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Pepi As tye y ; A f vier a + Oy tp Sa Wed T a be 2 ae hail he ged We As ee oa tee ai Sith cad ahs he ie 5 2. = ts 4 Ai othe 8 9 ye 08 bacpe Ate ie bor ign ple eh eS att beh he ae ae ha | ae Wee aC waved wd Ms abe tothe : 5G) Aer Mas 4 Ye ch ethide Meats gona rid Yeah va Lae Phra acieae ye yee soe TAedn ari ce deta Opin eet + 2a wn wai i 2" te a, os be eer tot tay Sys 02120 gs “ Hy, thes eae ead a he eer Pe Qe eee a ha ew jedeaserbee * =. ~ * Tete oh es ky ey sos pseaen E Git ay « chs as es Fe ee eee a aihah tere =, He Cue ot ed vet er ha tee et sbyae oe 2S3% sane yer eel Gote Ge ingeds = = #5 wee bie js es rf a ae 11s 4 Wh bege Le are Rede bn eH pear Cin a ‘paw Sa ee eee et sits va: $xt : pie a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 383, 1943 BOARD OF EDITORS G. ARTHUR COOPER JASON R. SwWALLEN LE. V. Jupson U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS W. Epwarpbs DEMING C. F. W. MuESEBECK PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Haraup A. REHDER Epwin KirKk BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT WiuuiaAM N. FENTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY : ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY JaMEs I. HoFFMAN CHEMICAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 AHNAIP ST. AT Mmnasua, WISCONSIN ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 33 No. 1, pp. 1-382, January 21, 1943. No. 2, pp. 33-64, February 18, 1948. No. 3, pp. 65-96, March 12, 1943. No. 4, pp. 97-120, April 22, 1943. No. 5, pp. 121-160, May 17, 1943. No. 6, pp. 161-192, June 15, 1948. No. 7, pp. 193-224, July 8, 1943. No. 8, pp. 225-256, August 12, 1943. No. 9, pp. 257-288, Sepicmnber 8, 1943. No. 10, pp. 289- 320, October 1, 1943. Nowlt, pp. 321-352, November 13, 1943. No. 12, pp. 353-388, December 15, 19438. t ss OURNAL OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS G. ARTHUR Coormr Tare Jason R. SwaLLen Gas 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM é BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE, EDITORS C. F. W. 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Rossini, National Bureau of Seadaeds: os Treasurer: Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NaTHAN R. Smiru, Bureau of Plant Industry. ac Custodian of Publications: eee W. Dieu, eines of Plant Industry. : - et . 3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 33 BOTAN Y.—Ceroxylon ferrugineum André, the Salento waxpalm.! BomMuHarp, U.S. Forest Service. The waxpalms (Ceroxylon)? grow in the Andean region of northwestern South America from Caracas in Venezuela to southern Peru, or possibly into Bolivia. In some areas waxpalms occur in such num- bers that they dominate the landscape, forming forests of ivory columns, known as ‘“nalmares.’”? These palms are extremely beautiful—the graceful pinnate leaves crown a usually tall, slender trunk, which is covered with wax. The resinous wax can be scraped from the trunk and fashioned into candles and matches. The leaves are used for thatch and the trunks for con- struction. The outer wood is very hard. The genus is justly celebrated. Certain of the species are unique among living palms—they are the tallest, grow at the highest altitudes, and endure the coldest temperatures of any palms in the world.’ The most renowned waxpalms, which were first made known by Alexander von Hum- boldt, are those of the Quindio region in the Central Cordillera of Colombia. C. quin- diuense (Karst.) Wendl. (= Klopstockia quindiuensis Karst.) is the very tall (60 meters, or about 200 feet) species that grows on the eastern slope at elevations from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (nearly 10,000 feet) and endures temperatures just above freezing. The very different species on the western slope has apparently been without a botanical designation; a valid name for it, published with a brief description in 1879, 1 Received October 9, 1942. 2 The genera Klopstockia Karsten and Beetho- venta Engel are at present referred to Cerozylon Humb. & Bonpl. 3 BOMHARD, Miriam L. The waxpalms. Smith- sonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1936: 303-324, 4 pls., 2 figs. 1937. Spanish translation: Las palmeras de cera. Bol. Soc. Geograf. Colombia 6(4): 250-273, 3 pls. 1940. JANUARY 15, 1943 No. 1 Miriam L. has escaped the attention of botanists. It is the purpose of this paper to bring to light that the name C. ferruginewm André‘ ap- plies unmistakably to this species and can refer to no other palm. Although Cerorylon was established in 1807,5 founded upon a single species, C. andicola Humb. and Bonpl., the genus is even now not well understood botanically. It is stated that Humboldt found this palm in the most elevated part of the Andes (the Quindio region), which separates the valley of the Magdalena River from that of the Cauca; more specifically, ‘It is found be- tween the snow-capped summits of To- lima, San Juan, and Quindfo.. . between 1750 and 2825 meters.” This is a roughly triangular area on the eastern slope of the Quindio Pass and must be considered as the type locality of C. andicola. The Ceroxy- lon described in such glowing terms by Humboldt himself in his Vues des Cordil- léres® is probably not the one figured in connection with the formal description of the species by Bonpland in 1807. In fact, Bonpland states on page 4 of Plantes Equinoxiales that ‘‘Humboldt drew this plant on the spot; but the size of the draw- ing being smaller than that of the fascicles which we are going to publish under the name of Plantes equinoxiales, we have been obliged to make a larger drawing from it: it is this which I present here. It was made by Monsieur Turpin, who combines the eminent knowledge of a botanist with the talent of a skillful artist.’”’ The species is 4AnpRE_ Epovarp. L’Amérique équinoziale (Colombie-Equateur-Pérou). Le Tour du Monde 37(945): 101. Feb., 1879. 5 Humpoupt, A., and BoNnpLaNpD, A. Plantes équinoxiales 1: 1-6, pls. la, 1b. Paris, 1807. 6 HumBotpT, A. Vues des Cordilléres, pp. 13- 19, pl. 5. Paris, 1810. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES characterized by a single spathe and violet- colored fruits; the inner perianth (corolla) consists of three separate petals. The habit figure shows a bulge in the trunk. No palm answering to the description and illustration of the type species has ever again been encountered. It is true that vast regions where the genus abounds still re- main to be explored. Although C. andicola has not yet been rediscovered in Colombia, the figure and description may one day prove to belong to a waxpalm of Ecuador, where species with a bulged trunk do exist.’ As early as 1856, Hermann Karsten, who described a new waxpalm genus, Klop- stockia,® stated that he had been unsuccess- ful in locating Humboldt’s C. andicola on the eastern side of the Quindio, nor had he seen any waxpalms that agreed with the description of the genus. In 1858,!° there- fore, he published K. quindiuensis (trans- ferred to Ceroxylon by Wendland) for the waxpalms he found “‘in the Quindio at the foot of Tolima, altitude from 2200 to 2280 meters.”’ All the palms he saw had tall straight trunks (not ventricose), there were several spathes as in other members of Klopstockia, the fruits were coral-red, and the corolla was partly united below. Humboldt appears to have been some- what in error concerning the altitudinal limits for palms on the eastern slope. It is known that he crossed the Quindio divide and was then forced to camp for several days because of rains, but there is no indi- cation that he noted the different character of the waxpalms surrounding him then on the western slope. In March, 1876, however, Edouard André, traversing the Quindfo trail from east to ™C. ventricosum Burret is bulged and has grouped leaf segments. C. utile (Karst.) Wendl. was described by Karsten as having aggregate leaf segments but he made no mention of a ventricose trunk. It is of interest that Richard Spruce listed a palm in Ecuador as being C. andicola (Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes... during the years 1849-1864, vol. 2: 268. 1908). 8 KaRSTEN, HERMANN. Plantae Columbianae. Linnaea 28: 251-255. 1856. ® KarsTtEN, HERMANN. Die Vegetationsorgane der Palmen. Phys. Abh. Kongl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1847: 73-235, pls. 1, 2. 1849. Also Kar- STEN, Linnaea, 1856: 251. 10 KARSTEN, HERMANN. 1—2, pl. 1. Berlin, 1858. Florae Columbiae 1: VOL. 33, NO. 1 west, that is, from Ibagué to Cartago, and following the exact route that Humboldt took in October, 1801, at once observed that a different species occurred on the western side. André headed a scientific expe- dition (mission) to Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, having sailed from St. Nazaire on November 7, 1875. He returned to Europe at the end of September, 1876. His official report" enumerates his extensive collections of herbarium specimens, seeds, living plants, insects, minerals, and other specimens of scientific interest. His travel and explora- tion account was published in a series of articles, L’ Amérique équinoxiale, which ap- peared intermittently in Le Tour du Monde, from 1877 to 1880. This weekly journal is well printed and excellently illustrated. It was devoted to accounts of travel and ex- ploration. The name Ceroxylon ferrugineum was first published by André, with a brief de- scription (amounting to a contrast of this palm with that on the eastern slope which he continues to refer to C. andicola), in Le Tour du Monde, vol. 37, no. 945, p. 101, 1879. It might be well to quote at some length from page 101. André states: On the faith of Humboldt and other voyagers, I indicated in a study of Ceroxylon andicola* that the altitude where they grow is between 1750 and 2825 meters. I am today correcting these figures from my own observations. On the eastern slope of the Quindio, I have not en-— countered this tree before 2,000 meters altitude and I have followed it up to 3,000 meters. The most abundant ‘‘palmares’’ are situated in the vicinity of Las Cruces between the elevations of Toché and La Céja. In going towards Ibagué, one encounters the palm until near Mediacion. The zone where it abounds only extends 15 to 20 kilometers, as a bird flies, north and south from the mesa of Herveo to the massif of the Quindio. ...I have vainly searched the oak forests (Quercus Humboldti) which the celebrated Ger- man traveler said accompanied the wax palm. The oaks, which scarcely go beyond 1800 meters and which I had already noted... belong to a * See Illustration horticole, 1874, p. 9, with figure. 11 ANDRE Epovarp, in Archives Missions Sci- entifiques 5 (sér. 3): 49-83. 1879. On p. 55 André reports that he sent specimens of the Quindio waxpalms to Paris; also that many points con- cerning Humboldt’s C. andicola remain obscure and that he hopes he will be able to clarify them. JAN. 15, 1943 temperate, not a cold, country. These reasons make me believe that Humboldt has confused the true Cerozylon andicola, that of Las Cruces, with another species, smaller, as yet little known (C. ferrugineum). It is characterized especially by the rough surface of its berries, and it abounds in the Andes, principally on the west of the Central Cordilleras and almost into the Republic of Ecuador. After crossing the crest (3,485 meters), André observed that the vegetation was at first quite similar to the unimpressive high- altitude flora of the opposite side. Continu- ing his descent toward Salento and the Cauca valley, he remarks, on page 106: “But as soon as the barometer indicated 2800 meters altitude and large trees domi- nated, then giant oaks appeared, this time intermingled with the other species of wax palm of which I spoke previously, Ceroxylon ferrugineum.”’ He states further, on page 108, that the waxpalms disappeared along his route on the western slope at 1,800 meters. Baron von Thielmann, in Vier Wege durch Amerika (1879), says on page 374 that he arrived at the lower limit of the waxpalm at 1,750 meters, near the Rio Quindio (western slope). His footnote to this remark is worth quoting: According to the statements of the latest plant explorer in this region, Ed. André, these wax palms at the western base of the Quindio were not identical with those of the eastern slope, but be- longed to the related species, Cerorylon ferru- gineum. The wax palm of Humboldt in the narrow sense, Ceroxylon andicola, inhabits according to André only the eastern slope of the Cordillera between 2,000 and 3,000 meters. Interestingly enough, the name Ceroxylon ferrugineum has appeared in botanical lit- erature but not ascribed to André. This may be due to the fact that André’s name was published in a journal devoted to travel. Indeed, this name has been variously listed as being of horticultural origin,” or credited 122 KERCHOVE (DE DENTERGHEM), OSWALD. Les palmiers. Paris, 1878. On p. 238 of the Index Général, Ceroxylon ferugineum (sic) Hort., is listed as an invalid name, being in boldface type which he uses to indicate invalid species. The origin of C. ferrugineum as a horticultural name, and this appears to be the earliest printing of it, can only be surmised. André was himself espe- cially interested in ornamentals. He returned from South America in 1876 and had sent large quanti- BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 3 to Regel,*® to Wallis,“ or to Linden.” The entry as a valid name given in Index Kew- ensis 1s as follows: “ferrugineum, Regel, Gartenfl. (1879) 163. t. 977.—N. Granat.” In this brief article (June, 1879) Regel makes known three palms that were col- lected by G. Wallis somewhere in tropical America. Regel states that the name Cero- xylon ferrugineum seems to have been given only provisionally by Wallis to this palm. There is no description. Figure 3 of plate 977 consists of three elements: a habit sketch of some feather-leaved palm (there are no spathes, nor is it discernible whether the pendant inflorescences are in fruit or in flower), a fruit with burst pericarp, and a seed showing the micropyle. The fruit and seed may possibly belong to some Cerory- lon; the habit sketch is unidentifiable. Dr. Max Burret!* is eminently correct in con- signing this name to “nomina delenda’’; that is, insofar as Regel’s Gartenflora is con- cerned. But this is not the first date of ties of palm and other seeds, living plants, etc., to J. Linden’s horticultural establishment in Ghent, as mentioned on p. 70 in his official report (Ar- chives Missions Scientifiques, 1879). There was ample time for the name to be known among horticulturists between André’s return and his publication of it. If it did not originate with him— and this seems unlikely—at least he is the first to have given characters to the different palm on the western slope of the Quindio. Dr. Burret also cites the name as a horticultural one. See footnote 16 as well as footnote 14 (Dahl- gren’s Index of American palms). 13 REGEL, EDUARD. Gartenflora 28: 163-164, pl. 977, fig. 3. June, 1879. 14 REGEL, EDUARD. Op. cit. 389. In the index the name appears as follows: ‘‘Ceroxylum (sic) fer- rugineum Wallis 163.” See also DAHLGREN, B. E., Index of American palms. Bot. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 14: 86. 1936. The entry on this page as an invalid name is ‘‘ferrugineum Hort. Wallis, RegelGartentl-- nomen). 7’ 15 LINDEN, J. Plantes introduits et mises pour la premiere fois dans le commerce par lI’ établissement J. Linden. Illus. Hort. 28 (sér. 4, no. 1): 15-16. 1881. It has previously been mentioned that André sent some of his South American material to J. Linden for introduction. The entry on p. 16 of Linden’s palm list reads, under Ceroxylon: ‘“ferrugineum, Lind., Colombie.”’ 16 BuRRET, M. Die Gattung Ceroxylon Humb. et Bonpl. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem 10 (98): 853. 1929. The name is listed under the heading ‘‘Species nimis imperfecte notae vel nomina delenda’”’ as follows: ‘“‘Ceroxylon fer- rugineum Hort. in Regel Gartenflora XXVIII (1879) 163, tab. 977, fig. 3.”’ He suggests that the species be looked upon as a ‘“‘Species delenda.”’ 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES publication of C. ferruginewm. Inasmuch as vol. 37 (the first semester of 1879) of Le Tour du Monde begins with no. 939, there seems to be little question that no. 945 ap- peared in the third week of February, 1879. (The even earlier horticultural nomen in Kerchove may be disregarded. See foot- note 12.) André collected herbarium specimens of 4,300 species, with one to ten duplicates for each number.’ His herbarium collection numbers reached 3,175 by the time he ar- rived at Pasto (this includes his trip over the Quindio). Two waxpalm specimens col- lected by André (nos. 2426 and 2563) are deposited in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. The labels bear the designation, ‘‘Mission scientifique de Ed. ANDRE, HERBARIUM AMERICAE AEQUINOCTI- ALIs.”’ Specimen no. 2426 was collected on March 9, 1876, between Las Cruces and Quindio, that is, on the eastern slope. It consists of portions of two glabrous spa- dices, one with some male flowers. The date of collection for specimen no. 2563 is March, 1876; the locality, ‘‘Quindio-Salento-Tam- bores.”” Tambores does not appear on re- cent maps of the area, but it is clearly indi- cated on André’s map no. 5 (his route from Quindfo to Cartago, thence south to Buga) about two-thirds of the distance from Sa- lento toward Cartago.!® This specimen con- sists of the upper portion of a fruiting spadix to which, unfortunately, no fruits are attached. The axis and branches are clothed with a rusty-brown scurf—the ob- vious ferruginous character on which An- dré based his very appropriate name, fer- rugineum. Fig. 1, F, shows a small branch of André’s specimen. 17 ANDRE Epovuarp, in Archives Missions Sci- entifiques, 1879, p. 69. 18 ANDRE, Epouarp. Le Tour du Monde 37: (945): 99. 1879. 19 Hxamination of this and later collections of C. ferrugineum shows that this covering is rather remarkable in character. Although the spadix ap- pears at first glance to be clothed with rusty tomentum, it is clear under a lens that there are no trichomes. The scurf that clings to the surface appears to have been developed from numerous papillae or crater-like projections which occur on the basic surface of the spadix axis. The scurf is not easily rubbed off with the fingers. It ignites quickly when touched off with a match and the odor emanating from it in burning is similar to that when the wax on the trunk is ignited. VOL. 33, NO. 1 It is likely that fruits accompany other specimens of André 2563. André mentions, on page 100 of vol. 37 (Le Tour du Monde), in connection with the felling of a tree of ‘‘C. andicola” (east slope of the Quindfo), that the thousands of berries, some leaves, spathes, and trunk sections that he sent to Europe had become the property of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. It is reasonable to suppose that adequate material of C. ferrugineum was also col- lected by him. He specifically stated, however, that the fruits were characterized by their rough- ness, thus differing from those of the species on the eastern slope. Specimens of this smaller palm from the western slope of the Quindio, collected by E. P. Killip, of the Smithsonian Institution, and Dr. T. E. Hazen, of Columbia University, in 1922, have berries whose surface is roughened by small pustules.2® There are two sheets in the U. S. National Herbarium of Kullip 9049, collected July 25-31, 1922, near Sa- lento in the Department of Caldas, between 1,700 and 1,900 meters altitude. One con- sists of an upper section of a leaf; the other, of a portion of fruiting spadix, with the fruits in an attached pocket. A photograph of the palm is also affixed to the sheet. A single sheet of Killip 9049 in the New York Botanical Garden consists of a similar leaf portion, section of spadix, and pocket of fruits. Two mounts comprise the U. 8S. Na- tional Herbarium specimen of Hazen 10149, collected August 25-28, 1922,.in the Quin- dio valley, toward Rio Boquio, between 1,600 and 1,700 meters. Part of a leaf is mounted on one sheet; a spadix section with several fruits attached and a pocket of fruits make up the other. The spadices of these specimens, with rather stout zigzag branches, are unmistakably ferruginous; the surface of the spherical fruits, buff-colored when dry is definitely pustulate or “peb- bly.” These specimens were collected in the same region as André no. 2563 and are un- doubtedly C. ferrugineum.” 20 BOMHARD, Miriam L. Op. cit.: 315. 21 On the eastern slope of the Quindio, Killip & Hazen 9525 was collected on August 2, 1922, be- tween La Céja and Agua Bonita, at 2,500 to 3,100 meters altitude. This specimen consists of only a portion of a leaf; a photograph is also JAN. 15, 1943 The most recent, and at the same time the most complete, collection of the Salento waxpalm that I have seen was made by Dr. David Fairchild, July 11, 1941, on the ex- tensive ranch of Dr. J. F. Galloway, at 1,828 meters. The ranch, on which there are hundreds of waxpalms, is situated on the Quindfo River above Salento. Kullip 9049 was also collected on the Galloway place. Dr. Fairchild not only collected seeds for plant introduction but also made a special effort to secure herbar- ium material (Fairchild 1023). I have been privileged to examine parts of a leaf, an entire fruiting inflorescence with spathes, fruits, seeds, and sections of the trunk. In a letter to Dr. Walter T. Swingle, Dr. Fair- child wrote from Bogotdé, July 14, 1941: “They are magnificent palms in a setting so beautiful that you want to stay there forever ...I saw no palm that I thought was quite 200 feet. One that had fallen Dr. Galloway stepped off and it was only 43 paces long. It was a smallish example, I think. Dr. Galloway promised to measure one accurately and let me know. I shall be surprised if any go over 200 feet and most of them I wager will measure under that. This fact does not detract from their amazing beauty and the marvelous character of this organism, which can stand up perfectly affixed. It is probably, from the locality at least, C. quindiuense. It is unfortunate that there are no fruits. The segments of this part of the leaf (probably taken from below the middle) are about 68 cm long and 4 cm wide. They are whitish-scaly on the under surface; the rachis is also whitish- scaly below and on the sides as well. The leaf is apparently much more robust than in C. fer- rugineum. Mr. Killip collected Ceroxylon specimens on March 27 and 28, 1939, along the new Quindio highway, between Cajamarca and the summit of the Divide (eastern slope), at 2,488 meters. The highway more or less parallels the old Quindfo trail, which has now fallen into disuse, but runs 7 to 10 miles south of it. His specimen no. 34540 consists of part of a spadix, which appears to be glabrous but is actually faintly scurfy (puberulous where the scurf seems to have rubbed off), and fruits, which are deposited in the separate fruit collection of the U. S. National Herbarium. They were a reddish color when fresh but are gray when dry; superficially, they are quite smooth. It is almost surely C. quindiuense, or very closely related to that species. The seeds are black as in C. quindiuense. One of these fruits and a cross- section of the seed are shown in Fig. 1, A and B, for comparison with C. ferrugineum. BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 5 straight in the winds of some considerable violence—60 km per hour would be a maxi- mum I think—that blow down the pass.” A complete description of the Salento waxpalm can not form a part of this paper. Knowledge of the flowers is lacking, but ar- rangements made with Dr. Galloway should soon provide flowering material. Certain measurements are also lacking. There is need of an adequate description of the living trees.22 A very general account of Fairchild 1023, which is not offered as a technical de- scription, is given below.” 22 To be fully understood botanically, palms are best studied by investigators who have frequent and ready access to them in their native habitat. Fortunately, Dr. Armando Dugand, director of the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales of the Uni- versidad Nacional de Colombia, with head- quarters at Bogota, has become interested in palms. Among several papers already published toward a comprehensive survey of the Colombian species, a preliminary list, Palmas de Colombia, appeared in Caldasia 1: 10-84, 1940. For Cerozy- lon, see pp. 37-39 of this article. 23 The following account is being given to serve as a partial record of Fairchild 1023 (C. fer- rugineum), since it seems worth while to set down any data that may add to the knowledge of a species. This specimen was collected close to the type locality of André. The trunk is at least 40, and not more than 60 meters tall. It measures about 30 cm in diameter toward the base, tapering gradually to 15 em or less near the summit. The leafscars, which are waxy, do not completely en- circle the trunk (see pl. 2, Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1937). Five turns bring the ninth scar di- rectly above the first. The vascular elements stand out on a section as stiff black bundles. The reduplicate segments, with strong midrib, of the large pinnate leaves are placed uniseriately, without a pulvinus, at rather regular intervals on either side of the rachis. The segments toward the apex of the leaf, closely spaced, are nearly op- posite, whereas those near the middle, at 2-2.5 ecm intervals, are subopposite or alternate. (The lowest section of the ‘‘blade’’ of material I have examined apparently comes from a smaller leaf than the rest of the material. However, in it the 5 or 6 lowest segments are shorter, narrower, and grouped closely together at the base of the “‘blade.’’) The longest segments of the sections I have seen measure 75 cm; these are widest (about 3.5 cm) some distance above their point of inser- tion, tapering toward the apex, which is cleft. The relatively soft, lax segments are glabrous and green above; whitish-scaly beneath. The slender rachis is also glabrous (perhaps somewhat resin- ous) above; the lower face is similar to the under surface of the leaves in its whitish- or grayish- scaly indument; the sides are glabrous. A portion of the leaf, taken from the section where the seg- ments are longest, shows the rachis, which is 2 cm wide at this point, to advantage. There is a shallow groove on the upper face; the lower is rounded-cenvex. A cross-section of the rachis is 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES It seems evident from his treatment of Ceroxylon™* that the eminent palm spe- cialist Dr. Max Burret is, unfortunately, aware neither of André’s publication of C. ferrugineum, inasmuch as he gives only the Regel citation, nor of his herbarium speci- rectangular or, better, vertebra-shaped, rather than triangular as in so many pinnate palm leaves. The sides of the rachis slant downwards at only a slight angle from the upper to the lower face. The margins of the upper and lower faces are some- what extended in phlange-like fashion (probably slightly emphasized in the dry material); the in- sertion of the segments, therefore, appears to be partially concealed in the shallowly U-shaped sides of the rachis. The paniculately branched fruiting spadix is about 24 dm long including the peduncle, which measures 15 dm. It is covered with ferruginous scurf throughout. The axis of the spadix is about 2.5 cm across at its base. There are about 75 pri- mary branches including the smallest ones at the apex. These branches are comparatively stout; strongly thickened where they arise from the main axis. The longest, 20 cm above the base, measures 60 cm. The secondary branches have the zigzag, tendril-like appearance of other Ceroxylon specimens I have seen, but the undulations seem to be more angular. The short thick pedicels of the fruits are set at the undulation angles. (The flowers are, of course, solitary.) Fig. 1, F, showing a branch of André 2563, should make this clear. I hesitate to describe the spathes, which, al- though still attached to the fruiting peduncle in this specimen, are already somewhat lax and spent owing to age, and furthermore, are so fragile that they shatter rather easily. Moreover, the character of the spathes can best be seen when a palm is in flower. The measurements here given are only approximate and provisional. Dr. Fair- child specifically mentioned that there were three spathes, covered with grayish pubescence. How- ever, I find remnants of a fourth partial spathe or bract, which opens from the main axis 30 cm be- low the body of the spadix. Assuming that the peduncle of this specimen, which, like the spathes, is covered with rufous almost velvety scurf, was severed fairly close to the trunk, then the first spathe (15 dm long) comes from near the base; the second (about 18 dm in length) arises about 5 cm above the first; and the third (about 19 dm long) comes off 15 cm above the second, is 8 or 9 cm wide, and strongly folded near the tip. According to Dr. Fairchild the fruits were “deep orange color’? when fresh. They fade to a buff yellow on drying. These are 16 mm in diam. and 17 mm in height (Fig. 1, C). The position of the three stigma remains may be noted to one side of the base of the fruit, where the perianth persists. The outer, rather thin-leathery exocarp is roughened by pustules and is slightly speckled. (Fruits that are not entirely dried out are sub- lustrous because of the wax.) The fleshy mesocarp is rather friable; mucilaginous when placed in water. The papery, gray endocarp adheres lightly to the seed. The seeds (there is one in each fruit) average 12—12.5 mm in diameter and 13 mm or slightly more in height. They are chestnut-brown VOL. 33, NO. 1 mens. It may be assumed that he believes C. andicola occupies the Quindio region from Ibagué all the way to Cartago. Fur- thermore, apparently owing to the fact that. a Ceroxylon specimen collected by August Fendler, in Venezuela but with no other data,> came to his attention, Dr. Burret has added the ferruginous character to the spa- dices of C. andicola.?* He has published the and have a roughish surface. The point of attach- ment is knoblike and the micropyle is prominent just to the side of the knob. The albumen is equable and the embryo subbasilar (Fig. 1, D and £). 24 BurRET, M. Notizblatt 10(98), 1929. See the key, pp. 841-842; the discussion of C. andicola, pp. 842-844, and C. quindiuense, pp. 845-846, in which it is stated that C. quindiuwense has been mainly mistaken for C. andicola. 2% Thus far I have examined two Ceroxylon specimens bearing the label ‘‘PLANTAE VENE- ZUELANAE. Prope coloniam Tovar legit A. Fend- ler.’ That in the New York Botanical Garden is dated 1854-55; the other, in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, is dated 1856—57. There are no additional data. Three other specimens in the Gray Herbarium, all dated 1854-55, are undoubtedly of the same collection as that in New York. Although it is true that the spadices of all are ferruginous and the fruits rough, the latter are mainly twinned, smaller than those of C. ferrugineum, and the surface is much more uneven—verrucose with crater-like projections. Moreover, the sides of the rachis—and therefore the appearance of the insertion of the leaf segments—is quite unlike that of specimens of C. ferrugineum. From ail accounts, it seems practically certain that Fendler did not travel in Colombia. Dr. H. W. Rickett, bibliographer of the New York Botanical Garden, wrote me in a letter of April 26, 1941, that Fendler took up residence in Colonia Tovar, a small colony 35 miles west of Caracas, Venezuela, in 1853. Except for the winter of 1855-56 spent in the United States, he seems to have been in the general region of Colonia Tovar, collecting many plant specimens, until 1858. No doubt, there are Ceroxylon species with ferruginous spadices and rough fruits which await investigation in parts of South America other than the western slope of the Quindfo. 26 BuRRET, M. Palmae neogeae. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem 11(105): 319-820. 1932. In this later note concerning Ceroxylon andicola, Dr. Burret refers to his treatment of the genus in Notizblatt, 1929, and again mentions the Fendler specimen. He states that in the light of specimens Killip 9049, Hazen 10149, and Killip & Hazen 9525, which were sent him for determina- tion, he is puzzled, especially since no. 9525, col- lected at the higher altitude, appears to be C. quindiuense, whereas those of the lower altitude seem to him to be C. andicola. He has determined no. 9525 as C. quindiuense with a question and adds that it is perhaps C. andicola. He determined the other two as C. andicola. Dr. Burret himself previously pointed out Jan. 15, 1943 name C. furfuraceum with Latin description for the Fendler specimen but has placed it under his discussion of C. andicola. I can find no indication in Bonpland’s description (1929) that Triana 720, with its male flowers, is doubtless Klopstockia quindiuensis. The Triana material is thought to have been collected with Karsten, who later described K. quindiuensis. I have examined Triana 720 and 723, collected between 1851-57. A section of leaf and a spadix branch (no. 720 has two branches mounted) make up these specimens. The male spadices are apparently glabrous (actually somewhat puberu- lous under a lens) and glaucous or waxy. The flow- ers agree perfectly with Karsten’s fig. 4, plate 1, Florae Columbiae; the spadix also shows tertiary branching. Moreover, the male spadices of the Triana specimens are strikingly similar to the male spadix of André 2426, collected on the east- ern slope, except that the latter, although glau- cous, is not puberulous. Dr. Burret further states B BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 7 or figures that the spadices of this species are other than glabrous, nor is there any statement in the comparatively detailed description of the fruits that the surface is verrucose. that it is impossible to imagine that male and female plants of the same species would differ in the very striking indument of the spadices. I might add that Ceroxylon is described by Bon- pland as polygamo-monoecious, whereas Karsten’s Klopstockia is dioecious, polygamo-dioecious, or monoecious. It would be enlightening to know the character of the specimen in the Humboldt herbarium in Paris purported to be the type of C. andicola, but without exact locality. Although a clear photograph of it is in the U. S. National Her- barium, Mr. Killip’s negative no. 365, the branches of the spadix section are so dense that I am unable to glean much concerning its char- acter. E Fig. 1.—A, Glabrous fruit of Killip 34540, Ceroxylon quindiuense or near this species; collected on the new Quindfo highway between Cajamarca and the summit of the Divide, at 2,438 meters. The position of the three persistent stigmas to one side of the base of the fruit is indicated. tudinal section of seed showing position of the embryo. D, Outer view of a seed, showing the position of the micropyle in relation to the E, Longitudinal section of seed D, with position of embryo F, Branchlet of ferruginous spadix, André 2563. Drawn by Leta Hughey. (All X23 Killip 9049. hilum. C. ferrugineum, Fairchild 1028. indicated. except F, which is natural size.) B, Longi- C, Pustulate fruit of C. ferrugineum, 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dr. Burret does cite André in L’I]lustra- tion Horticole, 1878, as to his observations concerning Humboldt’s altitudinal data. This excerpt from the Le Tour du Monde articles, although quoted, is not quite iden- tical with the statements that appeared in that journal in February, 1879, inasmuch as André withholds the name of the species on the western slope of the Quindio. This portion of the excerpt reads, ‘‘another spe- cies, smaller, as yet little known, of which I shall speak later.’’?? Dr. Burret also cites Baron von Thielmann’s Vzer Wege durch Amerika, but appears to have overlooked André’s name, mentioned in a footnote. 27 AnpRH, EpovuaRrp. Les palmares de Ceroxylon andicola en Colombie. Illust. Hort. 25: 176. 1878. BOTAN Y.—New names in Quercus and Osmanthus.! (Communicated by WiuuiaM A. Dayton.) U.S. Forest Service. New names for four natural hybrids in Quercus and validation of a combination in Osmanthus are needed for the revision of the Check list of the forest trees of the United States, now nearing completion. The four names in use in Quercus all must be rejected as later homonyms under Articles 60 (3) and 61 of the International Rules of Bo- tanical Nomenclature (Ed. 3. 1935). As no other names are available, new epithets are desired under Article 69. Two of the names were used earlier for fossils, which are not included in indexes of living plants. How- ever, the rules of botanical nomenclature apply to recent and fossil plants alike (Ar- ticle 9). Though it may be questioned whether it is useful or necessary to give hybrids bi- nominal names like species, as permitted by Article 31, this established custom is followed here for uniformity. In genera of many species that cross readily, the number of natural and artificial hybrids may exceed the total number of species. For example, the number of named natural hybrids of Quercus in the United States, already more than 70 and still growing, is greater than the number of native arborescent species of the genus. Experimental evidence of the 1 Received October 17, 1942. VOL. 33, No. 1 Recognition of André’s publication es- tablishes the botanical identity of the dis- tinct species of waxpalm that occurs on the western slope of the Quindifo, in the region of the town of Salento and of the rivers Boquio and Quindio. The full extent of its range is unknown. The elevations at which it grows may be placed, from available data, at 1,600 to 2,800 meters. The material thus far collected in the Salento area is quite uni- form in character. André’s brief descrip- tion,?® substantiated by his own and later collections, appears to be sufficiently ade- quate to validate the name Cerozylon fer- rugineum André. 28 The description seems to meet the require- ments of articles 36 and 37 of the International Rules. ELBERT L. LiTTLe4, JR., origin and parentage has been presented for very few of these supposed oak hybrids. Muller (Amer. Midland Nat. 27: 478. 1942) has recently suggested that some so-called hybrids of Quercus may be only miscella- neous variations unworthy of names. — X< Quercus asheana Little, nom. nov. AsHE Oak Quercus cinerea Michx. XQuercus laevis Walt. Quercus cinerea Xcatesbaet Ashe, Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 88. 1894; Small, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 22: 76, pls. 234, 235. 1895. Quercus brevifolia Xcatesbaer Sudw., U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Forestry Bull. 14: 170. 1897. ee JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 33 ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico.’ University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. FRIEDMANN.) While studying the Mexican birds be- longing to the United States National Mu- seum and to the Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of the Interior, I discovered two previously unrecognized subspecies from Morelos and neighboring states. For permission to describe these forms I am under obligation to Dr. John W. Aldrich, biologist of the Fish and Wild- life Service. This study was aided by a grant from the Faculty Research Fund by the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies in the University of Michigan. Chamaethlypis poliocephala pontilis, n. subsp. Type —U.S.N.M. 186396; adult Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10144. Characters —Agrees in color with Chamae- thlypis poltocephala poliocephala (Baird), from Sinaloa to Nayarit, but wing and tail longer. _ Agrees with C. poltocephala ralphi (Ridgway), from Texas, in having whitish eyelids and pale posterior underparts (i.e., lower breast and belly mixed with pale yellow, white, and buffy; flanks pale buffy brown), but throat and upper breast deeper yellow; back more olive, less grayish; wing and tail longer. Differs from C. poliocephala palpebralis Ridgway, from Caribbean Mexico, in having whitish (instead of yellowish) eyelids; paler coloration throughout; and larger size. Chamaethlypis poliocephala caninucha (Ridg- way) and C. poltocephala icterotis (Ridgway), both from Central America, have black eyelids and are smaller and much more brightly colored. 1 Received October 29, 1942. FER 22 1048 FEesruAry 15, 1943 male;. 33 Nox 2 PIERCE BRODKORB, (Communicated by HERBERT Measurements.—Four males: wing, 61.5-63 (62.3) ; tail, 66-68.5 (67.3). Three females: wing 55.5—-58.5 (57.0); tail, 59.5-61.5 (60.3). In poliocephala the wing measures 57—58.5 in the male (@? 52); tail, 60.5-62 (9 57.5). In ralphi the wing is 57.5-60 ( 952.5-55); tail, 57.5-65 (2 56.5-58.5). In palpebralis the wing is 54.5-60 ( 9 538-57); tail, 56.5-65 ( 9 55.5-62). Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico, in states of Morelos and Michoacan. Material examined.—Morelos (Puente de Ixtla, 1; Yautepec, 1); Michoacdn (Queréndaro, 1; Zamora, 1; Los Reyes, 2). Also adequate series of the described forms, including the types of poliocephala, ralphi, palpebralis, can- nucha, and icterotis. Sicalis luteola mexicana, n. subsp. Type—wu.S.N.M. 186386; adult male; Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10149. Characters. —Differs from Sicalts luteola chry- sops Sclater, of the Caribbean slope of Mexico, in larger size; paler, more golden yellow (less greenish yellow) crown, rump, and underparts; dark streaks of crown narrower and not extend- ing forward beyond eye. Measurements.—Eleven males: wing, 68—72.5 (70.0); tail, 43-49 (45.8). Two females: wing, 66-70 (68.0); tail, 43.5-46 (44.8). In chrysops 13 males measure as follows: wing, 63-67 (65.8); tail, 41-44.5 (438.7). Three females: wing, 60-65 (62.0); tail, 4148.5 (42.0). Remarks.—The type of chrysops, for which the locality is given simply as ‘‘Mexico merid.,”’ was received from the dealer Parzudaki. The figure of the type (Ibis, 1872: pl. 2, fig. 1) clearly indicates a dark bird. The measure- ments of the type published by Sclater (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1861: 376) and by Sharpe 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 12: 384. 1888) are not identical, yet both sets of measurements show that the type was a small individual. I therefore restrict the type locality of chrysops to Orizaba, Veracruz, where the small, dark subspecies cur- rently passing under the name is known to oc- cur, and which town was a likely place of origin for a collection in 1861. VOL. 33, NO. 2 This species of finch was heretofore unknown in literature from the Pacific side of Mexico. Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico, in states of Morelos and Puebla. Material examined.—sS. l. mexicana: Morelos (Puente de Ixtla, 12); Puebla (Atlixco, 2). S. l. chrysops: Veracruz (Orizaba, 1); Chiapas (Palenque, 15). ENTOMOLOGY.—WNew genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae.)! tine. _ Described here are two new genera of Neotropical bark beetles, belonging to the subfamily Ipinae, tribe Pityophthorini, one of them containing two and the other three previously undescribed species. One of the genera is based upon material in the United States National Museum and recognized as new for a number of years, while the other is from material only recently received from Panama. Gnatholeptus, n. gen. Very similar to Pityophthorus Fichhoff in habitus and in many structural details. Body subcylindrieal, weakly to moderately shining; frons flattened, finely, closely punctured with fine hairs in the female; eye large, emarginate, facets coarse; antenna similar to that of Pity- ophthorus, with club distinctly longer than 5- segmented funicle, ovate, with first two sutures strongly but incompletely septate; mandible long, slender, curved, extending well in front of rest of mouthparts, biting surface gougelike, comprising one-fourth or less of inner margin; pronotum margined at base, with anterior area concentrically asperate, summit rather low, with weak transverse impression; elytral de- clivity sloping, weakly to moderately sulcate at each side, third interspace with or without granules, vestiture moderate. Genotype: Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp. This genus, although superficially similar to Pityophthorus and, indeed, much like certain of the species groups of that genus in many de- tails such as antennal structure, can immedi- ately be separated by the extraordinary de- velopment of the mandibles. In all known spe- 1 Received September 10, 1942. M. W. Buackman, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran- (Communicated by C. F. W. MuUESEBECK.) cies of Pityophthorus, as well as in most of the Scolytidae, the mandibles are short and stout, with the biting or chewing surface comprising nearly all the inner margin. In Gnatholeptus, however, the mandibles are long, curved, and comparatively slender. As their bases are widely separated and as only the distal fourth to sixth meet to form the biting surface, they form a sort of arch through which the ventral mouthparts may be seen. It would be interesting to know the feeding habits and mode of life of Gnatholeptus to see what advantage is gained by such unusual mandibles. All the specimens of this genus, however, were taken at light, and nothing is known of their food or habits. Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp. Female—Light reddish brown; 1.77 mm long, 3.10 times as long as wide. Frons convex above, finely, sparsely punc- tured, shining, flattened between eyes below, feebly concave in median area, finely, densely punctured, with a dense brush of fine, yellow, plushlike pubescence of moderate length. Hye rather large, half divided by a deep, V-shaped emargination, facets rather coarse. Antenna similar to that of Pztyophthorus, with club 1.44 times as long as 5-segmented funicle, 1.30 times as long as wide, widest through third segment; sutures arcuate, the first two strongly but in- completely septate. Mandible long, slender, with biting surface confined to only the distal fourth of the inner margin. Pronotum 1.18 times as long as wide, widest on posterior half; posterior border margined, feebly arcuate, posterior angles scarcely rounded; sides straight and subparallel on pos- terior half, broadly rounded in front, anterior Fes. 15, 1943 margin with numerous low, very wide serra- tions; summit near middle, not high; anterior area with very broad, low asperities in nearly regular concentric rows; posterior area feebly, broadly impressed behind summit, finely, rather shallowly punctured, with interstices feebly shining, distinctly reticulate; median line narrow, weakly elevated, impunctate; ves- titure of fine hairs on anterior area, disk sub- glabrous. Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.64 times as long, 1.94 times as long as wide; sides nearly straight and subparallel on anterior three-fourths, rather broadly rounded at pos- terior angles, with extreme apex subacuminate owing to elevation of sutures; surface mod- erately shining; punctures moderately large, deep, in slightly irregular, rather crowded strial rows, only the first impressed; interspaces narrow, rugulose, nearly impunctate except at base and near declivity; disk and sides nearly glabrous. Declivity sloping, bisulcate; suture elevated throughout, more strongly at apex, with fine semierect hairs; first and second striae and intervening second interspace form- ing rather narrow, moderately deep sulcus, punctures much smaller than on disk, third in- terspace elevated, forming summit of lateral callosity, with a row of three small, rather pointed tubercles; interspaces finely punctured and with fine erect hairs. Male unknown. Type locality—Barro Colorado Island, Pan- ama. Host.—Unknown. Type material—Holotype and 13 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 56418. The type series was collected at light, June 20, 1941, by James Zetek. Gnatholeptus panamensis, n. sp. Rather light reddish brown (somewhat im- mature); 1.56 mm long, nearly exactly 3.0 times as long as wide; similar to mandvbularis, n. sp., but with mandibles longer and each bearing a tuft of hairs, and elytral declivity without granules in third interspace. Head retracted, concealing frons; epistomal margin in its median sixth extended to form a projection nearly three times as long as its basal width. Eye coarsely faceted, large, nearly half divided by a V-shaped emargination. An- tenna similar in general to that of mandibularis. BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES 39 Mandible even longer and more slender than in mandibularis, its shaft in middle third bear- ing a tuft of very fine, stiff, yellow hairs, arising from its dorsal surface and extending distad; biting surface confined to distal sixth of its inner margin. Pronotum 1.19 times as long as wide, widest near base; posterior border margined, feebly arcuate, posterior angles scarcely rounded; sides very feebly arcuate, broadly rounded in front, anterior margin with many very low, broad serrations (more numerous and less de- veloped than in mandibularis); anterior area with concentric rows of very low, broad asperi- ties, fused to form nearly entirely regular, concentric ridges; summit rather low, at middle; posterior area feebly, transversely im- pressed behind summit; surface feebly shining, faintly reticulate; punctures fine, shallow; me- dian line narrow, scarcely elevated, impunc- tate; disk subglabrous, anterior area with fine, short hairs. Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.65 times as long, 1.91 times as long as wide; sides subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly rounded, not acuminate behind; surface rather weakly shining; punctures deep, moderate in size, in nearly entirely regular rows, only the first impressed; interspaces moderate, slightly wider than in mandibularis, finely rugulose, nearly impunctate on central disk, with a few very fine, short hairs. Declivity more sloping than in mandibularis; suture rather wide, about equally elevated throughout, with a few fine, erect hairs; first stria strongly impressed, punc- tures obsolete; second stria not impressed, the narrow sulcus formed largely by impression of first stria; third interspace without granules and not so strongly elevated as in mandibu- laris;. interspaces with a few fine punctures bearing fine, semierect hairs. The form described is believed to be a fe- male. The other sex is unknown. Type localityx—Barro Colorado Island, Pan- ama. Host.—Unknown. Type material—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 56419. The holotype was taken at light, June, 1941, by James Zetek. Tachyderes, n. gen. Body cylindrical with surface more or less shining; frons convex above, transversely im- 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES pressed between eyes; antenna with 5-seg- mented funicle, club notably longer, oval, com- pressed, with three arcuate sutures indicated by setal rows, none of them septate; eye of moderate size, inner line emarginate, facets fine to coarse; pronotum little if any longer than wide, margined at base and on sides be- hind, anterior area strongly, rather sparsely asperate, summit moderately elevated above the shining, finely punctured posterior area; elytra finely punctate-striate, subglabrous on disk; declivity arched, very feebly or not at all sulcate, vestiture scanty to abundant. Genotype: Tachyderes floridensts, n. sp. Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp. Female—Light reddish brown; 2.06—2.43 mm long, holotype 2.80 mm long, 2.60 times as long as wide. Frons very wide between eyes; convex above, weakly concave between eyes; surface shining, finely granulate, with one or several large granules or small tubercles above concavity; hairs fine, rather short, inconspicuous except in profile. Eye moderately large, short oval, about one-third divided by a wide emargina- tion; facets coarse. Antenna with club flat- tened, ovate, 1.29 times as long as wide, no- tably longer than funicle, with three subparallel, arcuate sutures indicated by setal rows, none of them septate. Pronotum 1.11 times as wide as long, widest near base, posterior border indistinctly mar- gined, nearly straight, posterior angles not rounded; sides feebly arcuate on posterior third, semicircularly rounded in front, without anterior lateral constriction; anterior margin with eight strong, coarse serrations, longer than wide (occasionally only seven are present) ; summit central in position and moderately high; anterior area steeply arched, with slightly irregular, concentric rows of coarse, moderately sparse, wide asperities; posterior area shining, broadly transversely impressed, with shallow, fine, indistinct punctures; median line impunctate, not elevated; vestiture fairly conspicuous on anterior area, very inconspicu- ous on disk. : Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.89 times as long, 1.71 times as long as wide; sides subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly rounded behind; surface light reddish brown, VOL. 33, NO. 2 moderately shining, reticulate; punctures mod- erately small, shallow, close, in nearly regular strial rows, the first rather weakly impressed; interspaces nearly impunctate on disk and sides, with very few, fine, short hairs. Declivity sloping, suture weakly elevated; first stria dis- tinctly impressed, with punctures obsolescent; second stria slightly impressed, with interven- ing second interspace forming a very shallow, narrow sulcus: interspaces with a few very fine, shallow punctures, bearing moderately short, erect, spatulate bristles. Male.—Much smaller, 1.51 mm long, 2.30 times as long as wide; frons convex above, transversely impressed below, more finely sculptured than in female; pronotum with mar- ginal serrations reduced or partly obsolete; ely- tra with dorsal contour arcuate from base to apex, sculpture weak. Type locality —Paradise Key, Fla. Additional localtties—Haiti, Virgin Is- lands, Mexico, Texas. Host.— Rhacoma crossopetalum L. Additional host.— Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Type matertal.—Holotype, allotype, and 60 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 56415. The holotype and 2 paratypes were taken March 9, 1919, on Paradise Key, Fla., by H. 8. Barber; the allotype and 45 paratypes were reared from Rhacoma crossopetalum, Big Pine Key, Fla., by Barber and Schwarz; 1 paratype each from Biscayne and Key West, Fla., were collected by Hubbard and Schwarz; 1 paratype, Royal Palm, Fla., March 21, 1929, by W. 8. Blatchley; 5 paratypes taken by W. H. Jenkins from Hevea brasiliensis at Bayeux, Haiti; 5 paratypes from Tampico, Mexico, by E. A. Schwarz; 1 paratype taken by Jones and Pratt at Brownsville, Tex., March 20, 1908; 1 paratype, St. Croix, Virgin Islands, H. A. Beatty, collector. Tachyderes parvus, n. sp. Female.—Reddish brown; 1.71 mm long, 2.61 times as long as wide; considerably smaller than floridensts and darker in color. Frons very wide between eyes, feebly shin- ing, convex above, somewhat flattened be- tween eyes, strongly granulate-punctate, with granules coarser above and at sides, and nearly lacking below in median line, hairs sparse, fine, short and inconspicuous. Eye smaller than in Fars. 15, 1943 BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES ov Ai Figs. 1-6.—1, Antenna of female of Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp.; 2, fore tibia of T’. floridensis, female; 3, antenna of Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.; 4, fore tibia of G. mandibularis; 5, frontal view of G. mandibularis; 6, frontal view of G. panamensis, n. sp. The drawings were made by Mrs. Mary F. Benson under the author’s supervision. 3 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES floridensis and facets much finer, nearly one- third divided by a rather wide emargination. Antenna similar to that of other species, club with sutures not so strongly arcuate, none of them septate. Pronotum almost exactly as wide as long, widest near base, posterior outline nearly straight, weakly margined, posterior angles scarcely rounded; sides nearly straight and sub- parallel on posterior half, moderately rounded in front, with anterior margin bearing nine moderately large serrations (smaller than in floridensis); summit very slightly behind mid- dle, moderately high; anterior area with ir- regularly concentric rows of asperities, higher and sharper and more numerous than in floridensis; posterior area feebly shining, mod- erately, transversely impressed, with small, moderately shallow punctures; median line im- punctate; vestiture scanty. Elytra slightly wider than pronotum, and 1.69 times as long, 1.65 times as long as wide; sides subparallel on anterior three-fifths, then gradually narrowed, rather narrowly rounded behind; surface dark reddish brown, moder- ately shining, finely reticulate; punctures mod- erately fine, moderately shallow, in nearly reg- ular strial rows, only the first row faintly im- pressed; interspaces nearly impunctate on disk and sides, with a few minute hairs. Declivity moderately sloping, first and second striae slightly impressed, the punctures obsolescent; interspaces with a few rather short hairs, not thickened as in floridensts. Male unknown. Type locality —Cayamas, Cuba. Host.—Unknown. Type material.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 56416, collected by E. A. Schwarz. Tachyderes harringtoni, n. sp. Female.—Reddish brown; 1.38 mm long, 2.55 times as long as wide; smaller than either parvus or floridensis. VOL. 33, NO. 2 Frons strongly convex, granulate, sub- opaque above, impressed in median area below, shining, finely punctured, with fine, inconspicu- ous hairs. Eye moderately small, facets rather fine, less than a third divided by a wide emar- gination. Antenna similar to that of flori- densts but with sutures of club more weakly arcuate. Pronotum nearly as wide as long, widest near base, posterior outline nearly straight, finely but distinctly margined, posterior angles scarcely rounded; sides feebly arcuate, nearly semicircularly rounded in front, with anterior margin bearing moderate-sized serrations; summit moderate, slightly behind middle; an- terior area with rather sparse, broad, rather low asperities, irregularly, subconcentrically arranged; posterior area feebly shining, broadly, shallowly, transversely impressed,- with small, rather indistinct punctures, the interstices finely reticulate; median line impunctate, not elevated; vestiture moderate on anterior area, scanty and inconspicuous on posterior area. Elytra equal in width to pronotum and 1.70 times as long, 1.68 times as long as wide; sides subparallel on anterior two-thirds, moderately rounded behind; surface reddish brown, sub- opaque to feebly shining, finely reticulate; punctures of moderate size, rather shallow, in nearly regular strial rows, only the first stria feebly impressed on disk; interspaces finely rugulose, with a few fine, shallow punctures, and with a very few fine, short hairs. Declivity of the usual type for the genus, with first stria impressed, the punctures obsolete on first, re- duced on other striae; interspaces with short, erect, cinereous, spatulate hairs more numerous than on other species of the genus. Male unknown. Type locality —Yaguacua, Bolivia. Host.—Unknown. Type material—Holotype and five para- types, U.S.N.M. no. 56417, collected by G. L. Harrington in March, 1924. Fes. 15, 1943 ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew species of syrphid flies in the National Museum.! HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 39 FRANK M. Hutu, University of Mississippi (Communicated by ALAN STONE.) This paper concludes a study of mis- cellaneous syrphid flies in the United States National Museum that was begun several years ago. Earlier reports upon this material have appeared in this JouRNAL. I wish to thank C. T. Greene and Dr. E. A. Chapin for many helpful courtesies and facilities in the study of these flies. The types are in the National Museum; paratypes where available are in the author’s collection. Mesogramma guttifera, n. sp. Distinct in the pairs of oval spots upon the abdomen; the pattern suggests certain species of Xanthandrus. Female —Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shin- ing black; front for a trifle more than the me- dian third shining blue-black, the sides bright yellow; frontal pile white, vertical pile black. Face and all but the posterior portion of cheeks pale yellow, white pilose, the former very short in profile; a very low tubercle lies at the point of greatest forward production. Antennae light brown, the third joint dark but reddish below at base. Thorax: Humeri, the lateral margins throughout, a complete marginal border upon the shining, brownish-black scutellum, the pos- terior half of the mesopleura and upper half of the sternopleura, all light yellow. Disk of mesonotum dull black with a broad, median vitta, which in some lights is light gray, in others bright steel-blue. There are on each side _of this vitta three additional vittae, the middle one of which is much wider, suturally divided, and all three of which are margined at least narrowly with dark blue-black color. Abdomen narrowly oval, shining blackish marked with pairs of translucent, oval, yellow or light brown spots. First segment light yellow, black on pos- terior half. Second segment with a pair of oval yellowish spots, transverse, lying in the middle of each half of the segment, but broadly con- fluent with each other medially. Third segment, in the middle of each half, with a large sub- quadrate, but almost trapezoidal, slightly diagonal spot, the two well separated. Fourth segment with similar spots of almost the same 1 Received August 10, 1942. size, their corners barely more rounded. Fifth segment with similar but smaller and much more rounded oval spots. Legs yellow; the hind femora with a wide, subapical black an- nulus, their tibiae dark brown at base and apex, narrowly yellow in the middle, their tarsi blackish; other tarsi brownish. Wings hyaline; stigma dark brown. Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56421), Guatemala City, IV, 10 (J. M. Aldrich). Baccha amabilis, n. sp. Somewhat similar to flavipennis Wiedemann, with narrower abdomen and fewer linear vittae. Male—Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shining black. The front on upper third is opaque black viewed vertically, and at the eye margin at each lower angleof this triangle thereis a small, punctate, white, hemispherical pubescent spot. The very swollen front is shining brown below, yellowish above the antennae. Face tubercu- late, metallic black, with another white pubes- cent spot on each side at the upper eye margin. Antennae small, light brown, the third joint orange below; second joint nearly as long as third. Thorax very dark brown, with a pair of linear, widely separated, very obscure, gray or blue-black vittae; medially there is a pair of close, still more faint, brown-black vittae. Scutellum lght brown, translucent, its pile and that of mesonotum erect, black, its basal fringe of five or six hairs pale. Abdomen moder- ately slender, parallel-sided from beyond the second segment, that segment constricted a little upon the basal half; color of abdomen light orange-brown, with darker vittae. Third to fifth segments with a pair of very narrowly separated (confluent upon the fifth segment) and narrow, medial vittae; these segments, on each side, with a pair of narrow, lateral vittae, each pair of which is confluent upon its pos- terior half, and whose outer section comprises the lateral margin itself. Second segment light brown with a small, rounded, yellowish, diffuse spot near the middle upon each side. Abdom- inal pile black, fairly long and abundant on the sides of the first segment. Legs: All the femora light yellow, except a wide subapical annulus upon. the hinder pair; remainder of 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES first two pairs yellowish except the tarsi; their tarsi and remainder of hind legs blackish brown; all pile blackish; middle femora with a long fringe on the posterior surface. Wings light gray, very gradually becoming smoky brown on the basal third. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56422), Iquitos, Peru, March—April, 1931 (R. C. Shan- non). Baccha nepenthe, n. sp. Related distantly to conopida Phillipi. This species is characterized by the very slender, light colored, basal petiole of the abdomen, the broadly expanded black terminal part, and the slight dip in the third vein. Male.—Length 10 mm. Head: Front, face and cheeks, and antennae reddish brown, the third antennal joint somewhat darker above. Thorax: Mesothorax black except upon the pleura, humeri, wide lateral margins, scutellum and an extensive area in front of the scutellum, all of which are reddish brown. Pile everywhere extremely short, thick, and pale. There is a median gray-pollinose vitta; also there is a transverse vitta, similar though fainter on each side on the anterior margin of the suture. Ab- domen very spatulate, the second segment long and cylindrical and together with the narrow lateral corners of the first segment and the greatly compressed base of the third segment light orange-brown. Remainder of the ex- panded, flattened abdomen black and black pilose. Legs light reddish brown. Wings: An- terior margin brownish to the end of the stig- mal cell, this cell a little darker and the brown color expanded centrally. Third longitudinal vein slightly curved near the middle, the sub- apical cross vein very sigmoid. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56423), Bonita, Fla., 5-20-1932 (A. R. Taylor). Ex Dactylopius tomentosus. Also one male and one female paratype in U.S.N.M. One paratype in author’s collection. Baccha nymphaea, n. sp. Related to carlota Curran; distinguished by the bicolored nonfasciate abdomen; lateral mesonotal margins continuously yellow almost to scutellum. Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: Vertex and an annular ring before the antennae black. VOL. 33, NO. 2 Front, face, and cheeks yellow, the first tend- ing to brown. Antennae elongate, the first two joints yellowish brown, the third joint black, narrowly reddish below, the arista light brown. Thorax: Mesonotum light ochraceous-brown with four black vittae, the medial pair chiefly confluent along their medial margins and di- verging posteriorly and evanescent some dis- tance from the scutellum. Between the black vittae there is golden pubescence. Scutellum and all of pleura subtranslucent pale yellow. Abdomen subtranslucent yellow to a little be- fore the middle of the third segment and throughout most of the sides of the third seg- ~ ment. Remainder of abdomen brownish black with black pile. Legs yellow, the bases of the tibiae whitish yellow, the hind tarsi more brownish above. Pile yellow except upon the hind trochanters and medial surface of their coxae. Wings with the stigmal cell and both sides of the third longitudinal vein to a point about the middle of the stigmal cell light brown. Third longitudinal vein rather arcuate, the subapical cross vein sigmoid. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56424), Cam- pinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil (H. F. G. Sauer). One paratype, same data, in author’s collection. Baccha eruptova, n.sp. ~ Related to peruviana Shannon but differing in the abdominal proportions and pattern. Female.—Length 15 mm (abdomen 10 mm); wing 10.5 mm. Head: Vertex shining black with a bluish tinge. Upper half of the front, except narrowly along the sides, opaque black, lower half strongly shining blue-black; narrow sides of front for two-thirds of its height, linearly white pubescent and this pubescence discontin- uous with that on the sides of the face. Frontal and upper facial pile black. Face tuberculate, metallic black, the sides yellowish and white pubescent; cheeks black. Antennae black, of normal shape, the inner end of second joint a little produced. Thorax brown-black, obscurely shining, with a pair of slender, widely separated, very obscure, dark brown pollinose vittae. Scu- tellum dark brown, shining, its pile and that of mesonotum black and short; its fringe in part — black, rather long, of thirty or more bristles. Squamae and fringe dark brown. Abdomen elongate, the second and sixth segments of about equal length, the former as wide apically Fras. 15, 1943 as the latter at base; third to fifth segments of slightly decreasing length, the third four-fifths as long as second, and about twice as wide at its apex as at the narrowest width of the second segment; last segment cylindrical at base and strongly compressed laterally at apex. Color of abdomen shining blackish to dark mahogany, the basal corners of the second and third seg- ments light mahogany, and on the second this color extends two-thirds of the length of the segment along its sides. There is a narrow- pronged, opaque triangle (black in oblique view) in the middle of the second segment, and a wider shorter one upon the third segment. Abdominal pile black, abundant and rather long on the sides of the first segment. Legs dark brown, the hinder pair black as far as the middle of the basitarsal joint, yellowish white and similarly pilose upon the terminal portion; elsewhere the legs are black pilose. Wings brown on the basal two-fifths as far as anterior cross vein. Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56425), Iquitos, Peru, March—April 1931 (R. C. Shan- non). ; Volucella brunnigaster, n. sp. Somewhat similar in general appearance to mellea Jaen., but distinguished by the scutellar depression and numerous other differences. Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Front, face, and cheeks reddish orange-brown, rather deep, the low tubercle with long black pile. The sides of the face with reddish-golden pubescence, a few similar hairs and a few long hairs above. Antennae orange-brown, the third joint twice as long as basal width, the arista with 15 dorsal rays. Thorax shining black with a golden cast, the sides dark brown, the bristles black, the pile thick, short, yellowish, among which are numerous very long and slender black hairs; no prescutellar bristles. Scutellum brown with rugose transverse depression and six pairs of black marginal bristles. Scutellar pile, except in the corners, black. Abdomen translucent, orange-brown, with some black upon the first two segments. The first segment, except the sides, and a medial, narrow and posteriorly attenuated vitta on the second segment black. Pile of abdomen widely black upon the pos- terior half of the third and fourth segments and narrowly toward the sides on the posterior mar- gin of the second segment, otherwise golden. HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 41 Legs black. The apices of the femora, the wide base of all the tibiae, and their apices narrowly reddish brown. Tarsi brown, becoming black- ish upon their distal joints. Wings: Veins mar- gined with brown, the central cross veins a little darker and an obscure spot at the end of the subcosta. Marginal cell very widely opened. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51351), Meta District, Colombia, B. Guevara collector, 1932. One paratype, same data, in author’s collec- tion. Volucella viridigaster, n. sp. Related to verdigaster, n. sp., but with less extensive vittae and fascia upon the abdomen and the wing veins not conspicuously margined. Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: Front, face, and cheeks pale whitish yellow. There is a pale, diffuse, brownish vitta separating face and cheeks and one down the middle of the deep- conical face. The low tubercle is densely short black pilose, the front longer black pilose, the sides of the face white pilose and pubescent. Antennae orange, the third joint two and one- half times as long as the basal width. Thorax: Mesonotum black, the sides light brownish yellow, the bristles black, the scutellum sub- translucent brownish yellow with five pairs of black bristles, a shallow preapical depression and black pile. Pile of thorax chiefly black with considerable whitish pile anteriorly. There are no prescutellar bristles. Squamae light yellow with brown fringe. Abdomen pale green trans- lucent: the middle of the first segment, a nar- row medial expanding vitta on the second seg- ment black and confluent with a linear, black posterior border; the black border evanescent laterally; a similar evanescent black border on the third segment. Pile of abdomen black, short, dense, and appressed except over the basal portion of each segment. Legs black, the apices of the femora, the bases of the tibiae and the basal tarsal joints dark brown. Wings pale brown, cross veins clouded, the marginal cell widely opened. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51350), Eeua- dor, F. Campos R. A paratype, same data, in author’s collection. Volucella verdigaster, n. sp. Related to inconsistens Curran, but with wide black median vittae on the abdomen as well as fasciae. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Middle of front black, the sides of front and face pale yellow. The cheeks and broad middle of the face black. Face deep conical, the pile thick over the tubercle and chiefly black with some shorter pile mixed with longer black hair on the sides. Antennae dark brown, the third joint twice as long as basal width, the arista with 27 dorsal rays. Thorax: Mesonotum black with a bluish and violaceous tinge, the humeri, a pre- sutural and prenotopleural, besides a pair of prescutellar spots and a pair of elongate spots almost adjacent to the postcalli, all light yellow. Thoracic bristles and pile black except for some short white pile upon the yellow spots and in the midline anteriorly. No prescutellar bristles. Scutellum dark brown with transverse rugose depressions and five pairs of long black bristles. Abdomen black with large, subrec- tangular, apple-green translucent spots in the lateral corners of the second segment, and more irregular spots in the lateral corners of the third and fourth which extend posteriorly to cover the entire lateral margin. Pile very dense, rather long, nearly erect, and black except upon the pale areas, where it is whitish. Legs black and black pilose. Wings hyaline, strongly clouded with brown along all of the cross veins and the distal portions of the second, third and fourth longitudinal veins; marginal cell widely opened. Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51354), and one paratype, Bogotdé, Colombia, B. Guevara collector, in U.S. National Museum; one para- type, same data, in author’s collection. Volucetla flavogaster, n. sp. This species suggests zonaria Linnaeus, of Europe. It is characterized by the linear black fascia of the abdomen and other markings. Male.—Length 14 mm. Head: Entire face except for a pale, diffuse vitta separating face and cheeks bright yellow, golden pilose. The eyes of the male instead of being holoptic are merely approximated. Antennae orange, the third joint short, one and one-half times as long as basal width, the dorsal margin concave. The long arista has 26 dorsal rays. Ocellar pile orange. Thorax: Mesonotum orange-brown with a sublateral black vitta broken at the suture, and on the posterior area of the dorsum a pair of submedial anterolaterally attenuated VOL. 33, NO. 2 blackish spots. There are 9 or 10 prominent, black, prescutellar bristles, and all the lateral bristles are black. Scutellum orange-brown, swollen, with four pairs of black bristles. Squa- mae and fringe yellow. Abdomen orange-yellow marked with black as follows: Whole of the first segment, a basal fascia on the second ex- panded in the middle into a vitta that connects with a very narrow line at posterior margin; laterally this posterior marginal line is conflu- ent with a transverse, narrow fascia occupying the lateral fourth of the segment just beyond the middle. Third segment with a narrow, basally attenuated, medial black vitta, a still narrower, posterior, black marginal marking, which is confined to the margin and not con- nected with the narrower transverse fascia. Fourth segment similar except that the mark- ing along posterior margin is absent and the ~ transverse fascia now occupies the middle of the long convex segment. Legs light yellow, the femora somewhat more brownish, their pile blackish on the lateral surfaces; elsewhere the pile is golden. Wings strongly tinged with yel- low, the posterior margin pale brown, the marginal cell closed and stalked, it and the cell behind it light brown. Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 51356), Chinkiang, China, May 1923. A paratype, same data, in author’s collection; also two paratypes from Nanking, China, one in the Vienna Museum, one in author’s collection. This is a very pretty species, and I have not been able to identify it with any Asiatic species known to me. Graptomyza globigaster, n. sp. This species suggests flavorhyncha Hull in the pattern of its abdomen; the fasciae are not medially expanded, however, and the face is short. Female.—Length 6 mm. Head: Front, face, and cheeks pale yellow, marked with black; a narrow medial black stripe on the front and brownish down the middle of the face, darker between face and cheeks. Four or five blackish hairs on the tubercle and a few shorter ones below. Antennae elongate, orange, the third joint grayish above and three and one-half times as long as wide. The arista is nonplu- mose. Thorax: Mesonotum broadly black, the humeri, propleura, most of the mesopleura pos- Fes. 15, 1948 teriorly, the wide lateral margins of the mesono- tum and the area before the scutellum, all pale yellow. Scutellum dark brown, blackish over the broad central concavity. Thoracic and scutellar bristles black, the short pile yellow. Abdomen oval-globose, subtranslucent, orange- brown marked with black as follows: a black fascia lying on the posterior portion of the second segment attenuated medially and medi- ally indented behind and withdrawn from the margin; this fascia is continuous with an abruptly diagonal and slender, sublateral black vitta on each side of the third segment, which extends to the posterior corner and leaves the anterior corner pale. The posterior portion of the third segment is marked with a similar diverging black fascia, which, however, is broadly interrupted medially but also attenu- ated; laterally it connects narrowly with a wider and similar sublateral vitta. Fourth seement with a long, median vitta and a pair of sublateral, shorter, more posterior black vittae; these black vittae are wide and an- teriorly rounded and none of them reaches the basal margin. Legs pale yellow, the apical fourth of the hind femora and all of hind tibiae black and chiefly black pilose, elsewhere the pile is pale. Wings hyaline with a pair of pale, slightly oblique, brownish fasciae beginning at the ends of the first and second longitudinal veins. The first of these bands reaches the base of the lower cross vein, the second reaches and follows the subapical cross vein. There is a small brown spot at the end of the subcostal vein. Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 52904), and 2 paratype females in U. S. National Museum, Island of Biliran, Philippines, C. F. Baker, collector. Paratype, same data, in author’s collection. Brachypalpus trilineata, n. sp. Differing from any described species in the narrow, pale fascia of the abdomen. Female—Length 14 mm. Head: Front and HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 43 vertex shining black, the sides of the former narrowly yellow pubescent, all pile except a few black hairs at ocelli and above the anten- nae, yellowish. The prominent face is bare, dull _and very dark mahogany, the cheeks shining black. Face with a very large, low, long tuber- cle, and a quite wide, thickly golden pubescent stripe reaching from eye to epistoma and con- tinued broadly up the sides of the face to unite below the antennae. Antennae short, black, the third joint almost circular in outline. Thorax rather light brownish pollinose with rather obscure, broad vittae. Pleura thickly covered with ochre-colored pollen. The abun- dant pile of pleura and mesonotum is ochra- ceous, except for a few long, erect, black hairs on the posterior third of the mesonotum. Seutellum shining black, long, yellow-pilose, with a copious ventral fringe. Abdomen very broad and flat, with nearly parallel sides, a little wider in the middle of the abdomen. Abdomen dully shining black, marked with yellow to brown fascia. First segment light brownish basally. Second segment with a trans- verse, yellow-brown, basomedially indented, _parallel-sided fascia near the middle running almost to the lateral margin. Third and fourth segments each with a subbasal, narrower, parallel-sided, light-yellow and yellow-pollinose fascia reaching the lateral margin; the fascia upon the fourth segment is slightly arcuate, especially toward the sides. Abdominal pile rather short, appressed and black except upon the first segment and the sides of the base of the second segment. Legs: Femora black: all the tibiae and tarsi except their distal joints, light orange. Wings light brown, the stigmal cell no darker, the stigmal cross vein heavy. The small cross vein is located four-fifths of the length of the discal cell from its base. Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56426), Tjibodas, Mount Gede, Java, 4.09, Bryant and Palmer, collectors. p: 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 2 ZOOLOGY.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family Dicli- dophoridae (Diclidophoroidea).:| EmMmMrmrt W. Pricz, Bureau of Animal In- dustry. As in previous sections of the series, this paper deals with flatworms that live as ex- ternal parasites on cold-blooded verte- brates. The members of the family Dicli- dophoridae are for the most part parasites of marine fishes, living on the gills and oc- casionally in the mouth. The organization and purpose of this paper are the same as for previous installments (Price, 1937, 1938, 1939a, 1939b, 1942). DICLIDOPHOROIDEA Price, 1936 Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of two lateral, oval or circular suckers opening into the oral cavity. Posterior haptor variable in shape and position, usually at the posterior end of body, sometimes ventral or lateral, usually provided with two rows of suckers or clamplike adhesive organs having a compli- cated, heavily cuticularized, riblike, supporting structure; posterior tip of haptor often ter- minating in a tonguelike structure or ‘‘lan- guette’’ frequently armed with one to three pairs of hooks. Digestive system consisting of a prepharynx serving as an oral cavity, a bulbous pharynx, a short esophagus, and an intestine consisting, except in Dvzplozoon, of two principal branches provided with numerous median and lateral diverticula. Eyes absent. Male and female genital apertures usually opening to exterior through a common pore situated ventrally. Cirrus armed or unarmed. Testes usually numerous, postovarial, occa- sionally preovarial. Ovary elongate, folded. Vaginae present or absent, usually opening dorsally. Parasites of fishes, or of crustaceans parasitic on fishes. Type family.—Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928. KEY TO FAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHOROIDEA? 1. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 8 principal pieces (Fig. 1, A)............ eae Depa saatote tenes DIcLIDOPHORIDAE Fuhrmann 1 Received September 7, 1942. 2 No entirely satisfactory key can at present be formulated to distinguish the families of Diclido- phoroidea. The principal group characters are in Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of fewer than 8 principal pieces............ 2 2. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 3 pieces (Fig. 1, F)... HEXosTOMATIDAE Price Framework of haptoral suckers cgnsisting of more than 3 pieces: .. :...0.a..se ee 3 3. Haptoral suckers relatively strongly muscular (Fig. 1, B); vagina double (absent in Octo- macrum), openings lateral. .<. 0. 225. OCR tee ores ae DiscocoTyLiDAE Price Haptoral suckers relatively weakly muscular; vagina’ when present, usually single and opening dorsally... .. 5.2.2 Sense eee 4 4. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework as shown in Fig. 1,°C....0.4 262 See he ee MicrocotTyLipAE Taschenberg Haptoral suckers variable in number, frame- work not as above. .......:.<. a. 5 5. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework as in Fig. 1, D....GasTRocoTyLipag, n. f. Haptoral suckers few in number, framework AS elas Hae pule ye eee MAaZzOCRAEIDAE Price Family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928 Synonym.—Choricotylidae Rees and Llewel- lyn, 1941. Diagnosis—Haptor terminal, usually bear- ing four pairs of cuplike adhesive structures having a complicated, heavily cuticularized framework of the general type as shown in Fig. 1,A. Cirrus usually armed with a circle of curved hooks, which are crescentic in cross section.’ Seminal receptacle usually, if not al- ways, present. Vaginae usually absent. Type genus.—Dichidophora Diesing, 1850. KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHORIDAE Haptoral sucker clamplike or pincerlike........ Pel Penns CCNA Mets DIcLIDOPHORINAE Cerfontaine Haptoral suckers cuplike.. 2°. .2. sso eceeeeee SEPM CEOS Meare gai a4. CYCLOCOTYLINAE, n. subf. Subfamily Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895 Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of pe- dunculated clamplike suckers of the type shown in Fig. 1, A. Cirrus armed. Vaginae absent. Type genus.—Diclidophora Diesing, 1850. the number and shape of the pieces composing the framework of the haptoral suckers; so far no de- scriptive terms have been proposed for these structures that will impart a sufficiently clear picture of their appearance. 3 The hooks of the genital coronet are crescentic in cross section and this frequently gives them the appearance of being ‘‘double pointed.” ee ee a ee ee ee Fes. 15, 1943 KEY TO GENERA OF DICLIDOPHORINAE 1. Haptor distinctly set off from body proper... <2: ee Diclidophoroides, n. gen. Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper 2 ae Mies e /@) (@ \e) =) 28, a 0, e « = 8. 6 © ‘6 je © se) @ so 2 ee 6 8 © «© @ os 2. Testes postovarial....... Octodactylus Dalyell Testes preovarial and postovarial........... 2 ee Diclidophora Diesing E Fig. 1.