Commissioner FRANK T. Bett outlined plans which he has formulated for cooperation be- tween the Commission, as representative of the Federal Government, and the several States. At the same meeting, Tep Lirrie, of the Bureau, was elected secretary of the Council. GLEN C. Leacu, ELMER YiccGins, TALBOTT Denmeap and R. H. Frepuer took part in the proceedings of the meeting. Commissioner BELL addressed the recent meeting of the Izaak Walton League of America in Chicago, on problems of protecting the salmon fishery of the Columbia river. In response to a general demand on the part of the public, the Bureau of Fisheries aquarium in the Department of Commerce Building is to be kept open on Sundays during the summer and as long thereafter as attendance warrants. The hours are from 10 in the morning until 4:30 in the afternoon. RoseErt O. SmituH, of the Bureau’s oyster investigation staff, left Wash- ington recently to assume his new duties at Appalachicola, Florida, where he will have charge of oyster pest control investigations in the Gulf area. National Bureau of Standards.—The honorary degree of Doctor of Engi- neering was conferred upon Dr. Lyman J. Briaes, Director of the National Bureau of Standards, by the South Dakota State School of Mines, Rapid City, S.D., on May 30. Dr. Briaes delivered the baccalaureate address on the relation of the Bureau to engineering, and later proceeded to the strato- camp near Rapid City, where, as chairman of the advisory committee of the National Geographic Society-Army Air Corps stratosphere expedition, he supervised the final arrangements for the flight of the balloon, ‘‘Explorer II.” The John Price Wetherill Medal of the Franklin Institute was awarded to Dr. L. B. Tuckerman of the division of mechanics and sound on May 15. The award was made in recognition of Dr. TuckERMAN’s fundamental im- provements in the optical lever and his application of it to his optical strain gage. E. C. CritrENnpDEN, assistant director of the National Bureau of Standards, delivered the opening address at the Twenty-Fifth National Conference on Weights and Measures, on June fourth. The conference (the first since 1931) met at the Bureau on June 4-7, and was attended by 103 weights and measures Officials representing 22 States and the District of Columbia, as well as 55 manufacturers of weighing and measuring apparatus and 10 other persons. National Park Service—Pror. CAREY CRONEIS, Department of Geology, University of Chicago, and Dr. Mretvin BroapsHaue and Dr. V. C. ARNs- PIGER, Of the Erpi Corporation, were at Washington Headquarters, National ume £55 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 339 Park Service, June 8 to 10, in connection with final checking on a series of educational films prepared for Civilian Conservation Corps Camps through a cooperative effort between the National Park Service, the University of Chicago, and the Erpi Corporation. Dr. Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History spent several days in Washington in early June, at which time he discussed with Park Service officials plans for developing Dinosaur National Monument in Utah. Dr. G. R. WieLanp, Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, recently conferred with National Park Service officials regard- ing proposed developments at the Fossil Cycad National Monument, Wyom- ing. It is planned to have a committee inspect this area and offer suggestions on the best means of making the scientific features of this monument avail- able to the public. Carnegie Institution of Washington.—O. H. GisH and K. L. SHERMAN, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, left Washington the latter part of May for Rapid City, South Dakota, where they have established a ground-station for obtaining contin- uous registration of the potential gradient and conductivity of the atmos- phere. These data are being obtained for use in connection with the discus- sion of the air-conductivity records which, it is hoped, will be obtained on the stratosphere flight under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and the United States Army Air Corps which is scheduled to take place in June. Henry M. Stanton, observer in the Department of Terrestrial Magne- tism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, sailed from New York on June 14 for Peru where he will assist in a program of ionosphere-work at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory. Insecticidal Society of Washington.—A promising new scientific society, the Insecticidal Society of Washington, has now been in existence several months. It was organized last autumn, with the following officers: chairman, Dr. F. L. CaMpBertt; vice chairman, C. M. Smit; secretary, Dr. J. W. BULGER. Society of the Sigma Xi.—At the annual banquet and meeting of the Society of the Sigma Xi, on the evening of May 14, membership was con- ferred on Dr. Jonn R. Moutuer, chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Dr. 8. F. Buaxs of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and Dr. O. 8. Apams of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Dr. Mounumr delivered an address on Hx- plorations beyond the microscope, DR. BuaAK® spoke on the taxonomy of the Compositae, and Dr. ApAMs on some mathematical aids in map projecting. Seismological Society of America.—The tenth annual meeting of the Eastern section of the Seismological Society of America, held at the Domin- ion Observatory, Ottawa, was attended by a number of Washington seis- mologists. Capt. N. H. Hecx, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, presented a report on the seismological work of the Survey and also led a symposium on a proposal for listing additional information from seismograms. Rey. F. W. Sonon, 8. J., presented a report on Twenty-four weeks of microseisms. R. R. Bove read a paper on Some factors in epicenter determination, and FRANK NEUMANN one on Some new data on long-period waves in epicentral areas. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 7 Five Years of Plant Patents —Patented flowers, fruits and other plants have not accumulated very fast since the plant patent law went into effect five years ago, on May 23, 1930. Files of the U. 8. Patent Office show only 124 plant patents of all kinds, contrasted with the thousands of patents on mechanical devices and processes that pour from inventors’ brains every year. Four classes have thus far proved sufficient for the arrangement of plant patent records: roses, other flowers, fruits and ‘“‘plants’”—the latter category being a catch-all for everything that is not classifiable as either flower or fruit. Aside from roses, patented flowers have run rather strongly to carnations, dahlias, chrysanthemums and freesias. Among patented fruits, apples, plums, cherries, grapes and avocados are conspicuous. Patented vegetables are conspicuous by their absence, but there is one patented mushroom. The highest number of plant patents granted to a single applicant is nine, to the estate of the late Luther Burbank. The Burbank patents include two roses, five plums, one peach and one cherry. There are at present, however, several commercial nursery companies that hold numerous plant patents, sold or assigned to them by the inventors. A number of patents have been granted to breeders in England, Holland, Czechoslovakia and other foreign countries; most of these have been assigned to American firms. News Briers The annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association was held in Washington during the week of May 13. At the annual meeting of the Trustees of Science Service, new elections to the Board were made, as follows: Dr. HARLOW SHAPLEY, director Harvard College Observatory, representing the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. Henry B. Warp, permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, representing that body, and Dr. Lupvig HEKToEN director of the John McCormick Institute for Infectious Diseases, Chicago, representing the National Research Council. Dr. VERNon KELLOGG, secre- tary emeritus of the National Research Council, who retired as a trustee, was elected honorary vice-president, in appreciation of his long service in the office of vice-president. The annual meeting of the American Association of Museums was held at the U.S. National Museum during the week of May 20. The first topographic map made by white men in China, just after the Boxer uprising over a generation ago, has been turned over to the Library of Congress by R. H. Sarcent of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Associated with Mr. SarceEntT in the survey that produced the map were Drs. BarLEy Wiuuis and ELtiot BLaAcKWELDER, now of Stanford University. The ex- pedition had to work under the protection of a Chinese armed escort. A white oriole, one of the rarest birds in the world, is included in collec- tions turned over to the Smithsonian Institution by Dr. Hues M. Smita, recently returned from Siam. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Page Paleontology.—Annotated list of Pleistocene Mammalia from American Falls, Idaho. - C.. LawissGazmy <2). des aee Geen eee 297 Biology.—Longevity and fertility in the pond snail, Lymnaea columella. CHARLES P, WINSOR AND AGNES A, WINSOR.............2+-5--- 302 Botany.—Three new plants from Death Valley, California. C. V. MORTON». .ai 6c Pays vee od eal bse ae ee nee 307 Botany.—New Asteraceae from the United States, Mexico, and South America, °S. F. Brake? oi sion hives tat eee oe eee ee ee 311 Entomology.—Some undescribed species of Hristalis from North America in the United States National Museum. Franx M. OLS ia nas Fe SRR a an Se oe OR ee ee ee ee 326 Geology.—Tentative ages of Pleistocene shore lines. C. WytTHx COOK ae 8 we ne plesca hs diay bre SL ene 331 PROCEEDINGS Botanical Society . ... 2h 222 eee oe ee 334 Scrontiric Norms AND:NBSWS: Seas «sie wee tee heparin ve eae 337 This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Aveust 15, 1935 No. 8 foot OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS _ Joun A. Stzvenson F, G. BrickwEeppE Roxranp W. Brown ee ‘BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GHOLOGICAL SURVHY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. T. Wensnu Haroup Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GotpMan W: W. Rusry BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY GBHOLOGICAL SOCIBTY Aa@nes CHASE J. R. Swanton i BOTANICAL SOCINTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY M R. E. 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Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within thirty days after date of following issue. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: G. W. McCoy, National Institute of Health. Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Hown, Bureau of Animal Industry. Recording Secretary: CHARLES THoM, Bureau of Plant Industry. Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 25 Avueust 15, 1935 No. 8 PHYSICS.—The beginnings of physics. II. The quest for creative concepts.|_ RayMonp J. SEEGER, The George Washington Uni- versity. Can any good thing have come out of Greece—as far as science is concerned? It seems to be fashionable among scientists to answer this question with a knowing smile. And yet, how much is our reply based upon deep understanding and how much upon superficial prejudice? This so-called ignorance of the ancients, is it not often merely a con- fession of our own ignorance of them? In this instance, indeed, it may be that in refusing to look beyond their quest for general principles we fail to catch a glimpse of their quest for creative concepts. For although it is an anachronism to speak of Greek concepts in the New- tonian sense, it is just as truly a libel to deny them in the Archimedean sense. And to neglect them altogether is to affirm that science sprang fully developed from the mind of the late renaissance hike Minerva from the head of Jupiter, whereas even our most casual glance at history tells us that there is more continuity? in the evolution of hu- man thought than we may have power or time to investigate. Now and then new types of reasoning do emerge, but these are invariably found to be old methods redefined, reorganized or reemphasized. There is never an immediate emancipation from the past. So, too, in science changes in the nature of physical concepts have consisted chiefly in sharper analyses of what have previously been taken for granted as self-evident truths. For example, Galileo* emphasized that the concepts of the Scholastics were meaningless without experimen- tal tests. All the same, he retained space and time as part of his own instinctive logic. Centuries later Einstein‘ pointed out that even such ideas have to be associated with a set of metric operations, e.g., length signifies only those operations by which it is measured. (The identity 1 The beginnings of physics. I. The quest for general principles. This JoURNAL 24: 501. 1934. Part II received March 16, 1935. 2 G. Sarton: The history of science and the new humanism. (1930) Chap. 1. 3 GaLILEO: Dialogue concerning two new sciences. (Translated by H. Crew and A. de Sazvio, 1914) p. 84. 4 A. Einstein: The meaning of relativity. (1923). Aut P. W. Briveman: The logic of modern physics. (1928). 341 342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 8 of these with the ones used in the determination of time between widely separated points necessitates the single concept of space-time, which custom expediently divides into space and time—happily justi- fied by the smallness of ordinary velocities as compared with that of light.) And now what Bohr’ is stressing in his reciprocity-content of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is the necessity of including, not only the methods, but also the very instruments in the scheme of things so that physical laws must be regarded both ideally and prac- tically as probable descriptions of events indeterminate in space- time. One always used to assign all accidental errors of technique to the fictitious personal equation—often a convenient safety-valve: But the modern matrix formulation of quantum mechanics includes cer- tain ones in real impersonal equations, which must be solved simul- taneously with those giving the measured relationships. (Our every- day faith in causality is warranted only because the magnitude of the physical action usually involved is very much greater than that of Planck’s quantum of action h.) Despite this changing significance, however, what never has changed has been the need of using the same kind of creative concept that Archimedes introduced in solving the problem of the king’s crown. As the story goes, King Hieron of Syracuse knew the royal gold- smith so well that he asked Archimedes (c. 287—212 B.C.) to ascer- tain the genuineness of a newly made gold crown without injuring it. Of course, the crown looked like gold and it felt like gold, but was it solid gold? Any direct test would be indecisive inasmuch as the crown might contain an unknown metal inside. What was needed was a property characteristic of materials and observable by indirect means. This restrictive generality led to the beginning of theoretical physics. For the fact that the head of the goldsmith was at stake meant that flimsy philosophizing would never do. There would have to be pre- dicted some unique relation that could be determined practically. Any concept created from experiential appearances would have to be ex- perimental in its outlook. And this is what we mean by a creative concept, namely, one that is adequately descriptive in its definition and experimentally significant in its relation to other concepts. One can hardly suppose that Archimedes analyzed his problem in this way —more likely he accepted all this intuitively. Yet it is really too bad that our usual picture of him is that of a nudist running down the street and panting “‘eijpyxa.’’ For his naive haste from the most famous bath in history is apt to give us an impression of accidentality, ° N. Bour: Atomic theory and the description of nature. (1934). Aucust 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 343 whereas it signified the enthusiastic climax of his quest for a creative concept. One might more profitably view Archimedes actually tak- ing his bath in his customary listless fashion. Certainly he was doing more thinking than bathing as is evidenced by Plutarch’s® report that occasionally he had to be carried by absolute violence to bathe. But his phenomenal success is not to be attributed solely to his genius. Scattered in the historical background were isolated cases of experi- ments and a continuous growth of mathematics. What he did was to unite these two methods by giving mathematical proofs for mechan- ical practices, thereby producing that powerful, but strange, approach to nature, mathematical physics (much to the disgust of Plato, who looked upon matter as being in the form of imperfect images of per- fect ideals). For this reason Archimedes has been rightly called the Newton of antiquity. We shall now examine some of these antecedents of his work. | An experiment consists primarily of observation, measurement and repetition; in so far as these are controllable, the experiment is said to have good precision. It is possible to show that the development of the individual sciences can be interpreted in terms of their ability to obtain concepts that can be thus determined precisely. For this en- ables the power of the mathematical reasoning inherent in economic symbolism to be utilized in obtaining new relations among the con- cepts, which, in turn, may serve as a system of checks and balances or indicate new fields for planned research. Now the real failure of Greek science lay in its lack of such precision. It was not that no fine observations were made or that only crude measurements were at- tempted, but that the experiments were seldom repeated. For it is in the lack of controllability that the importance of neglected factors is often revealed so that an accurate method may not produce good results because of its wanting precision. By way of illustration, sup- pose someone measured the pressure of various volumes of a given mass of gas. He might find that it increased with decreasing volume. On the other hand, another observer might note a decrease. And both could be true, because the possibility of the influence of an additional factor had not been considered, viz., the change in temperature. Of course, if only one factor is variable, lack of discrimination is of no great moment. The following is an example of such a fortunate occur- rence in Greek investigation. Just how Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 532 B.C.) discovered the relation between the frequency of sound and the length of the string producing 5 Plutarch’s Lives : Life of Marcellus. 344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 it is largely a matter of conjecture. Perhaps, he received his informa- tion from the priests’ of Egypt while he lived there. On the other hand, the tradition of his conscious use of the experimental method gains credence when we recall that he made a science out of arithmetic by transferring it from the tradesmen’s abacus to the philosophers’ papyrus. (And what better example of how he molded the queen of the sciences out of the mud along the Nile than the Pythagorean theorem which generalized the 3-4-5 rule-of-thumb?) According to a popular story, as he was passing a blacksmith shop one day, he was impressed with the different musical notes that were emitted when the hammers struck the anvils. Observing that the hammers differed only in size, he surmised that the strings of the lyre might owe their harmony to their various lengths. Much to his surprise, he found that strings with lengths in the ratios 12:8:6 produced tones bearing musical relation- ships with one another. With the ratio 12:6 the longer string gave a tone an octave below that of the other; the ratio 8:6 was found to correspond to the musical interval of a fourth, and the ratio 12:8 to that of a fifth. Indeed, all the tones of the lyre could be thus expressed as simple numerical ratios of a single fundamental one. It was only natural that this fact should be exploited at a time when general prin- ciples were being sought in every particular phenomenon. The dis- tinctive contribution of the Pythagoreans in this regard was that theirs was a quest for unity in form rather than in matter itself. Their search for the basic design of the universe was in the domain of num- bers. How easily geometry was included in its scope! For had not a cube 12 edges, 8 corners and 6 faces? How readily astronomy fitted in the scheme; for there were 7 planets (including the sun and the moon at that time) corresponding to the seven strings of the lyre! Moreover, each of these was supposed to emit a divine note as its celestial sphere rotated. This unheard music of the spheres inspired much thought and contemplation, e.g., Kepler’s Harmonice Mundi with his celebrated harmonic law (third). Even matter was found to be susceptible of classification according to this principle of number; for the four regular solids, namely, tetrahedron, octahedron, icosahedron, cube, were looked upon as symbolizing the four elements fire, air, water and earth respectively. (The later discovery of the last regular solid, the dodecahedron, was embarassing until someone realized that it signified the whole universe.) How far these awe-inspiring analogies could be carried became a problem for philosophers, and not for mere 7 H. HeitmuHoutz: On the sensations of sound. (3rd ed. 1895, translated by A. J. E.tis.) p. 1. AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 345 physicists. The fact remains, however, that there have been other con- sequences more important than these unwarranted speculations. One is the famous quadrivium of early medieval education: absolute num- bers (arithmetic), applied numbers (the studies presided over by the nine muses—called collectively music), magnitude at rest (geometry), magnitude in motion (astronomy). Furthermore, the search for simple numerical relations has played no mean role in the formulation of modern physical theories. More than once a hypothesis has been re- jected or accepted on the basis of the simplicity of its mathematical formulation. For instance, the experiments of Regnault were even questioned at one time because they did not conform to the simple law of Boyle and of Mariotte. The early rejection and later accep- tance of Prout’s hypothesis (1815), that all atomic weights are in- tegral, reminds us of the powerful demand for simple numerical regu- larities. And so we must ever be on guard that our science does not distort its reflected view of nature, that it does not substitute its own convenient simplicity for nature’s incomprehensible multiplicity, that it does not altogether hide synthetic processes behind its analytic harmony. To illustrate, what accounts for the universality of simple harmonic motion? Is nature characteristically simple and harmonic? On the contrary, this arises from the customary procedure of neglect- ing higher order terms of the Taylor expansion of the potential energy about a position of equilibrium—justifiable for small displacements only. Hence, we have to beware always of the fatalistic mysticism of numbers, as the later history of the Pythagorean school itself re- vealed. It is significant, however, that mathematics and experiment should have been so closely associated at the beginning of physics. For without experiment mathematics is physically meaningless and without mathematics data are physically incomprehensible. In other words, it is equally difficult to listen to someone speak in an unknown language as it is to hear one converse incoherently about this and that. What makes facts worthwhile is their ordering, not their al- manac-like compilation. As Poincaré® has so well expressed the idea: “Science is built up with facts, as a house is with stones. But a collec- tion of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.” Indeed, we would go one step further and say that it is no more a mere organized collection than a house is a home. The human spirit broods over the chaotic facts of nature until they warm with cosmic life. Creative concepts make science a functioning organism as well as a mechanical organization. 8 H. Poincars: Foundations of science. (Reprint 1929, translated by B. Hausrap.) Dp: 27. 346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 Other experiments that are recorded dealt with the proof of the corporeality of air—a fact first suggested by Anaximander, but dis- regarded by Anaximenes. (Cf. Voltaire’s® erroneous notions about air a century after Boyle’s work.) In the fourth book of Aristotle’s Physics! we find such experiments described. One due to Anaxagoras demonstrated “that air is a physical substance by inflating bladders and showing their strength of resistance to compression.’’ A second, that of Empedocles, pointed out the same conclusion by means of a water-clock, i.e., an open vessel with a small hole in the bottom for the water to flow. Suppose the vessel is emptied and inverted in a con- tainer of water, while one’s finger is held over the aperture. The water will not rise owing to the presence of the air. These experiments are particularly remarkable in that they were cited to refute specific fanciful speculations. We turn our attention again to the rapid development of mathe- matics which preceded the work of Archimedes, the greatest mathe- maticran of antiquity. Although Socrates’ (c. 470-399 B.C.) theory of ideas was of little value to the direct study of matter, it replaced in- genious sophisms with reasoned proofs and thereby stimulated mathe- matical investigations because of its emphasis on form. For example, consider the triangle. Regardless of its size, shape or substance it al- ways has the sum of its angles equal to 180° (in Euclidean space). Thus universal truths can be reaped without the chaff of incidental conditions. Now the history of physics itself can be said to be a con- tinual search for just such generality. At the time of Socrates, how- ever, its great significance was chiefly its stress upon a rational reality that was not materialistic; hence, it was not many years before me- chanics joined mathematics as an abstract study. Properly speaking, we should say that the seed of the theory of ideas was planted by Py- thagoras and that its cultivation in moral and aesthetic fields was the special task of Socrates. The Academy of Plato (c. 428-348 B.C.), who was intimately acquainted with the Pythagorean, Archytas of Taren- tum, utilized it in mathematics. Nevertheless, Plato’s main interest in this subject lay in the educational value of its clear-cut definitions and of its rigorous reasonings in the training of philosophers. Above his porch was the following inscription for those entering: ‘‘Let none that is ignorant of geometry enter my doors!’ But nothing was said about the mathematics of those leaving. What his method accom- ° Oeuvres completes de Voltaire (Firmin-Didot 1874) 7: 41-45. 10 ARISTOTLE: The physics. (Translated by P. WickstEEp and F. M. CornrorbD 1929) Book 2, Section 6. AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 347 plished, therefore, was more the development of mathematical inter- est than of interesting mathematics. (His physics was worthless, as may be appreciated by reading his Tzmaeus.) This impetus given to the study of mathematics led gradually to its divorce from philosophy so that mathematics was finally studied for the sake of mathematics. This was particularly true in Alexandria where cosmopolitan influ- ences minimized irrelevancies in the search for truth. In the famous museum of this city (c. 300 B.C.), dedicated to the Muses, began a period of investigation that is outranked only by the modern era. Indeed, the Elements of Euclid, i.e., 13 books on geometry, have sur- vived as have few other works. Their pedagogical discipline has been of inestimable value owing to the author’s synthetic method of de- ducing his theorems from certain definitions, postulates and axioms set out at the start. Although modern geometers reject the unique validity of the fifth postulate of Book I (the so-called parallel postu- late), they are still indebted to Euclid for showing how any single geometry has to be constructed logically. The immediate effect of the Elements was to mold the form of the Mechanics of Archimedes of Syracuse, the foremost thinker of the Alexandrian school. The very legends that have enveloped the inventions of Archimedes (Cf. Lucian’s story of the use of reflected sunlight to set the Roman ships on fire) are a measure both of the respect in which he was held and of his genius. Even to-day we are amazed at his powerful use of mathematics. In order to consider his physical studies in some detail, we shall only mention his outstanding mathematical contributions: viz., the quadrature of the parabola by a modification of Kudoxos’ method of exhaustion, (the primitive form of integration), the evalua- tion of 7 between the limits of 3 10/70 and 3 10/71 (3.14287 and 3.14083), the discovery and analysis of the spiral bearing his name, the determination of the ratio of the area of a sphere to that of its great circle (4:1) and of the ratio of the volume of a sphere to that of its circumscribed cylinder (2:3). (A picture of the last was sketched upon his tomb at his own request.) It is important to realize that these high mathematical attainments made it possible for him to solve such a physical problem as the equilibrium of a right segment of a paraboloid of revolution immersed in a liquid, and that he was here concerned with a creative concept, the center of mass. The substitu- tion of a symbolic mass-point for an irregular solid had already been used previously in practice, but was first computed mathematically by Archimedes for a parallelogram, triangle, trapezium, and a para- bolic segment. Moreover, all these proofs were based on the law of the 348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 lever so that he first had to derive the law in a way which we shall now consider. All his proofs follow the method of Euclid in the postulation of self- evident truths. The first three of the seven postulates that head the first book,!! On the equilibrium of planes, are as follows: (1) ‘Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibirum, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but in- cline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.” (2) “If, when weights at certain distances are in equilibrium, something be added to one of the weights, they are not in equilibri- um but incline towards the weight to which the addition was made.” (3) “Similarly, if anything be taken away from one of the weights, they are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight from which nothing was taken.” These are used in propositions 6 and 7 to deduce the law of the lever, 1.e., Two magnitudes whether commensurable or incommensurable bal- ance at distances reciprocally proportional to the magnitudes. For from [s Fe R a LS a [tas Fe R ZN a rd 22 e ae Ee Figs. 1-2.—Illustrations used in Archimedes’ derivation of the law of the lever. (3) follows the converse of (1), viz., that weights which balance at equal distances are equal. Otherwise, it would be possible to remove the excess weight and have equilibrium, which is absurd on the basis of the principle of sufficient reason and symmetry (the essential rea- son for the first part of postulate 1). We shall now use this conclusion to illustrate Archimedes’ reasoning for the simplest case of one weight u T.L. Hearn: The works of Archimedes. (1897) p. 189. AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 349 A being double another weight B. First suppose two weights A and 2B are in equilibrium (Fig. 1) at the same distance from each side of the fulerum. Then they are equal, i.e. A =2B. Now divide one of the weights, say the one 2B at L, into two equal parts B and transfer each of these in opposite directions to a distance a from L (Fig. 2). These two weights B are symmetrically located with respect to L and therefore are in equilibrium (postulate 1), but their center of mass at Z is still in equilibrium with the weight at R. Thus the entire system remains in equilibrium after the displacement. The weight B at F, however, can now be removed inasmuch as it is supported by the fulerum. And so B balances A at a distance twice as great as 2B did. This method can be easily generalized to include any case. Mach” has pointed out that the above reasoning is fallacious as far as proving something new is concerned. Criticisms! of Mach’s views notwithstanding, it would be surprising if the mere knowledge of the variables, weight and length, were sufficient to determine their func- tional combination. Where, then, is this relationship assumed in the proof? It is assumed in the displacement from ZL. For this involves the tacit assumption that weight and length each enter in the condi- tion for equilibrium only in the first degree. Suppose the law were of the second degree. In the set-up of Fig. 1 we have for equilibrium Aad = Aa? But the positions in Fig. 2 give for equilibrium A/2(a+a)?+A/2(a—a)?=Aa?. or 2Aa? = Aa’. On the other hand, if the law is of the first degree, the second case gives A/2(a+a)+A/2(a—a) =Aa or Aa=Aa. In other words, it is the use of the concept of center of mass with its inherent linear distribution that makes the displacement possible and this is an application of the very law of the lever which we started 2 KE. Macu: The Science of mechanics. (4th ed. 1919, translated by T. J. McCor- MACK.) Chap. 1. 8 C. SryaurR: Studies in the history and method of science. (Contains an essay by i hea Curxp entitled Archimedes’ principle of the balance and some criticisms upon it) 350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 out to deduce. We have completed a vicious circle with all the dignity of logic. Where did we first err? The fact is that the basic law of statics is experiential and occurs in nature in many equivalent forms; it must be implied in any proof that deals with observed relations. Despite the sanity of expecting to discover experiential laws only in actual phenomena, thinkers have been attacked by a mania for Euclidean demonstrations again and again. They have made many attempts to ascertain the fundamental law of statics, e.g., they have discussed the meaningless question as to whether the law of the lever is more basic than the law of the inclined plane. Yet reversible demonstrations show that these are equivalent and only emphasize their essential similar- ity. If theory demands definite postulates as starting places, truth it- self is insufficient as the criterion for them. It was many years, how- ever, before convenience came to be recognized as the basis of selec- tion, and John Bernoulli’s principle of virtual work was finally ac- cepted in this sense as the fundamental one from which the specific laws of statics are to be obtained. It is noteworthy that Archimedes had in his grasp the necessary conditions for such equilibrium, viz., the balancing of forces and their lever-like distribution. And yet, what is most significant about Archimedes is that he appreciated the extrapolation of his laws to elements beyond his immediate experi- ence; he used his concept to predict. This is epitomized in his boast: ‘Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the earth.” And he ac- tually did move Marcellus’ attacking army with his huge levers in the forms of catapults, etc. We have already mentioned his classic work on hydrostatics. He began the first of his two books On floating bodies’ with the following definition of a fluid: ‘‘Let it be supposed that a fluid is of such a char- acter that, its parts lying evenly and being continuous, that part which is thrust the less is driven along by that which is thrust the more; and that each of its parts is thrust by the fluid above it in a perpendicular direction if the fluid be sunk in anything and com- pressed by anything else.’’ Then in proposition 7 he probably gave his method of solving the problem of the crown, viz., ‘‘A solid heavier than a fluid will, if placed in it, descend to the bottom of the fluid, and the solid will, when weighted in the fluid, be lighter than its true weight of the fluid displaced”’ (Archimedes’ principle). Let us apply this to the problem of the crown. Consider a lump of gold having the same weight as the crown in air. Weigh the gold and the crown in 4H. PomncaRé: op. cit. pp. 106, 125, 173, 208. 1 T. L. HEATH: op. cit. p. 253. AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 351 water separately and compare their losses in weight. If the crown is made of pure gold, it will have the same loss of weight as the gold lump. The basic concept employed is specific gravity, i.e., the ratio of the weight of a body in air to that of an equal volume of water; hence, the problem can also be solved by the direct consideration of density, or rather, its reciprocal, specific volume, for different sub- stances of the same weight have different volumes. Thus the volume of the displaced water can be used to determine the composition of the crown. This is the method Vitruvius'® mentions as being the one Ar- chimedes used. This interpretation seems to us less likely because no proposition in Archimedes’ works is directly concerned with this idea, whereas, proposition 7 is proved in a thorough manner. It is incon- ceivable that he would have omitted the proof of so important a method. It might appear that the fact of the bath would help answer this dilemma. In either case, however, he could have obtained a eriti- cal clue from the water. The first method would have been assisted by his surmising that the buoyant effect of the water varied charac- teristically with different materials (for the same weight of sub- stances). On the other hand, the difficulty with the second method was the determination of the volume of the highly ornamented crown. The overflow of the water might have suggested the way to obtain this from immersion of the crown in a full vessel. At any rate, in both cases the essential feature was the need of a concept that was adequate because of its uniqueness and its generality as well as the additional factor that it had to be creative, i.e., it had to predict, directly or indirectly, a practicable experiment. Obviously, a concept, such as characteristic shapes of the atoms, would have been useless because of their indeterminacy. We note also the intuitive use of the factor of simplicity in that the specific gravity was used and not the sum of its square and its cube root, which, nevertheless, satisfies all the other demands. The consummate skill of Archimedes rested in his ability to choose a simple creative concept. We shall briefly mention some of the inventions of the period before considering the later activities of the Alexandrian school. To Archytas is credited the pulley and the screw (also a child’s rattle that Aristotle recommended as something good to keep children from breaking things about the house); to Archimedes is credited the endless screw, the hydraulic screw and the compound pulley; to Ctesibios of Alex- andria, the force-pump, the hydraulic clock and the hydraulic organ; to Heron of Alexandria, a steam-engine, a siphon and many automatic 16 M. Virruvius: De Architectura. Book 9, Section 3. 352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 devices. Of greater scientific interest is the ingenious determination of the diameter of the earth by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 273-192B. C.), who was a librarian of the Museum. (The Pythagoreans had al- ready introduced the globular form of the heavenly bodies because of the simple perfection of the sphere.) His method consisted of deter- mining the distance D between two cities on the same meridian, Zen cth \ A Sun ee Eprcucle Detferent cs Fig. 3.—An illustration of Eratosthenes’ method of determining the diameter of the earth. Fig. 4—An illustration of Apollonios’ epicycle description of the motion of the planets. Meroe (near Alexandria) and Syene, and then observing the angle the sun’s rays made with the zenith at the former when the sun was at the zenith of the later (Cf. Fig. 3). This angle was the same as that subtended by the radii to these points. Consequently, the radius R could be determined from the relation D=Ré@. The observed data!’ were D =5040 stades and 6 =7°15’. The ancient use of different values of the stade in various localities makes it impossible to check the accuracy absolutely to-day. On the basis of the stade!* being equal to 516.73 feet, the polar diameter was 3925 miles as compared with the modern value of 3949.99 miles. The importance of this method is its use of quantitative observation. This was exemplified even better later by another Alexandrian, Claudios Ptolmaeos (c. 138 A.D.), whom Sarton’® praises as having performed ‘‘the most remarkable experiment in antiquity.”’ It was a study of the refraction of light. Although the rectilineal propagation of light was well-known to Euclid and inevitably aroused his interest because of its applicability to the geometry of perspective, his Catoptrics revealed either a poor account of what he did know or else a good account of what he did not 17 Gesgraphica Strabonis. (recognovit A. MEINEKE 1866) 1: Book 2. 18 J. L. E. Dreyer: History of the planetary sy systems. (1906), p. 175. 19 G. Sarton: Introduction to the history of science. (1927) 1: 274. AuGustT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 353 know. It was Heron who noted the law of reflection and proved that it was equivalent to the principle of the shortest optical path (Cf. Fermat’s Principle of Least Time). The search for the law of refrac- tion was made by Ptolemaeos by a method quite different from that of Archimedes. The latter deduced observable relations from postulates; TABLE 1.—PtToxtemMaecos’ Data For His Law or REFRACTION ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (1) ANGLE OF REFRACTION (r) afr sin 7/ sin r® (1) Arr To WATER 10 8 il 25 125 20 5} 2 1.29 1.28 30 2225 1.33 il Sil 40 29 1.38 1.33 50 35 1.43 1.34 60 40.5 1.48 i 3333 70 45.5 1.54 I a 80 50 1.60 1.29 Average il ail (2) Arr To Guass 10 U 1.43 1.43 20 1B 0 1.48 1.46 30 19.5 1.54 1.50 40 25 1.60 152 50 30 1.67 iL B83 60 34.5 1.74 1253 70 38.5 1.82 it Sil 80 42 1.90 1.47 Average 1.51 (3) WaTER TO GLASS 10 9.5 1.05 1.05 20 18.5 1.08 1.08 30 27 Wil 1.10 40 35 1.14 2 50 42.5 1.18 i183 60 49.5 iL Ail 1.14 70 56 1.25 tl 1133 80 62 1.29 i 2 Average il Wi ® Computed by the author. the former arrived at laws from observable data. Thus we have the beginning of the application of the inductive method in science in addition to the deductive one; to-day both are still necessary, neither is sufficient alone. And yet, as is well known, Ptolemaeos failed to obtain the correct form of the law, which was discovered much later by Snell. We emphasize the word form; for the data of Ptolemaeos was not at fault (Cf. Table)*°*. His failure was partly owing to the fact 20 L’Ottica di Claudio Tolomeo da Eugenio. Riddotta in Latino (pubbliccata da G. Govi 1885) a. Sermo Quintus, b. Introduzione. 354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 that his trigonometric functions were crudely defined and partly to the fact that he was intent upon getting a simple law. As Govi?®» has shown, his data conform more to a law of the quadratic type than to a simple proportion, e.g.,7 =a7i+b7*, where 7 is the angle of incidence, r the angle of refraction and 6 a constant much smaller than the con- stant a so that the second term is negligible for small angles. All in all, Ptolemaeos was not far from modern science. It is in the field of astronomy, however, that his creative power is best known inasmuch as his Almagest (Meytorn ZYiwrak&¢) with its complete Ptolemaic sys- tem became the embodiment of Aristotelian cosmology. To under- stand its scientific significance we turn back to the interest aroused in this branch of applied mathematics by Plato. Up to the time of the Attic philosophers the chief astronomical problem had been to account for the diurnal motion of the sky and was usually solved by the hypothesis that the stars and the planets were attached to a rotating sphere. In the Pythagorean scheme, how- ever, a daily revolution of the earth was supposed to take place about a primordial fire-center (not the sun), which was never seen on ac- count of an interposed counter-earth. Both of these explanations failed to take cognizance of the irregular motions of the planets. So Plato proposed the problem to his students with the hint that they use “uniform and ordered”’ motions in its solution. Eudoxos, the origina- tor of the method of exhaustion, which was the ancient analogue of the modern theory of limits (Cf. Euclid: Book XII), gave an ingenious geometric answer. He considered every celestial body to be on the equator of an individual sphere rotating uniformly about its polar axis. To account for the retrograde and latitudinal motions of the planets, he further assumed that the poles of these planetary spheres were also attached to a sphere concentric with the first, but rotating with a different angular velocity about a differently directed polar axis. Since these still proved to be inadequate for the description of the observed motions, other spheres were similarly introduced so that four spheres in all had to be associated with each of the planets and three with either the sun or the moon. (All these spheres were to be regarded as independent of one another.) Finally, one additional sphere was necessary for the entire group of fixed stars. This purely kinematical approach to astronomical motions was the forerunner of other nondynamical theories that held sway for many years because of their adequate description. One of these was suggested by Calippos of Cyzicos (n. 370 B.C.), who added a sphere in each case for Mars, Venus and Mercury as well as two for the sun and two for the moon. AuGusT 15, 1935 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS Byo}) The ones for the planets were to produce retrogression without alter- ing appreciably the synodic period, i.e., the time between successive conjunctions of the sun and moon. In the case of the sun the spheres were necessary to describe the unequal lengths of the seasons, which had been noted in 432 B.C. by Meton and Euctemon at Athens. The most startling modification, however, was made by Aristotle (c. 384— 322 or 321 B.C.). Lacking the insight of the mathematician he insisted upon having real mechanical spheres in contact with one another. And then in order to prevent the motion of the sphere of an outer planet from being communicated to that of an inner one, he had to add a few more spheres—22 in all. Thus Aristotle’s theory required 55 spheres for the heavenly bodies as compared with 34 for that of Calippos and 27 for that of Eudoxos. The system was becoming too cumbersome. Fortunately, its abandonment was hastened by the discovery that the planets appeared brighter at times, as if they moved closer to the earth. No system of rigid spheres was sufficiently flexible to permit this so that about all that could be retained of the Aristotelian system was its geocentricity, nevertheless, his authority in this particular outweighed the geoheliocentric proposal of Hera- clides of Pontos (c. 888-315 or 310 B.C.), i.e., that Mercury and Venus revolved about the sun while it revolved with the other bodies about the earth (Cf. Tycho Brahe’s extension of this, that all the planets revolved about the sun, which revolved about the earth). Indeed, even the complete Copernican-like hypothesis of Aristarchos of Samos (fl.c. 280 B.C.) had to wait for Copernicus to expound its daily rota- tion of the earth and its increased size of the universe to account for the fixedness of the stars. This delay was assisted by the epicyclic theory stressed by another astronomer, Hipparchos of Nicaea (ec. 136 B.C.), who noted also a 48’’ advance or precession of the equi- noxes each year (the modern value is about 50’’). Apollonios of Perga (c. 260-200 B.C.), the great geometer, who wrote eight classic books on conic sections, first applied epicycles to astron- omy. Their value in the description of planetary motions is evident on examination. Consider a planet moving on a circle (the epicycle) with a period of one sidereal year while the center of this circle, in turn, moves in the same sense on another circle (the deferent) with the period of the planet’s revolution. At some points B and C (Fig. 4) the motions will annul each other so that the planet will appear at rest. From C to V via A the motion will be progressive with an increase of speed from C to A and a decrease from A to B. From B to C the mo- tion observed on the earth will be retrograde. In this way the motions 356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 of the outer planets can be explained qualitatively. For the planets Mercury and Venus the deferent was given the period of the sidereal year and the epicycle that of the revolution (about the sun on the modern view). As for the sun and moon, which do not show retrograde motions, the motion on the epicycle and that on the deferent were considered to be in the opposite sense. Moreover, the hypothesis of eccentric circles was found to be so useful in describing certain irregu- larities that Hipparchos used it to fully explain the motions of the sun and the moon. But his greatest contribution was not so much his use of epicycles as it was the beginning of accurate observations that were carried on for three centuries and were thus available for later theoret- ical study. Indeed, the distinguishing feature of the system of Ptole- maeos was the making of the deferent eccentric in the case of the moon and the five planets. Various minor corrections that also had to be made, need not concern us in our present discussion. It is particularly important to interpret the Greek attitude to this system correctly. It was not regarded even by Ptolemaeos himself as an actual representation of the planetary motions, but it was con- sidered merely a means of computing the positions of the planets at future times; it was a creative concept. The cumbersome geometry had to be employed in lieu of any algebra at all. In conclusion, we would emphasize the unmistakable direction that the Alexandrian school pointed out to the early seekers of knowl- edge, viz., mathematical analysis applied to concepts for the purpose of experimental predictability. That this quest for creative concepts was pursued more in astronomy than in physics was owing to the fact that the former was free from the entangling preconceptions and the snarling misconceptions of philosophy, whereas the latter retained intimate relations with philosophical speculations. Later the pressure of mind as superior to matter stifled physics completely. And yet, we must be careful not to disparage the thought of an age by considering its thinkers as indeterminately banded together. For the brilliant torch of research has been handed down in the main from individual to individual, from group to group, without regard to popular plurali- ties. Hence, the contributions of Greece to the development of physi- cal concepts should be measured by the blazing peaks her pioneers discovered and not by the dark lowlands in which their associates rambled. AuGusT 15, 1935 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 357 PHARMACOLOGY .