—Types of haptoral suckers in the super- family Diclidophoroidea: A, Diclidophoridae; B, Discocotylidae; C, Microcotylidae; D, Gastro- cotylidae; E, Mazocraeidae; F, Hexostomatidae. Genus Diclidophora Diesing, 1850 Synonyms.— Dactycotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863; Dactylocotyle Marschall, 1873. Diagnosis.—Haptor not set off from body proper, bearing four pairs of pedunculated, clamplike suckers. Testes numerous, preova- rial and postovarial. Eggs with polar prolonga- tions. > Type species.—Diclidophora longicollis Die- sing, 1850 [ = D. merlangi (Kuhn, in Nordmann, 1832)]. The genus Diclidophora was proposed by Diesing (1850) for two species, D. longicollis Diesing and D. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart), the former being Octostoma merlangi Kuhn (in Nordmann, 1832) renamed. Both of these spe- cies were regarded by Cerfontaine (1895) as PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 45 congeneric with Dactycotyle pollachit Beneden and Hesse, 1863, the type (subsequent desig- nation by Stiles and Hassall, 1908) of Dacty- cotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863 (= Dactylo- cotyle Marschall, 1873). Of the two species originally included in the genus Diclidophora, D. palmata (F.S. Leuckart) is apparently iden- tical with Octodactylus inhaerens Dalyell (1853). Since the original species of Diclidophora, as well as several species subsequently added to the genus, are clearly divided into two groups on the basis of testicular distribution, it ap- pears desirable to recognize both Diclidophora Diesing and Octodactylus Dalyell as valid gen- era. Diclidophora merlangi (Kuhn) of Mac- Callum, 1917, having characters of the sub- family but not being congeneric with either Diclidophora or Octodactylus, is placed in the new genus Diclidophoroides. The species comprising the genus Dicli- dophora (s. str.)4 are D. merlangi (Kuhn, in Nordmann, 1832),5 from Gadus merlangus in Kurope; D. denticulata (Olsson, 1876),n. comb., from Pollachius virens; D. luscae (Beneden and Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Morrhua lusca; and D. pollachit (Beneden and Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Pollachius pollachius. 4 Dactylocotyle minor Ishii (1936) renamed D. thunni Ishii, in Ishii and Sawada (1938), does not belong to the genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclido- phora) but is a species of Mazocraes. 5 Dollfus (1922) has raised the question as to the authorship of the name merlangi, which was credited to Kuhn by Nordmann (1832), and pre- fers to regard Nordmann as the author since the name credited to Kuhn was only a manuscript name. In spite of the fact that the name ‘“‘Octo- stoma merlangi Kuhn” is a manuscript or label name, which probably accompanied specimens that were sent by Kuhn to Rudolphi and later studied by Nordmann, the following are reasons for recognizing Kuhn as the author: Nordmann placed the name “‘Octostoma merlangt Kuhn’’ as a synonym of ‘‘Octobothrium(?) merlangi”’ (= Di- clidophora merlangi), thereby crediting Kuhn with the name of the species. Opinion 4 of the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature states that ‘‘Manuscript names acquire standing in nomenclature when printed in accordance with the provisions of Art. 25, and the question as to their validity is not influenced by the fact whether such names are accepted or rejected by the author responsible for their publication.”’ The name in question was used for the species now known as Diclidophora merlangi and the conditions under which it was used conform to those stipulated under Art. 25; therefore, there seems to be no question as to the validity of the name, and the authorship of the species should, accordingly, be credited to Kuhn, in Nordmann, 1832. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Diclidophora denticulata (Olsson, 1876), n. comb. Figs. 2-3 Synonyms.—Octobothrium denticulatum Ols- son, 1876; Dactylocotyle denticulatum (Ols- son, 1876) Cerfontaine, 1895; D. carbonarii Cerfontaine, 1895. Description—Body 7 mm long by 1.6 mm wide at level of ovary, tapering gradually an- teriorly. Anterior haptors in form of a pair of suckers, each about 170u in diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor more:or less rectangular, about 2.1 mm long, not set off from body proper, bearing four pairs of pe- dunculated clamplike suckers; no terminal hooks. Suckers about equal in size, 680u wide, supported by complicated cuticular structure (Fig. 3); wall of suckers muscular; outer an- terior quadrant of suckers armed with 30 to AQ lancelike spines. Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx oval, 487u long by 153u wide; re- mainder of digestive tract not observable in available material. Male genital aperture me- dian, about 595u from anterior end of body; cirrus about 95u in diameter, armed with 13 inwardly curved hooks. Testes numerous, small, extending from about one-third of total body length from anterior end to about level of anterior end of haptor. Ovary N-shaped, median, about 400u in front of anterior limit of haptor. Vitelline follicles abundant, ex- tending from level of female genital pore to posterior end of haptor. Seminal receptacle and vitelline reservoir preovarial. Genito-intestinal canal not observed. Uterus long and slender, in median field. Female genital aperture me- dian, about 190u posterior to male genital aperture. No fully formed eggs present in available specimen. Host.— Pollachius virens (Linnaeus). Location.—Gills. Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.) and Canada (St. Mary Bay, Nova Scotia). Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 6508. This species was originally described by Olsson (1876) from specimens collected from Gadus virens (=Pollachius virens) from the Skaggerak, and, later, Cerfontaine (1895) gave a detailed description of the parasite. In North America there appear to be three records of its occurrence: Linton (1900) reported the find- ing of one specimen by Prof. H. M. Kelly at VOL. 33, NO. 2 Woods Hole, Mass., and Stafford (1904) and Cooper (1915) reported this species from Can- ada. The specimen reported by Linton is the one on which the above description is based. This specimen, a toto mount, was in fair con- dition despite the fact that two of the clamp- like suckers of the haptor had been torn off. D. denticulata is readily distinguishable from the other members of the genus by the presence of spines on the haptoral suckers. a: a S294.9 92980 &, S o e399 SOS Si ose 2 ° S200 ° ° % Ly iv) fo} ao co ‘o of 5 05°90 & leo. 024 0 tae ae 35 Bee 5 ie Se Seu BOQ So eaecees doko: 5 @ eo UTS OLS TAS ASS SS SEO a2 oe me ° ES s oot Figs. 2-3.—Diclidophora denticulata: 2, Com- plete worm, ventral view; 3, clamplike haptoral sucker. Figs. 4-6.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi: 4, Complete worm, ventral view; 5, clamplike haptoral sucker; 6, cirrus. Genus Octodactylus Dalyell, 1853 Synonym.—Pterocotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863. Diagnosis —Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper. Testes confined to post- ovarial portion of body. Eggs usually without polar prolongations. Type species.—Octodactylus inhaerens Dal- yell, 1853 [ =O. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart, 1830), n. comb.]. : Fes. 15, 1943 This genus contains Octodactylus palmata (F. 8. Leuckart, 1830)® (syns. O. inhaerens Dalyell, 1853; Octobothrium digitatum Rathke, 1843; Dactylocotyle molvae Cerfontaine, 1895), from Molva molva; O. minus (Olsson, 1876), n. comb., from Gadus poutasson; and O. morrhuae (Beneden and Hesse, 1863),7 n. comb., from Gadus morrhua. As none of these species occurs on North American hosts, the genus will not be considered further. Diclidophoroides, n. gen. Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from body proper. Testes postovarial. Otherwise similar to Octodactylus. Type species.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi, Nn. sp. | In addition to the type species, it is possible that Dactylocotyle phycidis Parona and Perugia, 1889, from Phycis blennoides in Europe may belong here. The description of D. phycidis, however, is too inadequate for definite generic allocation. Heterobothriwm ecuadort Meserve (1938) from Cheilichthys annulatus and H. galapagensis Meserve (1938) from Paranthias _ furcifer, both from the Galapagos Islands, are tentatively included in Diclidophoroides, the new combinations being D. ecwadori (Meserve) and D. galapagensis (Meserve), respectively. The pincerlike or clamplike nature of the hap- toral suckers definitely eliminates these two species from the genus Heterobothrium. Only the type specimens of Meserve’s species were available for examination, but these show the haptors to be fairly well set off from the body proper, although not so distinctly so as in D. maccallumi; the haptoral suckers are subsessile and equal in size. Diclidophoroides maccallumi, n. sp. Figs. 4-6 Synonyms.—Diclidophora merlangt MacCal- lum, 1917; Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson, 1876) of Manter, 1926; D. phycidis Parona and Pe- 6 MacCallum (1917) reported finding on the gills of Lota maculosa ‘“‘a rather delapidated speci- men of what seems to answer to the description of D. palmata.’’ This specimen has been examined and found not to be a trematode, consequently the report of this species from North America is erroneous. 7 The form reported by Scott (1901) from Gadus callarius (=G. morrhua) under the name of Pterocotyle morrhuae is probably not this species. PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 47 rugia, 1889, of Stafford, 1904; Choricotyle mer- langi (MacCallum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941. Description.—Body elliptical, 4.2 to 6.9 mm long by 1.5 to 2.1 mm wide. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of suckers, each 76 to 115yu wide, opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor somewhat rectangular, 1.8 mm long by 2.3 mm wide in largest specimen, distinctly set off from body proper, bearing four pairs of peduncu- lated clamplike suckers, peduncles and suckers of different sizes, first pair smallest and pos- terior pair largest, with complicated cuticular supporting structure (Fig. 5); smallest suckers 170 to 255u wide, largest 425 to 510u wide. Posterior tip of haptor armed with 2 pairs of minute hooks. Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx oval, 157 to 170u long by 70 to 114y wide; remainder of digestive tract not traceable except in haptor, here branches observed to enter peduncles of suckers. Genital aperture median, 247 to 340u from anterior end of body. Cirrus muscular, 38 to 95u in diameter, armed with a circle of 13 to 16 inwardly curved hooks. Testes relatively numerous, small, in median field posterior to ovary; a few testes sometimes lateral to ovary. Ovary elongate, N- shaped, median, equatorial. Vitelline follicles abundant, extending from a short distance back of genital aperture to posterior end of body proper. Seminal receptacle anterior to, and to right of, ovary; vagina and genito-intes- tinal canal not observed. Uterus slender, in median field. No eggs present in available speci- mens (eggs non-filamented, according to Man- ter, 1926). Host.— Urophycis chuss (Walbaum). Location.—Gills. Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass., and Mount Desert Island, Maine) and Canada. Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. nos. 35106 (type and paratypes), 35585, and 35586. Diclidophoroides maccallumi appears to be the same species as that described by Manter (1926) as Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson) from Urophycis chuss, and as that reported by Stafford (1904) under the name D. phycidis Parona and Perugia from the same host in Canada. That Diclidophorotdes maccallumi is distinct from the form described by Olsson (1868) as Octobothrium palmatum Leuck. f. minor seems clear, since the haptor in Olsson’s form shows the pedunculated suckers to be 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES equal in size and not unequal as is the case in the specimens described by Manter, or in the specimens collected by MacCallum. MacCallum thought that this species might be identical with Dactylocotyle merlangi (Kuhn), but Dollfus (1922) has pointed out that the two species are not identical and that the name merlangt MacCallum should be retained for the species described by MacCallum (1917), since merlangt (Kuhn, of authors) belongs in the genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclidophora). Unfor- tunately Dollfus’s proposal, which is concurred in by Llewellyn (1941), is untenable, as mer- langi (Kuhn) was placed in the genus Diclt- dophora by Kr¢yer (1838-40, p. 606) and also by MacCallum (1917); consequently Dvclido- phora merlangi MacCallum is a homonym and must be renamed. Diclidophora spp. Linton (1905) reported Dactylocotyle sp. from the gills of Brevoortia tyrannus and Diclido- phora sp. from the gills of Orthopristis chrysop- terus. The first of these forms was illustrated but not described and the second was described briefly as follows: ‘‘This specimen is very frag- ile, the posterior finger-like processes appear- ing to be somewhat macerated. Dimensions, in millimeters; length 1.68, length exclusive of posterior sucker 1.28; diameter at anterior end 0.08: maximum diameter of body 0.52, of sucker region 0.96; diameter of one of the 8 small suckers 0.13.” The illustration of the form from Brevoortia tyrannus indicates that it is probably a new species and may not belong to the genus Dvcli- dophora, but the details were not clearly brought out and as no description was given, it seems inadvisable to name it. The description of the form from Orthopristis chrysopterus is too inadequate to warrant further considera- tion. -Cyclocotylinae, n. subf. Synonym.—Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895 in part. Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of ses- sile, subsessile, or pedunculated cuplike suckers, each provided with a heavily cuticularized framework of the type shown in Fig. 1,A. Cirrus armed (except in Cyelocotyloides) with hooks as in Diclidophorinae. Vaginaz usually absent. VOL. 33, No. 2 Type genus.—Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823. KEY TO GENERA OF CYCLOCOTYLINAE 1. Cirrus hooks absent... .Cyclocotyloides, n. gen. Cirrus:‘hooks present... 20). 3-2 ee 2 2. Vaginae present..... Diclidophoropsts Gallien Vaginae absent: ...0..0 5 ace vacte Ae 6 eee 3 3. Framework of anterior pair of haptoral suckers orientated inversely as compared with those of posterior 3 pairs... 2.42250) eee Rae ear ee Heterobothrium Cerfontaine Framework of all 4 pairs of haptoral suckers occupying same relative orientation......4 4. Testes both pre- and postovarial............ sees wie Geneece Naa Alea Cyclobothriuum Cerfontaine Testes entirely postovarial................ 5 5. Posterior pair of suckers sessile and widely re- moved from anterior 3 pairs of pedunculated SUCKENSE aaa Pedocotyle MacCallum Posterior pair of suckers either subsessile or pedunculated and not separated from other PAIS. Ss os ele ooo yl ese ole es 6 6. Vitellaria extending into haptor............. Sie Gish een hoe Ree ee Cyclocotyla Otto Vitellaria not extending into haptor......... FIR os olan ee RT Neoheterobothrium, n. gen. Genus Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823 Synonyms.—Octostoma Otto, 1823, not Kuhn, 1829; Cyclostoma Otto, 1823, not Lamarck, 1799; Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895, in part; Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863; Dicl- dophora Diesing, of Goto, 1894, in part; Meso- cotyle Parona and Perugia, 1889. Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from body proper; suckers either subsessile or pe- dunculated, more or less equally spaced. Genital atrium non-muscular; cirrus armed; testes post- ovarial. Vaginae absent; vitellaria extending into haptor. Type species.—Cyclocotyla bellones 1828. . This genus was proposed by Otto (1823) for a parasite collected from the ‘Rucken-Haut eines Hornhechts” at Naples. The description of the species is limited to external characters, but the figure shows it to be closely related to, and possibly the same as, Cyclobothrium char- cott, which was described by Dollfus (1922a; 1922b) from a crustacean parasitic on the skin and in the mouth of Trachurus trachurus and Box boops. A comparison of the essential char- acters of these forms with those of the type and other species at present included in the genus Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse (1863) shows them to be sufficiently similar as to be regarded as congeneric. Otto, Fes. 15, 1943 As present constituted the genus Cyclocotyla contains the following species: Cyclocotyla bel- lones Otto, 1823, from ‘‘Hornhecht,” C. char- coti (Dollfus, 1922), n. comb., from Cymothoa (Meinertia) oestroides parasitic on Trachurus trachurus and Box boops; C. chrysophryi (Bene- den and Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Chryso- phrys aurata and Pagellus centrodontus; C. caulolatili (Meserve, 1938), n. comb., from Caulolatilus princeps; C. elongata (Goto, 1894), n. comb., from Pagrus tumifrons; C. labracis (Cerfontaine, 1895), n. comb., from Labrax lupus; C. neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917), n. comb., from Lutianus analis; C. pagelli (Gal- lien, 1937), n. comb., from Pagellus centro- dontus; C. prionotti (MacCallum, 1917), n. comb., from Merulinus carolinus; C. smarts (Ijima, in Goto, 1894),8n. comb., from Smaris vulgaris (on caudal segment of a Cymothoa); C. squillarum (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n. comb., from Bopyrus squillarum; and C. tasch- enbergit (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n. comb.. from Sargus rondeleti1. Of these, only C. — neomaenis and C. prionott are known to occur i] on North American hosts. Cyclocotyla neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917), n. comb. Figs. 7—9 Synonyms.—Diclidophora neomaenis Mac- Callum, 1917; Choricotyle neomaenis (MacCal- lum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941. Description.—Body fusiform, 9 mm long, in- cluding haptor, by 1.1 mm wide. Anterior hap- tor in form of a pair of suckers, each 80y in diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor 2.5 mm long, distinctly set off from body proper by an isthmuslike constriction, bearing four pairs of pedunculated clamplike suckers. Suckers of anterior three pairs about equal in size, 460u wide, and those of posterior pair much smaller, 320u wide; suckers of general type of other representatives of genus, but with heavy corrugations of surface of inner wall of cuter quadrants, and with fleshy linguiform pad in depth of sucker cavity; cuticular sup- porting structure somewhat more complicated than that of other species (Fig. 8); no hooks observed between posterior pair of peduncles. Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx oval, 80u 8 The question of authorship of this species in this case parallels that of Diclidophora merlangi. PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 49 long by 64y wide; remainder of digestive tract not observable. Excretory apertures laterodor- sal, slightly anterior to level of genital aperture; remainder of excretory system not observable. Genital aperture median, about 696 from anterior end of body. Cirrus 88u in diameter, armed with 12 inwardly projecting hooks. Testes relatively few, in median field posterior to ovary. Ovary preequatorial: odtype pre- ovarial, massive, surrounded by numerous uni- cellular glands. Vitelline follicles numerous, occupying almost entire body width from level of genital aperture to posterior end of body proper, extending into haptor. Vagina and genitointestinal canal not observed. No eggs present. Host.—Lutianus analis (Cuvier and Valen- ciennes). Location.—Gills. Distribution. —United States (Key West, Fla.). Spectmen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35587 (type). This species was described from a single specimen collected by the late Dr. G. A. Mac- Callum at the New York Aquarium, from a muttonfish obtained from Key West, Fla. The species differs from all others of the genus in the peculiar structure of the haptoral suckers. Cyclocotyla prionoti (MacCallum, 1917), n. comb. Fig. 10 Synonyms.—Diclidophora prionot. MacCal- lum, 1917; Choricotyle prionots (MacCallum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941. Description.—Body elongate, 3 to 3.7 mm long by 540 to 640u wide, anterior end with constriction between tip of body and genital aperture. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of suckers, about 88u in diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor palmate, about 640 to 720u long, with four pairs of peduncu- lated suckers about 240u in diameter; pe- duncles of suckers relatively long and thick. Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform, about 160u long by 88u wide; remainder of digestive system not ascertainable in available specimens. Genital aperture median, about 400u from anterior end of body. Cirrus 40 to 48u in diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved hooks. Testes 21 to 32 in number, relatively 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES large, median, postovarial. Ovary tubular, folded, median, about one-third of body length from anterior end. Vitelline follicles relatively large, extending from slightly anterior to geni- tal aperture to posterior end of haptor. Seminal receptacle oval, relatively large, posterior to ovary and to right of median line. Genitointes- tinal canal and vagina not observed. Odtype postovarial, surrounded by prominent mass of unicellular glands. No eggs in available speci- mens. Host.—Merulinus carolinus (Linnaeus). Location.—Gills. Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.). Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. 35589 (cotypes), 35590, and 35591. Coll. 20! So, BE BSRe So BPS 3 SPS GRE ash rae nos. 1 i CLs \ ’ ls Lt iyys 1 VOL. 33, NO. 2 This species is closely related to Cyclocotyla chrysophryt (Beneden and Hesse); it differs from that species, in so far as one can determine from the original description, in the number of genital hooks (8 in C. chrysophryi and 10 in C’. prionott). MacCallum (1917) stated that the number of genital hooks was 13, but this is an error. Genus Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895 Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto, 1894, in part. Diagnosis.—Haptor indistinctly set off from body proper; suckers sessile. Genital atrium nonmuscular; cirrus armed. Testes numerous, preovarial and postovarial. Vaginae absent. 2) BOI o am Rog Omer 5 Hy coat wr SOAP = Dea cry tS) Gy SHES a aaew, wa By aoe BS ES Beonresgn earners EERE AR SEER § Pence Srstenae oa enl ics Ee. Tes > \ ( \ \\ > “Wy VW y rittyy 1 OK . ie ey) a Figs. 7-9.—Cyclocotyla neomaenis: 7, Complete worm, ventral view; 8, haptoral sucker; 9, cirrus. Fig. 10.—Cyclocotyla prionoti, complete worm, ventral view. 11, Complete worm, dorsal view; 12, haptoral sucker; 13, haptoral languette; 14, cirrus. Figs. 11-14.—Neoheterobothrium affine: Figs. 15-18.— Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni: 15, Complete worm, ventral view; 16, haptoral sucker; 17, haptoral languette; 18, cirrus. Fig. 19.—Pedocotyle morone, complete worm, dorsal view. Fes. 15, 1943 Type species.—Cyclobothrium sessilis (Goto, 1894) Cerfontaine, 1895. This genus comprises Cyclobothrium iniistri Yamaguti (1937), from Intistius dea; C. semi- cossyphi Yamaguti (1938), from Semicossyphus reticulatus; and C’. sessilis (Goto, 1894), from Choerops japonicus and Semicossyphus reticu- latus; all three species are from Japanese hosts. Genus Heterobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895 Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto, T894, in part. Diagnosis.—Haptor separated from body proper by a long slender isthmus: suckers ses- sile, framework of anterior pair orientated in- versely with respect to that of posterior three pairs. Genital atrium nonmuscular, cirrus armed; testes postovarial. Vaginae absent; vitellaria not extending into haptor. Type species.— Heterobothrium (Goto, 1894) Cerfontaine, 1895. The type and only species of this genus was obtained from the gills of Tetrodon sp. in Japan; it is not known to occur on North American hosts. tetrodonis Neoheterobothrium, n. gen. Diagnosis—Haptor separated from body proper by a long slender isthmus; suckers pedunculated, with framework of all pairs orientated in same manner. Other characters as in Heterobothrium. Type species.— Neoheterobothrium affine (Lin- ton, 1898), n. comb. . The species referable to this genus are Neo- heterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898) from Para- lichthys dentatus and N. cynosciont (MacCal- lum, 1917), n. comb., from Cynoscion regalis, both from North America; and possibly Octo- bothrium leptogaster (F. 8S. Leuckart, 1830) (=N. leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart, 1830), n. comb.) from Chimaera monstrosa in Europe. Neoheterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898), n. comb. Figs. 11-14 Synonyms—Octoplectanum affine Linton, 1898; Diclidophora affinis (Linton, 1898) Linton, 1901; Choricotyle affine (Linton, 1898) Llewellyn, 1941. Description.—Body elongate, 11 to 20 mm long by 2 to 3 mm wide, divided into three parts, namely, body proper, isthmus and hap- PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES ol tor. Anterior haptor consisting of a pair of suckers 120 to 170y in diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, consisting of 8 digitate appendages bearing suckers 425 to 510u in diameter sup- ported by a heavily cuticularized framework as shown in Fig. 12. Between peduncles of posterior pair of suckers is a small projection or “languette,’’ about 50u long by 25u wide, apparently bearing two pairs of hooks (hooks missing but insertions clearly visible). Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform, 170 to 180u long by 110 to 170u wide; intestinal branches with prominent lateral diverticula as far back as isthmus, then without diverticula, extending into haptor. Genital aperture me- dian, about 510 to 680u from anterior end of body; cirrus armed with a circle of incurved hooks, 12 to 16 in number, each about 20u long. Testes numerous, number not ascertain- able, postovarial, in median field. Ovary folded, median, approximately in equatorial region of preisthmian portion of body. Vitelline follicles extending from a short distance pos- terior to level of genital aperture to distal part of preisthmian portion of body. Seminal recep- tacle and genitointestinal canal not observed. Egg about 150u long by 57y wide, with pro- longation at each pole. Host.—Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus) and P. lethostigmus Jordan and Gilbert. Location.—Mouth. Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass., and Grand Island Region, La.). Spectmens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. 4876 (type), 4875, and 8156. The redescription of this species as given here is based on toto mounts of the type and other specimens described from Woods Hole, Mass., by Linton (1898; 1901; 1940). The prep- arations were not very good and some de- tails could not be made out. Melugin (1940) has reported this species from Louisiana. Neoheterobothrium affine resembles Octobo- thrium leptogaster (F.S. Leuckart) [ = Neohetero- bothrium leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart)] as de- scribed by Olsson (1876) and by Parona and Perugia (1892) in possessing a long, slender isthmus between body proper and haptor. The two species are also similar in that both possess a hook-bearing lobe or “‘languette’”’ between the peduncles of the posterior pair of haptoral Nos. 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES suckers (see Ruszkowski, 1934, for description of the hooks of O. leptogaster). The presence of a “Janguette”’ in these species may not be of especial significance, however, as many of the members of the family Diclidophoridae possess this structure. In spite of obvious similarities there is little likelihood of the two species being identical because of their host affinities, there being an extraordinary host specificity among the Monogenea. Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni (MacCallum, 1917), n. comb. Figs. 15-18 Synonyms.— Diclidophoracynosciont MacCal- lum, 1917; Choricotyle cynoscioni (MacCallum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941. Description.—Body elongate, 7 to 10 mm long by 400 to 616u wide, attenuated poste- riorly. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of suckers 120u in diameter opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor somewhat palmate, about 640u long, with four pairs of peduncu- lated suckers, and with small, flaplike lobe bearing two pairs of hooks between peduncles of last pair of suckers; suckers about 288u in diameter, with heavily cuticularized framework as shown in Fig. 16; posterior lobe 120yu long by 72u wide, outer hooks 12u long and inner hooks 28 to 30u long. Oral aperture subter- minal; pharynx piriform, 120u long by 80y wide; esophagus and intestinal branches not traceable in available specimens. Genital aper- ture median, about 430 to 460u from anterior end of body. Cirrus 48 to 50u in diameter, armed with eight hooks. Testes 28 to 30 in number, relatively large, occupying median field posterior to ovary. Ovary tubular, folded, median, about one-third of body length from anterior end. Vitelline follicles extending from level of genital aperture to about midway be- tween level of last testis and anterior margin of haptor. Seminal receptacle oval, relatively vo- luminous, posterior to ovary and slightly to right of median line. Genitointestinal canal and vagina not observable. No eggs present. Host.—Cynoscion regalis (Bloch and Schnei- der). Location.—Gills. Distribution.—United States (Woods fiole! Mass.). Specumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. 35592 (type) and 35593. Nos. VOL. 33, NO. 2 The type specimen of this species is greatly elongated and somewhat mutilated; it was col- lected by the late Dr. G. A. MacCallum August 26, 1914. Three additional specimens are avail- able, collected by MacCallum July 2, 1924; these are in much better condition than the type, and the greater part of the above de- scription is based upon these specimens. In the type specimen the small lobe or ‘languette”’ at the posterior end of the haptor was folded over one of the peduncles and was not observed by MacCallum. Cyclocotyloides, n. gen. Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated. Genital atrium strongly muscular; cirrus un- armed; otherwise similar to Cyciocotyla. Type species.—Cyclocotyloides pinguis (Lin- ton, 1940), n. comb. Only one species, the type, is referable to this genus. C. pinguts was described by Linton (1940) as Diclidophora pinguis and was based on specimens from the mouth of Albatrossia pectoralis. The specimens available to the writer were fragmentary and nothing can be added to the original description. The absence of clamp- like haptoral suckers excludes this species from the genus Diclidophora and the presence of a muscular genital atrium and the absence of an armed cirrus exclude it from other genera of the Cyclocotylinae. Genus Diclidophoropsis Gallien, 1937 Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated. Genital atrium nonmuscular; cirrus armed; testes postovarial. Vaginae present; vitellaria extending into haptor. Type Ree tissiert Gal- lien, 1937. The type and only species was described by Gallien (1937) from specimens collected on Macrurus laevis in the Atlantic Ocean south of Ireland. Genus Pedocotyle MacCallum, 1913 Synonym.—Podocotyle MacCallum, 1913, not Dujardin, 1845. Diagnosis.—Haptor linguiform, not distinct from body proper, bearing three pairs of pe- dunculated suckers at anterior end of haptor and one pair of smaller sessile suckers near posterior end. Testes postovarial. Wager extending into haptor. Fes. 15, 1943 PRICE: Type species—Pedocotyle morone MacCal- lum, 1913. Pedocotyle morone MacCallum, 1913 Fig. 19 Synonym.—Podocotyle morone MacCallum, 1918. Description.—Body slender, 5.9 mm long by 500u wide, apparently flat and ribbonlike, sides parallel. Anterior haptor in form of two angers, 115u in diameter, opening into mouth cavity. Posterior haptor linguiform, not distinguish- able from body proper, with 3 pairs of peduncu- lated suckers at its anterior end and one pair of smaller sessile suckers near posterior end. An- terior pedunculated suckers 228y in diameter, with heavily cuticularized supporting structure similar to that in Neoheterobothrium cynosciont (see Fig. 16); peduncles about 228y long by 1804 in diameter; suckers of posterior pair about 76y in diameter, apparently of the same structure as those of anterior pairs (crushed in type specimen). Mouth terminal; pharynx piri- form, 150u long by 83u wide; esophagus and intestine not discernible in available specimen. Genital aperture median, about 375u from anterior end of body. Cirrus muscular, 57y in diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved hooks. Testes 14 in number, about 115y in diameter, in median field between ovary and anterior end of haptor. Ovary tubular, folded, median. Vitelline follicles occupying greater part of body from level of genital aperture to near posterior end of haptor. Seminal recep- tacle small, posterior to ovary and to right of median line. Genitointestinal canal and vagina not observed. Odtype prominent, surrounded by numerous unicellular glands. No eggs in available specimen. Host.—Morone americana (Gmelin). Location.—Gills. Distribution.— United States (New York). Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35594 (type). This species, based on a single specimen and originally described by MacCallum (1913a; 1913b), is peculiar in the arrangement of the suckers of the posterior haptor; because of its unique appearance, further comment as to its differentiation from related forms is unneces- sary. NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 53 DICLIDOPHORIDAE OF UNCERTAIN POSITION Genus Platycotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863 Diagnosis.—Haptor rectangular, bearing four widely separated pedunculated suckers; ter- minal hooks absent. Type species—Platycotyle gurnardi Beneden and Hesse, 1863. The type and only species of the genus is known only from the very inadequate descrip- tion given by Beneden and Hesse (1863); this worm was collected from the gills of Trigla gurnardus in Europe. LITERATURE CITED VAN BENEDEN, PIERRE JOSEPH, and Hxusss, C. EK. Recherches sur les bdellodes (hirudinées) et les trématodes marins. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique 34: 1-142. 1863. CERFONTAINE, Pauu. Le genre Dactylocotyle. Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique 65 (ser. 3, 29): 918-946. 1895. Coopzr, A. R. Trematodes from marine and fresh- water fishes, including one species of ectoparasitic turbellarian. Trans. Roy Soc. Canada (sec. 4, ser. 3) 9: 181-205. 1915. DaLyELL, JOHN GRAHAM. The powers of the Creator displayed in creation....2: xili +359 pp. London. 1858. Disesine, Kart Morirz. Systema helminthum 1: xii+679 pp. Vindobonae. 1850. DouuFrus, Ropert PH. Cyclobothrium char- coti n. sp. Trematode ectoparasite sur Mei- nertia oestroides (Risso). Parasites recueillis pendant la croistére océanographique du ‘‘Pourquoi-pas?”’ sous le commandement du Dr. J. B. Charcot, en 1914. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 47: 287-296. 1922a. . Complément a la description de Cyclo- bothrium charcoti mihi. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 47: 348-352. 1922b. GALLIEN, Louis. Recherches sur quelques tré- matodes monogénéses nouveaux ou peu con- nus. Ann. Parasitol. 15(1): 9-28; (2): 146— 154. 1937. Goto, Srrraro. Studies on the ectoparasitic trematodes of Japan. Journ. Coll. Sci., Imp. Univ., Tokyo, 8: 1-273. 1894. IsHil, Nospuraro. Some new ectoparasitic trematodes of marine fishes. Zool. Mag., Tokyo, 48: 781-790. 1936. and SAWADA, TosHISADA. Studies on the ectoparasttic trematodes. In Livro Jubilar Prof. Travassos, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, pp. 281-244. 1988. KrgyYER, Henprik. Danmark’s Fiske 1: cii +616 pp. Kjgbenhavn. 1838-40. Linton, Epwin. Notes on trematode parasites of fishes. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 20: 507- 548. 1898. 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES . Fish parasites collected at Woods Hole in 1898: pp. 267-304. Washington. 1900. Parasites of fishes of the Woods Hole Region: pp. 405-492. Washington. 1901. Parasites of fishes of Beaufort, North Carolina. Bull. Bur. Fish. 24 (for 1904): 321-428. 1905. Trematodes from fishes mainly from the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 88: 1-172. 1940. LLEWELLYN, J. A review of the monogenean family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928. Parasitology 33: 416-430. 1941. MacCauuium, G. A. Notes on four trematode parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak- _teriol. (Abt. 1) 70: 407-416. 1913a. . Corrigendum to notes on four trematode parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak- teriol. (Abt. 1) 72: 256. 1918b. . Some new forms of parasitic worms. Zoopathologica 1:(48)—75. 1917. MANTER, HarotpD WInFRED. Some North American fish trematodes. Illinois Biol. Monogr. 10: 1-188 (127-264). 1926. MELUGIN, JANE. Studies on marine fish trema- todes of Louisiana. Abstr. Theses, Louisi- ana State Univ. (1938-39) Uae Bull. 32, new ser. 1): 89. 1940. MeEsERVE, FRANKG. Some meonoronaiie trema- todes ‘from the Galapagos Islands and the neighboring Pacific. Allan Hancock Pacific Expeditions 2: 29-88. 1938. von NorpMANN, ALEXANDER. Mikrogra- phische Bettrage zur Naturgeschichte der wir- bellosen Thiere 1: x+118 pp. Berlin, 1832. Ousson, PeTER. Entozoa iakttagna hos skan- dinaviska hafsfiskar. 1, Platyelminthes. Lunds. Univ. Arssk., math. naturv.- Vetensk (1867), 4(8): 1-64. 1868. Bidrag till skandinaviens helminth- fauna. 1. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., Stockholm (1875), 14(1): 1-35. 1876. Orro, ADOLPH WILHELM. Beschreibung einiger neuen Mollusken und Zoophyten. Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curios., Bonnae, 11: 273- 314. 18238. : ZOOLOGY.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks. National Museum. The preparation of a monograph on the Cuban land mollusks of the family Uro- coptidae by Dr. Carlos de la Torre and my- self has made it necessary to subject the entire family to a critical overhauling. This has brought to light considerable misunder- standing on the part of the older authors, 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 16, 1942. VOL. 33, NO. 2 Parona, C., and Prrueia, A. Note sopra trematodi ectoparassitt (Res Iigusticae, 17). Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia Nat. Genova (1891 92), 32 (ser. 2, 12): 86-102. 1892. PRICE, Emmett W. North American mono- genetic trematodes. 1. The superfamily Gyrodactyloidea. Journ. Washington. Acad. Sci. 27(3): 114-130; (4): 146-164. 1937. _ North American monogenetic trema- todes. II. The families Monocotylidae, Mi- crobothriidae, Acanthocotylidae and Udonel- lidae (Capsaloidea). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28(3): 109-126: (4): 183-198. 19388. . North American monogenetic trematodes IIT. The family Capsalidae (Capsaloidea). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 63-92. . 1939a. . North American monogenetic trema- todes. 1V. The family Polystomatidae (Poly- stomatoidea). Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash- ington 6: 80-92. 1939b. . North American monogenetic trema- todes. V. The family Hexabothriidae, n. n. ~ (Polystomatoidea). Proc. Helminth. Soe. Washington 9: 39-56. 1942. RuszkowskI, J. 8. Sur les vers parasites des chiméres. Ann. Parasitol. 12: 482-491. 1934. Scorr, Tuomas. Notes on some parasites of fishes. 19th Ann. Rep. Fishery Board Scot- land (1900), pt. 3: 120-153. 1901. STAFFORD, J. T'rematodes fram Canadian fishes. Zool. Anz. 27: 481-495. 1904. Stites, CH. WARDELL, and Hassauu, ALBERT. Index-catalogue of medical and veterinary zoology. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37: 401 pp. 1908. YamaGutTl, Satyu. Studies on the helminth fauna of Japan. Part 19. Fourteen new ecto- parasitic trematodes of fishes. 1-28 pp. Tokyo, 1937. Studies on the helminth fauna o Japan. Part 24. Trematodes of shes Jap. Journ. Zool. 8: 15-74. 1938 Paut Bartscu, U. 8. due largely to the fact that at the time when they were working little was known of the anatomy and structure of the columella, the lamellation of the interior shell, and even less of the circumscribed ecologic conditions under which these animals exist. Today some of the deficiencies have been met, more or less, and the mass of material available for study furnishes a clearer viewpoint, and the results of the revisional work show a Fes. 15, 1943 consistent zoogeographic pattern. For the new species here described I am indebted largely to the energetic efforts of Miss Marie E. Bourgeois. Genus Bostrichocentrum Strebel Bostrichocentrum Strebel, Beitr. Kentn. Fauna Mexico, pt. 4: 80. 1880. Type: Bostrichocentrum tryont Pfeiffer. This group appears confined to central Mexi- co. The known species are listed with their type — localities: tamaulipense Bartsch: Camargo, Tamaulipas hidalgoensis Bartsch: Bonanza, Zimapan, Hi- dalgo veracruziana Dall: Misantla, Veracruz veracruzicolum, n. sp.: Veracruz ronzoni, n. sp.: Pajaro Verde, Puebla pilsbryi Dall: City of Puebla, Puebla | tryont Pfeiffer: Matamoros de Izucar, Puebla eurybia Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero galathea Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero goldmant Bartsch: Tamazulapan, Oaxaca gealer H. Adams: Putla, Oaxaca B. hogeana von Martens, Maltrata, Veracruz, is doubtfully referred here. Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum, n. sp. Fig. 4 _ Shell cylindroconic, flesh colored with the nucieus and the early postnuclear whorls pale horn colored. The nucleus consists of 2.7 turns, which are well rounded, microscopically granu- lose, and form an obtuse apex. The five post- nuclear whorls following increase regularly in size, after which the shell becomes cylindric. They are marked by retractively curved axial riblets, which gradually become less strongly developed and on the cylindric portion are merely indicated as incremental lines: The post- nuclear whorls on the conic portion are well rounded, while the later turns are almost flat- tened. The suture is well constricted. The last whorl is short, narrowly umbilicate, with well- rounded base crossed by axial riblets, which are irergular in their development, size, and spac- ing. The last whorl is usually solute, though at times adnate to the parietal wall. The solute portion rarely extends over one-tenth of a turn. The aperture is very broadly pear shaped, the narrow portion being at the posterior angle. The peristome is moderately expanded and re- flected. The columella is hollow and bears a strong fold a little posterior to the basal wall on BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS 55 the penultimate whorl, which fades out on the turn preceding it. The type, U.S.N.M. 536877, was received from Miss Bourgeois, who states that it was collected in the neighborhood of Orizaba or Cordoba, or a little farther south, in the state of Veracruz. It has 12.8 whorls and measures: height, 12 mm; diameter, 2.9 mm. U.S.N.M. 536878 contains two topotypes, and another topotype is in the collection of Miss Bourgeois. In type of sculpture this species resembles B. pilsbryt but is easily differentiated by its much smaller size and less elongate form. Bostrichocentrum ronzoni, n. sp. Fig. 3 Shell small, pupiform, white, with the nu- clear whorls horn colored. The nuclear turns and the first four postnuclear whorls increase regularly in size to form a conic apex. The rest of the shell is cylindric, the last whorl being slightly contracted. The nucleus consists of 2 turns, which are strongly rounded and minutely granulose. The postnuclear whorls are marked by numerous closely spaced, well-developed, axial riblets, which are separated by intercostal spaces that vary from mere impressed lines to equal the width of the ribs. Beginning with the middle of the cylindric portion, the axial ribs become stronger and more distantly spaced, reaching their greatest width on the last turn. All the postnuclear whorls are well rounded. Suture well impressed. Periphery of the last whorl well rounded. Base short, well rounded, narrowly openly umbilicated, and marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture sub- ovate; peristome slightly expanded and re- flected, usually adnate on the parietal wall to the preceding turn though at times slightly solute. The columella is hollow and bears a fold a little above the basal wall which is very strong in the penultimate whorl and extends feebly throughout the rest of the spire. The columella shows retractively curved incre- mental lines. The type, U.S.N.M. 536874, was received from Miss Bourgeois and was collected by Dr. M. del Campo at Pajaro Verde, Puebla. It has 12.2 whorls and measures: height, 10.1 mm; diameter, 3.9 mm. U.S.N.M. 536875 contains two topotypes and an additional topotype is in Miss Bourgeois’s collection. U.S.N.M. 536876 contains five additional specimens, which are 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES said to have come from either Cordoba or Orizaba, the exact locality being not definitely known. An additional specimen from this lot also isin Miss Bourgeois’s collection. This species in sculpture resembles B. tryont but can readily be distinguished by its much smaller size. It has much finer sculpture than B. eurybia and stronger sculpture than B. galathea. Genus Haplocion Pilsbry Haplocion Pilsbry, Man. Conch. 15: 89. 1902. Type: Holospira pasonis Dall. The known species, with their type localities, are: bryantwalkerit Pilsbry: Rio-Conchos near Rio Grande, Chihuahua semisculpta Stearns: San Carlos Cafion, Chi- huahua townsendi Bartsch: Cerro Chilicote, Chihuahua coahuilensis Binney: Cienega Grande, Coahuila minima von Martens: Hermosillo, Sonora remondt Gabb: Valle de Sahuaripa, Sonora guaymasensis, n. sp.: Guaymas, Sonora percostata Pilsbry: Sonora mazatlanica, n. sp.: Mazatlan, Sinaloa mathewsont Bartsch: D. F. Mexico, mariae Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal, Mexico. campot, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero bartscht Pilsbry & Cockerell: Balsas, Guerrero fusca von Martens: Omilteme, Guerrero pasonis Dall: El Paso, Texas mesolia Pilsbry: Sanderson, Texas tantalus Bartsch: Arizona or New Mexico Haplocion guaymasensis, n. sp. Fig. 1 Shell elongate-pupiform, flesh colored. The nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded, micro- scopically granulose turns. These, combined with the first four postnuclear whorls, form a conic apex. The remaining turns are cylindric. The postnuclear whorls are well rounded and crossed by decidedly retractively slanting axial ribs, which are separated by spaces double the width of the ribs or even wider. Suture strongly constricted. The last two turns are inflated and strongly rounded. Base short, strongly rounded, openly umbilicated and marked by the weak continuation of the axial ribs. The last whorl is solute for about one-tenth of a turn. Aperture subcircular; peristome broadly expanded and reflected. The columella is rather broad and hollow and smooth. The type, U.S.N.M. 536883, was collected by Miss M. E. Bourgeois near the beach at VOL. 33, NO. 2 Guaymas, Sonora. It has 13 whorls and meas- ures: height, 12 mm; diameter, 4 mm. U.S.N.M. 522967 contains two topotypes. This species resembles most nearly Haplocion mazatlanica but differs in being stouter and in having the whorls much less rounded and the axial ribs more distantly spaced. Haplocion mazatlanica, n. sp. Fig. 6 Shell small, cylindroconic, pale horn colored. The nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded granu- lose turns. The postnuclear whorls are decidedly inflated, strongly rounded, and marked by somewhat sinuous, retractively curved axial ribs, which are almost as wide as the spaces that separate them. Suture very strongly con- stricted. The last whorl is short. Base short, strongly rounded, narrowly openly umbilicated, and marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture subcircular; peristome broadly expanded, widest on the inner lip and parietal wall. Columella moderately stout, hollow with a slight twist in the later whorls. The type, U.S.N.M. 536884, was collected by C. R. Orcutt at Mazatlan. It has 14 whorls and measures: height, 13.5 mm; diameter, 4.1 mm. U.S.N.M. 381625 contains four topotypes. This species resembles most nearly Haplocion guaymasensis but differs from it in being slenderer and having the whorls much more in- flated and the axial ribs more closely spaced. Haplocion campoi, n. sp. Fig. 7 Shell cylindroconic, pale horn colored with the interior of the aperture pale brown. The nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded whorls, of which the last half of the first is wider than the rest of the turns. They are minutely granulose. Beginning with the sixth postnuclear whorl the shell assumes a cylindric form. All the whorls are almost flattened, well rounded, and marked by retractively curved, well-rounded, strongly developed axial ribs, which are about as wide as the spaces that separate them on the early turns, but a little less wide on the later whorls. Suture strongly constricted. The last whorl is somewhat attentuated and rather long. The base is short and rimate at the umbilicus and crossed by the continuation of the axial ribs. The last whorl is solute for about one-eighth of a turn. Aperture subequal; peristome moder- ‘Fes. 15, 1948 BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS SSS PORES Figs. 1-7.—New species of Mexican urocoptid mollusks: 1, Haplocion guaymasensis ; 2, Coelostemma presidioensis ; 3, Bostrichocentrum ronzont, 4, Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum; 5, Coelostemma antricola; 6, Haplocion mazatlanica; 7, Haplocion campot. (All figures X6) 57 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ately expanded and reflected. Columella slender and almost solid in the later whorls, but more hollow in the earlier turns, almost straight. The type, U.S.N.M. 536880, has 15 whorls and measures: height, 17 mm; diameter, 4.6 mm. It was collected by Dr. Martin del Campo at Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, (Guerrero. U.S.N.M. 536881 contains nine topotypes. U.S.N.M. 536882 contains four additional topo- types collected by Miss M. E. Bourgeois. This species in the inflation of the whorls re- sembles Haplocion mariae Bartsch but differs from it in being much larger and in having the ribs more closely spaced. Genus Coelostemma Dall Coelostemma Dall, Nautilus 9: 50. 1895. Type: Holospira elizabethae Pilsbry. Following are the known species, with their type localities: dallz Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila strebeliana Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila lichenophora Dall: Encarnacion, Hidalgo bourgeoisiana Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal, Mexico antricola, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero igualaensis Bartsch: Iguala, Guerrero balsasensis Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero adria Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero adana Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero elizabethae Pilsbry: Amula, Guerrero herrerae Bartsch: Silacayoapan, Oaxaca presidioensis, n. sp: Presidio, Veracruz The following species whose columellar struc- ture is unknown are doubtfully placed here: cretacea Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific locality microstoma Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific locality imbricata von Martens: Mexico, without specific locality teres Menke: Puebla teres var. B Crosse & Fischer: Puebla Coelostemma antricola, n. sp. Fig. 5 Shell elongate-cylindroconic, with the nu- cleus and the early post-nuclear whorls horn colored, the rest flesh colored. The nucleus con- sists of 2.5 well-rounded, minutely granulose whorls. The succeeding seven turns increase rapidly in size to form a conic apex. The rest of the shell is cylindric, but the whorls become slightly contracted from the broadest expansion at the junction of the cylindric portion and the VOL. 33, NO. 2 conic part anteriorly. The conic part and the last whorl are marked by strong, rather dis- tantly spaced axial ribs. Here these are only about half as wide as the spaces that separate them and they develop slight nodules at the slightly overhanging portion of the turns at the suture. On the cylindric portion the axial ribs become much finer and more closely spaced. Suture moderately strongly constricted. The last whorl is somewhat prolonged, slightly angulated at the periphery. Base short, slightly rounded, rimate at the umbilicus, and marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. The last whorl is solute for about one-fifth of a turn. Aperture subtriangular; peristome moderately expanded and reflected. The columella is very broad, widest in the later part of the conical portion of the shell, hollow, and marked by slender, retractively curved, axial riblets. The type, U.S.N.M. 536885, was collected at the base of a limestone boulder in a ravine near Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, Guerrero. It has 18.3 whorls and measures: height, 21.1 mm; diameter, 5.6. mm. A topotype is in Miss Bourgeois’s collection. This species recalls Coleostemma bourgeoistana but is much larger and much more cylindric. Coelostemma presidioensis, n. sp. Fig. 2 Shell small, pupoid, pale horn colored, the later whorls flesh colored, which is also the color of the interior of the aperture. The nucleus consists of 2 well-rounded, microscopically granulose whorls. The nucleus, plus the suc- ceeding five turns, complete the conic spire, the remaining turns being more or less cylindric, contracting slightly toward the base. All the whorls are moderately well rounded. On the conic portion they are covered by rather strong, distantly spaced ribs, which are only about one- half to one-third as wide as the spaces that separate them. On the central part of the cylindric portion the ribs become much finer and more closely spaced. On the penultimate whorl they are almost obsolete, while on the last whorl they are again very strong and very distantly spaced, the intercostal spaces being at. least four times the width of the ribs. Suture very strongly constricted. Base very short, narrowly umbilicated, and marked by the strong continuation of the ribs which extend over the umbilicus. Aperture subtriangular; Fes. 15, 1943 peristome moderately expanded, reflected, and thickened. The columella is stout, almost one- fourth the width of the interior of the whorls, and crossed by slender, slightly retractively curved axial ribs. The type, U.S.N.M. 536886, was collected by Miss M. E. Bourgeois at Presidio, Veracruz. It SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA 59 has 13 whorls and measures: height, 12 mm; diameter, 5 mm. The small form and pupoid shape will dif- ferentiate this from all other species except pos- sibly Coelostemma imbricata von Martens, in which the middle whorls are not cylindric. ICHTHYOLOGY .—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with notes on another species.' Recently in identifying a collection of fishes taken in Alaskan waters by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, two of the species proved to be new to the known fauna of Alaska and of North America. Additional information is given on another species. Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and - Moiseev Fig. 1 Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev, | wm Taranetz, Vestnik dv. Eiliala Akad. Nauk SSSR no. 1-3: 69. 1933; Taranetz, Bull. Pacific Sci. Inst. Fish. Oceanog., 2: 94. 1937. The discovery of six specimens of Sebastodes in Schmitt’s collection with XIV dorsal spines all belonging to the same species was a surprise, because among the hundreds of specimens of this group examined from the American side of the North Pacific, all have had XIII dorsal spines. From time to time species of Sebastodes have been reported from the Asiatic side of the North Pacific Ocean with XIV spines, but these specimens are thought to be the first re- corded from Alaska. My studies indicate that the Alaskan specimens belong to the species Sebastodes polyspinis. Although there are some minor differences, such as in color, it is thought best not to describe them as a new form with- out first making direct comparisons with the types of S. polyspinis, which is not now possible because of the war. The following key was prepared from the available specimens and literature, and by means of it one should be able to identify the North Pacific species of Sebastodes with XIV 1 Published by permission of Secretary of the Be eenion Institution. Received September 5, Lronarp P. Scuuutz, U. 8. National Museum. dorsal spines that have a flattish to convex interorbital space. la. Tubes in the lateral line 44 or fewer. 2a. Lateral line tubes 35; vertical scale rows from upper edge of gill opening to base of caudal fin about 65; scales above lateral line at base of first soft ray of dorsal 6 and below lateral line at origin of anal 16; mandible scaly; pectoral rays 16, lower 8 unbranched and swollen; anal rays III, 8; dorsal XIV, 13; interorbital a little convex; nasal and preocular spines pres- ent; parietal, postocular, and nuchal with weak spine; color reddish, marked with about 5 indefinite dark saddles along the back; peritoneum black; mouth cavity and gill cavities dusky; Japan... Sebastodes owstoni Jordan and Thomp- son? 2b. Tubes in lateral line 40; mandible probably naked; pectoral rays 17; anal III, 10; dorsal XIV, 15; interorbital space flat; nasal and parietal spines strong; pre- ocular, supraocular and postocular very weak; tympanic, coronal and nuchal ab- sent; color red, no spots. Southeast coast of Siberia... .Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales? 16. Tubes in lateral line 45 or more. 3a. Tubes in lateral line about 63; vertical rows of scales above lateral line about 115; scales above lateral line 11 or 12 and 17 below; pectoral rays 19, 9 lower ones unbranched; anal III, 7; dorsal - XIV, 138; gill rakers 12+27; mandible scaly; interorbital convex; nasal spine small but sharp; other cranial spines absent; peritoneum black; color brown- ish, top of head and upper sides clouded with dusky; lateral line run- 2 Sebastodes owstont Jordan and Thompson, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 6 (4): 270, pl. 31, fig. 3. 1914; Jordan and Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 10(2): 260, 1925; Scumipt, P. J., Trans. Pacific Committee Acad. Sci. USSR 2: 94. 1931. 3 Sebastodes ruber Pavlenko, Fishes Peter the Great Bay, Trd. Obsc. Test. Kanzani, p. 42. 1910 (name preoccupied); Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales, Copeia, No. 1, p. 10. 1980 (new name). 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ning in a conspicuous light streak; upper part of opercles with a black spot. Japan... Sebastodes itinus Jor- dan and Starks4 3b. Tubes in lateral line 45 to 50; vertical scale rows 85 to 100; gill rakers on first gill arch 10 to 12 +26 or 27; peritoneum black; interorbital convex; nasal spines small but sharp; other cranial spines absent. 4a. Mandible naked; vertical scale rows about 100 (these data based on a specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 102454, from Okhotsk Sea); pectoral rays 19, lower 10 or 11 unbranched; anal rays III, 8; dorsal rays XIV, 17; gill rakers about 10+26; black streak along maxillary; one below eye, then a white streak, then a broad blotch behind eye; two blotches on opercle; an indistinct blotch or bar below spiny dorsal and another below soft dorsal. Asiatic side Bering Sea. . . Sebastodes glau- cus (Hilgendorf)5 4b. Mandible scaly; vertical rows 88 to 91; pectoral rays 18, lower 8 or 9 un- branched; anal rays III, 7 or 8; dorsal XIV, 14 or 15; lips of lower jaw dusky; a blackish streak along lower part of maxillary; another oblique black streak from under eye across preopercle, a pale one above and behind eye dusky; opercle with 2 dusky blotches; upper median fins dusky; body above more or less coarsely reticulated or marbled with dusky; mouth and gill cavities with traces of dusky shades here and there; base of pectoral with dusky area; trace of a wide pale band along upper sides and another along lower sides, both probably reddish in life. Bering Sea; Shumagin and Aleu- tian Islands... Sebastodes poly- spinis Taranetz and Moiseev Since the publication by Taranetz (1933: 69-70) is mostly in Russian, I give below a 4 Sebastodes itinus Jordan and Starks, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 27: 99, fig. 1, 1904. Fig. 1 has but XIII dorsal spines, but Dr. G. S. Myers informs me that the type has XIV dorsal spines, and there are 63 lateral-line tubes instead of 54 as published. 5 Sebastes glaucus Hilgendorf, 8S. B. Ges. Naturf. Freunde, p. 170. 1880. Although I have not been able to locate the specimen from Bering Island reported upon as S. glaucus (by Jordan and Gil- bert, Rept. U. S. Fur Seal Comm., pt. 3: 447. 1898; Jordan and Evermann, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 2: 1777, 1898; and Jordan and Starks, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 27: 97. 1904), it probably is not this species but Sebastodes poly- spinis Taranetz and Moiseev. VOL. 33, NO. 2 translation (made for me) of the description of S. polyspinis: “Description of our specimens: D XIV (XIII), 138-15; A III, 7-8; gill rakers on the outside surface of first arch 9-12 +23-26; P 18 (4 fish); tubes in lateral line 48-50 (57?); 28 vertebrae (4 fish) with urostyle. “The body is covered with ctenoid scales; accessary scales are missing; the head, except the gill membranes, is covered with very small scales; the smallest are situated on the upper and lower jaws on the brachiostegal rays, and on the front of the head; ridges on the head are not developed except the parietals; on the operculum there are 2 sharp spines: on the pre- operculum there are blunt spines, two or three of them are split at the ends; nasal spines hidden in the skin: base of skull curved; pari- etals not connected; interorbital space is con- vex; lower jaw protrudes forward and has a strong knob on the symphysis. “The next to the last dorsal spine extends half way out along the last; the second anal spine is shorter and thicker than the third one. ‘“‘Color in formalin: Sides of body are dark without spots; the dorsal part is darker; the ventral side pale; the edges of the first dorsal black; peritoneum black; other fish vary from pale to brown with black spots. “TD, XIV, 13; A IIL, 8; RP. 18; scilleraers 12 +26; lateral line tubes 48-50. The length of the head is 107 mm. The length of the body 360 (?); without caudal 305; diameter of eye 21.0; diameter of orbit 25.5; interorbital space 23.1; upper jaw 47.2; lower jaw &9.0; height of the head 88.3; length of the longest gill raker 14.7; maximum height of the body 110.5; minimum 25.9; length of pectoral (from the upper edge of the base to the end of longest ray when the fin is folded against the body) 80.7; base of pectoral 29.0; length of pelvic 62.2; length of base of pelvic 35.9; length of base of first dorsal 111.5; second dorsal 59.7; length of base of anal 42.9; height of longest dorsal spine (fifth) 33.4; height of 13th spine 16.1; of 14th 24.8; length of second anal spine 29.6; length of third anal spine 29.8 “From other species S.. pavlenkot Wales (=8S.ruber Pavlenko) differs by the number of pores in lateral line, by the absence of spines on the upper part of the head, and in other de- tails. No other type of Sebastodes has 14 dorsal Fes. 15, 1943 spines except S. giawcus to which ours is not related. Our fish differs from S. jordani, S. goodei, S. paucispinis by the presence of 14 spines in the first dorsal and in the number of - pores in the lateral line. “A fish referred to by P. J. Schmidt as S. ciliatus (S. taczanowskii according to Soldatov and Lindberg, p. 156, not S. ciliatus Tilesius) appears to be the same, but because of slight variations in formulae we can not affirm it con- clusively as P. J. Schmidt does not check on it further. “Distribution: from about Pribilof Islands to east coast of Kamchatka.” The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 form the basis for the identification of the Alaskan specimens as S. polyspinis, which were col- lected as follows: U.S.N.M. no. 119375. Alaska: 22 miles ENE. Castle Rock, off Big Koniuji Island (Shumagin Islands), trawl, 95-120 fathoms, October 2, 1940, 1 specimen, 208 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 119379. Alaska: Pavlof Bay, trawl, 10-30 fathoms, September 25, 1940, 1 spec- — imen, 117 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 19376. Alaska: King Cove, trawl, 15-22 fathoms, October 16, 1940, 2 specimens, 189 and 144 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 119378. Alaska: Castle Bay, trawl, 45-60 fathoms, October 29, 1940, 1 speci- men, 153 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 119377. Alaska: Olga Bay, trawl, 38-95 fathoms, November 4, 1940, 1 specimen, 145 mm. SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA 61 TaBLE 1.—Counts AND M£8ASUREMENTS OF SEBASTODES POLYSPINIS TARANETZ AND Molsexrv. (All measurements expressed in hundredths of the standard length.) Types from Alaskan Characters Bering Specimens Sea iorsal’spinesti sae eee se aXe XIV | XIV Dorsallsoft raysesss-0905: 442-4: 13-15 14 15 PAA RAY See os Beceat iaysnteas crcl senatens QUE Petey} IU 2/ III, 8 ( 9 to 12 Gill rakers first arch........... + 12427 | 11426 23 to 26 Rectoralerays nee ieee ee 18 18-18 18 Unbranched lower pectoral rays. — 9-9 8 Tubes lateral line.............. 48-50 50 48 Vertical scale rows........-.--- — 91 85 Scales above lateral line........ = 11 10 Scales below lateral line........ — 17 16 Standard length in millimeters..| 305 208 117 Diametemotaorbivmen ce seule: 8.38 9.62 9.4 Interorbital space...........-- 7.01 7.69 Doth Length of maxillaries of upper jaw| 15.4 15.4 15.6 Length of lower jaw.........-- 19.4 17.8 17.5 Longest gill raker.............- 4.82 5.05 ee, Depth (greatest). .5.....-....- 36.2 BY 7/ OAR Least depth caudal peduncle.... 8.46 9.13 9.4 Length of pectoral fin.......... 26.4 PA PA 28.6 Length of pelvic fin............ 20.4 20.9 20.1 Length of base first dorsal...... 36.7 BILL ots) Bl 6 Length of base second dorsal....| 19.6 20.7 22.6 Length of base of anal......... AZ 15.8 15.4 Length of longest dorsal spine (SEM) esos oo ees Paces eee 10.9 12.5 12.8 Length of thirteenth dorsal spine. 5.28 Uo MAil 8.53 Length of fourteenth dorsal spine 8.16 10.1 12.8 Length of second anal spine..... 9.68 bea 12.8 Length of third anal spine...... 9.78 iil fs) aa Wengethuot neadeneemcrtasercrr — S32 34.2 reorbivalawid theres cesta — 1.68 1.88 Length of caudal peduncle..°... — 20.9 OB oi Postorbital length of head...... — 15.6 16.2 Taste 2.—Counts REcoRDED For CERTAIN SPECIES OF SEBASTODES wiTH XIV Dorsal SPINES Fi a Ae Lower unbranched Species Soft dorsal Soft anal Pectoral pectoral rays 13 14 15 16 iL7/ Uf 8 9 10 16 17 18 19 8 9 | 10 | iL polyspinis...| 1 5 1 - - 3 4 - — - - 7 - 1 6 = = GUQUCUS....--| = _ et tes 1 - 1 — - - - — 2 - - 1 1 MMS .0.---- 1 = — - - 1 - = = = = = 1 1 oe Zs OWStONUe ee || L = - - - — 1 = = 1 zs cs zt = = ee pavlenkoi....| — - il - - - = = 1 = 1 a) 2 = ik i a I US OS Pg ep ee er nD ee le Oe RII ce Number of gill rakers on first gill arch Pe LI TSN STE ce TSN sR cs Sac Species Above angle |Below angle Total gill rakers Pore in lateral line io | 11 | 12 | 26 | 27 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 |35-37.38-40/41-43'44-47/48-50'51-53 54-57 58-60 61-63 polyspinis...| 3 2 2 5 2 2 3 iL - - - 4 33 = = = = QUAUCUS 2: « 1 - — 1 = 1 = as = es = 1 i é. je = es METIS 66 bed Oe - —- 1 - 1 - = il ee = Ey Eby = = fie 2 owstont...... - - - — = = = wa ES 1 = = a = = es ah wt pavlenkov....| — - - - - = = zs BS 2 1 es ss a sg = Bs Ae 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 2 Fig. 1.—Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev. Photograph of an Alaskan specimen. Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke, Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. 30: 64. 1912 (type, U.S.N.M. no. 74377, from Avatcha Bay, east coast Kamchatka); Schmidt, P. J., Compt. Rend. (Doklady) _ Acad. Sci. URSS 15(5) : 279-280. 1937 (see this paper for synonyms and literature). Since the two specimens reported here are probably the first published record of the oc- currence of this species on the American side of the North Pacific Ocean, I record in Table 3 data from them. U.S.N.M. no. 119387, taken in Canoe Bay, Alaska, September 19-21, 1940, in a gill net at 30-40 fathoms by Dr. W. L. Schmitt. Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 30: 50, fig. 8. 1912; Soldatov and Lindberg, Bull. Pacific Sci. Fish. Inst. 5: 195. 1930; Taranetz, Bull. Pacific Sci. Inst. Fish. Oceanogr. 11: 109, 110. 1937; Andriashev, Explor. Mers URSS, Instit. Hydrolog. Leningrad, fasc. 25: 303, 1937. Because this species is rare and seldom re- ported, it was thought best to give here a brief description. U.S.N.M. no. 119488, one specimen taken in Canoe Bay, Alaska, November 4, 1940, by Dr. W. L. Schmitt. The following measurements in millimeters were made on a specimen from Canoe Bay, Alaska, collected by Dr. W. L. Schmitt, November 4, 1940: Standard length 107; head TABLE 3.—CountTs anD MEASUREMENTS ON Two SPECIMENS or EURYMEN GyRINUS. (Measurements expressed in hun- dredths of the standard length.) Specimen Character SSE 1 2 Standard lencth: ¢ ce ee one 131 140 Headtlength: as25.0-0 ae 42.0 45.4 Hleshy-interorbitaliss +s sae ee 9.93 11.1 Diameter ofveyex, visas eee 7.64 geal ength ofsnouvees<. 1. eee ee 9.55 slate Postorbital length of head’... 5) 245 24.4 26.8 Keéngth-ofuppernjiawa ane eee 19.8 20.7 Greatestidepthe: access sor ee 29.8 So iL beast depth oct we) oe ee eee 6.64 CALS Length of caudal peduncle........... 8.24 9.86 Mongest ray pectoral ee ee 26.0 26.1 Longest ray, caudals ssh eee 23 22.8 ength basedorsalessee eee ee eee 60.0 SD Kengthubaserana leew amas lee 29.6 33.5 Dorsalirays: oe se ee ee 31 30 Wah OE) Weel etn a mE mem Run Male Tai ehtie: Meat, hat 16 16 Pectonals sake see ee ee 24. 24 Guillirakersfirstranch yee eee ae 0+8 0+9 32.5; snout 11.1; eye 9.1; interorbital space 3.0 postorbital length of head 12.5; greatest depth of body 15.2; least depth of caudal peduncle _ 8.8; length of caudal peduncle 15.5; maxillaries (tip of snout to rear of maxillary) 15.0; length of longest (sixth) dorsal spine 12.2; longest soft dorsal ray 12.8; longest anal ray 11.0; longest caudal fin ray 18.5; shortest (middle) caudal fin ray 12.8; longest pectoral fin ray 26.2; longest pelvic ray 15.2; length of base of soft dorsal 44.5: length of base of anal fin 43.5; snout to origin of first dorsal 29.7. The following counts were made: Dorsal X, 26; anal 24; pectoral 20; plates in lateral line 51; gill rakers 0 +7, a ee Frs. 15, 1943 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 379TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS The 379th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on December 14, 1942. President Curtis called the meeting to order at 8:07 p.m., with 19 persons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Rosstn1, N. R. Smiru, W. W. Dieut, eee Gran HF. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G. BricKWEDDE, H.B. Cou.ins, JRr., F.C. KRacrK, Ms Serzuer, J. B. Reesipe, Jr., J. E. ~McMorrrey, Jr., W. A. Darron, W. Ram- Bere, E. W. Pricer, L. W. Parr, C. L. GARNER, and by invitation G. A. Cooper and A. SEIDELL. The minutes of the 378th meeting were read and approved. President CurRTIS announced that R. J. SEEGER (chairman), F. G. BRicKWeppg, R. W. Brown, G. A. Coorrr, and F. D. 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The Committee to make recommendations concerning the printing and publishing of the JOURNAL presented a report carrying the fol- lowing recommendations: (a) That the Board of Editors be given the power to publish a minimum of 6 bimonthly issues a year for the duration of the war whenever it decides, with the approval of the Executive Committee, that the objectives of the JouRNAL will be best met by such a change; (b) that the Board of Editors be instructed to study the various offset processes that could be used for printing the JOURNAL, with a view to their consideration by the Board of Managers after the war. The Board approved both recommendations as sub- mitted by the Committee. The Committee to investigate the purchase by Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs of subscriptions to the JourNatu for distribution to libraries in South America pre- sented a report advising the Board that the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs would be receptive to a letter from the Academy informing them of the cost of sub- scriptions to the JouRNAL and of the present distribution of subscriptions in Latin America. The Board instructed the Custodian and Sub- scription Manager of Publications to send this information. The Secretary reported two deaths and one resignation. The Treasurer presented a report showing that to date the income of the Academy was actually $200.52 higher for 1942 than the amount of income for this year estimated in January, 1942. The Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications reported the number of free sub- scriptions to the JouRNAL and the number of Government bureaus that subscribe to the JOURNAL. The meeting adjourned at 9:39 P.M. 315TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 315th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Anthropological Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on December 17, 1942, with President Curtis presiding. JULIAN H. Stewarp, Vice-President of the Anthropo- logical Society, introduced the speaker. Matruew W. StTiruinG, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, delivered an address entitled Anthropological explorations in Netherlands New Guinea. Mr. Stirling described how an expedi- tion of 700 men, sponsored jointly by the Netherlands Government and the Smithsonian Institution and operating under his direction, entered New Guinea from the north by the Mamberamo River and reached the Snow Mountains, where an interesting negrito popu- lation living in a stone-age culture. was dis- covered and studied. The lecture was illustrated with moving pictures. About 175 persons were in attendance. FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Obituary In THE sudden death of Hmnry Corsin Futter on August 26, 1942, at New Haven, Conn., the Academy has lost an active member, the vice-president of its Biological Section, and his associates have lost a valued friend. He was born on November 13, 1879, at Worcester, Mass., where he also secured his basic chemical education at the Worcester Polytechnic Insti- tute. After graduation in 1901 he was engaged by commercial houses in analyzing drugs and chemicals used in the production of medicines. Later he entered as a chemist the U. 8S. Depart- ment of Agriculture under Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, whom he referred to as his mentor, working on problems incident to the Food and Drug Act of 1906. Collaborating with Dr. Wiley in his work for Good Housekeeping, Fuller did much of the analytical work on the articles discussed in ‘‘1001 tests’? published in 1914. During the period covered by the World War, Fuller was in the Institute of Industrial Re- search of Washington, at the same time super- vising drug propagation on a commercial scale and managing a drug farm in Virginia, growing digitalis and other important medical plants— 1914-19. Although active officially, he found time to publish three books of note: Medical preparation, 132 pages, 1912; The chemistry and analysis of drugs and medicine, 1,072 pages, 1920; The story of drugs, a popular exposition of their origin, preparation, and commercial im- portance, 358 pages, 1922. He published also a number of shorter papers on current chemical subjects. He was secretary of the Scientific Section of American Pharmaceutical Associa- tion, 1917-18. He spent some time in Europe during 1922 and 1924 on problems concerning the wine industry of Italy and France. One of Fuller’s avocations, in which he used great care and discrimination, was the bringing together a wonderful collection of stamps, con- taining 27,000 different forms, which is more than one-quarter of all the world’s issue. The United States part is noted for its rare stamps and for the completeness of its series. Ornithology also was a pet avocation, and he never lost an opportunity to observe birds in their native haunts. Birds are so closely as- sociated in their habitat with varied and diverse forms of other life that he who follows them VOL. 33, NO. 2 a ese 5 _ yy te Se A eee eee soon learns that Nature has in store other — treasures for those interested, and that the Great Outdoors is a real paradise for those who delve. This was as Fuller thought. On an oc- casion, in order to broaden his view of the wilder country and its animal and plant life, he made a trip through the West to the Pacific States and British Columbia with friends who were familiar with the whole region. Every time he saw a bird or mammal new to him in life, he was thrilled by the experience. As a well-known chemist and nature lover with his easy and cordial manner of approach, Fuller had a wide and varied acquaintance, — especially among kindred spirits whose prob- lems were similar to his. He was a good court witness, defending his case with clearly stated facts, and with a facile tongue effective in either thrust or parry. He was much interested in the activities of a debating club that he entertained at his home, and he took special delight in the wide variety of subjects that come up from time to time and the expertness with which they were handled by real authorities. Fuller was a man of good breeding, with a fine sense of honor, strict regard for his obliga- — tions, and consideration for the rights and feel- ings of others; hence a gentleman, whom we shall sorely miss. He had such perfect under- standing with his children that this close com- munion with their father always will be among their most cherished memories. He was an associate member of the American Ornithologists’ Union, member of the Washing- ton Biologists’ Field Club (president), Bio- logical Society of Washington (president), Baird Ornithologists Club, Washington Acad- emy of Sciences, Cosmos Club, American Chemical Society, American Pharmaceutical Association, Society of Chemical Industry, London, and Fellow of the American Institute of Chemists. He is survived by his widow; a son, Henry Shepard Fuller, M.D.; and two daughters, Mrs. Thomas Watson and Miss Josepha Fuller. A. K. FISHER. CONTENTS OrniTHoLocy.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico. Piercu BRODKORB.. 20. Gass UL a Enromonoey. —New genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae).. M. W. BLACKMAN................. EntomoLoGcy.—New species of syrphid flies in the National Museum. FRA MEG ERS eee Sos ele Mi wietaee Laat cuetbe dss Whi (ick aes ae ZooLocy.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family Diclidophoridae (Diclidophoroidea). Emmetr W. Pricn...:.... ZooLtocy.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Paun BArtscH... IcHTHyoLocy.—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with notes on another species. Lronarp P. ScHULTZ............... PROGEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY). 2s Oe OO a ae PN et 0s Sac eaee as : OBITUARY : HENRY CORBIN PULLER. 60 ong er i a ee This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Page ites Marcu 15, 1943 TON ACy SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS _ Jason R. SwaLLEn L. V. Jupson_ BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATICNAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS W. Ex C.F. W. Mvugseseck a ‘PHILOSC PHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ries aup A. Runper ie _ Epwin Kirx ; ns rig tees SOCIETY . Winitam N. FENTON ~ noranicat SOCIETY Wi ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCINTY James I. Horrman ' CHEMICAL SOCIETY ‘PUBLISHED MONTHLY ; | BY THE | WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - 450 Annarp St. aT MmNasHa, WISCONSIN Journal of the Washiweran Acadeee of f Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Wachineinn Academy GF Be ences publishes? (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNALisissued — monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. . Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re- quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JouRNAL and conform their manuscripts to the usage found there as regards arrangement of title, subheads, syn- onymies, footnotes, tables, bibliography, legends for illustrations, and other matter. Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good paper. 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National Museum, Washington, De Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences” Wee addressed to 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis., or to the Treasurer, H. 8. ee U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C | oy Exchanges. —The JouRNAL does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim i is made te * : the Treasurer within thirty days after date of following issue. Mi ark OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: LELAND W. Parr, George Washington University. : Secretary: FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, National Bureau of Standards Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappueye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHaN R. Smrru, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Serzumr, U. 8. National Museum. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 33 Marcu 15, 1943 No. 3 BOTAN Y.—The travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1827. Rocrrs McVauau, Bureau of Plant Industry. _ Dr. Thomas Coulter, an Irish botanist? who lived and traveled in Mexico from 1825 until about 1834, made large collections of herbarium specimens and less extensive col- lections of living plants, especially of cacti. The most detailed published account of Coulter’s life and work in Mexico is that by Coville (1895). The Mexican collections comprised more than 50,000 specimens, ac- cording to the brief biographical sketch of Coulter published the year after his death (Romney Robinson, 1844). The herbarium specimens were distributed, after Coulter’s death, from Trinity College in Dublin; be- fore distribution they were assigned num- bers according to their supposed systematic position, the numbers probably totaling about 1,700. Some of the replicate sets were distributed to American herbaria, the most nearly complete ones now being found at the Gray Herbarium and in the Torrey Herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden. All the Coulter specimens in American herbaria, however, seem to lack data relative to the time and place of col- lection, having been distributed under the numbers assigned at Dublin but without any other notations. The “‘first set’’ of the collection, according to Coville, went to the herbarium at Kew, and many of the speci- mens were cited, with collection number and locality, by Hemsley in the botany of the Biologia Centrali-Americana (1879- 1888). As pointed out by Coville, little has been published concerning the details of Coulter’s travels in Mexico, and the speci- mens cited by Hemsley have remained the chief source of information on this score. The present paper contains an account of 1 Received November 21, 1942. 2 Born 17938, died 1843. 65 (Communicated by B. Y. Morrison.) the botanist’s itinerary from the time of his departure from London, in September, 1824, until October, 1827. This account has been drawn up from Coulter’s own note- book, lent by his nephew, Joseph A. Coul- ter, to Dr. F. V. Coville, and now on deposit in the files of the Division of Plant Ex- ploration and Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry. Most of the notes taken by Thomas Coulter in Mexico are those relative to his observations while traveling; he carried a compass, sextant, barometer, thermometer, and two chronometers and recorded all the details of his instrumental data and his cal- culations thereon. Although evidently much interested in the plants and animals he saw, he did not write of any collections he may have made but confined himself to brief notes upon the places he visited and occa- sional comments upon his experiences. His entries were made at irregular intervals ex- cept when he traveled, when he seems to have been careful to record the movements of each succeeding day. He was employed by the Real del Monte Mining Co., and his travels took him to the several areas in which they had interests. Landing at Vera- cruz on January 28, 1825, he went as rapidly as possible to Real del Monte. After some months spent there (except for two trips to. Mexico City) he traveled up the old high- way to Zacatecas, where he stayed more than a year, making in the meantime one trip to the mines at Bolafios, Jalisco. Leav- ing Zacatecas in January, 1827, Coulter made his way to the mining district at Zimapan, Hidalgo, where he made his head- quarters at least until October of that year. He seems to have made few collections while traveling, if one may judge by the numbers 14 {4 AP ~ 20 y 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of specimens cited by Hemsley; approxi- mately 300 numbers are cited from Zima- pan, nearly 150 from Real del Monte, and nearly 50 from Zacatecas, but no more than 15 in all from along the routes connecting these places. This may have been due in part to the exigencies of travel by mule, as noted by Ward (1828, p. 316): “In Mexico, you never stop upon the road to bait, but perform the whole distance, whatever it may be, without a halt. It is better for the horses and mules, as they have a longer time together for rest and food, which, in so hot a climate, they do not enjoy without water, and this cannot be given them, in any quantity, until the day’s work is done.” The first entry in Coulter’s notebook is dated, at London, August 18, 1824, and is followed in the next few weeks by several having to do with the ragulation of the chronometers. On September 21 Coulter boarded his ship, the Thalza, and on the next day she sailed from Gravesend. She reached Funchal, Madeira, on October 13 or 14 and left again on November 5. An- tigua was sighted on November 29, and on December 8 the ship came to anchor off Port Maria, Jamaica. Coulter found it im- possible to take his baggage overland to Kingston, so obtained passage in a small boat and reached Kingston on the 14th. At Kingston, through a gentleman whom he had known previously in Ireland, Coulter secured permission to continue his trip on the British ship Primrose, which carried the mails to Veracruz, and left Jamaica on January 6, 1825. On January 27 the ship came to anchor just south of Veracruz, and the next day Coulter passed the customs and received his passport at Mocambo. His experiences for the next few days may be told in his own words: Friday Feby. 4th. 1825 I have not got mules be- fore today. Set out at four oclock. As far as Xalapa, which we reach on the 8th (five days) the road lies thro’ the tierras calientes—& as the coun- try is rather flat, with a good deal of wood, we see but little of it—We rest a day (9th) at Xalapa—I make the acquaintance [of] the Count de Sache (is it so he spells it) who is travelling here to col- lect—& go out a shooting with his aide [whom Coulter calls Ferd. Deppe de Berlin]. Feby. 10th Proceed. from Xalapa the road ascends rapidly, but is good. The scenery exceed- VOL. 33, NO. 3 ingly alpine but this ceases in one day. We sleep at La Joia—& may now consider ourselves on the tableland. [La Joia, 6 or 7 miles northwest of Jalapa, appears on Humboldt’s (1812) map as ‘‘La Hoya’; Ward (1828, p. 196) uses the latter spelling; a nearby mountain appears as “La Jolla” on Ward’s maps.] Feby. llth At La Cruz Blanca we quit the great road to Mexico & take to the Steppe, pass- ing at first thro’ a fine forest of pines & sleep at Sierite Leonce [spelling?]