—The toxicity of sodiwm cyanide and the effici- ency of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy for poisoned animals.1 A. B. Cuawson, JAMES F. Coucn, and H. Buny#a, Bureau of Animal Industry. The poisonous qualities for sheep of potassium cyanide and of hydrocyanic acid have been discussed briefly in former papers and the results that may be expected by treating the poisoned animals with sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate in combination have been pointed out.” More recently the writers have had an opportunity of testing the toxicity of sodium cyanide for sheep and the nitrite- thiosulphate combination as a remedy for animals poisoned by it. It is proposed in this paper to present the results of tests with sodium cyanide and briefly to compare them with similar results obtained in the experimental work with potassium cyanide and with hydrocyanic acid. Such a comparison seems especially fitting as the animals used in the experiments with the different cyanides had been subjected to very similar conditions and during the respective investigations were handled in the same way. TOXIC AND LETHAL DOSES OF SODIUM CYANIDE In determining the toxic and lethal doses of sodium cyanide, when administered as a drench in a water solution, 17 experimental tests were made on 14 sheep. The dosages and results are shown in table 1. TABLE 1.—QvantITIEs or SopiuM CYANIDE GIVEN TO SHEEP IN A DRENCH AND THE Errects PrRopUCED WHEN NO REMEDIES WERE USED. Sheep Quantities* given and effects produced ate 19 ; mer No. eee Symptoms Sickness Death Jan. 19 1457 34.92 34.66 19 1453 36.73 34.30 19 1482 38.55 32.69 19 1474 37.64 13.95 14 1467 53.06 5.78 14 1471 Bill, 74) 5.56 16 1472 39.91 Naor 18 1479 29 .02 5.28 14 1468 42.63 5.22 18 1453 30. (3 5.20 18 1476 37.64 5.19 16 1466 35.83 5.10 18 1469 43.99 4.92 16 1454 46.49 4.82 14 1466 3) st) 4.63 16 1453 36.73 4.57 16 1455 30.84 4.15> ; The quantities are given as milligrams of sodium cyanide per kilogram of animal's weight. Symptoms very mild, consisting only of astimulation of the respiration. 1 Received March 26, 1935. * This JOURNAL 24: 369-395, 528-532, 1934; 25: 57-59, 272-276: 19353 358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 One sheep was used three times and one was used twice. Each of the other animals was used in a single experiment. In 7 additional cases a solution of 1 gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate in 15 c.c. of water was injected intraperitoneally at periods ranging between 1.5 and 4 minutes after the cyanide was ad- ministered. These are shown in table 4. The sodium cyanide solution was carefully prepared and checks made so that each c.c. of solution contained 21.003 mg. of sodium cyanide equal to 11.147 mg. of the cyanide radical (CN), or the equiy- alent of 11.575 mg. of HCN. In all cases the dosages were computed as milligrams of sodium cyanide per kilogram of animal weight. As shown in table 1, a quantity of sodium cyanide equivalent to 4.15 mg. per kg. of animal weight was the smallest dose given. As the effects were very slight, consisting of a mild stimulation of the respiration, and as somewhat larger doses gave correspondingly more marked results, this quantity (4.15 mg. per kg.) is evidently very close to the minimum toxic dose. The minimum lethal dose is somewhat in doubt, but evidently is close to 5.22 mg. per kg. of animal weight. Sheep 1468, the animal killed by this quantity; sheep 1479, killed by 5.28 mg., and sheep 1476, killed by 5.19 mg., had received no previous drenchings of cyanide. As compared with these, sheep 1453 made sick by 5.20 mg., had been poisoned three times previously by cyanide, the last time on January 17, when it had been given 3 m.l.d. of hydrocyanic acid, followed by an intraperitoneal injection of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination, and sheep 1469 which died following the administering of 4.92 mg. had been given two previous doses of 3 m.l.d. each of hydrocyanic acid, followed by the nitrite-thiosulphate combination. It is possible, although not clear, that the previous treatment may have somewhat modified the results. It is evident that the m.].d. does not exceed 5.22 mg. per kg. of animal weight. COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF CYANIDE WHEN GIVEN IN DIFFERENT FORMS For comparison with potassium cyanide and hydrocyanic acid, the minimum toxic and minimum lethal doses are given in table 2. In this table the dosages are given in terms of the substances actually admin- istered and of the cyanide radical (CN) equivalents. Based on the smallest quantities of the substances themselves that produced visible effects, hydrocyanic acid, potassium cyanide, and AuGusT 15, 1985 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 359 TABLE 2.—ReEwaTIvE QUANTITIES? oF KCN, HCN anp NaCN Requirep, WHEN GIvEN As A DrEeNcH, TO PRODUCE SYMPTOMS IN AND TO KiLL SHEEP. Minimum toxic dose Minimum lethal dose Substance given As substance given As CN equivalent As substance given As CN equivalent HCN 1.05 1.01 2.29 2.20 KCN 2.438 .95 1) ./ Py PA) NaCN 4.15 2.20 5.22 24 U0 8 Dosages given as milligrams per kilograms of animal weight. sodium cyanide bear the approximate relationship represented by the values 1:2.3:4. That is, sodium cyanide is one-half as toxic as the potassium salt and one-fourth as toxic as hydrocyanic acid. If con- sidered on the basis of their cyanide equivalents, their ratio is 1:1:2.2. The ratios for the minimum lethal dose are somewhat different, being 1:2.4:2.8, when based on the substances actually administered, and 1:1:1.26, if based on the cyanide equivalent. Apparently sodium cyanide is less poisonous than either hydrocyanic acid or potassium cyanide, while there is no appreciable difference between the two lat- ter forms. The relationship between minimum toxic and minimum lethal doses of the three forms differ somewhat. For hydrocyanic acid and potassium cyanide the relationship is nearly the same, it being ap- proximately 1:2 in both cases. For sodium cyanide it is close to 1:1}. That is, with HCN and KCN, about twice as much is required to kill as to produce visible effects, while with sodium cyanide the lethal dose is only about 25 per cent greater than the minimum toxic dose. As the efficiency of any remedial measures in cyanide poisoning is closely related to the promptness with which it is given, or, more cor- rectly, the stage of illness when it is administered, a comparison of the rates at which the stages of poisoning develop when the different forms of cyanide are administered is of considerable interest. The various stages overlap so that no actual sharp boundary exists between them. In most cases, however, three points could be determined fairly closely. These are: (1) symptoms, or the time when the respiratory movement began to show the effect of stimulation; (2) collapse, or when the animals fell and were unable to get to their feet; and (3) death. Considering the cases in which fairly accurate observations were obtained, and eliminating such as were influenced by the admin- istration of remedies, averages, times between the giving of the cya- nide and the appearance of the effects, were obtained. These are shown in table 3. 360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 TABLE 3.—SHOWING THE TIME FROM THE GIVING OF CYANIDE IN THE THREE FORMS (HCN, KCN, ann NACN) anp Various Errects. Time to effect Form in which given Effect No. of cases Minimum Maximum Average Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Hydrocyanic | Symptoms 28 20 2 50 acid Collapse 23 50 51 30 5 52 Death 11 12 30 51 46 30 16 Potassium Symptoms 79 30 3 00 1 7 cyanide Collapse 80 30 23 00 2 46 Death 13 6 00 56 00 25 49 Sodium Symptoms 24 30 1 45 1 00 cyanide Collapse 18 30 9 50 2 59 Death 11 8 00 90 00 34 39 Although table 3 is based on too small a number of cases for positive conclusions, it furnishes certain information. The form in which the cyanide is administered as a drench in water solution has no signifi- cant influence on the time it takes symptoms to develop. Apparently the time to collapse is somewhat longer when hydrocyanic acid has been given than when potassium or sodium cyanide has been admin-— istered. However, the average time in the hydrocyanic acid cases is in part due to two animals that appear to have been unusually resis- tant. One of these collapsed after 244 minutes and one after 513 minutes. With these eliminated the average time was 3 minutes 33 seconds. Of the 23 cases, 17 (or 75 per cent) collapsed in 3 minutes or less. Following the administration of potassium cyanide there were likewise two prolonged cases, one lasting 19 minutes, and one 233 minutes before collapse. Without these, the average time is 2 minutes 17 seconds. Of the 80 cases 80 per cent collapsed in 3 minutes or less. With sodium cyanide the average is essentially the same as for the potassium cyanide cases. Of the 18 cases, 13 (or 72 per cent) collapsed in 3 minutes or less. Taking all facts into consideration, it is not apparent that any essential differences exist in the rate at which illness develops follow- ing the administration of the three forms of cyanide under considera- t-on. If any one of the substances acts more slowly than the others, it is the hydrocyanic acid. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REMEDY USED As previously stated, 7 animals that had received sodium cyanide were treated with the nitrite-thiosulphate combination. Each animal AuGusT 15, 1985 CLAWSON, COUCH, AND BUNYEA: SODIUM CYANIDE 361 was injected intraperitoneally with 15 ¢.c. of a solution containing 1 gram of sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate, the two solutions being mixed just before being injected. The quantities of sodium cyanide given these animals varied from 2.5 to 3.15 times the m.l.d. The remedy was administered in from 13 minutes to 4 minutes after the cyanide. The results are shown in table 4. TABLE 4.—Suowine THE Errects oF THE NitTRiTE-THIOSULPHATE COMBINATION ADMINISTERED INTRAPERITONEALLY AS A REMEDY FOR SHEEP POISONED BY SopIuM CYANIDE Time in minutes from giving drench Sheep = of NaCN to Date 1935 SSS eS atta = Result No. eet Symptoms Collapse cone Jan. 18 1482 38.55 2.0 0.75 3.25 3.75 Recovery 18 1480 47.62 Ze 1.00 love IL 540) Death 18 1481 42.63 2.75 1.5 2.25 2.25 Death 18 1457 34.92 3.00 1.0 3504 4.00 Recovery 18 1477 41.72 3.00 ORS I 7/5) 33245) Death 18 1478 38.55 3.00 1.0 7) 3.00 Recovery 16 1473 40.82 3.15 0.75 1.00 2.00 Recovery Four of the 7 cases, including 3 of the 4 given 3 m.l.d. of sodium cyanide recovered. As shown by the few cases the nitrite-thiosulphate combination is as effective against sodium cyanide as against potas- sium cyanide? poisoning, but apparently somewhat less effective than against hydrocyanic acid.‘ SUMMARY When given to sheep as a drench in water solution, 4.15 mg. of sodium cyanide per kg. of animal weight produced symptoms of poisoning and 5.22 mg. or more killed, and these quantities are con- sidered to be the approximate minimum toxic and minimum lethal doses, respectively. Basing the doses on the CN content, sodium cyanide is somewhat less toxic than potassium cyanide or hydrocyanie acid. Following the administration of sodium cyanide the average time to the appearance of symptoms is approximately 1 minute, to collapse 3 minutes, and to death 343 minutes. Taking into account the prob- ability of experimental error, these respective periods are about the same as for poisoning by potassium cyanide or by hydrocyanic acid.‘ The nitrite-thiosulphate combination was effective in 57 per cent of the cases in which it was tried. 3 This JoURNAL 24: 528-532. 1934. 4 This JoURNAL 25: 272-276. 1935. 362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 29, NO. 8 PALEONTOLOGY.—WNotes on the genus Breviarea.1 Liuoyp WIL- LIAM STEPHENSON, U. 8. Geological Survey. The name Breviarca was introduced by Conrad? in 1872 as a sub- genus of T’rigonarca Conrad (not Trigonoarca). He did not specify a genotype, but named two examples, Trigonarca perovalis Conrad, from the Snow Hill member of the Black Creek formation of North Carolina, and Trigonarca saffordi Gabb. The former species was later erroneously described by Conrad’ under the name T'rigonarca (Bre- viarca) carolinensis. The type of the true Trigonarca saffordi (Gabb)* came from the Midway group (Eocene), Hardeman County, Tenn., and is now known to be a Cucullaea;? Gabb originally assigned it to Arca. Meek‘ in 1876, treated Breviarca as a subgenus of Trigonarca and named T'rigonarca perovalis Conrad as an example. The first author who definitely designated a genotype for Breviarca was Stewart’ who in 1930 selected Trigonarca saffordi (Gabb) Conrad, the second ex- ample cited by Conrad. Emphasis is to be placed on the fact that Stewart’s selection pertained to the specimen figured by Conrad (his pl. 2, fig. 3), which, as shown below, was a specimen identified as safford: from the Woodbury clay of the Matawan group, Haddonfield, New Jersey, and was not from Hardeman County, Tenn. Whitfield,* in 1885 treated Breviarca as a genus and accepted the specific name safford: for the New Jersey material. He says, ‘The specimen which I have figured on plate 12, figs. 11 and 12, appears to be the same with that used by Mr. Conrad for generic figures in 1872, and I have made the figures as accurately as it is possible to measure the specimen.” The specimen to which Whitfield refers is a right valve preserved in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and is accompanied in the same tray by 138 other smaller shells, 9 left valves and 4 right valves; the lot is from Haddonfield and bears the number 13141. This lot has been kindly lent to me by the authorities of the Academy. I 1 Published by permission of the director, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Received June 10, 1935. 2 Conrab, T. A. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc. 24: 55, pl. 2, figs. 3,4. 1872. 3 Conrad, T. A. Rept. Geol. Survey North Carolina. 1: App. A: 3, pl. 1, fig. 4. 1Si See also StepHENSOoN, L. W., North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey. 5: 110. “4 Gasp, Wo. M. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc., 2d ser., 4: 397, pl. 68, fig. 38 (not fig. 37). 1860. ui re G. D. Bull. Amer. Paleontology. 1: no. 4: 51-53, pl. 3, fig. 11; pl. 4, figs. ee Mrrx, F. B. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey Terr.9: 90-91. 1876. 7 Stewart, Raupw. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Special Publication 3: 86. 1930. 8 WHITFIELD, R. P. U. 8S. Geol. Survey Mon. 9: 87-88, pl. 12, figs. 11, 12. 1885. AuacustT 15, 1935 EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 363 have carefully compared the large right valve with the figures given by both Conrad and Whitfield, and am convinced it is the specimen figured by them; it is marked with a green and a red diamond. Fur- ther evidence is afforded by two card labels in Conrad’s handwriting, to which specimens had been glued, one bearing the name Trigonarca safford: Gabb, and the other Trigonarca (Arca) saffordi Gabb. It is clear from the foregoing facts that the Haddonfield specimen, which must be accepted as the genotype of Breviarca, was incorrectly referred to Gabb’s species saffordi and that it is in need of a new name. I therefore propose the name Breviarca haddonfieldensis, and designate as holotype the large right valve from Haddonfield, figured by Conrad in Academy of Natural Science Philadelphia Proceedings, vol. 24, p. 55, pl. 2, fig. 3, 1872, and by Whitfield in United States Geological Survey Monograph, vol. 9, p. 87, pl. 12, figs. 11, 12, 1885. The speci- men is adequately described by Whitfield. Twelve of the 13 shells accompanying the holotype (9 left and 3 right valves) belong to the same species as the figured specimen. The thirteenth shell, a right valve, differs from the others in form, and resembles Breviarca um- bonata (Conrad), from the Snow Hill member of the Black Creek for- mation of North Carolina; this shell has been placed in a separate vial. It follows that the genotype of Brevarca is Trigonarca saffordi (Gabb) Conrad (=Breviarca haddonfieldensis Stephenson), and not Cucullaea saffordi (Gabb). In 1923 I referred Conrad’s species T'rigonarca (Breviarca) perovalis and five other associated species, to the genus Striarca, which is based on Arca centenaria Say, a species from the Miocene of Maryland. The principal common character which was thought to indicate this con- generic relationship, was the transversely striated triangular liga- mental area. After further consideration I am now of the opinion that, although the Miocene and Cretaceous species do possess this feature in common, and are related, there are sufficient differences in form and ornamentation to warrant retaining Conrad’s Breviarca for the Cre- taceous species. BOTAN Y.—The status of Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon, and a probationary method in systematic botany. JosmpPpH Ewan, Uni- versity of California. (Communicated by W. L. JEPSON.) There occurs at elevations of 6500 to 8800 feet in the mountains of southern California an endemic fern whose systematic status has vari- 1 Received April 2, 1935. 364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 ously shifted. Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon was first published by J. G. Lemmon as var. californica of Pellaea Wrightiana Hook. in 1882.2 The following year George E. Davenport published Pellaea Wrightiana var. compacta,® based on material from the same general locality (San Bernardino Mts.) as that studied by Lemmon. Maxon clarified the Pellaea confusion in the Southwest by delimiting what had long been taken sensu latissima as Pellaea Wrightiana, of which he had summarily said in 1901 ‘‘extremely variable,’’* and by pro- posing in 1917 Pellaea compacta® as the name, now in full specific rank, for the endemic high-montane fern of southern California. Munz and Johnston considered the characters for this species and its indubi- table relative, Pellaea mucronata (D.C. Eaton) D.C. Eaton, as not varying together, and therefore in 1922 combined the oldest varietal name with Pellaea mucronata to constitute var. californica (Lemmon) M. & J.° Subsequently Maxon’ and Jepson® have maintained this fern in species status. My first introduction to Pellaea compacta in the field was very possibly in the locality at which W. G. Wright first collected it, though I was unaware of the fact at the time, on the slopes of Mt. San Bernardino at 7500 feet elevation in the range of that name (Hwan, July 22, 1928). Although Maxon® gives a more general locality, from the text of Davenport’s varietal deserip- tion I believe that Wright must have collected it there. Moreover, the Wright collection seen in the Eaton Herbarium by Maxon and considered by him as being collected on Mt. San Bernardino at “‘7000 feet” is very probably from the same station, if not collected at the same time as the specimen Daven- port had before him when he described his var. compacta. My conclusions regarding Wright’s collections are reached by studies made particularly at the Los Angeles Museum, where they are well represented. I found here collections of the same species differing but slightly in the wording of their sketchy labels, which upon a close examination could be unquestionably considered as of the same collection. Pellaea compacta grows on the higher slopes of Mt. San Bernardino along the old trail, now little used, that leads from Mill Creek (precisely from Forest Home, a resort at 5300 feet in that 2 Lemmon, J. G. Ferns of the Pacific Coast (San Francisco, 1882). p. 10. 8’ Davenport, Geo. E. Cat. Davenport Herbarium Suppl. 46. 1883 (fide Maxon, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30: 183. 1917, not seen). 4 Maxon, W.R. List of ferns and fern allies of North America north of Mexico, ete. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23: 634. 1901. ae ec W.R. Notes on western species of Pellaea. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30: oO. Ws 6 Munz, P. A. & Jounston, I. M. Distribution of Southern California Pterido- phytes. Amer. Fern Jour. 12: 106. 1922. 7 Maxon in ABrams, LERoy. (Jllus. Flora Pacific States 1: 31. 1923. 8 Jepson, W. L._ Man. Fl. Pl. Calif. p. 33. 1923. ® Maxon. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 30: 183. 1917. AuGustT 15, 1935 - EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 365 Fig. 1.—a. Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon. Typical plants; Islip Trail, near Islip-Hawkins Divide, 7,500 ft., San Gabriel Mts., Raseorg & mia 4891, b. P. com- pacta. Atypical (ecologic) plants from lower margin of its range; Big Cienaga above Crystal Lake, 6,500 ft., San Gabriel Mts. Hwan 2704. _ c. P. mucronata (D. C. Eaton) D. C. Eaton. Typical plant; Cajon Pass, 4,000 ft., San Bernardino Co., Hwan 5564. 366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 watershed) to Dobbs Cabin!’ and eventually to the summit. It may be found poking out from beneath large boulders on the gravelly talus slopes thinly populated by very fine veteran Jeffrey Pines. It persists when such slopes are transformed into unsightly “burns” and the insolation much increased. Though passing through a considerable size range (blade at maturity falling about two averages: 3-5 or 8-12 em. long), the plants in their opti- mum habitats show a group of constant morphological characters and match other collections from similar montane elevations through the region oc- cupied, in the compactness and configuration of their blades. I have observed and collected this fern whenever botanizing in the higher mountains, con- tinually marvelling at its distinctness in the field and at its “intermediate” states. I consider ‘‘typical’”’ Pellaea compacta to be represented by such a collection as Lemmon, May 30, 1876 (UC), likely a topotype (postulating Mt. San Bernardino as the type locality), and Pellaea mucronata by such collections as Geo. B. Grant 920 from ‘Sierra Madre Mountains” (i.e. San Gabriel Mountains “behind” Pasadena and San Gabriel Valley) and Braunton 750 from Eaton Canyon, San Gabriel Mountains. Pellaea mu- cronata is also well illustrated by a photograph in Christ’s work on the geog- raphy of Polypodiaceae." To my knowledge there has never heretofore been published a photograph of Pellaea compacta. I coneur with Munz and Johnston that between Pellaea compacta and Pellaea mucronata ‘“‘the most striking difference is in the arrangement of the pinnules,’’” giving a wholly different aspect to these ferns in their typical _ states, as illustrated by figs. 1 a and c. After the examination of more than two hundred sheets of the two species involved I present Table 1 of differ- entiae: The habitat and altitudinal distribution of these Pellaeas likewise differ, for whereas mucronata favors the semi-shade beneath sclerophyllous shrubs of the foothill chaparral belt, especially the widespread Adenostoma fasci- culatum association, compacta is found in the boulder crevices of open ridges and slopes, often along exposed “‘divides.”” And whereas mucronata uncom- monly ascends to the lower portions of the Transition Zone, where it often occupies less xerophytic situations, compacta is normally an inhabitant of the upper Transition Zone. Maxon quotes Parish™ as to the existence of a “‘veographical hiatus between the two species in which no Pellaea occurs,” but I have seen collections of the two species altitudinally only 1200 feet apart and it seems unlikely that the two ferns do not meet. It is true that the two Pellaeas do not commonly merge and that there is a “fairly distinct geographic range.”’* It is from such meeting-grounds as San Antonio Can- 10 Dobbs Camp, on U.S. Geol. Survey San Gorgonio Quadrangle, ed. 1902, reprint 1927. Precisely a delapidated cabin at a cienaga on Falls Creek. 1 Curist, H. Die Geographie der Farne, p. 158, fig. 72, 1910. 12 Amer. Fern. Jour. 12: 107. 1922. 18 Amer. Fern Jour. 8: 90. 1918. 14 Amer. Fern Jour. 12: 107. 1922. AuGusT 15, 1935 EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 367 TABLE 1.—DistincuisHinGe CHARACTERS OF PELLAEA MUCRONATA AND P. cOMPACTA P. mucronata P. compacta Attitude of pin- nae “in nature”’ Attitude of pin- nae on herbar- ium sheet Length of stipe Spacing of pinnae Division of pinnae Pinnule® orienta- tion Pinnule gross mor- phology Duration of fronds Dry season condi- tion Ranked in 2 planes to form a trough with a basal right angle Usually obliquely ascending (whereas widely spreading in the field) Stipe as long as the blade or less Pinnae distant their width Pinnae always partly bipin- nate (i.e. pinna divisions near rachis trifid) Pinnule when unrolled (in na- ture by drenching rains, in laboratory by boiling) never overlapping adjacent pin- nules Pinnule, though strongly revo- lute, not strictly condupli- cate but more nearly terete and not at all faleate Pinnules deciduous, to leave naked spinose pinna rachises Pinna segments appear as pen- dent bullate sacs from fili- form wiry rachises; thus wholly unlike divaricate aspect of wet season Curving toward each other to form an imperfect cylinder Secundly superimposed as any cylinder would appear if flattened (see fig. 1, a) Stipe always longer than the blade (to twice as long) Pinnae all contiguous to pairs above and below Pinnae strictly pinnate (i.e., pinna divisions always sim- ple) Pinnule when unrolled (never under normal conditions in nature, in laboratory by boiling) closely overlapping each adjacent pinnule “Fertile pinnules . . . broadly revolute, often conduplicate and faleate with age.”’ A false intruded suture and charac- teristic shape give an Astrag- alus-pod aspect to the pin- nule (under binocular) Pinnules persistent; last year’s weathered fronds (stone gray color) intact among fronds (gray green) of the season Pinna segments appear as equally ranked members on either side of rachises; unal- tered in position throughout the year ® Pinnule here taken as the ultimate segment of any fern pinna. yon, San Gabriel Mountains, the place of the above observation, that the troublesome outlying variants arise. The intermediate (better simply ‘‘atypical’’) states of these two species are due, I believe from field observation, to ecologic (soil or climate or both) factors which may affect either species, occurring chiefly along the margins of their vertical ranges, as when mucronata interfingers upwards into the lower Transition Zone. Plants of Pellaea mucronata near its upper altitudinal limits may have much reduced pinnules, and these abundant and crowded 368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 —not at all like the common foothill fern in aspect—which comes close to the outlying forms of compacta as that species reaches its lower limits. Fosberg 8497, San Antonio Canyon, 4500 feet, represents this phase. On the other hand when Pellaea compacta grows in partial shade under pines it may assume the habit of P. mucronata in bearing the pinnae di- varicately, in the manner of the Arizonan Pellaea Wrightiana. This condi- tion is illustrated by Johnston 1593, San Antonio Canyon, San Gabriel Mountains, at 5750 feet—about the lower altitudinal limit for compacta!— and a likely zone of flux. Here the aspect of compacta is quite unlike plants at higher altitudes in the same range. Furthermore, when this species grows in deep north-facing crevices of boulders the pinnae may assume more widely atypical asplenioid forms (fig. 1, b) with a few plane rounded pinnules. Growing at the same station, however, at Big Cienaga above Crystal Lake, San Gabriel Mountains (at 6500 feet—here the zone of flux because of the ascent of the Sonoran elements immediately below to raise the whole zona- tion), are plants of compacta (Hwan 2703) with divaricate pinnae and of open habit, nearly plane, and only slightly glaucous, whereas typical con- pacta is often distinctly glaucous. Still other plants from this station (Hwan 2702), growing in the full sun, match the Lemmon collection above cited from the San Bernardino Mountains in all characters. It is such a typical collection (Fosberg & Ewan 4891—though not the Big Cienaga collection referred to above) that is illustrated by fig. 1, a. Careful search will then dis- close what might be taken as negative evidence for concluding that Pellaea compacta is a valid species, but there appears to me to be yet another justified conclusion and disposition. The systematic relationship in these ferns introduces a principle in the treatment of “unstable species” that, as a working idea, merits considera- tion. Both Pellaea mucronata, conceivably the parent species, and Pellaea compacta, the derived species resulting from isolation, in part, and its multi- plex resulting factors, are very susceptible to an abnormal environment, with consequent morphological changes away from those characters exhib- ited by plants of typical habitats. Especially does this reaction occur when the two species approach their altitudinal limits. Irrespective of such uncer- tain forms as may be found, not at once referable to either species but al- ways peripheral in distribution and numerically few among the species as a whole, a sound working basis is to maintain the limits, when well-defined, as distinct species. Perhaps a parent species and such a limital one may repre- sent a confluent unit, were all the intercalary states known. Nevertheless the recognition of such limital species awaits the day, perhaps decades dis- tant, when a comprehensive knowledge from several correlated fields of study will relate the data presented by new collections in the then better understood mosaic of life forms among plants. The chief disadvantage with the practice of relating minor or questionable limital forms to another long- known species on present incomplete evidence is the fact that such a practice Lk llll— t—~—~— auGcusT 15, 1935 EWAN: PELLAEA COMPACTA 369 hides away these plants from the critical observation which might easily be given them were they maintained by botanists on ‘‘trial grounds.” A recommended practice for the consideration of such uncertain (published) forms in manuals and floras is that in favor among many botanists in giving a characterization (preferably quite full, if not verbatim, from the original description) of such forms, without keying them, as a subhead near the most closely related keyed species. Therefore, when a plant exhibits a clear set of morphological characters under optimum growing conditions for that species and these characters recur among plants found in similar floristic areas, I favor the recognition of such plants (the ‘‘extremes’” of some botanists) as species. Many such species may be found commonly to terminate a phylogenetic line, recently budding from the parent species, and therefore will be areally limited. The dubious forms that occur between such species would be then considered taxonomically as individuals, at the same time pointing out their avowed differences and affinities and relating them when practicable to the species which they most nearly approach in the sum total of their characters. This treatment, as species, of what have often been considered as ‘‘extremes”’ necessitates the clear definition of such a plant group, repeating an ap- preciable number of times the characters present over several floristically related stations.” Allowing for local or individual genetic variation the majority of the “intermediates” will be found, I believe, to represent plants in active evolution on the margins of their normal ranges, immigrants into new territory. O. F. Cook’s simile in elucidating the species problem is, among the ver- biage extant on that topic, a happy one. ‘‘The categories of the biologist are artificial like those of the geographer, but not more so. Geographers do not agree in the grouping of the archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean, but this is not considered a reason for denying that islands exist or that some islands are close together and others far apart. Species are biological islands, in a sea of non-existence.” Awaiting the results of studies by the experimental grower, the geneticist, ecologist, and student of nutrition, the systematic botanist holds a probationary attitude toward the lesser known plant forms in an attempt to differentiate between specific units and those marginal states which approach the better known species in one or several characters, meanwhile being in accord with the view that the ultimate ‘‘only way to solve taxonomical difficulties with polymorphic species goes along lines of experimental research.’’!” 1s For “narrow endemics”’ 3 or 4 stations would suffice, if these were of the same floristic subarea populated by identical or closely related species at the separate sta- tions. 16 Coox, O. F. EHzistence of species. Jour. Hered. 5: 158. 1914. 17 Goppisn, W. A. On the species conception in relation to taxonomy and genetics. Blumea 1: 81. 1934. 370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 SUMMARY Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon is believed to have been first collected on the slopes of Mt. San Bernardino, where it grows in fair abundance, though not definitely so stated in Davenport’s original description of the fern. Pellaea compacta, confined to the higher mountains of southern California, morphologically well-defined in its typical state but undergoing wide varia- tion under abnormal environments, is considered specifically distinet from the geographically widespread Pellaea mucronata. The so-called “intermediates” of the two species are found to occur in- variably along the margins of their vertical ranges, being absent from within the range of typical plants of either species. These outlying forms are generally atypical in only one or two characters which may be understood from field observation to be of edaphic or climatic origin. Well-defined limital forms (what have often been tagged ‘‘extremes’’) of generally accepted species, sharing with the plants of several floristically related localities definite morphological characters, are reeommended to be treated as species. Atypical forms may be best considered as ‘‘near’” or “towards” either species according to the sum total of their characters, with a clear statement of their aberrant morphological nature. BOTANY.—WNew species of Bomarea from the Andes.’ E. P. Kiuuip, U.S. National Museum. Bomarea, a genus of Amaryllidaceae, contains some of the most showy plants of the South American mountains. The brilliant flowers, usually red and yellow, are often massed in clusters of 50 or more, and present a striking appearance against the dark green foliage of the forest. Though most of the species are high-climbing vines, some inhabit the high mountain plateaus, and these generally are low erect plants, with stiff narrow leaves. As a member of expeditions to Colombia and Peru I have made a special study of Bomarea, and am preparing a revision of the genus. Since this can not be published at present, and the names of several new species are used in a forthcoming article in The National Horticul- tural Magazine, I am describing herewith eleven as new, most of these based upon material in the herbaria of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and the Botanisches Museum, Berlin. To the directors of these institutions I wish to express my appreciation of their many courtesies. Photo- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived June 4, 1935. AuausT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 371 graphs, and in some cases fragments of the types, are deposited in the U. 8. National Herbarium. The most comprehensive monographs of Amaryllidaceae are those of Herbert,? Kunth,? and Baker.’ In treating Bomarea Baker recog- nized as subgenera two small groups of species, which both Herbert and Kunth had placed in separate genera, these subgenera being des- ignated by Baker as Wichaurea and Sphaerine. In classifying the true Bomareas Baker followed his predecessors in recognizing four main groups, as follows: Umbel rays simple. Petals and sepals subequal (Multiflorae). Petals much longer than the sepals (Caldasianae). Umbel rays forked. Petals and sepals subequal (Hdules). Petals much longer than the sepals (Vitellinae). I have given names to these groups as above, in order to refer to them more readily. The arrangement is not wholly satisfactory, and - perhaps does not express the actual relationships of the species, but until more herbarium material, expecially more fruiting material, is available, it will suffice. Bomarea (Wichaurea) campanuliflora Killip, sp. nov. Caulis strictus (?), parte suprema recurvata, glaber; folia linearia, re- voluta, rigida, subtus rufo-pilosula; radii 4, glabri, 1—2-furcati; ovarium +superius, glabrum; sepala late ovata, rubra; petala oblanceolato-ungui- culata, quam sepala longiora, rubra, apice viridi. Stem apparently erect, recurved toward apex, about 3 mm. in diameter, leafy except toward base, glabrous; leaves linear, 3 to 9 em. long, decreasing toward apex, 3 to 6 mm. wide (the upper the broader), crowded, strongly revolute, rigid, sessile, rufo-pilosulous beneath; bracts similar to the leaves, slightly involute; umbel rays 4, about 4.5 em. long, glabrous, once or twice forked, bracteolate, the lowest bractlets up to 2.5 em. long; ovary broadly turbinate-campanulate, glabrous, partly superior; sepals broadly ovate, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, acuminate, glabrous, red; petals oblance- olate-unguiculate, 2.5 to 3 em. long, the blade longer than the claw, 1 to 1.3 em. wide, acute, red, green-tipped; stamens subequal to the petals, the paces oblong, about 3.5 mm. long; styles exserted, the stigma shallowly trifid. Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at Quebrada de Toipata (?), Department of Puno, Peru, August, 1864, by A. Raimondi (no. 10229). The general appearance of the inflorescence suggests B. grandis, but be- cause of the proportionately broad sepals and the strongly involute leaves it is evidently a distinct species. ® Hprpert, W. Amaryllidaceae. 1837: 3 Kuntu, C.S. Enum. Pl. 5: 467—850. 1847. 4 Baxer, J. G. Handbook of the Amaryllideae. 1888. 372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 Bomarea (Wichaurea) zosteraefolia Killip, sp. nov. Ubique glaberrima; caulis strictus, rigidus, ad apicem recurvatus, foliosis- simus; folia linearia, subrevoluta, membranacea; radii ca. 6, prope medium furcati; ovarium turbinatum; segmenta perianthii subaequalia, sepalis lineari-oblongis, subacutis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, flavescentibus (?), purpureo-maculatis. Plant erect, rigid, 30 or more em. high, glabrous throughout; stem sub- terete, 2.5 to 4 mm. in diameter, recurved toward apex, densely leafy, the leaves reduced or probably wanting toward base; leaves linear, 4 to 12 em. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide (diminishing from middle of stem to apex), acute, sessile, slightly revolute, membranous, green on both surfaces, divaricate; bracts similar to the leaves; umbel rays about 6, 2.5 to 3 em. long, slender, forked near middle, the bractlets similar to the leaves, 1.5 to 2 em. long; ovary turbinate, sulcate; sepals linear-oblong, about 2.5 em. long and 6 mm. wide, subacute, red, green-tipped; petals oblong-spatulate, subequal to the sepals, yellowish(?), green-tinged and purple-maculate at apex; stamens subequal to the perianth, the anthers oblong, about 2.5 mm. long; style slightly exserted, trifid. Type in the herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, collected in the Department of Ancachs, Peru, by Martinet (no. 742). The longer spreading leaves, which are of a much thinner texture, scarcely revolute, and glabrous beneath, and the diffuse inflorescence are characters by which this may be distinquished from B. dulcis, a related species. Bomarea uniflora (Mathews) Killip Alstroemeria uniflora Mathews; Herb. Amaryll. 104. 1837, as synonym. Wichaurea dulcis uniflora M. Roemer, Fam. Nat. Syn. 4: 278. 1847. Bomarea (Sphaerine) incana Killip, sp. nov. Caulis strictus, teres, tener, glaber; folia pauca, ovato-oblonga, membran- acea, subtus pilis albidis vel brunnescentibus dense hirsuto-tomentosa; radii 1 vel 2, ad medium furcati vel subfurcati, bracteolis foliis similibus; ovarium auguste obconicum, rufo-tomentellum; segmenta perianthii aequalia, sepalis oblongis, petalis oblanceolato-spathulatis, flavis, apice viridi, purpureo- punctatis. Stem erect, 50 to 60 cm. high, slender, terete, glabrous, leafless in lower half, few-leaved in upper half; leaves sessile or subsessile, ovate-oblong, 4-6 em. long, 1.2 to 2.3 em. wide, acute at apex, rounded at base, membranous, glabrous above, densely hirsute-tomentose beneath with white or light brown hairs, the hairs chiefly borne on the side of the veins, divaricate but closely appressed to the blade; bracts 2, similar and equal to the leaves; umbel 1 or 2-rayed, the rays 5 to 12 em. long, forked near middle (or one fork scarcely developed), bracteolate at fork, the bractlets similar to the leaves, 1.5 to 3 em. long; ovary narrowly obconic, densely rufo-tomentellous; peri- anth segments equal, 2 to 2.3 em. long; sepals oblong, 6 to 9 mm. wide, red and puberulous without, pale and glabrous within; petals oblanceolate- spatulate, the blade 6 to 7 mm. wide, yellow, green-tinged apically and purple-spotted; stamens subequal to perianth; stigma trifid. Type in the herbarium of the Jardin Botdnico, Madrid, collected at the Alto del Condor, between Ibagué and El Nevado del Tolima, Department of Tolima, Colombia, altitude 3,500 meters (Central Cordillera), May 17, AuaustT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 373 1932, by J. Cuatrecasas (no. 2224). Represented also by Goudot 4 and Dawe 807, from the same general region. This is nearest B. holtonii, also a Colombian species, which has 7 or 8 primary rays, a quadrangular stem, and sparingly pilosulous leaves. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Caldasianae) vegasana Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, angulatus, rufo-tomentulosus; folia lanceolata, subcori- acea, subtus minute puberula; radii ca. 35, simplices, ebracteolati, cum ovario conico viscoso-tomentosi; sepala lineari-oblonga; petala cuneato-unguicu- lata, sepalis longiora, lutea. Herbaceous vine; stem rather stout, 4 to 6 mm. wide, angular, densely rufo-tomentulous; petioles 6 to 8 mm. long, winged; leaves lanceolate, 8 to 12 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, abruptly narrowed at base, subcoriaceous, glabrous above, minutely puberulent beneath; bracts of 2 forms, the outer oblong-lanceolate, 3 to 5 cm. long, 8 to 10 mm. wide, reflexed, the inner linear, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 8 mm. wide, suberect; umbel simple, about 35-rayed, the rays 4 to 5 em. long, ebracteolate, viscous- tomentose; sepals linear-oblong, about 3 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, red, puberu- lent without; petals cuneate-unguiculate, about 4 cm. long, the blade sub- equal to the claw, yellow, not spotted; stamens 3 to 3.5 em. long, unequal, the anthers ovate-oblong, 6 to 7 mm. long. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,609, collected in moun- tains east of Las Vegas, Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 3,300 to 3,400 meters (Eastern Cordillera), December 21, 1926, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 15784). Represented also by Killip & Smith 15587, from the same locality. This closely resembles B. andreana, but the petals are definitely unspotted and the leaves, which are of thicker texture, are minutely puberulent be- neath. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) subsessilis Killip, sp. nov. Caulis substrictus et subflexuosus, tenerrimus, glaber; folia oblanceolata vel elliptica, ad basin attenuata, subsessilia, subtus breviter crispato-pilosa; bracteae 2; radii 2-4, tenerrimi, glabri, 1—2-furcati, bracteolis parvis; ovarium late turbinatum; segmenta perianthii subaequalia, apice viridi, sepalis ob- longo-spathulatis roseis, petalis spathulatis-unguiculatis, flavidulis. Stem 35 to 50 cm. long, suberect or at least very slightly voluble, sub- flexuose, angulate, slender, glabrous; leaves oblanceolate or elliptic, 2.5 to 5.5 em. long, 0.7 to 1.8 em. wide, acute at apex, tapering to base without a well-defined petiole, resupinate, divaricate or somewhat ascending, mem- branous, glabrous above, short-crispate-pilose beneath; bracts 2, ovate-ob- long, 7 to 13 mm. long, 3 to 5mm. wide; umbel 2 to 4-rayed, the rays slender, 3.5 to 4.5 em. long, glabrous, once or twice forked, bearing at the forks an ovate-oblong or linear-oblong, reddish bractlet 7 to 10 mm. long; ovary broadly turbinate, 6 to 8 mm. long, up to 6.5 mm. in diameter at apex, about one-fifth superior, longitudinally suleate, glabrous, black; sepals ob- long-spatulate, 1.2 to 1.6 em. long, 5 to 7 mm. wide, obtuse, reddish pink, green at apex; petals spatulate-unguiculate, subequal to sepals in length and breadth, pale yellow, green-tinged; stamens shorter than the perianth, un- equal, the anthers orbicular-oblong, about 1.5 mm. long; pistil subequal to stamens, the stigma trifid. 374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected near Cochabamba, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, 3,400 meters alti- tude, February 27, 1928, by C. Troll (no. 1630). Represented also by Bang 2039, from the same locality. This is one of several species that are clearly distinct in themselves but which, because of our imperfect knowledge of the lines of demarcation of the subgenera, are difficult to assign systematically. The suberect habit of the plant, the absence of a definite petiole, and the partly superior ovary suggest the subgenus Wichaurea. In other respects it seems more closely allied with the small-flowered species of Hubomarea § Edules. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) campylophylla Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, teres, glaber; folia lineari-lanceolata, subfaleata, con- spicue nervosa, glabra; bracteae foliis similes, faleatae; radii 5 vel 6, sub- glabri, supra fureati, biflori, 1-2-bracteolati; ovarium cylindrico-turbinatum; segmenta perianthii subaequalia, sepalis oblongis, petalis spathulatis, quam sepalis augustioribus, luteis, purpureo-maculatis, apice viridi. Herbaceous vine; stem terete, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, glabrous; petioles up to 6 mm. long, crispate-margined; leaves linear-lanceolate, 6 to 12 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, subfaleate, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, strongly and closely nerved, glabrous, concolorous; bracts similar to the leaves, 7 to 10 em. long, 5 to 8 mm. wide, falcate; umbel 5 or 6-rayed, the rays 10 to 15 em. long, divaricate or arcuate-ascending, rufo-puberulent and viscid at apex, otherwise glabrous, forked near apex, 2-flowered, bracteolate at fork and sometimes just below fork, the lower bractlets similar to the bracts, 4 to 5 em. long; ovary cylindric-turbinate, densely rufo-tomentose; perianth segments subequal, about 1.5 em. long, the sepals oblong, 7 to 8 mm. wide, red and rufo-puberulent without, yellow within, green at apex, the petals spatulate, slightly narrower than the sepals, yellow, purple- maculate, green at apex; stamens shorter than the perianth, the anthers ovate-oblong, about 2.5 mm. long; style trifid. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,192,850, collected at Vill- cabamba, Department of Hudnuco, Peru, altitude about 1,800 meters, July 17 to 26, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4961). Duplicate at the Field Museum. This is allied to B. salsilla, B. subsessilis, and B. nematocaulon, species of Eubomarea § Edules with very small flowers, the perianth being not more than 1.5 cm. long. There are many points of difference between these three species and B. campylophylla. Bomarea pennellii Killip Bomarea longipes Krainzl. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 40: 234. 1908, not Baker, 1882. In assigning a specific name to this Colombian plant Krinzlin overlooked the earlier use of longipes for a wholly different plant from Ecuador. It is appropriate that the species be named for Dr. F. W. Pennell, whose extensive explorations in Colombia have done much to make known the plant life of that country. AuGcusT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 375 Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) trichophylla Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, glaber; folia ovato-lanceolata, subtus in nervis dense pilosa; radii 4-7, glabri, supra medium 2-8-furcati, bracteolis oblongo- lanceolatis vel lineari-lanceolatis; ovarium late turbinatum, glabrum; seg- menta perianthii aequalia, apice viridi, sepalis obovato-oblongis, extra roseis, intus flavidulis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, luteis; capsula turbinata, aurantiaca. Herbaceous vine; stem rather slender, 2 to 3 mm. thick, sulcate, glabrous; petioles 1 to 1.5 em. long, narrowly winged; leaves ovate-lanceolate, 7 to 11 em. long, 2 to 3.5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, membra- nous, glabrous above, densely pilose on nerves beneath with divaricate whitish hairs; bracts leaflike, persistent, varying in size in individual plants from 5 to 7 em. long and 1 to 2.5 em. wide, petiolate, pilose on nerves beneath; umbel rays 4 to 7, 15 to 25 em. long, glabrous, twice or thrice-forked above middle, bracteolate at the forks, the lowermost bractlets oblong-lanceolate, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 2 mm. wide; ovary broadly turbinate, glabrous; perianth segments equal, 2 to 2.5 em. long, the sepals obovate-oblong, 1 to 1.2 cm. wide, pinkish without, yellowish or cream-color within, green-tinged at apex; petals oblong-spatulate, 8 to 11 mm. wide, yellow, green at apex, purple-dotted within; stamens equal, slightly shorter than the perianth, the anthers ovate, 4to 5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide; fruit turbinate, about 2 em. in diameter, orange. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,574,158, collected near Vetas, Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 3,100 to 3,250 meters (Eastern Cordillera), January 19, 1927, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 17881). Represented also by several other Killip and Smith collections from the departments of Santander and Norte de Santander. This species most nearly resembles B. moritiziana, but differs in having glabrous rays and ovaries, larger flowers, and obovate-oblong sepals. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Edules) perlongipes Killip, sp. nov. Caulis et folia desunt; bracteae late ovato-lanceolatae, subtus dense hirsutae; radii 10 (vel ad 20?), perlongi, crassi, erecti vel adscendentes, glabri, supra medium bifurcati, bracteolis ovato-lanceolatis, infimis magnis;ovarium cylindrico-turbinatum, glabrum; segmenta perianthii aequalia, sepalis obo- vato-oblongis, roseis, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, luteis, brunneo-maculatis. Stem and leaves wanting; bracts broadly ovate-lanceolate or oblong- lanceolate, 7 to 11 cm. long, 2 to 5 em. wide, abruptly acuminate at apex, subacute at base, glabrous above, densely hirsute beneath; umbel rays 10 (up to 20?), about 40 cm. long, stout, erect or ascending, glabrous, twice- branched above middle, bracteolate at forks, the bractlets ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous above, sparingly hirtellous and puberulent beneath, the lowermost 6 to 7 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, the upper decreasing in size; ovary cylindric-turbinate, glabrous; perianth segments equal, 4 to 5.5 cm. long, the sepals obovate-oblong, 7 to 8 mm. wide, callous-thickened at apex, rose, the petals oblong-spatulate, 1.2 to 1.5 em. wide, yellow, brown-spotted; stamens 3 to 3.5 em. long. Type in the herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, collected in the Province of Ocaha, Department of Norte de San- tander, Colombia, altitude about 1,525 meters, July (1846-1852), by L. Schlim (no. 718). 376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 The specimen at hand has been cut off just at the base of the umbel, three bracts being attached. The stem and leaves may have been mounted on another sheet or perhaps not distributed to the Paris herbarium. Schlim’s 455, consisting of two leaves and a short stem only, may represent this species; it was also collected in the Province of Ocafia, but at a much higher altitude. The stem is rather slender and glabrous, and the leaves are broadly ovate (16 to 17 em. long, 7.5 to 8 em. wide) and bear beneath an indument very similar to that of the bracts of B. perlongipes. Among the large-flowered species of this group B. perlongipes is readily recognized by the prominent bractlets. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Vitellinae) schultzei Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, crassus, glaber; folia late lanceolata, membranacea, sub- tus hirsuto-tomentosa; radii ca. 20, teneri, bifurcati, bracteolis ovatis; ova- rium turbinatum, rufo-tomentulosum; sepala late ovata, roseo-rubra; petala cuneato-unguiculata, sepalis multo longiora, viridia, ad basin roseo- rubra. Herbaceous vine, up to 4 meters long; stem stout, 4 to 5 mm. wide, sub- angular, glabrous; petioles up to 2 em. long, winged; leaves broadly lanceo- late, 12 to 14 em. long, 4.5 to 5 em. wide, caudate-acuminate at apex, rounded at base, abruptly tapering to petiole, thin-membranous, glabrous above, sparingly to densely hirsute-tomentose beneath, the nerves scarcely elevated above; bracts leaflike, lanceolate, up to 8 em. long and 2 em. wide; umbel about 20-rayed, the rays about 25cm. long, glabrous, pilosulous toward apex, fairly slender, twice-branched, bracteolate at the forks, the bractlets ovate, acuminate, the lowermost up to 2.5 em. long and 1.1 em. wide; ovary turbinate, sulcate, rufo-tomentulous; perianth segments very unequal, the sepals broadly ovate, 2.5 to 3 em. long, 1.2 to 1.4 em. wide, obtuse, glabres- cent, bright rose-red, the petals cuneate-unguiculate, 3.2 to 3.7 cm. long, the blade 1.4 to 1.8 em. wide, bright green, spotted with brown, the claw slightly shorter than the blade, rose-carmine; stamens unequal, 3 about 2.7 cm. long, 3 about 8 mm. longer, the anthers ovate-oblong, about 4 mm. long; pistil about 1.5 em. long. Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at Aguadita, Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, altitude 1,750 meters (Eastern Cordillera), April 12, 1925, by Arnold Schultze (no. 213). This handsome species belongs to the small section with unequal perianth segments and forked umbel rays. It is readily distinguished from B. vitellina, its nearest relative, by the much broader sepals, the pubescence on the under side of the leaves, and the coloring of the petals. Bomarea (Eubomarea § Vitellinae) hazeni Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, glaber; folia ovato-lanceolata, subtus in nervis pilosa; radii 5-9, cum ovario viscoso-tumentosi, 1—3-furcati, bracteolati; segmenta perianthii inaequalia, sepalis oblanceolatis, extus pubescentibus, petalis cuneato-unguiculatis, quam sepalis longioribus, non punctatis. Herbaceous vine; stem stout, 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, subterete, glabrous, sparingly pilosulous at extremity; petioles up to 1 em. long, narrowly winged, densely pilosulous on one side; leaves ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 11 cm. long, 2 AuGusT 15, 1935 KILLIP: BOMAREA 377 to 4 em. wide, caudate-acuminate at apex, rounded at base, subcoriaceous, 15 to 20-nerved (nerves elevated beneath), glabrous and lustrous above, pilose on nerves beneath; bracts lanceolate, up to 5 cm. long, reflexed; umbel 5 to 9-rayed, the rays 7 to 15 em. long, densely viscous-tomentose, 1 to 3 times forked, bracteolate at the forks, the bractlets lanceolate, about 1 cm. long; ovary turbinate, viscous-tomentose; perianth segments unequal, the sepals oblanceolate, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long, 7 to 9 mm. wide, pubescent and red without, yellow within, the petals cuneate-unguiculate, about 5 mm. longer than the sepals, the blade 1 to 1.5 cm. wide, truncate, deep yellow, un- spotted; stamens unequal, 3 slightly longer than the other 3, the anthers oblong, about 4 to 5 mm. long; pistil slightly shorter than the stamens. Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,143,705, collected at Magana, Quindio Trail, Department of Caldas, Colombia, altitude 3,400 meters (Cen- tral “eo August 2, 1922, by E. P. Killip and T. E. Hazen (no. 9174). : Additional specimens examined, all from Colombia: Cundinamarca: Triana 525. Tolima: Killip and Hazen 9492, 9500; Pennell 2978. Caldas: Pennell and Hazen 10085. The general shape of the perianth segments and their coloring suggest species of Caldasianae, but the rays are forked, the secondary flowers being well developed. The species is more closely related to B. vitellina, which has much larger flowers and glabrous leaves. Bomarea (Hubomarea § Vitellinae) inaequalis Killip, sp. nov. Caulis volubilis, crassus, glaber; folia oblongo-lanceolata, subcoriacea, subtus in nervis dense pilosa; radii ca. 8, teneri, elongati, pilosuli, bifurcati, bracteolis ovato-lanceolatis; ovarium turbinatum, viscoso-tomentosum; segmenta perianthii valde inaequalia, sepalis obovatis, glaberrimis, petalis quam sepalis longioribus, cuneato-unguiculatis, luteis, dense purpureo- punctatis. Herbaceous vine; stem stout, about 5 mm. wide, subangular, glabrous; petioles 1 to 1.2 em. long, narrowly winged; leaves oblong-lanceolate, 15 to 18 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, sub- coriaceous, glabrous above, densely pilose on nerves beneath; bracts ovate- lanceolate, about 4 cm. long and 1.3 cm. wide, acuminate; umbel rays about 8, slender, 12 to 15 cm. long, sparingly pilosulous below, densely so above, twice branched above middle, bracteolate at forks, the bractlets ovate, the lowermost about 1 cm. long; ovary turbinate, viscous-tomentose; perianth segments very unequal, the sepals obovate, about 1.5 em. long and 6 mm. wide, glabrous, red (?), the petals cuneate-unguiculate, 2 to 2.3 cm. long, the blade about 1 em. wide, yellow, conspicuously spotted with purple; stamens unequal, 3 about as long as the petals, 3 shorter, the anthers oblong, about 4mm. long. Type in the herbarium of the Botanisches Museum, Berlin, collected at Rio Frio, Department of Santander, Colombia, July 3, 1878, by W. Kal- breyer (no. 760). Duplicate at Kew. The petals of B. inaequalis are very markedly longer than the sepals and the umbel rays are forked; in this small group it comes nearest §B.Shazeni, which has pubescent sepals, small ovato-lanceolate leaves, and very ob- securely marked petals. 378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 PALEOBOTANY.—A Douglas fir cone from the Miocene of south- eastern Oregon.! CHESTER A. ARNOLD, University of Michigan. (Communicated by E. C. Cass.) Occasional reference has been made in the literature to remains of Pseudotsuga in the Tertiary and Quarternary deposits of west- ern North America but the material is seldom abundant or well pre- served. A recently discovered impression of a well preserved cone which shows not only the scales but also the exserted bracts is con- sidered worthy of mention. The cone under consideration (fig. 1) was discovered by Mr. Percy Train in 1932 while engaged in excavating plant fossils in the Trout Fig. 1—Pseudotsuga taxifolioidea sp. nov. Natural size. Creek diatomite in the southeastern part of Harney County, Oregon, All the organic matter of the cone had disappeared, leaving only the somewhat flattened cavity, on the inner surface of which imprints of the cone scales can be seen. A fortunate break had split the specimen exactly in half so that both sides of the cavity are retained. Extending laterally from between the closely appressed cone scales are several trident-shaped bracts, characteristic of Pseudotsuga. One bract is nearly complete while only portions of others are clearly visible. These bracts render generic identification of the fossil positive. Pseudotsuga taxifolioidea Arnold, sp. nov. The cone is 2.5 em. wide and slightly over 8 em. long. It is long-oval, rounded at the base, slightly broadest below the middle and rather tapering above. The scales are broad and rounded apically. They are tightly ap- pressed, characteristic of Douglas fir cones that have been water soaked. The bracts project outward for a distance of approximately 1.5 cm. beyond the cone scales and are about 0.5 em. wide. The similarities between this cone and the cones of Douglas fir, Pseudot- suga taxifolia, are close. It is too small for the cone of P. macrocarpa, in which the range in length, as given by Jepson (1), Sargent (2), and Sud- 1 Received May 2, 1935: AuGustT 15, 1935 ARNOLD: DOUGLAS FIR CONE 379 worth (3) may be from 10 to 18 em. Those of P. tazifolia may range from 4 to 11 em. Therefore, the Trout Creek specimen is well within the size limits of the latter species although probably somewhat larger than a cone of aver- age size. The exsertion of the bracts is also indicative of affinity with this species since this feature is often cited as a diagnostic character. The bracts of P. macrocarpa protrude but little. There are no points of resemblance between this specimen and P. japonica, the Japanese species. Abundant seeds from the Trout Creek diatomite have been de- scribed by MacGinitie as Pseudotsuga masoni (4). He also assigns twigs to this species, and it is quite possible that the seeds, twigs and cones in the diatomite all belong to the same species. Identity of these detached organs might also seem more probable as Pesudotsuga is not a large genus and the seeds and cones of the different species are dis- tinguishable. Whether or not this is true for the extinct types is un- known although the fossil record does not indicate that the genus was ever a large one. The reason, however, for assigning the Trout Creek specimen to a new species is because erroneous determinations of organs in the detached condition lead to confusion. MacGinitie re- marks upon the close resemblance between the seeds he assigns to P. masoni and those of living P. taxifolia, a resemblance which is in- deed close. But whether these seeds belonged to a plant that is really conspecific with P. taxifolia, as the living species is defined, is only conjectural, since the fossil record of Pseudotsuga is meager. Conse- quently it is considered advisable to describe this cone as new while at the same time keeping in mind the close resemblance to the living species as well as its intimate association with P. masonz. It is felt that in this way less confusion would result if later investigations were to demonstrate that during Miocene times there were other species of Pseudotsuga to which these organs might belong. The name Pseudo- tsuga taxifolioidea sp. nov., is therefore proposed for this cone, the specific name indicating its resemblance to the living form. The holo- type is No. 17241 of the University of Michigan collection. Among the heretofore unrecorded species associated with Pseudo- tsuga taxifolioidea in the Trout Creek diatomite the following may be noted. Acer bendirei Lesq. Ailanthus sp. fruit (ef. living A. glandulosa) Amelanchier sp. (ef. living A. alnifolia) Castanopsis sp. Catalpa? sp. (ef. living C. speciosa) Celtis cf. obliquifolia Chaney Cladrastis sp. nov. 380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 25, NO. 8 Cornus sp. (ef. living C. ctrcinata) Crataegus sp. (ef. living C. pinnatifida) Equisetum sp. (ef. living EH. hyemale) Nymphaeophyllum gen. et sp. nov. Ostrya oregoniana Chaney (fruit sac) Peltandra sp. nov. Polpulus balsamoides Goepp. Populus sp. (ef. living P. grandidentata) These, along with other species, will be discussed in future publica- tions. LITERATURE CITED . Jepson, W. L. A manual of the flowering plants of California. 52. 1923-25. . SARGENT, C.S. A manual of the trees of North America. 54. 1905. . SupwortTs, G. B. Forest trees of the Pacific Slope. 104. 1908. . MacGinitiz, H. D. The Trout Creek flora of southeastern Oregon. Carnegie Inst. Publ. 416: 47, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2, 3. 1933. ewe ZOOLOGY .—Contributions to Texas herpetology. III. Bullsnakes of the genera Arizona and Pituophis.! CHaries E. Burt, South- western College. (Communicated by L. STEJNEGER.) Four species of bullsnakes of the genera Arizona and Pituophis are now known to occur in Texas, P. melanoleucus ruthveni being here re- ported from the state for the first time. Distinguishing characters of the species are presented in the following key. 1. Keels present on some or all of the dorsal scales.................. 2 Dorsal scales smooth. Arizona elegans elegans (Kennicott). 2. Normally with not more than one upper labial (4 or 5) bordering eye 3 Two upper labials (3-4 or 4-5) bordering eye. Southern Texas. Pituophis deppet deppet (Duméril and Bibron). 3. Dark dorsal saddles on body and tail more than 56. Pituophis sayi sayi (Schlegel). Dark dorsal saddles on body and tail 56 or less. Eastern Texas. Pituophis melanoleucus ruthveni (Stull). These four species resemble each other in being large, beneficial, non-poisonous, carnivorous, field-inhabiting forms with many dark blotches or saddles on the back. Arizona elegans elegans (Kennicott) This snake has been reported from Texas, west of the 98th meridian (Blanchard, 1925, p. 22). A dead example removed from the road 11 1 Received May 15, 1934. AuGustT 15, 1935 BURT: BULLSNAKES 381 miles north of Encino, Brooks County, on April 4, 1931, occurred at a point almost precisely on the 98th meridian. It had 31 scale rows at the middle of the body. The United States National Museum has three Texan specimens of this form. The type (No. 1722) from the Lower Rio Grande Valley is faded but well preserved. Two examples from Bexar County were taken at San Antonio (Hurter Coll., May 19, 1908) and Somerset (A. J. Kirn, Mar. 12, 1926) respectively. Pituophis deppei deppei (Duméril and Bibron) This form is typically a native of Mexico, but Stull (1932) has in- dicated that it ranges northward in Texas as far as San Marcos, Hays County. Pituophis melanoleucus ruthveni Stull A bullsnake, secured on May 9 on the road near a plot of grass 5 miles southeast of Zavalla, Angelina County (U.S.N.M. No. 83672), in the sandy cut-over pine barren region of eastern Texas, resembled sayz of more western and northern areas so closely that it was pre- sumed to be that form until it was identified in the laboratory. Here it was soon found to have the reduced number of dorsal saddles or blotches assigned to ‘“‘P. melanoleucus ruthveni”’ by Stull (1929), rather than the higher number specified for the form which was termed “P. say? sayv”’ in the same publication. This led to the identification of the specimen at hand as ruthveni (thus introducing the form into the state of Texas) and to a charting of the characters of the several bull- snakes from the critical region in Texas and Louisiana to see if an im- plication of continuous and progressive geographical variation might be drawn for these snakes. The following table presents these data: TABLE 1.—VartaTions or PiruorHis IN HASTERN TEXAS AND IN LOUISIANA La. (type) La. (paratype) Texas . : : Texas Texas Locality ede Rapides eugelng Ellis Co. Clay Co. Seale formula 31-33-25 | 31-31-22 | 31-28-21 | 31-33-25 31-33-25 Ventrals 219 218 213 223 215 Caudals 59 60 56 62 56 Labials 9-8/15 8/14 9-8/13-14 8/12 9/13 Postoculars 4 3 2-3 3 3 Dorsal saddles on tail 9 ? 10 12 12 Dorsal saddles on body 41 ? 42 48 54 Total saddles 50 ie 52 60 66 Before discussing the taxonomic significance of the above data, attention is called to the geographical position of each of the individ- uals concerned. The type and paratype of ruthveni are from Rapides Parish, central Louisiana, and the additional specimen of ruthveni is 382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 from Angelina County, eastern Texas, in a line almost directly west of the type locality. The specimen of sayz from Ellis County, Texas, is from a point east of the previously known range of sayz and in this way it represents the closest known geographical approach of the range of sayz to the range of ruthveni; whereas the example of sayz from Clay County, Texas, is near the previously known eastern bor- der of the area occupied by sayi, but yet far enough north to be con- sidered as more nearly representative of the typical form. Here, then, we find a fine geographical range of specimens arranged in a line from central Louisiana to north-central Texas. From the standpoint of scutellation, the table reveals no particu- larly significant differentiation between the eastern and western stocks, even the type specimens of ruthveni having the exact scale formula of examples of sayz from Ellis and Clay counties, Texas. But, from the standpoint of the color pattern, with specific refer- ence to the number of dorsal saddles (which seems to be the only sig- nificant criterion advanced in the original diagnosis of ruthvenz for its separation from sayz), there is a definite correlation. Originally the gap between ruthveni and sayz appeared to be wide—perhaps a matter of 15 dorsal saddles as obtained in comparing the extremes in the above table (50 to 66 saddles) but, in parallel with the development in many similar cases, additional specimens from intervening areas here greatly reduce the known differentiation between the two popu- lations. Thus, we find that the known number of dorsal saddles is raised two in ruthveni by the specimen from eastern Texas (52 saddles) and lowered six in sayz through the example from Ellis County, cen- tral Texas (60 saddles); and the fact that this leaves a gap of only seven saddles between the diverging extremes concerned bears tax- onomic significance in making it obvious that ruthveni and sayz must ultimately be ranked as subspecies? of each other and that therefore the taxonomy indicated in the original description of ruthvent must be changed in some way.* Published data of intergradation between ruthvent and a subspecies of melanoleucus have not been advanced, although Mr. Percy Viosca, Jr., has informed me that certain eastern Louisiana specimens that he has seen are approximately intermediate * Speaking generally from what is known of the variation of other herpetological forms in this region (particularly those of the genera Lampropeltis, Masticophis, Tan- tilla and Cnemidophorus), it seems logical to assume that the collecting of additional bullsnakes in eastern and central Texas will enable us to bring these significantly ap- proaching extremes of variation in two subspecies of Pitwophis closer and closer to- gether, thus ever more definitely revealing the somewhat superficially concealed inter- gradation between them. ¥: 3 This view has been expressed by Dr. Frank N. Blanchard in a written communica- ion. AuGusT 15, 1935 BURT: BULLSNAKES 383 between ruthveni and lodingi. If this is revealed and if lodingz in its turn intergrades with the true melanoleucus that occurs still further east, a whole chain of geographical races or subspecies of the long known melanoleucus will be placed in evidence. Such action is not un- likely. The ultimate series may include the following forms: melano- leucus, mugitus (southern Florida), lodingi (Alabama and probably Mississippi), ruthveni, sayz and affinis (west Texas). Pending the ap- pearance of data contained in Dr. Stull’s forthcoming revision of the genus Pituophis, and also in anticipation of further field work in eastern Texas and in Louisiana, the present writer feels that nothing is to be gained by making a nomenclatorial change here in the pro- posed status of either ruthveni or sayt. Pituophis sayi sayi (Schlegel) Several representatives of this form were collected near grassy areas from whence they had wandered to cement pavement to be killed by passing automobiles. Data pertaining to some of these in- dividuals have been presented and interpreted above under ruthvenz, which appears to intergrade with this form. The following U.S.N.M. and personal records of sayz are available, including that of the type (No. 1540) and a paratype (No. 1541) of the synonymous meclellani from Deaf Smith County. Reports are by counties. BORDEN: Gail (Vernon Bailey). cARSoN: 6 mi. W. Groom (May 28, 1934). cLAY: 1 mi. N. W. Jolly (Apr. 18, 1931). crospy: 2 mi. N. W. Crosbyton (Luther Hoyle, June 13, 1933). Drar sMITH: Red River Valley (R. B. Marcy and Geo. B. McClellan, June 28, 1852). ponLEy: Jericho (May 28, 1934). ELLIS: 1 mi. N. W. Waxahachie (May 26, 1931). roarD: 3 mi. N.E. Thalia (Luther Hoyle, June 11, 19383). Gray: 1 mi. W. Alanreed (May 28, 1934). MOORE: Dumas, and 1 mi. N. Etter (May 28, 1934). pecos: 12 mi. N. E. Ft. Stockton (Luther Hoyle, June 16, 1933). porrmr: 8 mi. E. Amarillo (May 28, 1934). presipio: Paisano (Wm. Lloyd, July 21, 1890). REEVEs: 1 mi. 8. Red Bluff (Aug. 12, 1934). sHprMAN: 3 mi. S. W. Texhoma, and 2 mi. N. E. Stratford (May 28, 1934). vaL vERDE: Cave, 20 mi. N. Comstock _ (J. H. Gaut, May 9, 1903). LITERATURE CITED BuancHarpD, F.N. A key to the snakes of the United States, Canada, and Lower Cali- fornia. Papers Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters 4(2): 1-65, illus. 1925. Stuut, O. G. The description of a new subspecies of Pituophis melanoleucus from Louisiana. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 205: 1-3. 1929. Sruuty, O. G. An annotated list of the forms of the genus Pituophis. Ibid. 250: 1-5. 1932. 384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Nores National Academy of Sciences—Dr. Wi1LL1AM WALLACE CAMPBELL re- tired from the presidency of the National Academy of Sciences on the ex- piration of his term of service and Dr. Frank Rarrray Lire, elected president at the Annual Meeting of the Academy, assumed his duties as President on July 1, 1935. National Bureau of Standards.—The Edgar Marburg Lecture for 1935 was delivered by Dr. L. B. Tuckerman of the National Bureau of Standards be- fore the American Society for Testing Materials in Detroit on June 26. Doctor TucKERMAN spoke on aircraft materials and testing, confining himself to the relations between the mechanical properties of the material and the design of parts. Future improvements in aircraft will come through better designs, rather than through stronger materials, because present de- signs can not utilize the full strength of materials already available. Dr. W. F. Mreceurs, chief of the spectroscopy section, attended the meet- ing of the International Astronomical Union in Paris, July 10-17. Doctor Merccers is a member of the committee on wave lengths and most of his time was occupied in the work of this committee. Dr. H. C. Dickinson attended the 30th anniversary summer meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers, at White Sulphur Springs, West Vir- ginia, June 16-21. While there he exhibited a new design of “‘ Ride-Meter”’ or indicator for determining the riding qualities of automobiles. The ride- meter in its present form consists essentially of a pneumatic cushion, and record is made of the total amount of roughness experienced in any given trip. Doctor Dickinson also exhibited a wobble-meter, jointly designed by himself and Mr. R. W. Brown and Dr. F. A. Moss, used to determine the fatigue reactions of passengers after riding in automotive vehicles. To determine how winds stress large buildings, National Bureau of Stand- ards scientists have built a model of the world’s highest structure, New York City’s Empire State Building, and several blocks of its surrounding buildings. Subjected to regulated and artificial breezes in a 10-foot wind tun- nel, this miniature Manhattan gives information that will allow engineers to design buildings that are safe in high windstorms with due regard to least possible cost. Children’s Bureau.—In response to numerous requests, the Children’s Bureau made estimates as to the number of children removed from industry by the NRA codes. Employment-certificate statistics collected by the Chil- dren’s Bureau indicate that in 1929 more children left school to go to work than in the previous year. By 1930, however, when the depression had begun, there was a drop of 46 per cent in the number of boys and girls going to work in manufacturing and mercantile industries. Between 1930, when the last Census was taken, and 1933, when the codes went into effect, there was a further drop of at least 50 per cent. On the basis of the 1930 census figures it is estimated that in that year between 120,000 and 150,000 children under 16 were gainfully employed in the occupations later affected by the 16-year age minimum of the codes. The textile industry alone employed approxi- mately 20,000 children; the clothing industries nearly 9,000; and other branches of manufacturing something less than 40,000. Another 8,000 were AuGcustT 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 385 employed in hotels and restaurants, beauty parlors, and laundries; 28,000 were employed in mercantile establishments. The higher age set by some codes for employment of minors in hazardous occupations affected some young people over the general code age of 16. Over three-fourths of the codes fixed 18 as a minimum age for employment in hazardous occupations. According to the 1930 census 12,000 minors be- tween 16 and 18 were employed in saw and planing mills alone. The lumber and timber products code prohibited their employment under 18. Ap- proximately 5,000 16-year-old laundry workers were removed from hazard- ous employment through the 17-year minimum of the laundry code. It is roughly estimated that 50,000 16- and 17-year-old minors were prohibited from hazardous employment by the NRA code regulations. Bureau of Fisheries.—In recognition of his scientific record in the Bureau, Western Maryland College conferred upon J. R. Mannina, chief technolo- gist, the degree of Doctor of Science. Dr. P. 8. Gaursorr left Washington in June to establish headquarters at the United States Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., for the conduct of oyster pest control investigations during the coming summer. WitiiamM Hagan, JR., was transferred recently from the Division of Fish Culture to the Division of Scientific Inquiry to take charge of field investiga- tions on oyster pest control on the eastern shore of Virginia. Mr. Hagan will be in charge of the U. 8. S. Kittery, which will serve as quarters for a considerable number of men detailed to drill control studies by the Transient Rehabilitation Camp at Fort Eustis, Va. Dr. Witt M. F. THompson, director of scientific investigations for the International Fisheries Commission, United States and Canada, who has been directing research on the Pacific halibut since the establishment of the Commission, visited the Bureau of Fisheries and conferred extensively with the Bureau’s scientific staff at Cambridge, Mass., engaged in North Atlantic fisheries investigations, en route to the annual meeting of the International Fisheries Commission at Ottawa. National Park Service—Assistant Director H. C. Bryant left Washington headquarters late in June for a tour of inspection of a number of the national parks and monuments in the West. Dr. J. Votnry Lewis, geologist connected with the Service’s Naturalist Division, has just completed a monograph on caves and caverns of the United States. Present plans call for the issuance of this work in mimeo- graph form. Under the direction of Earn A. Tracer, Chief of the Naturalist Division, Washington Office, a geological program for the national and state parks has been formulated. Plans call for the setting up of 8 districts, in each of which a geologic technician will supervise and coordinate all geologic projects. Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Discovery of an orange-red pottery well, from which thirsty Maya Indians drew water centuries ago, is an- nounced by Otiver G. RickeTson, JR. The ancient well, which shows how ingenious Mayas stored water, was unearthed at Quirigua, Guatemala, where one of the Mayan cities was located. The well consisted of a pipe of pottery which led down to a big pottery water jar. The jar was buried in stones and sand and served as a cistern. Holes in the jar below the water table permitted free entrance of water. 386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 8 Conference of state and territorial health officers ——The regular meeting of state and territorial health officers beginning on June 18 considered as its principal business the formation of plans for the expenditure of $8,000,000 provided for in the Social Security bill as a fund for promoting and protecting the health of the nation. Discovery of a new disease and progress already made toward its preven- tion were announced simultaneously by Dr. CHARLES ARMSTRONG, of the U. 8. Public Health Service, and Lieut. Com. Paut F. Dickens, of the Navy Medical Corps. The malady, which has appeared in isolated instan- ces ina number of states, has features resembling meningitis, infantile par- alysis, and epidemic encephalitis, or sleeping sickness. The discoverers suggest the scientific name ‘‘acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis” for it. The agent causing the disease was found to be a filterable virus. Monkeys, mice and guinea pigs are susceptible to the virus causing the malady, and the two physicians suggest that “‘a reservoir of the disease may exist in an- imals.’’ Tests show that a blood serum of patients who have recovered serv- es to protect experimental animals from the virus, but the serum has not yet been used in human patients to test its power to forestall development of the disease. Solving problem of photosynthesis ——Announcement was made to a biolog- ical conference in Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., by Dr. DEAN Burk, U. S. Department of Agriculture, that he and Hans LiInEWEAVER, working in the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils in Washington, have come five steps nearer understanding the baffling chemical processes by which the leaf manufac- tures carbohydrates. It is now only a matter of time, Dr. Burk said, until several more leaf reactions will be discovered. Dr. BurK compared the reac- tion of photosynthesis to an endless chain bucket pump in which the sun furnishes the power, the chlorophyll and another catalyst acting as buckets in pumping the carbon products to a higher energy level. The chemical equa- tions he developed depend upon changes of energy content. The Depart- ment of Agriculture scientists experimented with a green alga, Chlorella, in the life of which little happens except the change of carbon dioxide to proto- plasmic carbohydrates. Giant camera for survey—The world’s largest aerial camera, which can photograph a ground area of 760 square miles, or over twice that of New York City at a single ‘‘shot,”’ has been built by Fairchild Aerial Surveys and Aerial Camera Companies for use by the Department of Agriculture in a mapping survey of central New Mexico. Weighing 275 pounds without films, the camera has ten lenses mounted in two sets of five. When the ten lens shutters are snapped at exactly the same instant by a master electric trigger, ten negatives, making a com- posite print which measures 32X32 inches, are exposed. Soil Conservation Service workers, starting a survey from the air of the rugged and almost in- accessible terrain of central New Mexico about mid-July, will make first use of the new camera. Proposed underground water resources survey.—A scientific attack on the drought problem is provided for in a plan for exploring, measuring and chart- ing the underground water resources of the nation, especially in the drought- stricken areas, proposed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. Application for $1,619,100 of Public Works funds was made by the Bureau for this purpose. Underground water supplies are now badly needed in many parts of the auGustT 15, 19385 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 387 United States, Bureau officials explain. A systematic survey of the nation’s hidden water resources has been recommended by the National Resources Board. Electrical methods of geophysical exploration will be used for locat- ing water and various geological formations in this survey, according to the plans. Research by Department of Agriculture.—Scientific research that will benefit future generations, as well as the present, is contemplated by a bill introduced in the House by Rep. Marvin Jonzs, of Texas. The measure has passed both House and Senate. According to the terms of the bill, the Secretary of Agriculture ‘“‘is author- ized and directed to conduct research into laws and principles underlying basic problems of agriculture in its broadest aspects,’ and also to carry on investigations looking to improvements in handling and marketing, as well as ‘‘research relating to the conservation development of land and water re- sources for agricultural purposes.” The research thus contemplated is to supplement, not to replace, other researches now going under the aegis of the Department of Agriculture; but both activities are to be coordinated so far as practicable, and ‘“‘shall be conducted by such agencies of the Department of Agriculture as the Secre- tary may designate or establish.” The initial funds for this work will amount to $1,000,000. This sum will be increased by an additional $1,000,000 each year until the total reaches $5,000,000, and thereafter the special research fund will be maintained at the latter sum each year Forty per cent of the total in any year is to be expended under the direct supervision of the Secre- tary of Agriculture, in any places and for any research purposes he may approve within the scope of the act. The remaining sixty per cent will be prorated among state agricultural experiment stations according to the size of their respective rural populations. Funds thus allocated must be matched dollar for dollar by the states receiving them. The establishment of new laboratories is within the authorizations of the act, since it is provided that funds may be used for the erection of buildings and the purchase or rental of land needed for the purpose. These laboratories might be set up in the major agricultural regions of the United States, in places designated by the Secretary of Agriculture. Reporting Hurricanes.—The hurricane weather service of the U. 8. Weather Bureau was placed on a decentralized basis on July 1. Instead of the single central office in Washington, three stations have been established in the South, at New Orleans, Jacksonville and San Juan, P.R., respectively. The Washington office will be directly concerned with only such tropical storm centers as move north of latitude 35 degrees, approximately the parallel of Cape Hatteras. Ships at sea are asked by the Hydrographic Office, U. S. Navy, to radio reports of all hurricanes they may encounter. Radio dispatches may be sent in a special code, obtainable from the Hydrographic Office or from the Weather Bureau. Shore stations ‘‘talking’”’ with ships in the neighborhood are authorized to forward to the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, by wire collect, information on storms thus received. News Briers Dr. HerBerT FRIEDMANN, Smithsonian Institution curator of birds, has made a survey of the forms of bird society reported from all over the world, and concluded that birds that are most advanced evolutionally are also the 388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 25, NO. 8 most individualistic. Birds that flock together most persistently belong to the more “‘ primitive” zoological groups. BraprorD WASHBURN, leader of the National Geographie Society’s Yukon Expedition, has returned to Washington after four months in the field to make his report to Dr. GiLBerT GROsvENOR, president of the Society. A two-thousand square mile blind spot, in southwestern Yukon Territory, a region of lofty mountain ranges and deep glacier-filled valleys and gorges, has been erased from the map of North America, he said. Dr. A. G. Grutiam, Dr. W. P. DEarine and Dr. J. P. Leake were sent to North Carolina from the U. 8. Public Health Service to assist state and local health officials in fighting an outbreak of poliomyelitis, or infantile paralysis. PERSONAL ITEMS Hon. Henry A. Watuace, Secretary of Agriculture, was granted the degree LL.D., honoris causa, by Harvard University at the June commence- ment, and also received a similar degree from Columbia University. Dr. Herpert F. Prytuercs, of the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, has been elected president of the National Shellfisheries Association and chairman of the State Board of Directors of the North Carolina Fishermans Coopera- tive Association. Dr. IsatanH Bowman, chairman of the National Research Council and director of President Roosevelt’s Science Advisory Board, addressed the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the value of a proposed program of intensive research on weather records of the past eighty years which he said should be valued “‘more than all the gold in the Klondike.” Dr. WatTER A. BLoEporN, of George Washington Medical School, in addressing the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Minneapolis, said that iron, one of the oldest medicines in the world, is still one of the most dependable for certain types of anemia. Mrs. KatHEerRInE K. Mappen, of Washington, with Dr. GrorceE E. SHAMBOUGH, JR., of Chicago, announced at the Cincinnati meeting of the American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing a plan whereby deaf persons may make postmortem disposal of their ears for the purpose of scientific research. Fireflies that flash simultaneously in large numbers do not always be- have alike. They vary according to species, is the contention of Gerrit 8. Miter, JR., of the U. 8. National Museum, commenting in Science on an explanation offered by JoHN BonnER Buck, of the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, for the simultaneous flashing of fireflies over a whole meadow or lawn. Mr. MILLER presented observations made by himself in Jamaica. Here a different firefly species flashes in large groups or “constellations,” but these “constellations,” though within sight of each other, do not adopt the same flash-rhythm, as observed by Mr. Buck. Instead, each group is a law unto itself for a time. Then a disintegration of the rhythm sets in, and the flashes come wholly at random. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Physics.—The beginnings of physics. II. The quest for creative con- cepts. RAYMOND J:SHHGER... 5 Ge seus eae aac Pharmacology.—The toxicity of sodium cyanide and the efficiency of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a remedy for poisoned animals. A.B. Cuawson, Jamus F. Coucn, and H. BunYnrA.... Paleontology.— Notes on the genus Breviarca. Liuoyp WitLiAM STWPHENSON...... cs, /s Fty bea oe hide Be Ee cae a Botany.—The status of Pellaea compacta (Davenp.) Maxon, and a probationary method in systematic botany. JosprpH Ewan.... Botany.—New species of Bomarea from the Andes. E. P. Kiuir.... Paleobotany.—A Douglas fir cone from the Miocene of southeastern Oregon: CHEmsrar A: ARNOLD... 30:00 on ve ee Zoology.—Contributions to Texas herpetology. III. Bullsnakes of the genera Arizona and Pituophis. CHaRLEs HE. Burt............ Scrantiric Nores anp: NwWS. 2:20.06. oe eee This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Page 34] SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 Joun A. STEVENSON BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY H. T. WrensEeL PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY E. A. GotpMan BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AGNES CHASE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF THE F. G. BrickwEpDE BUREAU OF STANDARDS JOURNAL Rouianp W. Brown U. 8S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS Harotp Morrison BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY W. W. Rusey GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 2a No. 9 TASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. E. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 25 SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 | No. 9 GEOPHYSICS.—Testing a theory of the earth’s interior.1. REGINALD A. Daty, Harvard University. (Communicated by L. H. Adams.) The processes responsible for the structure of the visible part of the earth have been controlled by the physical properties of the invisible part. The character of this incomparably greater volume of material presents the most fundamental and important problem of physical geology. How shall it be solved? Atomic physics and astrophysics are being guided to major dis- coveries by the testing of models of atoms and models of stars. Geo- detic measurements and seismological results are becoming increas- ingly accurate by the use of theoretical models of the earth. Similarly, physical geology will be advanced by examining the merits of theoreti- cal models of the globe, models constructed in the light of the myriad field and laboratory observations already published. As a result of such synthetic study the writer presented in his book Igneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth of the year 1933 a preferred picture of terrestrial material. Since the manuscript of the book was sent to press new data from seismology, on the radioactivity of rocks, and on thermal gradients in the earth’s crust, particularly the gradients given by R. H. Cleland for Pre-Cambrian rocks in Canada, suggest the need of changes of the earth model in detail, but seem to demand no change of principle.” The present paper discusses the validity of this theoretical model with respect to the distribution of strength in the earth’s body, as now constituted. The conditions of earlier epochs are not considered. “Strength” is defined as the power to resist the deforming tendency of a shearing stress indefinitely prolonged. The tests of validity form two groups. The first includes those that have been supposed, though apparently without warrant, to prove considerable strength in the deep interior of the planet. The second group give a positive result 1 Substance of an address to the Geological Society of Washington, April 24, 1935. Received May 15, 1935. 2 See CLELAND, R. H. Trans. Canad. Min. Inst. 33: 379. 1933. 389 EE 390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 and indicate extreme weakness in all of the earth-shells beneath a comparatively thin crust. A MODEL OF THE EARTH Essential characteristics of the earth-shells, according to the pre- ferred picture of 1933, are summarized in the following table. TABLE 1.—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH-SHELLS A > 7 Reacti Earth-chell thickness | 4verage | Temperature | ty chear- | Strength (km.) ; stress 1. Crystalline crust: a. Continental seg-| Circa 60 2.89 10°-1350°C. | Elastic Consider- ment able b. Suboceanic Cirea 75 3.03 1°-1400° Elastic Consider- (deep-Pacific) able segment 2. Vitreous, basaltic ? (prob- 2.80— | 1350°-1400° | Elastico- | Vanish- substratum ably less 2.85 at top viscous ingly than 400 at top small km.) 3. Vitreous silicate Ca. 2300 | Ca.3.5— ? Elastico- | Vanish- shell, more basic MGRS viscous ingly than 2 small Major discontinuity 4. Core, probably Ca. 3500 | Ca. 10.5- zs Elastico- | Vanish- metallic iron 125 viscous ingly or fluid small Elastico-viscosity for the subcrustal shells is assumed: first, be- cause the assumption seems to offer the only means of reconciling the high rigidity proved by the seismologist with the degree of isos- tasy proved by the geodesist; secondly, because the exalted tempera- ture of those shells means thorough atomic agitation, and consequent instability of any space-lattice in the aggregations of atoms. The de- cay of rigidity may follow Maxwell’s law, involving the first power of the stress-difference. However, when the stress-difference .becomes extremely small, the law followed may be that of Adams and William- son, involving the square of the stress-difference.* If the average time of relaxation were as much as 100 years, the stress-difference would become immeasurably small during a small fraction of a geological period. This whole idea, that most of the earth’s body behaves under shearing stress like pitch, is of course not new to science. § Maxwe.u, J.C. Phil. Mag. 35:134. 1868; Apams, L. H., and Winuiamson, E. D. Jour. Franklin Inst. 190: 619, 631, 1920. - SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR o9l OBJECTIONS TO ASSUMING AN ELASTICO-VISCOUS INTERIOR 1. The first argument against the validity of the model is based on clear proofs of high rigidity of the whole silicate shell of the earth, with respect to small stresses of short periods. Seismic and tidal waves give such stresses, and their propagation is so perfect that associated, non-elastic displacements, if real, are too small for measurement. On the other hand, Jeffreys has found that even the small stress-differences set up during the cycle of the variation of latitude appear to be accompanied by some plastic yielding of the earth’s body. He has explained the apparent fact by supposing the subcrustal material to be elastico-viscous, with a time of relaxation of rigidity equal to about ten years.’ Jeffreys’ discussion is only one illustration of the manifest fact that rigidity has no necessary con- nection with strength. The high rigidity, effective in all such cases of slight, periodic stress- ing, is regarded as a derivative of viscosity, enormously increased by the intense hydrostatic pressure exerted on subcrustal material. This explanation, though prompted by analogies found in Bridgman’s ex- periments on the viscosity of organic liquids at high pressures, is frankly speculative and to be suspected until the results of more direct experimentation are in hand.’ However, the combination of great rigidity and non-crystallinity in earth-shells below the depth of 80 kilometers or so is assumed partly for a quite different reason: that this hypothesis appears best to account for the major displace- ments of, and in, the earth’s crust. Both lines of argument are mani- festly subject to doubt, and the writer fully realizes the need of bet- ter geophysical support for this basal assumption regarding the con- nection between rigidity and the state of the earth’s materials. 2. From deflection residuals and gravity anomalies Clarke, Hel- mert, Berroth, and Heiskanen deduced an elliptical form for the geoid in the plane of the equator. In other words, these authors were led to propose a triaxial ellipsoid as the approximate “figure of the earth.”’ Heiskanen’s calculations gave a difference of about 500 meters be- tween the major and minor axes of the geoid at the equator. This would mean for the solid surface of the earth an equatorial ellipticity of about 1000 meters.°® 4 Jerrreys, H. The Harth, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Eng., p. 266,1929. > BripamMan, P. W. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 61: 96. 1926; The Physics of High Pressure, New York, chap. 12, 1931. 6 HbISKANEN, W. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik. 19: 356, 1928, with references poe ue a scuaer writers; cf. Jerrreys, H. The Harth, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Eng., p. ,1929. 392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 Since geology knows no reason why the corresponding stresses could have been developed in recent geological time, the deduced triaxiality would mean practical strength at great depth. Yet there are several grounds for doubting the hypothesis of triaxiality. The number and distribution of gravity stations are still inadequate for solution of the problem. Its data are imperfect until our present ignorance of the correct basis for reducing the field observations of gravity is dispelled. The values of gravity found by Vening Meinesz in the extensive West Indian and East Indian regions do not agree with any triaxial formula.’ After all, as Jeffreys points out, the hypo- thesis of triaxiality reduces deflection residuals and gravity anomalies only a few per cent. And, finally, the hypothesis ill accords with the ice-cap proof of minute or zero strength for the deeper earth-shells. 3. The Moon is elliptical in its equatorial section, the major and minor axes of the ellipse being found to differ by approximately 500 meters. The inequality, regarded as a frozen tide that was raised when the moon was much nearer the earth than it is at present, means notable stress-differences at relatively great depth below the surface. These stresses have been resisted for more than a billion years. Hence the lunar material at the depth concerned must have practical strength. Jeffreys has argued that the earth is homologous, of quali- tatively similar properties. However, there is good reason to be- heve: that the moon has cooled much faster than the earth, which is fifty times larger in volume and of mass eighty times larger; and hence that the moon early became crystallized to a far greater rela- tive depth, if not to its actual center. Also in view of the low value of gravitation by the moon, it seems legitimate to explain the observed inequality of the lunar figure by the strength of crystallized rock; it is equally legitimate to question the argument for strength in the deeper earth-shells so far as this argument is based on an assumed homology between planet and satellite. 4. Many earthquakes have been shown to have originated around ~ focal points from 100 to 700 kilometers below the earth’s surface. As yet seismologists are unable to understand why seismic blows can be struck at such depths. The reality of the deep foci seems to add one more argument against the idea that the earth-shell involved is utterly weak. The question whether the shocks imply solid-elasticity or elastico-viscosity awaits an answer. In either case brittleness and 7 See HEISKANEN, W. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik, 36: 197. 1932; VENING © Meinesz, F.A. Gravity at Sea, Netherlands Geodetic Commission Pub. 2: 109. 1934. 8 JEFFREYS, H. The Earth, 2nd ed., p. 229, 1929. SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTHRIOR 393 sudden slips of the deep material are conceivable. Indeed the phenom- ena connected with the isostatic deformation of the earth’s crust in response to unloading with deglaciation appear best explained by as- suming spasmodic, vertical shears to depth of the order of 1000 kilometers. (See below.) However, these sudden displacements affect zones which in ground plan are thousands of kilometers long, and there is no obvious reason why the movements should cause specially energetic shocks at “points” in the zones. The same difficulty ap- pears when the analogous mechanism of isostatic adjustment be- tween erosionally unweighted continent and weighted sea-floor is studied. Probably the answer to the question will come when seis- mologists thoroughly understand why displacements along rifts at the surface and hundreds of kilometers long are accompanied by the actual, highly localized shocks. Pending further investigation it seems right to hold that the discovery of deep seismic foci does not disprove the rule of elastico-viscosity at depths exceeding 100 kilo- meters. 5. The existence of peneplains has been thought to demonstrate strength for the deeper earth-shells. According to the argument the earth’s crust remains unmoved while heavy loads of wide spans are removed by secular erosion. During those millions of years isostasy is supposed to fail in each peneplained region, and stresses of some magnitude are supposed to reside in the material far below the sur- face. However, no proof of such significant departure from isostasy for any extensive peneplained area has yet been produced. In the United States as elsewhere many peneplained areas have kept nearly the same relation to their baselevels as they had during the removal of matter, and nevertheless exhibit no systematic gravity anomalies of negative character. Further, the upwarping of peneplained surfaces does not necessarily mean previous failure of isostasy. The strongest warping is found in orogenic belts, where mountain-roots have been sunk deeply into the earth’s body. Thus the isotherms were depressed. Their restora- tion to their original levels has taken millions of years. It seems fair to assume expansion of the material beneath the visible mountain- structure, and enough delay in the expansion to cause warping of a surface already peneplained. Then there is a second possibility, the slow heating and expansion of mountain roots by radio-activity. Whatever the cause, the upwarping of any peneplain can not be considered a priori evidence of important lack of isostatic balance in the region at any stage of its erosional history. 394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 6. Because individual plus and minus areas of gravity anomaly appeared to have spans of 1000 or more kilometers, Barrell and Jeffreys attributed strength to the material at depths of hundreds of kilometers. For example, from the 1912 anomaly map of the United -’ e-5 /“ MADISON KILOMETERS Fig. 1.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and (broken) lines of zero anomaly, separating plus and minus areas. Computations based on 18 stations and on the cor- rected Helmert 1901 formula for the figure of the earth; Pratt-Hayford depth of com- pensation assumed to be 113.7 kilometers. (Special Publication No. 10, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Illustration No. 2, 1912.) States (89 gravity stations) Barrell supposed one such area to have a width of 2800 kilometers, and a maximum departure from isostasy measured by the weight of 380 meters of rock. He therefore concluded that the earth-shells at depths exceeding 500 kilometers could per- manently support decided stress-differences. From the data of the 1917 anomaly map, including measurements at 130 additional sta- tions, Jeffreys came to a similar conclusion. However, as more and SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR 395 more gravity stations in the United States are occupied, the areas characterized by anomalies of one sign tend to decrease to a notable extent. Some illustrations will make this important fact clear.° a. On the 1912 map eight plus areas and four minus areas were e » / °+17 «+6 es Te ST. PAUL \ °+36 — KILOMETERS Fig. 2.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and lines of zero anomaly in the same area as that shown in Fig. 1. Computations based on 41 stations; otherwise as in the case represented by Fig. 1. (Special Publication No. 40, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Illustration No. 11, 1917.) contoured in the United States; on the 1917 map, thirteen plus areas and eight minus areas; on the map of 1924, seventeen plus areas and seven minus areas. b. The wide plus area shown on the 1912 map west and southwest ®See Barret, J. Jour. Geology, 23: 30 ff. 1915; Jerrreys, H. The Earth, 2nd ed., p. 201,1929; Hayrorp, J. F., and Bowie, W. U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey, Spec. Pub. 10, Illustration no. 2 (anomaly map) 1912; Bowrn, W. ibid., Spec. Pub. 40, fig. 13 (anomaly map), 1917; and ibid., Spec. Pub. 99, fig. 7 (anomaly map),1924; Principal Facts for Gravity Stations in the United States, with map, issued by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1934. 396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 of the Great Lakes (Fig. 1) was greatly narrowed on the 1917 map (Fig. 2), after only a relatively small addition to the field data. c. The region covered by Figure 3 was, on the 1917 map, marked as characterized by positive anomalies, except for the small part at the northwest corner, indicated by the stipple pattern. The field measurements available in 1934 show the necessity of breaking up this wide plus region into at least three plus and three minus areas, as depicted by the drawing. In the same region the mean anomaly with tet cue 4 4 3 37 oso, ile wtoigtSo eta £3) sl l+23 + \ —\. CODY Os=31 -37,-32, =9\ 70 — i] °-7 / 4 THERMOPOLISO 413 KILOMETERS 109° Fig. 3.—Isostatic anomalies (in milligals) and lines of zero anomaly in Wyoming. Computations based on the 1930 International formula; Pratt-Hayford depth of com- pensation assumed to be 113.7 kilometers. (Data circularized by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1934.) regard to sign was, according to the facts known in 1917, +28 mil- ligals; according to the fuller data of 1934, it is +14 milligals. Evi- dently the region is more nearly in perfect isostatic adjustment than had been thought. d. In 1934 twelve stations in northwestern Texas (Nos. 408-419 inclusive) were reported. Eight show plus anomalies and four minus anomalies, with a mean anomaly with regard to sign of +7 milligals. On the 1917 map the whole of the same region was marked with nega- tive anomaly. e. Central Kansas, between the meridians of 96°30’ and 100° W. Long., was mapped in 1917 as belonging entirely to an area of positive SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 DALY: EARTH’S INTERIOR 397 anomaly, but the values of gravity reported in 1934 give in the same region two negative belts and an intervening positive belt. f. On the 1917 map the State of Connecticut appears as a region of negative anomaly; the great majority of the new stations, re- ported in 1934, give positive anomalies, with mean of +22 milligals. g. Similarly, qualitative and quantitative changes have been com- pelled in the Chesapeake Bay region because of the addition of the 1934 data to those of 1917. However, there is one important exception to the rule of diminu- tion of anomalies in the United States with the increase of stations. The Pacific coast belt of continuously negative anomalies, shown on the 1917 map, is not essentially narrowed by the addition of the data from stations occupied later. This belt is not far from 1000 kilometers wide and extends beyond the actual coast to some line to be drawn east of Vening Meinesz’s stations at sea. The maximum anomaly on land south of the Columbia River (data of 1934) is —83 milligals and the mean with regard to sign is —20 milligals. The mean anomaly for the stations at sea, just off the California coast, is +20 milligals. Explanation of these apparent departures from isostatic equilib- rium is not obvious. Bowie regards the departures as not real and attributes the negative anomalies to the low density of the more superficial rock formations along the coast. Heiskanen has offered a quite different solution to the problem in terms of the Airy theory of isostasy.'° Neither of these experts finds compelling evidence that there is actual failure of isostasy in the coastal belt. Some failure there may be, merely because this part of the earth has not yet had time to reach equilibrium after its late-Tertiary, Cordilleran dis- turbance. The problem raised by the wide coastal belt is baffling, but the writer still believes that the study of gravity values in the United States does not prove the existence of rock loads too great to be borne by the strength of the crust alone. In review, it appears that each of the six objections to the idea of almost or quite perfect weakness for all earth-shells below a level not more than 100 kilometers down from the surface lacks cogency. At- tention will now be drawn to the affirmative tests, three in number. All will be presented merely in outline. 10 Bowigr, W. Investigations of Gravity and Isostasy. U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey, Spec. Pub. 40: 76. 1917; Hetskanen, W. Annales Acad. Scient. Fennicae. 36 (3): 128. 1932. 398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 AFFIRMATIVE TESTS 1. A somewhat detailed discussion of the first appears in the writer’s book The Changing World of the Ice Age.“ There it was shown that each principal Pleistocene ice-cap caused both elastic and plastic deformation of the globe, the result being delayed but ulti- mately close isostatic adjustment for the load of ice. After the melting of each great cap, with corresponding removal of superficial load, iso- static adjustment in the reverse sense has progressed so far that the residual stress-differences in the earth are all extremely small. Never- theless the adjustment still continues, indicating vanishingly small strength for the material that has been, and is, flowing. Further, there is evidence that, while the horizontally directed flow may be dis- tributed through all depths, it has been concentrated largely below the 1000-kilometer level. If so, the weakness of the deep interior must be nearly or quite absolute. 2. The second test is based on an assumption: that the earth’s internal weakness is due to temperature so high as to prevent crystal- lization at all depths greater than about 75 kilometers below the surface. According to the facts of geology and petrology the upper- most layer of the non-crystalline or vitreous material is best regarded as of basaltic composition, and is conveniently called the basaltic substratum. The layer immediately above—the lower part of the earth’s crust—has the elastic properties reasonably assigned to basalt, when crystallized under pressure greater than 10,000 atmospheres. There the velocities of earthquake waves probably exceeds the velocities in the vitreous material just beneath. If so, the time- distance curve of the seismic waves should exhibit the discontinuity that goes with a ‘“‘shadow zone,” analogous to that well established and explained by the sudden drop in velocities at the transition from the earth’s silicate shell to her “iron” core. In fact at epicentral distances between about 1000 kilometers and 1700 kilometers there is no strong seismographic record of longitudinal or transverse waves that have penetrated the substratum. For stations at these distances from epicentra the seismograms give no record at all for the waves described, or else record very weak impulses from them. The existence of these slight impulses may be attributed to diffraction along the discontinuity. The theory of the shadow zone here considered will soon be discussed in printed form by the writer’s colleague, Dr. L. D. Leet. The reality of the zone has already been suggested by B. Gutenberg.” Seismologists will do well to examine still more carefully 1 Yale University Press, Chapter 4, 1934. SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 ROSSINI: THERMOCHEMISTRY 399 the evidence for the shadow zone and the corresponding change of state at moderate depth in the earth. 3. The remaining test is this: How does the suggested model of the earth work with respect to the major problems of petrogenesis, orogeny, and crust-warping? In the writer’s opinion this model offers more and better solutions to these problems than any other yet imagined, and is therefore worthy of further testing in the field and laboratory. CHEMISTRY.—The development of thermochemistry.! FREDERICK D. Rossin1, National Bureau of Standards. Thermochemistry may be defined as that branch of chemistry which treats of the changes in intrinsic energy or heat content asso- ciated with chemical reactions. The first quantitative measurement of the heat evolved in a chemi- cal reaction was made some years before 1800, and, in the early years of the science, contributions to thermochemistry were made in France, Great Britain, and Russia, by chemists who were famous for other accomplishments as well: Lavoisier, Dalton, Davy, Despretz, Hess, Dulong, Graham, and Andrews. While these first measurements in thermochemistry were very crude as judged by our present day standards, nevertheless great credit is due these pioneers for their work and for their insight into the meaning of their experimental results. Even at that early day, these investigators sensed the idea that the heat energy associated with a given reaction was in some way related to the chemical activity of the substances concerned. Before 1850, there were extant in the literature data of varying degrees of accuracy on the heats of a large variety of chemical reactions: heats of solution of salts and of their hydrates in water; heats of neutralization of acids and bases in aqueous solution; heats of combustion of gases and of metals in oxygen; heats of direct combination of metals with non-metals. Soon after 1850, several things occurred which were destined to raise thermochemistry to a very high place. The first of these hap- penings was the general acceptance of the first law of thermody- namics, and the other was the arrival into the field of thermo- 2 GuTENBERG, B. Gerlands Beitraege zur Geophysik, 17: 364. 1927; Mt.umr- PoviLyeT, Handbuch der Physik, 5: 670. 1928; Bull. Seism. Soe. America. 21: 216. 1931. 1 An address delivered before the Chemical Society of Washington, March 14, 1935, on the occasion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize for 1934. Publication approved by the Director of the National Bureau of Standards of the U. 8. Depart- ment of Commerce. Received May 3, 1935. 400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 chemistry of Julius Thomsen, a Danish chemist at Copenhagen, and of Marcellin Berthelot, a French chemist at Paris. These two investigators independently announced the same prin- ciple relating heat of reaction with chemical affinity, stating that the heat of a given reaction was a direct measure of the chemical affinity of the substances concerned, and that only those reactions would proceed which were accompanied by an evolution of heat energy. Spurred on by their profound belief in the validity of this direct rela- tion between heat content and chemical affinity, Thomsen and Berthelot amassed an enormous amount of data on heats of reaction. Each made notable contributions to the technic of calorimetry. Thomsen developed a reaction vessel for measuring the heats of combustion of gases at constant pressure; Berthelot developed a re- action vessel for measuring the heats of combustion of organic liquids and solids in a closed bomb. Other chemists of the day became imbued with the enthusiasm of Thomsen and Berthelot for the im- portance of data on heats of reaction, and thermochemistry assumed a lofty place in the science reaching its peak at about the time of the publication of Thomsen’s monumental four volumes of thermo- chemical data in 1882-1886. By this time, however, the second law of thermodynamics had come into chemistry, and its true relation to chemical reactions was being developed by Clausius, Gibbs, Helmholtz, Van’t Hoff, and others. It was shown that the true measure of the chemical affinity of a Substance was not its heat content, but a quantity (which we now call free energy) differing from the heat content by a term involving the product of the entropy and the absolute temperature. Before the close of the century, both Thomsen and Berthelot ac- cepted the second law of thermodynamics, and acknowledged that the heat of reaction alone was only an approximate measure of the chemical affinity, and that in some cases their old principle yielded completely erroneous results. A decline in the work of thermochem- istry then set in, and investigators turned their attention to those measurements which would yield true values of chemical affinity or free energy. In the three decades following 1900, researches in thermo- chemistry were, with a few notable exceptions, sporadic and casual, and our main body of thermochemical data remained those of Thom- sen and Berthelot. About 1906, Nernst pronounced this famous heat theorem, which, with certain limitations, became accepted as the third law of thermo- dynamics. The third law made possible the determination of en- SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 ROSSINI: THERMOCHEMISTRY 401 tropies by measurement of heat capacities down to low temperatures, near the absolute zero, and combination of these values of entropy with data on heats of reaction yielded values of the changes in free energy. The full power of the third law, particularly with regard to organic substances, was soon appreciated, and a great number of these entropy data were obtained. But it was soon found that the existing data on heats of reaction were not comparable in accuracy with the data on entropies, and that the uncertainties in the resulting values of free energy were practically equal to the uncertainties in the data on heat content. This was no reflection upon the work of Thomsen, Berthelot, and their coworkers, whose values more than satisfied the requirements of the 1880’s, but it indicated a real need for new and accurate data on heats of reaction. About 10 years ago, a new and powerful tool for chemical thermo- dynamics was developed. This was the use of spectroscopic data on the energy levels of gaseous molecules for calculating very accurate values of entropy. These values of entropy were combined with data on heats of reaction to obtain values of the changes in free energy. But, in order to obtain the full benefit of the accurate spectroscopic values of entropy, it was necessary that data on heats of reaction be of the highest possible accuracy. Thus arose another real need for new and accurate thermochemical data. Again about 10 years ago, the theoretical physicists and chemists began applying the new mechanics to the calculation of the energies of the atomic linkages in molecules. In order to correlate and check the calculations of their theories, accurate data on heats of formation were required. And so arose a third real need for new and accurate values of heats of formation. Thus, about a decade ago, the stage was set for a renaissance in thermochemistry. One of the first to sense this need and to promote a renewed interest in thermochemical measurements was the late EK. W. Washburn, who, as editor-in-chief of the International Critical Tables, was in a particularly good position to appreciate the inade- quacy of the existing data. Though many new thermochemical values have been obtained in the past few years, chiefly in the United States and Germany, we still depend upon many of the data obtained half a century ago. It should be pointed out that Thomsen, Berthelot, and their coworkers had not the advantages of our modern calorimetric apparatus and technic, nor of our pure substances, and therefore the value of their work should not be judged on the basis of present day accuracy. Fifty 402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 years ago, an accuracy of 1 part in 1000 was as remarkable in calo- rimetry as is 1 part in 10,000 today. It can be said, in general, that the accuracy requirements of thermochemical data have increased about tenfold in the past half century. Today, the problem of obtaining a reliable value for the heat of a given reaction resolves itself into two parts: First, one must investi- gate the purity of the given reaction as it proceeds under the condi- tions of the calorimetric experiment, and determine to what extent, if any, side reactions occur. In the time of Thomsen and Berthelot, because of the less rigid requirements of accuracy, the purity of the calorimetric reaction was not investigated as fully as it is today. Second, one must measure the heat of the reaction in terms of a funda- mental unit of energy. As recently as twenty years ago, the accepted calorimetric unit of energy, called the calorie, was defined in terms of the heat capacity of water. From the standpoint of chemical thermo- dynamics, this calorie was not a satisfactory unit of energy, but it _ was then the only practical one available. Today, we make our measurements in terms of a fundamental unit of electrical energy, the joule. We do also report our thermochemical values in calories, but these calories are obtained from the fundamental joule by means of an arbitrarily defined factor, and the resulting defined calorie bears no relation, except incidentally and historically, to the heat capacity of water. , The principle of the modern calorimetric method for measuring heats of reaction is to compare the heat evolved by a measured amount of chemical reaction with the heat evolved by a measured amount of electrical energy, using the calorimeter as the comparator for the two kinds of energy. In this substitution method, the calori- metric conditions are made practically identical in the two kinds of experiment, so that many of the common calorimetric errors are eliminated. The ultimate end of experimental thermochemistry is the assembly of a table of values from which one may calculate accurately the heat of every one of the infinite number of theoretically possible chemical reactions. Fortunately, it is not necessary to measure the heat of every possible chemical reaction in order to compile such a table, but only to determine the heat of formation, from its elements, of every chemical substance. The determination of the heat of forma- tion of a substance from its elements requires only the measurement of the heat of a reaction in which all the reactants and products, except the given substance, are substances whose heats of formation, SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 403 from their elements, are known. Actually, in order to know the heats of formation of 10,000 chemical compounds, including hydrocarbons, it is necessary to measure the heats of less than 10,000 different re- actions, because of a simplifying rule for some of the higher hydro- carbons. With these 10,000 values, one can calculate the heats of many, many times that number of chemical reactions. Fortunately for the peace of mind and the economic security of investigators in thermochemistry, the possibility of the complete compilation of the ultimate table of heats of formation is extremely remote, because, with the passing of time, some values are continually becoming obsolete with respect to accuracy, and furthermore, many new compounds whose heats of formation must be determined are continually being synthesized or discovered by the organic and in- organic chemists. PALEONTOLOGY .— Descriptions of Paleozoic fossils from the Cen- tral Basin of Tennessee! R. S. Bassuer, U. 8S. National Mu- seum. In a volume entitled ““The Stratigraphy of the Central Basin of Tennessee,’ published in 1932 as Bulletin 38 of the Division of Geology of the State of Tennessee, the writer included plates il- lustrating the characteristic fossils of the various Paleozoic forma- tions discussed. Among these guide fossils were forty-one new species of invertebrates and algae for which there was no place for their description in the text, although in the explanation of the plates the exact horizon and locality were given in addition in some instances to comparisons with well known forms. This stratigraphic volume was in press for several years, during which time the rules of nomenclature were changed so as to disallow the recognition of species figured but unaccompanied by descriptions. This article is issued to remedy this deficiency in the present case. For economy, the citations to the Tennessee volume are restricted to noting the plate and figure in parenthesis after each of the species. The types of all the following species are the property of the U. 8. National Museum. Solenopora compacta cerebrum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 1, 2) This common widespread Ordovician alga is represented in the Hermitage formation by large, much convoluted masses resembling a brain, for which reason the varietal name cerebrum was proposed. Careful study of this 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived May 29, 1935. 404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 genus will probably show the present variety to be worthy of specific stand- ing. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 6 miles northwest of Carthage, Tenn. Buthotrephis inosculata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 9, fig. 3) A fucoid alga consisting of rounded, slightly flattened stems 6 to 8 mm. in diameter, branching dichotomously in the same plain at intervals averag- ing 30 mm., and also penetrating limestone layers several feet thick until they are completely occupied with these remains. Black River (Tyrone formation): Hoover’s Mills, west of Woodbury, Tenn. Licrophycus libana Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, fig. 9) This fucoid occurs so often on limestone surfaces in spreading, fanshaped fronds arising from a simple stem which by repeated division expands to a diameter of 50 mm. and often overlying each other so that it must repre- sent the remains of a definite organism instead of inorganic markings as regarded by some authors. Although closely related to the type of the genus, L. ottawense Billings, the present species is distinguished by its smaller, narrower, shorter, more frequently dividing stems. Stones River (Lebanon limestone): 2 miles south of Murfreesboro, Tenn Camarocladia gracilis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 8, fig. 4) This primitive spongelike organism of uncertain classification is distin- guished from the genotype, C. dichotoma Ulrich and Winchell, by its stouter, less regularly dividing branches. C. rugosa Ulrich, a related species, is still unfigured and all the fossils of this nature require more study. Black River (Tyrone limestone): Near Dixon Springs, Tenn. Camarocladia implicatum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, fig. 10) Similar to the preceding in general characters but differing in that the branches are 5 mm. wide, divide at intervals of 15 or more mm., and form a closely matted mass. Stones River (Lebanon limestone): Lebanon, Tenn. Saccospongia massalis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 15, figs. 3, 4) Sponge forming masses of 160 or more mm. in height and width, com- posed of frequently dividing, closely united branches about 15 mm. in diameter, each with a central canal 7 or 8 mm. wide and with the usual porous structure of Saccospongia visible at the surface, three of the pores occurring in 10 mm. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Hartsville, Tenn. Saccospongia laxata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 15, figs. 1, 2) A branching sponge similar to S. danvillensis Ulrich in growth, but differ- ing in the much larger pores of its network, 4 occurring in 10 mm. longi- tudinally in contrast to 7 of the mentioned related species. Trenton (Cannon limestone): Near Carthage, Tenn. Cryptophragmus arbusculus Bassler, 1932 (pl. 16, fig. 9) Hydrozoon with the transverse partitions and other internal structure SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 405 of C. antiquatus Raymond, the genotype, but with a stout, frequently branched colony, the branches averaging 10 mm. in diameter. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 41% miles east of Hartsville, Tenn. Tetradium? carterensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 7, figs. 2, 3) Coral of solid cylindrical stems, 30 to 40 mm. in diameter, composed of somewhat flattened corallites about 2 mm. in their longer diameter, showing a tendency to imbricate. No septa observed; generic position doubtful. Black River (Carters limestone) : 2 miles southeast of Priest, Tenn. Tetradium saffordi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 19, fig. 2) Colony a reticulate mass made by cells having the characteristic 4 septa and arranged in chainlike unilinear or bilinear rows uniting so as to form broad meshes 20 mm. in diameter. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Milton, Tenn. Tetradium laxum Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, figs. 10-12) Corallite with septal structure of Tetradium, forming masses 70 or more mm. in diameter consisting of loosely growing single tubes each about 1 mm. in diameter, sometimes isolated but often adhering in unilinear sheets, all forming an open network with meshes averaging 7 mm. in width. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 2 miles east of Hartsville, Tenn. Tetradium ulrichi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 19, fig. 1) Like 7. saffordi Bassler in general growth and structure, but meshes are only about half as broad. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 21% miles northwest of Woodbury, Tenn. Columnaria [alveolata] minor Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 1, 2) Corallum small, composed of polygonal thin-walled corallites in close contact, 2144 mm. wide when mature, each with a primary set of 12 septa extending well towards the center and a shorter secondary set. The small corallites distinguish this species which was figured as a variety, since 5 mm. is the average width in C. alveolata. Trenton (Basal Hermitage): 1 mile south of Belfast, Tenn. Nyctopora [Columnaria] crenulata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 13, figs. 3, 4) Corallum of small, rounded masses composed of polygonal thin-walled corallites in close contact, with 5 to 6 in6 mm., each corallite with 8 primary septa extending a short distance into the tubesand a set of shorter second- ary septa. Tabulae in two zones, a crowded one where two occur in a tube diameter, and the other where they are spaced on an average of a tube diameter apart. No mural pores. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 4 miles south of Carthage, Tenn. Lichenaria globularis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 13, figs. 1, 2) Small globular masses, composed of polygonal, thin-walled corallites with 8 to 9 in 6 mm., without septa or mural pores. Tabulae developed at inter- vals of twice the tube diameter in the uncrowded zone, but in the other zone 2 or 3 occur in the same space. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 6 miles northwest of Carthage, Tenn. 406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 Lichenaria grandis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 7, 8) Similar to L. globularis but more massive and with larger corallites, of which there are 6 in 6 mm. Septa absent; tabulae present and spaced as in the previous species. Trenton (top of Hermitage): Near Bradyville, Tenn. Enopleura punctata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, fig. 9) This well marked cystid is distinguished from the genotype, H. balanoides (Meek) by its flattened theca and especially by its highly punctate surface. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 44 mile north-northeast of Pulaski, Tenn. Scolithus columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 16, fig. 8) Type specimen a piece of fine-grained dove limestone pierced by worm borings, tubes about 0 5 mm. in diameter filled by crystalline calcite and spaced at intervals of several mm. The minuteness of the borings distinguish this from all other species. Trenton (base of Cannon limestone): Near Franklin, Tenn. Amplexopora convoluta Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 3, 4) Bryozoan zoarium, a convoluted mass of 40 or more mm. in diameter, made up of closely intertwining branches composed of angular zooecia with the wall and acanthopore structure of Amplexopora and with 8 occurring in 2 mm. In vertical sections the immature region has diaphragms at inter- vals of 3 to 4 tube diameters, but in the mature zone 3 occur in one tube diameter. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 2 miles west of Hartsville, Tenn. Stellipora stipata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 3, 4) Zoarium of incrusting lamellae with closely spaced star clusters in which the rays are narrow and leave little space between them for mesospores. In the genotype, S. antheloidea Hall, the clusters are much farther apart and each exhibits at its center a broad area of mesopores. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 2 miles east of Cottage Home, Tenn. Lioclemella bifurcata Bassler, 1932 (pl. 25, fig. 21) Similar to the genotype, L. ohioensis Foerste, in zooecial structure and pointed base for articulation, but differing in that the zoarium bifurcates forming a distinct prong-shaped object; the zooecia are smaller (8 in 2 mm.) and the mesopores smaller and more numerous. Richmond (Fernvale formation): 214 miles northwest of Pulaski, Tenn. Sowerbyella lebanonensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 5, figs. 7, 8) Brachiopod shell similar to S clarksvillensis and related species, but dis- tinguished by the surface markings of very fine striae with 3 or 4 delicate ribs alternating with a single larger one, with cardinal extremities somewhat angular and the dorsal lamellae extending almost to the front of the valve. Surface flat to gentle convex. Stones River (Lebanon limestone): Shelbyville, Tenn. Rafinesquina hermitagensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 12, figs. 5, 6) Shell of 2. fracta group but rather strongly convex in the median region SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 BASSLER: TENNESSEE FOSSILS 407 and without any geniculation. Differs also in the greater breadth of the valves in contrast with the length, an average shell being 22 mm. long by 30 mm. wide. Trenton (near base of Hermitage): 2 miles south of Middleton, Tenn. Strophomena odessae Bassler, 1932 (pl. 25, figs. 7-12) Shell similar to S. parvula Foerste, but differing in its general proportions, smaller size, less angular cardinal extremities and finer surface markings. Richmond (Fernvale formation): 24 miles northwest of Pulaski, Tenn. Tentaculites obliquus Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, fig. 9) Shell 8-10 mm. long, 1 mm. in greatest diameter, differing from other species of the genus in its slightly curved form. Trenton (Hermitage formation): Danville, Ky. Hormotoma columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 18, figs. 1, 2) Shell similar to H. major Hall, differing in a smaller apical angle making it narrower and less robust. S trentonensis Ulrich and Scofield is also similar but is a shorter and more rapidly enlarging shell. Trenton (Cannon limestone): 1 mile southwest of Franklin, Tenn. Lophospira ulrichi Bassler, 1932 (pl. 17, figs. 5, 6) Related to L. sumnerensis Safford, but characterized by its low spire and unusual breadth. An average shell measures 2222 mm. Trenton (Cannon limestone): Near Hartsville, Tenn. Ctenodonta hermitagensis Bassler, 1932 (pl. 11, figs. 7, 8) Similar to Ctenodonta pectunculoides in general outline and dentition, but shell smaller and beak more produced with general surface marked by strong concentric lines. Trenton (top of Hermitage): 3 miles east of Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Leperditia pondi Ulrich and Bassler 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 8) A Leperditia with valves 16X12 mm., in length and height, character- ized by the unusually equal curvature of both anterior and posterior ends. Surface smooth with a narrow rim and slightly developed ocular tubercle in the anterior dorsal third. Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn. Isochilina apicalis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 9) An Isochilina with valves about 11 by 6144 mm. with eye tubercle close to the dorsal margin and a ridge almost one third the length of the valves just below the center and parallel to the hinge line. Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn. Isochilina columbina Bassler, 1932 (pl. 17, fig. 2) A narrow, elongate Isochilina with dimensions of about 9X5 mm. with smooth surface, no marginal rim and a minute eye spot close to the anterior dorsal angles. Trenton (Cannon limestone): Nashville, Tenn. 408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 Isochilina nelsoni Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 21, fig. 10) Carapace equivalved, each valve about 137 mm., with surface smooth and a narrow rim along the free margins and with well developed ocular protuberance and accompanying nodes in the dorsal section. Trenton (Catheys formation): Nashville, Tenn. Aechmina longicornis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 6) An Aechmina distinguished by the spine arising from the anterior half of the dorsal edge of the valves, which has a broad base and narrows to a point abruptly. A row of minute spicules occurs along the free margin of the valve. Valves excluding spine 0.90.5 mm.; spine 0.7 mm. long. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Ulrichia tenuimuralis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 14) This species is particularly marked by the presence of a ridge close to the free margin and by a large oval node occupying the central part of the dorsal half of the valve. A smaller node anterior to this and the reticulate surface complete its characters. Valves 1 by 0.6 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Paracythere cornuta Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 13) A Cythere-like ostracod with a small but prominent node near the dorsal in the narrow anterior part, with a much broader posterior end, and with surface marked by concentric lines arranged around a small muscle spot posterior to the node. Valves 1 by 0.6. mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Monoceratina [Bursulella] tennesseensis Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, figs. 11, 12) A subtriangular-shaped ostracod with the apex of the triangle below and formed by the continuation of the ventral edge into a strong prominent spine. Valve excluding spine 1.5 by 1.1 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Beyrichiopsis modesta Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 10) This species differs from the genotype, B. fimbriata Jones and Kirkby, in that the surface markings are reduced to a single, small rounded post- median node, and that the frill extending from the edges of the valve is of more uniform diameter throughout. Valve with frill 1 by 0.6 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Beyrichiopsis pulchra Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 1) Distinguished from the associated B. modesta by its larger proportions, the very spinous surface, the small rounded subventral node and especially the double row of spines representing the frill paralleling the free edges. Valve measuring 1.8 mm. by 1 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Allostraca fimbriata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 5) This, the only known species of the genus, is distinguished by its Cythere- like valves with a very broad subcentral eye or muscle spot, a distinctly SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 KNECHTEL: INDIAN HOT SPRINGS 409 granular surface, and a prominent striated frill extending some distance beyond the free edges of the valves. Valve including frill 1.6 mm. by 0.8 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Paracythere granopunctata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, fig. 4) Outline and surface markings of valve much as in Allostraca fimbriata except that the striated marginal rim of the latter is lacking. Valve 1.7 mm. by 1 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. Barychilina lineata Ulrich and Bassler, 1932 (pl. 27, figs. 2, 3) Distinguished from other species of the genus by the delicate concentric lineate structure of the surface markings. Valves 16 mm. by 0.9 mm. Kinderhook (Ridgetop shale): Mt. Pleasant, Tenn. HYDROLOGY.—Indian Hot Springs, Graham County, Arizona.! M. M. Knecuret, U. 8. Geological Survey. by O. E. MErInzEr.) (Communicated The health resort known as Indian Hot Springs, at Eden, Arizona, isin sec. 17, T.5S., R. 24 E., about 8 miles northwest of the town of Pima, Arizona. (See fig. 1.) Here 5 thermal springs and a flowing well, epee We 8 ~S ay liFton all Mey 4, Z Slaw 3 Nee Y, % Nyce i VIN orucson Fig. 1.—Map of part of southeastern Arizona, showing location of Indian Hot Springs. Survey. Received June 10, 1935. * Published with permission of the Director of the United States Geological 410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 having a combined discharge of about 320 gallons a minute, furnish water for general use at the adjacent hotel, for several Roman baths, and for a large swimming pool. Most of the water, however, escapes unused and runs in ditches directly to the Gila River. The elevation of the springs is about 2,820 feet above sea level. The writer’s study of Indian Hot Springs was made late in 1933 in - connection with an investigation by the United States Geological Survey.’ The springs occur in a small reentrant in the face of a terrace that was carved during Pleistocene time out of lacustrine sedimentary Mountain Mountain NFS if 5 Gila River Bak Well Alluvium \ ot wer eel Z ——— Ne + Central d--. flot oa Sa na. <\ WN / 4 i) = + 3 =) < ¢ 2 s s 2 a s e ° o & GILA CONGLOMERATE AN PP a Ge IAEA Impervious clays Porous sand and Undifferentiated silts tuffs and ravel metamorphic and limestone; all of 3 ley ; jai (Fanglomerate phase) igneous rocks lacustrine origin. g P (Gmpervious) Fig. 2.—Interpretative cross-section of the Gila valley looking south- eastward near Indian Hot Springs. deposits that form part of the Gila conglomerate (in this area Plio- cene, at least in part). These deposits are poorly exposed in the locality of the springs, and their local structure is therefore unknown. In this valley, however, the lake beds and fanglomerates of the Gila conglomerate are in general not much disturbed. (See fig. 2.) The well which is known as the ‘‘Beauty Spring,” is about 600 feet deep and discharges 156 gallons of water a minute with a temperature of 119°F. Spring No. 1 yields 145 gallons of water a minute at 116°F.; spring No. 2 yields 10% gallons at 116°F.; spring No. 3 yields 61% gallons at 118°F.; and spring No. 4 yields three-fifths of a gallon at 81°F. Spring No. 5 is a slow seepage of water at 107°F. > Knecutet, M. M. Geology and ground-water resources of the Gila and San Simon valleys, Graham County, southeastern Arizona, U. 8. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper (in preparation). SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 KNECHTEL: INDIAN HOT SPRINGS 411 Samples of water were collected from the well and from 3 of the springs (Nos. 1, 3, and 4) and were analyzed by E. W. Lohr of the United States Geological Survey. The analyses, which are given in the accompanying table, show that all the samples contained a com- paratively large amount of disolved solids, and that the different mineral constituents were present in each sample in about the same amounts and proportions. The amounts and proportions, moreover, were nearly the same as in a sample of water collected from a flowing TaBLE I.—ANALYSES OF WATERS AT INDIAN HoT SPRINGS AND NEAR Pima, ARIZONA.® il 3 4 A B Calcium (Ca) 80 78 102 78 73 Magnesium (Mg) 9.4 9.0 12 10 UoP Sodium and Potassium (Na+K) (calculated) 1,048 1,043 1,182 878 1,190 Bicarbonate (HCOs;) 100 98 114 106 96 Sulphate (SO,) 405 404 518 357 419 Chloride (Cl) 1,420 1,410 1,580 1,190 1,610 Fluoride (F) Aral 3.7 4.3 B68 4.9 Nitrate (NOs;) .0 0 5) 0 0 Total dissolved solids (calculated) 3,016 2,996 3,455 2,568 SEool Total hardness as CaCO; 239 232 304 236 PP ® Collected November 20-30, 1933. Analyzed by E. W. Lohr. Parts per million. 1. Spring No. 1; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 116°F.; discharge 145 gallons a minute. 3. Spring No. 3; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 118°F.; discharge 61% gallon a minute. 4. Spring. No. 4; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 81° F; discharge 3/5 gallon a minute. A. Drilled flowing artesian well (‘ ‘Beauty, Spring’’); about 600 feet deep; Indian Hot Springs, Eden, Ariz. Temperature 119°F.; discharge 156 gallons a minute. B. Drilled flowing artesian well 3,767 feet deep; 1 mile northwest of Pima, Ariz. Tem- perature 138°F.; discharge about 2200 gallons a minute. artesian well with a discharge of about 5 second-feet of water, which was drilled unsuccessfully for oil to a depth of 3,767 feet at a point about 7 miles to the southeast, in the NW14 NEY, sec. 13, T. 65., R. 24 E., near the town of Pima. Furthermore, though these 5 analyses differ little from each other, they bear much less resemblance to the analyses of samples collected from 44 scattered wells and springs that receive water from sands and gravels at various hori- zons in the sedimentary deposits of this valley trough. From the similarity in chemical composition of all the waters col- lected at Indian Hot Springs and from the Pima well, and the fact that the ‘“‘Beauty Spring”’ well water and the water of the 3 springs 412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 that flow most copiously show a variation in temperature of only 2 degrees, it may be inferred that all this water issues from the same horizon. The fact that the water of Nos. 4 and 5 is cooler, and that the water of the Pima well is 20 degrees hotter, than that of the ““Beauty Spring” and Nos. 1, 2 and 3 may be explained as follows: The temperature of spring No. 4 is 35 degrees lower than that of spring No. 1, which is less than 20 feet distant. As these springs yield water of similar chemical composition, which therefore probably comes from the same source, the difference in their temperatures is probably due to the great difference in their rates of flow, the water from spring No. 4 being cooled to a temperature lower than that of spring No. 1 because it rises more slowly to the surface. This implies, of course, that all or a part of the ascent is made through independent openings. This explanation also applies to the temperature of spring No. 5 which is 9 degrees lower than that of spring No. 1. The temperature of the ‘‘Beauty Spring” well water and the water of the three principal springs at Indian Hot Springs averages about 117°F. If it is assumed that the water rises from a depth of only 600 feet, the depth of the “Beauty Spring” well, then unusual local ther- mal conditions must be invoked to explain the high temperature at this comparatively shallow depth below the surface. It is probable, however, that the water comes to the surface through fractures, per- haps caused by faulting, from an artesian source much deeper than 600 feet and that the well merely taps the upward-moving stream. A depth-temperature study of field data collected by the writer on 78 flowing artesian wells in the Gila and San Simon valleys was made by H. C. Spicer, of the United States Geological Survey. His compu- tations, which with one exception were based on wells ranging in depth from 100 feet to 1,450 feet, indicate a rise in temperature of 1°F. for each 57 feet of depth. A temperature of 135°F. for a depth of 3,540 feet, as computed from this gradient, checks surprisingly well with the measured temperature (138°F.) of the water flowing from the mouth of the deep well near Pima, most of which rises from a horizon at that depth. Most of the data on the depths of wells, and espe- cially of the deeper wells, used in these computations, were reported to the writer from memory by various persons, some of whom had in turn acquired their information by hearsay. However, they are be- lieved to be fairly reliable as a whole. The water temperatures were those observed by the writer at the mouths of flowing wells and probably are slightly lower than the temperatures of the water at depth. Some heat is lost by the water during its ascent to the surface, SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 SWALLEN: NEW GRASSES 413 especially in wells that have only small flows, and as many of the wells are not cased, the water issuing from a given well may come from several horizons at which the temperatures differ. In general, however, by far the greatest discharge is from the bottom of the well, and the cooling effect of water from higher levels is small. It is therefore be- lieved that the average temperature, about 117°F., of the water from the 4 principal flowing units at Indian Hot Springs may be taken as a fair indication that the water rises from a depth of about 2,500 feet, this figure being derived from the plotted gradient as worked out by Mr. Spicer from the field data. The mechanism that forces the water from this depth to the surface may be the same as that suggested to account for the pressure in the numerous artesian wells of this valley. It may be briefly stated as fol- lows: The altitude of the water table in the porous gravels and sands (fig. 2) under the intake area along the margins of the valley is much higher than the surface of the central part of the valley. The pressure of the water in the marginal belts is transmitted underground to vertical openings, such as wells, in the dense lacustrine deposits of the central part of the valley. If the wells are at points where the surface altitude is sufficiently low, artesian pressure will cause discharge of water at their mouths. BOTANY.—Two new grasses from the United States and Mexico. JASON R. SwauLen, Bureau of Plant Industry. Two new grasses have recently been discovered in the United States and Mexico. The first is a new species of Calamagrostis col- lected in Jackson Co., Ohio, by Floyd Bartley and Leslie L. Pontius, and the second is a new species of Boutelowa found in Baja California by Forrest Shreve. Calamagrostis insperata Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi 85-95 cm. alti, glabri, e rhizomatibus erecti; vaginae glabrae, internodiis multo breviores; laminae planae, acuminatae, 10-22 cm. longae, 3-8 mm. latae, glabrae, marginibus scabris; ligula 5 mm. longa; panicula 12-14 em. longa, ramis adscendentibus; spiculae appressae, 5—-5.5 mm. longae; gluma prima lanceolata, 1—nervis; gluma secunda acuta, gluma prima paulo brevior, 3-nervis; lemma 4 mm. longum, 5-nerve, scabrum, apice erosum; pili calli lemmate duplo breviores; rachilla 0.5 mm. longa, pilis 2 mm. longis; arista 1 mm. supra callum inserta, geniculata, circiter 3 mm. longa. Perennial; culms 85-95 ecm. tall, erect, glabrous, with slender creeping rhizomes; sheaths much shorter than the internodes, smooth or scaberulous; 1 Received June 14, 1934. 414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 blades flat, acuminate, 10-22 em. long, 3-8 mm. wide, glabrous, the margins scabrous; ligule membranaceous, about 5 mm. long; panicles 12-14 em. long, the branches narrowly ascending, at least some of them naked toward the base, the lower ones as much as 5 em. long; spikelets appressed to the branches, 5-5.5 mm. long; glumes unequal, somewhat keeled, scabrous on the keels, the first lanceolate, 1-nerved, the second acute, 3-nerved; lemma 4mm. long, 5-nerved, scabrous, the narrow tip erose; callus hairs moderately dense, the lateral ones about half as long as the lemma, those on the back of the callus shorter; prolongation of the rachilla 0.5 mm. long, the hairs 2 mm. long; awn inserted about 14 above the base, equaling the lemma, twisted below, geniculate, protruding from the glumes at maturity. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1,611,713. Collected in Ofer Hollow, Liberty Township, Jackson Co., Ohio, August 1, 1934, by Floyd Bartley and Leslie L. Pontius. This species is closely related to C. pickeringiz, in which the spikelets are only 4-4.5 mm. long, the callus hairs are scant, and the rachilla hairs are only 0.5 mm. long. Bouteloua annua Swallen, sp. nov. Annua; culmi dense caespitosi, erecti, basi geniculati, 3-25 cm. alti, glabri, ramosi; vaginae internodiis breviores; laminae planae, acutae, 1—3.5 em. longae, 1.5-2 mm. latae, pubescentes vel glabrae; ligula ciliata, 0.2 mm. longa; spicae 2—7, 1.5-2 em. longae; spiculae 8-10 mm. longae, non pecti- natae; gluma prima 1-nervis, 3.5-7 mm. longa, angusta; gluma secunda 6-9 mm. longa, l-nervis, lata; lemma fertile, gluma secunda paulo longius, 3- nerve, 3-dentatum, dentibus 2 mm. longis; flos imperfectus pilosus, aristis 3 scabris. Annual; culms densely tufted, erect or geniculate spreading at the base, 3-25 em. long, glabrous with a single branch from the middle node; sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous; blades flat, 1-3.5 em. long, 1.5-2 mm. wide, acute, pubescent on the upper surface or nearly glabrous; ligule ciliate, 0.2 mm. long; inflorescence as much as 8 cm. long with 2-7 rather distant ascending to spreading spikes, these falling entire; spikes distant, 1.5-2 em. long, bearing 4~7 usually appressed spikelets, the rachis produced beyond the uppermost spikelet; spikelets 8-10 mm. long, appressed, green or usually purple, with one fertile floret and a 3-awned rudiment; glumes 1-nerved, more or less scabrous on the nerves, otherwise glabrous, the first 3.5-7 mm. long, very narrow, the second 6-9 mm. long, much broader, inclosing the florets; lemma a little longer than the second glume promi- nently 3-nerved, 3-toothed, the teeth about 2 mm. long, sparsely appressed pilose in lines especially close to the nerves, the callus densely pubescent; rudiment somewhat exceeding the lemma, the base stout, pilose, the awns scabrous. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium no. 1,611,715. Collected 4 miles east of San Ignacio, Baja California, March 6, 1935, by Forrest Shreve. This species belongs to the section Atheropogon, in which the spikes fall entire from the main axis and the spikelets are not pectinately arranged. Two other annual species, B. alamosana and B. aristidoides, belong to this group. The first differs from B. annua in having tuberculate hairy foliage, SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 WEHR: FILARIOPSIS ARATOR 415 and shorter spikes (10-15 mm. long), the spikelets closely appressed to the rachis. The second differs in having very slender spreading spikes with dis- tant appressed spikelets. B. annua resembles B. filiformis in the form of the inflorescence, but that species is strictly perennial. ZOOLOGY .—A restudy of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931, with a discussion of the systematic position of the genus Filariopsis van Thiel, 1926 Kvnretr E. Wenr, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by Exoisr B. Cram.) Van Thiel (1926)? proposed the genus and species Filariopsis asper for nematodes collected from the lungs of a “roaring monkey” (Mycetes seniculus) by Dr. C. Bonne in Surinam, British Guinea. Five years later, Chandler (1931)’ described a second species Ff. arator for nematodes collected from the lungs of a South American monkey (Cebus sp.) by Dr. W. H. Taliaferro in Chicago, Illinois. Van Thiel referred the genus Fvlariopsis to the superfamily Filarioidea without assigning it to a family. Chandler, however, created the family Filariopsidae solely for its reception. The present writer has made a restudy of the type specimens of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931. The results of this study have made it necessary to revise the original description of this species in certain respects. It has also made it possible to include a discussion of the cephalic papillae which have not been described in the literature. RESTUDY OF FILARIOPSIS ARATOR In the original descriptions it was stated that the oral opening was surrounded by 3 either ‘“‘conspicuous”’ (/’. asper) or ‘“‘very inconspicu- ous” (F. arator) lips. According to the present writer, the head of Filariopsis arator is provided with 2 lateral trilobed lips (Fig. 1) on which are located a number of papillae. These papillae, numbering 14 in all, are divided, according to their mode of innervation, into 2 circles: An external circle of 8 papillae arranged in 4 groups of 2 papillae each, of which the dorsodorsals and ventroventrals are slightly smaller than, and situated internal to, the laterodorsals and lateroventrals; and an internal circle of 6 papillae, consisting of 1 papilla on the anterior border of each of the 6 lobes of the 2 trilobed lips. The amphids are located posterior to the internolateral papillae. 1 Received June 7, 1934. 2 Van Tue, P. H. On some filariae parasitic in Surinam mammals, with the de- scription of Filariopsis asper n. g., n. sp. Parasitology 18: 128-136. 1926. 3’ CHanpuerR, A. C. New genera and species of nematode worms. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., (2866), 78: 1-11. 1981. 416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 The anterior extremity of F. arator (Fig. 3) was not figured by Chandler, but it is similar to that of F. asper as figured by van Thiel. 5 3. Figs. 1-7.—Filariopsis arator. Fig. 1—Head, en face view. Fig. 2.—Male tail, ventral view. Fig. 3—Anterior extremity, dorsoventral view. Fig. 4.—Male tail, lateral view. Fig. 5.—Female tail, lateral view. Fig. 6.—First-stage larva. Fig. 7.—Cross section ‘of body just back of excretory pore, showing excretory canal and the 2 subventral excretory cells on each side of it. The clavate esophagus is short and muscular, and the broad, thick- walled intestine contains multinucleated cells. Two subventral ex- SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 WHEHR: FILARIOPSIS ARATOR 417 cretory cells extending from the excretory pore posteriorly along each lateral side of the excretory canal were found in F. arator. The caudal extremity of the male was described and figured by Chandler as lacking caudal alae and caudal papillae. Present ob- servations indicate that alae are apparently absent or very poorly developed, and that there are 7 pairs of caudal papillae (Figs. 2 and 4) arranged in 4 groups and situated along the lateral and posterior margins of the body. The most anterior group on each side is com- posed of 2 papillae, the next of 3 papillae, and the last 2 groups 1 papilla each. Each papilla is joined to the body proper by a very weakly developed bursal ray. In the 2 male specimens available for study, the 2 approximately equal spicules do not appear to be joined together by a membrane, but each spicule is provided on its inner bor- der with a wing-like membrane extending for about the middle two- thirds of its length. The so-called gubernaculum, boat-shaped in ven- tral view, appears in lateral view as an elongated cutinous plate with the distal end presenting a hook-like structure on its lower surface. The vulva of the female of F’. arator (Fig. 5) is located just anterior to the anal opening; that of F. asper occupies a similar position, ac- cording to van Thiel. The first-stage larva (Fig. 6) is about 300u long and 10 to I1u wide, with the anterior end slightly attenuated and the tail very long, slender, and pointed at the tip. The esophagus extends about 14 the total length of the body, with a swelling near the equator and another at the posterior end. In general body form, the first-stage larva of F. arator is similar to that of F. asper. As a result of the present morphological study there seems to be no reason to believe, as Chandler did, that the 2 above species may eventually have to be placed in different genera. The male of F. asper has been described by van Thiel as possessing small caudal alae and 5 pairs of caudal papillae; it differs from that of F. arator, there- fore, chiefly in the number of caudal papillae, since, according to van Thiel’s figure of the male tail of F. asper the caudal alae, if present at all, are much reduced. Both species have similar spicules; F’. asper, however, is described as having 2 gubernacula and F’. arator as having only one. SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE GENUS FILARIOPSIS VAN THIEL, 1926 Van Thiel did not state the reasons for his conclusion that the genus Filariopsis possesses filarioid affinities. As one of the characters of this genus, he mentioned the presence of microfilariae and, in all 418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 probability, his belief that the young of this species were true micro- filariae caused him to allocate this genus to the Filarioidea. None of the other characters of this genus mentioned by van Thiel, namely, (1) cuticle covered with conical protuberances, (2) situation of vulva close to anus, and (3) equality of 2 spicules, suggest filarioid affinity as the superfamily Filarioidea is defined today. Chandler debated whether to place the genus Filariopsis in the Spiruroidea or the Filarioidea, but finally decided tentatively to include it in the Filari- oidea because of the absence of paired lips, the long and slender body, the position of the adults in the lungs of the host, and the presence of “‘microfilaria-like’’ embryos in the uteri, although, as he said, the genus differs from the other members of the Filarioidea in having the vulva near the anus, in the short muscular esophagus, and in the ‘“non-coiled tail of the male.” As a result of his recent study of F. arator, the present writer has come to the conclusion that the genus Filariopsis belongs to the Metrastrongyloidea rather than to the Filarioidea. This conclusion is based on the following findings: The microfilaria-like embryos re- ferred to by Chandler and van Thiel are not true microfilaria as they possess a distinct esophagus with 2 swellings, one near the equator and the other at the posterior end; the presence of 2 subventral ex- cretory cells and of multinucleated intestinal cells in the adult (the present writer has demonstrated the presence of similar cells in Metastrongylus elongatus), and the character of the adult esophagus and the male tail. The presence of subventral excretory cells is a char- acteristic of the Strongylata, according to unpublished observations made by Dr. B. G. Chitwood, Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. The polymyarian condition of the somatic musculature, the absence of longitudinal cuticular markings, and the character of the esophagus of the first-stage larva tie F. arator to the Metastrongy- loidea, and the much reduced bursa and bursal rays allocate it to the family Pseudaliidae and the subfamily Filaroidinae. SUMMARY A restudy of the type specimens of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931, has made it possible to add to the previous description of this nematode. From this new evidence and a critical analysis of the earlier descriptions of F. arator and F. asper, it is concluded that the genus Filariopsis belongs in the superfamily Metastrongyloidea, family Pseudaliidae, subfamily Filaroidinae. SepreMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 419 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1073RD MEETING The 1073rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 27, 1934, President DrypEN presiding. On a motion proposed by the Rey- erend HaAwkEsSworRTH, which was unanimously approved, the recording secretary was instructed to convey to Paut R. HEY1t, a past president of the Society, the Society’s condolence and deep sympathy because of the accident he suffered, October the twentieth. The program consisted of two addresses upon the stratosphere flight of the Explorer. L. J. Briaes: The flight of the stratosphere balloon Explorer.—The strato- sphere flight on July 28 was sponsored by the National Geographic Society and the Army Air Corps. The great spherical balloon had a capacity of 3,000,000 cubic feet—three times as large as any balloon heretofore con- structed and was designed to reach an altitude of 75,000 feet. The gondola, 100 inches in diameter, carried about a ton of apparatus and equipment. The principal objectives were: (1) the measurement of the ionization produced by cosmic rays at different altitudes; (2) the directional effect of cosmic rays; (3) the spectrographic determination of the position of the ozone layer and the far ultraviolet spectrum of the sun; (4) the collection of air samples from the stratosphere; and (5) the determination of the rela- tionship between altitude (computed from photographs with a vertical camera) and air density (computed from the observed pressure and temper- ature). The ascent was made from a natural bowl in the Black Hills, chosen to provide protection from wind during inflation. All the apparatus functioned perfectly. The ascent was stopped at 61,600 feet because rips appeared in the bottom of the balloon. A slow descent was begun, and at 18,000 feet the gondola was opened. The descent continued at about 12 feet per second, but the tearing of the lower fabric increased until finally the entire bottom of the balloon below the catenary tore away. The flight personnel decided to try to land the balloon as a parachute, but at 3,000 feet the balloon suddenly disintegrated. Major Kepner, Capt. Stevens, and Capt. Anderson took to their parachutes and the gondola went crashing into the ground. Reliance had been placed largely on photographic recording of the observa- tions. All cameras were broken open by the impact, but the films which remained tightly rolled, although badly light-struck, were found to be legible up to the highest altitude of the flight. The sun spectrograph, suspended below the gondola, had been cut loose before the balloon failed and landed safely on its own parachute. Consequently, much information was gained from the flight, despite its unfortunate ending. (Awthor’s abstract.) L. B. TuckrerMaNn: Technical difficulties in stratosphere ballooning.—The technical difficulties in stratosphere ballooning in contrast to ordinary ballooning depend upon the greatly increased pressure differences encoun- tered. First, the decrease in density of the air, which is on the average some- what more thanl% for each 20,000 feet of altitude, requires very much larger balloons to carry the same load. The necessity of maintaining sufficient air 420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 pressure to keep the passengers alive increases the necessary dead weight and still further increases the necessary size of the balloon. The large size makes net balloons impractical so that in stratosphere bal- loons, as in racing balloons, the gondola is hung from a catenary suspension band instead of from a net. The great size, however, prevents the use of an inflation net, as is customary in racing balloons. This is replaced by an upper catenary band controlled by yaw ropes during inflation. The great decrease in pressure also makes it impractical to fill the balloon completely at the ground level. The gas in the balloon would expand some- where between 22 to 28 times its volume in rising 75,000 feet instead of approximately twice as it would if the balloon were to rise to only 20,000 feet. It is customary to provide for a loss of approximately 14 of the gas volume at the maximum so that the balloon at the take-off is only approxi- mately 1/15 full. The technique of folding and inflating the balloon must therefore be such as to allow the balloon to fill out during the ascent without undue stresses occurring in the fabric. Two techniques have been used. In the open bottom technique the requisite amount of hydrogen is put in the bag and air allowed to enter as the yaw ropes are eased off, so that at the time of take-off the air inside the lower portion of the bag is in pressure equilibrium with the air outside. This facilitates a smooth arrangement of the bag but has the disadvantage of the constant menace of a hydrogen-air explosion. In the closed bottom technique no air is admitted, so that the whole lower portion of the balloon is collapsed and held tightly together under the excess pressure of the outside air. This makes it difficult to arrange the folds of the balloon smoothly, especially the lowest portion between the suspension ropes. To avoid this difficulty in the Explorer the lowest por- tion was folded inside the portion above the suspension band, making the inflation of the balloon much easier. Unfortunately this allowed the trans- mission of excessive local stresses from the outer fabric to the inner fabric through the shear resistance of adhesions. These stresses produced multiple radial tears in the lower portion of the balloon. In future flights, this diffi- culty can be avoided in several ways, the particular method to be used de- pending upon estimates of cost. The Explorer descended as an open bottom balloon. The explosion which destroyed the balloon at about 2500 feet from the ground emphasizes the danger inherent in the open bottom technique. With present ballooning technique it does not seem feasible to reach alti- tudes much above 90,000 or perhaps 100,000 feet. Rough estimates indicate that to carry the scientific apparatus and the gondola of the Explorer to a height of 100,000 feet would require a balloon of over 25,000,000 cubic feet and that over 7500 Ib. of ballast would need to be retained at its maximum altitude to bring the balloon down safely. To reach 150,000 feet the estimates give the fantastic figures of over 2,000,000,000 cubic feet, a balloon of over 1500 feet in diameter, carrying over 125,000 lb. of ballast. These estimates, based upon present balloon practice and our imperfect knowledge of the atmospheric conditions above 75,000 feet, can of course only indicate orders of magnitude. However, no feasible modifications in balloon technique seem to offer materially smaller figures. (Author’s abstract.) There was a joint discussion of these addresses participated in by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH and W. P. Wuitt. SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 421 1074TH MEETING The 1074th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 10, 1934, President Dryp&n presiding. Program: R. E. Gipson: Compressibility of aqueous solutions.—Measure- ments of the compressibility of aqueous solutions made at the Geophysical Laboratory were presented and these were correlated by means of the fol- lowing relation: the change in volume upon compression of an aqueous solution is equal to the sum of two volume changes: first, that of the pure solute under the externally applied pressure, and second, that of pure water initially under a so-called internal pressure when subjected to a further increase of pressure equal to the applied pressure on the solution. The internal pressure is proportional to the volume concentrations of the water and solute. (Secretary’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. HAawKESWORTH, MonuLER, WHITE, KRACEK, ADAMS, Heck, and BricKWEDDE. L. R. Maxwe.u: Electron diffraction and its application to the structure of molecules.—Recent advancements in the field of electron diffraction were presented. The experiments on the diffraction of electrons from thin metallic foils and diatomic gases were shown to be in agreement with the theories of electron scattering. This justifies the use of electron diffraction for the de- termination of the structure of complex molecules. Examples of this kind were given for NO, and N2O;. From a treatment of the molecule 1, 2 diiodo- benzene clear physical evidence was shown for the phenomenon of steric hindrance. The relation between the C-C distance and strength of bond was given and also the values of the C-C distances characterized by aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Brief summary of all structure determinations by electron diffraction was presented. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. Gipson and Briaes. Informal Communications: L. B. TuckERMAN.—Debye and Sears showed that standing high frequency acoustic waves in a transparent medium acted like a grating. Schaefer and Bergmann set up waves simultaneously in three different directions mutually at right angles, thus setting up a space lattice of concentrations of stress. Passing ordinary light waves through the medium either liquid or solid, produces a Laue pattern. Slides copied from the follow- ing published articles were shown: C. Schaefer u. L. Bergmann: Lauwe-Pro- gramme mit optischen Wellen.—Sitz. Ber. Preuss. Akad d. Wiss., X: 152- 153, March 22, 1934, and Neue Interferenzerscheinungen an schwingenden Prezoquarzen.—|. c., XIII-XIV, April 26, 1934. (Author’s abstract.) W. J. Humpureys and H. L. Drypen.—This dealt with the orientation of falling hexagonal, columnar crystals of ice in air, that is, with the question as to whether the crystals falling with the long axis of the column horizontal fall with the long diagonal of the hexagon horizontal or vertical. The solar halo called the Peary Are is produced by crystals oriented with the long diagonal of the hexagon horizontal. Wind tunnel tests on a wooden model showed that the most stable position for the model was that with the long diagonal in a direction corresponding with the vertical. (Secretary’s Abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. NcNisw and MaxweE tu. 1075TH MEETING The 1075th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 24, 1934, President DrypmEN presiding. The program consisted of three papers dealing with different phases of 422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 Finding the fact about strong earthquake motion with special relation to its effect on structures. N. H. Heck: Outlining the problem.—In designing buildings to resist earthquakes some assumptions have been made which should be tested in the light of present knowledge. The adoption of an acceleration of 0.2 or 0.1 g. as a true measure of a great earthquake was shown to be merely a guess that works for reasons not directly connected with the earthquake. The range of 0.5 to 2.5 sees, as that of dangerous periods of buildings, with the inference that other periods are not dangerous, was shown to be prob- ably due to the fact that this range covers the periods of most of the build- ings in Japan where the idea was suggested and the effect is simply reso- nance. Earthquakes have a very wide range of periods and it is not possible to design a building to escape a period which may set it into resonance. How- ever if the ground can be set into vibration in its own period then there will be prevailing periods in any earthquake which can and should be avoided. Observations of ground period at Géttingen, Germany, by means of a ma- chine which sends controlled vibrations through the ground showed that definite periods exist. The results were checked by observations of seismo- ° grams from earthquakes a few hundred miles away, by explosions and by study of microseisms. The investigations in California include strong motion measurements which have been made as the result of eight earthquakes in California and two in Nevada. In the case of one of the latter as well as in one in Panama the instrument was about 200 miles from the earthquake epicenter. The instruments are placed in the basements of buildings, in the top or else- where in buildings. Accelerographs and displacement meters are operated together. The result is a wide range of records obtained under varying con- ditions. The investigations also include measurement of vibration periods of build- ings, tanks, bridge piers and dams; the measurement of ground periods by controlled vibrations and by analysis of earthquake records, including strong motion; the study of earthquake damage in the Long Beach earth- quake of March 10, 1933; and the development and construction of instru- ments needed to accomplish these purposes. The program was developed at a series of conferences in California last spring which resulted not only in an effective and broad plan, much of which is now in operation, and also arrangements for application of the information to building design, a field into which the Coast and Geodetic Survey does not enter. The organizations represented include the organiza- tions of structural, civil and mechanical engineers, and several universities interested in the work. (Author’s abstract.) H. E. McComps: Development of instruments—Instruments which have been developed elsewhere for use in areas frequented by strong earthquakes were found to be unsuitable for the particular problems in hand. Hence, the program called for much preliminary testing of crude designs, prepara- tion of plans and specifications for completed instruments and equipment on a quantity basis and study of all other phases of the project which would involve continuous operation and maintenance of a large number of instru- ments at great distances from Washington. As a result of rather intensive application the Coast and Geodetic Survey had in operation on the Pacific Coast, thirty-three 3-component accelerographs, six displacement meters and eleven low-magnification mechanical seismographs. One accelerograph SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 423 is also in operation in the Canal Zone. In addition to the seismographic equipment three interferometric tiltmeters, for use in studying pre-seismic tilting effects of the ground, have been installed in the vicinity of well- known faults. Instruments and other accessories have been altered, in many cases, quite radically, when, after extensive tests, it has been proved that much would be gained in simplicity, convenience of adjustment and interchange- ability of parts without sacrificing accuracy or reliability. The most radical change was from quadrifilar accelerometer suspension to pivot and helical spring suspension. In addition to this improvement there has been designed a low-magnification attachment for the accelerometers which permits any single unit to record at normal magnification and also simultaneously at about 44 normal on the photographic recorder, the spots being in the same phase and free from parallax. Actual records obtained at Long Beach show that this reduced magnification should simplify interpretation of the main record and will insure full registration of the most severe earthquakes. Instruments, resembling in many respects, standard Wood-Anderson seismometers, have been constructed for use in studying building vibrations. Shaking tables for use in testing the vibration meters have been designed and are under construction. At Pasadena, Dr. Benioff of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington is cooperating in the program by constructing some electromagnetic seismographs for use in studying effects of after- shocks. He has also constructed a series of simple recording pendulums of different natural periods operating side by side. At Stanford University, Dr. Jacobsen has constructed a device for placing buildings or the ground into vibration for convenient study by vibration meters. About 40 slides were shown and several instruments of recent design were exhibited. (Awthor’s abstract.) Franck NEUMANN: Analyzing the records.—The engineer expects about five different classes of data as a result of the present seismological investi- gations now being undertaken by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey in California. They are: (1) Periods of earthquake waves, (2) Natural vibra- tion periods of geological formations in seismic areas, (3) Periods of buildings, (4) Motion of the ground during an earthquake in terms of acceleration and displacement, and (5) Motions of the upper floors of structures during an earthquake. Periods of earthquake waves are obtained by direct measurement on strong motion seismograms, as the pendulum of a seismograph is forced to swing in the period of the wave, but amplification on the record varies greatly, depending upon the ratio of the earth wave period to the pendulum period. The periods of geologic formations are observed by studying the dominant periods on seismographic records, or by forcing the ground to vibrate artificially with an agitator or unbalanced wheel. In the latter case the largest amplitudes are recorded on a sensitive seismograph when the period of the agitator tunes in with the natural period of the formation. Building periods are obtained by observing with a sensitive seismograph the natural swaying of a structure caused by wind or an agitator. The period of a building is dependent not only on the physical properties of the struc- ture itself, but also on a foundation factor or hinge effect. J. Creskoff has shown theoretically that the fundamental period and its ratio with the first overtone vary with the type of foundation. Period observations, there- fore, furnish directly information which is necessary in computing the period of a structure. The aim of the engineer is to design structures which 424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 9 will not tune in with the most prevalent earth wave periods during an earth- quake, or with the natural vibration periods of the geological formations on which they are built. Ground movements during an earthquake are measured with displace- ment meters and accelerometers. The problem of analyzing the records is greatly simplified by assuming sustained simple harmonic motion of the earthquake waves over small portions of the record, and by using a so-called harmonic magnification curve. The latter shows the ratio between the dis- placement of a seismograph pendulum (with respect to the moving ground) and the actual displacement of the ground itself. In a displacement meter the earth wave periods are relatively short with respect to the pendulum period so that the mass remains almost fixed in space while the ground moves beneath it. In the accelerometer the harmonic magnification terms become practically equal to the ratio of the square of the pendulum period over the earth wave period, and when this is substituted in the expression for simple harmonic acceleration, the earth wave periods are eliminated, showing that acceleration is independent of the earth wave period. Pendu- lum periods in an accelerometer must be less than one-third of the periods of the earth waves to be measured. Building movements are measured in the same manner as ground move- ments. Experience teaches that the top of a moderately tall building may sway through seven times the amplitude of the ground during an earth- quake. When simple harmonic motion cannot be assumed the records must be integrated to obtain true ground motion. Work has been done in double integrating acceleration curves to obtain displacement with some success, but the deflections of the acceleration trace are so small for the longer period earthquake waves that the task becomes extremely difficult. The accelero- gram is magnified about eight times by means of a lantern projector and the image traced with a pencil on coordinate paper. The average ordinate is tentatively accepted as the axis and the integration carried through. From the dimension of the bend in the resulting double integrated curve, the errors in the acceleration and velocity curves can be computed, and the work is then repeated so the final curve lies along a straight axis. The work of integration is done on standard adding machine. (Awthor’s abstract.) There was a joint discussion of the three papers participated in by Messrs. H. L. Curtis, McNisu, Heck, HumpHreys, DrypEN, BRICKWEDDE, and WENNER. 