. On the 12th the party passed Santa Gertrudis, on the 13th Virreyes, on the 14th ‘St. Miguel Franco,” and on the 16th Santa Buenaventura. The route for these five days was at first southwest, then northwest, approximately along the course now fol- lowed by the Ferrocarril Interoceanico. Humboldt shows the route between Jalapa and Franco, which is apparently the “St. Miguel Franco” of Coulter; La Cruz Blanca, or Cruz Blanca, is about 10 miles northeast of the modern Perote, Veracruz; Sierite Leonce is apparently near the Cerro de Leén, about 6 miles southwest of Perote. Near this point, or about 6—7 miles south- west of Perote, Coulter’s road forked ; Santa Gertrudis lay on the more northern road, about 2 miles from the fork. Beyond Vir- reyes, in the state of Puebla, the road turned again to the northwest; Franco is in eastern Tlaxcala and Santa Buenaventura is in the northwestern part of the same state. Coulter continues: 17th Pass Apan [i.e. Apam, Hidalgo] & stop at an Hacienda—good horses here but dear—(Tala- hiote) [i.e. Tlalayote, Hidalgo]. We have now been seven days on the steppe with hills on each side of us—& might still continue on it to Tu- lancingo—but take a shorter road to Real del Monte. 18th After a league of plains we take to the mountains—« reach a considerable pueble on the borders of a pretty large plain. 19th reach Guaj- olote, on the companys possessions. Sunday, Feby. 20th, 1825. Real del Monte. On leaving Apam, Coulter seems to have doubled back to the east to reach Tlalayote, then turned to the northwest before reach- ing Tulancingo. Guajolote is 8 or 10 miles east of Pachuca, Hidalgo. Real del Monte (often appearing on mod- ern maps as Mineral del Monte) was an an- cient mining center, the site of some of the workings of the Real del Monte Mining Mar. 15, 1943 Co., with whom Coulter had a 3-year con- tract as medical attendant. At the mine he made his headquarters for some months. The entries in his diary were made here at various times from February 20 until April 16. On this latter date he left for Mexico City, sleeping at San Mateo and reaching the capital on the 17th. He stayed in Mex- ico at least until the 27th, but on the 29th he was back in Real del Monte, where he stayed until June 15. From June 17 to June 28 he was in Mexico again, and from June 30 until October 31 the entries indicate that he was at Real del Monte more or less con- tinuously. On October 31, 1825, Coulter began what was to be a three weeks’ trip to Zacatecas. His daily entries during this trip give his movements in the minutest detail; he at- tempted to fix his position at intervals each day by means of compass bearings on prom- inent points, by the courses of streams, by barometric readings, and by the estimated distances traveled. The route led westward from Pachuca to Tetepango and Tula, Hidalgo, and thence along the old highway from Mexico to Zacatecas. The details are well shown on Humboldt’s maps (1812); the part of the road between Tula and Silao is described by Ward (1828, p. 411 et seq.). The itinerary of Coulter’s trip, as taken from the entries in his diary, is as follows: 1825 Oct. 31. Real del Monte to Pachuca, Hidalgo. Nov. 1. Pachuca to Tetepango, Hidalgo. 2. Tetepango, via the pueblo of San Pedro and via Tula, to San Antonio, Hidal- go. . Remained at San Antonio. . San Antonio to Arroyo Sarco [i.e., Zarco], México. 5. Arroyo Zarco to San Juan del Rio, Querétaro. - . San Juan del Rio to the city of Queré- taro. . Remained at Querétaro. . Querétaro to Celaya, Guanajuato. . Celaya to Salamanca, Guanajuato. . Salamanca to Hacienda de Burras [i.e., Burras], Guanajuato, via Santa Rosa and Jarapitio. 11. Hacienda de Burras to the city of Guanajuato, via Marfil. During the day Coulter spent some time at the Valenciana mine, northeast of the city. 12. Guanajuato to Silao, Guanajuato. He 09 ooon =>) MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 67 Nov. 13. Silao to Leén, Guanajuato. 14. Leén to Lagos, Jalisco [sometimes called Lagos de Moreno]. 15. Lagos to Mesén de Sauces, ‘‘a wretched place.”’ This hostelry, which appeared — on some contemporary maps of Mex- ico simply as ‘‘Inn,’’ was known to Humboldt as ‘‘Venta de los Sauces,”’ and stood at the point where the road turned from its northwesterly course from Lagos to run almost due north to Aguascalientes. 16. Mesén de Sauces to Aguascalientes. 17. Aguascalientes to the hot springs and return. 18. Aguascalientes to Rincén de Rounos, Aguascalientes. 19. Visited a¥long-abandoned tin mine, 1 league west of Rincén; left Rincén after noon; at 4:15 was a league north of La Punta, and at 5:20 stopped at an unnamed hamlet [ap- parently near the northern boundary of the state of Aguascalientes]. | 20. Continued to Soquité [i.e., probably Zéquite, a few miles southeast of the city of Zacatecas]. 21. Zéquite to Veta Grande, Zacatecas. 22. Veta Grande to Zacatecas. 23. Zacatecas to Veta Grande. The mines at Veta Grande, north of the city of Zacatecas, were taken over by the Bolafios Mining Co. in 1825, according to Ward (1828). Coulter made his headquar- ters at Veta Grande for more than a year and for most of that time was in partial or complete charge of actual mining operations (Romney Robinson, 1844; Ward, 1828, p. 628-629); his connection with the Bolafios Co. is not clear, although its director, a Captain Vetch, was also the director of the Real del Monte Co. (Ward, 1828). From the time of his arrival until Decem- ber 12, 1825, Coulter seems to have re- mained at Veta Grande. From Friday to Sunday, December 2 to 4, he reported a cold snap, with the minimum temperatures ranging between 16° and 20° F. On Decem- ber 8 he says: “‘The Maguays have suffered but very little by the hard frost of Friday to Sunday last—Those only that were about flowering seem a little nipped. They however do not thrive well here—are scarcely cultivated.’ Temperatures at Veta Grande for December 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, 1825, were later reported by Coulter in his Notes on Upper California (1835). 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES On the 12th Coulter began a hurried journey to Bolafios, Jalisco, to attend a Mr. Martin who was ill of a fever. Leaving at 7:30 p.m., he reached Xeres [i.e., Jerez, now Ciudad Garcia, about 25 miles west-south- west of Zacatecas] at 4 the following morn- ing—with the temperature at 12° F.—and continued to Santa Maria, which he reached the same night. Starting early the morning of the 14th, he reached Bolafios at night. He stayed at Bolafios until Christmas night; of his start on the return journey he says: “That I might not travel on a Sunday I spend the evening at a ball in the priest’s & at midnight start on my return to Zacate- cas.”” On December 28 he proceeded from Tlaltenango, Zacatecas, to Colotlan, Jal- isco; on the 29th he went from Colotlan to Villa Nueva, Zacatecas, and on the 30th he reached the city of Zacatecas. After his return from Bolafios Coulter seems to have spent most of the year 1826 at Zacatecas (more accurately, at Veta VOL. 33, NO. 3 | Grande, where he lived), but the entries in his notebook are few. (The entries are dated January 12, February 23 and 24, April 9 and 16, May 14, June 11.) Ward (1828, p. 619) records a visit to Zacatecas, December 21 to 26, 1826, and comments upon the hospital- ity shown him by Coulter at this time. The entries in the notebook are nearly complete for the first months of the year 1827. Coulter left Zacatecas on Monday, January 15, enroute for the mines at Zim- apan, Hidalgo. His way is easily followed, but many of the ranches and haciendas at which he stopped are not to be found on modern maps. His direction of travel was generally southeast: 1827 15. Started for Sauceda and reached El Refugio, Zacatecas; his day’s jour- ney was some 20 miles, made in 54 hours. 16. Reached Buenavista in about 6 hours. 17. Reached Ciénaga Grande in 8 hours. 18. Reached Letras in 74 hours. Jan. Fig. 1.—The routes followed by Coulter in Mexico, 1825-1827. The circles along the routes indicate the principal places, and solid dots indicate localities at which Coulter is known to have collected plants. Broken lines indicate uncertainty as to the exact route followed. The numbered localities are as follows: 1, Bolafios, Jalisco; 2, Zacatecas, Zacatecas; 3, San Juan del Rio, Querétaro; 4, Zimapéan, Hidalgo; 5, Real del Monte, Hidalgo; 6, México, D.F.; 7, Jalapa, Veracruz; 8, Veracruz, Veracruz. "Mar. 15, 1943 Jan. 19. Reached Ojuelos in 6 hours. This ap- pears to be the Ojuelos in the north- eastern corner of the state of Jalisco, but Coulter’s route there from Zaca- tecas is not entirely clear. A manu- script map in the British Museum (B.M. additional ms. 17659A, “‘Mapa del Reyno de Nueva Galicia Afio de 1812,’ photostat copy in the Library of Congress) shows Letras (a Ran- cheria) about 5 miles northwest of Ojuelos, and Ciénaga Grande (an Hacienda) about 20 miles west of Ojuelos. On the same map appear two haciendas called Buenavista; one is about 5 miles northeast of Letras, and the second a few miles north of Sauceda. 20. Reached a rancho near “Sta. Iphe- genia”’ in 8. hours. 21. Reached San Felipe, Guanajuato, in 4 hours. : 22. Remained at San Felipe. 23. Reached La Quemada, Guanajuato, in 4+ hours. From San Felipe to San Miguel he was apparently following the regular route from San Luis Potosi to Mexico City. 24. Stopped to shoot, apparently in the vicinity of La Quemada. 25. Reached Dolores [i.e., Dolores Hidal- go], Guanajuato. 26. Dolores to San Miguel el Grande [i.e., San Miguel of modern maps], Guana- juato, passing Atotonilco about noon. 27. San Miguel to Rancho de los Ricos, in 43 hours. ‘‘Rancho de los Ricos’’ is apparently the place appearing on some maps as Ricos, near the eastern boundary of Guanajuato, about 15 miles south of east of San Miguel. 28. Passed through Chichimequillas, Queré- taro (about 10 miles northeast of the city of Querétaro) and reached Haci- enda de Mascala [i.e., probably Amascala, Querétaro, about 5 miles southeast of the city]. 29. Reached San Juan del Rio, Querétaro. 30. Remained at San Juan del Rio. 31. Reached Huichapa [1.e., Huichapdn], Hidalgo, in 9 hours. At San Juan del Rio he left the road to Mexico and turned eastward. Feb. 1. Huichapdn to La Bahia in 7 hours. 2. La Bahia to Zimapdn, Hidalgo. The route followed is not entirely clear, as La Bahia seems not to appear on modern maps of Hidalgo. Coulter left La Bahia at 7 a.M., reached the edge of the barranca of the Rio Tula at 9:45, crossed the river by the bridge MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 69 about noon, and reached Zimapdan at 6 p.m. His note says that he passed “by left (S) of San Juanico,”’ so it is probable that he crossed the river either at _Izmiquilpdn or at Tula, the latter being the site of one of the few bridges over the Rio Tula. If he then followed a course more or less parallel to the river, he must have passed to the south and west (“‘left’’) of San Juanico. The notebook contains entries dated at Zimapan, February 4, 5, 11, and 24, and one final entry dated October 11, 1827. In Coul- ter’s Notes on Upper California he reports observations made at Zimapan between April 8 and 15; this presumably refers to the year 1827 or to a later year, for at the same time in 1825 he was in Real del Monte, and in 1826 at Veta Grande. The date of Coulter’s departure from Zimapan is unknown, but it may have been at the expiration of his 3-year contract, either late in 1827 or early in 1828. In the early part of the latter year he sent to A. P. DeCandolle a shipment of living cacti, which the latter reported upon at a meeting on July 22, 1828. Forty-seven species were described as new, so that at least a short time must have elapsed between their ar- rival in Europe and their presentation by DeCandolle (DeCandolle, 1828). Allowing time for their passage across the Atlantic by sailing vessel, we may fix the time of their dispatch from Veracruz at about the first of May, or perhaps earlier. One may suppose that the shipment had been gathered by Coulter during the closing months of his stay at Zimapan and sent abroad upon the completion of his work there. Almost nothing is known of Coulter’s life and activities between the time of his de- parture from Zimapan and that of his ar- rival in California, late in November, 1831. He is known to have been in Sonora, in the vicinity of Hermosillo, in December, 1829 (Coville, 1895), and from the specimens cited by Hemsley it seems that he made at least one trip from San Blas, the seaport of Tepic, Nayarit, along the old highway through Tepic to Guadalajara; specimens labeled ‘“‘San Blas to Tepic”’ or ‘‘San Blas to Guadalajara” are occasionally cited. He is also known te have collected at Guaymas, 70 \ Sonora, and at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, and may well have spent much of the period from 1827 to 1832 in mining centers in the west- _ ern states of Mexico. If one may judge by ' the specimens cited by Hemsley, Coulter collected very few plants in western Mexico. From Zimapan, as pointed out above, ap- proximately 300 species are listed in the Biologia Centrali-Americana; from Real del Monte almost 150 species are noted, and from Zacatecas about 50. From all western Mexico together, however, scarcely 75 speci- mens are cited, and more than half of these are from ‘‘Sonora Alta,’’ which may refer to the region about Guaymas or to the region about Yuma visited by Coulter in 1832. BOTAN Y.—Four new species of Acanthaceae from Guatemala. (Communicated by WILLIAM R. Maxon.) U.S. National Museum. Recent studies of the Acanthaceae of Guatemala, especially of material collected by Julian A. Steyermark on the 1939-40 ex- pedition of the Field Museum of Natural History to that country, have resulted in the recognition of four new species de- scribed herewith. Dyschoriste skutchii Leonard, sp. nov. Herba, caulibus puberulis; lamina foliorum ovalis vel suborbicularis, apice obtusa vel ro- tundata basi angustata, parce hispidula; peti- oli tenues; inflorescentia subcapitata, termi- nalis, bracteis oblanceolatis; calyx glaber vel parce hirsutus, segmentis subovatis; corolla lilacina, minute pubescens; ovarium glabrum. Stems usually numerous, prostrate, erect or ascending from a short woody base, puberulous, the hairs retrorsely curved, white, the roots thick-fibrous; leaf blades oval to suborbicular, up to 18 mm long and 14 mm wide, obtuse or rounded, cuneate at base, bright green, darker above, sparingly hispidulous (the larger hairs confined to costa and veins), sometimes ciliate toward base, the costa and veins (usually 4) prominent; petioles slender, up to 3 mm long, more or less puberulous, sometimes ciliate; flowers crowded in heads at the tips of the 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received December 15, 1942. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 3 LITERATURE CITED CouLTER, THomAs. Notes on Upper California. Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. London 5: 59-70. 1835. CovILLE, FrepERIcK V. The botanical ex- plorations of Thomas Coulter in Mexico and California. Bot. Gaz. 20: 519-531, pl. 35 (map). 1895. DEeCanpDo.ieE, A. P. [A postscript to his mono- graph on the Cactaceae.| Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 17: 107-119. 1828. Hemsitey, W. Borrine. Biologia Centrali- Americana. Botany, vols. 1-4. 1879-1888. HumMBotpT, A. DE. Atlas geographique et physique du royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne. Paris, 1812. RomMNEY Rosinson, JOHN Tuomas. [No title—A brief sketch of Coulter’s life.}] Proce. Roy. Irish Acad. 2: 553-557. 1844. Warp, H.G. Mezico in 1827, vol. 2, 730 pp., with map. London, 1828. E. C. LEONARD, branches; bracts oblanceolate, somewhat smaller than the leaves but resembling them in most respects; calyx up to 13 mm long, the tube 3 mm long, glabrous or sparingly hirsute, the segments subulate, hirsute, the hairs white, spreading, up to 0.75 mm long, but gradually shorter and very minute toward the bristle-like _ tips of the lobes; corolla lavender, minutely and inconspicuously pubescent, about 13 mm long, the narrow portion of the tube about 5 mm long and 1.5 mm in diameter at base, narrowed to 1 mm just above base, thence gradually ex- panded to 4 or 5 mm at throat, the limb about 8 mm broad, the lobes rounded; stamens 3 and 4 mm long, the anthers ovate, the minute white mucronate tips of their basal lobes slightly divergent; ovary glabrous; mature capsules not seen. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. ~ 1586098, collected on an open hillside near Tecpam, Department of Chimaltenango, Gua- temala, altitude 2,100 meters, July 22, 1933, by A. F. Skutch (no. 474). Lehmann 1524 from Huehuetenango, Guatemala, altitude 1,500 meters, and Steyermark 33063, collected on dry slopes of pine woods just southwest of Minas de Croma, Department of Jalapa, Guatemala, are also this species. Dyschoriste skutchit is related to D. capitata (Oerst.) Kuntze but is amply distinct in its oval or suborbicular leaves and in its puberu- Mar. 15, 1943 lous stems. In D. capitata the leaves are obovate and the stems pubescent, with longer and more spreading hairs. The latter species seems to be limited to southern Mexico. Dicliptera vulcanica Leonard, sp. nov. Frutex, caulibus parce pilosis; lamina foli- orum ovata, breve-acuminata, basi obtusa vel acuta, in petiolum decurrens, parce hirsuta; petioli tenues, pilosi; cymae pedunculatae; bracteae floriferae herbaceae, pilosae, puber- ulae, bractea posterior linearis, anterior ob- lanceolata; bracteae laterales angusto-lanceola- tae vel subulatae, chartaceae, puberulae; caly- cis segmenta lanceolato-subulata, papilloso- puberula et pilosa; corolla subrufa, pubescens, labio superiore leviter emarginato, minute api- culato, inferiore oblongo, trilobo, lobis parvis, rotundatis; capsulae parvulae; semina plana, orbiculata, fulva, minute verrucosa. Shrub up to 2 meters tall; stems sparingly pilose, the hairs white, spreading or retrorsely curved, up to 1 mm long, more or less arranged in 2 lines, or the lower portions of the stems glabrous; leaf blades ovate, up to 10 cm long and 5 cm wide, short-acuminate (the tip blunt), acute or obtuse at base and decurrent on the petiole, thin, drying dark green, sparingly hirsute, the hairs spreading, 0.5 to 1 mm long, confined chiefly to costa and veins (6 or 7 pairs); petioles slender, up to 2.5 cm long, pilose; flowers borne in axillary peduncled cymes (3 flowers in each cluster), the peduncles up to 6 em long, sparingly pilose, usually branched at tip, each bearing 3 to 5 stalked flower-clusters; bracts subtending the second- ary peduncles subulate, up to 5 mm long, pilose, the pair of outer floral bracts herbace- ous, both pilose and puberulous (at least some of the hairs glandular), the posterior one linear, about 10 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, acute, the anterior one oblanceolate, 13 mm long and 3.5 mm wide, acute, the interior floral bracts nar- rowly lanceolate or subulate, up to 8 mm long and 1 mm wide, chartaceous, puberulous, the hairs papilliform; calyx 7 to 8 mm long, the tube subglabrous, the segments about 6 mm long, lance-subulate, 1 mm wide at base, thence gradually narrowed to a slender tip, the pubes- cence a mixture of minute papilliform hairs and longer pointed ones; corolla 33 mm long, dull reddish, finely pubescent, the tube about 13 mm long, the lower portion about 3 mm LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA oe broad for 8 mm of its length, thence gradually and somewhat obliquely enlarged to 6 mm at throat, the posterior lip oval, about 6 mm wide, rounded, shallowly emarginate and minutely apiculate, the anterior lip oblong, about 5 mm wide, the 3 lobes rounded, about 1 mm long and wide or slightly wider, the middle one ciliate; capsule 12 mm long, 5 mm broad, puberulous; seeds flattened, orbicular, 3 mm in diameter, brown, minutely verrucose, or smooth with age. Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 1045321, collected at base of barranca along stream between Taj- umulco and Loma Buena Vista, on the north- western slope of Voleén Tajumulco, Guatemala, altitude 2,300 to 2,800 meters, February 28, 1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 36861); isotype in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1820956. This well-marked species is characterized by the thin hirsute leaf blades, the peduncled cymes, and the peculiar minute papilliform hairs of the calyx and bracts. Odontonema steyermarkii Leonard, sp. nov. Frutex glaber; lamina foliorum ovata vel ob- longa, acuminata, basi angustata, in petiolum decurrens; panicula parce ramosa; bracteae subulatae, ciliolatae; pedicelli tenues; calycis segmenta subulata, parce puberula; corollae tubus pallide ochraceus, lobis lilacinis, ovali- bus, rotundatis; ovarium glabrum. Glabrous shrub up to 2 meters high; leaf blades ovate to oblong, up to 18 cm long and 8 em wide, acuminate (the tip blunt), narrowed or rounded at base and decurrent on the petiole, the costa and veins prominent; petioles up to 3 cm long; inflorescence a sparingly branched panicle, the flowers borne in umbels of usually 3 to 6 flowers each, the lowermost of these pe- duncled (5 mm long, successively shorter to- ward tip), the uppermost sessile; bracts sub- tending the peduncles subulate, 1.5 mm wide at base, gradually narrowed to a slender tip, cilio- late, those subtending the umbels similar but slightly smaller; pedicels slender, up to 6 mm long; calyx 3.5 mm long, the segments subu- late, about 3 mm long and 0.5 mm wide at base, sparingly puberulous toward tip; corolla up to 24 mm long, 2 mm in diameter at base, narrowed about 5 mm above base to 1 mm, 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES thence enlarged to about 4 mm at throat, the tube pale buff, the lobes lilac, oval, 5 mm long and 2.5 mm wide, rounded at tip; ovary gla- brous; fruit not seen. Type in the Herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 1046653, collected along road between Finca Pirineos and Calahua- ché, Department of Quezaltenango, Guate- mala, altitude 1,200 to 1,300 meters, January 27, 1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 35020); isotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1820953. This species may be recognized by its nar- row, sparingly branched panicles of flowers, which are said by the collector to be pale buff and lilac. Odontonema galbanum Leonard, sp. nov. Frutex, caulibus glabris vel parce et minute pubescentibus; lamina foliorum oblonga, longe acuminata, basi angustata, plus minusve fal- cata; panicula angusta, terminalis; bracteae subulatae, glabrae; calyx glaber, segmentis sub- ulatis; corolla glabra, galbana, labio superiore bilobo, lobis parvis, rotundatis, ciliolatis, in- feriore trilobo, lobis ovalibus, parce ciliolatis; Ovarium glabrum. Shrub up to 2 meters high; stems glabrous or Sparingly and minutely appressed-pubescent; VOL. 33, NO. 3 leaf blades oblong, up to 36 cm long and 5.5 em wide, long-acuminate (the tip often curved), — gradually narrowed at base, rather thin, veiny, the costa and lateral veins (usually 10 to 12 pairs) fairly prominent; inflorescence a narrow terminal panicle 20 cm long, the flowers borne in small sessile or subsessile umbels, the pedi- cels up to 5 mm long, these and the rachis glabrous; bracts of the rachis subulate, 3 mm long and 1 mm wide at base or less, keeled, glabrous, those subtending the pedicels similar but smaller; calyx glabrous, 2.5 to 3 mm long, the segments subulate; corolla glabrous, green- ish yellow, up to 27 mm long, 2 mm in diameter at base, narrowed to 1.5 mm just above base, the throat 3 mm in diameter, the hps 5 mm long, the upper lip 2-lobed, the lobes 1.5 mm long, rounded, ciliolate, the lower lip of 3 oval lobes 3 mm wide, rounded, sparingly ciliolate at tip; ovary glabrous; fruit not seen. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1790033, collected in moist forest near Bar- ranca Hondo, above Lake Lajas, Department of Escuintla, Guatemala, altitude about 1,200 meters, January 31, 1939, by Paul C. Standley (no. 63875). Standley 65014, collected at essen- tially the same locality, is also of this species. Odontonema galbanum is easy to recognize by its slender glabrous panicle of greenish-yellow — flowers. ENTOMOLOGY.—Some undescribed species of flies of the genus Baccha (Syrphi- dae).! STONE.) This paper presents descriptions of several species of Baccha. These flies were found among material lent for study by Dr. C. L. Fluke, whom I wish to thank for his kind assistance in my study of the genus. The types are in Dr. Fluke’s collection. Para- types where available are in the author’s collection. Baccha boadicea, n. sp. Related to gracilis Williston. Distinguished by the small spot in the center of the wing and by the larger size. | Male.—Length 9.5 mm. Head: face and front shining black, both yellowish-white pubescent along the sides, the former bluish centrally and 1 Received November 4, 1942. F. M. Hutu, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by ALAN with yellow pile; the face in profile without tubercle and barely concave beneath the anten- nae. The pile of the front is dark brown centrally. The antennae are orange, widely — black above on the third joint. The vertex is — shining black with black pile in front, yellow behind. Thorax: mesonotum shining black, nonvittate, short golden pilose, the humeri _ brown, the pleura brownish black with yellow pile and pollen, the scutellum shining black with creased rim, short yellow pile and fringe. Squamae pale. Abdomen: elongate, slender, dark brown, the first joint almost black, the third laterally yellow on the base on each side, the yellow extending about two-fifths the length of the segment. Fourth segment obscurely but narrowly yellow basally, its basal pile yellow, Mar. 15, 1943 its apical pile black. Legs: yellow on the first two pairs, their femora brownish on the basal half or more, their pile yellow. Hind femora and their tibiae, except the narrow bases, brown and black, respectively, their tarsi pale yellow. Wing: pale brown with microscopic slender - alula; stigmal cell dark, and a small spot above the small cross vein brown. Holotype, male. Pinas, Ecuador, 1,506 ‘meters, July 14, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke collection.) Baccha vespuccia, nN. sp. Near papilio Hull. The abdominal fascia and vittae are differently shaped. Abdomen widest at end of fourth segment. “Male.—Length 8-10 mm. Head: face and front brownish yellow, a shining blackish half circle over the antennae and a black spot on lunula. Antennae orange, the third joint black- ish above. Thorax: mesonotum metallic brown- ish or aeneous-black, with a pair of rather close brown vittae. The humeri, the lateral margins, the post calli and the scutellum are light yel- lowish brown, the latter with a few black hairs and no fringe. Mesopleurae and pteropleurae orange; pleura posteriorly blackish. Abdomen: spatulate, the apex barely wider than the base, sepia brown, the narrow sides of the first seg- ment yellowish; the second segment is one and a half times as long as wide with, on each side, a diagonal, yellowish fascia meeting in the mid- line. Third segment with a similar fascia, divided medially and medially expanded, their posterior margins indented. Fourth segment with, on each side, an inverted Y-shaped figure. Fifth with submedial, yellowish vittae and short sublateral vittae narrowly connected basally with the medial ones. Legs: brownish yellow, the hind femora and tibiae dark brown. Wings: entirely dark brown; alulae quite nar- row. Female.—Front with continuous medial vit- tae; mesonotum with four violet stripes. Holotype male, allotype female, and one male paratype, Nova Teutonia, Brazil; Fritz Plau- mann. (Fluke collection.) Baccha aurora, n. sp. Slender, without alulae. Mesonotum dark brown and yellow laterally, with two gray pol- linose vittae. Related to argentina Curran. HULL: NEW FLIES OF THE GENUS BACCHA 73 Female.—Length 10 mm. Head: face and front pale yellow, the latter with a linear brown stripe on the upper part and a tiny black dot on lunula. Pile short, sparse, and black. Vertex black with gray pollen. Antennae yellow, the third joint missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy black, with a pair of widely separated, steel- blue vittae with gray pollen that reach to the scutellum, and a similar median one on the pos- terior half. Lateral margins, humeri, scutellum, and all of pleura except a posterior black stripe, pale yellow. Scutellum with a few black hairs and three or four black, central fringe hairs. Abdomen: rather slender, the first segment brown, the anterior corners pale yellow with about 10 black setaceous hairs and a few long pale ones. Second segment with the base light brown and a pair of lateral, subquadrate, brownish-yellow spots just past the middle which are narrowly separated above; the re- mainder of this segment is blackish. Third seg- ment with an obscure, basal, lateral vittate spot. Fourth segment with a large lateral vitta extending from the base to the posterior two- thirds, its posteromedial margin rounded. Fifth segment shining black. Legs: yellow, the hind femora and tibiae pale brown with subapical brown annulus and the tibiae with the middle paler. Hind basitarsi brownish yellow, the re- maining joints dark brown. Wing: hyaline; stigmal cell very dark; no alula. Holotype: female. Villa Rica, Paraguay, August 1939, F. Schade. (Fluke collection.) Baccha niobe, n. sp. Related to placiva Williston. The pile on the sides of the first segment is long. Wing apex with a spot. Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front yellow, with a black dot on lunula. Antennae orange; arista dark brown. The pile of the front is black. Vertex black, rather shining. Thorax: mesonotum cinnamon-brown with a violaceous stripe adjacent to the wide yellow margins. Pleura yellow with a golden reflection. Scutel- lum brownish orange with a few slender brown hairs and no fringe. Abdomen: elongate, slender, the second and third segments cylindrical. First segment orange and brown, the second orange-brown basally, black on the _ pos- terior half, shining apically, in the middle with a pair of oblique, leaflike spots that are 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES narrowly separated above; these spots are margined on all sides by opaque black, the opaque black forming a triangle behind. Third segment similar, the oblique spots and the median black extend narrowly to the base. Fourth segment with small black triangles in the anterior corners and a large, orange spot basally on each side, its medial margins parallel, its posterior margins oblique and serving to extend the spots apically to the lateral margins. Last segment violaceous-black. Legs: yellow, the hind femora brown at base and with a wide, brown preapical band, their tibiae broadly brown through the middle. Wing: light brown, diffusely blackish at the tip, the alula quite narrow but equally developed throughout. Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador, 200 meters, April 10, 1941, D. B. Laddey; a paratype male with same data. (Fluke collec- tion.) Baccha danaida, n. sp. Related to sepia Hull. The first abdominal segment is yellow on the sides, the third seg- ment has a pair of triangles. The cheeks and pleura are wholly dark brown. Male—Length 11 mm. Head: face and cheeks yellow; the tubercle and a stripe above are brown; the front is widely black above but yellow on the sides. It is black pilose. Antennae orange-brown, the arista darker. Thorax: mesonotum brassy brown with a pair of wide, prominent, reddish-brown vittae; the lateral margins are yellowish brown. The pleurae are metallic, dark brown, blackish behind, yellow- ish on mesopleurae and upper sternopleurae. Scutellum light yellowish brown with sparse dark hair and no fringe. Abdomen: spatulate, wide basally, sepia brown, the sides of the first segment yellow with long black hairs, the second has a slender, diagonal, laterally ex- panded pair of fascia; the third as a pair of central, narrowly separated, triangular spots. The fourth segment has a pair of comma- shaped spots, and fifth a pair of basal, obscure vittae, laterally extended. Legs: first pair brownish yellow; middle femora light brown, VOL. 33, NO. 3 their tibiae and tarsi yellowish; hind femora dark brown, their tibiae black, their basitarsi brown basally, its apex and all the remaining segments yellow. Wing: wholly dark brown, stigma narrow. a | Holotype: male. Nova Teutonia, Brazil; Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke collection.) ‘ Baccha saffrona, n. sp. Abdomen with oblique, triangular vittae, wing light brown, alula rudimentary. Related to scintillans Hull. Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front yellow, a black dot on the lunula; antennae orange-brown with blackish arista. Frontal pile long and black. Thorax: mesonotum light red- dish brown, the sides yellowish brown. Vittae if present obscured; scutellum yellowish or reddish brown, the whole pleura yellow-brown. Abdomen: slender, subcylindrical, reddish brown on the first segment and base of second, the latter with a pair of oblique, leaflike orange spots near the middle, not meeting above and margined with opaque black. Third segment with similar, longer, more triangular spots, which reach the base of the segment. Base of segment otherwise blackish, blue-green in the lateral corners. Fourth segment with a similar wider spot more widely extended on the base of the segment, the corners and posterior margin of this segment and the whole of the fifth seg- ment, except for a pair of small basal spots, peacock-blue. Legs: deep yellow, the hind femora quite brown at base and subapically, yellow in the middle, their tarsi dark brown except at base and extreme apex, their tarsi deep yellow. Wing: wholly light brown, the stigmal cell darker; the alula quite narrow. Female.—Similar to the male, spots absent on fifth segment, the blue areas more violet and ~ the apex of the wings with an ill-defined smoky spot, the whole wing pale. This may belong to a different species. Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador, April 7, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Allotype, female; two paratypes, males, two females, all same data. (Fluke collection.) \ Mar. 15, 1943 LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE 75 ZOOLOGY.—A new trichostrongylid nematode from the stomachs of American squirrels. The worms described in this paper were collected by L. Wayne Wilson from two squirrels (Sciurus) taken near Moorefield, Hardy County, W. Va., in November, 1941. Examination of the specimens revealed that they were trichostrongyloid nematodes, but it was immediately apparent that the males _ were very unusual, since certain of the bur- sal rays were observed to be chitinized.? So far as the writer has been able to as- certain, the only trichostrongyloid nema- tode in which the occurrence of chitinized bursal rays has been reported is Béhmiella perichitinea Gebauer, 1932. Travassos,’ in his extensive monograph on the Tricho- strongylidae, agreed with Gebauer,‘ that, except in this genotype, chitinized bursal rays are unknown among the Strongyloidea. The specimens collected by Mr. Wilson are here described as representing a new species, closely related to B. perichitinea, and for it the name B. wilsoni is proposed. While not admissible as evidence of zoologi- cal relationship, it is nevertheless of interest that both B. perichitinea and B. wilsoni are stomach worms of rodents. The known ro- dent hosts of the respective worms are not, however, closely allied species. B. perichi- tinea was found in a nutria or coypu, Myo- castor coypus, in Germany. Whether it was introduced into Europe with the coypt, which is indigenous to South America, or normally occurs in European rodents is a question that as yet can not be answered, because there appears to be no subsequent report of its occurrence. Although previously unrecognized, B. wilsont evidently has existed in squirrels in 1 Received September 7, 1942. *In this paper derivatives of the noun chitin are used not in the chemical sense but as con- venient descriptive terms to indicate the presence in the specified locations of a dense, brownish sub- stance, probably similar to that composing the spicules of trichostrongylins and identical with it im appearance. 3 Travassos, Lauro. Revisdo da familia Tricho- strongylidae Leiper, 1912. Mongr. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz no. 1, 512 pp., 295 pls. 1937. _* GeBaver, Orro. Béhmiella perichitinea n. sp. en neuer Trichostrongylide (Nematodes) des Nutria. Zeitschr. fiir Parasitenk. 4(4): 730-736, illus. 1932. JoHn T. Luckrr, Bureau of Animal Industry. the southeastern United States for many years, since 4 females, undoubtedly the same as B. wilsonz, were found by the writer among specimens (U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 2934) collected by Dr. Albert Hassall from Sciurus carolinensis in 1897. Bohmiella wilsoni, n. sp. (Figs. 1-17) Description.—Head small; diameter (40y to 50u) approximately the same as that of the ad- jacent cervical region. Lips absent; oral opening roughly circular; circumoral membrane present (Fig. 4). Amphidial pores and tips of ventro- lateral papillae reaching cuticular surface ad- jacent to outer margin of circumoral mem- brane. Submedian papillae four in number, single, externally directed, their tips slightly protruding within depressions located slightly posterior to level of circumoral membrane. In en face view, semicircular strands of fibrillike nature may be seen extending outwardly from beneath margin of circumoral membrane to base of each submedian papilla; these strands apparently represent complete union and fusion of terminal branches of submedian papillary nerves. Margin of mouth opening apparently bearing superficially a row of extremely minute denticlelike structures which are interpreted as representing a weakly developed corona radi- ata (Fig. 4). Oral cavity very shallow, saucer- shaped; lining nonsclerotized. Esophagus com- municating with buccal cavity by minute tri- angular opening and with a minute denticle, formed by lining of dorsal sector, protruding through opening into mouth cavity (Fig. 6). Esophagus swollen at anterior extremity; swollen portion histologically differentiated somewhat from tissue of remainder and par- tially surrounds mouth cavity (Figs. 3, 6). Cuticular covering of dorsal esophageal sec- tor just posterior to minute terminal den- ticle forming a comparatively large, more or less transversely directed onchium with lumen and orifice at tip, presumably repre- senting opening of dorsal esophageal gland, since a fine duct connecting with the lumen passes posteriorly into the tissue of the dorsal sector; tip of.onchium not reaching floor of 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES buccal cavity (Figs. 5, 6). Cuticular covering of each subventral sector of esophagus at level near base of onchium forming two minute, den- ticlelike, transversely directed eruptions; also forming rounded hyaline expansions at an- terior extremity (Fig. 3). Cervical papillae, large, located slightly posterior to level of ° nerve ring; excretory pore between level of nerve ring and cervical papillae (Fig. 7). Lat- eral alae absent; cuticle of mid-body provided with about 50 longitudinal ridges. VOL. 33, NO. 3 deeper than that between the latter and left lateral lobe (Fig. 10). Ventral rays with com- mon origin; directed posterolaterally for about two-thirds their length, curving anteriorly to bursal margin in their distal one-third, sep- arated and somewhat divergent, but with their tips rather close together (Fig. 14). Ventro- ventrals smallest rays of lateral lobes, appear- ing as branches of lateroventrals, the latter having greater flexure than the ventroventrals and being the most robust of the bursal rays Figs. 1-2.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp., caudal region of male: 1, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect. (Photomicrographs; mag- nification approx. X80.) Male.—lIn 3 available specimens 17.1 to 20.3 mm long by 0.21 to 0.24 mm wide just in front of bursa; esophagus, 0.84 to 0.94 mm long; distance from nerve ring and cervical papillae to anterior extremity, 0.32 to 0.35 and 0.43 to 0.45 mm, respectively; length of spicules, 0.300 to 0.821 mm; axial length of gubernaculum, 0.121 to 0.135 mm, length measured along curvature, 0.140 to 0.153 mm. Prebursal papillae well developed (Fig. 14). Lateral bursal lobes roughly triangular with mediolateral and posterolateral rays support- ing apex, originating near median ventral line of body surface a considerable distance anterior to genital cone, and with fine veinlike mark- ings. Cleft between right lateral lobe and com- paratively small dorsal lobe only slightly (Figs. 10, 14). Laterals with common origin, comparatively slender, directed posterolat- erally, except that externolaterals, which are parallel and contiguous to mediolaterals through most of their length, curve anteriorly away from the latter in distal one-third, so that their tips—which do not quite reach bursal margin—are considerably anterior to tips of mediolaterals (Figs. 10, 14, 17). Mediolaterals and posterolaterals equal, parallel, and con- tiguous, longer than externolaterals and other rays; tips close together, reaching bursal mar- — gin. Externodorsals more robust than laterals, but less robust than lateroventrals, apparently originating high up on stem of dorsal, parallel and contiguous to posterolaterals for most of length, but curving anterodorsally away from rie oe” Mar. 15, 1943 LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE té Figs. 3-17.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp.: 3, Anterior end (female), ventral aspect, optical section through dorsal onchium and two subventral esophageal teeth; 4, head (female), en face aspect; 5, optical cross section through esophagus in region of dorsal onchium, aspect in en face mount of head; 6, anterior end (female), lateral aspect, optical section through dorsal onchium and two pairs of sub- ventral esophageal teeth; 7, esophageal region (male), lateral aspect; 8, telemon, lateral aspect; 9, gubernaculum, lateroventral aspect; 10, caudal region of male, dorsal aspect (chitinization represented by stippling); 11, right spicule, ventral aspect; 12, left spicule, ventro-lateral aspect; 13, caudal region of female, lateral aspect; 14, caudal region of male, ventral aspect (chitinization represented by stip- pling); 15, gubernaculum, lateral aspect; 16, telemon, ventral aspect; 17, caudal region of male, lateral aspect (chitinization represented by stippling, to simplify the figure only part of the left lateral lobe of the bursa is shown). 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES them distally so their tips, which reach the bursal margin, are considerably removed from the tips of the posterolaterals; length about same as externolaterals (Fig. 14). Dorsal ray much shorter than other rays, not asymmetri- cally located, straight; stem wide, bifurcate in distal one-fourth, each branch typically tridigi- tate but one may be bidigitate; ventral surface of stem without accessory branch (Fig. 10). Lateral rays with dense brownish chitinization at base and less dense chitinization extending nearly to tips, particularly along margins (Figs. 1, 2, 10, 14, 17). Externodorsal rays usually chitinized at base only (Fig. 10). In lateral view (Figs. 2, 17) chitinized tissues seen to extend internally and anteriorly from bases of these rays towards gubernaculum and anteriorly for a short distance along dorsal body wall, prob- ably representing for most part modification of muscular tissues; in ventral view (Figs. 1, 14) these chitinized extensions appearing as a sort of median transverse bridge in region of spicule tips and gubernaculum. Genital cone with two submedian, thumblike, posteriorly directed processes. Spicules complex, brownish, con- sisting of complicated proximal knob and alate shaft and terminating distally in three proc- esses, the longest representing a continuation of main shaft (Figs. 11, 12); proximal ends located laterally near body wall and in frontal plane; main shafts extending slightly dorsad and mediad in proximal two-fifths of length and rather sharply ventrad and mediad in distal three-fifths so tips reach median line in cloacal region (Figs. 1, 2, 10, 14). Shorter of two sub- sidiary distal prongs of each spicule originating from mediodorsal surface of main shaft, paral- leling it and terminating in rather blunt, but digitate, medioventrally directed tip; remain- ing subsidiary prong: originating from latero- dorsal surface of main shaft, paralleling other prongs in most of length, usually curving dor- sally away from them to rather sharp but digi- tate tip (Figs. 11, 12). Gubernaculum brownish, more or less boat-shaped, with very strongly chitinized dorsal keel ending proximally in knob and branching near distal tip to form pair of lateral crura (Fig. 9) reenforcing small dorso- lateral triangular alate projections, which merge with main lateroventrally directed wings (Fig. 15). In cloacal region light brownish chitinized structures, representing the telemon, present; telemon grossly appearing in lateral view to be organized into three main sections, one lying along the posteroventral body wall, one along the lateroventral wall of the cloaca, and the remaining one along the laterodorsal wall of the cloaca (Figs. 2, 17), but consisting of a considerable number of more or less dis- tinct, yet interrelated and apparently inter- connected elements (Figs. 8, 16). Female.—In 6 specimens 37.7 to 43.3 mm long by 0.40 to 0.58 mm wide at vulva; esopha- gus, 1.00 to 1.29 mm long; tail, 0.41 to 0.56 mm long; distance from vulva to posterior ex- tremity 8.2 to 9.6 mm (ratio to body length, 1:4.1 to 1:4.7); eggs 88 to 105u by 50 to 62n. Tail digitiform, bent slightly dorsad at tip, without terminal spike or other cuticular or hypodermal modification (Fig. 13). Hosts.—Sciurus carolinensis leucotis; S. caro- linensis; S. niger niger. Location.—Stomach. Locality—Moorefield, Hardy County, W. Va.; Virginia; Newton, Ga. Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 36814 (holotype, male); no. 36853 (allotype); no. 36854 (paratypes, 1 male and several females) ; no. 45329 (removed from lot no. 2934); no. 42772. Remarks.—The striking and readily observed character of ray chitinization is obviously one of great practical value in identification. The systematic importance, however, that should be attached to it is a question concerning which a consensus is not likely to be reached until specimens with chitinized rays have been more widely discovered and studied. Travassos® in- cluded Béhmiella in the Trichostrongylinae provisionally only and believed that further study of the bursa of the genotype might justify placing the genus in a separate major group. The writer does not regard ray chitinization as a fundamental morphological modification and believes that, by itself, the character should be assigned no more than specific value. It seems probable that this was Gebauer’s® opinion also, since he did not propose Béhmiella simply be- cause of the occurrence of this phenomenon. ~ perichitinea appears to differ from other tricho- strongylins sufficiently to warrant considering it a representative of a distinct genus. 5 Op. cit. 6 Op. cit. VOL. 33, NO. 3 | It is in a combination of characters that B. a Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE 79 The specimens here described are in many of their general features similar to B. perichitinea and are, therefore, regarded as representatives of the same genus. They differ in many re- spects, however, from the genotype as de- scribed by Gebauer and, therefore, are re- garded as representing a new species. It is conceded that certain of the described differences between B. wilsont and B. pert- chitinea are of possible generic value. Notable among them are discrepancies in the number of cephalic papillae and in the nature of the buccal cavity and of the anterior end of the esopha- gus, and, corollary to the last, in the derivation, position, and orientation of the dorsal on- chium and the denticles associated with it; also in this category are the presence in B. wilsont of a circumoral elevation and a rudi- mentary leaf crown. However, the writer sus- pects that reexamination of the type specimens of B. perichitinea may reveal a closer similarity and relationship to B. wilsoni in these respects than now is evident. In addition to the differences thus far al- luded to, B. wilsont is distinguished from B. perichitinea by presence of prebursal papillae and a telemon, absence of cervical alae, less marked inequality in the depth of the clefts between the dorsal and lateral lobes of the bursa, lack of dextral curvature and an ac- cessory ventral rodlike process in the dorsal ray, longer spicules of different shape and ori- entation, larger gubernaculum, larger females with more anteriorly situated vulva, greater number of longitudinal cuticular ridges, shorter dorsal onchium, mediolateral and posterior- lateral rays longer than externolaterals, and lateroventral rays thicker than externodorsals. There also appear to be differences in the ex- tent of the internal chitinized processes in the caudal region, notably, the absence in B. wil- sont of a narrow process extending between the spicules and the anterior extremity of the dor- sal process, as well as absence of the pair of broom-shaped lateral processes, figured for B. perichitinea. ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the route of migration of the common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, in the definitive host. WENDELL H. Kruut and R. Scott JACKSON, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry. The essentials of the life history of the common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, have been known since 1882, when Thomas and Leuckart, independently, showed that the snail Lymnaea truncatula served as an inter- mediate host of this important parasite. In spite of these and subsequent investigations there still remain details concerning the de- velopment of the fluke in the intermediate and definitive hosts that have not been fully worked out. Important among these is the route of migration to the liver of the young fluke after its excystment in the digestive tract of the definitive host. Three possible routes of migration have been postulated, namely, (1) direct migra- tion from the intestine to the bile ducts through the hepatic duct; (2) passive trans- portation by the portal circulation after penetration of the intestinal mucosa, the young fluke gaining access to the bile ducts by perforation; and (8) penetration of the 1 Received November 2, 1942. intestine, active migration in the peritoneal cavity, perforation of the liver capsule, and migration through the liver parenchyma to the bile ducts. The first of these possible routes is the one most generally accepted, although it is the only one entirely unsup- ported by experimental evidence. On the other hand, Bugge (1935) concluded, on the basis of his examination of numerous in- fected calves, that the young flukes reached the liver via the portal system. Sinitsin (1914) demonstrated young flukes in the washings from the abdominal cavity of rab- bits to which encysted cercariae had been administered and concluded that the flukes must reach the liver through active pene- tration of the liver capsule; this observation was supported by Shirai (1927). Sinitsin’s theory was further supported by Shaw (1932), who injected larval flukes directly into the peritoneal cavities of rabbits, guinea pigs, and lambs and observed that the young flukes penetrated the hepatic 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES capsule; juvenile flukes were later recovered from the liver. While the observations of these investigators demonstrated the ability of the excysted metacercariae to gain access to the liver by penetration of the liver cap- sule, it was not shown that this route is the normal one or that the young flukes on reaching the liver could gain access to the bile ducts and become mature. Since the flukes are sometimes found in such ab- normal locations as the lungs and elsewhere, and may even be acquired prenatally, it would seem reasonable to conclude that migration to the liver via the peritoneal cavity was not the usual-one. In order to secure additional information on the course of migration of F’. hepatica in the definitive host, a number of experiments involving the transfer of larval flukes from one definitive host to another were carried out; the results of these experiments are presented in this paper. MATERIALS AND METHODS The larval flukes used in the transfer experiments described herein were obtained by administering to white mice and guinea pigs (first definitive hosts) cysts of F. hepatica obtained from laboratory infected snails. After a number of days had elapsed, the definitive hosts were killed, the young flukes recovered either from the peritoneal cavity or the liver tissue, and transferred in saline by means of a pipette directly into the peritoneal cavities of guinea pigs, rabbits and sheep (second definitive hosts). Guinea pigs were found to be unsatisfactory for this purpose, as the flukes failed to reach ma- turity in them. In making the transfers, a surgical incision was made in the test animal in the region of the flank, in the case of ab- dominal transfers, and between the ribs, in the thoracic transfers, the operative open- ings being closed by sutures. The operations were carried out either under local or general anesthesia. EXPERIMENTAL DATA 1. Direct transfer of immature flukes to-abdominal cavity of rabbits and sheep Larval flukes were transferred directly to the abdominal cavities of 20 rabbits and 3 sheep, and the results of these experiments VOL. 33, NO. 3 are given in Table 1. The data presented in this table show that young flukes obtained from one definitive host will, when trans- ferred to a second definitive host, reach the liver and become mature in the bile ducts. These data also indicate that the average time for the flukes to reach fertile maturity in rabbits is somewhat less than in sheep, the range being 62 to 99 (average 71) days in rabbits and 79 to 101 (average 86) days in sheep (includes period in first definitive host). Since only three sheep were involved in these experiments it is possible that had a larger number of animals been used the average time required for the flukes to ma- ture might have been slightly less. The importance of a sufficient flow of bile for the fluke in the bile duct is shown by the data for rabbit 1. These flukes although 88 days old when recovered were still im- mature, being only 9 and 12 mm long, re- spectively, when relaxed. They had lodged in the minor, peripheral bile ducts of the lobes of the liver, whereas the flukes which make a normal growth are usually found in the largest ducts. Usually conspicuous points of entrance of juvenile flukes are discernible on the liver surface. The lesions persist for weeks, and the ability to repair such damage seems to vary considerably with different species. Healing is more rapid and complete in ~ guinea pigs than in sheep and rabbits. In order to ascertain whether the transfer of immature flukes from one host animal to another affected the rate of maturity, en- cysted metacercariae were administered per os to three rabbits and one sheep. The first rabbit received 11 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces 66 days later and 1 fluke was re- covered at necropsy. The second rabbit received 17 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces in 69 days, and six flukes were recovered at necropsy. The third rabbit received 40 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces in 81 days, and six flukes were recovered at necropsy. The sheep (no. 12039) received 130 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces in 75 days, and 21 mature flukes were recovered from the bile ducts when the animal was necropsied 30 days later. ; The results of these experiments parallel Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE those obtained by direct transfer of the immature flukes and show that the time required for reaching maturity is not ma- terially affected by the manipulations neces- sary during the transfers. 2. Direct transfer of immature flukes to the pleural cavity of rabbits Since the liver fluke has been reported on a number of occasions from abnormal loca- tions, even under circumstances indicating prenatal infection,” the prevailing opinion is that in order for the flukes to reach unusual locations they must be transported by the circulation. In order to secure information on this point, limited experiments were con- ducted as follows: Four 30-day-old larval flukes spuiined from the liver of a mouse were transferred 2 One case of liver fluke infection was observed in the vicinity of Logan, Utah, in a 6-weeks-old calf; the flukes were all mature. 81 to the thoracic cavity of a fully grown rab- bit. This animal was examined two months later and the thoracic organs appeared normal; examination of the liver, how- ever, revealed a single specimen of F. he- patica, 20 mm long by 7 mm wide, in one of the bile ducts. In a second rabbit, about one-fourth grown, two 22-day-old flukes were transferred to the thoracic cavity; this animal was examined a month later and a single fluke 25 mm long by 6.5 mm wide that had just reached maturity was recovered from the liver. A typical entrance point was observed in the liver capsule indicating that the fluke had reached the liver by migration. A third rabbit, almost fully grown, re- ceived by direct transfer into the thoracic cavity four 30-day-old flukes. A week later this animal developed paralysis of the hind quarters and died a week after the symp- toms appeared. On examination one lung was found to be hemorrhagic, a portion of TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF INFECTIONS OF FASCIOLA HEPATICA IN RABBITS AND SHEEP PRODUCED BY THE DIRECT TRANSFER OF IMMATURE FLUKES TO THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY Age of Age of flukes Animal Source of Length of flukes at Flukes IDEA GS at time of Bayete a Flukes designation flukes flukes time of transferred 2 Sze oviproduc- Doster sabre recovered in feces® = or sheep transfer tion6 Mm Days Number Days Days Days Number Rabbit 1 Mouse = 7 2 0 — 81 21 Rabbit 2 do = 8 3 66 74 76 1 Rabbit 3 Mice 1.0-1.5 8 2 66 74 73 2 Rabbit 4 Mouse 1.0-1.5 9 2 61 70 66 if Rabbit 5 do 33-(U) se 16 3 52 68 55 3 Rabbit 6 do 3.0+ 16 11 50 66 63 11 Rabbit 7 do = 16 5 54 70 66 4 Rabbit 8 do = 9 2 0 — 78 0 Rabbit 9 Mice 2.0-4.0 20 8 45 65 58 8 Rabbit 10 Mouse 1.0-1.5 8 6 0 — 35 61 Rabbit 11 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 36 2 Rabbit 12 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 44 42 62 2 Rabbit 13 do 6.5-8.0 28 1 44 a2 64 il Rabbit 14 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 62 1 Rabbit 15 do 6.5-8.0 Dh 4 —_ — 15 3! Rabbit 16 do 6.5-8.0 30 4 46 76 88 3 Rabbit 17 Mice — 30 4 — — 19 21 Rabbit 18 Guinea pig 8.0 29 1 — — Hil 0 Rabbit 19 do 6.0 ol 2 — — 99 2 Rabbit 20 do 6.0 31 3 68 99 68 2 Sheep 12023 Mice less than 1.0 5 15 74 79 697 = Sheep 12083 do 1.0-2.0 11 41 90 101 100 103 Sheep 12026 do 2.0-4.0 20 4s4 59 79 77 17 1 Immature. 2 Animal not destroyed, fluke eggs still numerous. 3 Some flukes immature. 4 Transfer made through cannula; some young flukes may have been lost. 5 Days in rabbit or sheep. 6 Total days in mouse or guinea pig and rabbit or sheep. 82 the pericardium was thickened and con- gested, and the thymus was hemorrhagic with adhesions between it and the thoracic wall. No flukes were recovered directly from the organs, but one specimen that showed considerable growth was recovered from the water in which the thoracic organs were manipulated. It is assumed that the paraly- sis occurring in this case was the result of the fluke infection as no cases of this sort have occurred during several years in the rabbit colony from which this animal was obtained. In the fourth experiment three 27-day-old flukes were transferred to the thoracic cavity of a mature rabbit. This animal died 22 days after the transfer. On necropsy the parietal pleura in the region of the operative Opening was roughened, and there were small hemorrhages in the intercostal mus- cles. Flecks and strands of fine connective tissue were present on the surface of the lung and areas of scar tissue were observed in the lung tissue which were probably the result of injuries caused by the migrating flukes. The pleural sac was ruptured me- dially posterior and dorsal to the heart and a portion of the lung had passed through this opening and had become strangulated. The strangulated portion of the lung was consolidated and was showing evidence of necrosis; adhesions and connective tissue deposits were present in this region. No flukes were recovered from this animal. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS These experimental data show that, if juvenile flukes reach the peritoneal cavity of rabbits and sheep, they migrate to the liver, penetrate the capsule and paren- chyma, enter the bile ducts, and mature. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Furthermore, it is shown that entrance through the bile duct is precluded as neces- sary in the infection of rabbits and sheep; however, it is not eliminated as a possible — infection route. In view of the experiments recorded in this paper, particularly those concerning the transfer of flukes to the thoracic cavity, and because of the large size of some of the flukes transferred, the circulatory system as a transfer route also is precluded as being necessary; however, a source of blood seems to be essential for survival; the juvenile flukes are able to secure blood because of their ability to pene- trate tissues. Since 78 percent (56 flukes) of — the 72 juvenile flukes used in the transfer experiments with rabbits were recovered in necropsies, there is reason to believe that infection via the peritoneal cavity is the principal, if not the sole route, of infection. The limited experiments involving the — transfer of juvenile flukes to the thoracic cavity indicate that obscure symptoms of disease, or death, may be traced to liver flukes, even though the flukes themselves may not always be recoverable. LITERATURE CITED Buace, G. Die Wanderungen der Leberegel in den Organen der Schlachttiere. Berlin Tierarztl. Wchnschr. 51 (5): 65-68, figs. 1-4. 1935. Suaw, J.N. Studies of the liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica). Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 81: 76-82. 1932. Surat, M. The biological observation on the cysts of Fasciola hepatica and the route of migration of young worms in the final host. Sci. Rep. Govt. Inst. Infect. Dis., Tokyo, 6: 511-523. 1927. Sinitsin, D.F. New observations on the biology of Fasciola hepatica. Centralbl. Bakt. I Abt. Orig. 74: 280-285. 1914. VOL. 33, NO. Sm Mar. 15, 1943 ZOOLOGY.—Pycnogonida of the Bartlett collections. HEDGEPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 83 JOEL W. HEpDGPETH. (Communicated by Watpo L. ScumMirTT.) Most of the pycnogonids collected by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett in Greenland and Arctic America up to the year 1935 were sent to Dr. Louis Giltay, formerly of the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brus- sels, Belgium, who prepared a short manu- script on them. Unfortunately Dr. Giltay died before the manuscript was ready for the printer.? At the request of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, I have prepared this paper on the pycnogonids taken by Captain Bartlett in the Arctic and have included the identifica- tions made by Dr. Giltay, which are desig- nated by an asterisk. Although the collections made by Cap- tain Bartlett from the coasts of Greenland add no new species to the known fauna of that region, those from Fox Basin represent a hitherto unreported region for these ani- mals. The specimens from Fox Basin com- prise the most extensive collection of pyc- nogonids from the American Arctic that has yet been made. Heretofore, our knowl- edge of this fauna has been supplied prin- cipally by Cole’s list (1921) of three species from Dolphin and Union Strait, a single record of Nymphon serratum from James Bay (Giltay, 1942), and the earlier records by Rodger (1893) from the coast of Labra- dor. Of the 14 species represented in the Bart- lett collections 9 are from Fox Basin. These are all well-known Arctic species whose previously established distribution is sum- marized in Stephensen’s (1933) excellent paper on Greenland pycnogonids. American Arctic pycnogonids are still poorly repre- sented in our collections, however, and it is certain that future collecting will add many species to our lists. I have not seen the material identified by Dr. Giltay. As his manuscript consisted only of identifications, I am responsible for the synonymies, remarks, and arrange- ments of this paper. All the specimens, ex- 1 Received December 28, 1942. 2 Dr. Louis Giltay died on July 25, 1937. A biographical notice with bibliography was pub- lished by V. van Straelen in Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist Nat. Belgique 14 (23). (1938). cept where otherwise noted, were procured by Captain Bartlett on personally spon- sored expeditions. The localities from which pycnogonids were secured are listed in geographic sequence from north to south, beginning with Fox Basin (Fig. 1.) The col- lections, with the exception of two lots taken by the Hudson Bay Fisheries Ex- pedition of 1930 on a steam trawler, the S. S. Loubyrne, are in the United States National Museum. Family NYMPHONIDAE Wilson, 1878 Genus Boreonymphon G. O. Sars, 1891 Boreonymphon robustum (Bell) Boreonymphon robustum Stephensen, 1933, pp. A—5, fig. 1 (map); p. 38, fig. 11. Localities—Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77°45’N., sta- tion 124, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 large 92, encrusted with sponges, hydroids, and foraminifers. King Francis Josef Fjord, NE. Greenland, No. 6A, Aug. 4, 1936, 1 specimen. Distribution. —A widely distributed Arctic species, perhaps circumpolar but not yet known from between latitudes 120° W. and 160° E. It is often taken in considerable numbers. Steph- ensen (p. 38) suggests that this species may live on Umbellula encrinus and other corals. Genus Nymphon J. C. Fabricius, 1794 Nymphon hirtipes Bell Nymphon hirtipes Wilson, 1878, pp. 22-23, pl. 5, figs. 2-3; pl. 6, fig. 2a—k. Nymphon hirtum Wilson, 1880, pp. 495-497, pl. 7, figs. 38-41. Chaetonymphon hirtipes Sars, 1891, pp. 103- LOW ple chi fies Jak. Chaetonymphon hirtipes Cole, 1921, p. 4. Chaetonymphon hirtipes Stephensen, 1933, pp. 8-9, figs. 2, 10 (maps). Localities —*Entrance to Fury and Hecla Straits, Sept. 3, 1933, 30 fathoms, 3 specimens (Norcross-Bartlett Expedition). *Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 50’ W., station 7, Aug. 3, 1935, 140-210 fathoms, bottom sample, gravel, 39 specimens (incl. ovig. @). SS TY EFFIE a we S JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 3 Oo123 45 10 Scale of miles (app) -Chalon Robertson Bay EUAN Cormick Bay Die eas : YY, RISSEY— j Northumberland > <\y ari E Granville Bay ron ae Carey Is Meee aty Saunder Ia. Ya Dalrymple Rock @ Wostenholme Id. P| Peary 4 Monuments Cape York Dudley Digges ae In Sony Qizo S Hudson Bay ; JV. Hedgpeth, del. Fig. 1.—A, Detail of NW. Greenland, showing localities represented in the Bartlett collections; B, The American Arctic (only those localities from which pycnogonids have been collected are indi- cated). *Type locality of Boreonymphon robustum (approximate; @Type locality of Colossendets proboscidea (approximate). probably also of Nymphon hirtipes). A Pe See eae Re ad Mar. 15, 1943 *Thule, North Star Bay, NW. Greenland, 76° 32’ N., 68° 45’ W., Aug. 27, 1932, 12 fath- oms, | specimen (Peary Memorial Expedition). Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens. Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 71 43’ N., station 134, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8, 1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens. | Along west side of Wolstenholme Island, sta- tion 43, July 23, 1940, 12 fathoms, 1 specimen. Between north shore of Parker Snow Bay and Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, station 25, July 22, 1940, 25-45 fathoms, +7 specimens. Off Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, 76° 3’ N.., 67° 30’ W., station 76, July 29, 1938, dredged, =o. One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, station 37, July 22, 1940, 25-60 fathoms, 7 specimens. *Angmagsalik, SE. Greenland, Aug. 30, 1930, dredge, 1 specimen. Off SE. Greenland, 61° N., 62° 30’ W., sta- tion 166, Aug. 24, 1939, mite trawl, mud and pebbles, 5 specimens. Prince Christian Sound, SE. Greenland, 61° 10’ N., station 175, Aug. 25, 1939, 80-90 fathoms, otter trawl, 2 specimens. Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207, Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 1 specimen. *NE. Greenland, 74° 21’ N., 16° 30’ W., July 29, 1931, 120 fathoms, 1 specimen (Nor- cross-Bartlett Expedition). *NE. Greenland, 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W., July 30, 1931, 120 fathoms, 4 specimens (Nor- cross-Bartlett Expedition). Distribution.—An Arctic and boreal-Arctic species, widely distributed in the northern At- lantic and from Kara Sea to NW. Greenland in the Arctic. Cole’s record from Dolphin and Union Strait is the westernmost record. It is known also from eastern United States, Halifax to Massachusetts Bay (Wilson). Apparently it is not circumpolar. Other hitherto unpub- lished records are Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Ex- pedition, June, 1901, Aberdare Channel, east of Alger Island, Franz Josef Land, 7 specimens; and station 19, S. 8S. Loubyrne, Hudson Bay HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 85 Fisheries Expedition, 61° 11’ N., 90° W., Au- gust 15, 1930, 75 fathoms, mud and stones, 1 specimen. Nymphon brevitarse Kroéyer Nymphon brevitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 10-11. Localities.—*SE. corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’.N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath- oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). South shore of Southampton Island, Hudson Bay, 63° 10’ N., 85° 25’ W., station 3, Aug. 3, 1933, from floating seaweed, 1 specimen (Nor- cross-Bartlett Expedition). Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon, NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-40 fathoms, rocky bottom, 3 specimens. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8, 1938, 1 specimen. Distribution.—An Arctic species, from Spits- bergen to NW. Greenland and Fox Basin. From shallow water, not more than 50 fathoms. Rodger (1893) reports the species from the Straits of Belle Isle. One specimen was col- lected by the Baldwin-Ziegler Expédition in Aberdare Channel, Franz Josef Land. Nymphon grossipes (O. Fabricius?) Kréyer Nymphon grossipes Stephensen, 1933, pp. 11- we Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 14 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 4 specimens. Identified by Giltay as N. miz- tum, a synonym of JN. grossipes. (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition.) Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37 fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen. Identified by Giltay as N. mixtum. (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition.) *Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 37 fathoms, dredge, 15 specimens (incl. ovig. &@o@) (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25 fathoms, 10 specimens CP diamaaa Battin hand Expedition). 86 *Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). East end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 19385, 140-210 fathoms, gravel, 1 specimen. Identified by Giltay as N. mixtum. *South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 58’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 48-80 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen. *South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 59’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 68-120 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen. Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon, NW. Greenland, station 27, Aug. 2, 1937, 25- 40 fathoms, rocky, 3 specimens. *Walrus feeding grounds, 5 miles north of Cape Chalon, Prudhoe Land, NW. Greenland, July 27, 1932, 1 specimen. Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 126, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8, 1938, 1 specimen. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 3 specimens. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland, station 49, Aug. 7, 1937, dredge, 1 specimen. *Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland, Aug. 1926, 1 specimen. Off Dalrymple Rock, Wostenholme Sound, July 22, 1926, 2 specimens (1 ovig. @). Off northwest shore of Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland, station 57, July 23, 1940, 13- 25 fathoms, 1 specimen. Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland, station 44, July 23, 1940, 13-17 fathoms, 1 specimen. Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland, station 46, July 23, 1940, 138-17 fathoms, 1 specimen. One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, station 38, July 23, 1940, 25-60 fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen. Kerkoliak, Salve Island, Melville Bay, NW. Greenland, Aug. 28, 1932, dredge, 1 specimen. Identified by Giltay as N. miztum. Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 3 Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 2 specimens. Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 196, Aug. 25, 1939, 60—70 fathoms, 1 specimen. Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 218, Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 3 specimens. *Clavering Fjord, NE. Greenland, Aug. 2, 1930, 1 specimen. Nymphon mixtum Kroyer and N. glaciale Sars can not be separated from N. grossipes, as Stephensen (p. 12) has shown, and I concur with his synonymy. Distribution.—A widely distributed and very variable species, found on the North American ~ coast as far south as Long Island Sound on the east and Puget Sound on the west. It is circum- polar, Arctic, and boreal-Arctic; littoral to +500 fathoms. Nymphon longitarse Kroyer Nymphon longitarse Norman, 1908, pp. 212- 213. Nymphon longitarse Cole, 1921, p. 4. Nymphon longitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 13- 14, fig. 3 (map). Nymphon longitarse Losina-Losinsky, 1933, pp. 67-68. Nymphon longitarst Hilton, 1942a, pp. 3-4. Locality.—Frobisher Bay, Baffin Land, about 60 fathoms, 1 specimen. Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, widely distributed from the coasts of Norway and Britain in Europe to Cape Cod on the American ~ coast (rarely south to about lat. 40° N., but not to Cape Hatteras as suggested by Norman in his distribution table, p. 199). It is also cir- cumpolar, having been recorded from Point — Barrow (Cole) and from eastern Siberian waters (Losina-Losinsky). Hilton lists its from Kodiak and “Alaskan waters.” It is a littoral to sublit- q toral species. Nymphon sluiteri Hoek Nymphon sluitert Cole, 1921, pp. 3-4. Nymphon sluitert Stephensen, 1933, p. 14, fig. 4 (map). Localities —*East end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 55’ W., Aug. 3, 1935, 150-280 fathoms, muddy, 1 specimen. Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon, NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25— 40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen (juv.). Mar. 15, 1943 Distribution.—A circumpolar Arctic species, found in shallow water in the high Arctic and in deeper water in the southern part of its range (Faroes and Jan Mayen). Several speci- mens were collected by the Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Expedition in Aberdare Channel, Franz Josef Land, June, 1901. Nymphon sluitert has also been collected in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where two specimens were dredged by Dr. Georges Préfontaine at Trois Pistoles, Quebec, in 200 meters, July, 1932 (U.S.N.M. 66540). This appears to be the southernmost record for this species. It does not appear to reach New England waters as do other Arctic species like Nymphon hirtipes and Pseudopallene circularis. Possibly its occurrence in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is rare or sporadic. Nymphon elegans Hansen Nymphon elegans Stephensen, 1933, p. 17. Localities —Fox Basin, 45 miles east of Cape Dorchester, Aug. 8, 1927, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 45’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fathoms, dredge, 5 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex- pedition). *Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25 fathoms, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex- pedition). *Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 6 specimens (Putnam Baffin' Land Ex- pedition). *Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug. 1927, dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 1935, 140-210 fathoms, gravel, 10 specimens. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Distribution——An Arctic species, from the Kara Sea to W. Greenland, and Fox Basin. Usually taken in somewhat deeper water, i.e., about 100-300 fathoms. Nymphon serratum G. O. Sars Nymphon serratum Stephensen, 1933, pp. 18-19. HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 87 Nymphon serratum Giltay, 1942, p. 459. Localities —*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37 fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon, NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25- 40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen. Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Whale Sound, NW. Greenland, Jar H, July 28, 1937, rocky bottom, 1 specimen. One mile northwest of Conical Rock, station 37, July 22, 1940, 25-60 fathoms, 1 specimen. West Greenland, 70° 20’ N., 56° W., June 12, 1884, Ensign C. 8. McLain, U.S.N., coll., 1 specimen. Distribution —An Arctic, sublittoral species from Kara Sea to W. Greenland and Hudson Bay (Giltay). Another specimen from Hudson Bay was taken by the 8.8. Loubyrne (Hudson Bay Fisheries Expedition), station 31, Aug. 22, 1930, 41 fathoms, gravel. It is occasionally taken in the Atlantic just south of Wyville- Thomson Ridge (Stephensen). Fig. 2 Nymphon megalops Stephensen, 1933, p. 19. Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 2 specimens. Identified by Giltay as N. sarst. (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition.) Nymphon megalops G. O. Sars Fig. 2.—Right chela (reversed) of Nymphon megalops, showing rounded outgrowth. Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon, NW. Greenland, Jar W, Aug. 2, 1937, 1 specimen. Walrus feeding ground, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 2 specimens. — There seems to be no significant difference between this species and Meinert’s (1899, pp. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 48-49) Nymphon sarsi. The right chela of the specimen (<) from between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon has a large rounded deformity (iig2 2). Distribution.—An Arctic species, from west- tern Norway to Fox Basin; south to about 61° 30’ N., in the Faroe Channel. Usually from deep water. Family PALLENIDAE Wilson, 1878 Genus Pseudopallene Wilson, 1878 For reasons to be discussed in detail in an- other paper, the use of Phozichilus Latreille (hitherto used for Endeis Philippi by practi- cally all authors) for Pseudopallene Wilson as recommended by Norman (1908, pp. 231-233) and Marcus (1940, p. 128) is rejected as an unnecessary confusion. It is much simpler to abandon Phowichilus entirely. Pseudopallene spinipes (O. Fabricius) Pseudopallene spinipes Stephensen, 1933, p. 21. Localities—East end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., station 8b, Aug. 3, 1935, 140-200 fathoms, gravel, 1 speci- men. Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 197, Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 1 specimen. Off Cape Farewell, 8. Greenland, station 208, Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, washed from sea- weed, 1 specimen. Distribution—An Arctic species, from wes- tern Norway, Kara Sea, Franz Josef Land, and West Greenland; sublittoral. Pseudopallene circularis (Goodsir) Pseudopallene circularis Stephensen, 1933, pp. 20-21. Localities.—Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens (Putnam Bafhn Land Expedition). Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 32-37 fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25 fathoms, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Fox Basin, Aug. 25, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Ex- pedition). ‘Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N. 80° 07’ W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen. Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen. Just back of Cape Farewell, S. Greenland station 210, Aug. 25, 1939, 70 fathoms, 1 speci- men. Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, from Okhotsk Sea to West Greenland, south to the Firth of Forth and southern Norway on the coast of Europe and to Cape Cod in American waters; littoral to shallow water. It is much smaller in the southern parts of its range. Family AMMOTHEIDAE Dohrn, 1881 Genus Eurycyde Schiédte, 1857 Eurycyde hispida (Kroyer) Eurycyde hispida Stephensen, 1933, p. 27. Localities —*Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 34-37 fathoms specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24, 1927, 25 fathoms, 13 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Fox Basin, 67° 45’ N., 79° 09’ W., Aug. 24, 1927, 38 fathoms, 3 specimens (2 ovig. & <) (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). : *Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). *Fox Basin, 67° 438’ N., 80° 07’ W., Ausg., 1927, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin” Land Expedition). Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 136, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen. Distribution.—An Arctic, littoral to sublit- toral species, ranging from the Kara Sea to Baffin Land and Greenland (Stephensen) and — q as far south as Kristiansund on the Norwegian coast. It is unknown from Iceland. Family COLOSSENDEIDAE Hoek, 1881 Genus Colossendeis Jarzynsky, 1870 Colossendeis proboscidea (Sabine) Colossendeis proboscidea Stephensen, 1933, p. 28, fig. 6 (map). Locality.—*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° VOWGoor NO. 3 ‘ 2 Mar. 15, 1943 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath- oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). Distribution.—Possibly a circumpolar Arctic Basin species, from shallow water to about 500 fathoms. Unknown outside of Arctic waters (Stephensen). ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REMARKS The status of our present knowledge of the distribution of pycnogonids in the American Arctic is summarized in Table 1. There are undoubtedly many more species in this sector; Stephensen (1933, pp. 32-83) lists at least 30 species from the waters west of Greenland alone, and the 14 species in the table are but half that number. While this is a considerable addition to the 6 spe- cies mentioned by Cole (1921, p. 5) for the region, our records from the north of Can- ada are far from extensive, and the locali- ties represented are remarkably few. It is worthy of note that the American Arctic is the type locality for two of the character species of the Arctic Basin, Boreonymphon robustum and Colossendeis proboscidea (Fig. i B). In recent preliminary papers, Hilton (1942a, b) has listed some pycnogonids from the Bering Sea and Alaskan waters that may establish the cireumpolar distribution of certain well-known Arctic species when more adequately identified. Although it is HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 89 impossible, from the preliminary diagnoses, to recognize or identify any of the species _mentioned ‘in these papers, the occurrence of Nymphon gracile Leach in Alaskan waters (Hilton, 1942a, p. 7) is doubtful. This might be Nymphon brevitarse; N. gra- cile (sometimes confused with N. rubrum Hodge or N. brevirostre Hodge, e.g., Nym- phon gracile Sars, 1891, non Leach—see also Stephensen, 1935, pp. 9-10) is a European species, from Denmark to the Mediter- ranean. “‘Nymphon gracillipes’”’ (stromt?) 1s also listed (zbid., p. 4), from the Bering Sea at Albatross station 3540 (Aug. 9, 1893, 56° 34’ 00” N., 167° 19’ 00” W., 57 fath- oms). Two new species of Pseudopallene, P. setosa and P. spinosa, are alluded to (Hilton, 1942b, p. 39), one or both of which might be the variable Pseudopallene circularts. LITERATURE CITED Cots, L. J. Pycnogonida. Report Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-1918. 7 (F): 1-6. 1921. Gintay, L. New records of Pycnogonida from the Canadian Atlantic coast. Journ. Fish. Res. Board Canada 5 (5): 459-460. 1942. Hiuron, W. A. Pantopoda. Pantopoda chiefly from the Pacific. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 34(1): 3-7. 1942a. . Pantopoda (Continued). Ibid. 34(2): 38-41. 1942b. Losina-Losinsky, L. K. Pantopoda vostoch- nykh morei S. S. S. R. Inst. Issled. Morei §. S. S. R. (Leningrad) 17: 43-80, 13 figs. 1933. TABLE 1.—DisTRIBUTION OF PYCNOGONIDS IN THE AMERICAN ARCTIC (ExcLusiIvE OF WEST GREENLAND) Baffin Land Species Labrador |(and Cobourg] Hudson Bay | Fox Basin saat a 2m HOES ome nion Strait Barrow records! Island) Boreonymphon robustum.....|...+++++++5: SoS eS 2S es vr ele, Sete arc Pi locka ucgen osm nie riicnc: Meni eto chen TB GE INT. 97° W. Nymphon hirtipes.........-- < x x x RCDULGUISC mus wikis «enw. 80) 8h Re aCe MIM bees, aicsae cpa easciges x OPCRTHDES Slee hoa ee SK SO he sia ay sacha ease et Sato we Ne atc pena ats x NEG TECLES CP e a tcuce icc abe a lisse bh eie elcues. ie « SCE AS Ai i epee scars apa eo as desis “sh ah sya x< x HUI, 6 Meas Bene eee x Sa a | Pearcy aie tame [ey ase aca Ruatene SK GATTO Se BS Cee x< SY ia al scenes Ror Seen x QU ATLUTD c, ‘ca 0 OEM CIC FOE Gato er ohm ee) ioc cnicacO. CRCROECrcae x TAG SIACIES AV Saeaeey Oo aaa Oct RO SOI | ccs RO neces Cane ace eenaC nC < TOOROOO Eo Sa eb OUOrOrOe Cro Cet Ox Gi cenOrO Ie OIC x PZSCUdOPAGILENE SPINUDES. . = ..2|-2+56-- += x CURCULOTUS acs sche so ss = x SGU US ell exe Rae tecyoro < Burycyde hispida. .......202)acc cece nee SGip rae crake aatesarants x Colossendeis proboscidea....|....--+-+ +2 sfece cere cere s fees cece ee ces|ns Sg) Lia ON, Rete Tt, ct eRe ee a 75° Ni 100° W 1 Both of these records are type localities. Nymphon hirtipes probably has the same type locality as Boreonymphon robustum, but I have not had access to the original paper to verify this. Both species were described by T. Bell in The Last of the Arctic voy- ages, by Edward Belcher, vol. 2, pp. 400-411, 1855. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Marcus, E. Os Pantopoda brasileiros e os demais sul-americanos. Bol. Fac. Fil., Cien. Letr. S. Paulo 19 (Zoologia 4): 3-179, figs. 1-17. 1940. MEINERT, F. Pycnogonida. Danish Ingolf Exp. 3(1): 1-71, pls. 1-5. 1899. Norman, A. M. The Podosomata (=Pycno- gonida) of the temperate Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. Journ. Linn. Soc. London 30: 198-— 238, pls. 29-30. 1908. Ropesr, A. Prelaminary account of natural history collections made of a voyage to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Davis Straits. Proce. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 20: 154-163. 1893. VOL. 33, NO. 3 Sars, G. O. Pycnogonidea. Norwegian North Atlantic Exp. 6 (Zoology 20): 1-168, plse lo. bao: STEPHENSEN, K. Pycnogonida. Godthaab Ez- pedition 1928. Meddel. Gronl. 79(6): 1-46, 12) figs: 1933: Pycnogonida from Norway and adja- cent waters. Bergens Museums Arbok 1935, Naturv. rekke 7: 2-39, 1 fig. 1935. Witson, E. B. Synopsis of the pycnogonida of New England. Trans. Conn. Acad. 5:1—26, Ve. Near IMSS Report on the Pycnogonida of New England and adjacent waters. Report U. 8. Comm. Fish. 1878: 463-506, pls. 1-7. 1880. ICHTHYOLOGY.—Notes on the affinity, anatomy, and development of Elops saurus Linnaeus.} C. Tate Regan in “A Revision of the Fishes of the Genus Elops” (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 3: 37-40. 1909), among other revisions, recognized the inhabitants of this genus on the Pacific coast of America as distinct from E. saurus of the Atlantic coast, with which they had been considered identical. He named the Pacific coast spe- cies H. affinis. In the same paper, Regan recognized the form with small scales (the one with large scales being E. lacerta Cuvier and Valenciennes) of the west coast of Africa as also distinct from E. saurus, giving it the name EL. senegalensis. Recently I have studied many specimens of EF. saurus, in- cluding growth series, ranging from lepto- cephali with virtually undeveloped fins, ex- cept for the forked caudal, to large adults. The specimens were collected in many lo- calities on the Atlantic coast of America from Cape Cod to Recife, Brazil, and the West Indian Islands. I have had for com- parison several leptocephali and a moder- ately large series of adults from several lo- calities on the Pacific coast of America from Guaymas, Mexico, to Payta, Peru; also three adults from Elmina, Ashantee, Africa. The validity of the species mentioned, recognized as new by Regan, originally ap- parently described from few specimens, has been confirmed by this study. Elops affinis seems to differ from LE. saurus only in the greater number of gill rakers, wherein FE. senegalensis agrees with E. saurus, as shown by Table 1. However, 1 Received November 9, 1942. SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND, Fish and Wildlife Service. the scales in a lateral series are fewer in E. senegalensis than in E. saurus, as indicated in Table 2. E. senegalensis differs from E. saurus and E. affinis also in having fewer vertebrae. Ten specimens of HE. saurus have, respectively, 73, 74, 75, 75, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, and 80 vertebrae in the main axis. Nine leptocephali of the same species have, re- spectively, 77, 78, 78, 78, 79, 80, 82, 82, and 82 myomeres (enumerations somewhat un- certain because of indistinctness of myo- -meres posteriorly). The only adult F. affinis examined has 77 vertebrae, and six lepto- cephali have, respectively, 76, 77, 79, 80, and 81 myomeres. The single adult #. senegalensis examined has 67 vertebrae. These enumerations are in agreement with those given in Dr. Regan’s revision. So far as I know, the validity of Elops affinis has not been questioned. On the other hand, it was accepted by Meek and Hilde- brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 15 (1): 176. 1923), who compared sveci- mens from the opposite coasts of Panama. The situation with respect to Hlops sene- galensis is somewhat different, as it has been synonymized with EH. saurus, at least, by Fowler (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (1): 155. 1936), though accepted by Boul- enger (Cat. Fresh-water Fish. Africa 4: 152. 1916). Although only three specimens from Africa have been available to me for exam- ination, it is evident from the many speci- mens from the Atlantic coast of America studied that the range i the number of scales in the lateral series in American speci- Mar. 15, 1943 mens does not include the African material examined (see Table 2), nor that reported upon by Regan, who gave a range of 94 to 98 scales in the lateral series. The specimen of E. senegalensis examined for vertebrae by me, as already stated, has 67 segments in the main axis, which is essentially in agree- ment with Regan, who gave 68 or 69. This range, 67 to 69, in the number of vertebrae in the African specimens, then is fully dis- tinct from the range in 10 American speci- mens, which is 73 to 80. Although no other differences were found, there can be no doubt on the basis of those set forth that the African specimens are distinct from the American ones. Therefore, E. senegalensis stands as a valid species. It may be noted, incidentally, that the specimens from Payta, Peru (U.S.N.M. 88707), gives aslight extension of the known range of Elops affinis, which previously ap- parently has been recorded only from as far south as ‘“‘Hcuador.”’ The range northward, given as ‘“‘California’’ by Meek and Hilde- brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 15: 177. 1923), apparently should have been Lower California. The northernmost locality from which I have seen specimens is Guaymas, Mexico. The air bladder in Elops saurus, which has a very thin transparent wall, occupies the full length of the abdominal cavity. Ventrally it adheres to the alimentary canal and dorsally to the body wall. Contrary to Tarpon atlanticus, which has much cellular HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS 91 tissue within the air bladder (see Babcock, The tarpon, ed. 4: 50. 1936; and Hildebrand, Sci. Monthly 44: 246, footnote. 1937), EZ. saurus has none whatsoever. The air blad- der of EL. saurus agrees essentially with that of Albula vulpes, except that in the latter the wall is somewhat thicker, and within the bladder, at about midlength, are two small kidney-shaped bodies of cellular tissue. The alimentary canal in Elops saurus, ex- cept for the stomach, which consists prin- cipally of a large blind sac, is a straight tube (see Fig. 1). The blind sac projects forward to the throat. Throughout its length it lies ventrally of the main canal and parallel with it. A lobe of the liver, which occupies the space between this projection and the heart, forms a “‘hood’’ over its blind end. Another lobe of the liver shields its left side, while its right and ventral sides are covered by a “‘comb”’ of caeca bound firmly together with connective tissue. In the length of the alimentary canal this species is in agreement with Tarpon atlanticus and Albula vulpes, and also as to the presence of a large blind sac. However, in the two species mentioned last, the blind sac of the stomach projects backward instead of forward. In the pos- session of numerous caeca H#. saurus and T. atlanticus agree, and differ from A. vulpes, which has only about 13. The eggs and earliest stages of the lepto- cephali of Elops saurus remain unknown. The youngest larvae, judged principally by the development of the fins, among the TaBLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF GILL RAKERS IN ELops saurus, E.. AFFINIS, AND E.. SENEGALENSIS Upper Limb Lower limb Species 5 | 6 2 8 Se LON See LON te et Se ee eT e eGaie id, isi Tosi s20 | LFS 5 a oS a Oe ee 5 16 | 14 | 14 —|—| 5 Wb o|) TGS |) at ye TIS) 3 — = | = | = LSGGS . 5 856i ee ee — }|— | — | — | — | 4 4 }—]—]—]—}]—|—} 2 3 4 Mh 3 LEP ATGICTSOS ES Se ae ae — 2 1}/—}—/]—J] — | — 1 2;—;]—|—]}]— — |—}|— TABLE 2.— FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCALES IN LATERAL SERIES IN ELOpPs SAURUS, EK. AFFINIS, AND EL). SENEGALENSIS Oblique series counted just above lateral line Species 92/93/94|95|96|97/98)|99} 100) 101] 102) 103/104] 105) 106) 107 | 108/109) 110)111)112)113)114)115)116/117|118)119)120 EPID TEES Sc rails) s),0 1656: 65-3 —|—|—|—|— /—|—|—| —} —}—} 1 }—| 2}11/2);2)'1);2)11);2)'1)'1)}1)/2+'—)1)};—) 1 LUDO Seine —|—|—|—|—|— | — |— — } —} — J} —} 1} —)} it} i} mm) 1} 8} 2 ym} —)] 1 ye] lt pel ele) 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES many at hand are, respectively, 34, 35, and 37 mm long. Although these specimens have the forked caudal fin well developed, the other fins remain undifferentiated. These young larvae are also the most strongly compressed, that is, the thinnest and most unsubstantial ones in the collections stud- ied. Two other larvae, although of about the same length, 34.5 and 36.5 mm long, are Slightly more advanced, as a thickening within the finfolds indicates the develop- ment of the dorsal and anal fins (see Fig. 2). Figs. 1-3.—Elops saurus Linnaeus: 1, Diagram of alimentary canal showing its forward-project- ing blind sac with a ‘‘comb” of pyloric caeca; 2, leptocephalus, one of the earliest stages known, drawn from a specimen 35 mm long; 3, recently transformed ‘‘young adult,’’ drawn from a speci- men only 20 mm long. All drawings by Mrs. Alice C. Mullen. The largest leptocephali seen are, respec- tively, 42, 42, and 44 mm long. These speci- mens may represent about the maximum length attained by the larvae. However, the development at any particular length is quite uneven, as already indicated, and more clearly shown subsequently. The de- velopment in these large larvae has pro- gressed somewhat further than in those previously mentioned, as the rays in the dorsal and anal fins are somewhat differ- entiated, the pectoral fins appear as tufts of membrane and the development of pelvic fins is suggested by thickened places in the abdominal wall. A considerably older speci- VOL. 33, NO. 3 men, “reduced” in length to 27 mm, has the dorsal and anal fins sufficiently developed to permit the enumeration of the rays, and the pectorals show signs of rays, though the pelvics remain undifferentiated. While the body remains strongly compressed, it never- theless has become more substantial. Other specimens of the same length are more re- tarded as the dorsal and anal rays are scarcely differentiated. In all the leptocephalus stages known the head is strongly depressed, and the snout viewed either ventrally or dorsally, is rather sharply triangular. Pigmentation in pre- served specimens consist of two series of dark spots running the full length of the abdomen, a row being situated on each side of the alimentary canal, which in this spe- cies, as in larval herring and other herring- like fishes studied, is loosely attached to the body. The smallest young adult, that is, a speci- men that has become rather robust, though still more strongly compressed than fully developed adults, with all the fins, except the pelvics, well developed, is only 16 mm long. This specimen represents the maxi- mum shrinkage among the many young studied. The rather numerous young adults in the collections at hand show a wide range in development. For example, a specimen scarcely 20 mm long (see Fig. 3) is fully as well developed as others around 30 mm long. Then, there is a 30-mm specimen in the collection that has advanced fully as far in acquiring characters of the adult as others 35 to 40 mm long. A great difference in development of color also is evident. The 20-mm specimen, already mentioned, has some of the silvery color of the adult, with all the color markings of the leptocephalus missing, whereas some specimens around 30 mm long remain pale, and retain the two series of dark dots on the abdomen of the juveniles already described. The small, exceptionally advanced speci- mens were all taken in brackish to nearly fresh water pools and ponds, near the sea, whereas the retarded specimens were taken at sea. The indication, then, is that the en- vironment greatly affects development. Even though development is not uniform, Mar. 15, 1943 it nevertheless may be stated that generally when the leptocephali have become reduced to a length of about 20 mm they are virtu- ally young adults. At that stage the fins, exclusive of the pelvics, are well developed, considerable thickening of the body has taken place, the outline of the gular plate is visible under magnification, and usually general pigmentation is under way. Scales begin to appear at a length of about 50 mm and by that time the teeth in the jaws, which are in a single series in the lepto- cephali, definitely are in bands. Scalation and pigmentation are complete at a length of 60 to 65 mm, and the young then are very similar to full-grown adults. The leptocephali of this species evidently do not grow so large as those of Albula vulpes, as the longest leptocephalus of Elops saurus in the collections studied is only 44 mm long, whereas the largest one of A. vulpes has a length of 70 mm, and many others of that species are only slightly shorter. Furthermore, the leptocephali of A. vulpes have a rather heavier body. The larvae of the two species are readily distin- guishable by the shape of the head. In E. saurus the head is rather broad and strongly depressed, and the snout as seen from above or from below is rather sharply triangular. In A. vulpes the head is notably narrower, not especially depressed, and the snout is conical. The larvae may be distinguished, also, by the number of myomeres, as EL. saurus has about 77 to 82, whereas A. vulpes has about 66 to 72. When the dorsal and anal fins become sufficiently developed to permit the enumeration of the rays, the spe- cies are readily separated by the number of rays, as EL. saurus has 21 to 25 dorsal and 14 to 17 anal rays, whereas A. vulpes has 14 to 17 dorsal, and only 8 or 9 anal rays. The young of Tarpon atlanticus remain largely unknown, only one specimen about 20 mm long (no longer extant) having been described (Hildebrand, Copeia, 1934, No. 1: 45). This specimen was in the transition stage. It was readily distinguishable from both F. saurus and A. vulpes by the fewer myomeres, of which only 52 were present, and by the short dorsal with 12 rays and the long anal with 20 rays. HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS 93 The spawning season and the place where Elops saurus spawns remain unknown. However, ripe or nearly ripe fish have been found. One female with large roe was caught at Beaufort, N. C., on October 23, and 20 ripe or nearly ripe fish, consisting of 7 males and 13 females, were taken in February on the Canal Zone (Hildebrand, Zoologica 24: 25. 1939). These 20 fish were chosen at ran- dom from hundreds that became stranded when. the Gatun Locks were dewatered in 1935. As every fish examined, selected from among the many present, contained gonads in an advanced state of development, it per- haps may be assumed that at least most of many hundreds present were gravid fish. It seems proper to conclude, therefore, that at least some spawning takes place during our winter months. Leptocephali in the various stages of de- velopment, already described, were col- lected at Beaufort, North Carolina, during January, February, March, April, May, October, November, and December. Lepto- cephali were collected in Texas, mostly at Corpus Christi, in February, March, April, and November. Others were taken in the Florida Keys in November, and in Cuba during May. Young adults, in or just past the transition stage, were collected at Beau- fort, N. C., in March, May, June, July, and August; in Aransas Pass, Tex., in June; and at Key West, Fla., in March and Novem- ber. This wide spread of time over the year of the capture of the young, even in one locality, as at Beaufort, N. C., suggests either that spawning takes place during most of the year or that the development is unequal. If the slow development of the lepto- cephali of the fresh-water eels may be used as a criterion, even the youngest leptoceph- ali of Elops saurus described may be several months old. Also, if the life history is sim- ilar to that of the eels the youngest larvae of Elops saurus at hand may have been cap- tured far from the place of their birth. It apparently may be stated with some degree of certainty that the early stages of the leptocephali do not occur in the shallower waters in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C., where more or less advanced stages de- 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES scribed herein are moderately common. In that vicinity intensive collecting with sev- eral types of gear, was carried on during every month over a period of many years in the inshore waters and to a somewhat lesser extent offshore to a depth of about 12 fathoms. The suggestion that spawning probably takes place far offshore presents itself. Although no gravid examples of Albula vulpes were seen, the leptocephali and young adults were taken somewhere along the At- VOL. 33, NO. 3 lantic and in the West Indies between Beau- fort, N. C., and Panama, virtually through- out the year (collections for October and December only being missing). Many lepto- cephali and young adults of this species from the Pacific coast of Panama and a few from Colombia taken during February, March, and “autumn” also have been examined. Therefore, the remarks as to spawning made in the preceding pages prob- ably apply equally as well to this species as to Elops saurus. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 380TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS The 380th meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on January 11, 1943. President Curtis called the meeting to order at 8:05 p.m., with 19 persons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros- stnI, H. S. Rappteyz, N. R. Smiru, R. J. SEEGER, J. E. Grar, F. G. BricKWEppgE, F. C. Kracek, A. Wermors, J. E. McMurtrey, JR., W. A. Dayton, W. RAMBERG, E. W. PRICE, L. W. Parr, C. L. Garnmr, H. G. Dorsry, and by invitation G. A. Cooprr, A. SEIDELL, and L. V. JUDSON. The minutes of the 379th meeting were read and approved. President CurTIS announced appointment of the following committee to obtain more sub- scriptions of the JouRNAL from Government bureaus: F. G. BrickwEppE (chairman), W. W. Dient, and F. H. H. Rospzrts, Jr. For the Committee on Membership, Chair- man KracrExk presented nominations of 12 persons (11 resident and 1 nonresident). The Committees on Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1942, ALEXANDER WETMORE, general chairman and chairman of the Com- mittee for the Biological Sciences, H. N. Eaton, chairman of the Committee for the Engineering Sciences, and L. V. Jupson, chairman of the Committee for the Physical Sciences, presented the names of three candidates for the awards, which were approved by the Board for an- nouncement at the annual meeting of the academy. The Secretary reported three deaths, three resignations, and three retirements. The Board authorized the President to ap- point a Committee on the A.A.A.S. Research Grant for 1948, which will amount to $150 for the Academy. The meeting adjourned at 9:27 p.m. FREDERICK D. Rossrn1, Secretary. @bituaries The death on July 138, 1942, of Henry GRANGER KnicuT, chief of the Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture, marked the passing of one of the most notable and interesting figures among American agri- cultural chemists. His 16 years as director of three widely separated State experiment sta- tions and his 15 years as chief of a Federal bu- reau gave him an administrative experience in agricultural chemistry that has few parallels in the history of American science. Knight was born on July 21, 1878, at Ben- nington, Kans., on a prairie farm, from which his parents moved a few years later to Port Townsend on Puget Sound. He entered Wash- ington State University at Seattle where he earned his way by various activities. After ob- taining his A.B. degree at Washington in 1902, he spent one year as student and assistant in chemistry at Chicago University, and then re- turned to Washington as Assistant Professor of Chemistry. In 1904 Knight accepted the double appoint- ment of professor of chemistry and State chem- ist at the University of Wyoming, the duties of which he resigned in 1910 to accept the direc- torship of the Wyoming Agricultural Experi- ment Station. His administrative duties were further increased in 1911, when he was ap- pointed dean of the Wyoming College of Agri- culture. While at Wyoming Knight published Mar. 15, 1943 four bulletins on the chemical composition of Wyoming forage plants; he wrote bulletins also on the death camass and woody aster, plants poisonous to livestock. In 1916-17 he did postgraduate work at the University of Illinois for which he obtained his Ph.D. degree for a thesis on acidity and acidimetry of soils. In 1918 Knight resigned his position in Wyoming to accept the directorship of the Oklahoma Ex- periment Station and the deanship of its school of agriculture. Political disturbances caused him to resign this position in 1921. After a year’s postgraduate study at Cornell Univer- sity as honorary fellow, Knight accepted a call to the University of West Virginia as director of its experiment station and in 1926 as dean of its school of agriculture. In 1927, when the U. S. Bureau of Soils and the Fixed Nitrogen Laboratory were merged with the research work of the Bureau of Chem- istry, direction of the newly constituted Bu- reau of Chemistry and Soils was awarded to Dr. Knight, who had the courage to accept what lack of homogeneity had caused others to decline. Although he strove valiantly toward welding a discordant collection of activities into a unified bureau, the task was an impossible one, the result being transfer of the soils, fer- tilizer, and insecticides work to other bureaus. These losses, although discouraging, were more than counterbalanced by Knight’s acquiring direction of four new regional research labora- tories. It was while giving his last depleted re- sources of mind and body to organizing these laboratories for the needs of war that Henry G. Knight paid the inevitable price. Dr. Knight preferred to be recognized more as an organizer and administrator of research than as an actual contributor to science. His extensive experience as a director of State ex- periment stations helped greatly toward es- tablishing more cordial relations between these institutions and the Federal Department of Agriculture. The extent of his influence within the Department of Agriculture is indicated by his membership in 12 intradepartmental com- mittees. From 1930 to 1942 he served as chair- man of the Editorial Committee for the Jour- nal of Agricultural Research. He was president of the American Institute of Chemists in 1933- 35, and in May 1941 received from Vice- President Wallace the Institute’s gold medal OBITUARIES 95 for outstanding accomplishments in agricul- tural chemistry. Temperamentally he was a man of jovial disposition who will long be held in affectionate remembrance by a host of friends. C. A. BROWNE. THomas Leonard WALKER, who died on August 6, 1942, was born near Brampton, On- tario, on December 30, 1867, of English parent- age. His father, William Walker, was a native of Whitby, England, while his mother, Hannah Sanderson Walker, came from Scarborough, England. He attended schools in both Bramp- ton and Orangeville, Ontario, and then entered Queen’s University, Kingston, from which he received the silver medal in chemistry and the degree of master of arts in 1890, and at a later period the Gowan Prize in botany. For a short time after his graduation from Queen’s University he was employed as chem- ist at the Murray Mine, and for two years was laboratory demonstrator in the Faculty of Mines, Queen’s University. He was awarded one of the first 1851 Exhibition Scholarships and continued his studies under Prof. F. Zirkel in the University of Leipzig, where, in 1896, he was awarded the degree doctor of philosophy. At a later time he also continued his studies in crystallography in the University of Heidel- berg with Prof. Victor Goldschmidt. In 1897 Dr. Walker was appointed assistant superintendent of the Geological Survey of India. While in India he made a scientific ex- pedition across the high passes of the Hima- layas into Tibet, making incidentally a collec- tion of Himalayan mosses, many of which were new to science. In 1901 he returned to Canada to become professor of mineralogy and petrography in the University of Toronto, a position that he held until his retirement in 1937. In 1913 the Royal Ontario Museum of Mineralogy, Toronto, ap- pointed him its first director. Through the years Dr. Walker worked indefatigably for the Mu- seum. By collecting, judicious purchase, and exchange he built up a Museum of Mineralogy that ranks among the best seven in the world. Dr. Walker was one of the founders and the first vice-president of the Mineralogical Society of America, in 1920, and president in 1922. He was a fellow of the Geological Society of 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES America (1903) and vice-president (1922 and 1931). He was made an honorary member of the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1937 after being an ordinary member since 1913. He was a fellow of the Royal Soci- ety of Canada (1919) and president of Section IV (Geological Sciences) 1927-28; a fellow of the Geological Society of London; fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall; member of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metal- lurgy; and a member of this Society. For many years he was a member of the committee on the measurement of geologic time in the National Research Council (United States). He was an indefatigable worker and accom- plished much that was worth while. His thesis for the doctorate started an intensive study of the conditions governing the deposition of the nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury basin. His re- ports on the tungsten and molybdenum ores of Canada called attention to materials that have become of great importance. He was one of the pioneers in the use of the 2-circle goniometer on this continent and wrote his Crystallography to make this method more readily available in the English language. _ The mineral temiskamite, almost simultane- ously described under the name maucherite, which was described by him, was the cause of much dispute as to its true composition. The latest examination by means of X-rays agrees within reasonable limits with the composition as given by Walker, although the name mau- cherite is preserved as having prioity in publi- cation. Other minerals that were described by him are spencerite, chapmanite, schoepite, en- electrite, and, in collaboration with the writer, ellsworthite. VOL. 33, NO. 3 In view of the limited facilities for publishing in English articles dealing with mineralogy and petrography Dr. Walker started the series of “Contributions to Canadian Mineralogy from the Department of Mineralogy and Petrog- raphy in the University of Toronto” in 1921. This publication has appeared annually since that time, except for the year 1936, when he was stricken with his fatal illness. It was then deferred until the next year when a double number was issued. Special recognition was given to the accom- plishments of Dr. Walker in 1938 when the University of Toronto granted him the degree doctor of science (honoris causa), and in 1941 the Royal Society of Canada conferred him further honor by the bestowal of the Flavelle Medal for his important contributions to min- eralogical science. He traveled widely and was a member of nearly every International Geological Congress during his academic career, and on each occa- sion he brought home material to enrich the col- lections of the University and of the Royal On- tario Museum of Mineralogy. Dr. Walker will be remembered because of the men he trained. He will also be long remem- bered as the builder. of a great mineral museum. To these great objectives he devoted his life, and his accomplishments -were of no mean order. In 1906 Dr. Walker married Mary Augusta Woods, daughter of the late Sir James Woods, of Toronto. He is survived by his wife and also by two sons, James Woods Walker and William P. Walker, and one daughter, Euphemia B. Walker. A. L. PARSONS. ( CONTENTS | re es ye travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1 ‘Vavueu. Se Poke eae aoe ae American saute, JoHN 2 ‘Lucker. ‘fluke, Pane ae in Gia. ‘definitive Kev and R. Scorr JACKSON . : PE ee Sime ‘saurus Linnaeus. ee THE ACADEMY. | OprrvARIEs: “Huwry GRANGER Knigur; Tuomas L Ona JOURNA etn ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a BOARD OF EDITORS Jason R. SwALLEN | L. V. Jupson ‘ BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Bates ASSOCIATE EDITORS | mee? CBr: mth. % ; . ES ae Epwarps Denna C. F. W. MursEesecx wh Wea ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Epwin Kirk Sy : GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY a Wititam N.. FENTON ‘a ‘BOTANICAL socreTy ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY % James I. 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National Museum, Washington, DiC Remittances should be made payable to ‘“Washington Academy of Sciences” ona addressed to 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis., or to the cee HS. pee U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. Exchanges.—The Journau does not exchange with Gitier muiblicahiGis: Missing N ee will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within thirty days after He of following i issue. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: LELAND W. Parr, George Washington University. Secretary: FERDINAND G. Brick WEDDE, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappueyeg, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NaTHaNn R. SmirH, Bureau of Plant Industry. : . Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. sacs oS ~ National Museum, . JOURNAL OF THE "WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 33 ApRIL 15, 1943 No. 4 TOXICOLOGY .—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the American dog tick, Der- macentor variabilis (Say).! Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE Hacer TauBer,? CHARLES R. Joycn,? and Wiuuis N. Bruce. (Communicated by Cart J. DRAKE.) Pastac (11) indicates, without reference or date, that the first notice of the value of a nitro dye as an insecticide came through the observation that clothes moths did not mo- lest wool dyed with martius yellow (dinitro- naphthol). In the past 30 years a considera- ble number of laboratory and field tests with many dinitrophenols have been con- ducted on a number of different insects (3, 7, 8, 8a, 9, 9a, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15). Some of these same dinitro compounds have been recommended as weedkillers, fungicides, etc. (2, 6, 11, 17). No records of the effects of any dinitrophenols on ticks have been found. Ticks are particularly concerned in the transmission of relapsing fever and typhus- like diseases. Recently (1942) Anigstein and Bader (1) reported evidence suggesting Amblyomma americanum as an additional carrier of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. At this writing, when military training and actual warfare bring many thousands of men into possible contact with various po- tentially dangerous Ixodidae, any sugges- tions that may contribute to methods for extermination of ticks should prove timely. Ticks are very tenacious of life. Past at- 1 Received. February 10, 1943. Journal Paper No. J-1091 of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 372. 2 Funds for employment provided by Iowa State Department of Health of Des Moines, Iowa, and Industrial Science Research Institute of Iowa State College. The authors are indebted to Dr. Carl F. Jordan, director of the Division of Preventable Diseases, Department of Health, State of Iowa; and Drs. C. J. Drake and C. H. - Richardson, of Iowa State College, for suggestions and criticisms. tempts at control and eradication have involved such laborious procedures as me- chanical removal by handpicking or en- tanglement in sheep wool; dipping domestic animals; cutting or burning tick infested brush; or by trapping, poisoning, or shoot- ing of hosts other than-man and domestic animals. Since these hosts sometimes also include such active forms as bats and birds, the last three of the enumerated methods of eradication are hardly possible or efficient. Also, elimination of rodents or other wild hosts over a large area is likely to upset some biologic balance and initiate new prob- lems of another nature. The experiments to be described were be- gun as preliminary ground-work for con- templated field trials to kill ticks in selected areas by dusting vegetation in which they are concentrated. Such dustings might reach the ticks directly as they rested on the vege- tation or crawled on the ground. It might reach them when their wild hosts, such as mammals and ground-feeding birds, moved through the dusted herbage and brushed and shook the toxic material on themselves and their parasites. So far as we can deter- mine, this proposed approach is a new at- _tack on the tick problem. Should this dusting of vegetation prove of value in killing ticks, such a technique might be useful in reducing populations of mosquitoes, chiggers, certain flies, and other forms that rest on herbage, or wait for vic- tims while hanging on grass, shrubs, or other plants. The method might conceiva- bly be the answer to ridding jungle trails of 97 blood-sucking land leeches, which are a real ey 2, ‘S, ° 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES menace to travelers and soldiers in Indo- China, Malaya, and other areas of that re- gion where rainfall is especially abundant. ‘“‘Blanket’’ dusting of refuse piles and dumps may also serve to bring the toxic dusts to fleas and lice carried by rats. With these and other ideas of control in mind, preliminary tests on fleas and other pests have been inaugurated to ascertain killing doses before field work is begun. These latter results will be published in subsequent papers. CHEMICALS Whenever possible, toxic compounds were obtained as pure chemicals and diluted as desired in the laboratory. To insure thor- ough dispersal, weighed ingredients were first mixed by spatula on a glass plate, then shaken in a large jar, and last placed on a home-made “‘roller-ball-mill” by which a cylinder, containing the mixture and peb- bles or glass marbles, was rolled over and over for several hours (see Fig. 1). Among the more promising toxic materials were dinitro-ortho-cresol (DN-o-C), supplied by Standard Agricultural Chemicals, Inc.; dinitro-ortho-cyclohexyl-phenol from Dow Chemical Co.; and ammonium-dinitro-or- tho-cresylate and guanidine dinitro-ortho- cresylate from American Cyanamid & Chemical Corporation. Diluents included 320 mesh sulphur from Stauffer Chemical Co.; ‘‘Pyrophyllite’’ from E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.; and ‘“‘Pyrite’”’ from Dow. Other compounds, such as sodium arsenite, were pure chemicals available from labora- tory stock. The outstanding toxicity of 3,5-dinitro- ortho-cresol, as demonstrated by Decker and Drake (3), when compared with 24 other dinitro compounds, was the incentive for using the DN-o-C as the main toxic agent when these investigations were begun. Preliminary tests with other compounds were inserted in the program as the chemi- cals became available from the manufactur- ers. There is some disagreement regarding the correct naming of the dinitro-ortho-cresol. Insect toxicologists generally refer to it as the 3,5-compound, but Filbert (5), of du Pont de Nemours & Co., states that 4,6- VOL. 33, NO. 4 dinitro-o-cresol is the correct numbering as approved both by Chemical Abstracts and Beilstein. EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS Dermacentor variabilis (Say) is a widely distributed American dog tick. It is impli- cated in transmission and dispersal of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The number of infested specimens usually runs from 1 in 200 to 1 in 600 (16). In certain areas of lowa it has sometimes been numerous enough (4) _ to be a potentially dangerous carrier of spotted fever to human beings. Adult specimens of D. variabilis were col- lected by hand from dogs, or by ‘‘flagging’” in those localities of Iowa where ticks of this species were known to be numerous. Ticks thus obtained were kept over moist sand in cotton-stoppered vials. These col- lections included ticks of all ages within — their adult life span. Also, individuals ranged through all stages of nutrition, in- cluding full engorgement, interrupted feed- ing, and starvation. In some cases the pe- riod of starvation may have been for more than a year. In addition, the collections sometimes included spent females, or gravid females that began to oviposit while under observation as control or experimental sub- jects. In short, these adult ticks were of wild stock and possessed both the good and bad characteristics of an heterogeneous population. Larval ticks were hatched from eggs de- posited in the laboratory by females taken in the field. Larvae of a known age were thus available for tests. Other larvae were allowed to feed on white-footed mice, Pero- myscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer), and, after transformation to nymphs, estab- lished a source of nymphs of known age. Egg masses were collected in the labora- tory, and tests were made of some of the dinitrophenols as tick ovicides. METHODS Not the least of the problems this investi- gation involved was that of devising some technique of bringing the ticks and the com- pounds together in a simple procedure that could be easily and reasonably duplicated. — After various trials, the following set-up Apr. 15, 1943 and technique were employed for adult ticks: A circular opening, 6 inches in diam- eter, was cut in a piece of cardboard resting on a sheet of paper toweling. A 2-inch disk of cardboard was placed in the center of the 6-inch opening. Over the opening was placed a dusting tower consisting of a tall bell jar with an opening near the bottom, through which a dusting nozzle could be inserted (see Fig. 1). Known weights of dust were pumped into the tower while the nozzle was shifted about, inside the apparatus, to in- sure as even a distribution of dust as possi- ble. After the dust settled, the tower was lifted away, and the entire cardboard pat- tern was removed. A 2-inch circular band of dust was thus formed on the toweling. Ticks to be tested were placed in the central dust- free area, and then recaptured outside the dust ring after voluntarily walking across it to the outer dust-free area. With nymphal ticks, the band of dust was reduced to 1 inch by merely using a 4-inch disk to make the inner dust-free surface. Younger larval ticks were so small and “bogged down”’ so easily in the dust ring that a further modification was necessary. For all larvae, therefore, the following uni- _ form procedure was used. A small nontoxic dust ring of pyrophyllite was first set up. The test larvae were set free inside this ring. The dust tower was then set in place and the dust blown in. When the tower was removed the dusted larvae were picked up and then confined to vials. Adult ticks and larger nymphs were eas- ily handled with tweezers. Larval ticks were moved about on the pointed tip of a moist- ened brush. After treatment, adult and nymphal ticks were confined separately in small vials and examined at regular, convenient intervals. Death of the specimen was recorded when no movement whatsoever was elicited even in the close approach to warmth from a light bulb. Larval ticks were usually kept in groups of 5 or 10 individuals to the vial. All untreated controls were kept in the same type of container and under the same conditions as the treated ticks. Actual determinations of the weight of dust distributed in the ring under the dust tower gave a quantity equivalent to about TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 99 65 to 75 pounds an acre for the adult and nymph treatments. For larvae, the quantity was about 20 to 25 pounds an acre. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All results presented throughout this pa- per represent data collected under con- trolled laboratory conditions. Under no circumstances are they to be construed as results to be expected with field trials. It was the intention to carry on field opera- Fig. 1.—In the background is the tall bell jar used as a dusting tower. A charge of dust is sus- pended in its interior. In the foreground is the mixing-mill used to roll the dust mixtures. tions during 1942, but by the time these preliminary laboratory tests were com- pleted, the season suitable for outdoor tests was too far advanced. Since these present results may be of value to other workers who could make field runs before we can in the summer of 19438, our data are presented now. In any event, field trials will be con- ducted in Iowa in 1943 if the necessary equipment and labor can be assembled. Although test specimens were often kept under observation for a week or more, and controls were checked for several weeks at least, only the 24- and 48-hour mortality percentages are presented here. From the standpoint of toxicological interest, the 24- and 48-hour results are probably of most significance. Beyond 48 hours other factors than the exposure to the test dust are likely to come into play. Also, if a tick is a vector of a disease, the faster it is eliminated the better, if no other complications are in- volved. 100 Adult Dog Ticks One of the first facts that became clearly evident in the results was the difference in resistance to DN-o-C between unfed and engorged adult ticks. This characteristic is demonstrated in the sample of data pre- sented in Table 1. TaBLE 1.—Morta.ity or UNFED AND ENGorRGED ADULT Doe Ticks (Dermacentor variabilis) saFrTER CONTACT WITH DINITRO-0-CRESOL DILUTED wiITH PYROPHYLLITE Nutritional Number Dead at | Dead at state Diese tested 24 hours | 48 hours ' Percent Percent Percent! UnftedReeaee: 2 20 35 35 Unfed....... 4 20 40 45 Unfed....... 8 50 64 68 Unfed....... 12 50 2, 88 Engorged.... 8 50 36 36 Engorged.... 12 50 45 A5 1 Throughout this entire paper, percent of mortality is ex- pressed in the nearest whole number. Additional evidence that the nutritional state of these ticks is an important consid- eration was demonstrated in the summary of mortality of specimens of this species kept as controls under laboratory condi- tions. This summary is given in Table 2. TABLE 2.—MortTa.ity oF ADULT CONTROL SPECIMENS OF Dermacentor variabilis Nie Number . Dead at Dead at utritional state observed 24 hours 48 hours Percent Percent Winfede seins: 180 11 17 Engorged........ 65 3 4. The high mortality of the unfed indi- viduals is rather striking, and no explana- tion can be offered. Unfavorable humidity is probably a factor under laboratory condi- tions, even though some efforts were made to keep the test ticks from dehydration. So little is known regarding certain limiting ecological factors in the tick’s life history that some of our colony-maintenance pro- cedures were probably faulty. Under the pressure of present conditions, however, it was decided not to take time to explore these rearing problems, but to proceed to the more important toxicological aspects. In regard to the high mortality, difference in the nutritional conditions is naturally the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 first suggested clue, but more complicated relationships may be involved. No attempt was made to check the life span of individu- als under field conditions, but there is no reason to assume that such a high mortality among adults is a natural one. When one considers, also, that most unfed ticks were collected by the ‘‘flagging’’ method, which entails only slight chances of injury, while the engorged specimens were often dis- lodged with considerable difficulty from the skin of their hosts, the difference in mortal- ity of the two types is even less easily ex- plained. Nevertheless, in spite of the high death rate of unfed controls, the data of Ta- ble 1 show a good gradient of effect through the use of increased strengths of the dinitro- o-cresol. Just what parts body surface and body volume, considered separately or together, might have in effecting the difference in mortality of unfed and engorged ticks is also unknown. Engorged ticks generally picked up considerably more of the chemical while walking through the band of dust. However, this factor of actual greater con- tact by swollen engorged ticks apparently was not sufficient to counteract the rela- tively larger amount of dust which the un- fed ticks acquired. The ratio of body surface to body volume would, of course, be higher in the unfed ticks. The smaller, unengorged specimens could thus acquire a higher in- ternal concentration of the absorbed poison, even though the actual contact was less. TaBLE 3.—MortTauity oF UNFED AND ENGoRGED ADULT DoaG TicKS AFTER CONTACT wiTH SULPHUR-DILUTED DINITRO-ORTHO-CRESOL Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at state DN-o-C tested 24 hours | 48 hours Percent Percent Percent Unfed...... 4 100 57 65 Unfed...... 8 50 73 77 Wnfedeeeee: 12 50 60 68 Unfed...... 20 135 91 94 Unfed...... 25 110 87 98 Engorged... 4 sy 16 28 Engorged... 8 50 42 60 Engorged... 12 25 47 80 Engorged... 25 70 51 96 When ordinary 320-mesh dusting sulphur was substituted for pyrophyllite as a diluent for the dinitro-ortho-cresol, a rather well- Apr. 15, 1943 marked general trend of increased toxicity was often noted, especially in the lower con- centrations of DN-o-C. These data are given in Table 3 (compare with Table 1). Tests with 100 per cent, 320-mesh sul- phur in the 2-inch circular band of dust served to emphasize again the difference in susceptibility of unfed and engorged ticks. This information is found in Table 4. TasBLE 4.—Toxicity or 100 Percent SuLtpHuR (320 Mzsx) TO THE ADULT Doe Tick Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at state tested 24 hours 48 hours Percent Percent Unies 120 19 27 Engorged........ 25 3 3 Weather conditions at, and transporta- tion difficulties to, the usual sites of collec- tions sometimes made it impossible to ob- tain, at the right time, as large samples as were desired for tests. With larger numbers of individuals, the discrepancy in the 8 per cent and 12 per cent trials with unfed speci- mens of Table 3 might be eliminated. The small sample and the heterogeneous char- acter of the field-collected ticks may also account for the lower mortality among the few engorged ticks tested with 100 per cent sulphur than among the larger sample of control ticks in Table 2. Comparison of per cent mortalities in Tables 1 and 3 shows, however, that the use of sulphur as a diluent is a valuable procedure, especially with un- fed ticks. Similar trials with 100 per cent pyrophyllite showed no mortality percent- age above that found for the controls. No attempt was made to set up experi- ments to test for synergistic action in the sulphur and dinitro-ortho-cresol mixtures. Such tests are planned when next season’s ticks become available. Just before the 1942 tests had to be ter- minated because of increased seasonal dif- ficulties in obtaining ticks, several other compounds were received from manufactur- ers, and preliminary tests were run with the few ticks then available. One of these chem- icals, the ammonium dinitro-ortho-cresyl- ate, has shown excellent promise with cer- tain insects (8a) and other near relatives of ticks. Results from these compounds are in TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 101 Table 5. Also included in this table are data from the use of sodium arsenite at 4 per, cent and 100 per cent levels. These arsenite tests were included merely as reference and com-’ parison points with a more familiar toxic dusting compound. | TABLE 5.—PRELIMINARY RESULTS WITH MiscELLANEOUS Com- POUNDS UsEep as Dusts on Unrep*Aputt Doe Ticks er- : Number | Dead at | Dead at Compound cent Diluent tested | 24 hours} 48 hours Percent | Percent NaAs.Os.. 4 | Pyrophyllite 25 8 20 NaAs:20;...| 100 — 25 64 92 Guanidine dinitro-o- cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 0 23 Ammonium dinitro-o- cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 87 94 Tables 1, 3, and 5 offer the opportunity to compare the toxicity of several of the com- pounds tested on unfed dog ticks. At the 12 per cent level, the ammonium dinitro-ortho- cresylate seems the most toxic of the tested materials. At the 4 per cent levels, the so- dium arsenite has about half the mortality per cent of dinitro-ortho-cresol; and, when the latter was combined with sulphur, a 25 per cent concentration had approximately the same toxicity for unfed specimens as 100 per cent sodium arsenite. Guanidine dini- tro-ortho-cresylate was the least toxic of the chemicals tried on adult dog ticks. TABLE 6.—MorTALITY OF NymMpHAL Doc TICKS AFTER CON- TACT WITH VARIOUS DN-ComMrPounNDs DILUTED WITH SULPHUR Per- | Number} Dead at | Dead at Age Compound cent | tested | 24 hours /48 hours Percent | Percent 5 days. ..| DN-o-C 8 30 50 57 5 days. ..| DN-o-C 12 35 63 66 5 days. ..| DN-o-C 16 50 74. 96 _2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 8 50 62 72 2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 12 50 96 98 2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 16 30 100 — 3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 8 30 97 97 3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 12 75 98 98 3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 16 50 100 —- 3 weeks. .| Guanidine- DN-o-cres- ylate. so. a|0 12 30 33 60 3 weeks. .| Ammonium- DN-o-cres- ylate 12 80 100 ms (in 34 hrs.) adel 102 Nymphal Dog Ticks As stated previously, some larval ticks were allowed to feed in the laboratory on caged wild white-footed mice, and then used after transformation to the nymphal stage. All the data secured from tests on nymphs are set up in Table 6. Several series of untreated, control nymphs were set up at the same time. Their data appear in Table 7. TABLE 7.—MoRTALITY OF UNTREATED NYMPHAL Dog Ticks Number Dead at Dead at Age observed 24 hours 48 hours Percent Percent SUG AY Sa cutee see 30 0 0 DP WEEKS hoc 5 tas eer 50 at 22 Siweekse ta tess: 30 13 28 One of the first facts apparent from Ta- bles 6 and 7 is the decreased vigor of the nymphs as they become older. This point is demonstrated not only in the increased mortality of the controls, but also in the greater susceptibility to treatment with poisons. Table 6 also shows a regular pro- gressive build-up in toxicity as the percent- age of dinitro-o-cresol is increased. All nymphs were laboratory reared and were thus a stock of more nearly homogene- TaBLE 8.—MortTALITY OF 5-DAYS, 2-WEEKS AND 3-WEEKS OLD LarvaL Doe Ticks aFTER DUSTING WITH DINITRO-ORTHO- CRESOL DILUTED WITH PYROPHYLLITE Dead at Age of Cal ate oe Ge enone as DN-o-C tested hour |hours|hours| hours| hours] hours iRereent Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent 5 days.| 0.063 30 33 87 | 100 5 days.| 0.125 30 37 | 100 5 days.| 0.25 30 100 5 days.| 0.5 30 1001 5 days.| 1.0 30 1001 5 days.| 2.0 30 1002 2 weeks | 0.063 30 — — — — 0 0 2 weeks | 0.125 30 — a — —_ 23 33 2 weeks | 0.25 30 — 33 — — 67 80 2 weeks | 0.5 30 — 40 — — 72 88 2 weeks | 1.0 30 — 63 70 — 80 90 2 weeks | 2.0 30 76 = 93 — | 100 3 weeks | 0.5 30 — 13 33 37 ot 37 3 weeks| 1.0 30 47 — 67 70 70 73 3 weeks | 2.0 30 57 — 70 73 73 He 3 weeks | 4.0 30 100 1 In 55 minutes. 2 In 20 minutes. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 ous test animals whose history was better known than that of the field-collected adults. Consequently, discrepancies in resultant data are not so likely to occur because of differences in age, nutrition, and other fac- tors. In addition, Table 6 makes it clear that of the two tested cresylates the guanidine compound is decidedly inferior to the am- monium dinitro-o-cresylate, and the latter is superior to the dinitro-o-cresol. While the 12 per cent dinitro-o-cresol attained 98 per cent mortality in 48 hours, the 12 per cent ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate brought about 100 per cent mortality in only three and a half hours. Larval Dog Ticks _ A large supply of larval ticks made it pos- sible to make runs through a longer series of concentrations at various ages of the test species. Trials were run at the following ages: 5 days, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, and 4 weeks. The first three ages were tested only with dinitro-o-cresol diluted with pyrophyllite. The 4-weeks larvae were tested after it was found that sulphur made a better diluent than pyrophyllite, and, unfortunately, it was not then possible to repeat the previous tests on younger larvae, using sulphur. Also, when the 4-weeks larvae were available, certain other chemicals were received and these were also tried. And, again, to our re- gret, it was not possible, last season, to use these latter compounds on other stages of ticks. Their data, however, are included as a matter of record of preliminary trials. Re- sults on larval ticks will be found in the next two tables; a dash (—) in the body of the tables indicates that no check count for mortality was made at that particular time interval. Contrary to the situation in nymphs, which seem to be less hardy with increasing age, Tables 8 and 9 show that larval ticks become more resistant as they get older. For example, at the 2 per cent level of dinitro-o- eresol the youngest larvae (5 days old) were all dead within 20 minutes; the 2-weeks specimens were all dead at 24 hours; and the three-weeks larvae had a mortality of 77 per cent at 48 hours. At 4 weeks of age, re- sistance increased to the point where 8 per Apr. 15, 1943 TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 103 TABLE 9.—MorTALITY OF 4-WEEKS OLD LARVAL Doc Ticks AFTER DUSTING WITH VARIOUS COMPOUNDS ree Dead at Compound races Diluent ber 1 3 6 12 24 48 tested} hour | hours | hours | hours | hours | hours Percent Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- cent cent cent cent cent cent Mem-o-cresol............ 4 | Sulphur 30 3 -- 6 30 50 63 me=o-cresol............- 8 | Sulphur 30 «| 10 67 90 — 100 Mem-O-cresol............ 12 | Sulphur 30 13 97 100! Mm-o-cresol............ 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 80 100? mem=o-cresol............ 12 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 100 DN-o-2nd butylphenol... 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 1004 . DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol. . 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 67 80 1005 Dicyclohexyl-amine salt of DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol 20 | Pyrophyllite| 30 3 20 — 57 100 Dinitroso-resorcinol...... 100 = 0 3 6 =e 100 Tetrachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 33 100 Pentachlorophenol.......} 100 — 30 0 77 — 100 Hexachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 6 57 — 100 Sodium arsenite......... 4 | Pyrophyllite| 30 — 10 — 17 i7/ 27 Sodium arsenite......... 100 — 0 73 87 100 1 Jn 53 hours. 2 In 23 hours. cent dinitro-o-cresol was necessary to give 100 per cent kill in 23 hours; and with 12 per cent, 100 per cent mortality in 1 hours. Of the four other dinitrophenols listed in Table 9, two (the secondary butylphenol and the cyclo-hexylphenol) give promise of being as toxic as the dinitro-ortho-cresol, all tested at the 8 per cent level. The other two compounds (the amine salt and the resorci- nol) were tested at much higher concentra- tions (20 per cent and 100 per cent, respec- tively) and showed no more toxicity for lar- val ticks than the 8 per cent DN-o-C. All three of the -chlorophenols were tried without dilution, and, even at 100 per cent concentration, they were no more effective than DN-o-C in the range of 8 per cent and 12 per cent levels. Two widely separated concentrations (4 per cent and 100 per cent) of sodium arse- nite were tested on 4-weeks larvae, and just as in the case of unfed adult ticks (see Table 5), were considerably less effective than comparable percentages of dinitro-ortho- cresol. The pronounced fragility of the young larval ticks is re-emphasized by the mortal- ity data of controls, shown in Table 10. In this case, the high death rate of young lar- val ticks is probably a reflection of what occurs in nature also. When one compares 3 In 12 hours. 4 In 43 hours. 5 In 83 hours. TaBLE 10.—MortTauity oF UNTREATED CONTROL LARVAL Ticks Number Dead at Dead at Age observed 24 hours 48 hours Percent Percent GENS oo oa0e 50 13 27 2 weeks..... 50 0 0 3 weeks..... 7 50 0 0 4 weeks..... 50 0 0 the large number of eggs, which each female tick produces, with the smaller number of ticks which reach maturity, it is evident that there must be some phase of post-hatch- ing development during which survival is difficult. Toxic dust treatments may be able to utilize the lethal possibilities of this criti- cal period. Dog Tick Eggs Two experiments were set up to test DN-o-C as a tick ovicide. In the first test 15 clumps of eggs were placed under a bell jar and dusted with 12 per cent DN-o-C at the rate of about 50 pounds/acre. There was no noticeable de- crease in hatching, after the usual incuba- tion period. In the second test 10 clumps of eggs were dusted in the same manner but with 25 per cent DN-o-C. After a sufficient incubation 104 period elapsed, the clumps were examined. There was an obvious reduction in the num- ber of eggs that hatched, in comparison with undusted control clumps kept under the same laboratory conditions. Eggs at the bottom of the dusted clumps, those eggs not directly in contact with the 25 per cent DN-o-C, were the only ones which pro- duced young ticks. Those dusted eggs on top and at the sides evidently were killed. If these two rough tests are of any sig- nificance, they indicate a considerable re- sistance to toxic substances by tick eggs. In both of the above tests the dusts re- mained in contact with the eggs throughout the entire incubation time. Dusts applied under field conditions would probably not remain so closely applied during approxi- mately three weeks of weathering. Attempts at eradication or decrease of ticks by dust- ing the eggs would probably not be prac- ticable. It appears that the egg stage is not the tick’s most vulnerable period. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of laboratory tests alone, the following statements are presented. 1. Unfed and engorged adult specimens of the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis, possess a decided difference in susceptibility to contact with dinitro-ortho- cresol and other dinitrophenols. For exam- ple, 12 per cent DN-o-C, with pyrophyllite as a diluent, applied at the rate of 65 to 75 pounds to the acre, has a 48-hour mortality of 88 per cent with unfed adults; and 45 per cent with engorged adults. 2. The use of 320-mesh dusting sulphur as a diluent, in combination with DN-o-C, makes a more toxic mixture against ticks than that obtained with pyrophyllite as the diluent. With 8 per cent DN-o-C, at 48 hours, the per cent of mortality for unfed adults is 68 per cent with pyrophyllite; 77 per cent with sulphur. For engorged adults, with 8 per cent DN-o-C, the per cent dead is 36 with pyrophyllite and 60 with sulphur. 3. Sulphur alone has some toxicity for unfed adult dog ticks. Applied at the rate of 65 to 75 pounds an acre, 100 per cent sul- phur killed 19 per cent unfed ticks in 24 hours. It had no effect on the particular JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 30, NO. 4 sample of 25 engorged specimens tested in the same manner. 4. Even in combination with sulphur, and at 65 to 75 pounds an acre, DN-o-C mixtures must contain at least 25 per cent of the DN compound to produce a kill over 95 per cent within 48 hours. The adult dog tick is tenacious of life. 5. Ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate gives promise of higher toxicity than DN-o-C. In preliminary tests, a 12 per cent concentra- tion with sulphur is nearly equal in toxicity to 25 per cent DN-o-C when applied in identical dosages. 6. Undiluted sodium arsenite is slightly less toxic to -unfed adult dog ticks than DN-o-C diluted at 25 per cent with sulphur, when applied in identical dosages, with identical technique. 7. Guanidine dinitro-ortho-cresylate does not show much promise as a tickicide. | 8. Nymphal dog ticks decrease in vigor as they age during the nymphal stage. This is shown both by increased mortalities among untreated controls, and by greater suscepti- bility to dusting with DN compounds. 9. At. 65 to 75 pounds an acre, a sulphur and DN-o-C mixture must contain at least 16 per cent of the cresol to kill more than 95 per cent of the younger (5 days old) nymphs within 48 hours. A 12 per cent DN-o-C will kill more than 95 per cent of 2 to 3 weeks old nymphs within 24 hours; 16 per cent kills 100 per cent in less than 24 hours. 10. With nymphal ticks ammonium DN- o-cresylate again shows superior toxicity; 12 per cent in sulphur kills 100 per cent of 3- weeks nymphs in 33 hours. 11. Larval dog ticks become more hardy with age. For example, when treated with 2 per cent DN-o-C, 5 days old larvae were all dead in 20 minutes; the 2-weeks specimens were all dead at 24 hours; and 3-weeks lar- vae had a mortality of 77 per cent at 48 hours. At 4 weeks of age the DN-o-C con- centration had to go to 8 per cent to kill 100 per cent in 24 hours. 12. When tested with 4-weeks old larval ticks, dinitro-o-secondary butylphenol and DN-o-cyclohexylphenol appear nearly as toxic as DN-o-C. The dicyclohexylamine Apr. 15, 1943 salt of DN-o-cyclohexylphenol is decidedly less toxic than DN-o-C. 13. Dinitrosoresorcinol, and the tetra-, penta-, and hexa-chlorophenols seem to have little value as tick larvicides. 14. Dog-tick eggs are quite resistant to poisoning by DN-o-C. When dusted with 12 per cent DN-o-C, no noticeable reduction in hatching occurred. Dusting with 25 per cent DN-o-C killed those eggs with which it came into direct contact, and on which it stayed during the entire incubation period. 15. With the above results in mind it seems an inevitable conclusion that field control of the American dog tick probably will be a difficult, but not impossible, prob- lem if attacked with DN-o-C or N Hy-DN-o- cresylate. There seems to be no particularly vulnerable spot during its life history. It is most easily killed during early larval life, but that susceptibility does not help much, for practical purposes, since hatching occurs over a long period during warm weather. Only repeated dusting over several months could take advantage of this weakness. LITERATURE CITED 1. ANIGSTEIN, Lupwik, and BapErR, MapgErRo N. New epidemiological aspect of spotted fever in the Gulf coast of Texas. Science 96: 357-358. 1942. 2. COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH, COMMONWEALTH OF AUS- TRALIA. Fifteenth Annual Report. Ex- cerpts in Science 97: 45-47. 1943. 3. Decxer, G.C., and Draxg, C.J. Prelim- mary studies on the use of dinitro-o-cresol dusts in grasshopper control. Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 14: 345-351. 1940. 4, Eppy, Gaines W., and Joyce, CHARLES R. Ticks collected on the Tama (Iowa) Indian Reservation with notes on other species. lowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 41: 539-543. 1942. - 5. FinBerT, W. F. Personal communication to C. J. Drake. 1941. 6. Firzcrraup, J. 8., Ratcrirre, F. N., and Gay, F. J. The use of mineral oils and tar oils for wheat weevil control. Journ. Coun- et and Ind. Research 15: 59-71. TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 105 7. GimincHaM, C. T., Masszxz, A. M., and TATTERSFIELD, F. Toxicity of 3:5-din- tro-o-cresol and other compounds to insect eggs, under laboratory and field conditions. Ann. Applied Biol. 13: 446-465. 1926. 8. GimincHaM, C. T., and TATTERSFIELD, F. Laboratory and field experiments on the use of 3:5-dinitro-o-cresol and its sodium salt for winter spraying. Journ. Agri. Sci. 17: 162-180. 1927. Sa. HARGREAVES, EK. The action of some or- ganic compounds when used as stomach poisons for caterpillars. Bull. Ent. Res. 15; 51-56. 1924. 9. Kacy, J. FRANKLIN, and RICHARDSON, CHarRLes H. Ovicidal and_ scalicidal properties of solutions of dinitro-o-cyclo- hexylphenol in petroleum oil. Journ. Kcon. Ent. 29: 52-61. 1936. 9a. Lerroy, H. M., and Fintow, R. 8S. In- quiry into the insecticidal action of some mineral and other compounds on cater pil- lars. Mem. Agr. Dept. India 4. 1913. (Not available; referred to by Har- greaves.) 10. Marcus, B. A. ‘‘Detal’’ Bestaubung gegen den Kiefernspanner (Bupalus piniarius L.). Zeitschr. Angew. Ent. 24: 71-86. 1937. 11. Pasrac, I. Les colorants nitrés et leurs ap- plications particuliéres. Journ. Lutte Chim. contre Ennemis Cultures 38 (4): LO ppy elo: 12. SCHWERDTFEGER, F. Brologische Grund- lagen der Engerlings-bekampfung. Zeitschr. Forst. und Jagdwesen. 71: 169— 186. 1939. 13. TATTERSFIELD, F., GimincHam, C. T. and Morris, H. M. Studies on contact in- secticides. III. Insecticidal action of chloro-, nitro-, and hydrozyl-derivatives of benzene and naphthalene. Ann. Appl. Biol. 12: 218-262. 1925. 14. TaTTeRsFIELD, F. Relationship between the chemical constitution of organic com- pounds and their toxicity to insects. Journ. Agr. Sci. 17: 181-208. 1927. 15. TuHinm, H. Zur Lage und Gestalfung der Markdferbekampfung. Abstract in Rev. App. Ent. (A) 27: 299. 1938. 16. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bu- REAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND PLANT QUAR- ANTINE. Insects in relation to national defense. Circular 12—Ticks. 25 pp. 1942. 17. Westcats, W. A., and Raynor, R.N. A new selective spray for the control of certain weeds. California Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. 634: 36 pp. 1940. 106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 4 ENTOMOLOGY .—Synoptic revision of the testaceipennis group of the beetle genus Phyllophaga.! The specific name testacezpennis (Blanch- ard) has long been applied to various species of Phyllophaga resembling the true testacei- pennis, all moderate-sized, semipruinose species with a foveate fifth sternite and Phytalus-like cleft claws (which are mi- nutely denticulate beneath) having been combined under this name. The present pa- per attempts to clarify the taxonomy of this complex. Drawings of the genitalia of the species involved are here presented for the first time. } Six names have been proposed for species known to me that belong in the group, and of these two are here considered as syno- nyms. Two species are described as new, so that the group, as treated in this paper, comprises six valid species. The following key is based on the male sex; as the females (allexcept that of raydoma, n.sp., are known) are difficult to separate, they will have to be determined primarily by association with the males. 1. First two segments of hind tarsus of nearly equal length; elytral hair dense and very ob- vious, though short, and of nearly uniform length; fifth sternite not foveate; prothorax entirely and evenly punctate, with short, erect, obvious hair of uniform length (Fig. Garg) -Guatemalane: ones es a eee SE AW a ete ie Ot at aon RF pubicollis (Blanchard) First segment of hind tarsus very noticeably shorter than the second; elytral hairs varia- ble but elytra never densely covered with short hairs; fifth sternite distinctly foveate or at least noticeably impressed apically; prothorax variably punctate but unevenly so, and middisk often irregularly impunc- tate, the hairs of variable length or lack- Thilo a nae eM ne et a Manat Mitel Cin in erika Mee ore 2 2. Fifth sternite densely punctate but distinctly not foveate apically, at most slightly trans- versely impressed; apex of fifth sternite straight and not at all emarginate......... 3 Fifth sternite densely punctate and very no- ticeably foveate, midapex distinctly and usu- ally broadly and arcuately emarginate....4 3. Prothorax strongly shining, rufous, and gla- brous or apparently so, the front angles sharp and subrectangular; antennal club slightly longer than funicle (Fig. 5a, 6). British Honduras......... bowditchi Saylor 1 Received January 27, 1943. LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR. Prothorax subpruinose, rufocastaneous, and with short hairs and some longer hairs inter- mixed, front angles obtuse and not particu- larly noticeable; antennal club distinctly longer than funicle and subequal to entire stem (Mig. la, b). Guatemala. 9.) eee Nad. Foca, cd Race ALE AUR ea en raydoma, nN. sp. 4. Prothorax with hairs minute and hardly no- ticeable, without longer hairs; color dorsally distinctly pruinose (Fig. 3a, 6, f). Panama, Venezuelan. Xo, 203" oe ee odomi, Nn. sp. Prothorax always with noticeable hairs, these usually short, with intermixed longer hairs; color variable, either strongly shining or PIUIMOSE... oe ss Lode ore 5) 5. Color always very distinctly and very strongly shining, thorax deep rufous; elytra coarsely and rugosely punctate and without obvious striae (Fig. 4a). Costa Rica <. - 23 eee Me en eee RONS Sos hae 5 sanjosicola Saylor Color highly variable but always evidently pruinose, thorax at most castaneorufous; elytra less rugosely punctured and usually with distinct striae (Fig. 2a—e). Mexico to Panama. ee ce ae testacerpenms (Blanchard) Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) testaceipennis (Blanchard) Fig. 2, a-e Ancylonycha testaceipennis Blanchard, Cat. Col. 1: 134. 1850. Lachnosterna testaceipennis (Blanchard) Bates, Biol. Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 195. 1888. Male: Form oblong-oval, wider behind. Color testaceous to rufotestaceous, varying to rufo- castaneous or castaneopiceous, the thorax usu- ally more rufous; above slightly to markedly pruinose, dorsal hair variable. Head with front convex, coarsely, rugosely and closely punctate with short erect hairs. Clypeus transverse, disk sparsely to moderately punctured, at times with smooth areas near the hardly impressed and faintly biarcuate suture; apex somewhat reflexed and hardly or not emarginate, the angles and sides not reflexed and the lateral angles so broadly rounded as to make the cly- peal shape semiarcuate. Antenna variable, 9- or 10-segmented, usually the latter; the club small and thick and usually a little longer than, or subequal to, the funicle. Thorax with sides straight before the submedian, obtuse lateral — dilation, and faintly emarginate behind it, the angles distinct but very obtuse; disk smooth, the punctures irregularly placed and separated Apr. 15, 1943 by 1 to 3 times their diameters, sparser at cen- ter disk, which often possesses an irregular im- punctate area; all punctures with short erect hairs and a moderate number of intermixed much longer hairs, the discal surface at least partly pruinose. Scutellum impunctate. Elytral punctures more regularly placed and separated by 14 to 3 times their diameters, with short suberect hairs and some longer ones interca- lated, especially near suture and base; striae variable, usually irregular but obvious, the sutural striae strong. Pygidium convex, polished or semipruinose, the surface frequently slightly wrinkled, and the punctures sparse and sepa- rated by two to four times their diameters, with short suberect hairs; apex well rounded and cili- ate. Abdomen polished and subflattened at middle, and the sutures obliterated between sternites 2 to 5, the disk very sparsely, finely, and setigerously punctate, the hairs short and suberect; fifth sternite with a large median patch of about three dozen granules, the apical half of segment foveate and the center apex appearing widely and somewhat deeply emargi- nate; sixth sternite nearly as long as fifth, flat- tened, sparsely set with fine granules and long erect hairs, and the middle disk with a dis- tinctly impressed longitudinal sulcus. Claws very short and rounded, appearing narrowly cleft very much as in Phytalus; the middle tooth as long as the apical but twice as wide through its middle part, its apex reflexed basally; basal dilation obtuse and the surface between it and basal tooth minutely denticu- late. Segments 1—4 of anterior tarsus each with a small though distinct spine on the inner apical angle. Hind spurs free, spinose, the longest a little longer than first tarsal segment; first tar- sal segment only three-fifths the length of the second. Female: Similar to male except: Antennal club shorter than funicle; pygidium distinctly narrowed and pointed at center apex, and re- flexed slightly into a sharp tumosity, the mar- gin hardly thickened, but the surface below the “point”’ and on the underside of the pygidium very wide and smooth, the disk with very short erect hairs; fifth sternite plane, hardly different from the fourth; sixth sternite convex and ir- regularly punctate, the center discal area im- punctate; claws slightly longer and very dis- tinctly more widely cleft (see Fig. 2e). Length 13-16 mm. SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA 107 Described from Mexico, this is an extremely common and widespread species, ranging from Mexico to Panama. Since the original descrip- tion of half a dozen lines is so inadequate the species is here described in some detail. Most closely related to sanjosicola Saylor and odomi Saylor, this species is readily separated by the key characters and the form of the male geni- talia. Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi aylor Fig. 5, a—b Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi Saylor, Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 51: 189-190. 1938. This species is known to me only through the type series from ‘‘M-tee District of British Honduras, March.’ It most closely resembles raydoma Saylor of this species-complex, but the two species are noticeably different in all views of the male genitalia, as well as in the external characters noted in the key. Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) raydoma, n. sp. Kiet 6. 1a..0 Male: Similar to testaceipennis (Blanchard) in most respects, differing only as follows: An- tenna 10-segmented, the club long and sub- equal to the entire stem in length; scutellum very sparsely punctate; fifth abdominal ster- nite nearly flat, only faintly impressed apically and not at all foveate; first hind tarsal segment only one-half the length of the second; and the genitalia are different (see Fig. 1, a—c). Length 14 mm. Width 7.5 mm. The unique male holotype in the Saylor col- lection is from ‘‘Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala.” The species differs mainly from testacerpennts in characters of the antennal club, the fifth ab- dominal sternite, and the male genitalia. Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) odomi, n. sp. Eigse dO, Male: Color rufotestaceous to rufocastane- ous or rufopiceous, the thorax and head usually rufous or darker than the elytra; surface dis- tinctly pruinose; dorsal surface variably hairy. Very similar in nearly all respects to testacet- pennis except as follows: Clypeus at times more densely punctate and semitrapezoidal; thoracic hairs always minute and hardly or barely visi- ble, without any longer intercalated hairs; ely- tral hairs also minute, with several short hairs 108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 2d Fig. 1.—Phyllophaga raydoma, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Phyllophaga testaceipennis (Blanchard). Fig. 3.— Phyllophaga odom, n. sp. Fig. 4.—Phyllophaga sanjosi7ola Saylor. Fig. 5.—Phyllophaga bowditchi Saylor. Fig. 6.—Phyllophaga pubicollis (Blanchard). a, Lateral view of male genitalia; b, dorsal view of male genitalia; c, ventral view of male genitalia; d, front male claw; e, front female claw; f, ventral view of hind leg of male; g, en-face view of male genitalia. Apr. 15, 1943" adjoining the scutellum; genitalic form related to that of testaceipennis, but different, especi- ally in lateral view (see Fig. 3, a). Female: Similar to female of testacerpennis except that the thoracic hairs are all minute and hardly visible (in one female example of odomi about half a dozen long hairs are visible just before the midapex but the entire disk is minutely haired). Length 15-17 mm. Width 7-9 mm. The male holotype is from ‘‘Madden Dam, Canal Zone, Panama, collected at light V-18-36 by M. M. Saylor’’; the female allotype and sev- eral male and female paratypes are from ‘‘Los Canales, Kaiguata, Venezuela, VII-24-39, Vi- vas-Berthier Collector.’”? An additional para- type is from ‘“‘Caracas, Venezuela, D. F., VI- 5-32.” All are in the Saylor collection. I take pleasure in naming this handsome species for my close friend and collecting companion C. Ray Odom, of Virginia. P. odomi differs mainly from testacetpennis in the thoracic vestiture, larger size, and the slightly different male genitalia (which in lateral view appear to over- hang slightly the upper tooth, but not so much as in sanjosicola Saylor). Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) sanjosicola Saylor Fig. 4, a Phyllophaga sanjosicola Saylor, Rev. Ent. 5(4): 500. 1935. _ Phytalus valeriana Saylor, Pomona Coll. Journ. Ent. Zool., Dec. 1934. Known as yet only from the type series, all the specimens of which were collected “at light, San José, Costa Rica, May, 1,000-1,200 m.” This series is divided between the Saylor col- lection and the Nevermann collection, which is now in the United States National Museum. The slightly larger size, distinctive shining, and more coarsely punctate surface will readily separate the species from testaceipennis, as will also the male genitalia (uppermost portion of testacervpennis genitalia in lateral view evenly rounded above the upper tooth, whereas in sanjosicola the uppermost portion very mark- edly overhanging the upper tooth). Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) pubicollis (Blanchard) Fig. 6, a-g Phytalus pubicollis Blanchard, Cat. Col. 1: peat 1850. SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA 109 Phytalus (?) pubtcollis Blanchard, Bates, Biol. Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 126, 400. 1888. Lachnosterna heynet Moser, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1918: 164. (New synonymy.) Male: Elongate, subparallel; color rufocas- taneous and shining, the thorax and head shin- ing rufous, above densely haired. Clypeus mod- erately long, the disk flat, sparsely and coarsely punctate, smooth near middle: apex subtrun- cate, unemarginate, and slightly reflexed, the angles very broadly rounded. Head with the front slightly convex, densely, coarsely and en- tirely punctate, with erect hairs of moderate length. Antenna 10-segmented, unicolorous castaneous, the club long and subequal to the entire stem. Thorax with the sides evenly arcu- ate and hardly dilated at middle, the margin entire and ciliate; angles very obtuse and not well marked; disk evenly and entirely punc- tured, the punctures separated by one and one- half to twice their diameters, with suberect short hairs, and many intermixed erect hairs of moderate length. Scutellum sparsely and setig- erously punctured. Elytra punctate as thorax, with dense, short, semierect hairs and a few longer hairs near base; striae faintly indicated. Pygidium polished, convex, the disk coarsely and moderately densely punctate, with short suberect hairs and sparse, erect longer hairs, the apex subrounded, narrowed and slightly re- flexed. Abdomen polished, faintly concave at middle, very sparsely and finely punctate and with short hairs (densely and more closely punctate at sides), and the sutures of sternites 2-5 effaced at middle; fifth sternite flattened, densely and coarsely punctate at middle, with a few small procumbent hairs; sixth nearly as long as preceding and transversely impressed, the disk finely and setigerously punctate and without any longitudinal sulcus, the hairs on disk long but nearly procumbent. Claws very short and cleft as in testaceivpennis but the upper (i.e., closest to base) tooth 23 times as wide at base as the apical tooth. Hind spurs free and very graceful; the first two hind tarsal segments subequal and the second only faintly the long- est. Front tarsi slightly spinose on inner apical angles. Female: Differs from male as follows: Anten- nal club subequal to funicle; pygidium small, plane, sparsely and not coarsely punctate, with short suberect hairs, the apex subrounded and narrowed and the apical fourth of disc some- 110 what smooth; abdomen semiconvex, the fifth sternites plane, and coarsely, densely punctate, the sixth convex and similarly punctate; claws distinctly more widely cleft; first segment of hind tarsus distinctly shorter than the second. Length 12.5 to 13 mm. Width 6—7 mm. I have specimens from ‘‘Coban, Vera Paz, Guatemala, Conradt collector’ (Biologia ma- terial), and also from ‘“‘Alta Vera Paz, Guate- mala.’’ The species was very inadequately de- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES “VOL. 33, NO. 4 scribed from Mexico by Blanchard, who placed it in Phytalus because of the cleft claws; how- ever, the female claws are so widely cleft that the species cannot be included there. As indi- cated in the key the species is abundantly dif- ferent from the others in the group but appears to belong with them in most general characters. Bates first placed the species in Phytalus and later removed it to Lachnosterna in the Biologia Supplement. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 45TH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 45th annual meeting of the AcaDEMY was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on January 21, 1943. President Curtis called the meeting to order at 8:15 p.m., with about 80 persons present. The minutes of the 44th annual meeting were approved as pub- lished on pages 85 to 91 of the JouRNAL of ‘March 15, 1942. The reports of the several offi- cers and of the Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read and accepted, as follows: ‘Report of the Secretary During the past year, 23 new members (14 resident and 9 nonresident) were taken into the AcaDEMY. Three of the new nonresident mem- berships were in the honorary class. The new members were distributed among the various sciences as follows: 3 each in bacteriology and physics, 2 each in astronomy, chemistry, and geology, and 1 each in agronomy, anthropol- ogy, archeology, biochemistry, botany, geo- chemistry, geography, hydraulics, physiology, plant pathology, and plant physiology. Because of retirement from active practice of their profession, 10 members (7 resident and 3 nonresident) were placed on the retired list. Resignations were accepted from 11 members in good standing (9 resident and 2 nonresident). The deaths of 17 members (8 resident and 9 nonresident) were reported, as follows: THomas Hersert Norton, White Plains, N. Y., December 2, 1941. Cuinton Hart Merriam, Berkeley, Calif., March 20, 1942. WatTeER Forp Reyno.tps, Baltimore, Md., May 1, 1942. EDWARD CENTER GROESBECK, Washington, D. C., May 9, 1942. Str JosepH Larmor, Cambridge, England, May 19, 1942. Marcus Warp Lyon, Jr., South Bend, Ind., May 19, 1942. Henry GRANGER Knicut, Washington, D. C., June 13, 1942. ANDREW STEWART, Washington, D. C., June 28, 1942. Harry JoHn McNicuHouas, Washington, D. C. July 23, 1942. THomMas LEonaRD WALKER, Toronto, Canada, August 6, 1942. Henry CorsBin Fuuier, Washington, D. C., August 26, 1942. ALFRED Newtson Finn, Lincoln, Nebr., Sep- tember 21, 1942. Witit1AmM Epwarp Parker, Fort Lauderdale, Fla., September 30, 1942. Rospert Wiicox SAYLES, Mass., October 238, 1942. CHARLES ScCHUCHERT, New Haven, Conn., No- vember 20, 1942. Herman StTasier, Washington, D. C., No- vember 24, 1942. JAMES EXpMUND Ivus, Washington, D. C., Jan- uary 1, 1943. Chestnut Hill, On January 20, 1943, the status of the mem- bership was as follows: Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total Resident 423 Bi 3 0 463 Nonresident 132 20 15 4 169 Total 555 57 18 2 632 The net changes in membership during the past year are as follows: Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total Resident —10 4 0 0 —6 Nonresident 5 2 24 0 9 Total —5 6 2 0 3 From February 6, 1942, to January 11, 19438, the Board of Managers held eight meetings, with an average attendance of 19 persons. Two special committees held over from 1941 com- pleted their work. Of the 10 special committees appointed by the president during the past year, 8 have completed their work. During the past year, the Academy held six meetings, beginning with the 310th and ending with the 315th as follows: On February 19, 1942, jointly with the An- thropoldgical Society of Washington, with an address entitled The Aztecs of Mexico by GrorceE C. VAILLANT, director of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. Apr. 15, 1943 On March 19, 1942, for the presentation of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment for 1941 to G. ArTHUR CoopER, of the U. 8. National Museum, in the biological sci- ences; to THEODORE R. GILLILAND, of the Na- tional Bureau of Standards, in the engineering sciences; and to Stpriinc B. Henpricks, of the U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in the physical sciences. On April 16, 1942, jointly with the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, with an ad- dress entitled Cosmic emotion, by Pau R. HevY1, chief of the Section on Sound at the Na- tional Bureau of Standards. On October 15, 1942, jointly with the Wash- ington Branch of the Society of American Bac- teriologists, with an address entitled Structural differentiation within the bacterial cell as shown by the electron microscope, by Stuart Mupp, professor of bacteriology in the School of Medi- cine at the University of Pennsylvania. On November 19, 1942, jointly with the Philosophical Society of Washington, with an address entitled Color blindness and its relation to the detection of camouflage, by DEANE B. Jupp, physicist in the Section on Photometry and Colorimetry at the National Bureau of Standards. On December 17, 1942, jointly with the An- thropological Society of Washington, with an address entitled Anthropological explorations in Netherlands New Guinea, by MatruEw W. STIRLING, chief of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, Smithsonian Institution. Accounts of the first four of these meetings have already been published in the JouRNAL - under the Proceedings of the Academy, and those of the last two will appear shortly. All the meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Respectfully submitted by FRmepERIck D. Rossin1, Secretary. Report of the Treasurer CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS RECEIPTS: Hrom-dues 1940... .. 00... ue $ 20.00 Hromedues 1941. 6k ike es 100.00 Brom dues) 19420... fee. see 2,570.00 romndues 19437 . oo sre ia 65.00 From subscriptions 1941........ 47.20 From subscriptions 1942........ 479.70 From subscriptions 1943........ 330.00 from sales of JOURNAL.......... 69 .60 From sales of directory......... 6.85 From payments for reprints. .... 488 .15 From interest on deposits....... .90 From interest on investments.... 982 .06 @otal Teceipts. 0). 2 ete $5,159.46 Cash balance Jan. 1, 1942....... 4,802.97 To be accounted for........ $9 , 962.43 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY DISBURSEMENTS: For Secretary’s Office........... For Treasurer’s Office........... For JOURNAL printing 1941...... For JOURNAL printing 1942...... For JOURNAL reprints 1942...... For JouRNAL illustrations 1941... For JouRNAL illustrations 1942... For JourNAL Office 1941........ For JoURNAL Office 1942........ For Custodian & Subs. 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Bank Balance American Sec. & Trust Co., per statement Ne hes wk ale VES 1,558.06 Receipts not deposited... . 31.60 $1,589.66 Checks outstanding, not cashed: INO RO 8 $21.50 Soil ears 2.30 SS reir ss 25.00 S84e 8 ocus 7.50 SS eens 4.80 SRG oe ves: 22.50 83 .60 $1,506 .06 $1,506.06 112 INVESTMENTS 409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share, COSE aie e ees es e e EGr 0 GPUN na c $ 4,090.00 20 Shares stock* Potomac) Blecbower Com G97. bret -1costna 2) ste ee 2,247.50 4 Certificates Corporate Stock of City of New York, 1 for $500, 3 for $100, cost....... 800 .00 1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927, par value $1,000 less S200, COST. ee ois bs We ecore erat culeaIe GUE sig MRI aee Gas Sco Sire eT eae a (sesh 1 Real-estate note of T. Q. Donaldson (#6 of 12) dated June 26, 1937 (extended to 1943)" amterest:.5 94, COSU sai fiacese Sine saw eek Ot ee EOE Ee ence ee Seer ee 1,000.00 2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated Oct. 5, 1938, for 3 years (#7 of 37 for $500 ands#8 ot 37 for. $500)! scOSteic cone conte 2 eae TOU a tree 1,000, 00 2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000) First Federal Savings & Loan Assn. Nos. OVA & LOG Bs tele Ee OG a ph aA ee ele he a 5,000.00 2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500) Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan Assn. Nos, [38Q’and laa i. eee SR eR rece A 5,000.00 4 U. 8S. Government Series G Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos. M332990G, M332991G, M332992G, MS8829938Ge vis hoes ci Oe SE ets Nm 1c) Nee Or Soar 4,000.00 Deposited in Savings Account, American Sec. & Trust Co..............0 eee eeeee 46.65 $23 , 898 .02 Cash Book: balance Dec, 395. W942 ee ag Se irs ele eee ed ad 1,506.06 Total ‘Assets. ie. ee eg eg eae eee $25 , 404.08 Total Assets Dec. 31, 1942.......... $25 , 404 .08 Total Assets Dec. 31, 1941.......... 24,700.09 TinGReais Cae ecits neta $ © ©703.99 After payment of outstanding bills, the net increase in assets for 1942 will be about $300. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 ALLOTMENTS Allotted Expended Secretanyrs Omen tii. ances ose neem 450 .00 381 .85* Treasurers! Ofiices aes we ce ae. Fee 200.00 164.13 JO URINGATG si, Ua es Ste Sanh MAT tie Ne a A 2800 .00 +593 .08 =3393 .08 3010.64** Meetings Committee.............. se 8 ae 325.00 324 .98T Custodians "Subs. Mere meee eee 75.00 21.3 Membership Committee.................. 10.00 SSS Bxecutive Committee, 6.24 oe ee 10.00 See JouR NAT Clerical eAsstiy ee we es eee 240 .00 JOWRNAT EW isch Expense wm ane] anenes wee 60.00} =300 .00 264 .00°° Madendtime tom Directory. eas en 60.00 30.84 *Does not include unpaid bill of approximately $10.00. **Does not include, Oct., Nov. or Dec. Reprints nor Nov. or Dec. Printing & Illustrations. tIncludes all charges for 1942, $38.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942. °Includes all charges for 1942 $12.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942. °*Includes all charges for 1942 $21.91 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942. Respectfully submitted by Howarp S. Rappieye, Treasurer. Report of the Committee of Auditors _ The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1942 were examined by your committee on January 18, 1943. All receipts and imbursements in- cluded in his report were checked against all vouchers and balance sheets from the bank. Vouchers are properly approved and the report is correct. Securities listed in the Treasurer’s reports were inspected on January 18, 1943, and the statement of assets is correct. The or- derly manner in which the records were kept is to be highly commended and made the com- mittee task an easy one. Respectfully submitted by Joun W. Ros- ERTS (Chairman), EUGENE Posnsak, and C. H. SWIck. Apr. 15, 1943 Report of the Archivist During the past year little progress has been made in sorting the material turned over to the Archivist. A 5-foot steel safe, a 3-drawer steel file with lock, and a steel storage cabinet have been borrowed for storing the archives. The archivist was authorized to open a mysterious package that had remained sealed since the founding of the Academy. This package con- tained the original ballots for charter members and is open for inspection by any who are in- terested. A noteworthy archive, found by Dr. L. O. Howard when he moved his household ef- fects to New York, was given to the Archives. This was a large book containing reproductions of the signatures and documents incident to the formation of the Royal Society of London. Any material of value to the Academy inits Archives will be greatly welcomed by the Archivist from the members of the Academy. Respectfully submitted by Natuan R. Situ, Archivist. Report of the Board of Editors Volume 32 of the JourNAL for the calendar year 1942 consisted of 12 issues of 376 pages distributed as follows: Number Num- Classification of ber of : Articles Pages Anthropology 2 18.3 Astronomy 1 28.0 Astrophysics 1 3.0 Bacteriology 1 4.0 Biophysics 2 fOr Botany 13 66.5 Chemistry 5 PAL 4 Crystallography 1 11.0 Entomology 4 19.9 Ethnology 1 17.0 General Interest 2 14.9 Geodesy 1 5.3 Geology 1 2.3 Geophysics it 15.0 Ichthyology 4 23.3 Index : 1 4.0 Medical Entomolog if 3.0 Obituaries 7 5.0 Paleobotany 1 Sal, Paleontology 2 10.4 ‘ Proceedings—Academy Les Proceedings—Anthrop. a Proceedings—Chem. .- Dye lk Proceedings—Geol. 6.0 Proceedings—Phil. Tes} Physics 2 20.4 Zoology 1M 35.6 Total 376.0 These may be summarized as follows: Biological Sciences ASE eels 56.38% Physical Sciences 12 106.2) 28:29 General Interest 2 14.9 4.0% Proceedings; Obit. 39.1 10.4% Index 4.0 iL PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 113 This volume included three presidential ad- dresses; 58 line cuts, and 17 halftones. Of the 55 papers, 33 (60.0%) were contributed by mem- bers of the Academy. The previous volume con- tained 62 articles of which 36 (58.1%) were by Academy members. Two facts worth noting in the above figures are: A. Volume 32 is the smallest volume ever issued by the Academy since the initial vol- umes. The following comparative figures, re- duced approximately to the equivalent number of pages in the new format, may be of interest: Average number of pages for the period 1932-1941..... 442 Average number of pages for the period 1915, 1916, 1918, OM rar sek Mann crapenie: cae oot tee au aUsieclte Ae rater w tae MAGA e rea Seon SHOWN te 539 INumbermoteparesmonmlOlig eee: Meier eie ree 485 The Board of Editors believes that the trend of the last decade culminating in the 376 pages for 1942 is undesirable and that publication in the JOURNAL should be stimulated. B. The Journat undoubtedly fills a need for the biological sciences (taxonomic articles), whereas it is not sought for the publication of articles in the physical sciences. Perhaps this fact is the underlying reason why the JoURNAL has been for some time secretly in disrepute among many Academy members. The Board of Editors believes that members of the Academy should contribute more original articles of their own. The primary reason for the small size of the volume just published was not lack of material, however; on December 15 there were on hand 59 pages in proof and approximately 15 pages in manuscript. Volume 32 was restricted in con- tent in order that the budget allotment for the JOURNAL might not be exceeded. A financial statement follows together with some compara- tive figures: ee Illustrations Reprints Maximum 1930-1941... $3410.78 $500.70 $618.44 Minimum 1930-1941... 2564.59 227.70 398.17 Average 1930-1941.... 2826.16 344.78 517.07 OA eae desta sa tetas 2650.17 294.46 602.70 OAD eee ru Latamame bay chat ak 2523.47 330.67 *(386.29) * This amount includes only 10 months; bills for November and December reprints have not yet been received. In 1942 authors, institutions, or societies paid the following amounts to cover the cost of excess illustrations, additional charges, and re- prints (see the 1941 figures for comparison): 168.85 90.18 344.55 32.47 107.89 *(367.02) The Editors’ budget for 1942 was as follows (cf. 1941 figures for comparison) : Printing, Illustrations, Clerical Postage and Reprints, Assistance Incidentals and Mailing 194 eer $3100.00 $240.00 $60.00 19422 see 240.00 60.00 2800.00 114 The amounts charged to the Editors’ ac- counts were as follows: 1941... 2941.08 240.00 28.93 1042) ee 2735.05 240.00 25.80 The unexpended balances are: 1941, coy: 158.92 0.00 31.07 1942) er 64.95 0.00 34.20 In addition to the cut in the Editors’ budget there was a 6 per cent increase in printing charges by the George Banta Publishing Co. This resulted in an increase in cost of $58.06 for the last six months, or approximately $87.08 for the year 1942 (the increase began with the April issue). The following steps were taken to meet these financial problems: A. The format of the JouRNAL was changed from a single column in 1941 to a double col- umn in 1942. This resulted in a saving of $146.31 for the last six months, or approxi- mately $292.62 for the entire year 1942. B. The author’s share in the cost of reprints was increased with the January issue; the prac- tice of giving an author 50 free reprints was discontinued with the March issue. It is esti- mated that a saving of $187 was effected in this way. C. Illustrations allowed an author were re- duced from the equivalent of two pages of line- cut drawings to one page and a half with the May issue, and then further reduced to one page with the November issue. The full effect of the last reduction will not be felt until next year; that of the first reduction was estimated to be small. D. Unusual costs of foreign, mathematical, and tabular materials, as well as alterations made in the proof by the author, were studied by the Editors. Whereas these may be small in comparison with the cost of illustrations indi- vidually, they may become excessive when totaled, as may be seen from the following charges to the Academy: Additional Typesetting Charges 1939 1940 1941 1942 Foreign material... .. $68.82 $68.70 $75.19 $114.56 ables) jew tia eens 24.55 77.95 96.75 109.34 Mathematical material 67.08 20.12 113.87 26.96 Other Type Charges... 67.05 76.92 61.61 83.21 Alterations. 2.2... 4+. 107.15 99.60 101.60 93.99 It is evident that an article without illustra- tions, but with sufficient typesetting changes, may cost the Academy more than one with il- lustrations, but with few typesetting changes. The Board of Editors has taken steps to limit the total additional charges to the Academy. Members of the Academy can assist in this economy by preparing their own manuscripts with greater care and by insisting upon the same carefulness in articles that they communi- cate. The Board of Editors wishes to express its JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 appreciation of the excellent editorial assist- ance of Mr. Paut H. Orusenr. His services have made possible a more uniform JOURNAL, as well as a more efficient editorial routine with result- ing financial gain to the Academy. The Senior Editor is grateful for the willing cooperation of the other members of the Board of Editors and also of all the Associate Editors. Respectfully submitted by G. ArTHUR Cooper, JASON R. SwALLEeN, and RayMonpD J. SEEGER, Senior Editor. Report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS The stocks of the Academy’s publications have shown an increase during the year due to continued donations from various sources ac- companied by a very small number of sales. As shown in the appended inventory there are 26 reserve sets (eight sets of vols. 1-30 of which one is incomplete, lacking but six numbers, seven sets of vols. 1-30 and 11 sets of vols. 16— 30). Most of this reserve, together with the miscellaneous stocks including all of vols. 1-22, is stored in Washington, while the chief sup- plies of vols. 23-32 are stored with the printer at Menasha, Wis. INVENTORY OF STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS— DECEMBER 31, 1942 (Except where noted these are stored in Wash- ington, C. in storage provided without cost by the Smithsonian Institution and by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey) Proceedings of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences: Volumes 1-138 inclusive.......... 50 Sets Reserve sets of the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences: Bound volumes 1—29+vol. 30 un- Downids.oy ie te a ee oe 1 Set Unbound volumes 1-30 (complete) . 6 Sets* Unbound volumes 1-30 (incomplete, lackimge@ Mos). so. ea eee 1 Set* Unbound volumes 1-30........... 7 Sets* Unbound volumes 16—-30.......... 11 Sets* * Some numbers at Menasha. Nonreserve volumes of the Journal of the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences (in Washington): Vol. No. Vols. Vol. No. Vols. ier sttos elses re ee RR ae 2 19: est Ask Oe 11 CO ees er ree 4 20 obs eee 10 HEME OOM eRe 55S 5 DHS sect Be Cape eee 56 Sih Oe ee aoe 4 22 cain Shaan ee Oe 49 Qe eee cd scone ee 3 7 REE REAPER ARE Ae (5 4 UO ae oker ata Reamee ee PASE nS 2 DATS i. Muni aoe 12 1 En eeeiictccn erence aioe 9 DO UU Se eee 14 A Ae tr ae AEA orttiwe Mendelian ss of DO. o: ee ee ue eee 19 a Lea tre arch elias, coma Reet Le 11 11 Hiss ces See ee 21 De Ne ar i anette Accra Rem 6 De Rt sta MP ied BAW So 11 TOE aaa der 10 DO) coke hs ee 23 DIES S eaeeeis csceiaee Be 19 BOE Ace cle ee ae 29 Licence cee eee 14 o)) ROMA So be ee eager 7 ALS Bie viee Vers a Sr AS eee 13 Apr. 15, 1943 PROCEEDINGS Also miscellaneous collection of odd numbers of the Proceedings, the JourNnaL, the Directory (1897 to 1941 inclusive), and reprints of special articles. SUBSCRIPTIONS Owing to the international situation the sub- scriptions as well as sales of publications have been curtailed. Nonmember subscriptions in United States 103 Nonmember subscribers in foreign countries 28 Nonmember subscribers (inactive) in en- enemy-controlled areas................ 31 Subscriptions Geological Society of Wash- RPA coe met Schick es 8 hye wee hl 13 EXPENDITURES Because conditions have not warranted the expenditures anticipated the amount actually used has been but $27.37 of the budget allow- ance, leaving an unexpended balance of $47.63. Respectfully submitted by Wriuiam W. Dien, Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications. Report of the Committee of Tellers The Committee of Tellers met on January 16, 1943. A total of 230 ballot envelopes were delivered to the Committee by the Secretary. Of these, 1 bore no signature and 3 bore the signature of a member in arrears. In the re- maining 226 envelopes there were found 206 ballots on the Amendments to the Constitution and 219 ballots for Officers and Managers of the Academy. The count of the ballots on the Amendments showed the following results: Amendment No. 1 2 3 4 6 6 For amendment...... 193 198 202 200 205 # 205 Againstamendment... 11 6 2 3 0 0 INotavotingss 0.45. ..- 2 2 2 3 1 Ht The count of the ballots on Officers of the Aca- demy showed the following results: For Against Not Voting For President, LELAND W. Parr... 214 0 5 For Secretary, FERDINAND G. BRIcK- WHTOTDIDIO s Ga Gas sno ol otro ee onc eee 215 0 4 For Treasurer, HowarDS. RapPLEYE 213 0 6 Examination of the preferential ballot for Managers by the Hare system showed 1 un- marked ballot and 33 ballots that were invalid -because. marked with crosses from which no first choice could be determined, leaving 185 valid ballots. The Droop Quota was therefore (185 +1) /(2+1) =62. The count of the ballots showed the necessary quotas for FREDERICK D. Rossini and JoHN E. Grar. Respectfully submitted by Water Ram- BERG, Chairman, Lewis W. Burz, Pavt 8. ROLLER. - THE ACADEMY 115 Election of Vice-Presidents For the respective affiliated societies, the Secretary presented the following nominations for Vice-Presidents of the Academy: Philosophical Society of Washington: RaymMonp J. SEEGER Anthropological Society of Washington: FranKx M. SETzLER Biological Society of Washington: Harry B. HUMPHREY Chemical Society of Washington: Hersert lL. HALLER Entomological Society of Washington: Austin H. CLARK National Geographic Society: ALEXANDER WET- MORE Geological Society of Washington: CLARENCE S. Ross Medical Society of the District of Columbia: Frep O. Cor Columbia Historical Society: ALLEN C. CLarK Botanical Society of Washington: CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters: WILLIAM A. DayToNn Washington Society of Engineers: Frank B. ScHEETZ Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers: Francis B. SILSBEE Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers: WALTER RAMBERG Helminthological Society of Washington: Em- METT W. PRICE Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists: RaLpu P. TITTsLER Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers: Harry D1aAMoNnD Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers: OWEN B. FRENCH The Secretary was instructed to cast a unan- imous ballot for these nominees. Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1942 President Curtis announced the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment for 1942, as follows: For the Biological Sciences, to— RopertT S. CAMPBELL, assistant chief of the Division of Range Research of the U. 8. For- est Service, in recognition of his distin- guished service in range research, particu- larly in the development of range utilization standards. For the Engineering Sciences, to— WALTER RAMBERG, senior physicist in the Sec- tion on Engineering Mechanics at the Na- tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his distinguished service in research on the static and dynamic strength of structural ele- ments, particularly in relation to aircraft. 116 For the Physical Sciences, to— Mitton Harris, director of research for the Textile Foundation and for the Textile Re- search Institute, both having laboratories at the National Bureau of Standards, in recog- nition of his distinguished service in conduct- ing fundamental research on the composition and properties of textile fibers. After a recess during which the 316th meeting of the Academy (see below) was held, President CurTIS appointed Past Presidents CHAMBLISS and CRITTENDEN to escort the new President, L. W. Parr, to the Chair. After a short address, President Parr adjourned the meeting. 316TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 316th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club im- mediately following the 45th annual meeting of the Academy on January 21, 19438. President Curtis called the meeting to order and ex- plained the nature of the program arranged for this meeting. Reports on governmental publication of scientific research were pre- sented by ATHERTON SEIDELL for the U. S. Public Health Service, by Metvin C. MzeRRILL and RaupH SHaAw for the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, and Kasson §S. Gipson for the National Bureau of Standards. Censorship of scientific publications going abroad was de- scribed by Epwarp D. Hitt, of the U. S. Board of Economic Warfare. Open discussion followed these reports, and ATHERTON SEIDELL presented the following statement for the con- sideration of the Academy: “The Washington Academy of Sciences recom- mends that: Research papers originating in gov- ernmental laboratories and describing additions to scientific knowledge be published in Federal journals devoted to specific fields of scientific re- search and that these journals be issued at regular intervals and at subscription rates approximately sufficient to cover their cost. The present method according to which many individual agencies pub- lish occasional bulletins or composite collections of papers in many fields of science is not in the opinion of the Academy the most-effective method of distributing the information contained in the reports.” No action was taken on this recommenda- tion. FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary CHEMICAL SOCIETY 545TH MEETING The 545th meeting was held jointly with the District of Columbia Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers in the main auditor- ium of the U. S. Chamber of Commerce on Tuesday, September 22, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. FRANK Howarb, president of the Standard Oil JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 33, NO. 4 Development Co., spoke on The manufacture and use of synthetic rubber. 546TH MEETING The 546th meeting was held at the George Washington University on Thursday, October 8, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. At the conclusion of the general meeting, the following divisional meet- ings were held: Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding The inorganic constituents of bone. S. B. HEN- pricks and W. L. Hiuu (Bureau of Plant In- dustry). The catalase actiwity of the tissues of tumor- bearing animals. JussE P. GREENSTEIN (Na- tional Cancer Institute). Heat-labile, avidin-uncombinable, species-spe- cific vitamers of biotin. DEAN Burk and R. J. WInzLER (National Cancer Institute). Canine cystunuria. Urinary excretion of cyst- une following the administration of homocystine, homocysteine, and some derivatives of cystine and cysteine. W. C. Hess and M. X. SuLLIVAN. Organic chemistry, H. P. Warp, presiding The structure of diketene. Francis O. RicE (Catholic University of America). Optical rotation as a measure of aromatic sub- stitution influences. Warp PigmMan (National Bureau of Standards). 4-Methyl-d-mannose and some of tts deriva- twes. W. T. Haskins, Raymonp M. Hanw and C.S. Hupson (National Institute of Health). Physical chemistry, B. D. VAN EvEra, presiding The polymorphism of phosphoric oxide. W. L. Hu, G. T. Faust, and 8S. B. Henpricxs (Bu- reau of Plant Industry). The influence of molecular size on the proper- ties of cellulose acetate. Mitron Harris and ARNOLD SooxKNE (Textile Foundation). Measurement of mositure in gases by electrical conductance at different pressures. EK. R. Wea- vER (National Bureau of Standards). Inorganic and analytical chemistry, Roun E. STEVENS, presiding The use of phosphate for the separation of co- balt from tron. Victor Nort and R. C. WELLS (Geological Survey). Radium content of certain ultrabasic rocks. Gorpon L. Davis (Geophysical Laboratory). Determination of active oxygen in the presence of lead and barium. MicHAEL FLEISCHER (Geo- logical Survey). Chemical and physical properties of leather. Puiuie E. Tosias (National Bureau of Stand- ards). 547TH MEETING The 547th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, November 12, 1942, at 8:15 p.M. Max BERGMANN, of the Rockefeller Insti- tute for Medical Research, spoke on The spect- Apr. 15, 19438 fic action of proteolytic enzymes: Current prob- lems and recent advances. 548TH MEETING The 548th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, December 10, 1942, at 8:15 p.M. Gustav Ectorr, technical director of the Universal Oil Products Co., addressed the so- ciety on Substitute fuels in a world at war. E. R. Smiru, Secretary. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting on January 19, 1943, elected the following officers: President, GEORGE S. Duncan; Vice President, Recina FLAn- NERY; Secretary, WituiAM N. Fenton; Treas- urer, T. Date Stewart; Members of the Board of Managers, W. H. Giupert, H. W. KRIEGER, JULIAN H. STEWARD, J. HE. WECKLER, W. R. WEDEL. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last annual meeting fol- lows: Life members, 2; active members, 41; associate members, 11; total, 54. The members elected during the year were: Rev. GERALD DEsmonp, Miss JENNY REITSMA, Wi.tu1am H. Spinxs, active members; Mrs. WI.Lu1AM H. Spinks, associate member. Two active members, CarL W. BisHop and JoHN G. CarTER were lost by death. The So- ciety voted to record its deep sense of loss at the death of these members and to extend its sin- cere condolences to their relatives. The Treasurer’s report is as follows: Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (with interest to JE). eee $1,702.84 21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- provement Co. (par value $10 (SE SPS) ee era 210.00 2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous- ing Co. (par value $100 per 2.02102) 2 er 200 .00 U. S. Savings Bond, Series G...... 500 .00 LS TAD, (0201 er ere 263 .66 $2,876.50 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 17 Bills outstanding: To American Anthropological As- SOCIABION:.- 5s = «4 $40. 40.00 $2, 836.50 Total as of January 19, 1942.... 2,679.94 TERE GO trey eh ees ed's. ke $ 156.56 Division of annual surplus Previous 1943 T otal Publication fund.. $50.04 52.18 102.22 Speakers fund ...;, 50.04 52-19 ~ 102.23 Investment fund.. 50.05 52.19 102.24 The Society acted as host to the American Anthropological Association on the occasion of the annual business meeting of the latter on December 28, 1942, at the Cosmos Club. It was voted that the Anthropological Society of Washington affiliate with the Inter- American Society of Anthropology and Geogra- phy. Papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were as follows: January 20, 1942, 704th meeting, JosEpH E. WECKLER, Cundiyo, a Spanish village in New Mexico. February 19, 1942, 705th meeting, held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci- ences, G. C. VAILLANT, The Aztecs of Mexico. March 17, 1942, 706th meeting, ALFRED Msérraux, The Jesuits in South America. April 21, 1942, 707th meeting, address of re- tiring President, FRANK M. SrnrTzuer, Archeo- logical accomplishments during the past decade in the United States (this JOURNAL, 32(9): 253- 259. Sept. 1942). October 20, 1942, 708th meeting, DouGLas L. Ouiver, Ethnography on Bougainville, Solo- mon Islands. November 17, 1942, 709th meeting, FRoE- LIcH G. Ratnney, Anthropology and the Alaska- Canada Highway. December 17, 1942, 710th meeting, held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci- ences, MatrHmw W. StTIRuine, Anthropological explorations in Netherlands New Guinea. WiuuiAM N, Fenton, Secretary. 118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4 @Obituartes HERMAN STABLER’s untimely death in Wash- ington on November 24, 1942, brought profound sorrow and a sense of irreparable loss to the Federal Service, the engineering profession, and his community. Of English descent and Quaker parentage, Herman Stabler was born on Febru- ary 3, 1879, at Brighton, Montgomery County, Md. His early elementary education was fol- lowed by one year at Pacific College, Newburg, Oreg., and four years at Earlham College, Rich- mond, Ind., where he developed a bent for chemical and civil engineering and received the B.S. degree in 1899. After a year of special engineering study at Columbian (now George Washington) University, Washington, D. C., he served for the ensuing two years as instruc- tor in mathematics and surveying at the Na- tional Correspondence Institute in that city. In December 1903 Stabler entered the Fed- eral service as a hydrographic aid in the Hydro- graphic (now Water Resources) Branch of the Geological Survey and until 1909 was engaged in studies of stream pollution, water quality, and effect of suspended matter on silting of streams in various parts of the country. While in the Reclamation Service in 1909-10 he com- pleted a systematic study of the waters likely to be used on reclamation projects throughout the West to determine the influence of salinity on vegetable growth and the probable rate of silt- ing in future reservoirs and canals. During these studies he devised a method of classifying waters for industrial purposes from analytical data expressed ionically, in parts per million, that is still widely used. In 1911 Stabler became a member of the di- vision of hydrographic classification in the newly created Land Classification Branch, thereafter succeeding N. C. Grover as chairman in June 1913, becoming assistant chief in 1920, and succeeding W. C. Mendenhall as branch chief in November 1922. In this period he be- came intimately acquainted with the natural resources of the West and the problems of their development through his direction of the exten- sive field and office investigations required to determine the power value and reservoir possi- bilities of streams in public-land States and the suitability of public lands for designation under the enlarged homestead acts of 1909 et seq., and the stock-raising homestead act of 1916. He participated actively thereafter in the for- mulation of Federal policies affecting the use of public lands and the conservation of their na- tural resources, and assisted materially in or- ganizing the work and procedure of the Federal Power Commission at its beginning in 1920. On July 1, 1925, Stabler became chief of the Survey’s Conservation Branch, created on that date to coordinate and carry on jointly the functions of land classification, theretofore dis- charged by the Land Classification Branch, and the work of supervising operations for mineral production from public and Indian lands pur- suant to the Federal mineral-leasing laws; theretofore done by the Bureau of Mines. To this position, which he retained to the day of his death, he brought a broad perspective on western problems. He was responsible in no small part for legalizing the entry by Federal oil and gas lessees into agreements with each other or with others for the unit or cooperative devel- opment of oil and gas fields containing Govern- ment lands; for the replacement of the pros- pecting-permit system of disposing of Federal oil and gas lands with a straight leasing system; for requiring the measurement of oil from Fed- eral and Indian lands on a 100-per cent basis less actual impurities instead of an arbitrary 96- or 97-per cent basis that assumed the differ- ence to be impurities; for the assessment of compensatory royalty to offset drainage of oil or gas from Federal lands through wells on ad- joining non-Federal lands; and for litigation, seeking to establish the right in the Secretary of the Interior to determine the value for royalty purposes of oil produced under Federal leases and disposed of at prices incompatible with its actual worth. Indicative of his character and the variety of his interests was his confession a few months before his death that the most memorable and satisfying experiences of his life were his mar- riage, November 1, 1905, to Bertha R. Buhler, of Washington, D. C., who survives him; his participation in the topographic survey of Col- orado River as a member of the Survey’s Grand Canyon Expedition in 1923; his admission to the hole-in-one club at the Columbia Country Club, Chevy Chase, Md.; and his service as a director of the American Society of Civil Engi- neers from 1935 to 1937.—Joun D. NorTHrop Apr. 15, 1943 FraNK Dawson ADAMS, a corresponding member of the AcapEmy, died on December 26, 1942, after a brief illness, at his home in Mont- real, Canada. Dr. Adams was born on September 17, 1859, in Montreal; he was graduated from McGill University with first rank honors in natural science in 1878, and, under the inspiration of Sir William Dawson, chose geology as his major subject. He continued his studies at Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, at Heidel- berg, Germany, where he obtained the Ph.D. degree ‘summa cum laude”’ in 1892, and at Zurich. He joined the Geological Survey of Canada in 1880 and continued with that service until he was appointed lecturer in geology at McGill University in 1889. Four years later, upon the retirement of Sir William Dawson, Dr. Adams was appointed Logan professor of geology and head of the department. He became dean of the faculty of applied science in 1908, and later vice-principal of McGill University and dean of the faculty of graduate studies and research. Contemporaneous with his academic work, Dr. Adams was very active in geological field- work and research, and approximately 90 papers were published in leading scientific journals in America and Britain as a result of his investigations. His experimental work on the flow of rocks was carried out over a period of years, and the results contributed largely to the clarification of geological thought on meta- morphism in the earth’s crust, the depth of the zone of flow, and on the study of ore deposits. Dr. Adams was the recipient of many aca- demic honors, among which were honorary de- grees from Bishop’s College, Tufts College, University of Toronto, Queen’s University, McGill University, and Mount Allison Uni- versity. A mere list of some of his distinctions marks the man as outstanding among his fellows: fellow of the Geological Society of America, 1888; fellow of the Geological Society of London, 1895; recipient of the Lyell medal of the latter Society, 1906; fellow of the Royal OBITUARIES HN; Society of London, 1907; president of the Ca- nadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1910-11; president, International Congress of Geologists, 1913; president, Geological Society of America, 1918; president, Royal Society of Canada, 1913; honorary member, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy; honorary member, American Institute of Mining and Metal- lurgical Engineers; honorary member, Engi- neering Institute of Canada; foreign associate, National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.; cor- responding member, New York Academy of Sciences; correspondent of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia; correspondent, Natu- ral History Society of Ekaterinburg, Russia; member, American Philosophical Society; cor- responding member, Geological Society of Stockholm; foreign honorary member, Ameri- can Academy of Arts and Science; honorary member, Mineralogical Society of Russia; honorary member, Geological Society of Bel- gium; honorary member, Seismological Society of America; honorary member, Academia Asi- atica, Teheran, Persia; foreign member, Swed- ish, and now Royal Swedish, Academy of Science. Dr. Adams was a man of broad culture and wide travel. For some years after his retirement from active university work he traveled to libraries all over the world to accumulate the basic material for his important book The birth and development of the geological sciences, his last major contribution. Interests as wide as his learning led him to take an active and leading part in the affairs of Rotary, the Boy Scouts, the Y.M.C.A., the Day Shelter for Unemployed Men, and other equally significant organizations. He was a devoted Anglican and was greatly interested in the welfare of the Church. A conclusion may be made in the words of Dean Dixon, who knew Dr. Adams intimately: ““Few men have ac- complished so much in a quiet unobtrusive way. The thing about his life that impresses me is the sense of completion which takes away the sting of death.” J. J. O’NEILL ‘CONTENTS — ew wt haa 7 tick, Dermacentor variabilis Say. Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE HL GER Tauper, CHARLES R. Joye, and Wis N. Bruce. . | " Toxrcotocy.—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the » American d do ~ Ewromonoey. —Synoptic revision of fhe testaceipennis ‘group beetle genus Phyllophaga. LawRENCE Ww. Sayror. . : ~ « : of ; v < PROCEEDINGS: [HE ACADEMY so) Ut oe ee PRrocenpines: CHEMICAL SOCINTY......... 2.2000. +42.) PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY......... aoe = Oxrrvarins: HERMAN STapueR, FranK D. Apams........ ‘This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals te Bt ss es ‘ or ‘ ne aS May 15, 1943 JOURNAL OF THE OF SCIENCES “BOARD OF EDITORS G. ArtTHuR CooPER JASON R. SwWALLEN L. V. JuDsSON U. 8S. NATIONAL’ MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS W. Epwarps DEemInae C. F. W. MuEsEBECK PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Haraup A. REHDER Epwin Kirx BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT e Witiram N. 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Rappieyn, U.S. Coast and Foods ee Wash- ort iy ington, ANE cath Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other | societies. a ~ OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: LELAND W. Parr, George Washington University. Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKwEDDE, National Bureau of Standniae Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHan R. Suits, Bureau of Plant Industr Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. ihirig UU: S. ational Museum, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLUME 33 ASTROPHYSICS.—The physical chemistry of a cooling planet. A planet, starting as a mass of vapor torn from the sun and approaching the present condition of the earth, must pass through a number of well-marked epochs as its tem- perature falls. Its initial and final states may be studied, but intermediate conditions must be arrived at by deduction from the amounts of various elements present and their physical and chemical conditions at various temperatures. What would be the first crust to form, what was the composi- tion and pressure of the atmosphere at a certain surface temperature, when did the ocean start, and how rapidly did it grow? The answers to these and similar important geologic questions may be obtained in ap- proximate form from known data and principles, yet this field has aroused little - interest. While the critical constants of a few elements and the dissociation constants of many minerals are still unknown, the lack of these introduces only minor uncer- tainties in the results. The writer in 1926 presented a brief out- line? of the epochs through which a cooling earth must have passed, omitting most of the physical relationships (assumed well kncwn) used in arriving at the conclusions. Quotations from that paper by geologists indicate that the subject should be covered in far more detail. The objective is to recon- struct a history of the earth, not on a time scale but on a temperature scale, which is far more interesting and important to geolo- gists. Aside from temperature, the elements to be dealt with are those listed by F. W. Clarke in his Data of geochemistry as con- 1 Received March 15, 1948. 2 Nurrina, P. G., Pressures in planetary atmos- ee Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16: 254. 26. May 15, 1943 No. 5 P. G. NutTtTInG. stituting the 10-mile crust of the earth. Whether the bulk of the core consists chiefly of iron is of little consequence in the surface phenomena under discussion. Hav- ing a critical temperature probably above 4,500° K., iron would become a fluid sphere at an early stage. Iron alloys freely with but relatively few other metals (nickel, chro- mium, manganese... ), and the nature of the residual vapors trapped in crustal rocks suggests the dominance of iron in any al- loys that may constitute the earth’s core. Clarke’s tables show how eruptive rocks (95 percent) dominate the lithosphere, for the weighted average of all portions, in- cluding the oceans, the atmosphere, and all sedimentary rocks, differs very little from that of the eruptives; also that the hydrogen as water, the nitrogen of the air, and the carbon of living things, coal, and oil, so prominent in our lives, are almost negligible relative to other elements. In Table 1 are given Clarke’s weighted mean relative amounts of the various ele- ments occurring in the earth’s 10-mile crust, including the hydrosphere (oceans and lakes) and the atmosphere. To these have been added lists of the melting points, boil- ing points at present atmospheric pressure and critical temperatures, all on the abso- lute scale (273+° C.). The fourth column is obtained from the third by multiplying by 1.5 according to the Guldberg rule that the boiling point is always about two-thirds of the critical temperature on the absolute scale. It varies from 0.58 to 0.66 in known cases. A temperature of 5,000° is reasonable for a planet just drawn from the sun by a pass- ing star. At 5,000° there are, of course, no compounds present, and Table 1 shows that there can be no liquids, for all elements 121 Sp ZO. “4 —_ oa 122 i TABLE 1.—ELEMENTS OF THE EaRTH’s CRUST Relative | Melting Boiling Critical Element abun- point point tempera- dance SKS: OK. ture °K. Oxygen...... 46.20 54.8 90 155 Siliconsen ase 25.67 1680 2870 4300 Aluminum... . 7.50 932 2070 3100 Trony2 see es Ail 1708 3300 4900 Calcium...... 3.39 1080 1440 2160 Sodium...... 2.63 370.7 1153 1730 Potassium.... 2.40 335.5 1033 1550 Magnesium... 1.93 924 1380 2070 Hydrogen.... 0.87 14.0 20.4 32 Titanium..... 0.58 2070 3300 4900 Halogens..... 0.22 171 (Cl) 240 360 Phosphorus 0.11 317 553 830 Manganese 0.09 1530 2170 3250 C@arboneenece: 0.08 3800 4500 6700 S, Ba, Sr,N.. 0.15 = — — Allothers..... 0.47 _— — — except perhaps carbon are above their critical temperatures. Transmutations of elements, such as go on in the larger hotter stars, will have ceased except for the slow decay of a few scarce radioactive ones. Pressures near the center must have been near what they are now, about 17 X105 atmospheres or 12,500 tons per square inch. At 5,000° such a mass of dense vapors would be subject to rapid cooling by radia- tion from its outer layers. Only a slight cool- ing would permit combinations of the ele- ments (as oxides, carbides, etc.) with an evolution of heat amounting to a few hun- dreds of (kg) calories per gram. Such com- pounds would condense to liquids and fall back as rain to where the temperature was sufficient to vaporize and redissociate them, exciting visible line spectra of the elements. Thus such a mass of vapors would possess a bright photosphere. Chemical combination excites only band spectra and these chiefly in the infra-red. A mass of matter at 5,000° would in short be a violently agitated body of elementary vapors having a photosphere giving off bright-lined spectra of all elements but containing no liquids or chemical com- pounds except at extreme heights. The rapid transfer of heat by dissociation and com- bination farther out as well as by radiation and convection is being given attention by astrophysicists and is of primary impor- tance. At 4,000° conditions are vastly altered. Iron, titanium, and silicon are below their JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 critical temperatures and hence will largely condense to form a liquid core, a core con- . taining-minor amounts of tungsten, molyb- denum, and other metals as alloys, and pos- sibly a little of a few oxides and carbides in solution. There is little information on phase relations, critical temperatures, and dissociation constants at such temperatures. From the relatively low stability of iron oxides and carbides, liquid iron at 4,000° would be expected to float the stable car- bides and oxides of other metals. In Table 2 are collected the available data on the higher melting compounds. TABLE 2.—HIGHER MELTING COMPOUNDS ee Boiling MS Boiling Com ies temper. me temper- temper- Compound |temper- pound ature ature ature 6 ature 2 °C C. °C. C. AUN ses 2,200 |(Decomp.)|} La:O; 2,000 4,200 MgAl.O...|.2,135 — IMIROSeccc 2,800 —_— Al.O3. . 2,050 2,250 MnO 1,650 _— BaO)..- 1,923 | (2,000) || Mn;O. 1105 —_ BasiOs; 1,604 — IMIOs 6s 20 0 2,620 3,700 BesN 2,200 |d 2,240 MoC:....| — 4,500 BeO..... 2,570 3,900 Si@: setae 2,700 — Boron 2,300 2,550 SiOze eee 1,700 |d 2,200 IBe@ apace 2,350 3,500 ThO, 2,800 4,400 IBINGReee 2,730 | (Subl.) ARUN ates 2,930 — CdSe. s: 1,750 | (Subl.) WW) oaisiostne 3,370 4,727 CaC2..... 2,200 — WiC. cutee 2,777 | (6,000) CaQurx.- ISPs 2,850 UC 258 2,260 4,100 CeOz..... 1,950 — VOCs outs 2,830 3,900 Cr;C: 1,890 3,800 ZrOz..... 2,700 4,300 Fe.03 1 ’ 565 == ZrSiQy...| 2 ’ 550 = Fe:C..... 1,875 — Pressures at 4,000°, due to the atmos- phere above the liquid surface, can only be guessed without a much more complete knowledge of high-temperature compounds. That pressure was certainly more than the weight of the 10 mile crust (4,300 atmos- pheres or 32 tons/sq. inch) and probably less than ten times that. It was certainly well over all known critical pressures so that all elements having critical tempera- tures below 4,000° were either liquid or solid. Those having critical temperatures above 4,000° were vapors. Of the few compounds probably stable (undissociated) at such temperatures and pressures, the carbides of boron, calcium, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium, and uranium and the oxides of beryllium, May 15, 1943 calcium, magnesium, lanthanum, thorium, and zirconium seem the most likely. Other oxides and carbides than those would be too unstable to exist except as transients in the outer layers. There were certainly no ni- trides or silicates of any kind. The spec- trum of a planet at 4,000° would still consist chiefly of bright lines with some even re- versed but all on a continuous background. - At 3,000-2,500°, while the core is still liquid iron and iron alloys, the first solids appear, probably as float on the liquid sphere. The list of stable oxides and carbides is the same as at 4,000°. However, some of these, such as WC and UC,, are heavier than iron and would sink in it, perhaps de- composing and losing their carbon to the iron. Of the compounds that are stable and solid at 2,500°, probably the more impor- tant are the oxides of beryllium, calcium, magnesium, and zirconium; silicon carbide (carborundum) and titanium nitride. The light carbides of boron and calcium freeze at about 2,300°, and should be abundant in liquid form at 2,500°. There is still no permanent silica or silicates as these decom- pose at about 2,200°. Aside from the ap- pearance of the first stable solids the picture at 2,500° differs little from that at 4,000°. Hydrogen and nitrogen require special consideration at this point. While according to Clarke (Table 1) hydrogen constitutes less than 1 percent of the 10-mile outer layer, it is sufficient to form all the oceans or enough to cover the entire earth to a depth of 2,600 meters or 1.6 miles. There was abundant oxygen to combine with the hydrogen; there is free oxygen today, in the air. Very little hydrogen could have been used up in hydrides for these are readily dis- sociated at high temperatures. Also very little nitrogen was used as nitrides for the same reason and much of it still remains free. Free carbon, however, is practically nonexistent. Clarke’s data cover carbon chiefly as carbonates, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide, but not deeply buried car- bides of which there may have been large quantities. At 2,500° there could have been no hydrocarbons or carbonates; the ques- tion is the probable division of carbon be- tween the dioxide and the metal carbides, NUTTING: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF A COOLING PLANET 123 particularly silicon carbide, which must have been abundant in vapor form since it sublimes far below its melting and dis- sociation temperatures. Both water vapor and carbon dioxide are very stable at high temperatures as shown in Table 3 taken from Nernst’s Theoretical chemistry, 5th English edition, p. 783; data of Bjerrum and others taken about 1912 by an ingenious and precise explosion method. Dissociations are given for six temperatures and three pressures for each gas, in percen- tages. TABLE 3.—DISSOCIATION OF WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE Water vapor Carbon dioxide °K : 10 1 atm. | 10 atm. | 100 atm.| 1 atm. | 10 atm. Are E000 rs | 2258 1.29 0.556 AT 1.14 0.531 x10 | x10 10m SOR | AOR | xX 1OR 1,500. .| 0.0202} 0.00935} 0.00433) 0.0483} 0.0224) 0.0104 2,000..| 0.582 | 0.270 0.125 2.05 0.960 | 0.445 2,500. ..| 4.21 1.98 0.927 |17.6 8.63 4.09 3,000. .}14.4 7.04 33.83" 54.8 32.2 16.9 3,500. ./30.9 6-1 7.79 83.2 63.4 39.8 Log dissociation plotted against either 1/T or log pressure gives essentially a straight line. Dissociation is small except at the higher temperatures and decreases markedly at high pressures. In a contest be- tween oxygen and silicon for the carbon it is difficult to say which would be favored but both compounds would be present. With a surface temperature of 2,500° the earth’s atmosphere at lower levels must have consisted mainly of heavy metallic vapors and the vapors of a few stable compounds of high density. These would condense at higher levels, rain down, and revaporize. Iron was probably metallic but may have been present as oxide. At inter- mediate and higher levels were large known quantities of water vapor (1.85 tons per > square inch) mixed with large but uncertain amounts of carbon dioxide. The water would condense and rain downward much as it now does but in enormously greater volume and never reaching the surface. At the outer limits would be cool free gases. The observed outer atmospheres of Jupi- ter and Saturn invite the question of what 124 happens when the proportion of hydrogen is large rather than small as on the earth. Abundant hydrogen, with plentiful nitrogen and but limited oxygen, would make pos- sible the formation of much ammonia to form a cool, stable outer blanket, even with a core temperature of a thousand degrees. At 1,500° to 1,200° the surface is vastly different from what it was at 2,500°. Silica and szlicates have formed, some in solid others in fluid condition. All are fairly stable below 2,000°. They would cover the old core miles deep and suppress, chiefly as silicates, all but a few metallic vapors. At least the more volatile silicates would form the bulk of the lower atmosphere and would vaporize, rise, and reprecipitate in enor- mous storms. The lower layers of silicates would contain the less volatile metals, oxides, and silicates; the outer layers were probably the original igneous rock of the present lithosphere. There were still no carbonates and, of course, no hydrocarbons, and the water was still all in the outer at- mosphere. At 500° C. (a dull red heat) many car- bonates and some hydrates, fluorides, sulphides, etc., are stable, but most of these probably formed at lower temperatures, long afterward. The oceans were still in the vapor state at high levels of the atmosphere. Most of the acid anhydrides would be stable and in the air. Surface showers would con- sist largely of fused and vaporized salts. They must have been huge and violent compared with any present-day storms but trivial in comparison with the snowstorms of silica in the range of temperatures from 1,800° to 2,500°. The range from 400° to 700° might be called the chemical epoch. At the critical temperature of water 374° C., atmospheric pressure was about 252 atmospheres, considerably higher than the critical pressure of water, 217.8 atmos- pheres. Hence, condensation of a fraction (0.137) of the water vapor to liquid water oc- curred as soon as the temperature fell below 374° C.,and 13.7 percent (=1—217.8/252.3) of the total water must have become liquid as cooling proceeded beyond that point. That fraction of the total water is sufficient to cover the entire earth to a depth of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 2,607 X0.187=357 meters, or 1,171 feet. Local pressures in depressions may well have been several times that depth of water. Therefore in passing 374° C. pressures abruptly changed from an evenly dis- trebuted pressure of 252 atmospheres to one of 218 atmospheres plus local pressures of probably 300 atmospheres, an excess of 7 tons per square inch. This abrupt change from distributed to localized pressure was pointed out in Science (Oct. 1911) and further elaborated in my 1926 paper. At 300° C., two-thirds of the water was liquid and the pressure of the vapor about 85 at- mospheres; at 200° C., 95 percent was liquid and the pressure 15 atmospheres. The first oceans were therefore sizable bodies of water. Evaporation and precipita- tion must have been extremely rapid as was solution and erosion. Localized pressures must have caused considerable rock move- ments, chiefly lateral thrusts. The distribu- tion of crustal strains must have varied considerably as the depth of the oceans in- creased. Some of the present elevated areas (the ‘‘positive’ areas of paleogeographers) may have originated during this epoch. The fall of mean surface temperatures be- low about 370° C. must have marked the beginning of the epoch of hydration, solu- tion, and sedimentation—the water epoch— which is still in progress. At the higher temperatures, however, rates of solution and sedimentation must have been many times present rates. With all oceans boiling, and a continuously saturated atmosphere with copious rains of high-temperature water, all but the most insoluble rocks such as the granites, must have been rapidly eroded and redeposited. Overloaded solu- tions must have been abundant and violent in their activity, forming material that would later be comparable with the pegma- tites. Owing to the size of the first oceans it appears doubtful whether they ever ap- proached saturation in any constituent. Any attempt to calculate the age of the ocean on the basis of the present rate of ac- cumulation of its salts must give results far from the truth. Living matter and the formation of hydro- carbons from it became possible only in the May 15, 1943 very recent thermal history of the earth when temperatures were not above 50° C. At about this stage the dense vapor blanket in the upper atmosphere, which previously had equalized polar and equatorial tempera- tures, probably thinned out sufficiently to permit polar regions to become cooler than equatorial. Hence, it appears probable that primitive forms of life originated in the ‘polar regions. The carbon of all living mat- ter, of course, all came from the CO of the air, which is only 1 part in 30,000 of that fixed in the carbonate rocks. All this carbon is less than 0.1 percent (0.08 percent) of the earth’s crust. How much more is still deeply buried as carbides we have no present means of knowing. Attention should be called to the simple relation between the time and the tempera- ture scales. Since the radiation (in energy per unit time) from a body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute tempera- ture and in this case the mass is constant, the specific heat and surface area are ap- proximately so, and the cooling is all by radiation to space, the rate of energy loss is proportional to the rate of temperature lowering, dT/dt, which in turn is propor- OCEANOGRAPH Y.—Boundaries of the Humboldt Current. (Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER.) Stanford University. Not until Gunther’s report on the work of the William Scoresby became available was it possible to delineate with any degree of accuracy the boundaries of the Humboldt Current. Yet even at the present time these limits are still too indefinite to provide for the drafting of satisfactory graphs or charts. The southern boundary shifts with the seasonal march of the prevailing west wind zone; these shifts have not been deter- mined, because the above examination oc- curred during the winter and did not afford data for summer, early autumn, or late spring in the Southern Hemisphere. The northern boundary vacillates with the southward approach of the warm counter- current (commonly called El Nifio) during the southern summer; this advance, al- 1 Received March 31, 1943. MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT 125 tional to T*. Hence, dT /dt=CT* or T?=ai+b, by integration. In other words 7" is a linear function of the time. The constant b depends on the chosen zero of time and a upon the time unit, years or millennia. The writer has attempted to sketch the probable early physical history of the earth on a temperature instead of a time scale based on known physical chemical data and on the chemical composition of its surface. The subdivisions inferred are great natural epochs; all gas and vapor, the first liquid core, the first solids, the first stable silicates and the formation of the silicate crust, the formation of the first and later carbonates, the first surface water, the abrupt change in pressure distribution, and finally the forma- tion of hydroxides and of hydrocarbons. The reasoning is speculative rather than deduc- tive because of the lack of important data, yet the conclusions check well with known geologic facts, and it is hoped they may help to establish others. It is hoped also that it may further emphasize the value of physical chemistry in geologic studies. Euiot G. Mears, though of annual occurrence, also uae not been plotted. Gunther’s own account lacked in “dean tion. His delimitation of the western bound- ary of the current proper was hindered by the invasions of warm-water wedges from the west during the time of his survey. For reasons attributed to economy, the expedi- tion was unable to locate the western bound- ary of the Humboldt Current’s so-called ‘oceanic twin’’ known as the Peru Oceanic Current, and, since this ‘‘oceanic twin” represents water affected by that of the Humboldt Current proper or its upwelling, naturally the westward ultimate limits of the Humboldt Current’s effects have not been determined. Furthermore, Gunther’s exact data were secured in the single year of 1931. Schweig- ger’s research, which has covered a period of 126 16 years, indicates that 1931 was an ab- normal year; in fact, it was one of a series of three years of attempted warm water in- vasions of major proportions (1942, p. 37). In that one year Gunther’s observations were confined to the months from May to September for the entire examination, and he laments the brevity of time allotted the work because of the impossibility it allowed for noting variations which appeared to be striking during a single month, for instance, at Callao. He pointed out that a long-con- tinued, consistent, and more widespread in- vestigation was necessary to interpret and correlate these variations (Gunther, 1936, pp. 169, 170, 244). Nevertheless, Gunther’s report represents the most careful scientific survey of the Humboldt Current that has been made; it does afford a basis for valu- able generalizations. Gunther defines the Humboldt Current as “a narrow belt of cold water which runs up the west coast of South America roughly from Valparaiso to the Gulf of Guayaquil. ...Itis that part of the South Pacific anti- cyclonic circulation in which the northerly current is most conspicuous; and whose physical, chemical and biological character- istics are most affected by admixture with water upwelled from the lower layers’’ (p. 109). It stems from the West Wind Drift, which is a much broader portion of the same anticyclonic movement. The origin of the water in the Humboldt Current has been a much mooted question since Alexander von Humboldt suggested that it came from the Antarctic regions (1822, vol. 2, p. 59). But since Deacon’s re- port to the Discovery Committee in 1937, it has become known that the Antarctic Con- vergence, which is the northern boundary of Antarctic surface water, occurs in the east- ern Pacific between 80° and 90° west longi- tude farther south than 60° latitude (1937, pp. 38-39). The writer has found no state- ment of any evidence of the Humboldt Cur- rent farther south than 473° south latitude, and Gunther places its probable extreme southern limit at 41° south latitude (1936, p. 172). Therefore, it appears that the Hum- boldt Current takes its origin some 15° or more northward of the limit of Antarctic JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 surface water. It must be concluded that from its beginning the current is composed of subantarctic surface water. This subantarctic surface water con- tinues at the surface in the Humboldt Cur- rent, mixed, of course, with water upwelled at times from a warm subsurface current, until the cool current crosses the Sub- tropical Convergence, which Gunther lo- cated between 24° and 26° south latitude. In other words, in the southern winter of 1931, the subantarctic water remained at the surface as far north as the stretch of coast between Caldera and Antofagasta (1936, p. 159), or on about one-third of the current’s early course. Over approximately two-thirds of the flow, therefore, but ex- cluding the upwelled elements, the surface water is subtropical rather than subantarc- tic. Often marked by rip tides from horizon to horizon (Schott, 1935), the subtropical surface water remains at the surface until the Humboldt Current reaches its northern boundary, which is the Tropical Converg- ence. Here, at the surface, the Humboldt Current meets tropical water along an ir- regular line extending roughly from Punta Aguja to the Galapagos Islands. Since the current under discussion extends from its origin in the West Wind Drift to this north- ern boundary formed by the Tropical Con- vergence, it can be stated definitely that exclusive of upwelled elements the Hum- boldt Current consists at the surface of “two distinct water masses,” the sub- antarctic and subtropical. But since the feature that gives character to the Humboldt Current-is its upwelling, Gunther assigns first importance to sub- antarctic water because the upwelling is drawn chiefly from subantarctic flow and comes from subsurface as well as from sur- face layers. At the Subtropical Convergence subantarctic water dives below the surface layer, yet it continues as a subsurface cur- rent as far as Callao. Throughout the survey of the William Scoresby, below the sub- antarctic water, indeed, below surface layers of whatever constituents, there was a southward moving, warm return subsurface current, beneath which Antarctic Inter- mediate water flowed northward. Normally, May 15, 1943 the return subsurface current varied in depth from 40 to 150 meters, and reached a depth undetermined by Gunther’s report, for he stated that upwelling never touched Antarctic water. Yet upwelling ranged from extremes of 40 meters to 360 meters, with a mean of 133 meters. During the period of the above examination, the surface layers and the subsurface return current were suf- ficiently thick to prevent the reaching of Antarctic water by the process of upwelling (1936, p. 200). This significant finding has not been accepted as yet by many leading scientists. For example, C. Vallaux (1989, p. 80), in reviewing the work of the William Scoresby, noted that there might be a slow rise of Antarctic Intermediate water. Sver- drup (1942, p. 189), in calculating the source of water within the Humboldt Current, in- cludes the Antarctic Intermediate water. Because of upwelling, Gunther’s study very definitely fixes the lower boundary of the Humboldt Current at the stated 40 to 360 meters, with a mean of 133 meters, during the time of his survey; it excludes entirely all Antarctic water. Whether or not the current is deeper or shallower at other seasons and during other years remains to be shown by future investigations. His eastern boundary appears, also, to be fixed. It is the coastline of the South Ameri- can west coast between the northern and southern boundaries of the Humboldt Cur- rent. During times of normal strength and dominance of the Humboldt Current, it oc- cupies the position inshore. However, the writer wishes to point out that Schweigger’s observations of the warm- water bands during 1939 and 1941, when the upwelling seemed to abate within the Hum- boldt Current, indicate a possible rise to the surface of portions of the warm, re- turn southward-moving subsurface current. Temperatures below the surface at La Libertad, Ecuador, during 1938, point to a piling up of hot waters on the northern boundary of the Humboldt Current at the same time that the exceptionally strong Humboldt Current of 1938 reached its ex- treme minimum of temperature over a period of 16 years. When upwelling abated, it would appear that the pent-up, subsur- MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT 127 face, warm, southward-moving current moved out more strongly. Schweigger found a warm, oceanic torrent along the outer shores of the islands in Pisco Bay during the autumn of 1939; a few miles southward of this torrent the normal Humboldt Cur- rent was encountered again. The torrent- force might be explained by the proximity of the strong Humboldt Current, which forced the return current to take its accus- tomed place beneath the surface. That this theory is not entirely imaginary on the part of the writer is shown by the fact, that, when upwelling ceases along the shore washed by the California Current, the subsurface currert rises to the surface and is known as the Davidson Current for the remainder of the year. But when upwelling returns in the following season, the David- son Current disappears and there is dis- covered a subsurface current underneath (Sverdrup, 1941). | Therefore the writer would like to amend the statement of Gunther, and others, that the eastern boundary of the Humboldt Cur- rent is inshore along the western coast of South America between the northern and southern boundaries of that current. It is possible that it is inshore only until weak upwelling allows the rise of the warm return current to the surface. The western boundary is far from defi- nite. With reference again to Gunther’s designation of the Peru Coastal, or more commonly called the Humboldt Current, this limit is the coastal strip of generally northward flowing water over which up- welling dominates. It must be noted that during the winter of his examination, he found it extended westward offshore ap- proximately 30 to 130 miles from Chile, and 150 to 250. miles distant from Peru. Al- though he allowed considerable variation, due to the season and to warm water wedges he suspected that the modifications might exceed his appraisal (1936, pp. 109, 224). Within these longitudes, the temperature of the surface seawater dropped from 2° to 5° C. along the same parallel from the outermost stations to the innermost of those taken by the William Scoresby. For it is well known that the isotherms within the 128 Humboldt Current follow the coastline in- stead of assuming their normal east-west direction. The relative uniformity of the coastal cooling is caused by the upwelling, which is a distinctive characteristic of the Humboldt Current. Therefore, the ultimate boundary of the current’s influence should be along the points where the isotherms take their nor- mal course. Since Gunther’s investigations ceased before this change occurred, he pointed out that the extreme westward limits he assigned to the effects of the cur- rent were only an estimate. The area of marine, blue water affected by upwelled water from the Humboldt Current but not dominated thereby had a generally west- ward movement. He termed this outer flow the Peru Oceanic Current. He conjectured that the surface seawater, where the tem- perature was lowered by the upwelling along shore, extended some 300 miles sea- ward off the coast of Chile along the 40th parallel, and from 3,600 to 4,000 miles off the coast of Peru along the 15° parallel (1936, p. 224). The above lowered tempera- ture limits could be detected only with a thermometer. The further westward exten- sion of the Humboldt Current which the writer has discovered in existing literature appears in a note in Science (Beebe, 1926), where Dr. William Beebe reports that a captain on a United States vessel located the effects as far west as the Marquesas Islands, a distance of 3,711 miles from Cal- lao. Perhaps it is reasonable to consider this the maximum outside limit, since this ob- servation occurred during the most unusual year associated with the vagaries of the Humboldt Current. The date was Septem- ber, 1925. When the Challenger data were obtained it is assumed that conditions were not ab- normal, but in the absence of records this conjecture can be questioned. It was from Challenger data that Thoulet (1928) reached the conclusion that the waters east of Easter Island were different in temperature, salinity, and density from those to the west. He attributed the difference to the effect of the Humboldt Current upon the waters to the east of the island; he called these waters the Easter Island Sea. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 The stations of the Challenger were too few to enable Thoulet in 1928 to define boundaries of the Easter Island Sea other than to state that the sea was east of Easter Island. Since this island is approximately 2,000 miles westward from the South American coast in about. 27° south latitude, Thoulet’s finding fits roughly into Gunther’s huge wedge-shaped area estimated to be affected by the Humboldt Current’s up- welled waters. Indeed, Thoulet adds this one specific finding to supplement Gunther’s observations and deductions. The discovery made by Byrd’s Expedi- tion that Easter Island is situated upon the extensive Easter Island Ridge, which divides the South*Pacific, appears significant to the writer because it forms the submarine de- marcation between the East and West Pacific. The great submarine rise stretches from Ross Sea in the Antarctic (Roos, 1937), to the vicinity of the Gulf of Cali- fornia before it becomes indistinguishable from the continental shelf on the topo- graphic map. Perhaps this ridge may be vitally related to the boundary of Easter Island Sea and to the ultimate westward ef- fects of the Humboldt Current, for topog- raphy has a marked influence on current flow. The northern boundary of the Humboldt Current, proper, has a seasonal variation that has not been precisely determined. Rainfall appears to be the most successful gage of the boundary’s vacillation, for the dominance of the Humboldt Current is synonymous with aridity. According to rainfall records along the Peruvian coast (Eguiguren, 1894), the usual shift extends from Santa Elena Peninsula, which is the northern limit of the Gulf of Guayaquil, south to Punta Aguja. Farther west the Galapagos Islands appear to mark the nor- mal north-south march of annual rainfall, but the data here have been secured from occasional expeditions and not from regular observations (Stewart, 1911). Although most of the subtropical surface water is deflected westward of the Tropical Convergence, at this northern boundary of the Humboldt Current, there is evidence that some part, at least, continues as a sur- face current northward of that convergence. May 15, 1943 Near the coast, according to Murphy (1939, p. 27), none of the Humboldt Current sur- face water reaches beyond the equator. Barlow (1938) is confident it flows at the surface northward of the Humboldt Current proper to the Gulf of Panama. Gunther (pp. 158-59) noted that a portion of the Humboldt Current surface water had sunk below the tropical water at the Tropical Convergence, and that it was still flowing north as a subsurface current at the north- ern extension of his survey. Fleming (1939, p. 173) found in the Gulf of Panama during the winter upwelling that the water has the character of the surface water off Peru. In other words, the extreme northern boundary of the Humboldt Current is yet to be de- termined. Gunther (1936, pp. 162, 226—227) located the southern boundary during his survey on the 32nd parallel; nevertheless, he admits the possibility of an extension to the 40th parallel, in deference to Schott’s chart, and he concedes a possibility of the 41st parallel as an extreme southern limit. But since Gunther actually observed the southern - winter limit to be 32° south latitude, the writer prefers to retain that cold season border until further research, carried out in the same thorough manner as that of the William Scoresby, demonstrates the need of correction. In summer, there has been no de- termination comparable to the above. A characteristic feature of the Humboldt Cur- rent is the normal freedom from storms. For this reason, over a century ago Humboldt advised the use of this region for shipping, especially during such turbulent periods elsewhere (1829, vol. 6, p. 232). In January, 1939, Goodspeed’s party observed that the storm-free character of the Humboldt Cur- rent protected their ship only part of the way between Valparaiso and Concepcion (Goodspeed, 1941). Thus, in the summer of 1939, the southern boundary of the Hum- boldt Current was betweén 32° and 37° south latitude. Yet it must be noted that 1939 was an unusual year of warm-water invasions. There are other observations, but none, in the knowledge and opinion of the writer, that provide data with greater probability MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT 129 of accuracy. It has seemed wise to cite these specific fragments in order to show the meagre and inconclusive character of the information regarding boundaries of the Humboldt Current. Actually, only the lower boundary has been precisely fixed, and that for but one season of an abnormal year. Until the usual boundaries are de- fined with greater precision, the exceptional ones, such as those of 1925 when warm water reached as far south as central Chile, can be viewed with scant profit. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartow, BE. W. The 1910-1937 survey of the currents of the South Pacific Ocean. Mar- ine Observer 15 (132): 140-149. 19388. Breese, Wiiuiam. A note on the Humboldt Current and the Sargasso Sea. Science 63: 91-92. 1926. Deacon, G. E. R. The hydrogen of the South- ern Ocean. Discovery Reports 15: 1-24. 1937. EGUIGUREN, Victor. Las Iuvas en Piura. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 4: 241-259. 1894. FLEMING, R. H. A contribution to the oceanog- raphy of the Central American region. Proce, 6th Pacific Scai- Congr. 3: 16/—175. 1939. GoopsPEED, T.H. Plant hunters in the Andes. New York and Toronto, 1941. GuNTHER, E. R. A report on oceanographical investigations in the Peru Coastal Current. Discovery Reports 12: 107-276. 1936. HuMBOoLDT; ALEXANDER VON. Personal nar- rative of travels to the equinoctial regions of the New Continent during the years 1799- 1804, by Alexander de Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland. 7 vols. Translated by Helen Maria Williams. London, 1822-29. Murpuy, R. C. The littoral of Pacific Colom- bia and Ecuador. Geogr. Rev. 29: 1-83. 1939. Roos, 8. E. Some geographical results of the second Byrd Antarctic Expedition, 1933- 1935. The submarine topography of the Ross Sea and adjacent waters. Geogr. Rev. 27: 574-583. 1937. ScuoTT, GERHARD. Geographie des indischen und stillen Ozeans im Auftrage der deutschen Seewarte verfasst. Hamburg, 1935. ScuweicGcer, E. H. Las trregularidades de la corriente de Humboldt en los anos 1925 a 1941; una tentatiwa de su explicacion. Bol. Compafiia Admin. Guano 18 (1): 27- 42. 1942. Stewart, ALBAN. Expedition of the California Academy of Sciences to the Galapagos [s- lands, 1905-06. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 1: 7-288. 1911. SveRDRuUP, H. U. An analysts of the ocean cur- 130 rents of the American west coast between 40° N. and 40° 8. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Contrib. 130. 1941. Oceanography for meteorologists. 2 New York, 1942. BOTAN Y.—Homonyms among names of trees and fossil plants. (Communicated by WiLu1AM A. Dayton.) LitTez, Jr., U.S. Forest Service. The same names have sometimes been given independently both to species of living trees of the United States and to different species of fossil plants, but the number of homonyms of this type not previously cor- rected is relatively small. In the course of the preparation of a revised Check list of the native and naturalized trees of the United States, the accepted names have been checked against homonyms among fossil plants. Fortunately, only three changes in nomenclature have been necessary for the above publication, but additional names of tree species distinguished by some authors, as well as some names of fossils, are affected. It seems desirable to call attention to these homonyms among recent and fossil plants and to suggest that taxonomists working with living plants, and paleobotanists studying fossils, carefully compare their proposed new names before publication with the indexes of both groups, in order to avoid preoccupied names. The International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature (ed. 3. 1935) apply to recent and fossil plants alike (art. 9), though a few special rules have been adopted for fossil plants. Nomenclature of fossil plants begins with the year 1820 (art. 20). A Latin diag- nosis is not required for names of new groups of fossil plants (art. 38), but after January 1, 1912, names of new groups of fossil plants must be accompanied by illustrations (which serve as substitutes for duplicate specimens) in addition to the descriptions, or by refer- ences to earlier illustrations (art. 39). The rule about homonyms was changed in 1930 to reject a later homonym even if the earlier homonym is a synonym and not in use (arts. 60 (8) and 61). As a result of the change, some homonyms previously correctly used 1 Received February 4, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 THOULET, J. Le courant de Humboldt et la mer de l’fle de Paques. Ann. Inst. Océanogr., MEOW SCh..15) ase. 2)is ta OSs Vatuaux, C. The Peru or Humboldt Current. Scientia 65-66: 77-82. 1939. ELBERT L. suddenly became invalid. Also, since specific epithets long abandoned as synonyms can never be used again in the same genus, there is now a greater possibility of making unintentional homonyms in large genera of woody plants having both living and ex- tinct species. Names of recent plants are well indexed in standard references, such as Index Kewensis and its supplements and the Gray Herbarium card-index. Fossil plants, how- ever, are not so thoroughly cataloged. A de- tailed catalog of names of fossil plants of the world, Fossilium catalogus II: Plantae, edited by Jongmans? is in progress. Most of the 24 parts issued since the work was begun in 1913 are about extinct groups. The following parts, however, cover seven important fami- lies of recent woody plants and should be consulted by taxonomists making new names in these groups: Pars 6, Juglandaceae (1915); pars 8, Betulaceae (1916); pars 10, Ulmaceae (1922); pars 14, Sapindaceae (1928); pars 20, Anacardiaceae (1935) ; pars 23, Cornaceae (1938); and pars 24, Vitaceae (1939). Additional parts of interest also to students of recent plants are: Pars 13, Muscineae (1927); pars 17, Dicotyledones (ligna), or fossil wood (1931); and pars 19, Charophyta (1933). In 1919 Knowlton’ published a catalog of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of North America known at that time, which should be consulted by taxonomists making new names in genera such as woody plants also represented as fossils. All affected fossil names that were known to be later homo- nyms of recent species were corrected by 2 Jonemans, W., ed., Fossilium Catalogus II: Plantae, pts. 1-24. ’s-Gravenhage, 1913-1939. 3 KNOWLTON, F. H., A catalogue of the Mesozotc and Cenozoic plants of North America. U.S. Geol. - Surv. Bull. 696, 815 pp. 1919. May 15, 1943 Knowlton and Cockerell in Knowlton’s catalog (p. 11). This catalog, however, did not cover fossils outside North America, names published after 1919, or Paleozoic fossils, though Paleozoic fossils are in ex- tinct genera. The United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., has an unpub- lished card catalog of names of fossil plants throughout the Plant Kingdom up to the year 1933, when compilation was discon- tinued. This valuable and detailed card catalog is located in the division of paleon- tology, United States National Museum. The homonyms mentioned here are among those detected when the accepted names of native and naturalized trees of the United States were checked against names of fossils in the paleobotanical card catalog. Most of these homonyms concern European fos- sils, especially names published before Index Kewensis, and a few names appearing since Knowlton’s catalog. The three changes in nomenclature from that of Sudworth’s check list required be- cause the names were used previously for fossils are summarized below. Ilex amelanchier MEAS Cunt: SERVICEBERRY HoLLy Prinos dubius G. Don, Gen. Syst. Gard. Bot. 2220. 1832. Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. ex Chapm., Hi south, WS: 270. 1860. Llez dubia (G. Don) B.S. P., Prelim. Cat. Anth. Pter. New York 11. 1888. Not Ilex dubia Weber, Palaeontographica 2: 203, pl. 22, fig. 9. 1851 (fossil, Oligocene, Prussia). Fernald (Rhodora 41: 424-429, pl. 559. 1939) showed by examining the type that Ilex dubia (G. Don). B. 8. P. is the same as Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. and so took up the former name. However, as Ilex dubia (G. Don) B.S. P. is a later homonym of a fossil, the name Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. should be restored. This shrubby species of the Coastal Plain from New Jersey to Georgia and Louisiana becomes a small tree according to Small (Man. South- east. Fl. 1502. 1933) and will be added to the check list. LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS 131 xX Quercus burnetensis Little Burner Oak Quercus macrocarpa Michx. XQuercus virgi- niana Mill. X Quercus coloradensis Ashe, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 49: 268. 1922. Not Quercus coloradensis Lesq., Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 16: 46. 1888 (fossil, Eocene, Colorado). X Quercus burnetensis Little, Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 33: 9. 1943. xX Quercus filialis Little VARILEAF Oak Quercus phellos L. Xx Quercus velutina Lam. x Quercus inaequalis Palmer & Steyermark, Missouri Bot. Gard. Ann. 22: 521. 1935. Not Quercus inaequalis Watelet, Descr. PI. Foss. Bass. Paris 136, pl. 35, fig. 8. 1866 (fossil, Eocene, France). xX Quercus filialis Little, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 33: 10. 1948. The two earlier fossil homonyms of Salzx lancifolia indicated below do not invalidate the name when transferred to a variety. The variety stands as a new name, rather than a new combination (art. 16), and Andersson is not cited as original author. The same epithet may be used as a species and variety (art. 29). Salix lasiandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb Pactric Gray WILLOW Salix lancifolia Anderss., Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 6: 34, pl. 2, fig. 23. 1867. Not Salix lancifolia A. Braun, Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Geogn. Geol. Petref. 1845: 170. 1845 (fossil, Miocene, Switzerland); A. Braun ex Unger, Gen. Sp. Foss. Pl. 419. 1850. Not Salix lancifolia Ludw., Palaeontographica 5: 157, pl. 35, fig. 9. 1858 (fossil, Miocene, Hesse). Saliz lastandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb in S. Wats., Bot. California 2: 84. 1879. Names for several tree species recognized by some authors but not accepted in the check list are invalid as later homonyms of fossils. These include a recently described species of Abzes, an older species of Acer, a new species of Quercus, and three hybrids of Quercus. Doubtless additional homonyms occur among the names of exotic and culti- 132 vated trees, which have not been checked. Juglans sieboldiana will serve as an example. Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis Fern. BRACTED BAaLsAM FIR Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis Fern., Rhodora 11: 203. 1909. Abies intermedia Fulling, Journ. Southern Appalachian Bot. Club 1: 98, fig. 1. 