1076TH MEETING The 1076th meeting, constituting the 64th annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 8, 1934, President DrypDEN pre- siding. The treasurer reported receipts of $3669.47 including the payment of a real estate note amounting to $1500.00, and expenditures of $2333.40 in- cluding the purchase of a bond amounting to $1024.82, leaving a cash balance of $1336.07. The treasurer’s report showed an active membership of 299. The secretaries reported that the following new members were elected during the year: A. K. Brewer, C. F. Brown, P. Curzanowsk1, W. E. Demine, J. M. FRANKLAND, R. E. GespHarpi, L. C. GortscHatK, R. B. Hosss, H. H. Hows, E. A. Jounson, R. T. Mitner, M. M. Monx, J. A. Puiueee, P. A. SmitH, R. Winse, P. H. Wiviiamson, and O. R. Wutr. SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 425 The following deaths were reported: R. Y. Frrner, G. O. Squier, and G. F. STROHAVER. The following officers were declared elected for the year 1935: President, O. H. Gisu; Vice Presidents, N. H. Heck and F. Wenner; Recording Secre- tary, L. R. Harsrap; Treasurer, R. HE. Gipson; Members-at-large of the General Committee, F. G. Brickwrppk and H. E. McComs. During the year the fourth Joseph Henry Lecture, in memory of the first president of the Philosophical Society, was given by Professor OSwaLpD VEBLEN of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N. J. At the conclusion of the business part of the program, Mr. W. J. Hum- PHREYS presented a paper, illustrated by slides, entitled Tall tales of the prairie twister. Following the presentation of the paper there was a dis- cussion participated in by Messrs. DrypENn, Curtis, Heck, HAWKESWORTH, Wait, Maris, Rorser, Hazarp, SHEPHERD, SILSBER, TUCKERMAN, GISH, and four others unknown to the secretary. (Author’s abstract)—The tornado, a violent rotating wind starting at the cloud level and burrowing down to the earth, occurs more frequently in the United States, mainly in the Mississippi Valley, than in any other country. It appears to be caused by vertical convection at the boundary between oppositely-flowing masses of air, turns counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern, and leaves a sharply- defined path of destruction. It is exceedingly noisy, even when away from contact with the earth, and its power of destruction, owing partly to the velocity of the wind and partly to the decrease of pressure in the vortex, is astonishingly great. The dominant effects of the tornado are wreck and ruin, but also many surpris- ing things occur. Trees, houses, and bridges may be utterly demolished, and yet out from the welter of destruction delicate and easily breakable things may be carried miles away without harm. In one case a steel beam, one of the supports of a bridge, was torn from its setting and hurled an eighth of a mile where, end on, it struck a tree and penetrated clear through it, 20 feet above the ground. Amazing weights are lifted, concrete posts pulled out of the ground, and even locomotives and heavy steel coaches thrown from their tracks. Planks are stuck into the ground like fence posts, driven through trees and even, in one case, through the thick steel web-plate of a bridge. And sometimes there seems to be a bit of grim humor in what the tornado does. It sticks straws end on into trees and leaves us the puzzle of explaining how; pulls the wool from a sheep’s back with never a break in his skin; makes boastful roosters silent members of the flock, with every feather gone; and a man, woman or child it may leave unscathed on a neighbor’s lawn with never so much of the conventional dress as even a chemise or shirt. Unfortunately the great majority of the tales of the tornado, the smallest but most violent of all storms, are tales of tragedy; yet some are humorous, even ludicrous, while many are indeed tall, in the sense of surprising. F. G. BrickwEpDE, Recording Secretary 426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Novres Biological Survey’s Golden Jubilee.-—Fifty years ago, in 1885, a modest appropriation of $5,000 by Congress for the promotion of ‘‘economie or- nithology,’’ marked the first beginnings of the activities that have come to be centered in the Biological Survey of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Upon the recommendation of the American Ornithologists’ Union, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, physician and naturalist, was appointed head of the new project, with which he served until his retirement in 1931. The project was first established as a branch of the Division of Entomology. The year fol- lowing, with a doubled appropriation, it achieved independent status as the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy. In 1896, the name was changed to Division of Biological Survey, and in its twentieth anni- versary year, 1905, it received its present title of Bureau of Biological Survey. Secretary Henry A. WaLuAce and Jay N. Daruina, chief of the Bureau, were among the speakers at the thirteenth annual convention of the Izaak Walton League of America in Chicago last spring. A number of members of the Survey also participated. Amos B. Emery has been designated to coordinate and direct the work of some 25 CCC camps on refuges administered by the Survey. By Act of Congress, approved by the President on June 15, any person is authorized to purchase migratory bird hunting stamps. A waterfowl hunter must have in possession a stamp that has been validated by writing his signature across its face. The same Act carried an appropriation of $6,000,000 to be used for the acquisition of lands for refuge purposes. Funds from the Emergency Act of April 8, 1935, may also be allocated by the President for refuge-acquisition purposes. Food and Drug Administration—Two Doctors NEtson have been ap- pointed as chiefs of new divisions of the Food and Drug Administration, Dr. E. M. Newson as chief of the Vitamin Division and Dr. Erwin E. Newtson as chief of the Pharmacological Division. The Department of Agriculture announced that each is now assembling a staff taken in part from older units of the Department and in part recruited from specialists in the sciences involved in the work of the new divisions. The Vitamin Division will check the claims and help establish standards for food and drugs for which claims of vitamin potency are made. The Food and Drug Administration has been doing some routine work of this sort, but it has been inadequate to meet the growing need. The Pharmacological Division in addition to more comprehensive testing of certain medicinal products, will pay particular attention to several relatively new fields of work—the testing and standardization of glandular preparations put on the market in recent years, investigations of the effect of poisons and impurities present in foods, and testing of the effects of new synthetic chemicals used in foods and medicines. Of the poisons and impurities, the question of spray residues on fruits and vegetablesis now most pressing. In regulating interstate com- merce in sprayed products the department is urgently in need of more posi- tive and authoritative guides to safe practice. National Park Service.—Chief Naturalist Earn A. TRAGER during August SEPTEMBER 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 427 made a geological inspection tour of the states north of the District of Columbia. Included in his itinerary were visits to several of the state parks in Pennsylvania and New York, the Acadia National Park in Maine, and a tour of the section which would be traversed by the proposed Green Mountain Parkway. Vincent W. VANDIVER of Missouri has received appointment as regional geologist for the National Park Service. His headquarters will be Washing- ton, D. C., and he will probably be assigned to the region including the states of Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. Before coming to the Park Service he was a member of the Missouri Geological Survey. Sumner M. ANpERSON of New York and Dr. Roy A. Witson of Okla- homa have also been assigned to work in connection with the Service’s geological program. Mr. ANDERSON has made extensive geological studies in South America, and the middle section of the United States. Dr. W1Lson has served as professor of geology at the University of Oklahoma. It is planned to assign him to the Rocky Mountain region. National Bureau of Standards—Dr. Morton G. Luoyp attended sessions of the International Electrotechnical Commission at the Hague and Brussels June 18 to 27, and sessions of the International Commission on Illumination at Berlin and Karlsruhe July 1 to 10. He also attended the National Electri- cal Convention of Great Britain held at Bournemouth early in June. Dr. F. C. Breckenripe® attended the sessions of the International Commission on Illumination at Berlin and Karlsruhe July 2 to 10 and is spending some time in Europe inspecting facilities for air transport, par- ticularly lighting and light signals. Mr. BrecKENRIDGE is in charge of a group of men engaged on study of such problems on behalf of the Bureau of Air Commerce and the Navy Department, and the primary purpose of his trip is to obtain information of value to those organizations. Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, director of the National Bureau of Standards, presided at a meeting in Akron, Ohio, on July 24 of a special board of in- quiry called for the purpose of ascertaining the cause of failure of the strato- sphere balloon Explorer II. The board is composed of representatives of the National Geographic Society, Army Air Corps, and members of various scientific societies and the National Bureau of Standards. Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—Dr. EK. H. BraMuat., physicist of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, has been appointed professor of physics at the University of Alaska to succeed Prof. VeryL R. FuLLER, who died suddenly on May 30. Since June 10, Dr. BRAMHALL has been engaged at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in making the final comparisons with standards and in deter- mining constants and corrections for the instrumental outfit used during the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II, and in the development of the technique for the ionospheric program at College, Alaska, which he will continue when he takes up his duties there. Dr. J. BarTEts, professor of physics at the Forstliche Hochschule, Ebers- wald, Germany, and lecturer in geophysics at the University of Berlin, and Dr. 8. CuHarman, chief professor of mathematics at the Imperial Col- lege of Science and Technology, London, England, both research associates of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, are spending the summer in America, chiefly at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, engaged on research problems in geophysics. 428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 9 News Briers By executive order of the President, the Science Advisory Board has been continued until December 1, 1935. A device for the rapid sectioning of hair, wool and other fibers, to facili- tate microscopic examination, has been invented by Dr. J. I. Harpy of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. In addition to its primary usefulness in fiber technology, it may find employment in the Federal Bureau of Investigation, U. 8. Department of Justice. The Smithsonian Institution has published a description of the Badianus Manuscript (Vatican Library), which is the earliest known American Her- bal. It was written in Mexico City in 1552, in Aztec, by an Aztec Indian student at the College of Vera Cruz, and was translated into Latin by an- other Aztec Indian. Obituary Marion Dorset, chief of the Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal In- dustry, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, died at his home in Washington, D.C., July 14, 1935, after a brief illness. He was born December 14, 1872, in Columbia, Tennessee. After graduating from the University of Tennessee in 1893, with the degree of Bachelor of Science, he attended the University of Pennsylvania for a year. Dr. Dorset then entered the U. 8. Department of Agriculture as assistant chemist. While there he continued his scientific education at George Washington University, receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1896. Eight years later he became chief of the Biochemic Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, a position he held until his death. The honorary degree, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine was awarded in 1915 by Iowa State College. Although known especially for his research studies of hog cholera and his discovery of an effective preventive serum treatment for this devastating scourge, Doctor Dorset made many other important scientific contributions covering a wide field. They included research studies on the tubercle bacil- lus, keeping qualities of meats, composition and nutritive value of various meats and meat food products, the development and testing of disinfectants and dipping preparations, biological products used against animal diseases, research in dairy bacteriology, and extensive related work. Dr. Dorset organized the Federal inspection of establishments licensed to manufacture serums, viruses, toxins, and related veterinary biological products. He like- wise formulated the laboratory procedures in the administration of the Federal Meat Inspection Act. As its first chairman Dr. Dorset organized the Insecticide and Fungicide Board and in collaboration with the other members initiated enforcement of the Insecticide Act of 1910. In addition to the Washington Academy of Sciences he was a member of the American Chemical Society, the Society of American Bacteriologists, the American Public Health Association, a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and an honorary member of the American Veteri- nary Medical Association. ah th ee er a, ae " 5 - a = ak ‘4 sty CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Gropuysics.—Testing a theory of the earth’s interior. REGINALD - Ae DALY cs Ghe recone ten Cee areas ait vette CueEmistry.—The development of thermochemistry. FREDERICK D. FROSSINE. 136205574 ke wt bese eee ee se Te PALEONTOLOGY.—Descriptions of Paleozoic fossils from the Centr Basin of Tennessee. R.S. Bassbur................ a Hypro.tocy.—Indian Hot Springs, Graham County, Arizona. M. M. KwHCuTebi adr oe ea gte Moan Sea Ee ree Borany.—Two new grasses from the United States and Mexico. Bie Be SON, Ri. SwWacuRMe bet poe ate thea ets. nate eae v tee eae val ZooLtocy.—A restudy of Filariopsis arator Chandler, 1931, with a dis- cussion of the systematic position of the genus Filariopsis van Thiel, 1926." “Evmnmrrdt, WHER. ?s) 7: cleo oe PROCEEDINGS PHILOSOPHICAL ‘SOCIETY. «2,0... Fs: Se deters. ef stoi Screntiric Norges anp NEws...... hte ie aes Pe aoe OBITUARY: MARION DORSET.» (oe sees | ee eer cee OX ates This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 7 v 5 a iy r $ ic tare oe : * ; LM See) . ~ Sen AM : . i he oe i p wa - - r ioe _ ] y a“ A Ocroper 15, 1935 No. 10 ; JOURNA OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY = OF SCIENCES : BOARD OF EDITORS ¥ rs ys hey mA. SrrvENson F. G. BricxkweppEr Rotanp W. Brown oe CEMA OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS ne Ee 4 U. 8, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY > ASSOCIATE EDITORS _H. T. Wenset i Harotp Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Pes” ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. Gotpman W. W. Ruszy BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY : AaNes CHASE ; J. R, Swanton = BOTANICAL SOCIETY ’ ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY ay - 3 be. R. E. Grsson : : CHEMICAL SOCIETY 4 PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE ‘y _ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES : m 450 Aunar Sr; a aT Mpnaswa, WISCONSIN 3 : _ Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. sasirnianee for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. fe 1 Authorized January 21, 1933 * ole a ¥ Z ; y ee ens : 0 ae rey ah isi fn eA “ . 2 ons = + Sa - ; 4 ry ‘ia ¥ a i 4 § Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences : This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: Z q (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; g ‘ proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3 notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNAL is issu q monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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POWER SUPPLY Fig. 4.— Wiring diagram of power supply. sending the signal has proved very simple and absolutely reliable. With no moving contacts in the indicator, construction and per- formance are simplified and less energy is necessary to drive the mov- ing parts. — sd 474 Photo cell JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 5] DC Voltages while re- > ceiving echo of about © 10 fothoms 7 33 3'c 7 23 460 V Keying Chr i Fil Fig. 5—Wiring diagram of amplifier. nov-ac Nov. 15, 1935 DORSEY: DORSEY FATHOMETER 475 While it is easier to send on one instrument and receive on an- other, it was decided to use only one transceiver, so that the scale of the indicator would be uniform throughout; consequently, no mat- ter how shallow a depth is measured, there is no correction due to the longer path required for the sound waves when two separate instru- ments are used for sending and receiving. Although the difficulties were great at the beginning, the increased effort to use the single transceiver made it worth while to spend the extra time in the de- velopment. Figure 4 shows the power supply circuit. AMPLIFIER The amplifier consists of a pair of push-pull triple grid tubes as a preamplifier, after which a superheterodyne circuit is used to amplify on an intermediate frequency of 175 kilocycles, after which the signal is rectified and actuates a pair of thyratrons in series through the anode-cathode circuit of which a condenser is discharged, as was de- scribed in the keying circuit. The discharge of this condenser through a transformer generates a voltage of about 700, which produces a flash in the circular neon tube back of the rotating disk. The whole apparatus is so sensitive to changes in depth that the indicator regis- ters the differences in depth when a small surveying ship rises and falls on a light swell. Figure 5 shows the amplifier circuit. The instrument has been used during the last field season for two months on the surveying ship Lydonia and about a month on the Hydrographer. The ranges of depth measured were from 5 feet to 120 feet. On the Lydonia comparisons were made every day for several weeks between the fathometer indications and the lead line to deter- mine if there were any variations between the two methods. It ap- pears that the fathometer indications are more reliable than the lead line, even when the latter is handled by a skilled leadsman of many years’ experience. With the ship stopped, the lead line and fathometer indications agree to within a few inches, or as close as can be read, but with the ship under way, there is always a slight difference, the lead line indicating the greater depth by an amount of about one foot. On the Hydrographer, the cross sounding lines of the survey show agreement of depth to a few inches with the fathometer, while with hand leading soundings an agreement to within a foot is gener- ally considered satisfactory work. During the coming season it is expected to use the fathometers on these two ships again and in addition make an installation on the 476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Tender Gilbert and one on a 75-foot launch to determine its operation on small craft. In this work the writer desires to express his thanks to his assist- ants, Charles G. Mcllwraith, R. B. Wright and Thomas B. Hickley for their numerous valuable suggestions in the development and un- tiring efforts in the laboratory and at sea; to wireless operators Wil- liam Smith and G. D. Nedley for their help in maintenance on the Lydoma and Hydrographer; to Captain Gilbert T. Rude, Chief of the Division of Hydrography and Topography for his continued keen interest and encouragement and to Captain R. 8. Patton, Director of the Bureau for his faith in the ultimate outcome of the develop- ment and for the honor conferred in naming the instrument the Dorsey Fathometer. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—Alternating axes and symmetry symbols in crystallography.t.| J. D. H. Donnay, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by G. TUNELL.) It is well known that all thirty-two crystal classes cannot be de- rived if the only symmetry elements used are the plane of symmetry, the center of symmetry, and the rotation axis of symmetry (or axis of symmetry of the Ist kind). Only thirty-one classes are obtained in that manner, the missing one being the tetragonal disphenoidal (or sphenoidal tetartohedral) class of the tetragonal system. Bravais has often been criticized for omitting this possible crystal class in his celebrated Etudes cristallographiques; as a matter of fact, he did recognize the possibility of alternating symmetry as he explicitly states that this concept will be deliberately left out of his treatment. From the practical standpoint, the fact that no substance was known at the time to belong to the tetragonal disphenoidal class might have justified Bravais’ attitude. On theoretical grounds, however, alternat- ing symmetry must be introduced for the sake of completeness. Another reason for using this type of symmetry has been given by Austin F. Rogers? who redefined symmetry operations as ‘““movements by means of which each and every face of the general form of a crystal may be derived directly from an arbitrarily selected face.” The trend of his argument is as follows: (1) the symmetry operations of a general crystal form {hkl} have been proved to form a group; (2) the number n of symmetry operations in the group (or the order n of the point-group) is equal to the number of faces of the general 1 Received November 23, 1934. 2 Austin F. Rocrers. Nov. 15, 19385 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 477 form {hkl}; (3) by the very definition of a group, the product of any two symmetry operations is also a symmetry operation; hence, (4) in order to emphasize this individuality of each symmetry operation, usually concealed under the symbolic product of two generating operations or powers thereof, every symmetry operation should be represented by a distinct symbol (in each one of the thirty-two point-groups). Now, in this scheme, elements of alternating symmetry cannot be dispensed with. Rogers’ method gives a truer picture of symmetry relations than that which is based on the use of generating operations, their powers and products. Mathematically, it may not be of any moment to stress the fact that a product of two operations is also an operation by coining a special word to designate the new symmetry operation; such an idealized composite operation (rotatory-reflection or rotatory-inversion) may be considered a very artificial entity being as it is almost always reducible*® to a product of two simpler opera- tions. Physically, however, the concept introduced by A. F. Rogers has unquestionable significance. A form is defined as the assemblage of all similar (or equivalent) faces; hence, in the general form, any face should be derivable from any other face by means of one sym- metry operation only and not in successive steps, inasmuch as, from the physical point of view, there is no justification for privileged symmetry operations (generating operations). Rogers’ original application of group theoretical notions to crystal classes throws unexpected light on the nature of crystal symmetry. Not only does it bring out the fact that the polyhedron crystal is carried to self-coincidence by a symmetry operation, it also em- phasizes the equivalence of the faces (edges and corners, as well) of the general form. The symmetry concept is thereby renovated and enriched. For the two reasons given in this introduction, the necessity of using alternating symmetry appears undisputable. TWO DEFINITIONS OF ALTERNATING SYMMETRY Crystallographers have defined the operation of alternating sym- metry in two different ways: (1) as a rotation followed by a re- flection in a plane perpendicular to the axis; or (2) as a rotation accompanied by an inversion through a point lying on the axis. These two composite operations may be termed respectively rotatory- 3 Let us recall here the exception of the tetragonal disphenoidal class where the alternating axis is irreducible. 478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 reflection and rotatory-inversion or, more concisely, rotoflection and rotoversion, after Rogers’ proposal. Before going further, the system of notation of symmetry opera- tions and symmetry elements to be used in the discussion must be explained. The symbols are taken from Rogers.‘ Plane of symmetry: P. Center of symmetry: C. Rotation axis: A,; rotoversion axis: C\,; rotoflection axis: 2,; where the period p indicates the value of the angle 360°/p through which the crystal is rotated about the axis (the possible values of p are 2, 3, 4, and 6). It should be remarked, however, that a 2-fold rotoversion axis is the equivalent of a plane of symmetry for which the symbol P seems more logical and, similarly, that a 2-fold roto- flection axis is equivalent to the center of symmetry which should preferably be designated by C. As for symmetry operations, small italics are used: p (reflection), c (inversion), a (rotation), ap (rotoflection), and ca (rotoversion). In the last three symbols, a subscript gives (in degrees) the total rotation performed. The identical operation is represented either by 1 or by the power zero of any operation. There has been no general agreement as to what operation of alternating symmetry should be used in preference to the other. Some authors have adopted rotoflection, others have employed roto- version. A. F. Rogers uses both; he departs from Hilton in advocating the use of the rotoflection axis ®,; in the rhombohedral and hexagonal scalenohedral classes of the trigonal subsystem instead of the roto- version axis C\;; he represents the symmetry of the trigonal di- pyramidal class by (4, in contradistinction with Jaeger who uses the rotoflection axis 23. Interest in that much debated question is now being revived by the recent adoption, at Ziirich, of a system of international symmetry symbols’ which is based on the use of one type of alternating axes only, the rotoversion axes. The purpose of the present paper is to show: (1) that the symbols #; and C\; on the one hand, Ci, and 2; - on the other hand, are strictly equivalent and can be used inter- changeably just in the same manner as #, and (Ay; consequently, (2) that the reasons for adopting rotoversion axes rather than roto- flection axes are more formal than fundamental, being simply a matter of convenience and harmony in classification schemes. 4 Similar symbols for the 3-fold alternating axes had to be added, since Rogers only recognizes alternating axes with an even period (4 or 6). § Maucuin. Sur le symbolisme des groupes de répétition...ete. Z. f. Kr., 76: 542-58. 1931. Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 479 Alternating axes of crystal symmetry only need be considered here. A complete discussion including non-crystallographic alternating axes has been published by F. Becke.® EQUIVALENCE OF ALTERNATING AXES Rogers attempts to rule out the 3-fold alternating axes on the principle that the period p of an alternating axis ®, or (A, should always be even. In the discussion of the trigonal dipyramidal class, for instance, he says: ‘‘Since there are six distinct operations involved, the axis is clearly 6-fold and not 3-fold. Three powers of api2° do not form a group; the six powers of cdso° are required. CA, and not 2; must be used to indicate the symmetry in this class.” It is essential to recognize that the period of an alternating axis does not necessarily indicate the order of the group of symmetry operations represented by that axis. The two are different: (1) The order n of a point-group indicates the number of operations contained in the group or the number of faces in the general form. (2) The period p of any axis, whether the axis be of the first sort (rotation axis) or of the second sort (alternating axis), refers to the amplitude 360°/p of the rotation performed. The group #3, for instance, is of order 6 although the rotation amounts to 360°/3 in the rotoflection and the period of the axis is consequently 3. When the period of an alternating axis is an even number, such as in the symbols #, (or (Ay), ®e, and CAs, then the period of the axis is equal to the order of the group represented by the alternating axis. Whether it may not be advantageous to have the order of the group indicated by the period of the axis (when the axis constitutes all the symmetry present) is another question but that this condition should always be fulfilled is by no means required. This point should be kept in mind throughout the following sections. EQUIVALENCE OF THE 6-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AXIS AND THE 3-FOLD ROTOVERSION AXIS In the rhombohedral class of the trigonal subsystem, Rogers writes the symmetry operations of the point-group as follows: Pe=1, Apso’, Aia?, C, A240°, AD300°- Using the same symbols, we may write: CAs =1, @pso0°, A240°, C, A120°, Apeo°. 6 FRIEDRICH BEcKE. Inversionsachse und Spiegelachse. N. Jahrb. f. Min., B. B., 57A: 173-202. 1927. In the preparation of this article, I had overlooked Becke’s im- portant paper, which was brought to my attention by Dr. A. F. Roarrs. 480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 SUC Coho General General General General General General the the the the the the point-group point-group point-group point-group point-group point-group Ps CAs CAs BP; LP, CA, (counter-clockwise (counter-clockwise (counter-clockwise (counter-clockwise (counter-clockwise (counter-clockwise rotations) rotations) rotations) rotations) rotations) rotations) — Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 481 This will become apparent from inspection of the stereographic pro- jection’ of the general form obtained in each case (Figs. 1 and 2). The rotations are taken counter-clockwise. The six equivalent faces are numbered from 0 to 5, thus indicating the power of the generating operation which is ape in the case of Ps and Cdaia° in the case of G;. The equivalence of the operations in both cases may be shown as follows. Let x represent the 120° rotoversion cai.°. The powers of that operation will be: cole ® =CAi20° =Ap30°, 1 = Cie. i 120°, XL =CAz10° = APoo°. The two groups 4, and (CA; are thus identical since both contain the same operations. The only difference lies in the sequence of the symmetry operations, but it is well known that the elements of a group may be listed in any order (or rearranged). Another way of illustrating the identity of the two groups is to remark that the six equivalent faces of Fig. 1 can be derived by means of a CA; and those of Fig. 2 by means of an 2, provided simply that the convention of signs be reversed (clockwise instead of counter- clockwise rotations). EQUIVALENCE OF THE 6-FOLD ROTOVERSION AXIS AND THE 3-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AXIS For the trigonal dipyramidal class of the hexagonal system, the identity of the two groups C\, and 2; can be proved in like manner. The Ist power of apia° is equal to the 5th power of cag°; the 2nd of Qp120° to the 4th of cag’, ete. The six operations may be written indifferently: Cg =1, CA0°, Ai20°, DP, Azan®, CA300°, or Bs 3 =1, CA300°, A240°, Py A120°, CA60°. The general form is shown in stereographic projection (Figs. 3 and 4). 7 The face-poles are projected on the equatorial plane; the projecting point is the South pole for all faces. 482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. I1 The same remark holds true with regard to the order in which the six faces are derived and the convention of sign for the rotations. EQUIVALENCE OF THE 4-FOLD ROTOFLECTION AND ROTOVERSION AXES For the sake of completeness and in order to stress the perfect analogy of the three cases, the identity of , and (A, (tetragonal disphenoidal class of the tetragonal system) is also shown here by means of the usual projections (Figs. 5 and 6). The two groups may be written: BP, =1, Apos?, A130°, AP 27°; and CAs =1, ape7°, A130°, Apo’. Here again, the second group contains the rearranged elements of the first group. The equivalence of the 4-fold alternating axes was brought out by A. F. Rogers in his article. It has been shown that an alternating axis of period 3 can be used to represent a point-group of order 6. This result leaves intact the method proposed by Rogers for the derivation of faces in the general form. Whether rotoflection alone or rotoversion alone be used, it is possible to derive each and every face of the general form {hkl} directly from any arbitrarily selected face. The symmetry operations of the rhombohedral class (trigonal sub- system), the tetragonal disphenoidal class (tetragonal system), and the trigonal dipyramidal class (hexagonal system) may be listed in either one of the two following ways: CA3 =1, CA120°, A240, C, Ai29°, CA24)°, CA, =1, Cdg0°, Ai30°, C4279°, (I) CAg =1, CA60°, A125°, Dy A240°, CA330°} or By =1, apes’, A123°, C, A240°, AP 300°, B 4=1, Apo’, Aiss?, AP 270°, (IT) P3=1, Api20°, A240°, Dy A120°, AP 24° The equivalence of the new symbols with those employed by A. F. Rogers is given below: CQj29° =AP 300°, CAo4)° =Apsr, CAg0° =APe270°, CA20° =ADps-°, APi20° =CA30°, APosn? =CAg. Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 483 CHOICE OF THE ALTERNATING AXES There are two main possibilities: (1) Discard the 3-fold alternating axes and use #, (or (Ay), 2s, and CAs. This is the course followed by Rogers. (2) Use one kind of alternating axes only, either rotoflection axes (25, P41, ®3) or rotoversion axes (CA3, CAy, CAs). The exclusive use of rotoversion axes was the solution adopted by international agreement at the Ziirich meeting. The merits of the alternating axes of even period will be discussed first. The advantage of this solution can be seen by glancing over the list of the symmetry symbols given by Rogers for the 32 crystal classes*: the order of the point-group (hence, the number of faces in the general form) can be read directly from the symmetry symbol or can be deduced from it by a simple count: (a) When there is only one element of symmetry present, its order is the order of the group. It is equal to 2 in the case of a plane of symmetry (P), a center (C), or a 2-fold axis of symmetry (A;). In general, the subscript of the axis symbol gives its order (Ae, Az, As, 4, Be, CAg). (b) When there are several symmetry elements, the order of the group is given by 1 (identical operation) plus the order of each element each decreased by one. Example: 3A,.4A3.6Aa, order =1+3X3+2X4+4+1X6 =24. Symmetry elements placed between parentheses in Rogers’ symbols must be ignored in the count since they are implicitly included in the other symmetry elements listed. (c) When two (or more) symmetry elements have operations in common, brackets are used. The total obtained by the above rule should be decreased accordingly. Minus one for one element between brackets. Example: A,[®,].P.C, order =1+3X2+1x2-—1=8. Minus four for two elements between brackets. Example: Ag[ Po] [CAs] (P) .(C), order =1+5 X3 —4=12. (d) In two isometric classes (diploidal and hexoctahedral) where 4 ®, are found, it should also be realized that the center is included 8 Op. cit., p. 200. a 484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 in each one of these, so that the order found must be corrected accord- ingly (minus 3). Example: 4 ®,.3A,.3P.(C), order =1+5 K4+3+3 —3 =24. The value of using one kind of alternating axes is of course sim- plicity ; it is better to resort to one type of alternating symmetry than to two. There is no particular advantage in choosing rotoflection only. The selection of rotoversion axes, on the contrary, lends itself to a better division of the 32 classes into systems. This fact, which had been pointed out by Hilton,’ probably accounts for the adoption of roto- version axes by the Ziirich convention. Let us observe that the rhombohedral and hexagonal scalenohedral classes, both of which belong to the trigonal subsystem, have a CA; in their respective symmetry symbols. Similarly, the trigonal di- pyramidal and ditrigonal dipyramidal classes of the hexagonal system include the symmetry element Cis. A further advantage is seen in the isometric system where all five classes now have four 3-fold axes (either rotation axes or rotoversion axes) parallel to the cube di- agonals. It will be realized that the reasons for selecting rotoversion axes are of no fundamental importance, the object being merely to attain a set of convenient symbols fitting in the frame of the traditional classification into systems. It must be added that this aim, modest as it was, has been fully reached. THE INTERNATIONAL SYMMETRY SYMBOLS The international system of symmetry notation agreed upon at the Ziirich meeting, August 28-31, 1930, is due to the collaboration of C. Hermann, Ch. Mauguin, J. D. Bernal, P. P. Ewald, and others. It may be said to be epoch making in that, through its compre- hensiveness, it bridges the gap which so far has divided geometrical and structural crystallographers. It remarkably brings out the re- lationships between the various groups of symmetry operations in the 3-dimensional space: the 32 point-groups or groups without any translation (one point remaining fixed), the 75 chain-groups or groups with one independent translation only, the 80 net-groups or groups ° Haroxtp Hitton. Note on the thirty-two classes of symmetry. Min. Mag., 14: 261-3. 1906. Nov. 15, 19385 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 485 with two translations, and the 230 space-groups or groups with three translations. The 230 space-groups and the 32 point-groups obviously are the most important from the practical viewpoint. The new symbols recognize the fact that each one of the 230 space-groups is iso- morphous with one of the 32 point-groups: slight modification of a space-group symbol immediately leads to the symbol of the iso- morphous point-group. It appears that, from now on, the Ziirich symbols will be used both in geometrical and in structural crystallography. It seems advisable TABLE 1.—PRINCIPLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMMETRY SYMBOLS Elements of Symmetry: Symbols: FROUATTONEAKES ett de ye ca iey eae ae eo Seo ertetp steed eee aera aeneus il, &, 4h @: Remark: Any straight line may be considered a 1-fold rota- tion axis. Class 1 is the pedial class. Rotoversion axes: Wathgankod dapenod ppc) feces ck oiciaie secre cueiisrars aye i, Remark: These always contain the center of symmetry; the axis is at the same time a rotation and a rotoversion axis of the same period. Class I is the pinakoidal class. With an even period: DEVO! Oi! CONG? Oi HANIMNCWAY. osoccacooccguscvgcened DAG Remarks: (a) a 2n-fold rotoversion axis is at the same time a n-fold rotation axis. (b) 2is a plane of symmetry m......... 2=m. (@) Zing sR. 60 ococccoccopeacnue 4. (d) 6 includes a 3-fold rotation axis and a plane of symmetry perpendicular toit........ 6=3/m. Wentro-=s ym trichieere cies) meee comic sone cle neers eros neuen cers 2/m, 4/m, 6/m. Remark: These axes are at the same time rotation and rotoversion axes of the same period; they always include a plane of symmetry normal to the axis. to introduce their use in elementary courses in crystallography. The present discussion of alternating axes may serve as an introduction to the study of the new symbols the simplicity of which is mostly due to the use of the sole rotoversion axes. A brief summary of the notation will be given here insofar as it deals with the 32 crystal classes (see Table I). The new symmetry symbols are listed in Table II. Other symbols are also given for com- parison: Schoenflies, A. F. Rogers, together with the nomenclatures of Groth and Dana. In the complete form of the Mauguin point-group symbols, there are as many terms as there are kinds of symmetry axes in the group. In an orthorhombic symmetry symbol, the three terms refer to the a-axis, the b-axis, and the c-axis respectively (right-handed system 486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Terpeyezooxe [BWION | (9) 'd6 "V9 °F TavelVve | & Mw |e W/F \w/Z gE U/p Teprorr) Teqpoyorse °v9 “Vb VE i a aS A [erpeye.sje}xe Fy [erpeyRaye f, d9 *VP."#HE OTS Se es a Nr? 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I (Payrpow) Seat ae ty pe1isjorg |pespuqy aje[du10p ([euoyeuseyuy) uMINneA STOUWAG AYLAWWAG dOOUr)-LNIOd 4O SNALSAG SQOIUVA AO NOSIUVdNOI))—'Z ATAV I, rb d1IjoWOS] WO jeuosexo yy ie) [euosILy, vO | [euose1490,7, A | erquioys AG) -O4}1O qO >) | orurpoouoyy cue) us 6) orurporay, sory -uedyog sulayshg Nov. 15, 1935 DONNAY: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS 487 used by crystallographers). In the dimetric systems (trigonal, tetra- gonal, hexagonal), the first term refers to the vertical axis (c-axis), the last (one or two) to the horizontal axes of two-fold symmetry. In the isometric system, the first term refers to the axes parallel to the edges of the cube; the second term, to the axes parallel to the body-diagonals of the cube; the third term, to the axes parallel to the face-diagonals of the cube. All isometric point-group symbols have the figure 3 as their second term. Abridged symbols are obtained by omitting the third term in all cases and writing m instead of 2/m for the second term of the symbol in the case of a centro-symmetric point-group. The preferred symbols retain all symmetry planes in view of general- izations to be made in the space-group symmetry symbols (see Mauguin, loc. cit.). It will be noticed that the Greek letter u of the former Hermann’s symbols is now replaced by m, the initial of mirror, to designate the plane of symmetry. The new international notation aims at representing the groups by short, self-explanatory symbols listing a minimum of symmetry elements, sufficient to characterize all the symmetry present. THE STATUS OF THE CENTER OF SYMMETRY In connection with the preceding discussion of alternating axes, it is thought appropriate to consider briefly the so-called validity of the center as a true element of symmetry. First of all, it should be realized that there is no point of funda- mental importance to be settled in this ‘‘problem”’ and that all dis- cussions on the subject, due to the very nature of the case, are apt to be vain and sterile. The following remarks can be made. There is no more reason to discard the center of symmetry and replace it by a 2-fold rotoflection axis than there is to abolish the plane of symmetry and substitute a 2-fold rotoversion axis for it. In the first instance, the bare fact is this: in a centro-symmetric crystal, to any face arbitrarily selected at one end of the crystal, there corresponds a parallel face, similar (equivalent) to the first, at the opposite end of the crystal. It is possible to derive the second face from the first by means of a symmetry operation. Whether this operation should be characterized as an inversion through the center or a 180° rotoflection about a rotoflection axis (which cannot be defined in direction) is only a question of words; the fundamental observation will not be changed by either interpretation. 488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Likewise, in the case of a plane of symmetry, the fact is that to every face on one side of a plane there corresponds a similar face, the mirror-image of the first, on the other side of the plane. Why should one consider the operation involved as a 180° rotoversion about a rotoversion axis (normal to the plane of symmetry) when this new picture has no advantage over the age-old and simple concept of the “‘reflection’’? The only essential point to be stressed is the existence of a symmetry operation by means of which a face and its mirror- image can be derived from each other. It must be admitted that there is no need to introduce a composite operation when there is already a simple operation providing for direct derivation. The status of the center of symmetry and that of the plane of symmetry are thus intimately linked. The use of the composite operation in either case masks the facts more than it brings them out. Both center and plane of symmetry should therefore be retained. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my former professor Dr. Austin F. Rogers of Stanford University for a critical reading of this manuscript and for his continued interest in my work. Valuable suggestions were also obtained from Dr. George Tunell of the Geophysical Labora- tory, which are gratefully acknowledged. BOTANY.—The genus Chionopappus of Bentham (Asteraceae).} S. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1873 George Bentham described the new genus Chionopappus of the tribe ‘“‘Mutisiaceae,’”’ subtribe Onoserideae, in the family Com- positae. It was based on a single species, to which no name was assigned, which was said to be a native of northern Peru. Nothing has been added to our knowledge of the genus, and after the lapse of more than sixty years it remains a “genus without a species.” Baillon (1882) placed it in the Mutisieae, and Hoffmann (1893) in the Mutisieae-Gochnatinae, both accounts being based entirely on Bentham’s original description. Bentham remarked that the genus was remarkable in its tribe for its opposite leaves and paleaceous receptacle, and abnormal in its ligulate not bilabiate ray corollas, but that in its style and its rays, 4-merous according to their vena- tion, it agreed with no other tribe. 1 Received July 18, 1935. 7. Nov. 15, 1935 BLAKE: CHIONOPAPPUS 489 During the last twenty years there have come to hand from the Department of Lima, Peru, several collections of a Liabum-like Com- posite agreeing closely with Bentham’s description in all major fea- tures—foliage, heads, involucre, paleaceous as well as pilose recep- ’ tacle, corollas, and pappus—but differing in at least two points of structure that are of great importance in the classification of Com- positae. Bentham described the style of the hermaphrodite flowers as undivided or barely emarginately 2-lobed, and the anthers as sagittate at base and with long, very slenderly caudate-acuminate auricles. In the recently collected plants the style branches are rather long, linear, obtusish, and hispidulous outside with the hairs con- tinuing far below the fork, almost in the manner of Vernonia, and the anthers, while deeply sagittate, are polliniferous almost to the tip of the lance-linear auricles, with only a very short (about 0.1- 0.2 mm. long) obtuse cellular sterile apiculation, and so not truly caudate. Through the kindness of Sir Arthur W. Hill, I have been permitted to borrow Bentham’s type sheet? from the Kew Herbarium and resolve the riddle. The type sheet bears three pieces of stem a few inches long and a pocket containing flowers, achenes, pappus, and a few phyllaries derived from one of the heads, as well as a head in bud. The speci- mens are nearly leafless, bearing altogether only a couple of pairs of upper leaves and a few bracts. They are accompanied by a printed label: ‘‘Lima et Peruvia septentrionalis. H. Cuming, 1831,” with the written number 996. In publishing the genus, Bentham quoted only the second part of the habitat as given, whereas recent collections are all from the region of Lima, indicating that Cuming’s plant proba- bly came from the same region, in central western Peru. The name Chionopappus does not appear on the sheet. In addition to some notations by Bentham on the details of structure, the sheet bears the name “‘Liabum? n. sp.” and “Cf. Erato’? in Bentham’s hand. The specimens are clearly identical specifically with the later collections by Rose, Macbride, and Pennell. Examination shows that most if not all the detached styles preserved in the pocket have had their tips chewed off by insects, thus presenting the appearance of being undivided recorded by Bentham. Examination of one of the heads on the sheet with a lens, however, reveals uninjured forked styles 2 The sheet sent me is one from Bentham’s own herbarium. Mr. John 8. L. Gilmore writes that there is another sheet of the same collection, also with very scanty material, in the Hooker Herbarium. 