1936. Not Abies intermedia Saporta, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 94: 1021. 1882 (fossil, Pliocene, France). Acer rubrum L. REp MAPLE Accmimonin Ge opel Wao. toa: Acer stenocarpum Britton in Britton and Shafer, North American Trees 647, fig. 598. 1908. Not Acer stenocarpum Etting- hausen, Denkschr. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. Minchen 50: 20, pl. 31, figs. 10-12. 1885 (fossil, Miocene, Carniola). Further study is needed to determine whether Quercus grandidentata Ewan (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 64: 512. 1937) is distinct. It was described from a few collections at Monrovia, Los Angeles County, Calif. ; it is closely related to Quercus engelmanni Greene; and it may be a hybrid between Quercus dumosa Nutt. and Quercus engel- mannt Greene. Also, the name is a homonym of Quercus grandidentata Unger (Gen. Spec. Pl. Foss. 401. 1850; fossil, Miocene, Galicia). Another new species, Quercus robusta C. H. Muller (Torreya 34: 119. 1934), known only from Oak Canyon, Chisos Mountains, Tex., is not affected because the earlier homonym, Quercus robusta Schulze (Zeitschr. fiir Naturw. 60: 457. 1887; fossil, Upper Cretaceous, Baden), upon examina- tion was found to be a nomen nudum (arts. 44,45). The name X Quercus dubia Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 93. 1894) should be abandoned as a name of uncertain identity as to its supposed parents and as a later homonym. Earlier homonyms are Quercus dubia Alm. in L. (Pl. Surinam. 15. 1775) and the fossil Quercus dubia Newberry (Ann. New York Lye. Nat. Hist. 9: 31. 1868; nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Mon- tana); Quercus dubia Newberry [Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 506. 1883 (fossil; Miocene, Montana)]. The name of the fossil species JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 was changed to Quercus asymmetrica Trel. (Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 28, pl. 12, fig. 10. 1924). X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. St. LANDRY Oak xX Quercus ludoviciana Sarg., Trees and Shrubs 2: 223. 1913. xX Quercus subfalcata Trel., Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 56: 52. 1917. Not Quercus subfalcata Goppert, Tert. Fl. Insel Java 114. 1854. (nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Bohemia). Not Quercus subfalcata Friedrich, Geol. Specialk. Preuss. Abh. 4 (3): 257, pl. 9, figs. 4, 5. 1883 (fossil, Oligocene, Saxony). xX Quercus ludoviciana var. subfalcata (Trel.) Rehd., Journ. Arnold Arb. 7: 240. 1926. X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. is the hybrid between Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia Elliott and Quercus phellos L. X Quercus subfalcata Trel. is the hybrid between Quercus falcata Michx. and Quercus phellos L., and is a later homonym of a fossil. Rehder, under article 34, reduced the latter hybrid to a variety, and it seems simpler to group all the hybrids between two species, including hybrids of their varieties, all under the same name. The relationships of X Quercus venulosa Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soe. 41: 268. 1926), described from Okaloosa County, Fla., are uncertain. Its supposed parents were Quercus cinerea Michx. and Quercus caput-rivult Ashe, the latter original- ly described as a doubtful hybrid and later reduced by its author to Quercus arkansana caput-rivuli (Ashe) Ashe. The earlier homo- nym is Quercus venulosa (Kichwald) Eich- wald (Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 63, pl. 3, fig. 11. 1865; fossil, Russia), originally described as Credneria venulosa EKichwald (1853). Juglans ailantifolia Carr. SreBsotp WALNUT Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Bull. Acad. Imper. Pétersb., sér. 3, 18: 60. 1873. Not Juglans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. In- sel Java 154. 1854; nomen nudum. Not Jug- lans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. Schos- snitz Schles. 36, pl. 25, fig. 2. 1855 (fossil, Miocene, Silesia). Jugians ailantifolia Carr., Rev. Hort. [Paris] 50: 414, fig. 85-86. 1878. It is unfortunate that the name Juglans steboldiana Maxim., long in use for a species May 15, 1943 from Japan cultivated in the United States, must be rejected because the name was given 18 years earlier to a fossil from Europe. According to Nagel (Foss. Cat. II: Plantae, pt. 6: 52.1915), Juglans sieboldiana Géppert isa synonym of J. acuminata A. Br. A fossil variety of the Japanese species was named Juglans sieboldiana Maxim. fossilis Nath. (Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 20 (2): 37, pl. I, figs. 13-17, 18(?). 1883). EXAMPLES OF DUPLICATE NAMES An interesting example of a genus that was named among fossils before it was dis- tinguished among living trees is Sequoza Endl. (Syn. Conif. 197. 1847). Though a species of living trees was named earlier Taxodium sempervirens Lamb. (Descr. Genus Pinus 2: [24]. 1824), the genus was based upon three species of fossil cones and was published with illustrations as Stezn- hauera Presl in Sternberg (Versuch Geogn. —Bot. Darst. Fl. Vorwelt. 202 illus. 1838). The more familiar name Sequoza Endl. has been retained by making it a nomen con- servandum, while the older synonym, Stein- hauera Presl, is a nomen rejiciendum (art. 21). Various illustrations of homonyms that have been replaced could be cited. For example, Juglans californica S. Wats. (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 10: 349. 1875) ap- peared only three years before the fossil species, Juglans californica Lesq. (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 6 (2): 34, pl. 9, fig. 14; pl. 10, fig. 23. 1878; Miocene, California). The latter was changed to Juglans leonis Cock. (Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, 26: 543. 1908). The Miocene fossil from Alaska, Betula alaskana Lesq. (Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 5: 446, pl. 6, fig. 14. 1883) had priority over Betula alaskana Sarg. (Bot. Gaz. 31: 236. 1901). When the earlier use of the name was called to his attention, Sargent re- named the living species Betula neoalaskana Sarg. (Journ. Arnold Arb. 3: 206. 1922). However, this species has since been re- duced to a variety, Betula papyrifera Marsh. var. neodlaskana (Sarg.) Raup (Contrib. Arnold Arb. 6: 152. 1934). Among the more recent cases that have not been corrected is the shrubby species Sorbus alaskana G. N. Jones (Journ. Arnold "LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS 133 Arb. 20: 24, pl. 226. 1939), a later homonym of the Upper Cretaceous fossil, Sorbus alaskana Hollick (U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 159: 97, pl. 74, fig. 1. 1930). FOSSILS WITH NAMES PREOCCUPIED BY RECENT TREES The names of several species of fossils are later homonyms of names in use for recent trees of the United States. The fossils are mostly old European species that may no longer be recognized. However, if they are valid and distinct species still in the same genera and if they have not already been changed, they should be given new names by specialists familiar with them. Some of these preoccupied names of fossils that may not have been corrected are given below: Magnolia macrophylla Vukotinoviéa, Jugo- slav. Akad. Zagreb Rad 13: 202. 1870 (fossil, Miocene, Croatia). Not Magnolia macrophylla Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 1: 327. 1803. Pinus resinosa Ludwig, Palaeontographica 5: 87, pl. 18, figs. 3-4. 1857 (fossil, Miocene, Hesse). Not Pinus resinosa Ait., Hort. Kew. 3: B60. 1789: Pinus rigida (G6ppert and _ Berendt) Schimper, Traité Paléont. Végét. 2: 291. 1870 (fossil, Miocene, Prussia; originally in genus Pinites). In making this combination, Schimper remarked that there already existed a Pinus rigida Mill. Not Pinus rigida Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8, Pinus No. 10. 1768. Populus tremuloides Massalongo, Piante Foss. Terz. Vicentino 146. 1851 (fossil, Miocene, Italy). Populus tremuloides Wessel in Wessel and Weber, Palaeontographica 4: pl. 24, fig. 2. 1855 (nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Prussia). Not Populus tremuloides Michx., Fl. Bor.- Amer. 2: 2438. 18038. Quercus reticulata (EKichwald) FEichwald, Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 62, pl. 3, fig. 16. 1865 (fossil, Cretaceous, Russia; originally Cred- neria reticulata Kichwald (1853) ). Not Quercus reticulata Humb. and Bonpl., Pl. Aequin. 2: 20, pl. 86. 1809. Rhus microphylla Heer, Svenska Vet.-Akad. Ofv. Forh. 28: 1184. 1871 (nomen nudum); Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 12: 117, pl. 32, fig. 18. 1874 (fossil, Cretaceous, Greenland). Not Rhus microphylla Engelm. ex A. Gray, Smith- sonian Contr. Knowl. 3 (5) (Pl. Wright. 1): 31. 1852. 134 The following fossil homonym has been reduced to synonymy: Quercus obtusa Knowlton, U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 140: 38, pl. 22, fig. 8. 1926. (fossil, Miocene, Washington). Made a synonym of Quercus stmulata Knowlton by Brown (U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 186-J: 173. 1937). Not Quercus obtusa (Willd.) Ashe, Torreya 18: 72. 1918. Though no check was made of homonyms among fossils and synonyms of recent trees of the United States, as these names would not affect the nomenclature of the check list or cause any confusion, a few later homonyms of this type were found among the fossils. An example is Abzes mucronata (G6ppert and Menge) Géppert (Schles. Ges. Vaterl. Kult. Jahresb. 48 (1870): 55. 1871; originally described in the genus Abietites). Not Abzes mucronata Raf. (Atl. Journ. 120. 1832), the name upon which was based Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.) Sudw., a synonym of Pseudotsuga tazifolia (Poir.) Britton. SIMILAR BUT NOT IDENTICAL NAMES Some names of fossils and recent plants which are similar but fortunately differ slightly in spelling may be retained without confusion as distinct names (art. 70), though possibly a few might be considered orthographic variants. A partial list of these similar names follows. FOSSIL PLANTS Acer grosse-dentatum Heer (1859) RECENT PLANTS Acer grandidentatum Nutt. ex. Torr. and Gray (1838) Crataegus holmesiana Ashe (1900) Crataegus holmesit Lesq. (1887) Fraxinus oregonensis Fraxinus oregona Knowlton and Cock- Nutt. (1849) erell (1919) Juglans quadrangula X Juglans quadrangu- Ludwig (1857) lata (Carr.) Rehd. (1900) Pinus quadrifoliata Pinus quadrifolia Parl. Peola (1900) ex Sudw. (1897) Quercus neomexicana Quercus novomexicana Knowlton (1918) CA DC) a Raydib: (1901) Quercus treleasit Berry (1928) Quercus treleaseana A. Camus (1932) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 GENERIC HOMONYMS Apparently no generic names of living trees of the United States are later homo- nyms of fossil genera. However, an unim- portant example of a generic name used in- dependently in living and fossil plants is Batodendron Nutt. (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., ser. 2, 8: 261. 1843), a segregate of Vac- convum L., generally not used by conserva- tive workers. The name Batodendron Lands- borough (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 13: 290. 1844) was given a year later to a Paleozoic fossil from Scotland inadequately described without specific name. An Upper Devonian fossil from Siberia was named Batodendron sp. Chachloff (1921). If a detailed check of extinct genera were made with indexes of generic names of living plants, it is likely that a few homo- nyms would be found. Of course, if the older name is rejected as a synonym and is no longer in use, the later homonym can be retained without confusion merely by mak- ing it a nomen conservandum (art. 21). An example of a generic name in use in both groups is Berrya. Berria Roxb. (PI. Corom. 3: 60, pl. 264. 1819; usually spelled Berrya, an orthographic variant by DC., Prodr. 1. 517. 1824) is a genus of one or two species of Tiliaceae. Berrya Knowlton (U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 155: 133, pl. 41, fig. 4—5. 1930), a fossil genus of uncertain posi- tion with one species, is a later homonym. This has been synonymized with Cerczdi- phyllum by Brown (Journ. Pal. 13: 492. 1939). AVOIDANCE OF HOMONYMS A few suggestions for avoiding the crea- tion of additional, unnecessary homonyms among recent and fossil plants may be drawn from the examples given. Of course, persons proposing new specific names in genera having both living and extinct species, especially large genera of woody plants such as Quercus, should check their tentative names in the best available in- dexes and catalogs of both groups. Ad- ditional published catalogs or indexes of fossil plants are urgently needed by taxono- mists of living plants as well as by paleo- ‘May 15, 1943 botanists. Schopf* has recently called at- tention to the desirability of continued com- pilation and publication of additions to the existing catalogs of American fossil plants. Certain epithets are much more likely to be used independently for fossil and recent plants than others. Names derived from large geographical areas, such as Alaska and the States, are often repeated, but many fos- sils are named from a small locality where the types were collected or from the geo- logical formation without risk of duplica- tion. Epithets of obvious descriptive char- acters among certain species within a large genus containing both living and extinct species have a relatively high probability of being homonyms. Names suggesting re- semblance to another species or indicating intermediate or uncertain characters may have been used before for fossils also. As long as the number of homonyms among recent and fossil plants remains 4 Scuorr, James M., American Committee on Paleobotanical Nomenclature. Chronica Bot. 7: 226-227. 1942. BOTAN Y.—New grasses from the Philippines and South India.' Santos, Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan. AGNES CHASE.) During the progress of a study on the Genera of Philippine grasses, Asiatic speci- mens of Garnotia, Isachne, and Sacciolepis were found in the United States National Herbarium that were either without or with doubtful determinations. Among them is the material hitherto generally referred to Garnotia stricta Brongn.? At the suggestion of Mrs. Agnes Chase, studies were under- taken on the distinguishing characters of the true Garnotia stricta Brongn., and a com- parison was made with the material formerly referred to this species. The result of this investigation led to the examination of the species of Garnotia and the description of a 1 Received February 238, 1943. Papers from the Department of Botany of the University of Michi- gan, no. 820. Read before the 48th meeting of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters held at the Migr a Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., March 26-27, 2Tn DUPERREY, A ie sie Voyage autour du monde 27: 133-134, pl. 21. 1830. SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 135 rather small, the problem is not serious, and possibilities of confusion at present are sight. If the number of homonyms among the two groups should ever be greatly in- creased’ at some future date when many more species of fossils are known, possibly the same epithets could be permitted for both recent and fossil species. Most special- ists do not work with both groups anyway. The greatest sources for error then would be in recent species found also as fossils in the geologically youngest deposits, such as Pleistocene. Identical names for plants and animals are permitted (art. 6), though the names repeated are mostly genera. Another possible solution would be to assign slightly different generic names to fossils that are closely related to living genera. Then the same specific epithets could be repeated in both. To some extent this practice has been followed by the use of suffixes, such as -ztes, and -orylon, and -phyllum in the examples Pinites from Pinus, Araucarioxylon from Araucaria, and Sapindophyllum from Sapin- dus. JOSE VERA (Communicated by new species. The writer is greatly indebted to Mrs. Chase, for her technical assistance in the preparation of this paper, and to Dr. Elzada U. Clover, for going over the manu- script. Garnotia mindanaensis Santos, sp. nov. Perennis, 45-55 cm alta; culmi caespitosi, erecti, simplices, nodiis pubescentibus; vaginae glabrae, collari pubescenti et venis prominenti- bus; ligulae 0.2 mm longae, glabrae; laminae lineari-lanceolatae, planae, 8-25 cm longae, 4-6 mm latae; paniculae 10-18 cm longae, angustae interruptae; spiculae 4—4.5 mm longae, 0.5—0.6 mm latae, anguste lanceolatae, e dorso com- pressae; glumae subaequales, breviter aristatae, 3-nerves, scabrae; lemma maturum glumas aequans, lanceolatum, glabrum, 3-nerve; arista lemmate 1-2.5 plo longior; palea anguste lanceolata, membranacea, marginibus supra auriculas molliter pubescentibus; lodiculae 2, minutae, spatulatae, glabrae. 136 Plants perennial, 45-55 cm tall; culms simple, tufted, erect or slightly geniculate toward the base, the nodes pubescent; sheaths glabrous, the collar pubescent, the veins prominent; ligules about 0.2 mm long, glabrous, the margin erose; blades linear-lanceolate, flat, 8-25 cm long, 4-6 mm wide, narrowed at the base, glabrous on both surfaces except for a few hairs toward the tip and the pubescence, sometimes with long hairs intermixed, above the ligule, the margins antrorsely scabrous; panicles 10-18 em long, narrow, interrupted, the branches loosely appressed; spikelets about 4-4.5 mm long, (.5-0.6 mm wide, narrowly lanceolate, dorsally compressed, with short hairs at the base, in pairs, the members of each pair with short un- equal pedicels; glumes subequal, both 3-nerved, the nerves scabrous, the middle one exerted into a short awn, the internerves glabrous; lemma at maturity equaling the glumes, lanceolate, glabrous, 3-nerved, the acute tip extending into an awn about 1—2.5 times as long as the lemma; palea narrowly lanceolate, membranaceous, en- closing a perfect flower, keeled on the back along the two lateral nerves, the margins auri- cled toward the base, softly pubescent from above the auricles to the tip; lodicules two, minute, spatulate, glabrous. The type is in the herbarium of the Uni- versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected by H. H. Bart- lett, no. 17235, December 6, 1940, grassland at Del Monte, Bukidnon, Mindanao Island, Philippines. This species shows some resemblance to Garnotia stricta Brongn., the type species of the genus, and different collections have been re- ferred to it. In view of this fact, a thorough study was made of the characteristics of the real Garnotia stricta Brongn. as proposed in 1830. Since the type specimen, which came from ‘Tle de Taiti,”’ is not available, Brongni- art’s original description and the accompany- ing illustration showing the awnless lemma (pl. 21) are the only authentic bases for determining the identity of this species. The species here proposed differs from Garnotia stricta Brongn. in the absence of a rhizome, in the glabrous ligule, short-awned second glume, long-awned lemma, soft pubescence of the margin of the palea from above the auricles to the tip, and in the glabrous lodicules. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 Sacciolepis glabra Santos, sp. nov. Annua, 40-55 cm alta; culmi graciles, erecti vel decumbentes, nodiis inferioribus radicantes; vaginae glabrae; ligulae membranaceae, 0.5 mm longae, marginibus pilosis; laminae lineares 5-12 cm longae, 3-5 mm latae, supra sparse papilloso-pilosae, marginibus scaberulis; pani- culae maturae contractae, spiciformes, cylindri- cae, ca 2-5 cm longae, 7 mm latae; spiculae 3-4 mm longae, glabrae, a latere compressae, ob- longo-lanceolatae; gluma prima quam spicula ca 3 plo brevior, subacuta, 3—5-nervis, margini- bus hyalinis; gluma secunda et lemma vacuum aequalia, 11-nervia, illa gibbosa hoe basi sac- catum; palea sterilis reducta; lemma fertile quam spicula ca 2 plo brevius, lanceolato- ellipticum; palea lemma aequans, utraque ob- scure nervosa; granum Oblongo-ellipticum, sub- fuscum. Plants annual, 40—55 cm tall; culms glabrous, slender, branched, erect to decumbent, rooting at the lower nodes; sheaths glabrous, slightly compressed; ligules membranous, 0.5 mm long, the margin pilose; blades linear, the tips acute, 5-12 cm long, 3-5 mm wide, the upper ones much longer than the lower, the upper surface sparsely papillose-pilose, the margins scaberu- lous; mature panicles contracted, spikelike, cylindric, about 2.5 cm long, 7 mm wide; spike- lets 3-4 mm long, glabrous, crowded, solitary to subfascicled, laterally compressed, oblong- lanceolate in dorsal view; first glume about 4 as long as the spikelet, subacute, 3- to 5-nerved, the margin hyaline; second glume and empty lemma equal, both l1l-nerved, the glume strongly gibbose below, the lemma more or less straight for the greater part of its length except for the saccate base; sterile palea re- duced; fertile lemma about one-half as long as the spikelet, lanceolate-elliptic, pale, shining, the tip acute; palea as long as the lemma, both obscurely nerved, chartaceous-indurate; grain light brown, oblong-elliptic. The type is in the herbarium of the Uni- versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected by L. E. Ebalo, no. 174, October 26-30, 1939, at Wawan and Dimaraga Mountains, Mansalay, Island of Mindoro, Philippines. This species shows some relation to two Asiatic grasses, Sacciolepis contracta (Wight & May 15, 1948 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 137 Fig. 1.—Garnotia mindanaensis: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, X 3. a, Side view of the spikelet; b, first glume; c, second glume; d, fertile lemma; e, palea with the bisexual flower. a—e, X10. (Type.) VOL. 33, NO. 5 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 138 , X#. a and b, Side and dorsal views d, X10. (Type.) of the spikelet, respectively; c, fertile lemma; d, grain. a— Fig. 2.—Sacciolepis glabra: Habit sketch of the flowering plant May 15, 1943 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 139 SN a Fig. 3.—Isachne lutaria: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, <4. a and b, Side and dorsal views of the spikelet, respectively; c, side view of the lower and upper lemmas; d, ventral view of the upper cag é, palea of the upper lemma enclosing the pistil, filaments, and lodicules; f, grain. a—f, X10. ype. 140 Arn.) Hitche.* and S. indica (L.) Chase. It differs from both in having much larger, gla- brous spikelets; from S. contracta in its annual character, the decumbent culms, rooting at the lower nodes, the lax, sparsely pubescent blades, and shorter panicles; and from S. indica in its much taller habit and in the panicles, which are more than twice as long. Isachne lutaria Santos, sp. nov. Annua, ca. 30 em alta; culmi graciles, adscen- dentes, ramosi, nodiis pubescentibus vel pilosis, eis inferioribus radicantibus; vaginae glabrae vel marginibus ciliatae; ligulae ciliatae pilis longis albidis; laminae lanceolatae, 2-4 cm longae, 8-5 mm-latae, venis et marginibus scaberulis; paniculae ovatae, 3-5 cm longae, 2.5-4 em latae, ramis flexuosis non glandulosis; spiculae elliptico-oblongae, 1.5-1.7 mm longae, 1-1.2 mm latae; glumae subaequales spiculam subaequantes, 9-nerves, late obtusae, sparse hispidae; lemma floris masculi spiculam sub- aequans, membranaceum, obscure 5-nerve; lemma fertile quam spicula clare brevius, char- taceum, breviter stipitatum, obscure 5-nerve, dorso et marginibus tenuiter pubescens; palea quam lemma paulo brevior, glabra; granum orbicularo-oblongum. Plants annual, about 30 cm tall; culms as- cending, slender, branched, rooting at the lower nodes, slightly compressed, the internodes gla- brous, the nodes pubescent to pilose; sheaths loose, shorter than the internodes, glabrous or the margins ciliate, the cilia gradually increas- ing in length toward the pilose upper portion and continuous with the fringe of long, white hairs which form the ligule; blades lanceolate, 2-4 em long, 3-5 mm wide, the veins and mar- gins scaberulous, the auricles papillose-pilose; panicles ovate, 3-5 cm long, 2.5—4 em wide, the branches spreading, flexuous, nonglandular; 3 Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 8: 199, fig. 90. 1922. 4 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 21: 8. 1908. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 spikelets elliptic-oblong, 1.5-1.7 mm long, 1—1.2 mm wide, greenish to purplish; glumes sub- equal, about as long as the spikelet, both 9- nerved, broadly obtuse, sparsely hispidulous, the second more prominently convex than the first; staminate lemma about as long as the spikelet, obscurely 5-nerved, membranous, its palea of the same length and texture, obscurely 2-nerved; fertile lemma distinctly shorter than the spikelet, chartaceous, short-stipitate, ellip- tic to elliptic-obovate, plano-convex, 5-nerved, finely pubescent on the back and margin; palea slightly shorter than the lemma, ovate to el- liptic-ovate, glabrous, enclosing a _ perfect flower; grain brown, orbicular-oblong. The type is in the herbarium of the Univer- sity of Michigan, fragment of type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected by E. W. Erlanson, no. 5190, January 8, 1934, at the edge of a paddy field, Trivandrum, Travancore, South India. ‘ The specific epithet refers to the muddy habitat of this grass. While the characters of this species agree in many respects with those of Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Kuntze,® it is distinguished from the latter by the smaller spikelets, sparsely hispidulous glumes, and the short-pubescent back of the upper lemma. I[sachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Kuntze is based on Milium globo- sum Thunberg.® Laségue’ states that Thun- berg’s specimens are in Stockholm, Sweden, which indicates that the type is probably in the famous herbarium of the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet. Since present world conditions ~ make the type inaccessible for examination, the determination of the Thunberg species is based on his original description and the topotype collected by Hisauti (U.S. National Herbarium no. 1162864), July 1921, at Yokohama, Japan. 5 Revisio genera plantarum 2: 778. 1891. 6 Flora Japonica 49. 1784. 7 Musée botanique de A. Benjamin Delessert 344. 1845. May 15, 1943 BROWN: UPPER CRETACEOUS CLIMBING FERN 141 PALEOBOTANY.—A climbing fern from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming.' Routanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey. The fern described here is, so far as I am aware, the first authentic Cretaceous and earliest known species of Lygodium from North America. I found these specimens in a small collection made on September 29, 1913, by V. H. Barnett and J. B. Reeside, Jr., of the United States Geological Survey, isec. 6, 1.33 N., R. 78 W., on the bank of the North Platte River, 4 miles east of Casper, Wyo. On the 1925 Geological Map of Wyoming this locality is within the area designated as Pierre shale. Shaw’s (1909, pl. 9) more detailed map, depicting the Glenrock coal field, differentiates the upper part of the Pierre shale as a sandy, shaly, coal-bearing sequence, in which this locality occupies a position near coal B, which over- lies what is now called the Parkman sand- stone member of the Mesaverde formation, a part of the Montana group of the Upper Cretaceous. The matrix containing these specimens is a gray shale with a tinge of pink, especially when wet. The several floras embraced by the Mesa- verde formation or group and its equiva- lents are much in need of critical study and correlation. At most localities in New Mexico and Colorado where the Mesaverde is well developed the formation has thus far proved relatively barren, but in the vicinity of Rock Springs, Wyo., some strata as- sociated with coal seams yield particularly ~ beautiful, well-preserved specimens of ferns, conifers, and dicotyledons. Besides the new species of fern, the col- lection from Casper, Wyo., includes several other unidentified ferns and a few dicotyle- donous leaf fragments. SCHIZAEACEAE Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp. Figs. 1-5 Sterile pinnules of palmate outline, in pairs, 2 cm or less in width, generally with four lobes, which are of nearly even width ? Published by permission of the Director, Geo- logical Survey, U. 8S. Department of the Interior. Received March 22, 1943. throughout but may sometimes be slightly spatulate. Tips of the lobes broadly rounded. Margins obscurely toothed. Bases cuneate to rounded, but none cordate as in some living species. Petiolules short. Primary venation the result of two dichotomies, and secondary venation generally once-forked. No fertile pinnules were found. Figs. 1-5.—Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp. Natural size. This species has the smallest pinnules of any fossil Lygodiwm known, if one rejects the very doubtful form called Lygodiwm? . antiquorum Shirley (1898, p. 17, pl. 17, fig. 3) from the early Mesozoic strata of Queens- land, Australia. This is a 3-lobed specimen about one-fourth the size of the pinnules of L. pumilum. It was thought to be a fertile pinnule, but as illustrated it is only a tantalizing outline. Consequently, judgment regarding its true identity must be reserved. Describing the Paleocene species, Lygo- dium coloradense, from the Dawson arkose in the Denver Basin of Colorado, F. H. Knowlton (1930, p. 30) discussed the living and fossil species of Lygodium. It appears that the only American Cretaceous species so far reported are L. trichomanoides Les- quereux from the Dakota sandstone of Kansas and L. compactum Lesquereux from the Laramie formation of Colorado. It was Knowlton’s opinion, in which I concur, that these species, founded upon single fragments neither of which can be identified with cer- 142 tainty, are of little or no value. They are examples of the unfortunate practice of at- taching generic and specific labels to speci- mens with insufficient character to warrant such distinction, with the ultimate result of bringing paleobotany into disrepute. These two specimens should be and are hereby re- jected as representing identifiable species of Lygodium. This leaves L. pumilum as the only known authentic American Cretaceous species. Its diminutiveness clearly separates it from the Tertiary species. One authentic European species, Lygo- dium cretaceum Debey and Ettingshausen (1859, p. 198, pl. 2, figs. 18-21; pl. 8, fig. 28), said to be from the Senonian of Prussia, is represented by fertile and sterile foliage. The sporangia of this species occur on the margins of leafy pinnules, a habit shown by a number of living species. Lygodium pumilum resembles no living species very closely, but apparently belongs in the group that includes L. palmatum, the climbing fern of the eastern United States. The latter, rather rare now because it was indiscriminately collected for decorative purposes before receiving legal protection, frequents moist thickets and open woods in lowlands but may sometimes be found at elevations exceeding 2,000 feet. Most of the 40 living species of Lygodium now listed are tropical or subtropical. They have a lithe, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 willowy attractiveness, and their dissected foliage displays great variation, which makes accurate identification of the species extremely difficult. The climbing portion above ground corresponds to the frond in nonclimbing ferns, and the foliage itself, both fertile and sterile, constitutes sub- divisions of the frond, called pinnules by some and pinnae by. others. Considering that palms are also found in the Mesaverde formation, we may conjec- ture that Lygodium pumilum was a member of a floral assemblage adapted to a warmer, moister, less rigorous climate than that which prevails in Wyoming today. I am grateful to Dr. William R. Maxon, of the National Museum, for the privilege of consultation with him during the prepara- tion of this paper. LITERATURE CITED Suaw, E.W. The Glenrock coal field, Wyoming. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 341: 151-164. 1909. SHIRLEY, JOHN. Queensland. Queensland Geol. Bull. 7. 1898. Knowuron, F. H. The flora of the Denver and associated formations of Colorado. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 155. 1930. Dressy, M. H., and Errrnesnausen, C. Ur- weltlichen Acrobryen des Kreidegebirges von Aachen und Maestricht. Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 17: 183-248. 1859. Additions to the fossil flora of Survey ORNITHOLOGY.—Description of a third form of curassow of the genus Pauxi.* ALEXANDER WETMORE, U.S. National Museum, and W. H. Puetps, Caracas, Venezuela. The genus Pauzi has been one of the least known of the interesting group of curassows in spite of the fact that the typical form was named by Linnaeus in 1766. The earliest Specimens to come to the attention of students of birds apparently were obtained from Indians, and were attributed errone- ously to Mexico, the Island of Curacao, Cayenne, the upper Orinoco, and various other localities where the species is not known to exist. In 1870 Sclater and Salvin recorded Pauai from near Caracas, and it was determined in the years that followed that these birds inhabited the forested 1 Received March 25, 1943. mountain areas of northern Venezuela from near Caracas west to the vicinity of Mérida. Comparatively few specimens have been re- ceived in museums in the period since the latter part of the sixteenth century when Aldrovandus wrote of it under the name of the Gallina indica alia, until recently when its haunts have become better known. Un- expectedly, two were obtained recently by M. A. Carriker, Jr., for the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, during work in Bolivia, in the hills above Bolivar, at 2,500 feet elevation near Palmar, in the Yungas de Cochabamba. These proved to have the casque rounded and conical in- stead of swollen and were described by Bond May 15, 1943 and de Schauensee as Pawaxi unicornis.? From February to March, 1940, W. H. Phelps put an expedition in the field in the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Perija, west of Machiques, in northwestern Venezuela. One of the collectors of the party purchased from Indians of the Manastara tribe living WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW 143 ported a paujz in the adjacent forests, but none could be found during the course of the expedition. In 1942 a second necklace was received in Caracas as a gift with the assurance that it came from the Indians of the Machiques region. This second necklace was composed of beads, the bills, chest Fig. 1.—Head of Pauwzi p. unicornis Bond and de Schauensee (above) and of P. p. pauai (Linnaeus) one-half natural size, reproduced to scale, through the courtesy of J. S. Bond and R. M. de Schauensee. at La Sabana a necklace made of beads, with decorations in the form of three head scalps of Pauxzt composed of the upper half of the bill, the casque, and the skin of the crown down to the eyes. The Indians re- 2 Pauxt unicorns Bond and de Schauensee, Notulae Naturae Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, no. 29: 1. Oct. 24, 1939. feathers, and humeri of two species of toucans, and six of the Pauzz scalps. In 1941 M. A. Carriker, Jr., collecting for the U. 8. National Museum, following work with A. Wetmore through the Guajira, continued into the Sierra Negra at the northern end of the Perij4 range on the Colombian side of the mountains. In this 144 work he secured five fine skins of Pauzz, a male at 1,800 feet near El Bosque back of Carriapia on June 21, a male at 1,200 to 1,500 feet near Tierra Nueva, July 21, and two adult females and one juvenile between 4,000 and 4,500 feet near Monte Elias in the same general region on August 9 and 11. In Caracas, on comparing the scalps from the necklaces with skins from farther east in Venezuela, it was evident at once that an unknown form was concerned. After com- parison there, through the kindness of Dr. William Beebe, six of the scalps, showing the variations in form, were brought to the American Museum of Natural History, where E. Thomas Gilliard made further studies with material available there and in Philadelphia, assembling much valuable in- formation. When the series of skins in the National Museum came to his attention it seemed desirable to select one of those as type rather than one of the fragmentary heads as was first intended. As Gilliard was under necessity of undertaking other work that has taken him out of the United States, we are completing the study with the aid of additional material. The investigation has been much assisted by the kindness of Miss Jocelyn Crane, of the Department of Tropical Research, New York Zoological Society, in photographing in Caracas the nine heads obtained from the Indian necklaces. The hitherto unknown form may be known as— Pauxi pauxi gilliardi, n. subsp. Characters.—Similar to Pauzxit pauxi pauxt (Linnaeus)? but with the frontal casque or helmet smaller, less swollen (Fig. 2) ; bill smaller. Description—Type, U.S.N.M. 368540, from 1,200 to 1,500 feet elevation near Tierra Nueva. at the northern end of the Serranfa de Valledu- par, or Sierra Negra, slightly south of east of Fonseca, Departamento de Magdalena, Co- lombia. Abdomen, extreme lower breast, under tail-coverts, and tip of tail white; rest of plumage black; feathers of head and upper neck, short, thick and soft to the touch, those surrounding the eye being very small; foreneck, 3 Crax pauzi Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 270. 1766. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 breast, and sides with a greenish sheen, with each feather bordered distally with clear black, producing a dull, squamated appearance that is most prominent on the upper breast and foreneck; exposed feathers of dorsal surface, including wings and tail, also with a dull green- ish cast with the wing coverts, lower hind neck, upper back, and longer upper tail-coverts margined narrowly with deep black to produce somewhat indistinct squamations; lower back and rump dull black. Bill dull red; casque blackish brown, with a wash of dull silvery gray on distal third; tarsi and toes dull reddish brown; claws blackish brown (from dried skin). Fig. 2.—Head of Pauzi p. gilliardt, one-half natural size. Measurements.—Males, 2 specimens, wing 354, 370, tail 305, 317, culmen from base of casque 32.1, 33.7, tarsus 110.3-112.1, length of casque (casque deformed in one bird) 58.3, width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5, greatest circumference of casque 76 mm. Females, 2 specimens, wing 336, 352, tail 290, 292, culmen from base of casque 30.4, 30.7, May 15, 1943 tarsus 102.9, 103, length of casque 53.5, 57.8, width of casque 23.9, 27, depth. of casque 24, 27.1, greatest circumference of casque 76, 83 mm. Type, male, wing 354, tail 305, culmen from casque 32.1, tarsus 110.3, length of casque 58.3, width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5, greatest circumference of casque 76 mm. Range.—Known from the mountain forests of the northern part of the Sierra de Perij4 from 1,200 to at least 4,500 feet elevation from the region east of Fonseca, Magdalena, Colombia, around to the headwaters of the Rio Negro above Machiques, Zulia, Venezuela. Remarks.—It is easily apparent that the differences in the three forms of the genus Pauxzi now known are found mainly in the casque, which varies from the cylindrical, somewhat tapering form seen in the two known specimens of P. wnicornis to the con- siderably swollen, figlike shape of typical pauxt, with gilliard: coming between (Figs. 1 and 2). The feathers of the center of the crown, nape, and hind neck in unicornis are stiffer and are glossy, instead of soft and velvety; but tendency toward this condition is found also in pauai and gilliardt. Comparative measurements (in mm.) of the casque in all available material follow, those registered for gilliardi including the nine heads from Indian necklaces in the Phelps collection: 11 pauat 13 gilliardi 2 unicornis Culmen, from base of GUS op 65 ea Oe 32-39 29-36 32-35 Greatest width of casque. 28-40 19-27 20 Greatest depth of casque. 30.5-38 21-27 .1 23 Greatest circumference GMCASAUC cis oe cs se ba 93-117 63-85 66-75 The three races will stand therefore as follows: PAUXI PAUXI PAUXI (Linnaeus) Mountain forests of northwestern Vene- zuela from near Caracas, through the Cum- bre de Valencia to the Mérida region. PAUXI PAUXI GILLIARDI Phelps and Wetmore Forests of the Sierra de Perij4 from the western slope in Colombia east of Fonseca, Magdalena, and the Montes de Oca, Guajira, Colombia, around to the head- WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW 145 waters of the Rio Negro above Machiques in Venezuela, probably extending much farther south. PAUXI PAUXI UNICORNIS Bond and de Schauensee Known from two specimens from near Palmar, Yungas de Cochabamba, Bolivia. The form of the casque varies somewhat with age. Carriker secured a young female of gilliardi at Monte Elias, Magdalena, Colombia, on August 11, 1941, that ap- parently is not quite half grown. It already has the plumage of the adult, except that a few bright brown feathers of the young plumage are still found in the crown, some of the wing coverts and back feathers are tipped, or occasionally mottled lightly with bright brown and buff, the secondaries and tertials are mottled somewhat with bright brown and the feathers of the sides, lower breast, and legs are tipped with whitish to buffy brown. The casque in this bird is merely a rounded knob above the base of the culmen, rising about 7 mm from a base that is approximately 15 mm long and 8 mm wide. Gilliard’s notes describe an immature pauxt in the American Museum of Natural History (no. 471586) with the casque about two-thirds developed which has the greatest circumference about 80 mm. One or two of the heads of gildzardi in the Phelps collection may be younger than the others as indicated by the smaller casque. The most southern race, unicornis, has the casque more uni- formly cylindrical throughout. The two northern forms are marked by a posterior swelling that reaches its maximum develop- ment in typical pauwaz. Linnaeus‘ based the description of his Crax pauzi on the accounts of Aldrovandus, Willughby, Hernandez, Edwards, Brisson, and other early authors, and from these sources indicated that the bird came from ‘“Mexico.”’ The occurrence of the species has been in much confusion with various er- roneous localities included. From present knowledge it appears probable that the few examples seen by the early writers came from Venezuela, since that is the section of the known range ordinarily accessible to the 4 Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 270. 1766. 146 early travelers. We, therefore, designate the type locality as near Caracas, Venezuela, since in early days forests suitable for Pauaz were found near the city. As regards the altitudinal distribution of these birds it is erroneous to limit them to the Tropical Zone. Two specimens of Pauazz in the Phelps collection were obtained in the Cumbre de Valencia, Carabobo at 1,440 meters (4,725 feet), and at Cubiro, Lara, at 1,900 meters (about 6,200 feet). These are in the lower edge of the Subtropical Zone. We have pleasure in naming the new form for E. Thomas Gilliard, in recognition of his work on the material on which it is based. Specimens examined.—Pauxt p. pauzt. Venezuela: (American Museum of Natural History) 30", 7 sex ?, Montafias del Capas, Mérida region (Bricefio); 1 ©, Limones, Rio Limones, Mérida region; 1 sex?, zoo specimen; 1 sex?, ‘“‘northwest Venezuela”’ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 (mounted). (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) 3 sex?, zoo specimens; 1 sex?, “northern South America.’’ (Phelps collection, Caracas) 1c’, Cumbre de Valen- cia, Carabobo, at 1,440 meters; 1 @, Cubiro, Lara, 1,900 meters. Pauxi p. gilliard:. Colombia: (U. 8. Na- tional Museum) 10”, El Bosque, 1,800 feet elevation, in the Sierra Negra, near Car- riapia, Guajira; 1 o (type) Tierra Nueva, 1,200—1,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Mag- dalena; 2 © adult, 1 @ juvenile, Monte Elias, 4,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Magda- lena. Venezuela: (Phelps Collection, Cara- cas) 9 heads, sex?, on the Rio Negro above Machiques, in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia. Pauzi p. unicornis. Bolivia (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) 1 o& (type), 1 9, hills above Bolivar, 2,500 feet elevation near Palmar, Yungas de Cocha- bamba. MAMMALOGY.—The systematic status of certain pocket gophers, with special ref- erence to Thomomys monticola.! In various papers published during recent years the writer has made efforts to bring together in specific or near-specific groups many of the names proposed for pocket gophers during a pioneer period when sys- tematic relationships were very imperfectly known. Our knowledge of these relation- ships is still far from complete, but, espe- cially in view of the extraordinary number of names involved, some semblance of sys- tematic order is imperative. In dealing with the names the term “group” may con- veniently be used rather loosely to designate either an aggregation of subspecies or an assemblage of closely allied species. In ‘Remarks on Pocket Gophers, with Special Reference to Thomomys talpoides”’ (Journ. Mamm. 20: 233. May 14, 1939), I traced the local range of the Thomomys talpoides series south in western Washington to the Columbia River. The apparent re- placement of populations of the talpozdes type by the Thomomys monticola series in the Pacific coast region south of the Colum- bia River was also noted, but the subspecies were not formally segregated, and such 1 Received March 11, 1943. E. A. GoLpMAN, Fish and Wildlife Service. confused combinations as Thomomys doug- lasit oregonus Merriam have remained in current literature. At the suggestion of Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. certain names are here revised in order to make them available for inclusion in a new list of North American mammals being prepared by him. LIST OF SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS MONTICOLA, WITH TYPE LOCALITIES Thomomys monticola monticola Allen: Mount Tallac, Eldorado County, Calif. Synonyms.—Thomomys monticola pine- torum Merriam: Sisson, west base of Mount Shasta, Siskiyou County, Calif.; Thomomys monticola premaxillaris Grin- nell: 2 miles south of South Yolla Bolly Mountain (7,500 feet), Tehama County, Calif. : Thomomys monticola oregonus Merriam: Ely, near Oregon City, Willamette Valley, Clackamas County, Ore. Thomomys monticola hesperus Merriam: Tilla- mook, Tillamook County, Ore. Thomomys monticola niger Merriam: Seaton, near mouth of Umpqua River, Douglas County, Ore. Thomomys monticola mazama Merriam: Anna May 15, 1943 Creek, near Crater Lake, Klamath County, Ore. Thomomys monticola hellert Elliot: Gold Beach, mouth of Rogue River, Curry County, Ore. SUBSPECIES OF THE THOMOMYS UM- BRINUS GROUP NOT PREVIOUSLY RECOGNIZED AS SUCH Thomomys umbrinus quercinus Burt and Camp- bell: Pefia Blanca Spring, altitude 4,500 feet, near Mexican boundary, north of Monument 128, Pajarito Mountains, Santa Cruz County, Ariz. Thomomys umbrinus proximus Burt and Camp- bell: Old Parker Ranch (Pickett’s Ranch on U. 8S. Geological Survey topographic map, Patagonia Quadrangle, edition of August 1905), altitude 4,800 feet, west slope of Santa Rita Mountains, Pima County, Ariz. CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 147 SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS BOTTAE HITHERTO TREATED AS DISTINCT SPECIES Thomomys bottae magdalenae Nelson and Gold- man: Magdalena Island, Lower California, Mexico. Thomomys bottae martirensis Allen: San Pedro Martir Mountains (8,200 feet), Lower California, Mexico. Additional specimens of Thomomys bot- tae collinus Goldman, from Fly Park (9,000 feet), Chiricahua Mountains, Ariz., indicate that the characters ascribed to Thomomys umbrinus chiricahuae Nelson and Goldman, from Pinery Canyon (7,500 feet), Chirica- hua Mountains, Ariz., are within the range of individual variation in that subspecies. The name Thomomys umbrinus chiricahuae should, therefore, be placed in the synonymy of Thomomys bottae collinus. ICHTHYOLOGY.—The osteology and relationships of the bathypelagic fishes of the genus Bathylagus Gunther with notes on the systematic position of Leuroglossus stilbius Gilbert and Therobromus eallorhinus Lucas. CHAPMAN, California Academy of Sciences. i SCHULTZ. ) This report describes the bony structures and the gross visceral anatomy of the genus Bathylagus, discusses its relationships, and defines the family Bathylagidae. A brief ac- count is given of the anatomy of Leuro- glossus stilbius, and reasons why it should be placed in the Bathylagidae rather than the Argentinidae are listed. Therobromus callo- rhinus, known only from bones found in the stomachs of the fur seals of the North Pacific, is identified as a species of Bathyla- gus. The genus Bathylagus comprises at pres- ent 16 species of fishes, 8 of which have been described in the past 12 years. Representa- tives occur on both sides of the North and South Atlantic Oceans, in the Antarctic, off the west coast of North America from southern Mexico to the Bering Sea, and in the Okhotsk Sea. They typically inhabit deeper water layers outside the continental shelf (Norman, 1930; Parr, 1931 and 1937; Beebe, 1933; Chapman, 1939 and 1940), al- 1 Received February 11, 1943. WiLBERT McL&rop (Communicated by LEONARD though B. argyrogaster has been taken toward the surface layers (Norman, 1930). Bathylagus was originally placed by Giin- ther (1878) in the Salmonidae. Regan (1909 and 1914) considered it to be a member of the Argentinidae, and Norman (1930), Parr (1931), Beebe (1933), and others have fol- lowed him. Jordan and Evermann (1896) placed it in the Microstomidae, as did Barnard (1925) and others. In recent years it has been placed both in the Argentinidae and Microstomidae by the compilers of the Pisces section of the Zoological Record. Gill (1884), with his usual keen insight, erected for the genus the family Bathylagidae by name only, but Goode and Bean (1895) gave a diagnosis of the family. Gill’s classification has been followed by Jordan (1923), Jordan, Evermann, and Clark (1930), Fowler (1936) Parr (1937), and most recently by Berg (1940). This study is based upon dissections of Bathylagus pacificus Gilbert taken by the International Fisheries Commission in the Gulf of Alaska and off the coast of British 148 Columbia. The illustrations are based on an adult female, with well-developed eggs, taken off the west coast of the Queen Char- lotte Islands, IFC station 321¢ (Thompson and Van Cleve, 1936). Diagnoses have been made on specimens of B. alascanus Chap- man and Leuroglossus stilbius Gilbert. Un- less otherwise mentioned, references to the anatomy of Argentina, Muicrostoma, and Macropinna are based upon dissections by the writer. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kind- ness of H. A. Dunlop, director of investiga- tions, International Fisheries Commission, in allowing me to work on their specimens of Bathylagus and Macropinna; Dr. George S. Myers, Stanford University, in providing me with a specimen of Leuroglossus; and Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, U. 8. National Museum, for the loan of specimens of Argentina and Microstoma. ANTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM Ethmoid cartilage (Figs. 1-3) restricted in extent by size of ethmoid and prefrontal os- sifications; extending anteriorly as broad, flat plate between dorsal and ventral ethmoid bones; thickest between prefrontals where it rises to frontals and shows between them; pierced on inner edge of prefrontals by foramina of olfactory nerves; extending unbroken under frontals to sphenotics, thus separating orbito- sphenoid and alisphenoids from frontals; ven- tral surface flat, with palatine synchondrized along entire edge anterior to prefrontals as in Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b); running pos- teriorly for short distance along parasphenoid. Mesethmoid (Figs. 1, 3) consisting of a nearly circular, flat plate, which forms greater part of rostral plate, and a strong buttress, which rises from dorsal surface of this plate to meet frontals. Ventral ethmoid (Fig. 2) a thin circular plate like mesethmoid above it; shallowly concave on ventral side; perhaps homologous with similar bone in certain osmerids (Chapman, 1941b). Frontals (Figs. 1-3) everywhere separate, with cartilage exposed between them pos- teriorly, anteriorly, and between orbits; lying over only a portion of edges of sphenotics and supraoccipital posteriorly; sloping evenly and gently downward from supraoccipital to mes- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 ethmoid. Each bone bearing on its lateral edge a high and prominent trough in which frontal extension of lateral line system lies and to which broad, thin supraocular and postfrontal of circumorbital series are attached mem- branously; these structures probably special ossifications of sensory system, but indistin- guishably fuse with frontals; higher anteriorly than width of frontals between them and re- sponsible for concavity of interocular region; formed from extremely thin bone and quite separate from broad supraorbitals. Prefrontals (Figs. 1-3) thin, broad ossifica- tions of nearly circular shape in lateral ethmoid cartilage, with very thin lateral edges. Parasphenoid (Figs. 2, 3) long, slender, and straight, extending from ventral ethmoid to basioccipital; concave on ventral surface under ethmoid, with broad posterior shaft of vomer lying in cavity; heaviest and widest where it reaches prootics; posterior extension of bone thin and lying flatly in shallow concavity of basiooccipital. No true myodome. Parasphenoid flatly attached to prootics and heavy cartilage between those bones so ocular muscles attach in shallow concavity formed by short wings of parasphenoid and bulky ventral edges of pro- otics. Vomer (Figs. 1-3) heavy and large, project- ing anteriorly beyond ethmoid structures; on anterior edge bearing 30 to 32 conical teeth, which are set in sockets in bone, project slightly anteriorly as well as ventrally, and form entire dentition of upper jaw; a notch in bone at lateral corner of dentigerous area into which anterior end of palatine fits; long, broad, me- dian shaft projects back in concavity of ventral ethmoid to end on parasphenoid. POSTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM Cartilage of postorbital portion of cranium everywhere restricted in extent (Figs. 1-3); re- duced to narrow bands, which disappear be- tween supraoccipital and epiotics; expanded between supraoccipital and sphenotics, but these areas covered by parietals; somewhat ex- panded between epiotics and exoccipitals; greatest expansion between basioccipital and prootics, but considerable part of this covered by parasphenoid; sockets of hyomandibula lines with cartilage. Dorsal surface of postorbital portion of May 15, 1943 cranium with no prominent ridges or depres- sions, sloping gently and evenly from parietals to posterior edge of pterotics without definite temporal fossae, and sloping between conical tips of epiotics and supraoccipital down to foramen magnum. Supraoccipital (Figs. 1, 2) broad and shield- shaped, forming prominent portion of dorsal surface of cranium; anterolateral edges of bones covered by parietals; lateral portion of anterior edge covered by frontals, but median portion exposed; bluntly pointed posterior end sloping downward, but broadly separated from foramen magnum by epiotics and exoccipitals; short, sharp vane of bone projecting from mid- line, on which originate two thin but tough muscles, which extend back between myomeres and along distal ends of interneurals to origin of dorsal fin. Thin, scalelike parietals (Figs. 1, 3) widely separated by supraoccipital, partially covering sphenotics and supraoccipital and completely covering cartilage between those bones. Epiotics (Figs. 1, 8) prominent, conical bones meeting broadly behind supraoccipitals, re- ceiving ligament from dorsal fork of post- temporal on blunt tip of bone, and each with deep concavity on posterior surface. — Sphenotics (Figs. 1-3) prominent bones with considerable dorsal, lateral, and anterior sur- face. Socket of hyomandibular resting not so much on sphenotic as upon cartilage between that bone and prootic. Pterotics (Figs. 1-3) with socket of hyo- mandibular angling across entire ventral sur- face of each bone. From dorsal surface a long, bulky column of cartilage, which joins ventral and dorsal surfaces internally, can be seen. Alisphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) large bones provid- ing anterolateral protection for brain; separated from prootics, sphenotics, and orbitosphenoid by slender bands of cartilage, and everywhere separate ventrally. Orbitosphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) meeting mesially but not completely fused; from ventral edge a very thin strand of ossification extends into interorbital membrane; olfactory nerves emerg- ing between bones anteriorly. Ventral side of cranium marked by triangu- lar expansion of basioccipital and prootics, in which the large otoliths lie. Otolith capsules not projecting ventrally as much as in Macropinna or the osmerids. CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 149 Prootics (Figs. 2, 3) largest bones of ventral surface of cranium, marked by otolith expan- sions and by small posterior foramen of trigem- inofacial complex; these two foramina sepa- rated by thin, strongly ossified bridge, which forms sharp ridge setting off anterior from ven- tral surface of bone; bones separated ventrally by broad, thick band of cartilage; anterior end of this cartilage much thickened and slightly concave, with shallow concavity between it and parasphenoid. Posterior eye muscles inserted in this area. Each exoccipital (Figs. 1-3) strongly concave on ventral side with two foramina in posterior part of concavity, the posterior of which is much the larger; posterior projection of bone lying along condyle of basioccipital, sending process dorsally, separated from similar process of other exoccipital by narrow band of cartilage; these two processes form sides and roof of foramen magnum but do not form part of condyle and do not articulate with any process of first vertebra; concavity of posterior surface of epiotic continued on posterior surface of ex- occipital. Constricted posterior end of basioccipital (Figs. 1-3), which forms occipital condyle, heavily ossified and bearing ridges of denser os- sification ventrally and laterally; ventral sur- face of bone shallowly concave anteriorly. Opisthotic (not shown in Fig. 3) tiny and ob- long; in some specimens lying entirely on exoc- cipital midway between foramen of vagus nerve and lateral edge of bone, and in others lying more laterally and partially resting on cartilage between exoccipital and pterotic; curving around posterior edge of exoccipital and thus with a small posterior surface which is not visible dorsally ; receiving ligament from ventral fork of posttemporal. SPECIAL OSSIFICATIONS OF SENSORY SYSTEM All bones associated with extension of lateral line system over head thin and weak, most with no tubes developed for protection of nerves, but acting merely as supports. Nasal thin, slender, semitubular, and almost flattened; lying direct- ly over nasal capsule; by no means so big or broad in my specimens as in Beebe’s (1933, fig. 37). Six bones of circumorbital series as shown by Beebe, except that in my specimens postorbital considerably larger than supra- orbital. It is interesting to note the turn evolu- 150 tion has taken in the big-eyed Bathylagus, whose eyes are placed laterally and strongly protected dorsally by the expanded supra- orbital and postorbital; whereas in the big-eyed Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933) and Macro- pinna (Chapman, 1942b), which have the eyes dorsally directed, these bones are absent and the eyes are protected by enormously expanded suborbitals, bones that are weakly developed in Bathylagus. A semitubular bone, attached to sphenotic directly behind eye, bridging gap for nerve JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 338, NO. 5 ankylosed to that bone. Ossified tube for nerve present on mandible, securely ankylosed to both dentary and angular. UPPER JAW Premaxillary and maxillary thin and delicate, neither bearing teeth nor having gape edge thickened for that purpose (Fig. 4); upper jaw loosely bound to cranium by delicate mem- branes only, neither bone equipped with an- terior condyle for attachment to cranium; an- terior end of premaxillary lying in groove be- Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of the cranium of Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 2.—ventral view of the cranium of the same. 8.2. between sphenotic and preopercle. Nerve en- cased in tube on dorsal arm of preopercle, but on ventral arm this tube opens ventrally to be- come trough. A short tube protects nerve on lateral face of opercle, projecting downward from condyle. Protection for nerve over sphenot- ic and pterotic irregular, not tubular and ex- ceedingly flimsy. Lightly ossified tissue lending some support to nerve between cranium and supracleithrum. Nerve running ventrally on supracleithrum in trough of thin bone securely tween anterior end of mesethmoid and vomer, not meeting premaxillary of other side; bound rather loosely to premaxillary but not to pala- tine. No supramaxillary found in any specimen (such a bone is shown by Beebe, 1938, in fig. 36, but not in fig. 39, and is not mentioned by him in the text). MANDIBLE Mandible (Fig. 4) consisting of dentary, articular, angular, sesamoid articular, Meckel’s May 15, 1943 cartilage, and a superficial ossified tube for mandibular branch of lateral line system. Den- tary forming greater part of mandible, so thin that sesamoid articular can be seen through it in stained specimens; overlying considerable portion of articular; bearing 82 teeth in speci- men drawn, which are conical, small, and closely pressed together in a single series. CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 151 interior shaft of articular to a similar but slenderer shaft on inner side of dentary; not thick, but broad posteriorly. Sesamoid articular thin and of irregular shape, with longest axis anterior-posterior, and area about one-third that shown for articular (Fig. 4); lying princi- pally on dorsal edge of Meckel’s cartilage, but extending also onto articular and dentary. Thin Fig. 3.—Lateral view of the cranium of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 4.—Lateral view of the suspensorium of the same. 3.2. Angular small but heavily ossified, receiving broad ligament from interopercle. Articular triangular with heavily ossified socket of articu- lation at apex, with strong, thick shaft of bone extending forward from socket on mesial side, presumably ossification of posterior third of Meckel’s cartilage. Meckel’s cartilage about one-third length of mandible, extending from above-mentioned ossified tube for mandibular branch of lateral line system on external side of dentary and articular, obviously a special ossification of sensory system but indistinguishably fused to the mandibular bones. Sensory canal com- municates with exterior by means of four pores in the bone. PALATINE ARCH Palatine (Fig. 4) securely joined along entire 152 dorsal edge to ethmoid cartilage as in Macro- pinna, thus forming firm support between bones of oral cavity and cranium; band of cartilage behind palatine also participating in this junc- tion. Anterior end of palatine more heavily os- sified than rest of bone and inserted in cavity between vomer and ethmoid cartilage; no teeth on palatine of specimens examined, but since vomerine dentition extends posteriorly under anterior tip of palatine, the latter appears to bear a few teeth until a complete dissection is made. Pterygoid (Fig. 4) simple, well-ossified bone joining palatine and quadrate together strongly, overlapping both bones laterally as well as mesially. Quadrate (Fig. 4) has form of nearly half a circle, with small but heavily ossified condyle; slender process projecting posteriorly along pre- opercle and symplectic, thus binding palatine and hyoid arches together and binding both to preopercle. Broad band of cartilage around quadrate forms broad patch between quadrate and pala- tine and extends around end of latter to syn- chondrize with ethmoid cartilage. This does not extend posteriorly along symplectic. Simple, thin membrane between symplectic and meso- pterygoid. Mesopterygoid (Fig. 4) broad, thin and very similar to same structure in Macropinna and Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933); ventral edge lies under quadrate and palatine (dotted line in Fig. 4), and entirely mesial to cartilage of this region, to which it is tightly bound. Bone appears to be an ossification of membranes of roof of mouth and therefore not properly con- sidered with cartilage bones of palatine arch. Metapterygoid either absent or represented by small bit of bone behind mesopterygoid (Fig. 4). Of same structure as mesopterygoid and separated from that bone by thin membrane only; doubtfully homologous with metaptery- goid of other isospondylous fishes. HYOID ARCH Hyomandibular (Fig. 4) articulating along full lateral surface of pterotic and sphenotic as in Macropinna and Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933). Articulation anteriorly on cartilage be- tween sphenotic and prootic. Opercular con- dyle nearly as long as articular head although much slenderer, leaving considerable open JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 space between opercle and preopercle. High, thin wing of bone extending from lateral side of hyomandibular at level of opercular condyle attached by membranes to preopercle and ad- jacent bone of circumorbital series. Truncus hyoido-mandibularis facialis nerve pierces bone in large foramen which extends nearly straight ventrally from inner to outer side of bone to emerge on thin wing of bone on posterior side of shaft of hyomandibular. Wing of thin bone present in anterior angle between articular head and ventral shank of the bone. Column of cartilage between hyomandibular and symplectic (Fig. 4) with characteristic an- terior twist so that symplectic does not con- tinue in direct line with ventral shaft of hyo- mandibular. A similar condition is found in Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933). Interhyal ar- ticulates with mesial side of this cartilage. Symplectic (Fig. 4) a semicylindrical shaft bent forward near its middle to form an ap- proximately right angle with wing of thin bone in angle. Symplectic extends to, but not be- yond, cartilage around posterior edge of quad- rate. Hyoid apparatus (Fig. 5) consisting of inter- hyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, two hypohyals, a glossohyal (Fig. 6, not Fig. 5), and two broad and thin branchiostegal rays, except for latter all bones sturdy and thick, being heaviest bones of skull. Branchiostegal rays inserted entirely on cartilage surrounding ventral side of epihyal. Ceratohyal constricted in its middle and with numerous irregular ridges of denser ossification there. Posterior two-thirds of glossohyal (Fig. 6) ossified ; anterior broader third cartilaginous. Dental cement bone covering most of dorsal surface of cartilage and extending back onto ossified portion of element. It bears no teeth, but since it presents a hardened, fairly sharp, and slightly upturned anterior edge, it con- ceivably may be of considerable aid in handling live food. OPERCULAR APPARATUS All four opercular elements present (Fig. 4); all thin, flexible bones. A few rays of denser os- sification radiate outward from socket of arti- culation of opercle. Short tube protecting por- tion of lateral line system running downward from articulation along exterior face of that bone. Subopercle extends into space between opercle and preopercle but does not fill it. Por- May 15, 1943 tion of posterior edge of bone covered by oper- cle. Long, slender interopercle nearly covered by horizontal arm of preopercle; its anterior end attached by a broad ligament to angular and posterior end securely attached by mem- branes to subopercle. Broad wing of thin bone present in angle of preopercle. Sensory canal tubular on vertical arm of preopercle and with / numerous small openings to surface dorsally, but ventral edge of canal separated from main \\ SEN S SCA AC CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 153 bone on horizontal arm and tube becomes a trough. An interspace present between vertical arm and lower end of hyomandibular, and be- tween horizontal arm and symplectic, both closed only by thin membranes. GILL ARCHES First three basibranchials (Fig. 6) ossified but cartilaginous on both ends; ossified por- tions of all three round in cross section. Last Fig. 5.—Lateral view of the hyoid apparatus of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 6.—Dorsal'view of the ventral half of the gill arches of the same. Fig. 7—M esial view of the shoulder girdle of the same. Fig. 8.—Dorsal view of the right pelvic bone of the same. All figures are X3.2. 154 two basibranchials entirely cartilaginous, pre- senting a flat dorsal surface but with a constric- tion marking off two on ventral surface. Dental cement bone joining dorsal surfaces of first and second basibranchials and covering a portion of cartilage between them, probably homolo- gous with larger element in same position in osmerid fishes and Plecoglossus (Chapman, 1941a). It bears no teeth. Hypobranchials (Fig. 6) present on first three arches. Those of third arch with anterior proc- ess, which projects ventrally to a slight degree. One can visualize the possible origin of the peculiar third hypobranchial of the Osmeridae and Plecoglossidae from this structure. If the posterior process (the main portion of the bone) diminished to nothing, until the ceratobranchial touched the fourth basibranchial, and the an- terior process elongated and turned more ventrally until it surrounded the ventral aorta the osmerid third hypobranchial would be achieved. Ceratobranchials (Fig. 6) on all five arches. First three bent dorsally a little at middle. Small muscle that originates on the hypobran- chial inserted on slight projection from ventral side of bone at this bend. Fourth ceratobran- chial broad, somewhat thickened and con- stricted anteriorly to an hour-glass shape. Wide shelf of thin bone present in lateral (or an- terior) angle on which broad muscle extending dorsally to expanded fourth suprabranchial originates. Fifth ceratobranchial a slender, weak bone, which bears no teeth. First three epibranchials ossified, and each bears, near mesial end of dorsal side, a car- tilage-capped process that articulates with sim- lar processes from, respectively, the second, third, and fourth suprabranchials. This process largest on third epibranchial. Fourth epibran- chial entirely cartilaginous and reduced to band of cartilage attached firmly to ventral edge of expanded fourth suprabranchial. No suprabranchial found on first arch. Sec- ond small and flat with dorsoanterior process reaching to first epibranchial and a smaller dorsoposterior process articulating with third suprabranchial. Third suprabranchial more elongate because of long anterior process. Fourth suprabranchial broadly expanded and little resembling others; turned nearly at right angles to plane of other suprabranchials and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 extending dorsally until band of cartilage around its dorsal end articulates with cranium. Broad muscle inserted over entire posterior sur- face of bone extending directly ventrally to fourth ceratobranchial. This muscle must be of considerable importance in the movements of the gill arches. An identical apparatus is found in Microstoma and Macropinna and probably Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933). SHOULDER GIRDLE All elements of shoulder girdle weak, thin, and more or less pliable (Fig. 7). Posttemporal consists mostly of long, thin dorsal fork, curv- ing backward somewhat, in manner not possi- ble to show in Fig. 7, to resemble a sickle, lying over dorsal corner of epiotic and separated from posttemporal of opposite side only by ten- don from supraoccipital. Strongly attached to eplotic by a ligament, which extends forward from its attachment to epiotic to lie flatly on under side of posttemporal so that latter can be drawn backward some little bit but can not be pushed forward at all. It would thus aid some- what in dissipating the thrust of the pectoral fin to the cranium. Ventral fork of posttem- poral short, blunt, and attached to opisthotic by a fairly strong ligament. Supracleithrum thin, pliable bone bearing lateral line nerve on outer side in trough. Whether this trough is an integral part of the bone or a special ossification of the sensory canal that has become securely fused to the supracleithrum could not be determined. Clei- thrum largest bone of girdle, ending dorsally in long, sharp spike. Completely ligamentous first rib attached to this and supracleithrum, not only to bind girdle securely to axial skele- ton but also to bind the two bones together. Lateral-anterior face of bone broadened for in- sertion of sternohyoideus muscle on outer sur- face, and muscles of fin on inner surface. Primary shoulder girdle attached flatly by cartilage to inner surface of cleithrum and curving away at angle of not more than 45°. Both scapula and coracoid fairly large, but neither very strongly ossified. Scapular fora- men a mere elongated slit and entirely con- tained within bone. Coracoid with similar foramen of about same size and shape and an- other, much smaller, opening near ventral end of that. Anterior process of coracoid strong and May 15, 1943 broad with V-shaped interosseus space be- tween it and main part of bone. Posterior proc- ess elongate and slender, projecting poste- riorly well beyond actinosts. Posterior two- thirds of this spike cartilaginous and pliable. In one specimen this elongate projection was either absent or unwittingly lost in dissection. Four actinosts tiny, placed closely together and all based on cartilage between scapula and cor- acoid. No mesocoracoid or postcleithra. PELVIC GIRDLE Support of small pelvic fins slight and weak (Fig. 8); consisting of a single, elongate tri- angular bone on either side which tapers to a point anteriorly. Except for posterior side of triangle bone thin and pliable in spite of border of heavier ossification along outer side. Pos- terior edge thickened and cartilaginous for support of fin rays. Mesially two prongs, ven- tral and dorsal, project from thickened pos- terior end to meet similar prongs of opposite pelvic bone. Dorsal prong broad, completely ossified, except for thin band of cartilage around its edge of junction, and arching dorsomesially. Two ventral prongs, slenderer and bluntly pointed, meet mesially just under skin. For mesial third of their length both are entirely cartilaginous. Two pelvic bones rather weakly joined together. ~ AXIAL SKELETON Forty-two complete vertebrae plus single up- turned terminal centrum present. First sem- blance of haemal spine, a short, sharp stub to which rib of each side attaches, occurs on six- teenth vertebra. Spine of seventeenth vertebra slender and about one-half as long as longest haemal spine. That of eighteenth vertebra longer yet and that of nineteenth of full length. Sixteenth vertebra thus first caudal vertebra, but anus placed back much farther, under twenty-sixth vertebra. Rib of sixteenth verte- bra of full length. Ribs also on seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth vertebrae. Each somewhat shorter than one preceding until that of nineteenth only about half length of that of sixteenth vertebra. These last three ribs very loosely attached by membranes to their respective haemal spines. All ribs are exceed- ingly slender and pliable and seem to give slight protection to abdominal cavity. CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 155 Both epineurals and epipleurals present; all scarcely thicker than muscle fibers. Last epi- pleural noted posteriorly was on rib of six- teenth vertebra and last epineural posteriorly was on twentieth neural spine, but because of their delicacy it cannot be securely stated that they do not occur farther back on the caudal vertebrae. Centra all completely ossified, elongate, slender, hour-glass shape. Parapophyses of pre- caudal vertebrae, while broad, quite thin. Two of each centrum not joined ventrally. A con- siderable interspace between those of succeed- ing centra. Ribs flattened and slightly broad- ened on proximal ends and lying flat on external side of parapophyses. Neural spines, especially of first 13 vertebrae, exceedingly slender and thin except for their broadened proximal ends where they attach to centra. Those of each side of a single centrum do not touch, even at their filamentous distal ends, on first 13 vertebrae. Those of fourteenth and all succeeding vertebrae join and become firmly ankylosed directly above spinal cord and thus form a single spine. These spines con- siderably heavier and stronger than those on anterior vertebrae. About eight to ten times as much of spinal cord exposed between succeed- ing neural spines as covered by bases of slender spines. Nine interneurals between cranium and first baseost of dorsal fin. Each of these except ninth inserted between distal tips of succeeding neural spines. Ninth lies in same interspace as eighth, although with normal spacing between them. It appears to have been crowded out of its normal place by the enlarged, bifid, first baseost of the dorsal fin. Each interneural capped on either end with cartilage, heavier than neural spine, well ossified, and approxi- mately round in cross section. Between all in- terneurals is developed an apparatus that the writer has not seen so well developed in dis- section of any other fish. This consists of a rather strong ligament running from the distal end of each interneural nearly ventrally to a little below the middle of the next interneural posteriorly. This is not a single ligament but is made up of several fibers, some of which are inserted on the cartilage cap, some on the bone proper. This set of ligamentous connections be- tween the interneurals unites them all into a 156 single apparatus starting with the broad liga- ment between the supraoccipital and first inter- neural, and attached lightly to the first baseost of the dorsal fin. It has the effect of dispersing any strain coming to the anterior member (the cranium) throughout the entire apparatus. No ribs, epineurals, or epipleurals on first vertebra, and no interneural between first neural spine and cranium. In place of a rib a strong ligament of similar diameter as a normal rib strongly attached to shoulder girdle (as noted above). In my specimens ribs of second vertebra fully developed and as large as any others. Eight baseosts for dorsal fin, each supporting a fin ray. First longest and largest, bifid ven- trally but reaching only to, and not straddling, neural spine of tenth vertebra. Eighth very small and consists of little more than distal knob for insertion of fin ray. Other baseosts all similar, differing only in becoming progres- sively shorter from second to seventh. Each bone ends distally in heavy knob and tapers ventrally to slender proximal end. All latter widely separate. Baseosts several times heavier than corresponding neural spines. Distally each baseost connected with next one pos- teriorly by small hour-glass-shaped bone. Each of these bones cupped on each end and each cup lined with cartilage. Dorsal line of baseosts thus solid and strong for support of fin, but flexible by reason of 14 small ball and socket joints. HKighteen baseosts for anal fin presenting flexible, but entire, line distally for support of fin rays by reason of small hour-glass-shaped ossicles between thickened heads of baseosts, as in dorsal fin. Baseosts decrease gradually in length posteriorly until eighteenth is httle more than one-third length of first. All slenderer than corresponding supports of dorsal fin. Little if any support gained from slender haemal spines. First baseost bears on its anterior edge, near distal end, a cartilage capped knob to which are attached by tendon two muscles which extend along ventral line of abdomen to shoulder girdle and help to anchor pelvic girdle in place. Support of caudal fin rather weakly de- veloped. Small dorsal rays of fin extend an- teriorly to level of neural spine of thirty-sixth vertebra. Neural spines of last six vertebrae extend to proximal ends of fin rays, very JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 slender, and in no way differentiated for sup- port of rays. Condition essentially the same ventrally except that haemal spine of forty- second vertebra somewhat broadened and thickened distally and covered by cap of carti- lage over distal edge of hypural plate to actively support fin. Haemal spine of forty-first and fortieth vertebrae also slightly thickened but lend little support to fin. None of elements of hypural plate fused to- gether and considerable interosseus spaces left between some. Terminal centrum cone shaped and with pointed end turned upward slightly. Slender, cartilaginous urostyle extends dorso- posteriorly into fin rays as in Novwmbra (Chap- man, 1934) and other fishes. Neural spine of terminal centrum, while thin and weak, widely broadened to fill most of space between last neural spines and urostyle, and covers base of latter. Further dorsally a slender rod of bone lies along upper side of urostyle until latter reaches fin rays. This bone tipped with carti- lage distally. Lower side of urostyle sheathed with still another thin bone on which upper three hypurals inserted. Lower four hypurals based on ventral side of terminal centrum. All hypurals capped with cartilage distally and, in addition, with a continuous band of cartilage from urostyle to haemal spine of forty-second vertebra over which proximal ends of fin rays actually ride. Flanges on neural and haemal spines of last several vertebrae shown by Beebe (1933, fig. 41) not present in my specimens. VISCERA Stomach J-shaped, large, with very thick walls and covered externally with black pig- ment. Internally closely packed, deep, thin folds almost fill lumen of stomach so that little space left inside in proportion to size of organ. It is possible, however, that this is capable of considerable expansion, for the stomach of the only specimen cut into was completely empty except for minute flaky particles that could not be identified. Five pyloric caeca, three moderately good sized, one smaller, and one very short and small. One of larger ones and medium sized one come off ventral side of pyloric region together, former curving upward and posteriorly along left side of pyloric end of stomach, latter curv- ing to right and running anteriorly along py- May 15, 1943 loric region. Other three caeca come off right side of pyloric region and lie between it and in- testine. Anterior one only a short bud; other two projecting posteriorly, with largest one curving across ventral side of pyloric end of stomach to extend along left side. Somewhat in advance of pyloric caeca in- testine flexes to right and continues straight posteriorly to anus. Anterior two-thirds of in- testine rather thin-walled and flabby; lined internally with irregular small folds, which do not project far into lumen and which block off wall into shallow crypts of irregular shape. About two-thirds of remaining third of intes- tine turgid and nearly cylindrical. It contains a typical spiral valve almost identical in size and shape with that shown by Kendall and Craw- ford (1922) for Argentina. Organ obviously functional and well developed, not vestigial remnant occasionally found in salmon. Spirals made up of spongy, thickened walls with con- tours as evident in external view as in Squalus. Remainder of alimentary tract pigmented, al- though not so heavily as stomach, and may be termed the rectum, although little different in circumference from spiral valve section. Specimen examined a female with well- developed eggs. Both ovaries full of eggs and of about same size, with right extending only little more posteriorly than left. Ovaries lay along dorsal side of stomach and nearly enclose intestine clear to rectum. Two sizes of eggs present: larger size about 0.5 millimeter in diameter. Number of large eggs not counted with accuracy but estimated that two ovaries together contained less than 3,000. Only right lobe of liver present in three speci- mens examined, but this well developed and covering large part of left surface of stomach. Spherical, translucent gall bladder exactly as found in Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b). In one specimen liver notched on ventral edge and gall bladder fitting snugly in this notch over bend of intestine. In another specimen liver covers gall bladder from external view but a bulge in its surface shows presence of bladder in same location. Kidney similar to that of Macropinna; light . gray in color and shot through with small black specks. No indication of double structure. No air bladder (as in Macropinna). CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS 157 SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF LEUROGLOSSUS GILBERT Dr. George 8. Myers has kindly provided me with one of Gilbert’s specimens of Leuroglossus stilbius. The specimen is small and soft, and the bones are so lightly os- sified that they did not take up the stain readily. Therefore it was not possible to give a complete account of its osteology. Definitely there are no mesocoracoids, no postcleithra, and no air bladder. There are only two branchiostegal rays. All osteo- logical charactersthat can be clearly defined, such as the ethmoid and suspensorium areas (with the mouth parts and vomer), are as in Bathylagus. However, the liver is somewhat bilobed; there is a distinct kink in the in- testine behind the greater omentum and the intestine is longer than in Bathylagus; there are 12 pyloric caeca all in a straight line and the whole of the alimentary tract is enfolded dorsally and ventrally in a double organ which I believe is the greatly enlarged (in proportion to the size of the fish) male sex organs. Because of the above noted char- acters of the viscera the generic rank should be retained until more complete study indi- cates otherwise. Leuroglossus should be re- moved from the Argentinidae and placed in the Bathylagidae. The counts and measurements (in milli- meters) of my specimen (Albatross station 2904: 1889, southern California) are as fol- lows: anal, 11; dorsal, 10; pectorals, 9; ventrals, 9; caudal, 48. Snout to base of caudal, 48; snout to origin of dorsal, 273; snout to insertion of ventrals, 29; snout to anal, 38; snout to adipose, 403; length of head, 17; diameter of eye, 6; depth at pec- toral insertion, 83; length of caudal pedun- cle, 6; and length of snout, 44 mm. SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THEROBROMUS LUCAS Lucas (1899) described the species Thero- bromus callorhinus from bones found abun- dantly in the stomachs of fur seals in Bering Sea. No intact specimens were available to him, and the species has never been taken alive, nor have specimens been recorded since his original description. He says of it: 158 ‘‘an undescribed isospondylous fish related to the Argentinidae.’’ It has since been re- ferred to the Osmeridae by Jordan, Ever- mann, and Clark (1930) and Hubbs (1925), but a study of the osteology of the osmerid fishes (Chapman, 1941b) showed that the species was not closely related to those fishes and could not be placed in that family. Lucas says of the fish: ‘‘The species may be diagnosed as follows: Chondrocranium well developed; superior maxillary edentu- lous; pointed teeth on vomer and anterior portion of palatines; lower jaw very deep; pointed teeth on dentary; articular well de- veloped. Vertebral formula 26 precaudals, 22 caudals, plus 1 hypural; last 4 precaudals with short, wide hypapophyses: other hypa- pophyses long; neural spines of first 22 vertebrae double, remainder confluent; an epineural present and confluent with basal part of neurapophysis on many of the an- terior vertebrae; short transverse processes, directed downward from lower part of an- terior vertebrae. Vertebrae simple; anterior but very little shorter than the posterior; centra not sculptured, but bearing many fine longitudinal ridges.’”” The short de- scription was accompanied by a plate of 19 drawings of bones. The description, except for the number of vertebrae, could have been as correctly drawn from the specimens of Bathylagus ‘ used as the basis for the present report. The _ drawings likewise are accurate representa- tions of Bathylagus. The chief differences between Lucas’s drawings and those in the present report are the result of his specimen being partially digested, and the resem- blances are so striking that no detailed de- scription is necessary. The frontals in his specimen, for instance, are gone; part of the opercle is digested away; and part of the hypural plate is gone. The vertebral count given in the description of Therobromus by Lueas will aid in identifying his species when specimens of Bathylagus from the Bering Sea are available for dissection. Probably his fish was B. pacificus or B. alascanus. The discovery that the fur seal feeds ex- tensively on fishes of the genus Bathylagus is interesting because this genus in the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 5 North Pacific is typically bathypelagic in habitat, indicating that the fur seal feeds at greater depths than is generally recog- nized. It may be noted that the chief feeding grounds of the fur seal while on the rookeries both on the Pribilof and Komandorskie Islands is outside the 100-fathom contour (Townsend, 1899). SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF BATHYLAGUS The affinities of the Bathylagidae are not so close to the salmonoid fishes as is gener- ally supposed. Together with the Argen- tinidae, Microstomidae, Macropinnidae, Opisthoproctidae, Winteriidae, Xenoph- thalmichthyidae, and, probably, certain other deep sea fishes, they form a natural group that may be designated as a suborder in the Isospondyli, the Opisthoproctoidei, erected by Berg (1937) for the Opisthoproc- tidae alone. Of the fishes with which Bathylagus has been associated in the past it resembles Ar- gentina least. Argentina (Chapman, 1942a) has a well-developed mesocoracoid; a single row of about 30 teeth on the palatine; several heavy recurved teeth on the tongue; small teeth on the fifth ceratobranchial and fourth suprabranchial; the air bladder is large and well developed; there are seven branchiostegal rays; well-developed post- cleithra (there are four in my specimen, al- though Kendall and Crawford (1922) say no ‘‘postclavicular’” processes are found); the myodome is well developed and opens posteriorly on the basioccipital; the parie- tals are broadly joined on the midline, nearly occluding the supraoccipital from dorsal view, and form bony bridges across the temporal fossae laterally ; and the supra- occipital is broadly separate from the fron- tals. In view of these differences, and others, Bathylagus can not be placed in the Ar- gentinidae. There are stronger resemblances with Microstoma, but that genus has an especially large and prominent air bladder; four branchiostegal rays; well-developed post- cleithra; the parietals meet broadly on the midline of the skull; and there are numerous differences in the proportions and arrange- ments of the bones of the skull, in particular May 15, 1943 the special ossifications of the sensory sys- tem and the bones of the ethmoid region. For these and other reasons Bathylagus can not be considered to be a member of the Microstomidae. Bathylagus is the representative of a separate family, Bathylagidae (Gill, 1884), to which also belongs Leuroglossus (Gilbert, 1890). Bathymacrops (Gilchrist, 1922), which Jordan (1923) has placed in the Bathylagidae, should be placed in the Microstomidae as a synonym of Nansenia. SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILY BATHYLAGIDAE Opisthoproctoid fishes with adipose fin and enlarged but laterally directed eyes. Supraorbital bones strongly developed and suborbital bones weakly developed. Mouth small. No teeth on tongue, gill arches, pre- maxillary or maxillary. Teeth on palatine absent or few. Small conical teeth on the vomer and dentary. Mesopterygoid much enlarged but not toothed. Metapterygoid minute, if present. Frontals paired. Both mesethmoid and ventral ethmoid present. Small suprabasal present on basibranchials. Parietals small and widely separated by supraoccipital, which reaches frontals. No definite temporal fossae. No myodome. No mesocoracoid. No postcleithra. Two (as far as known) branchiostegal rays. Gill mem- branes broadly united. Pectoral and ventral fins small and placed near the ventral out- line. Pseudobranchiae well developed. Py- loric caeca few (9 to 12 in Leuroglossus, 5 or 6 in Bathylagus). Peritoneum and stomach jet black. Air bladder completely absent. Stomach with prominent leaflike projec- tions internally. Intestine short, with well- developed spiral valve. LITERATURE CITED BARNARD, KeppEL Harcourt. ® In his Manual of the southeastern (flora (1933), the distribution is given as “Flat alluvial places along the lower Mississippi River, bayous and lakes, 8. La.’’6 About 1932 I began to make surveys of 1 Received March 22, 1948. 2 DaRBYy, WILLIAM. A geographical description of the state of Loutsiana ... being an accompani- ment to the map of Louisiana, ed. 1: 194. 1816. 3 SMALL, JOHN K. A new palm from the Mis- sissippi Delta. Torreya 26: 33-385. 1926. 4There are no Louisiana palmettos in the marshes in the immediate vicinity of Pointe aux Herbes. Those seen by Dr. Small were a distance south of this place. 5 SmautL, JoHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sa- bal deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 30: 283. 1929. 6 SMALL, JoHN K. Manual of the southeastern flora: 240. 1933. habitats similar to those in which Louisiana palmetto was rediscovered, as well as in areas mentioned by Darby. The results for Louisiana were published in 1935 and sum- marized in the following statement: “Al- though palmettos are widely distributed over much of eastern and southern Louisi- ana, they attain their most luxuriant de- velopment in the southeastern portion of the State, where trunked forms occur. Trunked palmettos are much more wide- spread in Louisiana at the present time than has been supposed, having been found by the writer westward nearly to Opelousas and south almost to the Gulf of Mexico.” Emphasis was first placed on trunked palmettos because the climax form with a well-developed trunk is easily recognized. For example, the arborescent Sabal loucsi- ana specimens standing fairly in the open at Frenier Beach on the west shore of Lake Pontchartrain are so different from other tree-Sabals that the distinctive characters of this species in its prime are unmistakable.® Then, too, the most logical approach to an understanding of any arborescent palm species in its native habitat is through ob- servation of the developmental series of a population in the midst of obviously mature trees. Thus, it later became possible to ascertain the identity of groups of Sabal louisiana which had not yet attained their prime and with which mature trees were not intermingled. From observations in Louisiana it seemed apparent that Louisiana palmetto would be 7 BomuarpD, Miriam L. Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic palmetto of Louisiana. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25 (1): 42.1935. 8 The only habit photographs of this species thus far published by others are of specimens at eeu Beach. See Figs. 5 and 6 in SMatt, JoHN ae and Figs. 152 and 167 in BAILEY, 1 Sabal et ceterae. Gentes Herbarum III, ae VI, art. 6, 1934. Dr. Small’s Fig. 6 was re- published in his article Palms of the Continental United States. Sci. Monthly 32: 10. 1931. A photo- graph of a specimen growing near Bayou Bien- venue, eastern Louisiana, was published as Fig. 1 in Bomuarp, Miriam L. What palms grow in Loutstana. Louisiana Cons. Rev., Autumn, 1937. JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA distributed throughout the Gulf Coastal Plain (including the Mississippi Alluvial Plain) wherever the physiographic and micro-climatic conditions are essentially the same. Exploration in this broader area, based on this premise, has been carried out since 1935—along the waterways of recent alluvial origin where conditions are reason- ably similar to those of southeastern Louisi- ana and where it could almost be predicted that Sabal louiszana would occur. As a result of these studies the present known range of Sabal louisiana has now been considerably extended. From Louisi- ana this species radiates out into eastern Texas, southeastern Arkansas, and at least into western Florida. The most important extension was the discovery of Sabal louisiana in Texas, where it had apparently not been previously observed by botanists. °® The finding of well-developed arborescent palmettos in that State is especially signifi- cant and conclusive. On a brief trip through eastern Texas in May and June of 1941, two stands of Sabal louzsiana were discovered south of Cleve- land, Tex.—on the western margin of the “Big Thicket.” The first, in a local depres- sion just below the town itself, consisted of a dense stand of palmettos, most of them in the intermediate growth stage, with a boot- aggregation of 40 cm or more, leaves 18 dm in expanse, and very robust, strongly branched inflorescences more than 45 dm tall although not yet in bud. This group is similar to many of those in southeastern Louisiana growing under the most favorable environmental conditions. The second, 4 miles south of Cleveland, within sight from the bridge (U. 8. Highway 59) that crosses the East Fork of the San Jacinto River, was a group with arborescent specimens. Perhaps 20 trees are easily ac- cessible, scattered in a rather open portion of the flood bed on the east bank of the river. Farther back, in an area not readily accessible, the large crowns of many other Louisiana palmettos are visible. It was pos- 9See Parks, H. B., Cory, V. L., and others. Biological survey of the east Texas big thicket area, ed. 1, 1936, and ed. 2, 1938. There is a photograph on page 24, captioned “‘Giant palmetto,” but S. minor is the only species of this genus given (p. 33) in the list of plants of the big thicket. 171 sible to take specimens, measurements, and photographs (Pl. 1, lower left) only of the trees in the open area. The trunk height of these did not exceed 11 dm, and the diame- ter, without boots, averaged 33 cm. This group is, in many respects, a replica of a stand in the Vermilion River bottomland, near Intracoastal City, southern Louisiana, where short-trunked palmettos remain in clearings nearest the newly made road and the more robust specimens are inaccessible in the midst of woody vegetation, subject to annual inundation. Another collection of Sabal lowisiana was found in the bottomlands of the Lavaca River, west of Lolita, Tex. Those nearest the road, although of intermediate char- acter and of uniformly the same age, were so dense and the flood area appeared to be so broad that arborescent specimens in their prime or even old specimens might have been brought to light had there been time to give this region more than a cursory investigation. Having seen some small groups of poor- looking palmettos (intermediate stage) near the Colorado River, in the vicinity of Whar- ton, and on the San Bernard River, near Hungerford (U. 8S. Highway 59), I later made a hasty survey of these same river areas nearer to the coast, this time following State Highway 35, that is, near Bay City and near West Columbia, and also out of East Columbia on the Brazos River. Al- though conditions here were favorable for arborescent palms, I did not find any in the limited time at my disposal. However, at least one excellent stand with trunked palmettos does occur in the San Bernard River bottomland 8 miles from Brazoria, Brazoria County. Discovered by Robert A. Vines, of Houston, Tex., these palms were brought to my attention in June, 1942, by C. V. Morton, of the United States National Herbarium, to whom Mr. Vines sent photographs and notes, leaves, and portions of a fruiting stalk of an arbores- cent Sabal for identification. It proved to be Sabal louisiana. This discovery of a group of 20 or more of these palms is a fine contri- bution to the distribution pattern of Sabal louisiana, especially since three very old trees are in the group, one with a trunk 172 height of 54 dm—the greatest height yet recorded for the bole of Louisiana palmetto. A portion of Mr. Vines’s notes accompany- ing the specimens (Vines 425) reads as follows: ‘‘Hasirat.—Swampy black soil. Associated with Sabal minor, Quercus virginiana, Ulmus crassifolia and Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata. REMARKS.—A palm with a distinct trunk. A handsome palm. Flowers in June and July. Fruit ma- tures in November and December. Evi- dently very limited in distribution. Eighteen plants found within a half-mile radius. From the number of young plants seen, it was evidently reproducing itself satisfactorily. All the trees grow in thick tangles of vegeta- tion, and are thus protected from excess cold during winter. Old settlers say this small isolated group of palms has been growing wild in the bottomlands as long as they can remember.” Mr. Vines has recently graciously sup- plied me with his negatives, from which the illustrations in the upper and lower right of Plate 1 were made, as well as with the following additional statement concerning the circumstances of his discovery and locality details: The stand of palms grew on the land of Deputy- Sheriff Harold Graves, of Brazoria, Tex. The stand is located on the Brazoria—Cedar Lane cut-off road approximately 2 miles east of the Brazoria and Matagorda County line. The Bra- zoria—Cedar Lane road runs through the center of the stand. When the road was built some of the workmen dug up some of the large specimens to plant in their yards. According to Deputy-Sheriff Graves and several other of the older settlers, the palms have been there for many years. They remember them as having been in that location for 25 or 30 years. They first remember them when squirrel hunting in the bottomlands as boys, and when rounding up cattle, before the road was ever cut through. I have also heard rumors of another stand of aborescent palms in the same region. The rumor circulated by old Negro settlers who said they used to see the big palms while fishing on the San Bernard River. None of them, however, could give me exact directions as to just where it might be. I tried several of the leads, but they always were blind ones. I still have a suspicion that at one time quite a large stand must have existed along the San Bernard River. This stand, of course, might have been destroyed, but the rumors, and stories of it, still exist. I still have hopes that I shall be able to rediscover the rem- nants of the stand eventually. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 I first saw these palms, that is, those on the Brazoria—Cedar Lane road, during the summer of 1941, but it was not until the summer of 1942 that I collected specimens and took pictures of them. Doubtless other arborescent stands will be found in protected areas, where optimum conditions exist, in Texas and other portions of the Coastal Plain. ; Louisiana appears to be the center of dis- tribution. Observations thus far made indi- cate that the greatest concentration of vigorous and thriving stands, including many individuals of arborescent character, occurs in the fertile soils of the lower Mis- sissippi Alluvial Plain. This is partly due to the fact that habitat factors are most favorable for their development and partly because much of this region—in the wetter areas—has not yet been too greatly altered by the destructive forces of man. The phrase ‘‘flat alluvial places’’ does not, however, convey the true character of the habitat of Sabal louisiana even in south- eastern Louisiana. Although the areas where it occurs are alluvial, they are not strictly flat. The topography is varied. Ac- count must be taken of the paired alluvial or deltaic ridges, of greater or less width and elevation, that traverse the swamps, marshes, and other low-lying areas. The ridges were formed by alluviation from a series of successively developed distributary channels of the Mississippi River, most of which are no longer active. The land is high- est nearest the active or abandoned chan- nels of distributary streams, and slopes to- ward the wetter areas, characterized by temporary or permanent marshes, swamps, lagoons, or lakes. Louisiana palmetto fre- quently occurs in the so-called “‘back land” zone or belt between the ridgeland and the marshes or swamps; it may actually border the wet areas; or if the ridges are of low elevation, it may occupy the ridges them- selves usually forming an understory to the other arborescent vegetation. It also occurs in coulees or relict distributionary channels. It is at its best in the mild climate of the Gulf coast, where there is a high water table for much of the year and where partial shade is provided by the surrounding vege- tation. It is not a “swamp plant” in the JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA sense that baldcypress and water tupelo are considered to be swamp trees. S. louistana also occurs in the valleys of the Red and Ouachita Rivers, as well as in the Mississippi flood plain proper, where artificial levees and spillways hold the floods in check. In Louzsiana out-of-doors Perey Viosca, Jr., writes concerning the large interior river valleys, that include hardwood valley lands, river basin swamps, and lakes above Gulf level: “‘As this region is _ the richest in the state from an agricultural standpoint, most of it has been cut over, and in place of the forests, today we find sugar cane, corn or cotton fields and truck and dairy farms. Cane is raised more toward the southern part of the state, and cotton more in central and north Louisiana.’’!° He states further that palmetto thickets and canebrakes occur on alluvial and “‘bluff”’ soils wherever the water table is near the surface. There is every indication that S. louisiana - formerly occupied a much larger area than it does today and that there were countless more individuals of tree size. Indeed, Wil- ham Darby wrote 137 years ago: ‘“‘The land is commonly of the best quality. Much of the surface of the country low upon the Mississippi, now cultivated in cotton, maize, rice, and sugar, was originally covered with palmetto.’!! Extensive engineering opera- tions, including the building of artificial levees, the closing off of certain natural waterways, the construction of roads, ac- companied by clearing of the vegetation and digging of drainage ditches and canals with > consequent lowering of the water level, the reclamation of land for cultivation—all have contributed to the disappearance of these palmettos. This destruction may be witnessed to- day. The illustration in the upper right of Plate 2 shows the effect of road-building near Intracoastal City, Vermilion Parish, La. The area here occupied by Louisiana palmetto is still rather extensive but it was previously in much more flourishing condi- tion. Dead trunks are lying about on the ground as the result of burning and clearing, 10 Viosca, Percy, Jr. Louisiana out-of-doors: A Handbook and guide: 51. 1933. 1 Darsy, op. cit. 173 and many palms that are still living show charred trunks. The one-time height of the flood level in this area may be noted from the root zone on the trunk just below the ‘““‘boots’’ of the small tree illustrated. Fortu- nately, a distance back of the road, arbores- cent specimens in their prime with inflores- cences overtopping the surrounding vegeta- tion still exist. The illustration in the upper left of Plate 2 shows a specimen with medium-sized trunk in what was, until a few years ago, a lovely grove of Louisiana palmetto, lying between a natural levee and a cypress- tupelo swamp, near the eastern limit of New Orleans. Many palms were destroyed by clearing and burning, in the process of ex- tensive road-construction and draining, in the general area of Bayou Bienvenue. More recently truck gardening has been initiated in the rich soil of this area, in the midst of chopped and burned palmettos. | In a report of a survey of the Rio Grande River in Texas, Arthur Schott made the following reference, in 1859, to a “‘gorgeous”’ growth of palmettos on the Mississippi River: “‘It is also in the lower portion of this belt (where the Palm tribe is represented by the Chamaerops Palmetto) that the Pal- metto attains a growth as gorgeous even as that on the Lower Mississippi; it extends on the Rio Bravo [Rio Grande] up to about 80 miles from the Gulf. In addition to the Palmetto common to the lower portion of these two great rivers, ... 7’! In calling attention to Schott’s statement, Dr. Small commented: ‘‘Field work in the lower Mississippi delta by the writer sub- sequent to the spring of 1925, has convinced him that the extensive engineering opera- tions connected with the building of the levees along both banks of the river utterly exterminated the palm growth referred to by Schott. Arthur Schott made his observa- tions about the middle of the last century, while extensive levee building occurred about the beginning of the last quarter of that century. It is evident that neither the engineers in charge of the levee work nor 122 ScHotrt, ArTHUR. Substance of the sketch of the geology of the lower Rio Bravo del Norte, pt. 2, in Emory, William H. Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey 1: 44. 1857. 174 their associates were botanists, else some record additional to Schott’s original state- ment would have found its way into print.”’3 It should be mentioned here that even near the Mississippi itself a few trunked trees of S. louisiana occur south of Buras; they have very small crowns and are not now growing in a very favorable situation. Furthermore, the Mississippi Delta oc- cupies a widespread area, and it can be seen from the outline map (Fig. 1) that there are still groups of Louisiana palmetto in many portions of it. Forty-three years before Schott published the statement quoted above, Darby wrote: ‘‘Along both banks of New River, in the rear of the plantations on the Mississippi, and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are the places where most of the arundo [Arun- dinaria gigantea] yet exists. Here, as well as in every other part of Louisiana, where the land sinks too low for the arundo, is found the Chamaerops lowisiana."4 At the present time, there is still a good representation of Louisiana palmettos be- tween Gonzales, just south of New River, and Sorento, in Ascension Parish. In the lower Atchafalaya Delta arborescent speci- mens of S. louzstana may also be seen today near Morgan City and east of it along Bayous Black and Chacahoula. Darby described Louisiana palmetto as a new species because he was of the ‘‘opinion that there is a specific difference between the Chamaerops palmetto hitherto known to botanists, and that of Louisiana.’!® The mistake of Schott, Langlois, Featherman,}” and others of thinking that Louisiana pal- metto was the cabbage tree, S. palmetto (=Chamaerops palmetto Michx.), does not seem to me to indicate such a serious error in judgment on the part of these observers, but it does show the astuteness of Darby. Cer- 13 SMALL, JOHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sabal deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 30: 280-281. 1929. 144 DarRsy, op. cit., 193-194. 16 Ibid. 194. 16 Laneuois, A. B. Catalogue provisoire de plantes phanérogames et cryptogames de la Basse- Lousiane, Htats-Unis d’ Amérique: 17. 1887. 17 FEATHERMAN, A. Report of botanical survey of southern and central Louisiana made during the year 1870: 25. 1871. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 tainly this palm could not be the stemless S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. To what other arbo- rescent palmetto could it have been referred, considering that Darby’s work and publica- tion was apparently not well known and that S. texana had not yet been described? Natural factors also are contributing to changes in the aspect and extent of Louisi- ana palmetto stands or to their complete obliteration. Two examples—the first on the southwest; the second on the north, shore of Lake Pontchartrain—are of inter- est. Many of the taller palmettos in the striking group of 35 or more at Frenier Beach (west shore) (2),!® standing in a coulee back of the lake shore, give the ap- pearance of having been planted for orna- mental purposes. There are few transitional forms in this relatively open area, but all stages of growth occur in the low ground to the rear. This beach was built by alluvial deposits; there is a clay base, which, until quite recently, was overlaid with sand. The shore is now being cut back at a rapid rate, geologically speaking. Continued erosion will in the future change the natural habi- tat. The character and relative abundance of the palms will also be altered as a con- sequence. On the north shore, just east of Mande- ville (5), a later stage in the squence is tak- ing place. Here the lake, brackish at times, is encroaching upon the land and has al- ‘ready built up a sand ridge, 83 feet in height, upon the shore. Similar sand- encroachments are taking place in certain other portions of the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. The extent of swamp was formerly much greater, as attested by cy- press stumps about 400 feet out in the lake and dead or dying cypress trees stand- ing at the water’s edge. A direct line from the outer margin of the cypress swamp into the lake passes in succession (1) Louisiana palmettos in flourishing condition but with an inconsiderable development of trunk; (2) specimens almost completely buried in the sand, so that only the upper portion of their trunks and crowns is free; and (8) ar- borescent palmettos standing in a foot or 18 The figures in parentheses in the text refer to localities on the outline map (Fig. 1). JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA more of water out in the lake itself. The crowns of the palmettos in the last two groups are much reduced in size, the leaves are thick and very filiferous, and the flower- stalks are telescoped. Eventually this whole stand will be no more, even though new plants will for a time continue to come up between the ridge and the ever-shrinking cypress swamp. Dr. E. W. Berry states that ‘“‘the silicified remains of palm wood are exceedingly com- mon in the late Eocene and Oligocene de- posits from Texas eastward across Louisi- ana, Mississippi, and Alabama, and reap- pear in several of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as in Mexico and on the Isthmus of Panama.’’!® Palm leaves are also preserved in certain of these deposits. Various genera are represented, but the correlation of fossils with living genera or species can only be approximate. In the palm family, leaf remains naturally provide more useful identification characters than trunks. There are fossil deposits containing leaves and ‘‘rays’”’ (segments) of Sabal-like species in the Jackson formation (Upper Eocene), especially in the Vicksburg limestones and Catahoula and Fayette sands, from eastern Texas to Georgia. Beds of Vicksburg age are notable for the abundance of palm frag- ments and are of especial interest. The fos- sil leaf species, Sabalites vicksburgensis Berry,”? is described as having a maximum expanse of 120 cm, the rachis continues upward part way through the blade, and the 40 segments, up to 3.6 cm wide, become free in the outer one-third to one-half of the blade. Although the type locality of this fossil species is Rosefield, La. (Catahoula sandstone), it is also abundantly repre- sented in sands of similar age in Fayette, Polk, Trinity, and Webb Counties, Tex. Certain other species of Sabalites seem to indicate close relationship with S. palmetto or with S. mznor; it is not improbable that 19 Berry, EH. W. The flora of the Catahoula sand- stone. (M) in Shorter contributions to general geology, 1916. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 98: 23a. VOLT: 20 Tbid. 4 Burry, KE. W. The Middle and Upper Eocene floras of southeastern North America. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 92: 151, pl. 29. 1924. 175 Sabilites vicksburgensis may represent an ancestor of S. louisiana, which certainly must have been more widespread in geo- logic time. Louisiana palmetto, like other species of Sabal, evidences a wide range of adaptabil- ity to various environmental conditions and, in common with many palms, has dif- ferent aspects from youth to old age. A consideration of it in four ontogenetic stages—juvenile, intermediate, climax or mature, and senescent—should contribute to a better understanding of this species. Apparently there are comparatively few senescent Louisiana palmettos in existence, and all that I have seen in Louisiana are, or appear to be, growing in habitats that are no longer entirely favorable. Only an ap- proximation of their age is possible but it is known that this species grows slowly. An ancient tree, such as that illustrated in the upper left of Plate 1, may well be 200 or more years of age. Four (occasionally eight) leaves are produced by S. lowisiana in a season; the leafscars on the trunk are very close together. It is not determinable what length of time elapses in the production of the horizontal underground stem before the erect habit is assumed. A reduced leafcrown—smaller blades on shorter petioles—and shortened, telescoped inflorescences are indications of senescence or induced senescence. Thus, the total height of an old specimen with relatively tall trunk is often less than that of a speci- men in its prime with much shorter bole. The more robust appearance of the younger palmettos in the photograph is evident as is also the contrast between the senescent tree and the young climax form at the left. This group (Pl. 1, upper left) is part of the largest single Louisiana palmetto area of which I am aware, but I have not seen more than a half-dozen senescent specimens in it. Thousands of palmettos, the majority in the intermediate and climax stages, oc- cupy an almost unbroken stretch of at least 20 miles from Golden Meadow to a distance south of Leeville, La., along Bayou Lafourche (14). This bayou no longer func- tions as a distributary of the Mississippi River, having been closed off from it in 1912. The broader alluvial regions in the upper por- 176 tion of its course are under cultivation. The palmettos are to be seen in the lower por- tion. They occupy a relatively narrow, almost treeless zone between the ridge-road and swamp or marsh, or they occur as an understory on the chéniéres. These ridges near the coast, on which live oak (Quercus virginiana), water oak (Q. nigra), and hack- berry (Celtis laevigata) form the dominant vegetation, take their name from the French chéne, oak. The palmetto growth fades out together with the diminishing chéniéres toward the Gulf of Mexico. The few senescent specimens in this large tract closely resemble each other; some have more boots clinging just under the crown. A dense mass of roots clothes the lower 4.5 dm or less at the base of all of them. The trunks are almost white—a modification in this saline situation, where the insolation is intense, of the normally grayish-brown tone of the bark of this species. The longi- tudinal fissures that cross the closely spaced leafscars lend a checkered appearance to the bark. In Louisiana old palmetto individuals also occur near Bayou Bienvenue (3) and near the Mississippi River on Bayou Laird, south of Buras (15); the trees, partly buried in the sand ridge on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain (5) and with only 75 cm of visible trunk, are also senescent. Measure- ments in these scattered localities are very similar and may be summarized as follows: Trunk: Height, 15—-26.5 dm (up to 54 dm in Texas); diameter of trunk devoid of boots, 22.6-28 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 10.5—-13 dm; length in middle line, 6.5—9 dm; rachis length, 15-26 cm; number of seg- ments, 34-40; widest segments, 3.8-5.7 em; sparsely to very filiferous in the sinuses, de- pending upon the habitat. Perioty: Length, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 50-80 cm; width near blade, 2.2-2.9 cm; width near base, 2.8-3.8 cm. INFLORES- CENCE: Height, 12-27 dm; width at base of inflorescence stalk, 3.2-7.6 cm; number of sterile spathes, 10; number of fertile spathes, 7-18. . The specimen illustrated in the upper right of Plate 1 was photographed by Mr. Vines in the San Bernard River bottoms (28) of Texas. Three trees in this area are old, the tallest trunk measuring 54 dm. The diameter averages 30 cm. This locality ap- pears to represent a more nearly normal habitat for S. lowisiana than any of the areas in Louisiana where old trees have been observed. The crown shows reduction in size, but the leaves appear to be larger and the petioles are longer than those whose measurements have just been listed. This is to be expected where palms occur in an un- disturbed wet area in ‘‘thick tangles of vege- tation.’’ Sudden lowering of the water table has apparently not occurred in this region and it is probable that complete drying out of the terrain does not take place. This venerable group should continue to be pro- tected. It is highly desirable that certain groups of Louisiana palmetto in Louisiana should be set aside for conservation, inas- much as stands of this sort are imminently threatened with extinction. Louisiana palmetto evidences the full vigor of maturity in the climax stage. The few descriptions of this species thus far published apply, with some emendations, to this life-form. Ordinarily the climax stage is a bulky palm, with heavy, impressive crown, but its appearance varies somewhat with habitat just as do other phases of this species. Plate 1, lower left and lower right, illustrates typical specimens in Texas (27 and 28). The most typical specimens in PuatEe 1.—Upper left: Senescent S. louisiana, surrounded by palmettos of intermediate ‘growth stage with boot-aggregation, and young climax forms with short trunks such as that to the left of the old tree. In an open situation where the habitat is no longer entirely favorable, along Bayou La- fourche, near Leeville, La. (15). Upper right: Senescent S. lowisiana, with trunk height of 51 dm. In an apparently optimum habitat, San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29). Photograph by Robert A. Vines. Lower left: Louisiana palmetto of climax form. Upper portion of trunk and lower part of crown. Open bottomland, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, south of Cleveland, Tex. (27). ; Lower right: Vigorous climax specimen that has retained the leaf bases in a favorable, protected habitat. Mr. Vines, who discovered and photographed this stand, is holding a leaf cut from a younge climax palmetto growing nearby. San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29). PuLaTE 1.—(See opposite page for explanation.) oe BEE cx ROM - ood By Roses Hes) is bose PuLatTE 2.—Upper left: Typical young climax form of S. lowistana. Near Paris Road, vicinity of Bayou Bienvenue, La. (3). Upper right: Climax Louisiana palmetto, showing the effects of burning and clearing in connection with road-construction. Sawed palmetto trunks in the left foreground. Near Intracoastal City, La. (16). Lower right: ‘‘Field type”’ of intermediate growth stage, showing the characteristic collapse of the dying leaves. Along a fence bordering a cottonfield, Rayville, La. (35). Bottom: A group of palmettos in intermediate growth stage toward the northern limit of the range of S. louzsiana. The strongly branched inflorescences are not yet in bud (May 28, 1941). West of Mont- rose, Ark. (23). JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA southern Louisiana, such as that shown in the upper left of Plate 2, grow in partial shade on moist fresh-water sites that are flooded in winter and in early spring. In the lower-lying areas Louisiana palmetto is as- sociated with willows (principally Salix nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum drum- mondiz), and ashes (Fraxinus caroliniana, F. tomentosa, or F. pennsylvanica lanceolata), not far removed from the deeper swamps dominated by baldcypress (Taxodium dis- _ tichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica, usually known as tupelogum) or swamp blackgum (JN. biflora). On the ridges, domi- nated by live oak and hackberry and some- times also southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), the other arborescent associ- ates of Louisiana palmetto include Ameri- can sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), water oak (Quercus nigra), willow oak (Q. phellos), waterelm (Planera aquatica), and American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). Common honeylocust (Gledztsia triacanthos) or yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is also frequently present. In the interior river valleys of central and northern Louisiana tree communities of the wetter areas are, on the whole, similar to those farther south. Several additional spe- cies of oak, such as red oak (Q. shumardz), Nuttall oak (Q. nuttallz), and overcup oak (Q. lyrata), pecan (Carya pecan), winged elm (Ulmus alata), and other hardwoods augment the list of tree associates that oc- cur with Louisiana palmetto on the ridge- lands farther from the coast. In optimum habitats a characteristic specimen of Louisiana palmetto with medium-sized trunk has large, compara- tively thin, bluish-green leaves up to 20 dm broad. The length in the middle line is 9 dm or more; but this is somewhat shorter than the maximum blade length in either side of the center. The pinnati-palmate leaves are not in one plane. The blades have a characteristic ‘‘palmetto-curve,”’ but it is not so strongly developed as in S. palmetto and other large-leaved arborescent Sabals. The rachis (continuation of the petiole as a midrib into the blade, along which most of the segments originate) is winged below and firmly supports the lower one-third of the blade, but, beyond it, the leaf is deeply split 177 into two halves. From 36-50 segments divide the outer half or two-thirds of the blade, the inner solid portion being broadly heart-shaped in outline with the notch at the top, at the end of the rachis. The broad, gradually acuminate segments stand out rather stiffly; their apices, although bifid from several to 13 cm (or even more at the sides), are usually not flaccid. A thread-like fiber hangs in the clefts of the younger leaves but only a few persist in older ones. The flat, platelike hastula, at the juncture of the petiole and blade on the upper surface of the leaf, is asymmetrical and averages 4 em in length. The unarmed petioles, longer than the blades, are concave on their upper and rounded on their lower surfaces; the up- turned margins are very sharp, faintly den- ticulate toward the base. The peitole bases split with age but only occasionally form a crisscross or lattice (so characteristic of the larger Sabal species). The two boot-halves remain erect or at least ascending for a con- siderable period. The sheaths are never prominent; in fact, they are noticeable only in the youngest part of the crown, where the petiole bases of the newest leaves are bor- dered by narrow, chaffy, light brown margins. One of the most interesting characteris- tics of this species is the peculiar collapse of the dying leaves at the juncture of the petiole and blade, giving the effect of a half- closed umbrella. The blade may fall off at this point, or the petiole may break midway before the blade falls. A trunk averaging 9-18 dm in height usually exhibits three zones: a region of roots at the base, a narrow girdle of bark, and a boot area below the leafcrown. Oc- easionally an additional root development occurs fairly high up on the trunk, indicat- ing some previous high water level. (Com- pare the illustration in the upper right of Plate 2 with that in the upper left.) The actual trunk diameter (bark only) rarely exceeds 33 cm and is usually somewhat less. When the boots persist over a period of years, as often happens in the wetter situa- tions, the trunk appears to be twice as thick as it actually is. The rough bark is usually grayish brown. — 178 Four to six (generally four) inflorescences (‘‘spadices”’ of literature) are produced in a season. They stand stiffly erect and, in the more open situations, may surpass the as- sociated small trees. Twenty-two or more tubular, long-pointed spathes overlap each other and cover the length of the inflores- cence axis. Those in the lower stalklike por- tion of the axis are sterile; the upper, fertile. S. louisiana is characterized by a thrice- compound inflorescence—the strongly de- veloped, ascending or appressed, lateral branches that emerge from the lower fertile spathes may attain 9 dm in length in the climax form. The branches become progres- sively shorter until, toward the apex of the main inflorescence, the panicles emerge directly from the uppermost fertile spathes. The lower branches have five or fewer sterile spathelets at their base and the ten or fewer panicles are subtended by the upper fertile spathelets. The young inflorescence shoots are visible in the leafcrown in November. These are elongated, attenuate-coniform structures, imbricated with the appressed apices of the lower spathes. Full development is not at- tained until the following spring. Flowering begins in June, or even late in May, and sometimes continues into July. In some years full flowering fails to take place, even on perfectly vigorous specimens, because of unusual infestation of the panicle buds by insect larvae. Some of the lower panicles of the branches may come into flower but the remainder are aborted. In 1933 only one palmetto tree in a stand of 40 or more bore normal inflorescences. The flowers are white, sessile, 5-6 mm high, spirally placed about the rachillae at rather regular intervals, spaced several millimeters apart. They are subtended by two unequal bracteoles, the base of the smaller being partially enclosed by the larger. Floral characters are: calyx 2-2.5 mm high, cylindric and thick below, 3- angled, with three short, triangular, un- equal, slightly carinate, thin, nerved lobes; corolla more or less united with the stamens into a short pseudotube at base; petals 3, broadly ovate, 3.3-3.5 mm high, 2 mm broad at base, thin, involute, minutely ser- rulate, thickened and hooded at apex, auri- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 —cled at based, 5-7 nerved; stamens 6, the alternate shorter than the opposite that are adnate to the petals; filaments subulate- lanceolate, dorsoventrally flattened; op- posite stamens 4.5—5 mm high, the filaments 4 mm high, 1 mm broad at base; alternate stamens 4—4.5 mm high, filaments 3.5 mm high, less than 1 mm broad at base; anthers bright yellow, introrse, short-sagittate, 1-1.2 mm long, anther sacs somewhat unequal; pistil comprised of 3 carpels, 3.5—-4 mm high, 1 mm or more broad at the enlarged ovarial base, stylar portion 3-angled, apex truncate. The flower buds show 18 chromosomes (plate stage).” The fruits are suborbicular, brownish black drupes, ripening in November. They average 9-1] mm in diameter and 8-9.5 mm in height. The reddish brown, sub-lustrous seeds, enclosed in a thin integument, are 8-9 mm in diameter and 6-7 mm in height. The micropyle is lateral. Many of the fine groups of climax speci- mens along Bayou Sauvage and near the Chef Menteur (1 and 4), including some of those on which Dr. Small based his original description of S. deeringiana, are, unfor- tunately, no longer extant. However, favor- able localities in Louisiana where numbers of characteristically well-developed climax specimens may still be observed are at Frenier Beach (2), near Bayou Bienvenue | (3), in the lower portion of the Vermilion River bottom (16), along Bayou des Alle- mands (11), east of Berwick Bay on Bayous Black and Chacahoula and south of it on Bayou Shaffer (15), and in some other places (1, 12, 14). Fairly isolated individuals in their prime, noted in Louisiana, near the towns of Bunkie (19), Denham Springs (17), and Rayville (22), will be discussed in connection with Louisiana palmettos of intermediate growth stage. In Alabama a good stand of representative Louisiana ~ palmettos grows in the bottomland of the Tensas River at the head of Mobile Bay, 2 Dr. A. E. Longley, U. S. Department of Agriculture, obligingly examined many samples of Louisiana palmetto flower buds that had been collected in various localities. Only those from the Chef Menteur area along Bayou Sauvage proved to be in the proper stage for chromosome counts. They were collected from both climax and intermediate forms of S. louisiana. JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA in a locality inaccessible except by descent from the Louisville & Nashville Railroad trestle (24). The best groups thus far dis- covered in Texas have already been men- tioned as occurring in the bottomland of the East Fork of the San Jacinto River (27) and in that of the San Bernard River (28). Measurements of the climax form may be stated as follows: TRuNxK: Height 9-19.5 dm; diameter of trunk devoid of boots, 28— 34 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 16.5-20 dm; length in middle line, 9-12 dm; rachis length, 25-42.5 cm (usually 30-87.5 cm); number of segments 36-50 (usually 38-42) ; widest segments, 4.7—7 cm; usually sparsely filiferous. Prtiotn: Length, 70-145 cm (usually 105-135 cm); width nearest blade, 2-3.8 cm; width nearest base, 4.5-5.7 cm. INFLORESCENCE: Height, 25.5-39 dm (usu- ally 36 dm); width at base of inflorescence stalk, 4.5-6.4 cm; number of sterile spathes, 10-14; fertile spathes, 12-18; lower in- florescence branches up to 9 dm in length. Deviations from the characteristic climax form of the shaded, fresh-water sites are especially apparent in the extensive Bayou Lafourche palmetto area (14), evidencing adaptation to a different set of environ- mental factors. The leafblades are thicker in texture, glaucous, stiffer, yellow- or gray- green, and abundantly filiferous; the in- florescences average 30 dm in height; and the trunk diameter is not quite 28 cm. Under favorable conditions there is a natural transition from the climax form to those of intermediate stage. It is so gradual that the line of demarcation has been ar- bitrarily placed to include in the intermedi- ate stage those specimens whose trunks usually retain the leafbases to form ‘‘boot- ageregations’”’ of 9 dm or less, and that do not yet show a true bark area. There is also no visible root development above the ground level. The leafblades are borne on longer petioles and are frequently larger than those in the climax form; they are ordinarily 3 dm broader in proportion to their length. The tallest inflorescences with the most strongly developed lower branches (up to 15 dm in length) also occur in this stage. Palmettos of this robust intermediate stage occur in most of the optimum areas 179 already given for the climax form. However, certain additional localities in which the palmetto population is predominantly or entirely composed of flourishing specimens in this and juvenile stages are of interest. These palmetto areas are indicated on the outline map by numbers 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and 21 for Louisiana, 23 in Arkansas, and 26 and 29 in Texas. There is the pos- sibility, of course, that climax forms are associated with the intermediate forms in the more inaccessible wetter portions of some of these areas but have not yet been discovered. In other populations, it is known that the larger palmettos were removed in the clearing of the forests for cultivation of sugar, cotton, or other crops. Where cultiva- tion was later abandoned and the areas permitted to return undisturbed to forest, second growth timber has come in. In such places, provided that the water level is still near the surface, all the palmettos are of normal intermediate or younger growth stage. Louisiana palmettos of the intermediate growth stage in normal environments have the following dimensions: TruNK: Height, 3-9 dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12—21.5 dm; length in middle line, 8-11 dm; rachis length, 16.7-42 cm; number of segments, 34-50 (averaging 34-42); widest segments, 2.2-6.7 cm; sparsely to moderately filifer- ous. PETIOLE: Length, 95-160 cm; width nearest blade, 2.5-4.5 cm; width near base, 3.2-5.7 cm. INFLORESCENCE: Height, 27-46 dm; width at base of inflorescence stalk, 3.8-6.4 em; number of sterile spathes, 9-11; number of fertile spathes, 11-17; length of lowest branch, up to 15 dm. An unfavorable environment is reflected in the character of intermediate-stage pal- metto groups subjected to adverse natural factors such as saline or brackish water, excessive direct sunlight, and the piling up about the plant bases—or removal there- from—of soil and inundation debris. The great majority of the Louisiana palmettos of intermediate stage that grow in deep muck in exposed brackish habitats along Bayou Lafourche (14), some of those on the lake side of the sand ridge at Lake Pontchart- rain (2), and the few specimens in sand on the east shore near the mouth of the Escam- 180 bia River, Fla. (25), show the effects of naturally trying conditions and closely re- semble each other. ; The character of Louisiana palmettoes in or near pastures, cultivated fields, or fields turned back to pasture is also associated with unfavorable environmental conditions, but these have been mainly brought about by the clearing of forests together with lowering of the water level, plowing or other methods of cultivation, and cattle-grazing. High insolation and long dry periods follow- ing brief or only occasional high water levels are contributing adverse factors. In the more northern latitudes the cooler winter temperature also exerts a retarding in- fluence upon growth. The growth form of all these palmettos in the intermediate stage is compact—the crown is less open and smaller than in those in optimum habitats, and the aggregation of boots at the base is very dense, probably because elongation of the upright trunk proceeds very slowly. The “‘palmetto-curve”’ of the thick, more or less glaucous, yellow- or gray-green, abundantly filiferous leaves is more prominent, as is the inclination of the two halves of the blade away from the middle line. The segments are relatively wider in proportion to the size of the blade. The characteristic umbrella-collapse of the dying leaves is pronounced (Pl. 2, lower right). From a distance, pastures and cut- - over areas of palmettos resemble fields of shocked wheat. The thick, branched in- florescences are shortened and compressed, often being very similar to those of senes- cent trees. The lower branches are so close together in many of the field and pasture palmettos that the inflorescences have a bushlike appearance. Failure to develop inflorescences is not infrequent in palmettos that are exposed to grazing, plowing, etc., but those along fence rows and the margins of fields that border woods succeed in put- ting forth inflorescénces in occasional years, if not annually. Although the palmettos in naturally ad- verse habitats (2, 14, and 25) have some- what larger leaves and boot-aggregations (3-6 dm) in contrast to the smaller leaves and boot-aggregations (about 3 dm) of the intermediate stage of fields and pastures JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 (30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39), the/overall dimensions fall within the same range: Trunk: Height of boot-aggregation, 3-6 dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12-15 dm; length in middle line, 6.7—-9.2 dm; rachis length, 13-22 cm; number of segments, 32- 40 (usually 32-38); widest segments, 3.8— 5.7 cm; very filiferous. Prrio.te: Length, 45-95 cm; width nearest blade, 2-4.5 cm; width near base, 2.8-5.7 cm. INFLOREsS- CENCE: Height, 20—-28.5 dm; width at base of inflorescence stalk, 3.2-5 cm; number of sterile spathes, 9-12; number of fertile spathes, 10-17; length of lowest branches, up to 4.5 dm. The palmettos, with boot-aggregations and branched inflorescences, that grow in certain cultivated alluvial areas of Louisiana have not previously been identified as S. louisiana, but they represent an intermedi- ate stage just as surely as do the luxuriant specimens of intermediate form in favorable localities where the relationship is more obvious. The stocky specimens growing in the open in pastures or abandoned fields, es- pecially in central and northern Louisiana, frequently occur in large numbers. A suc- cession to more vigorous palmettos of inter- mediate stage but still of the ‘‘field type,” may sometimes be traced from these open palmetto areas to the lower-lying, wetter margins of the pastures or fields, neighbor- ing woodlands, or up to the edge of small streams. The discovery of three arborescent pal- mettoes in widely separated localities in Louisiana, where most of the surrounding countryside has long since been cleared and put under cultivation, not only suggests that arborescent Louisiana palmettos were formerly more common than now, but also, in my judgment, has a vital bearing upon the relationship of the intermediate-stage palmettos that grow in pastures and fields. The first of these three individuals occurs in a deep woods just east of Denham Springs (17). When I last saw it several years ago, the trunk height was 14 dm, the leaves were 13 dm broad, and the inflores- cences attained 36 dm in height—a typical — climax specimen. It grew near a bayou branch of the Amite River that is consider- Ne JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA ably lower than the highway along which intermediate-growth palmettos of the ‘‘field type”’ occurred. | The second lone individual of tree size has a trunk height of 13.5 dm, and a diame- ter of 29 cm. It grows in the water of a small 181 coulee that courses through a pasture and is visible from the road (U. 8. Highway 71), south of Bunkie (19). This specimen was flanked at the water’s edge by other Louisi- ana palmettos of intermediate stage in good condition, but the palmettos ranging into Fig. 1— Distribution of Sabal louisiana. The dots on the map represent the more significant and typical stands or individuals of senescent, climax, or intermediate growth-form in the following locali- ties: Louristana—1, Along Bayou Sauvage, north of the Chef Road. 2, Frenier Beach, west shore of Lake Pontchartrain and northwards between Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. 3, Near Paris Road, New Orleans, and the general vicinity of Bayou Bienvenue. 4, Along Bayou Sauvage, from Micheaud to the Chef Menteur Pass. 5, East of Mandeville, north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. 6, Manchac and other stations on the northwest shore of Lake Maurepas. 7, Between Gonzales, along New River, and Sorrento. 8, West of Shell Beach (on Lake Borgne) along Bayous Yscloskey and La Loutre. 9, West Pearl River, near Indian Village. 10, South of Buras and not far from the Mississippi River, vicinity of Bayous Grand Liard and Petit Liard. 11, Bayou des Allemands, near Des Allemands Station. 12, Bayou Villars, near the upper end of Bayou Barataria. 13, Bayou Dupont. 14, From Golden Meadow to a distance below Leeville, along Bayou Lafourche. 15, East of Berwick Bay and Morgan City along Bayous Black and Chacahoula (Chacahoula swamp), and southward along Bayou Shaffer. 16, Near Intracoastal City, Vermilion River. 17, East of the Amite River along a small bayou near Denham Springs. 18, Between Port Barre and Opelousas, in the vicinity of Bayou Teche. 19, Eight miles south of Bunkie. 20, Near the Tensas River, 84 miles west of Ferriday. 21, North of U. 8. High- way 65, northwest of St. Joseph. 22, East of Rayville. ARKANSAS—23, Bayou Bartholomew, west of Montrose. ALABAMA—24, Tensas River delta north of Mobile Bay, west of Hurricane. 25, Eastern shore of Escambia River, at head of Pensacola Bay. Texas—26, East of U. S. Highway 59, just south of Cleveland. 27, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, about 4 miles south of Cleveland. 28, San Bernard River bottom, 8 miles west of Brazoria. 29, Lavaca River bottom, west of Lolita. The solid triangles indicate large groups of the ‘‘pasture or field type’”’ (intermediate stage); the cross-hatched triangles, palmettos of reduced “field type” that require further study: Lourstana—30, West fork of Calcasieu River, near Westlake. 31, Near Welch, not far from Bayou Lacasine. 32, An area roughly bounded by Beggs, Palmetto, and Port Barre. 33, Between Comite and Puckett. 34, Between Bayou Boeuf and the Red River, near Alexandria. 35, Various localities, near Rayville. FLorrpa—36, Near Holley, south of the Yellow River. 37, Apalachicola River, east of Blountsville. Texas—38, San Bernard River, north of Hungerford. 39, Hog Bayou, about 8 miles south of Port Lavaca. 40, North of Rockport, ere shore of Copena Bay. 41, On the Blanco River, south of Blanco. Map prepared by Leta ughey. : 182 the pasture had only short boot-aggrega- tions and diminished crowns. Willows, a few baldeypress trees, American honeylocust, and giant cane are associated with them in the pasture. The large baldcypress trees at the margin of an extensive swamp can be seen in the distance. The third arborescent specimen occurs near Rayville (22), along a small stream in a mixed woodland, bounded by a cottonfield on one side and passing gradually into a cypress-tupelo swamp on the other. It is not so well developed as the two just mentioned. The palmettos along the nearby fence row (Pl. 2, lower right) are of intermediate “‘field type.” In the cottonfield on the other side of the fence row, and in countless areas round about, the palmettos are regarded as troublesome weeds. Following plowing, cot- ton is frequently planted in the midst of palmettos, which are not only low and im- poverished in appearance but unable to put forth inflorescences. The complete range of S. louisiana is, even with the additional data herein pre- sented, imperfectly known. The dots on the accompanying map (Fig. 1) represent lo- calities in which I have studied arborescent or near-arborescent specimens (senescent, climax, or intermediate forms) of S. louzsz- ana as well as the group discovered in Texas by Mr. Vines. The solid triangles indicate localities where the ‘‘field or pasture type’’ of S. lowistana is predominant and where sufficient study of the individuals in the field and of the flowers and fruits in the lab- oratory leaves no question as to their iden- tity. It is not possible to give, on such a small-scale map, an accurate picture of the density of the palmetto populations in the respective areas. A dot may represent a sin- gle tree or a group. Several dots indicate ex- tensive continuous or discontinuous stands. A solid triangle in all cases represents a tract of palmettos. The cross-hatched tri- angles indicate localities (36, 37, 40, and 41) where palmettos have been observed that appear to be S. louzszana but require further JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 investigation of their flowers and fruits. Similar plants also occur in an alluvial area west of Charleston, 8. C., and in a few other places not shown on the map. There are numerous other palmetto areas, both within and beyond the known range of Louisiana palmetto, in which it is difficult to distinguish between the acaulescent S. minor and juvenile or dwarfed forms of S. louisiana, especially specimens that do not come into flower or fruit. Although much field work has already been done throughout the purported range of S. minor, further observation and a somewhat different ap- proach through morphological studies is necessary for a better understanding of these two species.” 23 My interest in native palmettos began in the New Orleans area while I was a member of the faculty of Tulane University (until 1932). A survey of Louisiana and some neighboring re- gions was made from May to November, 1933. Thereafter additional surveys and rechecking of areas previously visited were carried out during vacation periods from Washington, D. C., either in June or November (the flowering and fruiting seasons of S. lowistana). Grateful acknowledg- ment is made to former students and coworkers at Tulane University, especially Anna L. Haas, who accompanied me on many field trips and rendered assistance in the collection of material, measurement of specimens, and pH determina- tions of soil samples; to Mrs. J. R. Fowler, Dr. Mike Wright, and Dr. John W. Bick for help on various expeditions; and to Dr. Harley N. Gould and Dr. W. T. Penfound for extending the facili- ties of their respective laboratories to me subse- quent to 1932. I am also indebted to G. D. Cain, County Agricultural Extension Agent, for in- formation in connection with the palmettos of Richland Parish (Louisiana) and neighboring cotton-growing regions; Eloise R. Bomhard, who accompanied me on several surveys; E. L. Dem- mon, director of the Southern Forest Experiment Station (New Orleans), as well as a number of present and former Station staff members for numerous courtesies and assistance; Dr. B. C. Tharp, University of Texas, for cooperation and aid on field trips near Austin; and to various persons, who made prompt and helpful replies to my inquiries, especially Hula Whitehouse, Texas Memorial Museum. The kind cooperation of Mr. Vines and Dr. Longley has already been mentioned. Thanks are also due Percy Viosca, Jr., of New Orleans, W. A. Dayton, U.S. Forest Service, and Dr. Penfound for reviewing the manuscript. June 15, 1943 BOTAN Y.—Two new basidiomycetous fungi parasitic on nematodes.' DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI 183 CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry. Among several fungi set forth in an earlier paper (4) as attacking nematodes after the usual manner of parasites, by intrusion of hyphal elements arising through germina- tion of adhering conidia, were included two species which from their production of clamp-connections were obviously to be reckoned among the Basidiomycetes. The two species, it was clear, were intimately akin to one another; yet owing to somewhat incidental differences in the make-up of their sporulating apparatus they could not both be assigned satisfactorily to any one mucedinaceous genus then available. Ac- cordingly a new genus, Nematoctonus, was erected in which they were described under the names JN. tylosporus and N. leiosporus. Subsequently two other forms, similarly parasitic on free-living nematodes, and simi- larly provided with clamp-connections, have been observed in transparent Petri- plate cultures. These two forms, which like those presented earlier have more than ordi- nary interest, since they represent basidio- mycetes habitually subsisting on animals that normally remain in a motile state from the time of hatching until the approach of death, are described herein as additional species of Nematoctonus. One of the two species came to light on September 1, 1942, in a maize-meal-agar plate culture that on August 24, 1942, had been planted with the softened stem of a newly damped-off tomato seedling from a greenhouse at the Bureau of Plant Industry Station near Beltsville, Md. The fungus, when first observed, was barely visible to the naked eye as a very delicate arachnoid weft festooned over a portion of the decay- ing tomato material. It failed to spread to other areas of the original culture, ap- parently for the reason that in its initial development all individuals of the suscepti- ble species of nematode had been extermi- nated. However, when a small quantity of the delicate weft was transferred to another Petri-plate culture, which likewise had been 1 Received March 24, 1943. started on August 24, from a damped-off tomato seedling, and which likewise had af- forded ample development of free-living eelworms soon after the agar substratum became permeated with mycelium of Pyth- zum irregulare Meurs, the arachnoid fungus resumed its destructive activity on a larger scale. Everywhere in the second culture it parasitized a single nematode species that manifestly was identical with the species it had exterminated in the original culture. The eelworm in question was determined by Dr. G. Steiner to belong to a group of forms that have been cited in the literature rather indiscriminately under the binomial Rhab- ditis monhystera Bitschli. During the earlier stages of invasion the assimilative mycelium within an infected nematode is usually obscured very badly by the globulose materials resulting directly from degeneration of the host tissues. Later, when these globulose materials have in large part been appropriated by the fungus and have been utilized for the production ex- ternally of conidiophorous filaments (Fig. 1, A, a, b), the assimilative hyphae are better discernible. In some instances the empty membrane of the conidium (Fig. 1, A, c) that initiated the attack may then still be seen attached to the outside of the host integument, its prolongation in the empty germ hypha visibly communicating with the mycelium inside. Occasionally the empty envelopes of several conidia operative in ac- complishing infection may be seen attached to the dead animal. The quantity of as- similative mycelium, however, would seem little influenced by the number of adhering spore envelopes, for multiple hyphae are readily produced by branching. Frequently branches arise directly from, or in close proximity to, clamp-connections, though some clamps having no special positional relationship to branches are usually present. Occurrence of clamps without relationship to branches or to any other lateral out- growths could be noted also in external hyphae that happened to lie submerged for considerable distances under the surface of C. Drechsler det. Fig. 1—Nematoctonus pachysporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; 1,000 throughout. A, Anterior portion of nematode host permeated with assimilative my- celium from which one hypha, a, has been extended into the surrounding agar culture medium, while another hypha, b, has been extended into the air; the two external hyphae, from want of space, being shown in sections whose proper continuity is indicated by the two sequences of paired letters, t—-v and w-z, respectively; c, empty envelope of conidium, attached externally, from which the assimilative mycelium had its origin. B, Portion of conidiophorous hypha, bearing conidia on two longish sterig- mata, a and b. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha bearing solitary conidia on three short sterigmata, a-c. D, Conidia, a-x, showing variations in size and shape previous to germinative development. EH, Conidia, a-s, showing variations in germinative development. F, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with two sterigmata, @ and 6, whereon are borne solitary ovoid spores destined for conversion into resting spores. G, H, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with an ovoid spore soon to be converted into a resting spore. J, Three ovoid spores before conversion into resting spores. J, Portion of conidio- phorous hypha showing an echinulate resting spore borne on asterigma. K, Resting spores, a-g, showing variations in size, shape, and echinulation. June 15, 1943 the agar culture medium (Fig. 1, A, a). A submerged position, of course, is not a usual one for the external, conidiophorous filaments. Most often they grow out some- what ascendingly into the air to attain lengths ranging from 1 to 1.5 mm. As their development continues they sooner or later decline to the substratum, so that eventu- ally they come to lie prostrate in areas where the surface is smooth, or are draped loosely over prominences in more rugged areas. Oc- casionally a conidiophorous filament may grow out in a procumbent posture. Whatever their posture may be, the aerial filaments become studded at intervals with clamp-connections, which often give rise, on short narrow sterigmata, to erect strobili- form conidia (Fig. 1, A, b; B, a, 6). Conidia may, however, arise without any close posi- tional relationship to clamp-connections (Fig. 1, C, a). Sometimes a conidium is borne almost sessile on the parent filament in close proximity to a clamp-connection (Fig. 1, C, b); or, again, it is attached, with- out any noticeable sterigma, directly to the dorsal side of a clamp (Fig. 1, C, c). Ordi- narily its original strobiliform shape (Fig. 1, D, a-x) is soon modified as the result of germinative development. A short broad process is extended usually from the distal end (Fig. 1, #, a) or, in rare instances, from the basal end (Fig. 1, E, b). This process gives rise at its tip to a globose adhesive body, measuring usually 3 or 4u in diameter, and consisting apparently of a narrowed hyphal termination together with a layer of glutinous secretion (Fig. 1, EH, c—l). There- upon the outgrowth may resume elongation (Fig. 1, #, m-o) to produce terminally a second adhesive body (Fig. 1, EH, p, q). Elongation may then be resumed again, with eventual development of a third ad- hesive body (Fig. 1, EH, 7). In some instances where a germ outgrowth is put forth from the basal end as well as from the distal end, one of the outgrowths may form a single adhesive body while the other may produce two such bodies (Fig. 1, FE, s). The transfer of protoplasmic materials required | for such incipient germinative development is accompanied by vacuolization and evacu- ation usually of the basal portion of the conidium, and by collapse of the emptied DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI 185 portion of conidial envelope. Occasionally the entire protosplasmic contents may mi- grate into the stout germ outgrowth (Fig. en): In addition to the colorless thin-walled conidia discussed so far, the fungus pro- duces resting spores. These likewise are mostly borne on short sterigmata arising from clamp-connections or in close proxim- ity to clamp-connections (Fig. 1, F, a, b; G; H). During their earlier stages of de- velopment they resemble conidia, though usually they may be distinguished even then by their broader ovoid shape (Fig. 1, I, a—d). In their ripe condition (Fig. 1, J) they have a perceptibly yellowish colora- tion, and individually are surrounded by a thicker wall, which sometimes is modified externally with bullate sculpturing (Fig. 1, K, a, 6), but oftener is closely beset with slender spiny protuberances (Fig. 1, K, c-g). As these resting spores have never been seen to germinate, it may be presumed that like the resting spores of Nematoctonus tylosporus they are adapted for tiding over unfavorable periods. The greater thickness of its conidia rela- tive to the conidia of the three known con- generic species suggests the epithet pro- posed for the fungus. Nematoctonus pachysporus, sp. nov. Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, irregulariter ramosae, plerumque 2-3.5u crassae, in modum Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, intra ver- miculum nematoideum viventem crescentes, post mortem animalis aliquot hyphas fertiles extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus incoloratis, simplicibus vel parce ramosis, primo plerumque ascendentibus postea procumbentibus, medio- criter septato-nodosis, vulgo 0.5-1.5 mm longis, 2.2-3.2u crassis, conidia vel sporas perdurantes quandoque protinus ex nodis quandoque ex sterigmatis singulatim gerentibus; sterigmatis erectis, 0.5—5u longis, basi 1-2.5u crassis, apice 0.6—lu crassis; conidiis incoloratis, primo con- tinuis et erectis, levibus, elongato-ellipsoideis vel strobiliformibus, plerumque 12-19, longis, 4—5.5u crassis, ex apice vel rarius ex basi hypham germinationis brevem erectam emit- tentibus; hac hypha 1-3 corpora glutinosa 2.5— 5.5u crassa deinceps proferente. Sporae perdu- rantes continuae, ovoideae, flavidae, verrucosae = 8 : 3 s) 3 ~) S Fig. 2.—Nematoctonus leptosporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; 1,000 throughout. A, Young specimen of Bunonema sp. to which are attached four germinating conidia whose vacuolate condition indicates that each may be extending an infective hypha into the animal. B, Nematode host permeated with a mycelium from which five hyphae, a-e, have begun to grow externally. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with two sterigmata, a and b, each bearing a single conidium that shows no apical adhesive modification. D, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with two denuded sterigmata, a and b. H, Detached conidia, a-e, showing variations in size and shape before undergoing apical modification. F, G, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with two branching sterigmata, one of them, a, bearing two spores, v and w, while the other, b, supports three spores, y-z. H, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with a branched sterigma bearing four conidia, a-d, all modified at the apex. I, Conidia, a-f, each of which formed an adhesive knob at its apex before becoming de- tached from its sterigma. J, Conidia, a-o, that after falling on moist agar culture medium have each sent up a delicate apical process terminating in a small adhesive knob. June 15, 1943 vel crebre echinulatae, 10—13u longae, 5.5-7.5u crassae. Vermiculum nematoideum Rhabditis mon- hysterae adfinem enecans habitat in radicibus Lycopersici esculenti putrescentibus prope Beltsville, Maryland. Assimilative hyphae colorless, irregularly branched, mostly 2 to 3.5u wide, provided with clamp-connections, developing within living nematodes, after death of host animal giving rise externally to several conidiophorous hy- phae. Conidiophorous hyphae colorless, simple or somewhat branched, at first usually ascend- ing, later prostrate or festooned on the sub- stratum, commonly 0.5 to 1.5 mm. long, 2.2 to 3.2u wide, at moderate intervals (mostly 10 to 75u) forming clamp-connections, producing solitary conidia or solitary resting spores some- times directly on clamp-connections and at other times on sterigmata 0.5 to 5u long, 1 to 2.5u wide at the base, 0.6 to lu wide at the apex. Conidia erect, colorless, smooth, at first con- tinuous, elongate-ellipsoid or strobiliform, mostly 12 to 19u long, 4 to 5.5u wide, before or after disjunction usually becoming partly evac- uated of contents in giving rise at the apex or more rarely at the base to a short erect process whereon are borne successively 1 to 3 globose adhesive bodies 2.5 to 5.5u in diameter. Resting spores aseptate, yellowish, ovoid, at maturity warty or strongly echinulate, measuring mostly 10 to 13 in length and 5.5 to 7.5 uw in width. Destroying a species of nematode belonging to the Rhabditis monhystera group, it occurs in decaying roots of Lycopersicon esculentum near Beltsville, Md. The other species of Nematoctonus to be presented herein was found developing abundantly in Petri plates of maizemeal agar, which after being permeated with Pythium mycelium had been further planted with pinches of friable leaf mold taken from deciduous woods near Fairfax, Va., on No- vember 10, 1942. In these cultures it sub- sisted exclusively on a species of Bunonema introduced with the forest refuse. Invasion of the small eelworm was manifestly ini- tiated by continued germinative develop- ment of adhering conidia (Fig. 2, A, a—d), though owing to optical difficulties arising from globulose degeneration of the host tis- sues, not to mention further difficulties at- DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI 187 tributable to pronounced sculpturing of the host integument, the progress of mycelial advance could not be followed. However, after the granular materials had been largely appropriated the assimilative mycelium was revealed, though often only rather indis- tinctly, as a branching system of hyphae studded here and there with clamp- connections (Fig. 2, B). Usually before this somewhat transparent condition came about, conidiophorous filaments were being extended over the surface of the adjacent substratum (Fig. 2, B, a-e). These filaments, while still elongating, give rise at moderate intervals to erect tapering sterigmata (Fig. 2, C, a, b; D, a, b), each bearing at its tip a slender, slightly tapering, rod-shaped conidium (Fig. 2, C, y, 2) whose apex in the beginning shows no special modification (Fig. 2, H, a—-e). Some- times a sterigma grows directly from a clamp-connection but more often it arises some little distance backward from a clamp, that is, some little distance nearer the origin of the filament (Fig. 2, C, a, 6; D, a, b). After the individual sterigma (Fig. 2, F, a; G, a) has produced its first conidium (Fig. 2, F, v; G, v), it ordinarily continues in its re- productive function by putting forth a short lateral spur on which a second conidium is formed (Fig. 2, F, w; G, w). Many sterig- mata thereupon will put forth a second lateral spur, and thus will come to support three conidia (Fig. 2, F, x-z; G, 2-z). In mature portions of conidiophorous hyphae ' some sterigmata can be found bearing as many as four conidia, each, of course, borne on a separate sterigmatic tip (Fig. 2, H, a-d). Branched sterigmata bearing two or three conidia are nearly always to be found in proximity to a corresponding number of clamp-connections (Fig. 2, F, G). Apparent- ly the clamps of later origin are formed in successively more distal positions. Soon after they have been cut off by a basal septum, the conidia undergo notice- able germinative development. Those that remain supported on their sterigmata pro- duce at the tip a globose knob consisting of a glandular part thinly surrounded with adhesive secretion (Fig. 2, F—H; I, a-f). Those that become detached and fall on a 188 moist surface produce a similar adhesive knob terminally on a delicate, erect or ascending process extended from the tip (Fig. 2, J, a-o). The materials required for this germinative development are sup- plied through evacuation of protoplasm from the basal portion of the conidium. To separate the living portion of the spore from the emptied portion at least one retaining wall is laid down. In instances where pre- sumably the movement of protoplasm takes place rather slowly, two (Fig. 2, J, a, b, m, n, 0) or even four (Fig. 2, J, k) retaining walls may be laid down successively. Comparable development of adhesive knobs on delicate processes arising from fallen conidia has not been noted in Nema- toctonus tylosporus. The fungus differs fur- ther from JN. tylosporus in its markedly stronger tendency toward production of conidia plurally on branching sterigmata. Its conidia, moreover, are appreciably nar- rower and longer than those of N. tylo- sporus, and, of course, pronouncedly nar- rower and longer than the conidia of N. letcosporus and N. pachysporus. A term hav- ing reference to its slender spores may therefore serve as an epithet sufficiently de- scriptive to set the fungus apart from the three known congeneric forms. Nematoctonus leptosporus, sp. nov. Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, plus mi- nusve ramosae, plerumque 2—3.5u crassae, in modum Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, in- tra vermiculum nematoideum viventem cres- centes, post mortem animalis aliquot fertiles hyphas extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus incoloratis, saepius procumbentibus, modice septato-nodosis, vulgo 250—750u longis, 1.6—2u crassis, conidia ex erectis sterigmatis gerenti- bus; his sterigmatis inter se saepius 35—65u distantibus, 5-10y altis, basi 2.5-4u crassis, sursum attenuatis, apice .5-ly crassis, primo simplicibus, postea 1-3 ramusculos emittenti- bus, itaque vulgo 2 vel 3 etiam quandoque 4 conidia proferentibus; conidiis incoloratis, bacillaribus, sursum leviter attenuatis, utrinque obtusulis vel rotundatis, 21-28 longis, 1.7—2.2u crassis, primo continuis et protoplasmatis omnino repletis, mox in parte infera vacuis et apice tuberculo glutinoso circa 2u crasso praedi- tis, postea tuberculum ejusmodiin apice hyphae JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES \ VOL. 33, NO. 6 erectae vel ascendentis 3—10u longae .6u crassae ferentibus. Vermiculum nematoideum speciei Bunone- matis necans habitat in humo silvestri prope Fairfax, Virginia. Assimilative hyphae colorless, provided with clamp-connections, somewhat branched, mostly 2 to 3.5u wide, developing within living nema- todes, after death of host animal producing several conidiophorous hyphae externally; coni- diophorous hyphae colorless, usually prostrate, commonly 250 to 750u long, 1.6 to 2u wide, forming clamp-connections at moderate inter- vals, giving rise to conidia on erect sterigmata; the sterigmata spaced mostly at intervals of 35 to 65yu, at first simple, commonly 5 to 10 high, 2.5 to 4u wide at the base, tapering upward. mostly 0.5 to lu wide at the tip, later usually putting forth 1 to 3 lateral spurs and by pro- ducing a conidium on each spur eventually coming to support 2 or 3 or sometimes even 4 conidia; the conidia colorless, staff-shaped, tapering slightly toward apex, somewhat ob- tuse or bluntly rounded at both ends, mostly 21 to 28u long and 1.7 to 2.2u wide, at first con- tinuous, later often empty at the base and pro- vided at the tip with a globose adhesive knob about 2u wide, or after falling off producing such a knob terminally on an erect or ascending process, 3 to 10u long and 0.6 wide, that is extended obliquely or perpendicularly from the tip. Parasitic on a species of Bunonema in leaf mold near Fairfax, Va. With respect to outward shape the knob- bearing outgrowth commonly produced by the conidium of Nematoctonus leptosporus after falling on a moist surface offers curious similarity to the empty basal appendage on the conidium of Euryancale sacciospora Drechsl. (3) as well as to the proximal por- tion of the conidium of Harposporium oxyco- © racum Drechsl. (4). This similarity would seem in large measure illustrative of con- vergence, since the three fungi, remote from one another taxonomically, all subsist as obligate parasites on nematodes of the genus Bunonema. The adaptive modifications here concerned may well have been developed to facilitate attachment of the conidia to the strongly sculptured integument so charac- teristic of the host animals in their adult condition. June 15, 1943 In Nematoctonus pachysporus the develop- ment of adhesive bodies plurally, together with the frequently pronounced exhaustion of the spore, makes for an appearance not wholly unlike that offered in the develop- ment of basidiospores on basidia. The homologies thus suggested can not readily be dismissed until adverse cytological evi- dence has been brought foreward, or until structures have been discovered more closely corresponding to basidia than any I - have observed hitherto. The plural adhesive bodies, it is true, are almost certainly of the same character as the single adhesive knobs formed in the three congeneric species; but the possibility remains that these single knobs, however commonplace their appear- ance, might yet represent abortive basidio- spores modified for adhesion. Nevertheless, the thin-walled aerial spores still seem best interpretable as conidia, especially since in their manner of formation they offer strong parallelism with the binucleate conidia de- scribed by Nobles (5) as being produced on clamp-bearing mycelia of Cortictum in- crustans Hohn. & Litsch. If the four para- sitic species so far described all produce typically straight conidia, the Hawaiian. nematode-capturing fungus to which refer- ence was made earlier (4, p. 780) and which almost certainly is intimately related to the parasitic species, produces conidia that re- FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 189 semble those of C. zncrustans in being of curved allantoid shape. i Their constant production of clamps rather definitely removes all five of the fungi habitually subsisting on eelworms from close kinship with Septobasidium Pat., a large genus of basidiomycetes whose para- sitism on scale insects, affirmed by Reinking (6) in 1919, has more recently been set forth in detail by Couch (2). On similar grounds they must be considered taxonomically re- mote from Uredinella Couch, likewise a genus of basidiomycetes parasitic on scale insects, since at least in U. coccidiophaga Couch (1), just as in all species of Septo- basidium, clamp-connections are absent. LITERATURE CITED (1) Coucu, J. N. A new fungus intermediate between the rusts and Septobasidium. Mycologia 29: 665-673. 