3 Hrato is now treated as a section of Liabum. 490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 SZ Fig. 1—Chionopappus benthamti Blake.—a, plant, x1; b, disk flower, X34; ¢, ray flower, X214;d, achene with pappus fallen, 8; e, style of disk flower, X44; f, two stamens, X10; g, receptacular pale, *4.—All drawn from Macbride & Featherstone 162, in the Field Museum, except fig. d, which is drawn from the type, Cuming 996, in the Kew Herbarium. Nov. 15, 1935 BLAKE: CHIONOPAPPUS 491 protruding from some of the anther-tubes. The anthers are some- what shriveled and appear to have more slender auricles than the recent specimens, but are not really different in structure. In no case do they have the stiff texture so characteristic of the terminal ap- pendages and the anther tails in both Mutisieae and Cynareae. Ben- tham’s description of the heads as nodding was obviously based on only one of the four heads on the type sheet, and since the numerous heads on the recent specimens are all erect, the appearance of this head must be attributed to some peculiarity of preparation. Finally, Bentham’s emphasis on the 4-merous nature of the ray corollas, as deduced from their venation—the nerves were described as 4—as an indication that the genus could go in no other tribe is a curious slip, for the reason that the alternation of nerves and teeth which is fundamental in the corollas of Compositae makes it necessary for a normal 3-merous ray to have four nerves’ (when supplementary ones are not present), and for a 4-merous ray to have five. Since the principal characters relied on by Bentham to place the genus in the Mutisieae are based on wrong interpretation of the material, there arises a question as to its proper position. Its com- bination of characters rules out all tribes except the Senecioneae (subtribe Liabinae), and—doubtfully, from the fact that the anthers are not truly caudate—the Inuleae (subtribe Buphthalminae) and the Mutisieae (subtribe Gochnatinae of Hoffmann). Comparison with these groups shows that the natural position of Chionopappus is definitely in the subtribe Liabinae next to Liabum, from which genus, taken in its broad sense, it differs primarily only in its truly paleaceous receptacle® and its 1-seriate pappus of relatively few long-plumose awns united at base and deciduous in a ring. In all other features— habit, opposite leaves which are tomentose beneath, involucre, several-seriate narrow rays, disk corollas, achenes, styles, and an- thers—it can be closely matched in the Liabum group. The revised generic description and the specific description follow. 4 One running toward each sinus, one on each side of lamina about midway be- tween the sinus-nerve and the margin. 5 Bentham and Hooker described the receptacle in Liabum as naked, alveolate, or fimbrillate. Rydberg (N. Am. FI. 34: 289. 1927), who splits the North American and West Indian representatives of Liabum into 5 genera, describes it in his restricted genus Liabum (including the L. wmbellatum and L. igniarium groups) as “bristly-fimbriate to chaffy with subulate paleae.’’? The receptacle in these species does not bear true paleae but is deeply alveolate, with the margins of the alveolae prolonged into stiff mostly subulate awn-like structures about the length of the achenes and surrounding them. Chionopappus, in contrast, has true paleae in the shape of slender linear-subu- late chaff, one to each flower. That this difference is not sufficient to exclude Chionopap- pus from the Liabum alliance is indicated by a more or less similar variation in several of the tribes of Compositae. ee 492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Curonoparrus Benth. in Benth. & Hook. Gen. Pl. 2: 485. 1873 (without species name) Suffrutescent, branching, pubescent; leaves opposite, ovate to oblong- ovate, short-petioled, triplinerved, coarsely serrate, green and scabrous- pubescent above, white-tomentose beneath; heads medium-sized, hetero- gamous, radiate, short-peduncled, mostly ternate at tips of stem and branches, the rays yellow, the disk purple; involucre campanulate or hemi- spheric-campanulate, usually with a few leafy bracts at base, the proper phyllaries strongly graduate, about 5-—7-seriate, ovate to (inner) lance- linear, acuminate, erect, subchartaceous, the outer with short and narrow obscurely herbaceous tip; receptacle broad, flat, densely long-pilose, pale- aceous throughout with linear-subulate firm pales about equaling the pap- pus; rays very numerous, 2—3-seriate, pistillate, fertile, yellow, the lamina spreading, linear, usually 3-denticulate, 4-nerved; disk flowers very numer- ous, hermaphrodite, fertile, their corollas regular, tubular, slender-funnel- form, deeply 5-fid, the lobes much longer than the throat; anthers deeply sagittate at base, with obscurely appendaged auricles, and with oblong- ovate apical appendages; style hispid far below the fork, the branches linear, obtuse, at length spreading, hispidulous outside, stigmatiferous over whole inner surface, unappendaged; achenes oblong or narrowly obovoid, some- what compressed, 8—10-ribbed, small, glabrous; pappus of 10-15 1-seriate very slender long-plumose white awns, united at base and deciduous in a ring. Type species, Chionopappus benthamiz. Chionopappus benthamii Blake, sp. nov. Suffrutescens ca. 1 m. altus opposite ramosus; caulis subteres fragilis albidus v. brunneus subdense hirsuto-pilosus pilis patentibus multiloculatis basi subtuberculatis et parum puberulus, aetate glabratus; internodia 2.5-6 em. longa; petioli 1-2 mm. longi vix marginati basi connati, basibus demum incrassatis et breviter vaginiformibus; laminae ovatae v. oblongo-ovatae 3.8-6 cm. longae 1.5—2.8 cm. latae acutae calloso-mucronulatae basi cunea- tae v. rotundato-cuneatae in petiolum breviter decurrentes prope basin triplinerviae subtenues grosse et irregulariter serratae dentibus majoribus ca. 6-8-jugis calloso-mucronulatis supra virides dense scabro-hispidae et his- pidulae pilorum basibus tuberculatis persistentibus aetate rugoso-bullatae subtus venis majoribus breviter hirsutis exceptis dense et persistenter albo- arachnoideo-tomentosae; capitula apice caulis et ramorum saepe ternata erecta ca. 2-3.3 cm. lata basi bracteis 2—4 foliis similibus sed multo minori- bus lanceolatis patentibus v. reflexis suffulta, pedunculis sicut caule pubes- centibus 0.7—4 cm. longis; discus (siccitate) 1-1.2 em. altus 1-2 em. diam.; involucri 9-11 mm. alti juventate paullum arachnoideo-tomentosi phyllaria flavido-albida ad apicem saepe purpurascentia inconspicue 1—3-nervia dense sordido-puberula et versus apicem saepius patenti-hirsuta, exteriora acumina- ta apice interdum sublaxa breviter subherbacea, interiora linearia v. lineari- lanceolata longe acuminata exterioribus multo angustiora; radii ca. 100 aurei apice interdum purpurascentes ad apicem tubi et basin laminae sparse pub- eruli ceterum glabri, tubo 5 mm. longo, lamina ca. 11 mm. longa 1 mm. lata; corollae disci valde numerosae glabrae infra pallidae supra medium saturate purpureae ca. 8mm. longae (tubo ca. 3.5 mm., faucibus 1.5-1.8 mm., den- tibus anguste triangularibus acuminatis apice intus paullum incrassatis 2.5- Nov. 15, 1935 READ: CLADOXYLON 493 3 mm. longis); paleae receptaculi anguste lineari-subulatae firmae albidae longe ciliatae et pilosae ca. 8 mm. longae; achenia albida 2 mm. longa 0.5 mm. lata; pappus niveus 7-8 mm. longus, aristis angustissimis complanatis ad apicem multo brevius plumosis. Peru: “Lima et Peruvia septentrionalis,” 1831, Cuming 996 (type, Herb. Kew; photog., U. S. Nat. Herb.); vicinity of Matucana, 9 July 1914, Dr. & Mrs. J. N. Rose 18663 (U. 8. Nat. Herb.); rock crevices and in loose rock, Matucana, 12 April-3 May 1922, Macbride & Featherstone 162 (Field Mus., U.S. Nat. Herb.); open rocky slopes, along Rio Chill6én, near Viscas, Hee alt. 1800-2000 m., 10-15 June 1925, Pennell 14480 (U. 8. Nat. erb.). Macebride and Featherstone describe their plant as woody at base, very brittle, 3 ft. high; Pennell describes his as a shrub, with “light cadmium”’ rays and “‘bordeaux”’ disk. PALEOBOTANY.—An occurrence of the genus Cladoxylon Unger, in North America: CHariEs B. Reap, U. 8. Geological Sur- vey. (Communicated by Rotanp W. Brown.) In 1882 J. W. Dawson published a brief account of a specimen of Cladoxylon mirabile Unger from the Styliola limestone (Genundewa limestone member of Genesee shale) of western New York.? Although no figures are given, it is clear from the text that the plant was of the Cladoxylon type and distinct from Asteropteris noveboracensis, with which Dawson was well acquainted. It is unfortunate that in most of the more recent accounts of Cladoxylon this single American record had been overlooked or else considered too questionable to mention. In the collection of thin sections of fossil plants prepared under the direction of the late Dr. F. H. Knowlton and now in the hands of the U.S. Geological Survey there is a single transverse section labeled Cladoxylon mirabile Unger and recorded from the ‘Genesee shale, Styliola layer (Genundewa limestone), Canandaigua, New York,” and presented to Knowlton by John M. Clarke. Since Clarke was the collector of Dawson’s material, it is probable that this sec- tion is from the block recorded in the Canadian report. At any rate the specimen is material evidence of the occurrence of Cladoxylon in America and therefore deserves to be brought to the attention of paleobotanists. The writer prefers to record this form as new rather than to place it in a doubtful synonomy with the poorly figured C. mirabile or other European species. t Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Re- ceived July 8, 1935. 2 Dawson, J. W. The fossil plants of the Erian (Devonian) and Upper Silurian formations of Canada, Canada Geol, Survey Pt. 2: 126. 1882. 494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Fig. 1—Photograph of transverse section of Cladorylon dawsoni, n. sp., showing the radiating bands of xylem. X18. Fig. 2—Same specimen showing the details of two of the plates of xylem. Note the “loops” near the outer edge indicating the position of protoxylem. X42. Fig.3.—Thin section of C. dawsoni, n.sp., showing the general aspect of the plant. 614. Nov. 15, 1935 READ: CLADOXYLON 495 CLADOXYLON Unger Unger, Franz, in Richter, Reinhard, and Unger, Franz. Beitrag zur Paldon- tologie des Thiiringer Waldes. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-nat. Klasse, Denkschr. Bd. 11:179. 1856. Solms-Laubach, H. Graf zu. Ueber die seinerzeit von Unger beschriebenen strukturbietenden Pflanzenreste des Unterculm von Saalfeld in Thiiringen. K. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, pp. 52-56. 1896. Cladoxylon dawsoni, n. sp. Cladoxylon mirabile Unger. Dawson, J. W. The fossil plants of the Erian (Devonian) and Upper Silurian formations of Canada. Canada Geol. Survey. Pt.2:126. 1882. A photograph at low magnification of the thin section of Cladozrylon dawson from New York is shown in Figure 3. It is clear from this that the stem, which is very well preserved, consists of a central area of steles and a rather thick sheath of cortex. These steles, which are several, are radiating plates or flattened strands of xylem presumably surrounded by phloem and pericycle, although these latter tissues are not preserved. As is indicated more clearly by Figure 1, some of the steles are highly curved and form narrow U- or V-shaped masses, the extremities of which abut on the pe- riphery of the stelar area. The protoxylem groups occupy immersed positions in the distal or pe- ripheral portions of the steles and in the instance of the strongly curved and forked strands these groups may be several. The position of the protoxylem is marked by a cavity or loop, the delicate tissue usually being disorganized. These loops are well shown in both Figures 1 and 2. As regards the mass of the xylem, it is for the most part primary. A limited amount of secondary growth occurs on the periphery of a few of the steles but is of very limited extent. Since longitudinal sections are not avail- able it has been impossible to make a detailed study of the pitting. How- ever, at a few points in the transverse section contortion of the tissue is suf- ficient to expose short portions of the tracheids obliquely, so that it can be stated with confidence that the pitting is scalariform. As has been previously indicated, the zone referable to the phloem is very poorly preserved, only occasional vestiges of tissue remaining. In general this area conforms in its outlines to the contour of the xylem, and the tissue must have occupied the deep embayments between the xylem plates as well as a limited zone around the periphery. Very few observations have been made, in fact, on the phloem of any species of Cladoxylon, owing to the al- most invariably poor preservation. The cortex consists of a broad zone of thin-walled, large-lumened tissue, apparently of parenchymatous nature. Locally the cell walls may appear thickened, but this is due to masceration and swelling. In the type speci- men of Cladorylon mirabile from Saalfeld in Thuringia, Solms-Laubach® states the cell walls of the cortical tissue are thickened and somewhat fibrous. However, it is probable that this is due to the preservation, for Solms-Lau- bach mentions in the same account that the Saalfeld material characteristi- cally shows a swelling of the cell walls with resulting diminution in size of the lumens. 3 Soums-Lausacu, H. Grar zu. Ueber die Seinerzeit von Unger beschriebenen strukturbietenden Pflanzenreste des Unterculm von Saalfeld in Thiiringen. K. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, p. 53. 1896. 496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 The peripheral edges of several of the strands are marked by the pres- ence of small, annular masses of xylem apparently departing in the manner of leaf traces. Here again the preservation is poor, so that it is impossible to’ describe these structures in detail. At several points in the cortex there are similar concentric areas of disorganized tissues which suggest leaf traces. More material is necessary, however, to determine the details of these. An examination of the available figures of the several species of Cladory- lon suggests a comparison with Cladoxylon (Arctopodium) radiatum Unger. The published figures are not sufficiently definite to tie the two together, however. Further, Dr. Paul Bertrand, who has made a detailed study of the Saalfeld Cladoxylons, has examined the specimen here under discussion and is inclined to regard it as new. In consequence the name Cladoxylon dawsoni has been given this specimen in honor of the eminent Canadian paleontol- ogist who first described it. The interest of this fossil lies at present not so much in its structure, which naturally cannot be completely worked out with the scanty material at hand, but rather in its occurrence in the New York Devonian in the same beds with several species of Callizxylon that Arnold? has described. It is regrettable that this record of Dawson’s has been overlooked for so long. As regards affinities, it will be recalled that specimens of the genus Cladoxylon have excited speculation as to their phyletic position ever since their discovery by Unger in Thuringia. Ascribed variously to the Pteridophyta and the Cycadofilicales, published investigations have not yet definitely proven their relationships. The discovery by Kriausel and Weyland’ of the leaves of Cladoxylon scoparium in strata of Middle Devonian age near Elberfeld, Germany, has, however, cleared up certain points. In this plant, identified by its stem struc- ture, the leaves are spirally arranged and are small, petiolate, divided, and forked organs, the venation of which has not been determined. In addition to these sterile leaves there are fertile leaves—sporophylls —fan-shaped and lobed and with the distal edges hollowed to form numerous cup-shaped depressions which suggest marginal sori. As- sociated with these are the remains of numerous sporangia and spores. Bertrand® has discussed in several short papers the possible rela- 4 Arnotp, ©. A. The genus Callizylon from the Upper Devonian of central and dari New York. Michigan Acad. Sci. Papers 11: 1-50, pls. 1-19, 1 text fig. 1929 1930). 5 KrAusEL, R., and Weyuann, H. Bettrdge zur Kenninis der Devonflora, Pt. 1. Senckenberg. Wiss Mitt. Bd. 5 (Heft 5-6): 154-184. 1923. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Devonflora, Pt. 2. Senckenberg. naturf. Gesell. Bd. 40 (Heft 2): 113-155. 1926. 6 BERTRAND, Pauu. Sur les stipes de Clepsydropsis. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 147: 945-947. 1908. Observations sur les Cladoxylées. Assoc. frang. Av. Sci., 40th Sess., pp. 506-509. 1911. tat actuel de nos connaissances sur les genres ‘‘Cla- doxylon”’ et “‘Steloxylon.’’ Assoc. franc. Av. Sci., 43d Sess., pp. 446-448. 1914. Observations sur les Cladoxylées de Saalfeld. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 195: 1303. 1932. Valeur morphologique du rachis primaire des Cladoxylées et des Zygopteridées. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 196: 864. 1933. Specifications des Cladoxylon et des Clepsydropsis de Saalfeld. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 196: 365. 1933. Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 497 tionship of Clepsydropsis antiqua (a fern-like petiole) to Cladoxylon and has outlined a phyletic series connecting the Cladoxyleae with the Zygopterideae. The most important of these intermediates is Asteropteris noveboracensis Dawson. This note is scarcely the place for a discussion of these views, so it must suffice for the present to say that the evidence is quite suggestive although not conclusive. This single specimen of Cladoxylon dawsoni is from the Genundewa limestone member of the Upper Devonian Genesee shale in the vicin- ity of Canandaigua Lake in western New York. At Saalfeld, Thu- ringia, the several species of Cladoxylon occur in strata regarded as Upper Devonian (Cypridina shales) in age. ENTOMOLOGY.—Some new Gyponas with notes on others... E. D. Bau, University of Arizona. The writer made a preliminary revision of this group in 1920? with keys to the subgenera and species. With several years of additional biological work on the Eastern and Florida forms, Ball and Reeves? made still further revisions and gave the food plants and distribution as far as then known. Since coming to Arizona, the writer has continued the food plant studies and made further collections. These have so increased the number of species in one group that a new key is nec- essary. KEY TO THE GENUS GYPONANA BALL (IN THE U. S.) A Margin of vertex produced and foliaceous throughout. B_ No black spots on pronotum or hinge. Reticulations absent on basal part of elytra or, if present, no white flecks between. C_ Species large, broad bilineate.................. 1-octolineata Say C@* Species smaller; narrows pales. see ne esos a oe: 2-tenella Sign BB. A pair of block spots on pronotum and another pair on the hinge (sometimes wanting), elytra densely reticulate (rugose) with white flecks between. D_ Head almost as wide as pronotum, the vertex broad and rounding, species large, with long rounding elytra. E_ Species without a black line under vertex. F Vertex slightly produced beyond the eyes then rounding, female segment with a rectangular median notch. (S.E.), 3-rugosa Sign FF Vertex rounding from the eyes, female segment with two oblique upturned thumb-like projections.................. SRA aie cans £ ese ie MS i nee ne ee (Ariz.), 4-ampliata Ball 1 Received August 14, 1935. 2 Annals Ent. Soc. Amer. 13: 83-100. 1920. 3 Annals Ent. Soc. Amer. 20: 488-500, 2 pl. 1927. 498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 EE A black line under vertex margin, appendix broadly smoky and the male pygofers scarlet............... (Ariz.), 5-pullata Ball DD Head definitely narrower than pronotum, which narrows an- teriorly, vertex more or less angled. G Vertex obtusely angled or almost rounding. H_ Vertex very obtusely angled, species tawny green............ «tied hao aya N Goh epee ee ee (Ariz.), 6-ramosa Kirk HH Vertex almost aright angle, species pale.................. = 2h te st foes es aS a cee (Ariz. & Utah), 7-turbinella Ball GG Vertex right angled or acutely angled, species powdered CE TN An ene eae eee (Utah), 8-chadana Ball AA Margin of vertex and front angled, but not foliaceous. I Small species (about 2 mm. wide), vertex about twice as wide as long. J Extremely elongate with two oblique stripes on each elytron....... nidiss bp eee yy hae Glee Re ee (Calif.), 9-elongata Ball JJ Normal shape and without stripes... (Ariz. N. Mex.), 10 delta Ball II Large species (about 4 mm. wide) vertex three times as wide as long 52 eCRe UA teal Nee ne ae ee let Ae ee (S.W.), 11-dorsalis Sign Gyponana rugosa Spang. This eastern species has not appeared in Arizona except in the higher mountain regions of the N. E. portions, which is the region of the deciduous oaks. Gyponana ampliata Ball n. sp. Big broad tawny-green, heavily reticulate with milky spots and the usual black dots on pronotum and hinge, closely resembling rugosa, paler, with the vertex rounding from the eyes, instead of produced and then rounding. Length 2 10 mm., width 3.5 mm. Head practically as wide as pronotum, vertex shorter than pronotum, rounding directly from eyes, elytra broad, densely and evenly reticulate with apices rounding and appendix narrow. Female segment with the customary median quadrangular notch almost obliterated by the semicircular emar- gination of the lateral portions of the segment leaving oblique, thumb-like projections, which would form the margin of the notch if they were not turned up at right angles against the pygofers. The median portion broadly, shallowly bilobed. Male plates very narrow and widely separated at base, the inner margins broadly expanded, then narrowing to the rounding apices, beyond which the dark, spine-like styles project. In rugosa the plates are approximately parallel margined, 3 times as long as wide, and cover the styles. Holotype* 2 and 2 paratypes Santa Rita Mountains, July 6, 1933, allotype &@ Chiricahua Mountains July 5, 1930, four paratypes Huachuca Mountains, June 15, 1930, and one Santa Rita Mountains, June 20, 1929, (labeled Tucson). All taken from oak in the high mountains of Southern Arizona by the author, most of them from the silver leaf oak (Q. hypoleuca). This species can be recognized by the very distinct genitalia of either sex. 4 All types are in the author’s collection. Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 499 Gyponana pullata Ball n. sp. Resembling ampliata, but much narrower and more nearly parallel mar- gined. Darker with a black line under the vertex and a broad, smoky ap- pendix. Length 9 9mm., width scarcely 3 mm. Slender, parallel margined. Head as wide as pronotum, vertex as long as ampliata, but narrower so that it is more acutely rounding. Elytron long and narrow with rounding apex and a broad, smoky appendix. Female segment with a broad notch occupying nearly one-half the segment, the margin of the notch rounding back to the lateral angles, base of notch nearly filled by a broad bilobed pyramid that extends nearly as far as the segment. Male plates 214 times as long as their individual width, each one convex below and angularly pointed, much exceeded by the long slender slightly knobbed styles. Pygofers and margins of abdomen scarlet. Holotype @2 and allotype & Santa Rita Mountains July 6, 1933, nine paratypes taken with the types and in the Chiricahua and Huachuca Moun- tains, all taken by the author from the silver leaf oak in the mountains of southeastern Arizona. This is the species Gibson keys out as ramosa Kirk, but cannot be the one Kirkaldy had in hand, as he does not mention the black line on vertex and states definitely that it had no appendix while this one has a broad appendix. This species does not occur at Nogales which is below the range of the silver leaf oak. The black line on vertex, smoky appendix, and red pygofers in the male, as well as the distinct genitalia, will easily separate this species. It rather strikingly, but superficially resembles the green males of Gypona verticalis in color and shape, but the reticulate elytra places it in a different group. Gypona ramosa Kirkaldy. A narrow-headed species with a slightly angular vertex, but little over half as long as its basal width, a very narrow appendix and often showing a dark line around the apex of each elytron. They are pale green, without the tawny reflection, and heavily white flecked. A few of them show traces of a sinuate dark band on pronotum but this char- acter is not constant in any known species. The female segment has the median third deeply roundingly emarginate, with a bilobed tooth two-thirds the length of the notch. Through the kindness of Mr. E. P. Van Duzee, we have examined the Gyponas of the Koebele collection from which Kirkaldy described this species. There were ten examples of a single reticulate-veined species. This proved to be the common form found on the two oaks (Q. emoryi and ob- longifolia) that grow in the Nogales region. This species answers Kirkaldy’s description in every particular and as suggested previously, the slightly angulate vertex, lack of appendix and deeply bisinuate female segment definitely eliminates the species described above as pullata on which Gib- son placed the name. Gyponana turbinella Ball n. sp. Resembles chadana, larger, broader, with a broader vertex, slightly smaller than ramosa with a much longer and more strongly angled head. Pale green, 500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 with white fleckings and a very slightly obtusely angled vertex. Length 2 8mm., width 3 mm. Head almost as long as the width between the eyes, narrower than the base of pronotum, vertex slightly shorter than pronotum, slightly obtusely angled, instead of acutely angled as in chadana. Elytra broad, rounding posteriorly, instead of narrower and almost acutely angled, as in chadana. Female segment with a narrow shallow notch with sloping margins, the median feebly bilobed projection about as long as segment. Male plates long, silky, gradually narrowing to rounding apices that exceed the slender pale styles. Holotype 9, allotype o October 6, 1929 and six paratypes of various dates, Granite Dell, two from Yarnell Heights, and four from Superior, August 1, 1929. All taken by the author from the Chaparal oak (Q. turbinella) in the mountains of Arizona. This is the common species in the Chaparal region from Globe to Williams, Arizona, and appears again around St. George in Utah. The long, definitely triangular head will separate it from all but chadana, in which the head is still more pointed and the whole insect is covered with a whitish bloom. Gyponana elongata Ball n. sp. Still longer and narrower than tenella, with a head as wide as the prono- tum. Pale green with four black stripes on the elytra. Length 2 7.5 mm. width 1.8 mm. Head much wider than in tenella, as wide as the pronotum, eyes small, vertex broad, the anterior margin paraboloid or a trifle angled, the margin rather thick and short, scarcely foliaceous. Pronotum, with the lateral mar- gins long and almost parallel, scarcely longer than the vertex. Elytra very long and slender, tapering toward the rounded apices—a few coarse, tawny reticulations scattered along posterior half of corium. Female segment scarcely longer than the adjoining one, broadly roundingly or slightly angularly emarginate, the lateral angles acute. Sometimes a median pro- jection is faintly indicated. Male plates extremely long and slender, slightly tapering. Color: Pale creamy, with a greenish tinge, ocelli red, a pair of widely separated dark dashes on the scutellum. A black stripe just outside the claval suture and another outside the inner fork of the outer sector. A smoky line around the apex. Below pale creamy. Holotype @, allotype o”, and eleven paratypes taken by the writer from Red Shanks (Adenostoma sparsifolium) at Pine Valley, California, July 6, 1931. Strikingly distinct on account of the black stripes. Gyponana delta Ball n. sp. Resembling tenella, but paler with a more angular head and a “U” shaped notch in the female segment. Extremely pale green fading to creamy trans- lucent. Length 2 8 mm., width 2.5 mm. Head definitely narrower than pronotum, the vertex roundingly angled with the apex bluntly rounding, the margin thick and not foliaceous. Vertex quite variable in length, varying from scarcely 2/3 to nearly the length of pronotum. Elytra about as in tenella, with very little reticulation. Female segment rather long with the lateral margins narrowing, the lateral angles rounding, posterior margin elevated over the ovipositor with a deep “U” shaped or slightly angular notch extending nearly half way to the base. Nov. 15, 1935 BALL: NEW GYPONAS 501 Male plates long, slender, tapering, exceeding the pygofers, but exceeded by the sickle like white styles. The inner margins of the plates are thickened and reflexed and there is a row of long white spines towards the tip. Holotype @, allotype &, and 7 paratypes taken on snake weed (Gutzerrezia sarothrae) at Paradise, Arizona. Six paratypes taken on Mortonia scabrella at Tombstone, Arizona, June 13, 1932, all taken by the author. In the an- gulate head this speciesresemblesGypona angulata, but that isa larger species with simple segment and no reticulations. Gyponana delta var. alomogorda Ball n. var. Form and structure of the species, but nymphs and adults powdery white, the darker hind wings slightly showing through the elytra. Holotype 2, allotype o’, and seven paratypes taken by the writer May 5, 1933, on a powdery white mint (Paliomintha incana) growing on the white sands at Alomogorda, New Mexico. Gypona villior Fowler is closely related to verticalis and like that species has males ranging from green all the way to black. The extremely large and prominent veins of the elytra are its most distinctive character. Nymphs and adults have been taken by the writer on the Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa) from Prescott to the Huachuca and Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona. Gypona melanota Spangberg. The study of a larger amount of western material in wnicolor indicates that the broad, short eastern species is dis- tinct from the longer Rocky Mountain one. G. melanota described from black males from New Jersey and Georgia is apparently the oldest name available for the eastern species. Prairiana orizaba Ball and Reeves. This extremely long, slender Mexican species with the acute vertex has been taken by the writer (males only) from Brownsville, Texas; Granite Dell, and Santa Rita Mountains, Arizona. Prairiana moneta Van Duzee. The writer has taken this California species with its broad foliaceous head and smoky male, at Bunkerville, Nevada; Yuma and Phoenix, Arizona. They have all been swept from Bermuda grass in low, damp, alkaline areas and at low elevations. Prairiana sidana Ball n. sp. Smaller and narrower than moneta Van Duzee with a more acute, but less foliaceous head. Dead grass color in the female with the posterior margin of pronotum and all back of that smoky to shining black in the male. Length 9 7mm, width 2.8 mm; male smaller. Head slightly narrower than pronotum, the marginal line of pronotum and vertex continuous. Vertex nearly paraboloid, slightly acutely angulate in male, as long as pronotum, much longer proportionally to its width than in moneta. Front more inflated than in moneta, the vertex margin only slightly foliaceous across front. Elytra short, rather broad in female, nearly parallel margined in the male, exceeding abdomen by less than the apical cells. Female segment bisinuate, the median lobe much smaller than in moneta. Male plates long, strap shaped, their points divergent, much longer than the dark spine-like styles. Pygofers angled, but not as acutely as in moneta. 502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 Holotype @, allotype o, and 8 paratypes taken by the writer from a prostrate mat-like mallow (Sida diffusa) growing under the short grasses on the range slopes of the Baboquiviri Mountains, Arizona, August 29, 1931, and four paratypes taken under similar circumstances at Patagonia, Arizona, September 20, 1930. There is no question but what the coloration of this and the other species of Prairiana is an adaptation to concealment in dead grass, but the food plant of this species is definitely the mallow creeping below the grass. Most of the species of this genus are more restricted than grass inhabitants usually are and it will probably be found that that restriction is due to food plants growing beneath the grass cover. In the case of subta both larvae and adults were found beneath a clump of grass on the plains of Colorado, but there was a mallow (Malvastrum) scattered all through the area. Ponana sonora Ball n. sp. Resembling a small pale citrina, straw-colored with a very narrow an- gulate head and six black spots in a semicircle. Length 9 8 mm, width 2.2 mm. Head extremely narrow, scarcely wider than scutellum; vertex sloping, obtusely angled, one-half wider than long, the anterior margin rounding over to front, much broader than in citrina. Ocelli very large, scarcely their own width from the front margin of vertex and midway between the eye and the median line. The front inflated, strongly convex in both diameters; pronotum half longer than the vertex, broad behind, the lateral margins narrowing so rapidly as to form a semicircle with the front margin. Elytra more nearly parallel margined than in citrina. Female segment feebly bisinu- ate; male plates elongated spoon-shaped emarginate near the apex, conceal- ing pale, slender styles with out-turned sickle-like tips. Color: pale creamy or greenish straw. The ocelli very large and dark red, pronotum with four black spots on the submargin, which, with those on the hinges, form a semicircle. In the darkest specimens the disc of the pronotum is covered with minute dark points. Elytra uniform subhyaline straw with a smoky spot beyond the apex of clavus. Occasionally the eight points appear on the elytra as in citrina. Holotype 2 and allotype @ Santa Catalina Mountains, Arizona, Septem- ber 19, 1930, and 9 paratypes taken at the same place at various dates from April on. The writer took these, with their white-haired nymphs, from a white-leaved perennial mallow (Abutilon incanum) growing on the south slopes of Sabino Canyon. Ponana dohrni Signoret. The writer has taken nymphs and adults of this species from the white sandbar-willow (Salix exigua) in a number of places in southern Arizona. They are especially common on second growth sprouts. Ponana candida Van Duzee, described from the Gulf of California, has been taken by the writer at the High Tanks on the Mexican border in Arizona. This beautiful black and white species was found as large nymphs and adults May 17, 1936, feeding on a six-foot white mallow (Horsfordia alata). : Ponana curiata Gib. The writer took a number of adults of this species Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 503 from a woody mat-like composite at the control station on the way up to Mt. Lemmon, Arizona, August 15, 1931. He took a pair at Redondo Beach, California, July 4, 1931, on a hairy, aster-like plant, (Heterotheca grandi- flora). Ponana marginifrons Fowler. This long, strikingly marked species with heavily margined nervures has been taken in abundance, both nymphs and adults, from the three-leaved sumac (Rhus trilobata). It is found in S. W. Colorado, 8. E. Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, south into Mexico. Ponona marginifrons var. suilla Ball n. var. Head form and genitalia of marginifrons nearly. Size, shape of body and short elytra of resxma Fowler. Uniform pale cinnamon with powdered elytra and greenish costa. Length 2 8 mm, width 3 mm. Head about as in marginifrons, the vertex less sloping, slightly more an- gulate with the margin upturned like a hog’s snout. Elytra much shorter and broader than in marginifrons, about as in resima, but without the prominent nervures of either. Females segment of an entirely different pattern from that of resema, but resembling margznzfrons in the acute lateral angles, and the angularly produced median portion with a heavily chitinized projection at the apex. Color: strikingly distinctive, uniform pale cinnamon. The elytra pruinose with the basal half of the costa greenish, the nervures concolorous. There are no spots or markings, except sometimes the round black dots back of the eyes and dash on hinge that are typical of the group. Holotype @, and one paratype female from the Pinal Mountains above Superior, Arizona, August 1, 1929. Allotype & and two paratype females from the same place July 11, 1935. All beaten from Chaparal Oak (Q. tur- binella) by the writer. In appearance this form is quite distinct and resembles res¢ma, but in structure, except for wing length, it is close to marginifrons and will prob- ably be found to be an adaptation to its food plant. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 522ND MEETING The 522nd meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 9, 1935, President W. T. ScHALLER presiding. Informal communications.—JEWEL J. GuAss described what is probably the largest known zinnwaldite (a rare variety of mica) crystal, the portion recovered alone weighing 24 pounds. It was found at the Morefield mine in the celebrated pegmatite region near Amelia Court House, Virginia. This mine has also produced germanium-bearing topaz crystals of unusual size, some weighing as much as 500 pounds. GEORGE Otis SmitTH described crack systems in river ice in Maine due 504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 principally to changes of level of the water. Very little movement was found along the cracks. Although offsets of certain cracks occurred along other cracks these did not indicate lateral motion of the ice blocks. Discussed by G. F. LouGuHuin. M. A. Pentz described the stratigraphic sequence of rocks and clays found by boring in the Carolina bays. No evidence was found supporting a meteoric origin of the Carolina bays; the sediments lie undisturbed at a shallow depth. Program.—Epwin D. McKeze: Some observations on the Middle Permian marine formations of northern Arizona. The numerous lithologie types in- cluded in the formation known as the Kaibab limestone, in northern Arizona, include marine sandstones, bedded cherts, “redbeds,’’ white cross-bedded sandstones, gypsum deposits, and several types of limestones. The complex interrelationships between these various types and the transitions from one type to another may be observed and traced in numerous localities in this region, especially along the walls of the Grand Canyon and the Little Colo- rado Canyon. Here then is found an exceptionally fine area for determining various features of Permian deposition. In a section of normal Kaibab lime- stone there are three distinct limestone units or members characterized by distinctive lithologic and faunal elements. These are separated from one another by sandstones and probably represent distinct invasions of the sea. The limestones and intermediate sandstones control to a great extent the development of topographic features, and are well expressed in typical can- yon profiles of the region. In each limestone member of the Kaibab forma- tion the fauna is represented by two facies. These are best described as the normal open sea facies, with brachiopods of the Productus group predominat- ing, and the brackish water facies composed of pelecypods and gastropods with Bellerophon most conspicuous. The lower member of the Kaibab limestone is separated from the middle limestone or upper cliff-forming member by an unconformity which has been noted in several localities. The hiatus represented probably is not great but involves a time of slight erosion before the second sea invaded the area. The uppermost limestone differs greatly in lithologic character from the middle limestone and is separated from it over wide areas by a relatively thin bed of crosslaminated sandstone. No evidence of an erosional break has been noted between these limestones but the contrast between their faunas is marked. The details concerning the nature of the transitions which occur both vertically and laterally between the sandstones, limestones, bedded cherts, and gypsum deposits are best brought out by three series of sections made along general east-west lines located (1) through the deep canyons south of Flagstaff, Arizona, (2) along the rim of Grand Canyon, and (3) near the Arizona-Utah border. The work on this problem is still in a pre- liminary state, but enough has been done to indicate many significant fea- tures regarding Middle Permian sedimentation, paleogeography and ecologi- cal conditions. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. Butts, MERTIE, Miser, GOLDMAN, HENBEST. G. A. Cooper: Stratigraphy of the Tully limestone, New York. J. C. Rerep and J. M. Hanseu: Quicksilver deposits near Little Missouri River, Southwest Arkansas. Cinnabar was discovered near the southern border of the Ouachita Mountains in southwestern Arkansas in 1930 but was not identified until June 1931. The quicksilver district is now known to have an east-west length of about 30 miles and an average width of less than a mile. The part covered in this paper is concerned with a 12-mile segment of the district near the Little Missouri River, and includes the 3 mines, Gap Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 505 Ridge, Parker Hill, and Parnell Hill, from which most of the production to date has come. The principal rocks exposed in the district are shale and sand- stone of the Atoka, Jackfork, and Stanley formation, of Pennsylvanian age, which aggregate many thousands of feet in thickness. The rocks have been deformed by close folding and thrust faulting and the three formations form several east-northeast trending belts. All the cinnabar deposits are in a northward overriding thrust block that is cut by northeast trending cross faults and is deformed and fractured by cross folds. The cross folding has not yet been adequately explained but it apparently is related to the thrusting. The cross faults appear to be tear faults formed during the thrusting. Mineralization occurs principally in a sandstone member of the Stanley shale but locally is found at other horizons in the Stanley and in the overlying Jackfork sandstone. The cinnabar fills fractures related to the cross folding, and the linear distribution of the ore occurrences is believed to have been due to mineralizing solutions ascending along the thrust fault until they reached fractured sandstones of the Stanley whence they followed these permeable beds toward the surface. Some of the cross faults may be worthy of prospecting. (A uthors’ abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. WASHBURNE, Huss, Ferguson, Henpricxs, Miser, Hewett. 523RD MEETING The 523rd meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 23, 1935, President ScHALLER presiding. ; Informal communications.—H. D. Miser reported that the urgent need for more manuscript papers to be published in the Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists had been brought to the attention of the Geological Society of Washington. Authors having suitable manuscripts may submit them to Mr. J. P. D. Hutu, Business Manager, Box 1852, Tulsa, Okla. D. F. Hewert stated that in connection with field work in the mineral resources near Boulder Dam during the spring of 1934, observations were made on the north and south ends of Avawatz Mountain which show that post-Miocene thrust faulting on a large scale is present west of the Death Valley trough as well as east of it. The Garlock fault is interpreted as a tear fault which turns southward around Avawatz Mountain and limits a block of pre-Cambrian gneiss that is thrust over Miocene sands and volcanic rocks. Program.—L. W. Currier: Structural features of the Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar field. The areal structural pattern due to doming and normal faulting, together with the unusual occurrence of numerous igneous bodies, led to an earlier belief by several geologists that the uplift of the region re- sulted from a deep-seated intrusion of magma, and that the faults represent a subsequent settling of the dome. The striking symmetry of the Hicks dome, a small structure in the northwest part of the field, is highly suggestive of a laccolithic intrusion, but the general fault pattern of the field as a whole seems more clearly a result of broader regional warping because (1) of the lack of a concordant relation between the fault trends and the longer axis of the dome, (2) the general absence of dikes from fault fissures, (3) the offsetting of dikes by faults of the prevailing northeast-southwest system, and (4) the continuance of narrow faulted belts from this area to southeast Missouri on the west, and central and eastern Kentucky on the east. It seems likely that the area experienced regional warping, effects of which were local emplacement of the magma beneath the domed area, and intru- sion of the dikes; continuing or later crustal disturbance imposed the major 506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 fault systems, and in these fissures were deposited vein minerals of hydro- thermal origin. Incidentally, an interesting suggestion has been made by Bucher, who speculates concerning an incipient geosynclinal trough involy- ing the upper part of the Mississippi embayment area. The axis of this trough had it developed beyond the embayment, would, according to him, probably have followed the zones of crustal tension now marked by fault systems that extend eastward from the fluorspar field into central and eastern Kentucky. It is to be noted that the highly fractured fluorspar field lies at a sharp bend in this postulated axis. An interesting recent development has been the exploitation of another type of fluorspar deposit, designated by some as “blankets,” and by others as “bedded deposits.” The connotations of these terms are misleading and the writer prefers to call them ‘“‘bedding replacement deposits” since it is believed that they were formed by the replacement of limestone along bed- ding planes, directly beneath impervious shale or dense limestone beds. These deposits are not obviously connected with prominent faults, but recent work seems to indicate that solutions arose along minor fractures of little or no displacement, connected with minor faults, and these in turn with a major fault zone. Solutions rising along small fractures in the locally warped Cave in Rock fluorspar district were impounded or greatly im- peded beneath the impervious beds, and lateral replacement of the lime- stone took place with preservation of the bedding of the limestone producing a “coon-tail” type of banded ore. The writer dissents from the ‘diffusion banding” theory of Bastin as a major process for several reasons that will be treated in a later paper. (Author’s abstract.) M. Kine Huppert: Determination of certain structural features in Illinois, Kentucky, and Alabama by electrical resistance methods. The work herein dis- cussed was conducted chiefly during the summer of 1934, though it was a continuation of work begun earlier for the Illinois State Geological Survey. Two distinct areas were involved: (1) the fluorspar-bearing district of southern Illinois and of northwestern Kentucky, and (2) the limonite iron- bearing area around Russellville in northwestern Alabama. Most of the work was done in the fluorspar region and only a short amount of time was devoted to experimental work in Alabama. Three methods were used: (1) the Wenner four-electrode technique with Gish-Rooney apparatus for the determination of specific electrical resistivity of the ground. (2) equipoten- tial-line mapping, and (8) potential-drop-ratio depth correlations. The resistivity method was used for locating faults in Illinois and Ken- tucky. The resistivity of the rocks on the opposite sides of a fault is fre- quently quite different. This fact enables one to locate faults not otherwise known by making cross-country traverses on which resistivity measure- ments effective to depths of the order of 100 feet are taken at intervals of 100 feet. Faults are frequently disclosed by abrupt changes in the readings of specific resistivity in these traverses. An equipotential-line map was made of one area in Kentucky which was crossed by a dike and by a complex of faults, and was known to be fluorspar and galena bearing. Most of the faults produced no noticeable effects. One fault, however, produced a very severe distortion of the equipotential lines. These lines in this case changed direction abruptly in the vicinity of the fault and ran parallel to it for a distance of 100 feet or more. This indicated a very highly conductive zone along this fault. Galena is the only mineral common to the area which seems sufficiently conductive to account for this anomaly. Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 507 Work by the potential-drop-ratio method was conducted in Alabama. The stratigraphic column there was: Chert gravel underlain by limonite with massive limestone beneath. All of these, it proved, were very highly re- sistive with very little contrast. Numerous depth profiles by the potential- drop-ratio technique gave a faint correlation, but one not distinct enough to make the method seem reliable as a potential substitute for test holes in locating ore. (Author’s abstract.) Contributors to the discussion of the two papers of the regular program at the conclusion of the second were: Messrs. ScHALLER, Henpricks, Bastin, FERGUSON, GoLDMAN, Hewett, R. C. WELLS, HENBEST. 524TH MEETING The 524th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, February 13, 1935, President SCHALLER presiding. The following resolution was presented by Dr. T. W. Stanton and unanimously adopted by the Society: WHEREAS, Dr. Davip WHITE, a char- ter member and Past President of the Geological Society of Washington, died at his home in this city February 7, 1935, at the age of 72, it is fitting that the Geological Society should pause for a moment in tribute to the memory of one whose splendid character, innate ability and outstanding accomplishments in the broad and varied fields of his life work have been and are an inspiration to all who knew him. As another colleague has said of him, Dr. White ‘“‘has long been the foremost Paleozoic paleobotanist on this continent and perhaps in the world. His work here was not merely sys- tematic and descriptive but was interpretative from the beginning. He was a stratigraphic paleontologist of the highest rank. He was our foremost authority on the origin and evolution of coal. His great generalization, known widely as the carbon ratio hypothesis, was an outgrowth of his studies on the origin and evolution of both coal and petroleum. It established a ‘dead line’ beyond which oil pools will not be found. This has great eco- nomic significance. It alone stamps him as a rare original investigator and thinker. He contributed significantly in the field of isostasy. He adminis- tered an important unit of government during the Great War in such fashion as to make it most useful during the crisis.’ These quoted words suggest only a few of the varied fields in which he excelled. Here in the presence of his friends it is not necessary to enumerate the many honors and responsibilities that came to Dr. White during his life time. They were all received by him most modestly. To those of us who have known him through most of his long service in Washington—almost half a century—he was an inspiring leader, a helpful counsellor, an ever faithful friend. THEREFORE, it is moved that these few and most inadequate words of appreciation be incorporated in the minutes of this meeting and that the Secretary be instructed to convey to Mrs. White the sincere sympathy of the entire membership, and a copy of these resolutions. Informal communications.—C. 8S. Ross reported that the tentative con- clusion that euhedral analcite resulted from the alteration of glassy vol- canic ash, probably deposited in a saline lake, was confirmed by the recent studies of Bernard M. Moore. The material studied by both Ross and Moore came from the vicinity of Wikieup Post Office, western Arizona. Microscopie examination showed all stages in the alteration of glassy vol- canic ash to a nearly pure analcite rock. One section showed tiny analcite grains forming within typical glassy ash grains. Discussed by Messrs. GOLDMAN, RuBEY, SCHAIRER, MILTON. 508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 A. H. KoscHMann stated that work in slaty rocks in southeastern Alaska showed that the usual relationships between cleavage and structure—uni- formity of dip and strike over large areas—did not apply. The cleavage varied from place to place within a short distance. In general it was found to be parallel to the limbs of folds. In extreme cases it was even found dipping in opposite directions in alternate layers varying from an inch up to one foot in thickness. Discussed by Mr. BRADLEY. J. P. MarBLeE stated that the Committee on Determination of Geologic Time desires to secure samples from fine-grained sills, flows or dykes of known geologic provenance, for examination of the “Helium Method” at the hands of Dr. W. D. Urry, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Samples should be from fresh exposures, and not taken from or near old surfaces. They should be sent to Prof. A. C, Lans, Chairman, Tufts College, Cambridge, Massachusetts, or to J. P. Marsus, U.S. Geological Survey. Program.—P. D. Trask and H. E. Hammar: Organic content of sediments. This paper has been published in full in Proceedings of the American Pe- troleum Institute Production Bulletin 214, 1934, and in the Oil and Gas Journal, vol. 33, no. 27, pp. 43-46; no. 28, pp. 40-41; no. 29, pp. 36-39, Nov. 22, 29, Dec. 6, 1934. It is essentially a progress report which presents data about the distribution of organic matter among sediments from several oil-producing areas in California, Wyoming, Colorado, Montana, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The report explains briefly the methods of deter- mining the organic content of sediments; and one method, that of ascertain- ing the degree of oxidation by means of chromic acid, is described in detail. Sediments, in general, contain little organic matter. The average organic content is about 1.5 per cent, and relatively few sediments contain more than 4 per cent. Since the average organic content of recent marine sediments is about 2.5 per cent, it would seem as if the loss in organic matter during burial is of the order of magnitude of 50 per cent. The scarcity of sediments con- taining more than 4 per cent organic matter indicates that a large organic content is not required for the generation of petroleum in commercial quantity, even in consideration of the fact that the organic content of the sediments is less now than at time of deposition. However, the association of so many oil horizons with sediments, like the Miocene of California, the upper Cretaceous of Wyoming, the Cherokee shale and Chattanooga shale in Oklahoma, and the Eagle Ford shale in Texas, which contain consider- able more organic matter than the general average for sediments, indicates that relative richness (but not necessarily extreme richness) is a favorable indication of source beds. On the other hand, the organic content is not an absolute index of source beds; as some rich sediments are not associated with oil horizons, and some oil horizons are not associated with rich sediments. Evidently other factors, like the volatility, the degree of reduction of the sediments, or the ease of migration of oil out of the sediments, have to be considered. In fact, some of the data already obtained seem to indicate that comparatively high volatility and high degree of reduction are favorable in- dications of source beds. (A uthors’ abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. SCHALLER, WELLS, FAHEY. P. J. SHenon: Utah earthquake of March 24, 1934. An earthquake of major intensity which centered near Kosmo, Utah, at the northern end of Great Salt Lake, was felt in 4 states over an area of about 150,000 square miles on March 24, 1934. The first and strongest shock was felt for 650 miles in an east-west direction and for 400 miles in a north-south direction. The in- tensity in the epicentral area was 8 to 8+ of the Modified Mercalli scale of Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 509 1931 and 8+ to 9— of the Rossi-Foral scale. The first shock was recorded in the epicentral area at 8:06 a.m., M.S.T. It was followed by hundreds of aftershocks but no foreshocks were reported. The earthquake was strong enough to alarm inhabitants throughout an area having a radius of nearly 100 miles. Many people became dizzy or nauseated and most people be- came very sensitive to the smaller shocks that followed the first disturbance. Considerable property damage as well as loss of life was avoided only be- cause of the sparsity of population in the epicentral area. All chimneys were shaken down in the epicentral area. Brick and stone buildings at Snowville were damaged and some damage was done as far away as Salt Lake City, where cracks developed in some office buildings. The tracks of the Southern Pacific railroad, 3 miles east of Kosmo, were displaced vertically about 4 inches. A number of ground cracks developed in the epicentral area. Most of the fractures were in the salt flats or in poorly consolidated gravel and related rocks that probably belong to the Lake Bonneville sediments. The ground cracks extended in an east of north direction for at least 5 miles although no one fracture was continuous for a great distance. Rather there was a tend- ency for the cracks to develop en eschelon patterns. All of the fractures noted by the writer had nearly vertical dips and so far as known the move- ment along them was entirely vertical. Four distinct fractures crossed the road about 3 miles north of Kosmo. They were about 14 mile apart. The ver- tical displacement along these fractures ranged from about 2 inches to 20 inches and, except for one, all were displaced downward on the east side. The west side dropped about 3 inches along the fault which crossed the road nearest to Kosmo. Numerous springs developed in the epicentral area as a result of the earthquake. So far as known all of them arose along well defined fractures and most of them formed in the salt flats. Where the flow was localized along fractures mud cones were built up at the surface. Some of the springs that developed during the earthquake flowed as much as 0.5 sec. ft. of water. It is believed that settling and readjustments in the saturated material along the old shore line of Great Salt Lake was responsible for the develop- ment of the springs. The earthquake was probably caused by movements along faults in Hansel valley. All of the fractures showing displacements in the epicentral area were in gravel and related rocks; hence it cannot be definitely stated that they were not formed by slumping and settling as the result of earth- quake vibrations. However, the close association of the fractures with the terraced forms and lines of old springs strongly suggests that the recent dis- placements followed old surfaces of movement. This in turn suggests that the fractures may have been caused by adjustments in the bedrock below and that the faults that define Hansel Valley are still active and that the recent earthquake was caused primarily by movements along these faults. This is supported by the fact that this vicinity has been an active seismic center for many years. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Captain Heck and Mr. C.S. Ross. G. W. Stosr and Anna I. Jonas: An erosion remnant of a great overthrust sheet in the Highlands near Reading, Pa. The Reading-Boyertown Hills of Pennsylvania are a part of the Appalachian Mountains and trend northeast between the Great Valley on the north and the Triassic belt on the south. From their western end in South Mountain, southwest of Wernersville, they are continuous across eastern Pennsylvania into the Highlands of New 510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 Jersey and into New York. The present paper sets forth the results of a structural study of the Reading-Boyertown Hills north of the Triassic rocks during which the mapping of the Paleozoic rocks has been revised and ex- tended and the overthrust nature of the mountain belt has been worked out. The oldest rock in these mountains is a pre-Cambrian graphitic gneiss of sedimentary origin with marble lentils. It is invaded by an igneous com- plex also of pre-Cambrian age. The Lower Cambrian Hardyston quartzite, with an estimated thickness of 300 feet, unconformably overlies the pre- Cambrian rocks. It includes a basal arkosic pebbly quartzite overlain by thick-bedded vitreous quartzite, the upper part of which contains Scolithus linearis. The limestone of the Great Valley includes from the base upward Lower Cambrian Tomstown dolomite, Middle Cambrian Elbrook lime- stone, Upper Cambrian (Ozarkian of Ulrich) Conococheague limestone, and the Ordovician Beekmantown and Leesport limestones, overlain by Martins- burg shale of Trenton to Eden age. The Irish Mountain mass and Lock Ridge, which form a front line of hills, are anticlinal uplifts of pre-Cambrian rocks and Lower Cambrian quartzite which dip normally under Cambrian (Tomstown) limestone. The rest of the mountain area from its end southwest of Wernersville to South Mountain south of Allentown, a distance of over 50 miles, and probably across Pennsylvania to Easton, is part of a great overthrust sheet, here called the Reading overthrust, which has ridden northwestward on a flat fault plane in its crystalline core over Lower Paleozoic rocks which are now exposed in Oley Valley and in many other mountain valleys. Evidence of the overthrust character of the mountain belt is based on structural and stratigraphic discordance of the mountain rocks with the adjoining rocks of the valley border, and mylonites on the borders of the thrust block where pre-Cambrian rocks and quartzites have been ground out into mylonites on the sole of the overthrust sheet. Many small detached areas of the main overthrust sheet, or klippen, oc- cur on the borders of the mountains. The largest is Neversink Mountain lying south of Reading, which is a narrow anticline of pre-Cambrian rocks bordered on both sides by much crushed quartzite. The older rocks of this mountain lie on Middle Cambrian (Elbrook) limestone. The mountains are dissected by many steep-sided flat-bottomed valleys in some of which lime- stone and quartzite are exposed. These valleys are interpreted as windows in the overthrust sheet which has been cut through by erosion to the under- lying limestone. Evidence for this is in the blocks of chert found in most of the valleys, the chert having been formed by silicification of the limestone along the thrust fault, and the presence of granite and quartzite mylonites at the valley borders. The roots of the thrust are buried under the Triassic rocks dropped down by the Triassic border fault. It is suggested that Jenny Jump Mountain, N. J., and the Highlands of New Jersey lying northwest of the Green Pond Mountain syncline of Si- lurian and Devonian rocks are part of the overthrust block observed in the Reading-Boyertown Hills. The Highlands of New York which lie southeast of the Green Pond Mountain syncline trend southwestward and pass under the Triassic sediments southeast of the strike of the overthrust sheet here described. The youngest rock involved in the overthrust is Martinsburg shale, hence the age of the movement is at least post-Eden. It is believed that the thrust is Appalachian in age. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. C. 8. Ross, H. D. Miszr. Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY oll 525TH MEETING The 525th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, February 27, 1935, President ScHALLER, presiding. Informal communications—A. H. KoscHMANN showed a slide illustrat- ing a phenomenon very probably caused by pressure exerted by growing erystals. On Annette Island, Southeastern Alaska, pyrite crystals in a cal- careous shale have tapering wedges of quartz on two and some on four sides. The longest pyrite-quartz crystal is 1.7 inches in length. Molds show that a film of quartz also completely surrounds the pyrite. The quartz shows no crystal outline and it is believed that the wedge-shaped openings now occu- pied by quartz were formed by the growing pyrite. Discussed by Mr. Bevan. Program.—L. G. Hrnpest: Cyclical sedimentation and the stratigraphy of the Bloyd shale, Morrow group, near Fayetteville, Arkansas. The Bloyd shale around Fayetteville, Arkansas, contains three well known members, namely, the Brentwood limestone—at or near the base, the Baldwin coal—near the middle, and the Kessler limestone—about 50 feet below the top. The general character of the Bloyd shale has already been described and is generally known, but certain inconspicuous details of the stratigraphy have a his- torical significance that has escaped attention. This is particularly true of the sediments associated with the Baldwin coal. The Brentwood limestone in this vicinity is typically massive in the lower part but grades upward into alternating marine marl and limestone beds. These marine beds are abruptly terminated above at a sharp, unweathered contact, above which lies 15 feet, more or less, of terrestrial, variously sandy shale. The top of the terrestrial shale is weathered and grades upward into the underclay of the Ealdwin coal. The coal is followed by 0-5 feet of terrestrial, plant-bearing, carbonaceous shale and this in turn by a limy, conglomeratic, quartz pebble bearing marine sandstone, generally 5 feet or more thick. In northeast Fayetteville the limy sandstone is richly fossilifer- ous, but its original character is almost completely obliterated by weather- ing in the natural outcrops. The stratigraphic succession described above is so closely similar to that which characterizes the Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Illinois that it may confidently be considered the same in origin. In certain respects the ex- ample near Fayetteville is even more suggestive of the opinion which the writer has held for some time that the Illinois cyclothems were produced by saltatory but always dcwnward movements of basins of deposition that were open to marine invasion as a consequence of each subsidence. According to this hypothesis, each cyclothem appears to have begun with a relatively rapid and even depression of the basin, accompanied by a similarly rapid marine invasion and recorded by an advance marine deposit composed of macerated and decomposed plant material, mud, and remains of an advance marine fauna. A brief period of crustal stability followed and two different types of sedimentation (marine and deltaic) began simultaneously to fill the shallow basin and to force a slow retreat of the strand line. In marine areas that re- ceived little silt and afforded a normal marine fauna, limestone and limy marls were laid down, but in areas where large amounts of land-derived sediments were received and sudden, drastic changes in the composition of sea water were common, barren clays and silts were deposited. In such locali- ties as the last, sporadic invasions of marine organisms or the drifting in of organic remains from land or sea furnished nuclei for subsequent forma- tion of concretions, both calcareous and sideritic. 512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 The rapidity and wide extent of the submergence that initiates the cyclothem is evidenced by the abrupt change from terrestrial to marine deposition, general absence of erosion at contact, and parallelism of the coal and marine beds. The subsidence which initiated the cyclothem was ac- companied in all likelihood by uplift of adjacent positive areas. As a conse- sequence the streams were rejuvenated and began vigorously to degrade the uplands and to extend deltas into the basin, thereby causing a simul- taneous migration seaward of the strand line and the zones of lime, marl, barren clay, and terrestrial deposition. The migration must have been in- terrupted or its record varied by exceptional floods, climatic cycles, bio- logic changes, shifts in ocean currents, or combinations of all or part of these. The advancing terrestrial deposits were generally cross-bedded, channeled and filled, locally peaty, and generally characterized by great variation in composition, texture, and bedding structure. In their areas of alluviation the master streams or their distributaries evidently migrated from side to side as they advanced and in places cut deeply into or through their own sediments and into the preceding marine deposits, but they generally met strong resistance wherever they encountered the thick peat bed at the top of the preceding cyclothem. Inasmuch as the bottoms of the channels evi- dently were rarely or never exposed to air and as the channels were con- stantly migrating, the sediments beneath the intraformational uncon- formities were not weathered, therefore producing the fresh contacts which commonly are found in Illinois at this position. Back of the advancing front, the low-lying, poorly drained, alluvial plain became a favorable place for the formation of a soil (the anlage of most underclays), the growth of a lush flora, and the accumulation of peat if the climate was propitious. Lo- cally, a veneer of plant-bearing clay or silt was deposited on the peat and ended the cyclothem record, possibly heralding the disturbance of land levels associated with approaching subsidence. The dynamic background for this deformation is not clearly inferable at present, but circumstances strongly suggest a connection between the sur- face processes of simultaneous degradation and aggradation of adjacent areas and the periodicity of crustal yielding. Though covering thousands of square miles in some instances, the load of water-logged sediment composing a cyclothem rarely exceeded 50 to 125 feet, which is about one-sixth to one- twelfth the load supposed to be capable alone of causing an isostatic adjust- ment. In an area weakened by previous failures and enduring accumulating diastrophic stresses, a light load should be capable of hastening failure and promoting a more complete though temporary adjustment to the larger diastrophic forces at work in the region generally. Accordingly, isostatic ad- justment is here regarded as an immediate, dynamic cause of the eyclothem and a factor whose importance as an agent promoting periodicity of def- ormation was much greater than the relative magnitude of its force. In relation to the more remote and fundamental causes of the extensive di- astrophism of the time, isostasy was probably a sort of accessory-after-the- fact agent rather than a primary cause and possibly negligible at that. The black, fissile, marine shale which overlies some coal beds and lies at the base of the cyclothem in which it occurs probably originated from bottom gel in the invading sea. This proposed origin for the fissile shale accounts for the association of macerated plant material, very fine to submicroscopic carbonaceous substance, and marine shells, and accounts for the finely lamel- Nov. 15, 1935 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 513 lar character of this shale. Except when strongly built, marine shells in these fissile shales are generally flattened by subsequent compaction of the sedi- ments. For practical and theoretical reasons the boundary between cyclothems is placed at the beginning of marine deposition above the coal zone instead of at the base of the advance, terrestrial deposits. (A uthor’s abstract.) Dis- cussed by Messrs. Mispr, Wrutiams, Henpricks, GILLuLY, TRASK, SEARS, RUBEY. Captain N. H. Heck: Investigation of strong earthquake motions in Cali- fornia. By means of earthquake maps of the earth as a whole and of the United States, the relation of earthquake activity in California was clearly brought out. A comprehensive attack on earthquake problems is now in progress, which, while primarily for the engineers, has many points of ‘interest to the geologist. For the last two years, measurement of strong earth motions has been in progress by means of short period instruments known as accelerographs, long period instruments known as displacement meters (both types recording photographically) and visually recording in- struments known as the Weed strong motion instruments. The present in- struments are not capable of recording the strongest earthquakes that have occurred in California, but before long such instruments will be available. All of these are operated only during an earthquake. Features of the instru- ments include automatic starting and stopping (starting due to the earth- quake itself), time marking, adequate damping, and naturally, low magnifi- cation. Beginning with the Long Beach Earthquake, valuable records have been accumulated. Among those of special interest to geologists are those from the Long Beach Earthquake of March 10, 1933, which show changes in geological structures in different stations, a very different type of record ob- tained in the Imperial Valley, and records obtained in the same vicinity on several types of instruments. The latter has made it possible to determine the validity of a method of integration perfected by Mr. Frank Neumann of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, which among other things, brings out the fact that at the very starting of an earthquake and in the immediate vicinity of the epicenter, periods ranging from 15 seconds to nearly a minute occur. Triangulation and leveling have been quite well extended in California to cover the principal areas where crustal movement is to be expected. A program with repetition of measurements at reasonable intervals has been developed. The possibility of tilting along major faults is being tested through tiltmeters at the University of California. The various activities are made possible through regular and P. W. A. funds assigned to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Cooperating agencies include the Carnegie Institution of Washington, California Universities, the Structural Engineering Organizations, Bureau of Standards and many others. None of the recent earthquakes have involved important geological changes, therefore the United States Geological Survey and similar organiza- tions have not been required to take an active part in this particular pro- gram, but the need for such geological studies may come at any time. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. RuBry, TRASK, CALLAGHAN. W. D. Jounston, Jr., and G. TUNELL, Secretaries 514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 11 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prepared by Science Service Nores U.S. Naval Observatory.—The greatest outburst of sunspot activity since last summer swept the sun recently, photographs obtained at the Naval Observatory indicate. Above the sun’s equator, on what would be the northern hemisphere of the earth, a giant streamer extended from 47 to 82 degrees of longitude, or over one-sixth of the sun’s diameter. The stream- er’s length was approximately 144,000 miles. In the southern solar latitudes were five separate groups of sunspots, some containing as many as three spots. Coupled with the increased sunspot activity there was a succession of moderately severe magnetic storms, according to reports from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic magnetic station at Cheltenham, Md. ‘‘The storms,” reports W. M. McFaruanp, “seem to be a recurrence of the magnetic activity of late August and late July. There is often an interval of about 27 days between these recurrences, and sometimes such a group of magnetic disturbances wiJl continue to occur for several years with this 27-day in- terval between the appearances. The present group of disturbances seems to have appeared first about two months ago.” National Bureau of Standards.—Dr. Lyman J. Briaces, Director of the National Bureau of Standards, recently announced the formation of a new section for research on organic plastics. The increasing use of these materials by Government departments, coupled with a growing volume of requests for information, made a survey of their sources, properties, and uses impera- tive. Dr. Gorpon M. Kung, the chief of the new section, has been a member of the Bureau’s staff for six years, during five of which he has been engaged in research on plastic materials. Mr. Rawpu W. Situ of the weights and measures division of the National Bureau of Standards left Washington on October 6 to attend a meeting of weights and measures officials of the State of California in Los Angeles, October 16, 17 and 18. On November 6, 7, and 8 he will represent the Bureau at a meeting of weights and measures officers of the State of Michigan at Flint, Michigan. At the Los Angeles and Flint meetings Mr. Smith will speak on the activities of the National Conference on Weights and Measures with particular reference to specifications and tolerances for weighing and measuring devices. Dr. Mitton Harris, the research associate of the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists at the National Bureau of Standards has returned from Europe where he visited the laboratories of the British Wool Research Association, the Shirley Institute for Cotton Research, the British Leather Manufacturers Association, and the Leeds University in England; and the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers in France. North American Council on Fishery Investigations.—This organization held its 22nd meeting September 17 to 19, in the Department of Commerce Building. The Council is composed of the heads of fishery services in France, ._ Newfoundland, Canada, and the United States, and eminent fishery scien- tists attached to their respective organizations. During recent years annual meetings have been held for the purpose of coordinating investigations of Nov. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 515 the various countries in North Atlantic waters where fishermen from re- spective countries share in the sea fisheries of the region. Representatives of the United States Government were FRANK T. BELL, Commissioner of Fisheries; Dr. H. B. BiceLow of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion, Chairman of the Council; and Etmmr Hicerns, Chief of the Bureau’s Division of Scientific Inquiry. R. H. Frepumr, Chief of the Division of Fishery Industries, and Messrs. O. D. Sntrn, W. C. Harrinaton, R. A. Nessit, and JoHN R. WesstTerR of the Bureau’s North Atlantic staff of biologists attended the meeting and participated by presenting reports on scientific investigations during the past year. Fishery experts of Newfound- land, Canada, and the United States presented technical reports on their investigations during the past year dealing with cod, haddock, mackerel, herring, Atlantic salmon, and other important species, and dealt extensively with improved methods of investigation regarding currents, temperatures, and chemical composition of sea water that affect the success of the various © fisheries. Plans for collecting improved fishery statistics as a guide to indus- try were also developed. At the close of the session the Council adopted a resolution calling upon the Government’s representative to draft an international treaty for the protection of the great North Atlantic haddock fishery. Reports of investi- gators indicated that this fishery, worth to the fishermen more than four and one-half million dollars in 1933, is facing commercial destruction. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries investigators have demonstrated that a tremen- dous destruction of undersized, unmarketable fish occurs in trawl fishing. In some years this destruction has amounted to two-thirds of the total num- ber of fish caught. Practical experiments at sea have shown that an increase in the size of the openings in the net from 3 inches as now used to 434 inches will permit the escape of the great majority of these young fish and thus re- duce the strain of the fishery by more than one-half. On the basis of these findings the Council recommended to the governments of the nations con- cerned the drafting of a treaty to require the use of nets of larger mesh. National Park Service—VERNE E. CHATELAIN has been designated as Acting Assistant Director in charge of the Service’s newly-established Branch of Historic Sites and Building, Washington Office. Authorization for establishment of this branch was contained in the 1936 Interior De- partment Appropriation Act. Dr. Fritior M. Fryx=.u, formerly of the Washington Office, has been transferred to the Service’s Field Educational Division at Berkeley, Cali- fornia, where he will plan museum exhibits for western national parks. Bren H. Tuompson, special assistant to the Director, has returned to Washington Headquarters from the West, where he accompanied Director Cammerer and members of the Senate Committee investigating proposed national park sites. KennetH B. DisHer, is now connected with the Eastern Museum Division, Washington Office, lining up the Bureau of Reclamation Exhibit for the new Interior Department Building Museum. Mr. Disher came to Washington from the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, for which area he planned museum exhibits. During the summer of 1934 he served as a ranger naturalist at Grand Canyon National Park and was stationed at the Wayside Museum. Asiatic grasses for the West.—Erosion-checking grasses and other plants that can fight the droughts, winds and occasional floods of the Great Plains 516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 11 area have been sought in Asia by three expeditions of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Now, the explorers’ work finished, the seeds and cuttings are being tested under field conditions at four stations in the West by agrono- mists. The expeditions were in Asia at various times during the past two years. One, under H. G. MacMiuuan and J. C. Srerxens, collected in Manchuria. A second, under the direction of H. L. Westover and C. R. ENLow, traversed Russian Turkestan. The third, under Prof. NicHoLas Roegricu, worked in northern China. The scientific spoils thus far checked number well over 2,000 lots of seed and planting stock, with some ship- ments yet to be accounted for. Among them are 798 grasses, 555 legumes and 889 miscellaneous items. By far the greatest number of packages re- ceived were in the Westover-Enlow collections. PERSONAL ITEMS Surgeon-General Hucu 8. CumminG attended a meeting of the Health Committee of the League of Nations at Geneva, October 7 to 16, and also the sessions of the International Health Office in Paris, beginning October iva Commissioner Frank T. BELL of the Bureau of Fisheries, U. 8. Depart- ment of Commerce, was elected president of the American Fisheries Society, at its September meeting in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In attendance with Mr. Bell were R. H. Frepuer, Etmer Hicerns, Tep Litrie and H. §. Davis, of the Bureau. Col. Ropert Brrnis, U. 8. Army Ordnance Corps, retired, was awarded the Ordnance Medal of Merit by the Army Ordnance Association, in recog- nition of his pioneer work in gun design. @Obituary FrepeErick L. RaNsomp, economic geologist and a former president of the Washington Academy of Sciences (1918), died at his home in Pasadena, Calif., October 6, 1935. He was born at Greenwich, England, December 2, 1868. At the University of California he received the B.S. degree in 1893, the Ph.D. degree in 1896, and Phi Beta Kappa membership in 1910. From 1896 to 1897 he was assistant in mineralogy and petrography at Harvard University. In 1897 he joined the U. 8S. Geological Survey as assistant ge- ologist and from 1912 to 1923 was geologist in charge of the section of metal- liferous deposits. During the next four years he was professor of economic geology at the University of Arizona, and from 1927 until his death he held a similar position at the California Institute of Technology. Doctor Ransome was active in many clubs and scientific societies, includ- ing the National Academy, Geological Society of America, American As- sociation for the Advancement of Science, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and Society of Economic Geologists. He was an associate editor of Economic Geology and the American Journal of Science. His numerous publications deal chiefly with the ore deposits and geology of western mining districts. Aq \ CONTENTS Puysics.—The Dorsey fathometer. HrrBert GROVE Dons. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.—Alternating axes and a symbols 1 crystallography. J.D. H. Donnay.............. : Borany.—The genus Chionopappus of Besruane (Asteraceae). North ‘Ace CHARLES B. ee Se 2 es BAGO PS. 7 A. 6 wh bec d uead oe sae Ce ee ee ee GEOLOGICAL: SOCIETY... o.0 o R 1 ol oe a ee eee arc Screntiric Norms anD NEWS... 2... ..ceeseseesectaee OBITUARY: FREDERICK L..RANSOME? <). 0 o7.4 saacea adele eng This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals ahr ‘ tae x P re At ae Mahi * oe 3 ite tae 7" wah ts met i ba oe 4 aaN Sag 23 A 4 dhs oe j 4 eee Vou. 25 DEcEMBER 15, 1935 No. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Joun A. StmevENSON F. G. BrickwEDDE Rouanp W. Brown BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURBAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. T. Wenseu Haroutp Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY E. A. GoLpMAN W. W. Ruspny BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIDTY R. E. Gipson CHEMICAL SOCIDTY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Aunarp Sr. at MpnasHa, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis, Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925, Authorized January 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; 3 . proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3 notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issu monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. mT a/> - - DL > si aloe onan! eo invite Ue. 4 J = / 1 ty oe ee all e bs in a Shae: r . aT fs ‘ph 5 bred en 9 tht os é& Sing - ype JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 25 DECEMBER 15, 1935 No. 12 CHEMISTRY.—The occurrence of the methoxyl, ethoxyl and methyl- ene dioxide groups in substances of vegetable origin and a possible explanation of the mechanism for their formation by the plant.! C. A. BrownE and Max Puruuips, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. The alkoxyl group, particularly the methoxyl group -OCHs, is found widely distributed in substances of vegetable origin. Alkoxyl groups containing a greater number of carbon atoms than that found in the ethoxy] group -O-CH,-CH; rarely occur in substances of plant origin, and even the ethoxyl group has been found infrequently in -O such materials. The divalent methylene dioxide group SCH al- though it is found in certain alkaloids, such as piperine, hydrastine, berberine, narcotine, and narceine, and in certain constituents of essential oils, such as in piperonal, safrol, myristicin, apiol, and dil- lapiol, cannot, however, be compared with the methoxyl group in its frequency of occurrence and in its wide distribution in the vegetable kingdom. The methoxyl group may be considered as derived from a phenolic or alcoholic hydroxyl group in which the hydrogen has been replaced by a methyl group. The substance thus formed is a methyl ether. When acidic hydroxyl groups are thus substituted methyl esters are formed. It is of interest to point out in this connection that the methoxyl group does not occur in substances synthesized by the animal body. It appears that the synthesis of the methoxyl group can be brought about by all plants from the very lowest to the very highest in evolu- tionary development. Thus prodigiosin, the red coloring substance produced by Bacillus prodigiosus, was found by Wrede and Roth- haas (19) to contain one methoxyl group. As we examine the higher 1 Received June 3, 1935. S17/ 518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 12 forms of plant life among the Thallophytes we find that the moulds, are capable of synthesizing compounds containing the methoxyl group. Thus Birkinshaw and Raistrick (1) isolated a methoxy di- hydroxy toluquinone from a glucose solution on which a species of Penicillium belonging to the P. spinulosum series had grown. Numerous compounds containing the methoxyl group have been isolated from lichens. Thus solorinic acid isolated by Zopf (20) from Solorina crocea was shown to contain one methoxyl group. According to Hesse (6), solorinic acid contains two methoxyl groups and is represented by this formula: OH OH OH OCH; C;H,O- OCH; OH OH OH Sordinin isolated by Paterno and Crosa (10) from Lecanora sul- phurea was found to contain one methoxyl group. Evernic acid which occurs in Hvernia prunastri and in Ramalina pollinaria and chryso- cetraric acid which has been isolated from Cetraria pianastri were both found to contain methoxyl groups (5). With reference to the occurrence of the methoxyl group in sub- stances synthesized by Bryophytes, mention may be made, of the work of Fischer, Schrader and Friedrich (3), who found that Sphag- num medium contained 0.32 per cent methoxyl, and that the coarser fibers of Sphagnum cuspidatum contained 0.39 per cent methoxyl. The fraction of S. medium which was insoluble in fuming hydrochloric acid contained 1.33 per cent methoxyl. The occurrence of methoxyl-containing substances among the Pteridophytes has been definitely established. Linsbauer (8) has shown that plants belonging to this group, unlike Thallophytes and Bryophytes, contain lignin in their cell structure. It has been de- finitely shown that lignin contains methoxyl groups (12). Among the Spermatophytes, substances containing the methoxyl group are so numerous and so widely distributed that it would be difficult indeed to find any plant whose constituents do not contain this group. Lignin which is a constituent of the woody (lignified) portions of higher plants, such as stalks, stems, cobs, hulls, leaves, trunks of trees and shrubs, contains methoxyl groups. DWrewl5) 1935 BROWNE AND PHILLIPS: VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES 519 Whatever the physiological significance of the methoxyl group may be, it must be borne in mind that it is found in substances that may occur in almost any organ of a plant, from the root to the flower, and in plants very remote phyletically from one another. No attempt will be made here to list all the many substances isolated from Spermatophytes and known to contain the methoxyl group. Mention will be made of only a few such substances selected from a variety of families and also from different organs of the plant. The purpose of this presentation is merely to indicate the rather common occur- rence of the methoxyl] group in substances of plant origin. The glucoside coniferine occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods and also in the black root of Scorzonera hispanica (9). This com- pound when hydrolyzed yields glucose and coniferyl alcohol (16), OCH: Oi ———_ OHS Ct CHLOE. ™ OH Vanillin, which is the methyl ether of protocatechuic aldehyde, occurs widely distributed in the vegetable kingdon, but more es- pecially in the fruit of Vanilla planifolia, a plant which is a native of the forested valleys of the eastern Mexican Andes, but is now culti- vated in nearly all tropical countries. Among the phenol ethers which have been found in many flowering plants mention may be made of the following: Methylchavicol, ane- thol, dimethyl ether of thymohydroquinone, eugenol, methyleugenol, isoeugenol, methylisoeugenol, asarone, apiol, dillapiol, and myristicin. These compounds have been isolated from plants belonging to the following families (14): Aristolochiaceae, Annonaceae, Myristica- ceae, Lauraceae, Rosaceae, Myrtaceae, Umbelliferae, and Labiatae. Among the class of plant alkaloids, numerous representatives con- taining the methoxyl group are found (4). Only a few need be men- tioned in this connection, namely, berberine, papaverine, laudano- sine, quinine, brucine, anhalamine, mezcaline, anhalonine, lopho- phorine, hydrastine, dehydrocorydaline, bulbocapnine, corytuberine, glaucine, codeine, and narcotine. The alkaloids have been found in the following natural orders of plants: Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae, Papaveraceae, Fumariceae, Solanaceae, Leguminosae, Apocynaceae, and Compositae. Many of the plant pigments and coloring substances contain methoxyl groups. Mention may be made of gentisin (7), which is the coloring substance of gentian roots; curcumin (2), a constituent of 520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 12 several species of Curcuma, acacetin (11), the coloring matter of the leaves of Robinia pseudacacia (L.); peonidin (17), which occurs in the form of its diglucoside (peonin) in the flower of the deep violet- red peony; oenidin (18), the product of hydrolysis of oenin pigment of the black grape; and myrtillin (18), (a monoglucoside of myrtil- lidin), the pigment of the fruit of the bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus). SPECULATIONS CONCERNING PHYTOCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS OF METHOXYL, ETHOXYL, AND METHYLENE DIOXIDE GROUPS Pictet (13), in a paper dealing with the genesis of the alkaloids in plants, suggests that the methoxyl group, which is met rather fre- quently in this class of organic compounds, and the methylene dioxide group are formed by the plant from formaldehyde. According to Pictet, the reactions which take place may be represented by the following equations: ROH + CH.0 = ROCH; + O OH 0 IN Riot ia OREO Re (CH: + HAO. NOE! O Robinson (15), in connection with his theory of the mechanism of the phytochemical synthesis of certain alkaloids, has adopted Pictet’s conception of the formation of the methoxyl and methylene dioxide groups by the plant. While the formaldehyde hypothesis of Pictet might explain the formation of the methoxyl group in substances synthesized by higher plants, it obviously cannot account for its presence in compounds produced by certain Thallophytes, as, for example, the fungi. Thus, for example, it canot account for the formation of methoxyl dihy- droxy toluquinone by a species of Penicilliwm which grew on a solu- tion containing pure glucose as its sole source of carbon. (1). The writers wish to offer the following suggestion as a possible ex- planation of the mechanism involved in the formation by the plant of the methoxyl, ethoxyl, and methylene dioxide groups: These groups, it is believed, are not synthesized by the plant directly from formaldehyde by a process of methylation or methylenation, but are formed in the course of splitting up of carbohydrates by a process of hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, and dehydration. The reactions which take place may be illustrated as follows: Dec: 15, 1935 BROWNE AND PHILLIPS: VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES 521 FORMATION OF METHOXYL GROUP —CHOH | -¢- = ss On 0-6 .,,... ,-CHOH CH,0-CH I l oxidation ] ] fp ele si —CH —- O05 = <= © OH=.-- | -C- | hydrolysis | -C- -C- | gees KG res m7 ot ar ee. 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