1937. (2) . The genus Septobasidium. 480 pp. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1938. (3) Drecuster,C. Five new Zoopagaceae de- structive to rhizopods and nematodes. - Mycologia 31: 388-415. 1939. Some hyphomycetes parasitic on free-living terricolous nematodes. Phyto- pathology 31: 773-802. 1941. (5) Nosues, Mitprep K. Production of coni- dia by Corticium incrustans. Myco- logia 29: 557-566. 1937. (6) Remnxinc, O. A. Diseases of economic plants in southern China. Philippine Agr. 8: 109-135. 1919. (4) ORNITHOLOGY.—A new race of the sharp-tailed grouse.| HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U.S. National Museum. Snyder’s papers on the sharp-tailed grouse,” in spite of certain faults, may be said to have furthered our knowledge of this bird more than any that went before. A recent study of this species, based on over 200 specimens, indicates, however, that parts of Snyder’s arrangement of races needs alteration. These changes, herein pro- posed, have to do, firstly, with the birds of ‘ Published by permission of the Secretary of age cP bnonian Institution. Received April 38, 2 SNYDER, L. L., A study of the sharp-tailed grouse. Univ. Toronto Stud., Biol. Ser., 40 (2). 1935; A revision of the sharp-tailed grouse with a description of a new race. Occ. Pap. Roy. Ontario Mus. Zool., no. 2. 1935; Great Plains races of the sharp-tatled grouse. Auk 56: 184-185. 1939. the far Northwest, which he calls kennzcottzz, and secondly with the ranges of jamesz (which includes the campestris of Snyder’s first two papers) and of campestris (with which Snyder’s campisylvicola is synony- mized). To take the northwest Canadian and the Alaskan birds first, we find that a series of topotypical kennicotti: from Fort Rae and Fort Simpson, differ markedly from a long series (40 specimens) from Alaska south- eastward to Tagish Lake on the Yukon- British Columbia border and to extreme Northern Alberta. Inasmuch as there seems to be no name available for the Alaskan birds, it is proposed to call them— 190 Pedioecetes phasianellus caurus, n. subsp. Type.—U.S.N.M. 298189. ad. o&, collected at Fairbanks, Alaska, October 19, 1921, by O. J. Murie. Subspectfic characters.—Differs from kenni- cottit in having the feathers of the upperparts much more broadly and abundantly barred with brown and, on the mantle, with white, and with the white spots larger, the feathers of the breast white, edged with dark olive-brown (instead of dark buffy brown with only a nar- row white shaft stripe) ; from jamesi (as under- stood in this paper—the bird of the Great Plains from central Alberta to northeastern Colorado) this form differs in being much darker, more black showing above, the brown barrings darker, and the edgings of the breast feathers darker; from columbianus it differs in being darker and larger. Description of type.-—Forehead fuscous to fuscous-black, the feathers tipped with dark snuff brown; feathers of the crown and occiput similar but crossed with widely spaced whitish bars and tipped with cinnamon-buff; the pale bars more abundant, less widely spaced on the lateral coronal feathers, and blending into a fairly definite whitish or buffy whitish super- ciliary stripe on each side; nape like the sides of the crown but washed with pale ochraceous- buff; “‘mantle,”’ i.e., interscapulars, fuscous- black broadly barred with white, the more distal bars, especially on the more posterior feathers, washed with pale ochraceous-buff; feathers of sides of neck and of breast similar to anterior interscapulars; back, rump, and upper tail coverts fuscous-black, broadly but incom- pletely barred with cinnamon-buff to tawny- Olive, the latter color often sparsely vermicu- lated with fuscous-black and broadly tipped with pale cinnamon-buff to pinkish buff, dark- est on the back and becoming paler on the rump and upper tail coverts; scapulars and inner median and greater upper wing coverts like the upper back but with the brownish areas more extensive (at the expense of the blackish parts) and each feather with a large terminal white wedge-shaped spot; rest of the upper wing coverts and the secondaries grayish olive-brown externally incompletely and sparsely barred - with white, the coverts with terminal white spots on their outer webs, the secondaries com- pletely edged with white on the tips of both webs; primaries grayish olive-brown with white JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 spots on the outer webs; median rectrices pink- ish buff longitudinally and transversely marbled with fuscous-black; the next pair largely fuscous-black tipped with white and with their outer webs mixed with white; lateral rectrices white with dusky smudges along the shafts; circumocular region fuscous-black; lores, sub- ocular stripe, cheeks, and auriculars pale ochraceous-buff dappled with dusky, the dusky markings concentrating on each side to form a fairly distinct malar stripe; the auriculars tipped with fuscous-black; chin and upper throat whitish suffused with pale ochraceous- buff and with many small pale clove-brown spots; lower throat white, the feathers nar- rowly edged with dark olive-brown; breast feathers white with heavy margins of dark olive-brown; feathers of sides and flanks white barred with dark olive-brown, the more pos- terior of these feathers with considerable tawny-olive on their outer webs and with the dark bars darker—clove-brown to almost fus- cous; upper abdomen and sides of lower abdo- men white with a few small dark olive-brown subterminal V-shaped marks; center of abdo- men and under tail coverts white, sometimes tinged with pale ashy buff; thighs pale light cinnamon-drab, the distal tarsal plumes paler, more whitish and very long, covering all but the claw of the middle toe. Females in comparable (autumn and winter) plumage are like the male but their median rectrices are more strictly transversely barred, less longitudinally marbled with blackish than are those of the male. Measurements of type—Wing 207; tail 114; culmen from anterior end of nostril 11.8; tarsus 43; middle toe without claw 38.2 mm. Thirteen adult males measure as follows: wing 196-212 (203.2); tail 113-125 (118.7); culmen from anterior end of nostril 10.3-11.8 (10.9); tarsus 40.4-44.3 (42.3); middle toe without claw 36-39.2 (38.1); height of bill at base 10.3-12.4 (11.5 mm). Thirty-three adult females measure: wing 190-202 (196.3); tail 107-119 (111.9); culmen from anterior end of nostril 9.9-11.9 (10.8); tarsus 39.2-42.8 (41.2); middle toe without claw 35.7-39.3 (37.5); height of bill at base 10.9-12.5 (11.8 mm). Range.—This form occurs from north-central Alaska (Circle, Fairbanks, Tanana, Tanana Crossing, north Fork Kuskokwim River, Delta JUNE 15, 1943 and Taklat Rivers) to the southern Yukon Province (Tagish Lake on the Yukon-British Columbia border) and to extreme northeastern Alberta (Fort Chipewyan, Smith Landing, Fort Smith, Peace Point). The separation of this new form leaves P. p. kennicottt with a much restricted range, oc- cupying merely northern Mackenzie (Fort Rae to Fort Simpson). This form is very distinct from caurus; in fact it is nearer to, but easily told from, typical phastanellus of the Hudson Bay region. Turning now to the birds of the Great Plains and the Prairies, we find, if we take birds in fresh autumn plumage, that specimens from the Prairies (Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and southern Manitoba) are more rufescent (ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel) on the upper parts, while birds from the Great Plains (north-central Alberta, central Saskat hewan, most of Montana, the Dakotas, W;, uining, western Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado) have the upperparts buckthorn brown or grayer. The prairie birds are obviously P. p. campestris (type locality—Illinois), while for the less rufescent birds of the Plains the name james? (type locality—Castle Rock, Colo.) is available. In the latter race there is a slight paling in the southern part of the range, but on the whole it seems ill-advised to attempt to separate Al- berta birds from specimens from Wyoming and Colorado. Northern jamesi shows an approach toward caurus. Good series of both jamesi (86 adults) and of campestris (18 adults) have been examined in this connection. The characters on which jamesi was originally proposed do not seem to mean much, but the name is neverthe- less applicable to the group as here defined. It is the most variable of all the races of the sharp-tailed grouse. . _ The ranges of typical phastanellus and of columbianus are essentially correctly given by Snyder, but the range of the latter should be extended to the Modoc region, northern Cali- fornia. KEY TO THE FORMS OF PEDIOECETES PHASIANELLUS a. Darker above, the black or dark fuscous areas predominating, giving an appearance of a FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 191 dark bird barred with buffy brown and spot- ted with white. b. Upperparts very dark, the brownish bar- rings and edges and tips of the feathers of the mantle and upper back much reduced, the marks in the inner portions of the vanes very narrow or absent; feathers of the breast dark buffy brown with only narrow white shaft stripes (central and northernMiacken7zie))...45 2. sae 6 dew. ote Pedioecetes phasianellus kennicottii Suck- ley bb. Upperparts less dark, the brownish barrings and edges and tips of the feathers well de- veloped. c. White spots on the upper parts much re- duced; feathers of breast pale buffy brown with fairly broad white shaft stripes (Hudson Bay region). . Pedioe- cetes phasianellus phasianellus (Lin- naeus) cc. White spots on the upper parts large and prominent; feathers of breast white, merely edged with dark olive-brown (Alaska, the Yukon District to extreme northern British Columbia)........... Pedioecetes phastanellus caurus, n. subsp. aa. Paler above, the brown areas larger, the blackish ones more hidden, giving the ap- pearance of a brownish bird mottled with blackish. b. Brown of upperparts more rufescent— ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel (Illi- nois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and southern VAIO lod) eerie ae estonia neees eee mae he ecee es Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris Ridg- way bb. Brown of upperparts less rufescent—buck- thorn brown to tawny-olive. ec. Smaller and paler; tail averaging less than 110 mm; height of bill at base averaging 12 mm; brown of upperparts tawny- olive (from north-central British Co- lumbia to northern California (Modoc region), Nevada, Utah, and southwest- Crm COlORadO) ee an eee ee eee es Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus (Ord) cc. Larger and darker; brown of upperparts buckthorn brown; tail averaging over 115 mm; height of bill at base averaging 13 mm (Great Plains and from north- central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, to (all but extreme western) Montana, the Dakotas, Wyoming, western Ne- braska, and northeastern Colorado)... Pedioecetes phasianellus jamesi Lincoln 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 6 Obituary Harry Joun McNicuouas was born in Ply- mouth, Wis., on October 29, 1892, and died in Washington, D.C., on July 23, 1942, of heart failure. Mr. MeNicholas graduated from the Ply- mouth High School in 1910, entered Ripon College in 1911, and ‘‘worked his way” to the A.B. degree in 1915. During his last two years in college he defrayed his expenses by acting as assistant mail carrier. For diversion he played a trumpet in the Ripon College Band. This is mentioned because it played a part in shaping his subsequent career. The writer, having previ- ously played a trombone in this band, joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards in 1914, and for amusement organized a small orches- tra, but no trumpet player could be found on the staff. In 1915 we wrote to Professor Barber at Ripon College suggesting that the pending Civil Service examination be called to the at- tention of his best physics student, especially if he played a trumpet. Mr. McNicholas took this examination and promptly accepted an ap- pointment as laboratory assistant in the Col- orimetry Section, where he worked on color standardization until 1926. He was then trans- ferred to the Textile Section to initiate re- searches on the physical structure of cellulose and rubber, including Réntgen-ray analysis. When depression curtailed this work in 1933, Mr. MeNicholas was detailed for a year to in- vestigate optical properties of glass and other materials used in identification lights on air- planes, then appointed to work on the utiliza- tion of wasteland products, and finally on pH standards in the Chemistry Division. In Febru- ary 1941 he was engaged in defense work on methods of establishing acidity of lubricating and transformer oils and gasolines. His ability, industry, and scientific work were rewarded by successive promotions from laboratory assist- ant to full physicist. Being studious by nature, Mr. MecNicholas enrolled for many graduate courses in physics and mathematics given at the Bureau of Standards from 1915 to 1937. In 1924 he re- ceived an M.A. degree and in 1926 a Ph.D., both from the Johns Hopkins University. Un- like the men who think their formal education is completed when the Ph.D. is awarded, Dr. MeNicholas continued to attend classes for specialized study of such topics as the inter- pretation of data, probability and statistics, and chemical thermodynamics. His name appears on a score of scientific papers published since 1919. In a series of im- portant papers of which he was sole author he demonstrated that he had exceptional talents for instrument design, for analysis of scientific observations, and for lucid literary exposition. The following, published as research papers in the Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, deserve special mention: Absolute methods in reflectometry (RP3), Equipment for routine spectral transmission and reflection measurements (RP30). The visible and ultra- violet absorption spectra of carotin and xanthophyll and the changes accompanying oxidation (RP337), Equipment for measuring the reflective and transmissive properties of diffusing media (RP704), Color and spectral transmittance of vegetable oils (RP815), and Selection of colors for signal lights (RP956). Dr. MecNicholas possessed a quiet, modest, and unassuming but genial disposition, and he had a large number of friends who always called him by his nickname, ‘‘Pat.”’ After many years of sedentary life in crowded apartments he purchased a home and yard and took great pleasure in landscaping and gardening activi- ties, which he liked to begin at daybreak. In 1916 he married Gertrude M. Weingarten of Ripon, Wis. He is survived by his mother and four sisters, his wife and daughter, Mrs. Kath- lyn Fitzgerald, and four grandchildren. WILLIAM F. Mreacrrs eS ve bi s 3 ) ‘ j 5 . ty t ¥ CONTENTS EcoLocy.—Progress in utilization standards for western ranges. | CAMPBMUL 0p 5 os Pu Oe Na ae ee ORNITHOLOGY. an! new race of ine sharp-tailed grouse. FRIEDMANN... Rg he ey fet Oxsiruary: Harry Jonn McNicuonas................ This Journal is Indexed in the Taierhational iodex to Periodicals . 4 \ Juuy 15, 1943 No. 7 JOURNA OF THE yw \} Sigh SONAL MUS eas oe WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | BOARD OF EDITORS G. ArTHUR COOPER Jason R. SWALLEN L. V. Jupson U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS wg W. Epwarps DEMING C. F. W. MurseBEcK f. bo ‘ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY HarRaupD A. REHDER Epwin KirK« BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT Wiuii1am N. FENTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY JAMES I. HorrmMaNn CHEMICAL SOCIETY ; bf 4 PUBLISHED MONTHLY . 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Rappers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHan R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Industry. | Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Sill Cy eS. National Museum. \. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 33 Thomas Jefferson and science.' VIRGINIA IN JEFFERSON’S TIME The career of every man is largely a prod- uct of his time and environment, of his birth, early surroundings, education, and associates, especially the associates of the formative period of his youth. No true ap- praisal of any man can be made without some knowledge of his background and of the influences that surrounded him, es- pecially in his early years. In Jefferson’s time, Virginia had already acquired an enviable scientific tradition as a result of the work of Harriott, White, Hamor, Rolfe, the Claytons, Bannister, Mitchell, Glover, Catesby, Tennent, Carter, Lee, and others. Unfortunately the printed records do not give a complete picture of science in Virginia in the early colonial days, partly because of the scarcity and cost of paper, most of which was imported from Europe, chiefly from the continent. Nearly all the paper mills in America were situated in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and their output was for local consumption. In Jefferson’s early days Virginia was to a considerable extent a feudal state, more or less on the English model, most of its best land being held by large landed pro- prietors. With the rapid opening up of the Piedmont, on which great estates worked by slave labor were not so practicable as they were on the flat and rich Coastal Plain, various social problems were beginning to arise. At the same time Virginia, now fairly well settled, was beginning to feel herself quite competent to manage her own affairs and was becoming restive under the domi- nation of the English parliament, for she * Received April 16, 1943. JuLy 15, 1943 No. 7 Austin H. CuarK, U. 8. National Museum. regarded herself as a sister rather than as a child of England. Jefferson was a product of the Piedmont area, then almost a frontier region, and, though peculiarly fortunate in the circum- stances of his birth and education, he did not view social conditions in the same light as did his aristocratic friends of the great estates on the rich and long settled Coastal Plain, with whom, however, he was always on the best of terms. His sympathetic appreciation of the at- titude both of the southern aristocracy and of those who, living in the wilder portions of the great new country, were trying to settle, cultivate, and organize the great wilderness, and his ability to harmonize their two viewpoints, can be really under- stood only in the light of his early environ- ment and upbringing. EARLY ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION, AND ASSOCIATES Peter Jefferson lived at Shadwell in Goochland, now Albemarle, County, Va., an unusually beautiful region of mountains, rolling hills, and river bottoms, its plant and bird life as diversified as its scenery, its lowlands with abundant relics of the former Indian inhabitants. He was-a sur- veyor, and one of ability, for to him belongs the credit for preparing the first accurate map of Virginia, the so-called Jefferson and Fry map, published in London in 1775 under Jeffreys, the Royal Geographer. His wife was the former Jane Randolph, eldest surviving child of Isham Randolph of Dungeness, Goochland County, a _ well- known lover of plants, who corresponded with Peter Collinson in England and with other famous botanists of that time. 193 194 Their son Thomas had a great respect for his father’s map, and from him, as suggested by Dumas Malone, he doubtless acquired much of his zest for exploration and draw- ing, and his liking for untrodden paths. From him, perhaps, he also acquired his fondness for mathematical subjects. From his mother’s side he may have inherited that love of plants that throughout his life was so very characteristic of him, and his interest in birds. On the death of his father in 1757 Thomas was placed under the guardianship of a neighbor, Thomas Walker, physician, sol- dier, and explorer, who had been with Braddock at Fort Duquesne in 1755 and who had traveled extensively in that vast area which at that time was included in western Virginia. According to Thomas P. Abernethy, Thomas Walker was typical of that company of bold spirits who explored and exploited the early frontiers—a man of action rather than of words. In 1760 young Thomas entered the Col- lege of Wiliam and Mary, unusually well prepared by long attendence—since the age of five—at an excellent school, the so-called ‘English School,” of which he personally had formed a poor opinion. At Williams- burg he found surroundings that for a keen young man with the widest possible in- terests were ideal. At that time the titular governor of Virginia was John Campbell, Earl of Loudoun, but the government was administered by the leutenant governor, Col. Francis Fauquier, a true friend of Virginia and the Virginians, a devotee of the sciences who had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753, and a director of the South Sea Company in 1751. With Colonel Fauquier there had come to Vir- ginia in 1758 Dr. William Small, of Birming- ham, who first held the chair of mathe- matics at William and Mary, and later that of philosophy, ad interim. These two de- lighted in the society of young men, and at Colonel Fauquier’s table, where Dr. Small was a constant attendant, the youths of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, John Page, John Walker, James McClurg, and others, “learned their lessons in the rights of men.”’ In later years Jefferson referred to Dr. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 Small as the man who had fixed the desti- nies of his life, and John Page eulogized him as ‘‘the illustrious professor of mathe- matics... the darling friend of [Erasmus] Darwin.” He might have added that he was also an intimate friend of James Watt. At William and Mary, Jefferson and Page became fast friends, sharing their ideas and confidences. It was to Page that Jefferson wrote the letters that reveal his youthful romance with ‘“‘the fair Belinda,’ who later married Jacquelin Ambler. The correspond- ence between Jefferson and Page covered 50 years without a trace of discord, and 30 years after their William and Mary days Jefferson declared to Albert Gallatin that he loved Page like a brother. In the election for governor of Virginia in 1779 Jefferson and Page were pitted against each other. Jefferson was denounced as a radical and Page as a tool of the Tories. The two candi- dates announced their platforms and retired to their estates, leaving the campaigning to their partisans. After the election, when Page sent congratulations to his victorious opponent, Jefferson replied that he derived special satisfaction from the fact “‘that the difference of the numbers which decided between us, was too insignificant to give you a pain, or me a pleasure, had our dis- positions towards each other been such as to admit those sensations.’’ Page, who was heutenant governor under Patrick Henry and later (1802-5) governor, spent much of his time in scientific investigations. With his friend David Jameson he was interested in astronomy and made experiments in the accurate measurements of the fall of rain and dew. He also suggested, as early as 1779, the identity of magnetism and elec- tricity. For a time he was president of the Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, at Williamsburg, a group that sought to play in Virginia the role of the Royal Society in London. In later years he confessed that he did not think he had made great proficiency in any study, for he was too sociable to shut himself off in solitude as did his friend Jefferson. John Walker was a son of Thomas Jef- ferson’s guardian, Thomas Walker. He sub- sequently served on the staff of General Jury 15, 1943 Washington as an extra aid with the rank of colonel, and also served in the United States Senate, by appointment from the Governor of Virginia, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of William Grayson. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1770. James McClurg was a more serious stu- dent than either Jefferson, Page, or Walker. After graduating from William and Mary he attended the medical school at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, from which he gradu- ated as a Doctor of Medicine in 1770. While there he was a prominent member of the Virginia Club, an organization composed of Virginians studying at the school. After graduation he devoted some time to post- graduate medical studies in Paris and Lon- don, returning to Virginia in 1773. During the Revolution he was active as a surgeon in the Virginia militia, being referred to in the official records as physician-general and director of hospitals for the State. He was professor of anatomy and medicine at Wil- liam and Mary from 1779 to 1783, after that living in Richmond. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1774, and was also a member of the Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge. He was a member of the Philadelphia Convention, and later of the Executive Council for Virginia during the early years of Washington’s administration. He was regarded as one of the most eminent physicians in the State and was president of the State medical society in 1820 and 1821. The first volume of the Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences published in 1820 was dedicated to him. According to James Madison. Dr. Mc- Clurg’s talents were of the highest order, but he was modest and unaccustomed to exert them. Possibly his interest in his pro- fession precluded any pronounced ambition toward a political career. Jefferson main- tained a close friendship for McClurg, for whom he seems to have had great respect. Such were the favored associates of young Jefferson at William and Mary, mature men of exceptional ability, sympathetic with, and fond of, the young, and young men of unusual promise. He graduated in CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE 195 1762 at the age of 19 with a reasonably thorough reading knowledge of Latin, Greek, and French, and a familiarity with the higher mathematics and with the physical sciences rarely possessed by young men of his age. Fortune favored him still further, for after graduation he entered the law offices of George Wythe, then the leader of the Virginia bar, whom he de- scribed as ‘“‘the best Latin and Greek scholar in the State,” and as a ‘‘faithful and beloved mentor in youth and most affec- tionate friend through life.” He was admitted to the bar in 1767 after five years of study. After his admission to the bar he practiced law with more than usual success, and was elected to the House of Burgesses in May, 1769, and appointed surveyor of the County of Albemarle in 1773. From this time on he became more and more intensively interested in politics; though his interest in science never di- minished, he was seldom able to devote much time to it. PERSONALITY At the time of his admission to the bar he was described as 6 feet 2 inches tall, slim, erect as an arrow, with angular features, a very ruddy freckled complexion, an ex- tremely delicate skin, full deep-set hazel eyes, and sandy hair. Known to his friends as ‘‘Long Tom,” he was a gay companion, an expert musician, the violin being his favorite instrument, a good dancer, a dash- ing rider, and proficient in all manly exer- cises. He was then, and continued to be throughout his life, frank, earnest, cordial, and sympathetic in his manner, full of con- fidence in men, and sanguine in his views of life. He seems to have been a recognized member of the closely knit social group made up of the children of the great families of Virginia. As a mature man he had by nature a scientific mind, and he once remarked that “the tranquil pursuit of science’ was his ‘‘supreme delight.’’ He also wrote that he was ‘for encouraging the progress of science in all its branches, and not for raising a hue and cry against the sacred name of philoso- phy.” He regarded ‘freedom and science’”’ 196 as the prerequisites of progress, and said that he had ‘‘sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man.” His legal training made him cautious in drawing conclusions from a series of isolated facts, and therefore impatient of all theories not logically deduced from adequate prem- ises. In a letter to Charles Thompson written from Paris on September 20, 1787, he said “‘I wish that the persons who go thither [to the western country] would make very exact descriptions of what they see of that kind [2.e., fossil bones], without forming any theories. The moment a person forms a theory, his imagination sees, in every object, only the traits which favor that theory. But it is too early to form theories on these antiquities. We must wait with patience until more facts are collected.” He was essentially of a reflective type, and it was his habit to seclude himself from time to time, while he diligently studied some branch of science as a relief from the grim realities of political and other worries. This habit of letting his mind li fallow, so to speak, and thus to clear itself of unimpor- tant details, probably had much to do with the brilliant manner in which he viewed all subjects in the light of their essential features, without being led astray by super- ficial emotional aspects. In everything he did his custom was to sow the seed carefully, nurse it for a while, and then, when its successful growth seemed assured, turn it over to others for its further development and ultimate fruition, usually under his stimulation and guidance. In science, as in everything else, he followed this line. And so it happens that, judged from the record, his main scientific interests were in those lines that were most backward and in which vigorous and intelligent leader- ship was most needed, especially those lines that would ultimately prove of greatest value to the people. Perhaps the most remarkable and out- standing feature of Jefferson’s character was his complete freedom from personal jealousy. Freedom of thought was no mere political phrase with him. Everyone, ac- cording to him, was entitled to his own JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 ideas. Naturally, he differed with many people, but these differences he never took personally. A good illustration of this is seen in his attitude toward the contest be- tween himself and John Page for the governorship of Virginia. He had an im- mense number of loyal friends, many of whom disagreed with his political outlook, though they never distrusted his sincerity. Dr. George Gaylord Simpson rightly says that “it is a measure of his greatness that Jefferson continued his powerful aid to paleontology and his warm friendship with its students even when it became evident that this aid and these students were reveal- ing the falsity of views that he had vehe- mently and almost religiously expressed and maintained during the greater part of a long life.”’ JEFFERSON’S SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS As a scientific man Jefferson was inter- ested in all lines of science, but in all rather as an enthusiastic, highly appreciative, and intelligent amateur than as a profes- sional. He had no time to make himself thoroughly proficient in any one line. The working out of the details he left to others, whom he assisted and encouraged to the best of his ability. His tremendous enthusi- asm, which continued unabated, or perhaps even increased, during his term of office as President of the United States, was a most important factor in bringing before the people the value of science. Tangible evidence of Jefferson’s many and varied scientific interests is furnished by his contributions to the proceedings and collections of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, of which he was elected a member, together with George Washington, in 1786, after the death of David Rittenhouse succeeding him as the third president of the Society on January 6, 1797. His contributions to the Society’s pro- gram and collections were in the fields of meteorology, chemistry, economic entomol- ogy, archeology, vertebrate paleontology, and applied mechanics in reference to agri- cultural operations. On December 17, 1779, there was re- corded in the Society’s proceedings a letter JuLy 15, 1943 from Rev’d Wm. Maddison (s7c), president of William and Mary College, containing ‘fa, series of Meteorological Observations by His Excellency Governor Jefferson and him- self separately, for a year and a half; like- wise a set of Experiments on what are called ‘Sweet Springs’.”” On April 15, 1791, on motion of Jefferson, a select committee (consisting of Jefferson and four others) was appointed to collect materials for form- ing the natural history of the Hessian fly and determining the best means for its pre- vention or destruction ‘“‘and whatever else relative to the same may be interesting to agriculture.”’ On August 19, 1791, he pre- sented to the Society ‘‘a curious piece of Indian sculpture, supposed to represent an Indian woman in labor, found near Cumber- land River, Virginia.” On August 19, 1796, his letter to Rittenhouse (deceased) de- scribing bones of extraordinary size found beyond the Blue Mountains in Virginia [in a cave in Greenbrier County, W. Va.] ‘‘ap- pearing to be of the Tyger-lion & Panther species’ was read by Dr. Barton. Under date of March 10, 1797, we read: ‘‘Jef- ferson’s memoire ‘On the Discovery of cer- tain Bones of a Quadruped of the [space of four lines left blank].’ A resolution was passed ordering the memoir to be put in the hands of the Committee of Selection of Publications, drawings of the bones to be _ made by a proper person. Mr. Peale was re- quested to put the bones ‘in the best order for the Society’s use’.’”’ These were the bones of the famous Megalonyz, the first giant sloth found in North America, and formed the subject of the only scientific memoir ever published by Jefferson, which appeared in 1799. On January 19, 1798, he presented to the Society bones of a mam- moth “some time ago found in Virginia.” On April 20, 1798, he presented a hand threshing machine invented by T. C. Mar- tin of Virginia, ‘‘which he had procured to be made.” On May 4, 1798, a “‘Description of a Mould Board of the least resistance, &e.,” by Mr. Jefferson was read and re- ferred to Mr. Patterson. This is the first mention of his famous plow. On May 7, 1804, W. Lewis, of Campbell County, Va., donated a bone and some rocks through CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE 197 Jefferson. On April 27, 1805, William Bar- tram sent some bones to be forwarded to [Jefferson at] Monticello. Much more detailed evidence of his ex- tensive interests 1s furnished by his famous book on Virginia. In June, 1781, he was in- jured by a fall from his horse, and he oc- cupied the leisure forced upon him by this accident in organizing the abundant and accurate memoranda that he had accumu- lated over a series of years. These memor- anda were arranged in the order of a series of questions that had been submitted to him by M. Barbé de Marbois, Secretary of the French Legation. During the winter of 1782-83 he revised and expanded them and had them published in Paris in 1784 under the title of ‘“Notes on the State of Virginia.”’ The date of this work is given as 1782, which is probably the date of the comple- tion of the manuscript, as he did not reach Paris until 1784. Two hundred copies were privately printed, as the work was not in- tended for general distribution. According to Sabin, a copy presented to M. Malherbe has the following note in Jefferson’s hand writing: ‘‘Mr. Jefferson having had a few copies of these notes printed to present to some of his friends, and to some estimable characters beyond that line, takes the liberty of presenting a copy to M. de Malherbe, as a testimony to his respect to his character. Unwilling to expose them to the public eye, he begs the favour of M. de M. to put them into the hands of no person on whose care and fidelity he cannot rely, to guard them against publication.” This work, however, did not long remain confidential. A French translation, with a map, entitled ‘‘Observations sur la Virginie, par M. J***. Traduit de |l’Anglais,”’ was published in Paris in 1786, and an English reprint of the original was published in London in 1788. The first American edition was published in Philadelphia in 1788. In the Virginia Independent Chronicle (Rich- mond) for Wednesday, December 12, 1787, we read that “the work will be comprised in a handsome octavo volume, with an elegant type and good paper, and delivered to the subscribers neatly bound and lettered at the very moderate price of one dollar. 198 The price to non-subscribers will be seven shillings and six pence Virginia currency Subscriptions are taken in at Mr. Davis’s Printing-Office in Richmond, where a specimen of the work is left for inspec- tion.”’ A second edition was printed in Philadelphia in the same year. This was followed by many other American editions —Philadelphia, 1792, 1794, 1801, 1812, 1815, 1825; Baltimore, 1800 (two editions) ; New York, 1801, 1804; Newark, 1801; Boston, 1801, 1829, 1832; Trenton, 1803, 1812; and Richmond, 1853. There was also a German translation entitled ‘‘Beschreib- ung von Virginien,’”’ published at Leipzig in 1789. This was the first comprehensive treatise to be published on any section of the United States. In it were discussed the boundaries of the State, the rivers, the sea- ports, the mountains, the cascades, the mineral, vegetable, and animal productions, climate, population, military force, marine force, aborigines, etc. It was the precursor of that great library of more or less similar reports that have been issued by the State and Federal Governments. Measured by its influence, it was the most important scien- tific work published in America up to this time. It laid the foundation for Jefferson’s high contemporary reputation as a univer- sal scholar, and for his enduring fame as a pioneer American scientific man. Further evidence of his interests is given by various printed reports, such as his re- port of July 4, 1790, presented to Congress on July 13, in which he made suggestions regarding a plan for establishing uniformity in the coinage and in the weights and meas- ures of the United States, the first sug- gestion of the idea that was subsequently expanded into the National Bureau of Standards, and his scholarly report on the history and economics of the cod and whale fisheries made to the House of Representa- tives on February 1, 1791, and published on January 8, 1872. | Then there are the manuscript notes left by him, among which are the extensive meteorological records kept at Monticello, his notices of the first appearance of the birds and flowers in spring, and his compara- tive notes on Indian languages, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 But by far the greater part of what we know regarding Jefferson’s scientific in- terests is gathered from the great number of letters that he wrote to various friends and that were published after his death. Applied science appealed to him quite as much as pure science. He was much in- terested in horticulture and in every form of agriculture. Botany was always a favorite subject with him, and he had one of the best botanical libraries in America, though on this he never published anything further than the lists of plants in his ‘‘Notes on the State of Virginia,’ which includes the first description of the pecan, written in 1781 or 1782. Jefferson was an inventor of great in- genuity, as is made evident at once by a visit to his home at Monticello. He also had a keen interest in the inventions of others, especially those of practical application. When he was in France he wrote dozens of letters about inventions. When on a visit to England in 1786 he made careful notes on English domestic gardening and on mechan- ical appliances. He went to northern Italy in 1787 to inspect machines for cleaning rice, and in 1788 he made other observations in Germany. At the time of the creation of the Patent Office, Jefferson was Secretary of State. As such, he became ex officio the Keeper of the Records of the Patents, and according to Dr. Frederick E. Brasch was the most active examining member of the board, and therefore its first administrator. Dr. Brasch says that the scientific foresight that he exercised at this time must be con- sidered the cornerstone of our patent system and patent laws. SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS Jefferson’s keen interest in inventions — more than anything else gives the key to his interest in science in general, which was the ultimate practical application of scientific discoveries for the good of man. No matter what line of scientific investigation he undertook, this idea of ultimate practical application seems always to have been in his mind. He seems never to have followed any line through mere pointless curiosity. Even in his study of fossils he appears to have had the idea that some time, somehow, a JuLy 15, 1943 knowledge of them would prove of value. Of his numerous and varied scientific in- - terests, three deserve special mention. First and foremost was his interest in man in general, evidenced not only by his political philosophy but also by his detailed study of the native Indians and his efforts to improve their relations with the Europeans, and by his sympathetic study of the Negroes; second was his interest in the exploration and description of the country; and third was his interest in paleontology. The French historian and philosopher Guillaume Thomas Frangois Raynal, usual- ly called the Abbé Raynal, a leader of the French freethinkers who was exiled from France in 1781, had maintained, among other things, that Europeans had de- generated in America, and that the Ameri- can Indians were a degenerate race. Jef- ferson denied this, and he also denied that the American Indians are inferior to Euro- peans in the same state of culture. He also said he has supposed that the black man, in his present state, might not be equal to the European, ‘‘but it would be hazardous to affirm that, equally cultivated for a few generations, he would not become so.”’ In his ‘‘Notes on the State of Virginia” he gave an excellent account of the Indians and described the ‘“‘barrows of which many are to be found all over in this country,” listing the contents of one in the Rivanna River bottom. He also described the characteris- tics of the Negroes in dispassionate detail. He was greatly interested in the multi- plicity of radically different Indian lan- guages and contrasted this with the lack of diversification among the red men of eastern Asia. He said that ‘‘the resemblance between the Indians of America and the eastern inhabitants of Asia, would induce us to conjecture, that the former are the descendants of the latter, or the latter of the former; excepting, indeed, the Eskimaux, who, from the same circumstances of re- semblance, must be derived from the Green- landers, and thus probably from some of the northern parts of the old continent.”’ In his ““Notes on the State of Virginia”’ he wrote: ‘‘Were vocabularies formed of all the languages spoken in North and South America, preserving their appellations of CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE 199 the most common objects in nature, of those which must be present to every na- tion, barbarians or civilized, with the in- flections of their names and verbs, their principles of regimen and concord, and these deposited in all the public libraries, it would furnish opportunities to those skilled in the languages of the old world to compare them with the new, now or at any future time, and hence to construct the best evidence of the derivation of this part of the human race.’”’ He compiled comparative vocabu- laries of various Indian tribes, which were unfortunately stolen; but some fragments of these are deposited in the American Philosophical Society’s archives. Dr. Clark Wissler has pointed out that at about the same time the Empress Catha- rine the Great of Russia had adopted the same approach to the study of languages and had written to President Washington for lists of Indian vocabularies. Jefferson’s practical and sympathetic in- terest in the Indians is perhaps best il- lustrated by the instructions given by him to Capt. Meriwether Lewis in 1803 when the Lewis and Clark Expedition was about to be organized. These were as follows: ‘‘The commerce which may be carried on with the people inhabiting the lines you will pursue renders a knowledge of these people important. You will therefore endeavour to make yourself acquainted, as far as a dili- gent pursuit of your journey shall admit, with the names of the natives and their numbers; the extent and limits of their pos- sessions; their relations with other tribes or nations; their language, traditions, monu- ments; their ordinary occupations in agri- culture, fishing, hunting, war, arts, and the implements for these; their food, clothing, and domestic accommodations; the diseases prevalent among them, and the remedies they use; moral and physical circumstances which distinguish them from the tribes we know; peculiarities in their laws, customs, and dispositions; and articles of commerce they may need or furnish, and to what ex- tent. And considering the interest which every nation has in extending and strength- ening the authority of reason and justice among the people around them, it will be useful to acquire what knowledge you can 200 of the state of morality, religion, and in- formation among them, as it may better enable those who may endeavour to civilize and instruct them to adapt their measures to the existing notions and practices of those on whom they are to operate... “In all your intercourse with the natives, treat them in the most friendly and con- ciliatory manner which their own conduct will admit; allay all jealousies as to the object of your journey; satisfy them of its innocence; make them acquainted with the position, extent, character, peaceable and commercial dispositions of the United States, of our wish to be neighbourly, friendly and useful to them, and of our dis- positions to a commercial intercourse with them; confer with them on the points most convenient as mutual emporiums, and the articles of most desirable interchange for them and us. If a few of their influential chiefs, within practicable distance, wish to visit us, arrange such a visit with them, and furnish them with authority to call on our officers on their entering the United States, to have them conveyed to this place at the public expense. If any of them should wish to have some of their young people brought up with us, and taught such arts as may be useful to them, we will receive, instruct, and take care of them. Such a mission, whether of influential chiefs or of young people, would give some security to your own party. Carry with you some matter of the kine-pox, inform those of them with whom you may be of its efficiency as a preservation from the small-pox and instruct and encourage them in the use of it. This may be especially done wherever you winter.” Dr. O. F. Cook wrote that the traditional sponsors of the repatriation and coloniza- tion of the Negroes in west Africa were Thomas Jefferson and George Washington. Jefferson studied the racial problem from many sides, including the need of educating the more capable Negroes so that they might furnish the necessary skill and leadership for the new communities in Africa. Washington instructed his executors to provide such education for some of his freedmen. Almost immediately after his inaugura- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 30, NOe @ tion as the third President of the United States Jefferson began to make preparations for developing his long-cherished plans for — the exploration of the great and unknown West and the discovery and description of its vast resources. His secretary, Capt. Meriwether Lewis, of Albemarle County, Va., who had long wished to go on an ex- ploring expedition, was appointed leader of the first party to be sent out—partly at Jefferson’s personal expense. Captain Lewis chose as his chief associate Capt. William Clark, also of Albemarle County, a younger brother of Gen. George Rogers Clark. The choice of these two leaders was a most fortunate one, and the expedition, which was in the field from 1803 (the year in which the territory extending from New Orleans to British America and westward to the Rocky Mountains known as Louisiana was purchased from Napoleon) until 1806 was highly successful. This was the first of a long series of more or less similar expedi- tions by which a detailed knowledge of our great West and of its resources and products was gradually accumulated. These expedi- tions, at first individual enterprises, were later consolidated under the United States Geological Survey. Jefferson’s interest in exploration was not confined to the land areas. Dr. Brasch writes that in 1806 he made a recommenda- tion for a Coast Survey to Congress, which took favorable action on February 10, 1807, and authorized the President to cause a survey to be made of the coasts of the United States, including islands, shoals, and all other physical features deemed proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the coast. This project was later organized as the United States Coast (now Coast and Geodetic) Survey. Dr. Brasch adds that during Jefferson’s second term the idea of establishing longitude 0° through Washington (77°03'58" west of Green- wich, England) was much discussed. Jef- ferson’s thorough knowledge of astronomy and mathematics, together with naviga- tion, enabled him to give much encourage- ment to members of Congress who wished to establish this standard American longi- tude. This discussion, according to Dr. Juty 15, 1943 Brasch, eventually led to the establishment of the Naval Observatory and the Hydro- graphic Office. Enthusiasm for vertebrate paleontology seems to have been awakened in Jefferson before 1781, after which time he lost no opportunity for securing and examining bones. He was always especially interested in the mastodons, or ‘‘mammoths,’’ and in the great sloth that he had called Megalonyz. As in other branches of science, his interest in paleontology was chiefly that of an en- thusiastic amateur, and a stimulator of interest in others. Dr. Henry Fairfield Os- born has pointed out that in developing his scientific opinions in regard to paleontology he at first quoted the current tradition, later becoming a more serious and inde- pendent investigator. The Lewis and Clark Expedition had brought back a few interesting fossils, which had whetted Jefferson’s desire for more. In the summer of 1807 Captain Clark was sent on another expedition to Louisiana that took him through the region of Big Bone Lick, in Boone County, Ky. _In obedience to President Jefferson’s de- sires he stopped there and, employing ten laborers for several weeks, made a large collection of about 300 bones, which he shipped to Jefferson at the White House. Here they were laid out in the then un- finished East Room, the ‘‘mastodon room,”’ where, at Jefferson’s invitation, and later at Philadelphia, they were examined by Dr. Caspar Wistar. Jefferson’s interest in paleontology while President, as remarked by Dr. George Gaylord Simpson, helped to make it a re- spectable and honored pursuit, and he was largely responsible for bringing together the materials necessary for its advancement. He greatly encouraged the study of vertebrate paleontology by the American Philosophical Society while he was president of it. He also acted for a time as president of the board of trustees of Peale’s Philadelphia Museum, which included the first public exhibition of fossil vertebrates, and the first mounted fossil skeleton in America. As the foremost citizen of the young nation, Jeffer- son’s outspoken and excited interest in fos- CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE 201 sils conferred on their study the dignity and prestige inseparable from his personal- ity and position. But it also brought down upon him the ridicule and wrath of many of his countrymen to whom scientific investi- gation meant wanton and deliberate neglect of one’s proper duties, if not, indeed, athe- ism. This attitude is well illustrated by a poem written by William Cullen Bryant at the age of 18, which runs in part as follows: Go, wretch, resign thy presidential chair, Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair, Go, search with curious eyes for hornéd frogs, *Mid the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs; Or where the Ohio rolls his turbid stream Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme It is only fair to Bryant to say that this poem, entitled ‘‘The Embargo,” was pub- lished not by himself but by his father, Dr. Peter Bryant, and that he did his best to suppress it. JEFFERSON AND HIS VIRGINIAN COLLEAGUES It must not be supposed that during his brilliant and eventful career Jefferson was neglectful of his scientific colleagues in his native State of Virginia. Before the Ameri- can Philosophical Society had elected more than a very few members from Virginia there was organized at Williamsburg on November 20, 1773, ‘“‘The Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge.”’ The charter was signed by six prominent Virginians, including the Hon. John Page, then lieutenant governor, who was elected vice-president, the president being John Clayton. Of the six who signed the constitu- tion, John Walker was already a member of the American Philosophical Society, which James McClurg joined in the following year, and Mann Page later. The notices regarding the activities of this Society were published in the Virginia Gazette at Williamsburg. There is no refer- ence to Jefferson in any of them, but he was presumably a member, for in a letter written in 1787 in answer to one from John Page, who had urged him to accept the presidency, he wrote that “‘he should feel himself out of his true place to stand before McClurg,” who was probably president at the time. In its early years the society seems to 202 have been well received by the people of the colony; but after 1774 there are few pub- lished notices of it, although it appears to have kept up an organization for a con- siderable time. JEFFERSON IN FRANCE Jefferson was in France from August 6, 1784, to October, 1789, succeeding Ben- jamin Franklin as Minister in 1785. Dumas Malone writes that, rightly regarded in France as a savant, he carried on the tradi- tion of Franklin, but until the end of his stay he was overshadowed by Franklin’s immense reputation. His attitude toward Franklin, whom he regarded_as the greatest American, was one of becoming modesty, without a tinge of jealousy. At that time France was regarded as the leader in the biological sciences; but Jeffer- son thought little of French science. He vigorously combated what he considered the disparagement of the American fauna by Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, who maintained that the animals common to both the Old and the New Worlds are smaller in the latter; that those peculiar to the New World are on a smaller scale; that those which have been domesticated in both have degenerated in America; and that, on the whole, America exhibits fewer species. In order to correct these impres- sions, Jefferson procured from America at his own expense and presented to the Comte de Buffon the bones and skin of a moose, the horns of another individual of the same species, and horns of the caribou, the elk, the deer, the spiked horned buck, and the roebuck of America. Buffon also maintained, much to the annoyance of Jefferson, that the American mastodon, or ‘“‘mammoth,” was the same as the elephant of Africa and Asia. He does not seem to have had a very high regard for Buffon. In a letter to President Madison of William and Mary he wrote: “Speaking one day with M. de Buffon on the present ardor of chemical inquiry, he affected to consider chemistry but as cook- ery, and to place the toils of the laboratory on a footing with those of the kitchen. J think it, on the contrary, among the most JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1 VOL. 33, NO. 7 useful of sciences and bzg with future dis- coveries for the utility and safety of the human race.” CONCLUSION Dumas Malone writes that Jefferson be- came associated with an extraordinary number of important societies in various countries of Europe, as he had long been with the chief learned, and almost all the agricultural, societies of America. Much, but by no means all, of this recognition was due to his political prominence. On Decem- ber 26, 1801, he was elected an “associé étranger’’ of the Institute of France; if this was by virtue of his position at all, it was because of his presidency of the American Philosophical Society. Mr. Malone says that this signal honor, which during his life- time was shared by no other man of Ameri- can birth and residence, may be attributed to his reputation in France as the most con- spicuous American intellectual. He himself modestly interpreted it as “an evidence of the brotherly spirit of science, which unites into one family all its votaries of whatever grade, and however widely dispersed throughout the different quarters of the globe.” Modern scholars, according to Mr. Ma- lone, have recognized Jefferson as an American pioneer in numerous branches of science, notably paleontology, ethnology, geography, and botany. Living long before the age of specialization, he was a careful investigator, no more credulous than his learned contemporaries, and notable among them for his effort in all fields to attain scientific exactitude. 3 But Jefferson saw all these branches of science not as independent units but as in- tegral parts of an all-embracing whole that should be developed for the sake of the future happiness and prosperity of man- kind, for the ultimate good of his fellow men was always in his thoughts. It was this scientific foresight that led him to advocate so vigorously the idea that science would be the cornerstone of our Republic. In 1789 he ~ wrote to President Willard of Harvard: ‘““‘What a field we have at our doors to sig- nalize ourselves in. The botany of America is far from being exhausted, its mineralogy JuLY 15, 1943 is untouched, and its natural history or zoology totally mistaken and misrepre- sented .. . It is for such institutions as that over which you preside so worthily, Sir, to do justice to our country, its productions, and its genius. It is the work to which the young men you are forming should lay their hands. We have spent the prime of our ETHNOLOGY.—Paczfic Coast Athapascan discovered to be Chilcotin.} HARRINGTON,” Bureau of American Ethnology. LIAM N. FENTON.) The purpose of this paper is to announce a discovery of great importance to ethnol- ogy made on my recent field trip to the Pacific Northwest. This consists of the dis- closure that the so-called Pacific Coast Athapascan, about which much has been written in the past and which has been com- pared to Sarcee, Navajo, etc., is composed of a string of Chilcotin languages straggling down, and near, the west coast of the United States proper from what is now southern British Columbia to almost within sight of San Francisco, Calif. The interior of Alaska and of most of northwesternmost Canada is occupied by a number of languages of the so-called Atha- pascan stock. In the forties of the past cen- tury Hale recognized Umpqua, of what is now Oregon, as belonging to this stock, and in the fifties Turner added the Apachean- Lipanan of the southern deserts and south- westernmost Great Plains of the United States to this stock. It became gradually Clear through further study that the main body of the Athapascan stock is that of the far northwest of the North American Con- tinent, and that from there two linguistic prongs have extended southward: (1) a Pacific Coast prong like the letter i (the dot would represent the Chilcotin), and (2) a 1 Received April 12, 1943. _? For important assistance in the consumma- tion of this work, I wish to express my thanks to the following: The late Prof. Franz Boas, Prof. Melville Jacobs, Bess Langdon Jacobs, Mrs. James A. Teit, Prof. Edward Sapir, Prof. P. E. Goddard, Robert W. Young, Dr. Fang-Kuei Li, and the Missionaires Oblats de Marie Immaculée, as well as to various Indian informants who spoke the languages involved and remembered fragments of disused ones. HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 203 lives in procuring them the precious bless- ings of liberty. Let them spend theirs in showing that it is the great parent of science and virtue, and that a nation will be great in both always as it is free.”’ Such was the opinion of Thomas Jeffer- son, the most versatile and the most in- fluential of our American scientific men. JOHN P. (Communicated by WIL- more easterly prong accomplished via the “Great North Trail” along the eastern base of the Rockies south to where these moun- tains break down and thence west, or else via the intramontane region south, like the letter } (the dot would represent the Lipan- an). In case of intramontane accomplish- ment, the } would have been executed hook first. The present study has succeeded in eliminating from the general Athapascan problem the Pacific Coast prong by discov- ering it to be a unit, having as its northern head part of the Fraser River drainage of British Columbia, Canada, and as its southern extent the zigzag watershed which bounds to the south Eel River’s Southfork, in Mendocino County, Calif. The expression in the Chilcotin languages is just the op- posite of this; in the manner of Chilcotin languages Indian talk, the peoples in their migrating layer on layer southward were working a language-substitution from the tail of the earth, which is located at what is now called Alaska and westernmost Can- ada, toward the earth’s head, which is located in the far south. Genetic relation- ship of the Athapascan languages with the Tlingit (language of Sitka and Juneau, Alaska) and the Haida (language of the Queen Charlotte Islands) was shown by Sapir years ago. Work done by me a few years ago showed how close this relationship is, likeness extending to some 300 features. Five detached bodies of Chilcotin lan- guages were worked on: (1) The most northerly of these was the Chilcotin proper, which takes its name from Chilco Lake, just east of the Cascade Range of mountains, in an easterly direction 204 across the Strait of Georgia from the central part of Vancouver Island, and one of the sources of the Fraser River. (2) The fragmentarily remembered lan- guage, closely resembling Chilcotin proper, of the Nicola and Similcameen Valleys, British Columbia, which had been sketch- ily made known by Dawson toward the close of the past century from information furnished to him by J. W. MacKay, for- merly Indian agent of Indian Affairs Branch, Department of Mines and Resources, of the Canadian Government, stationed at Kam- loops, British Columbia. A generation or two before this variety of Chilcotin would inevitably have become replaced by Eng- lish, it became supplanted, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, by Indian lan- guages of the Salishan stock. Working sep- arately with eight different informants, I swept their memory clean of the former lan- guage and obtained a sizable and important list of vocables, the best results coming from the aged chief Ernest Billy and from his sister Matilda. The information not only showed that the all-but-vanished language was Chil- cotin, but details were volunteered that the speakers were called Stuwix-mux (Stuwix, Athapascan name of the Nicola Valley; Thompson -mux, person), that they made their last linguistic stand at what is now spoken of as the reserve at the southwest end of Nicola Lake, that the spring beside the Nicola Valley Brewery at the western end of the city of Merritt was magically created by them as a never-freezing drinking water supply and bathing place for the neighbor- ing village of Teszulle, that these people used to steal children in order to augment their tribe, and that they formerly at times had clashes with the Thompson and other Salishan speaking bands that surrounded them. Best of all, came the information that the Chilcotin are called in the Thompson language Yuunxanil, a tribal name that has never been obtained or published on. This Chilcotin body was an enclave amid Salishan. (3) The next Chilcotin language to the south was Kwalhioqua, occupying the Wil- lapa River drainage and the adjacent drain- age of the southern heads of the Chehalis JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 River, in what is now southwestern Wash- ington, centering about Pee-Ell Prairie (so called from the Indian pronunciation of Pierre, first name of a one-eyed Frenchman who used to farm the flat). This body was a second linguistic island, surrounded by alien Salishan and Chinookan. (4) Another inland island of language consisted of the Tlatskanai (native pronun- ciation Laats’qhanayu), who held, in upper, central, and lower divisions, the valley of the Claskanie River, a southern tributary of the Columbia, west of the present city of Portland, in what is now northwestern Oregon. (5) The fifth and last Chilcotin division, as yet without a general name, was a great bloc of languages extending from Roseburg, Oreg., to Laytonville at the head of Eel Southfork, Calif., cut linguistically only by the Klamath River and unlike the divisions mentioned above in that it held many miles of coast, although the central part of its coastal holding, from Wilson Creek mouth, Del Norte County, California, to just north of False Cape, Humboldt Coun- ty, Calif., was in Algonkin family linguistie ownership. This great southernmost Chil- cotin group constituted seven languages: (1) Umpqua, or more precisely Upper Umpqua, who call themselves TY uutaneeyuu (prairie person); (2) Tututunne, from the head of the Coquille River to include the lower part of the Rogue River, Coquille and Shasta- costa being perhaps the leading languages; (3) Galice, spoken on Galice and Applegate Creeks, southern tributaries of the Rogue River, remarkable for its appearance of n, n, m as g, d, b, respectively; (4) Smith River, including Chetco; (5) Hupa, in- cluding Chilula and Whilcut; (6) Mattole, including Bear River; and (7) Wailaki, in- cluding Saya, Lassik, Sinkyone, and Kato. The farthest south extent of Chilcotin lan- guages on the coast took in Usal Creek mouth. The Kato, at the head of Eel South- fork, abutting the Russian River water- shed, were a little farther south than the Sinkyone co-speakers on the coast to their northwest, and again than the Wailaki co- speakers on Eel River proper to their north- east. Even the Chilcotin is in many features Juuy 15, 1948 very Hupa-like, Kwalhioqua still more so, and in Umpqua to Kato one has practically straight Hupa grammar. For this southern division, therefore, perhaps a term Hupoid or Hupan would be practical. According to meaningful consideration, the Chilcotin languages consist of the in- herited morphom (meaningful form or ele- ment) and its inherited sequencing. The morphom may conveniently be considered as having two weights: (1) the theme (main or lexical meaningful form or element), to be written, with absence or presence of its crements, without spacing, and for indicat- ing its crementless form always without hy- phenization (the verb in these languages does not occur crementless) ; (2) the crement (subsidiary meaningful form or element), consisting of firmly attached affix or loosely attached clitic, to be written attached to its theme without spacing or hyphenization, but sometimes with hyphenization for per- spicuity or weight indication. The theme minus or plus its crement or crements is termed the etymon (word or vocable), and it is the etymon that is dictionarized. The term base is a shortcut for standardized or extended theme. There are in the Chilcotin languages four distinct, differently handled classes of etyma, or “‘parts of speech’’ to retain the terminology of the Greek grammarians. Re- taining the Greek grammarian order of presentation, these are: noun, pronoun, verb, and particle. These four etymal classes reduce into two philosophical classes: noun, denoting entity, and verb, denoting ac- tion. The pronoun is a mere category car- rier, appearing where the noun would be a more definite painter, or in addition to the noun. The verb is the equivalent of a pro- noun-plus-verb-European-sentence. There are also copula and-posture verbs and the like, which are to the verb as the pronoun is to the noun. They are handled as verbs, just as the pronoun is largely handled as a noun. The particle consists largely of adverbs of etymon rank of many forma- tions, which definitize or add to the painting accomplished by the verb, and some of which, or their counterparts, can also be prefixed to the verb. These four etymal HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 205 classes can be listed and characterized as follows: (1) The noun is the label of entity. It ad- mits of only certain adnominal prefixes and postfixes. (2) The pronoun is handled mostly like _ the noun, but merely denotes unit of cate- gory, usually combinatory unit. The pro- noun is cut into personic and demonstra- tive-numeroid divisions. Only the personic can be prefixed to noun and verb, one set of prefixes being used before the noun, and another, split into objective and subjective, before the verb, with the objective coming first if both are present. When prefixed to the noun, the personic becomes modifica- tory, as does the first member of a noun plus noun compound, and this modification has settled into possessive meaning. Nu- meroid pronouns suggest that numerals be- long to the pronominal etymal class. (3) The main part of the anatomy of any one of these languages is the verb, the base of which constitutes the last syllable, if there is no postfix syllable or syllables (com- pare the position of the verb at the end of the Latin sentence). Some of the verb bases assume as many as five phonetically different forms, but the principal ones for presenting slighter and fuller? form are the nonintegral and integral, which two forms of the verb base are the ones given in the present paper and in the order of nonin- tegral first and integral second. Some of the forms, both nonintegral and integral, of the verb base show a postfix or the remnant or reflex of one, as was detected by Goddard years ago. The nonintegral appears in the present indefinite and the imperative forms of Goddard and is the weaker or more re- duced form of the verb base according to him, the imperfective of Li, in contradis- tinction to the integral, Goddard’s past def- inite, Li’s perfective, which is a stronger form. Some verb bases have according to closing consonant a slight and a full form, and this of nonintegral, or integral, or of both. Immediately before the verb base may come one or another, or in one instance even two together, of four classifiers (taking 3 Or light and heavy, as Indo-Germanic ablaut forms are termed. 206 this terminology from Tlingit and other grammar), better called causo-agentive pre- fixes—four in number if we regard zero, or lack of classifier, as one of the four. The force of these prefixes is largely obscured in the Chilcotin languages. The most contrac- tional part of the verb is the personic belt, consisting of personic objective prefix fol- lowed by personic subjective prefix with mode and aspect prefixes jammed in be- tween these, a region of contractions com- parable in complexity to the vowel contrac- tions of the Greek verb. This order carries out the general word order of the languages of modificatory before main. Starting the verb, when occurrent, and preceding all pronominal prefixes, are the many adverbial prefixes of two positions, even including in- corporated nouns used as adverbial modi- fiers. (4) As the fourth and last etymal class, there can be lumped together adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, ete., all of etymal rank, under the blanket term anonynon, or particle. This class was Frachtenberg’s catch-all, but the various groups of which it consists do have common characters. Etymal classes 1, 2, and 4, in contrast to the verb, have comparatively few possible forms, and are therefore simple. Some of the etymal forms have cremental counterings. Again, the postposition, which appears in these languages only as a cate- gory of postfixed transitive adnominal ad- verbs, may in other languages or writings have etymal, dictionary weight. COMPARISON OF SOUNDS The Chilcotin languages not only consti- tute a unit of linguistic development but also contain in Hupa, Mattole, and Wai- laki, three of their members, preservation of sounds not even secondary to that of Tlingit and Haida in uniqueness for the reconstruction of the phonetic system of all Athapascan languages, including Tlingit and Haida. The Chilcotin languages, as well as Tlingit and Haida, evidence two back-of-the-tongue series. The phonetic structure of the Chilcotin languages is, like that of language in gen- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 eral, an alternation of opener sounds called vowels, and closer sounds called consonants, comparable to slap-yelling—a procedure in syllables. Syllables are termed open or closed, open when having zero after the vowel of the syllable, closed when having a consonant after the vowel of the syllable, the consonant of course belonging to the same syllable. In actuality, most Chilcotin syllables are closed, either by a postvocalie consonant different from the one that starts the next syllable or by the doublish pro- nunciation of what would be otherwise a single intervocalic consonant whether with- in or between words. One can furthermore in all the Chilcotin languages divide the syllable closing consonants, into light and heavy closers, the light being on the whole slighter and including zero, and the heavy having fuller closing. Language suffers changes and splittings. Changes, especially of sound, can be termed processes. | Reconstruction of a sound, morphological element, or word, won through comparison, of necessity synchronic in North America north of Mexico, is a device surely wrong in actuality, but nevertheless one that serves a temporary purpose. No amount of compar- ing of Romance forms would win back Latin with certainty even to the extent of a single word, though Italic dialects, Keltic, and Greek and careful procedure were to guide. The reconstruction of pre-Chilcotin is ephemeric but is comparable to a setting up of linguistic stocks in South America temporarily advantageous to the ethnolo- — gist. The reconstruction of sounds is simpler than that of vocables in that vocables con- sist mostly of more than one sound. Taking a clue from the patent traveling backward of t to k in Lipanan (a group of Athapascan languages of the southwesternmost Great Plains), I spent considerable time in work- ing out the assumption that Hupa k, x”, etc., are frontals in antiquity that traveled toward the rear (like Swedish maskin, en- gine, becoming macin, and in dialect max*ina), but two indications made it plain that this assumption was wrong: (1) Related bunches of vocables in the lan- Jury 15, 1943 guages themselves proved _ back-of-the- tongue origin; (2) the genetically related Tlingit and Haida proved _ back-of-the- tongue origin. It became apparent that the traveling of sounds has been in the same outward direction which in several centuries turned popular Latin k into the s-sound of French. Of course, all reconstruction takes us back only one jog, only to the extent of one chunk of time. The assuming of a definite reconstruction form of any kind is by necessity more or less arbitrary. Even such a matter as to whether kh, x, or k is more ancient as a starter of the word for fire, must remain forever un- settled. It would not even be safe to guess that the more complex, which is kh in this instance, has been reduced. Writing employs to a large extent differ- ent symbols for voiceless and for voiced consonants, and this tends to make the sounds in writing appear more different than they actually are in the mouth. For instance, English Siwash, and the French word sauvage, from which it comes, really have last sounds the same except for the matter of voicing, but the spelling makes these last sounds look very different. Abbreviations of language names, such as Chil. for Chilcotin, used in presenting forms, do not require explanation. But Shastace. is used for distinguishing Shastacosta from Shasta. VOWELS _ Asin Semitic, differences in vowels in the Chilcotin languages are not so important as differences in consonants. A tendency is that a short vowel of an open syllable in the north appears largely as long in the south: Chil. si, I; Wai. cii. Chil. téhe, stone; Wai. tshee. There are several ablauts, or vowel mu- tations, notably that of o alternating with a, and that of e or i alternating with a. Vowels occur short or long, as do con- sonants. Since the length of long consonants is conditioned by the simple rule that in- tervocalic consonants are long, all con- sonants are to be written short. But long vowels must rigidly be written long. HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 207 A nasalized vowel is, as in French, the re- sult of an original syllable-closing -n, which nasalized more or less its preceding vowel, and was retained, changed to yn, or disap- peared altogether, even the nasalization it produced disappearing in certain forms. Or a nasalized vowel is the result of a preceding nasal consonant. a Chil. -na, eye. The quality of a is more open than that of a (a modification of 1), with which it ablauts for instance in some verb bases. o—u o and u are variations of the same sound. There is a tendency to pronounce a glide ¥ between a dorsal consonant and this vowel (as for instance in Russian k’é6mnata, room). It is a trait of several of the North- west linguistic stocks and also of the Chil- cotin languages that o labializes following dorsal consonant even through h preceding that consonant: Coq. c-xe’, my foot; neenuh-xwe’, our feet. In Tlingit, in some instances, even the a-sound labializes a fol- lowing dorsal consonant. In addition to inherited o—u, Chilcotin also shows a transformed from o after a labialized dorsal: kwat, knee (for *kW¥ot); khwan, fire (for *kh¥on). é Chil. ta-ne, person. e and i are kept dis- tinct. Occasionally in a setting that would turn i to a, I have heard e almost so turned, e.g., Navajo Tshé-khooh, Chaco, literally stone canyon, i.e., box-canyon, almost tsha- khooh. 1 I have mentioned under o above one source of Chilcotin a from ancient o. An- other and still commoner source of a is from i, conditioned to this extremely open form by contiguous consonant or consonants. Chil. tat, smoke. VOWEL DIPHTHONGS Vowel diphthongs are as in Tlingit and Haida of the class known as false, consisting of mere juxtaposition of two vowels of dif- fering quality (Frachtenberg’s au or aww, as in English hooey in rapid tempo, in con- 208 tradistinction to his a® or aw). Any occur- rent vowels of qualities different from each other may come together to make such a diphthong. Especially when one of the vowels is long, the false diphthong hovers on the border of being pronounced as two sylla- bles. Nasalization of one vowel diphthong member is infectious to the other. Vowel triphthongs rarely occur. SYLLABO-INITIAL CONSONANTS Originating consonants travel different roads of development as to whether they start or close a syllable. It is therefore prac- tical to prepare two lists of consonants, one of syllabo-initial consonants, the other of syllabofinal consonants, both drawing on the main or lexical elements of the lan- guages. For restoring the originating con- sonants, Hupa, and to some extent Mattole and Wailaki, are important, since they pos- tulate a palatalized or forward dorsal series reminding one of the separate forward series of Tlingit and Haida. For writing Tlingit and Haida, x, x, etc., are employed for the rearward series, k, x, etc., for the forward; however, mere k, x, etc., for the rearward- related and k, x, etc., for the forward-re- lated are used in writing Hupa. LARYNGEALS ? In the Chilcotin languages nearly all vocables that would begin with a vowel have before this a momentary laying to- gether of the moist glottal cords identical with the hamzated alif of Arabic and written by the apostrophe. Chil. ’a-thi, non- human trail. A few vocables begin directly with vowel, for instance, Chil. s-at, my wife. h- h- is rare, but occurs as the consonant of interjections, including the particle yes, and of song padders. DORSALS k- Chil. -ket, -ket, to spear (fish). k’- Chil. k’a, arrow. kh- Kwal, khasxee, chief; Coq. xasxee. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 When the original following vowel was e or 1 after a dorsal, the rearward of two back- of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, for all the languages retain kh- or the like. Chil. khe, foot; Hupa -khe’. Tlingit x’us, foot, is a rear series cognate, but Tlingit khé, khén, to track, also occurs. X- Though kh- largely appears as x- in the southern languages through declusivizing, when an originating x- is assumed there is no proof that x- was ever anything but a fricative. Hupa is the only Chilcotin language, the only Athapascan language in fact, that still forms the word and prefix meaning I, my, on the back of the tongue, as Tlingit does, even Mattole and Wailaki presenting only forms leveled to c and the like. Hupa x”e, I; x“i-, my. Tlingit xa, I; ’ay-, my. Chil. si, I; Wai. cii. It is only upon referring to other stocks that we find k-, etc., meaning I, my. When the original following vowel was o, glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal: Chil. su’, all right; -zu, to be good; Hupa -x”on, to be good. When the original following vowel was e or i after a dorsal, there is no way to tell whether the consonant belonged to a sep- arate palatalized series, since the appear- ance in Hupa both of *x- and of *x- is x¥-. Chil. can, -yan, song; Hupa x*in. ay Chil. -ra, bodyhair. Tlingit yaw, body- hair. When the original following vowel was o, glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal. Chil. -r’u, tooth. Tlingit ux, tooth. When the original following vowel was perhaps 1, there is no way to tell whether the consonant belonged to a separate palatal. ized series. Chil. ya#, snow; -xaé, -xaé to snow. DORSALS LABIALIZED rw- Chil. -rwit, -rwat, to break intransitive- w is in these languages lowered from rw. DORSALS PALATALIZED ike Chil. -xat, -xat, to fear; Hupa -kit, -kit. Juny 15, 1943 Chil. -k’ul, -k’al, Hupa -k’il, -k’il. to tear transitive; kh- When the original following vowel was 0, no glide * develops. Chil. -tcho, large, aug- mentative postfixed particle (but Chil. -tchoh, to become large, with retention of of original -x as -h); Hupa -khoh. When the original following vowel was e or i after a dorsal, the forward of two back- of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, be- cause only Hupa, and to a partial extent its neighbors to the south, retain kh- or the like. Chil. -tche, tail; Hupa -khe. Chil. tehan, stick; Hupa khin. (The word mean- ing stick is also used meaning tree in all these languages, with which agrees the use of English stick meaning both stick and tree in English local vernacular and in Chi- nook jargon.) | kx- Some ancient affricative such as *kx- may lie behind such appearance as in Chil. tshan, excrement; Shastac. sa’, Hupa tchv¥ayn. Chil. -tsha, -tshe, to cry; Hupa -tchwa, -tchve. Chil. tshaz, firewood; Hupa tch*ite. FRONTALS f Chil. taé, driftwood. i Chil. t’es, charcoal, to becharcoal; Coq. t’ec, black paint; to mark with black paint; Hupa t’ex”, charcoal. to becharcoal. th- Chil. thuu, water; Ump. thuu. FRONTAL LATERALS 4 Chil. h, dog; Kwal. ten; Hupa hin; Tlingit khét, dog. l Chil. -la, hand. il Chil. tlat, rivergrass; Hupa lah, sea-let- tuce (with tl- and 1-). te’ Chil. t?’ul, string; Coq. ditto. HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 209 tth- Chil. ttho, salve. FRONTAL SIBILANTS ts’ Chil. ts’ii, canoe; Kato ditto. tz- Chil. tzah, gum; -tzeh, -tze, to stick with gum; Hupa tjeh, gum. Chil. tzu, heart; Coq. se’; Wai. tjii. Chil. tzin, day; Wai. tjin. Haida sin, day. For appearance in some of the languages as a complete s, com- pare e.g. Greek méssos, mésos, adj., middle, for *médhyos. FRONTAL LISPINGS Chil. -6e, mouth. t0’- Chil. t@’an, bone; Shastac. ditto. tOh- Chil. téhe, stone; Shastac. 6ee; Hupa tshe. Tlingit thé, stone. Chil. -téi, head; Kato si’. Tlingit ca, head. N- Chil. -nai, -nai’, to drink; Hupa -naan, -naa’n. LABIALS De Chil. pan, roof; Coq. ma’n, house. Mm- The Chilcotins think of the Sekany tribe, which lives northeast of them, as substitut- ing m- for p-, and do not know that their far southern linguistic cogeners do the same. The alternation p with m is widespread in American languages. SYLLABOFINAL CONSONANTS The Chilcotin languages have in general about a dozen consonants that can be syllabofinal. Only Hupa and Wailaki in- dulge in clicked affricatives of this position, e.g., Hupa and Wai. -t’ats’, to cut, inte- gral. Hupa also shows an affricative at the end of several forms where other lan- guages would suggest a fricative, e.g. Hupa teh*ite, firewood (the common dimunitive in Hupa is in -tc, compare man-tc, hut, literally houselet). 210 3) Syllable-closing -’ is in part original. It is sometimes the mark of the possessional form of the noun, of the perfective form of the verb base. It is also sometimes a reduc- tion of older -k or -t; for instance, Navajo ka’nijii, white spruce, is for *kat-nijii. -h Syllable-closing -h is in part original. It is also largely a reduction of syllable-closing -x, as can be proved where it alternates with -r. Sometimes -h is entirely leveled out, as in Chil. -tcho, large. Sometimes -h stands for a former -k, -t, or the like. -hé . Not having listed the several syllable closures in -’ plus a buccal consonant, -hé should not be separately listed, but its ap- pearance is curious. Chilcotin has merely yad, snow; xa@, xad, to snow; yet Kwal. yahé, snow, Coq. yahs, Kato yahs. -k Shastac. ’ak, cloud; Hupa ’ah, Wai. ’ah, show nicely -k having been preserved and having become -h. -t Chil. tat, smoke; Shastac. ditto; Mat. th. Chil. -khoh, river; Kato khot, creek. The hardening of the preceding syllable re- sults in a different history for this -t: Chil. -pat, belly; Hupa -mit’, Mat. -pa’l. -S, -2 Chil. pas, bank; Coq. maé. Chil. xaz, pus; Coq. xa@. Chil. syllable-closing -s has in the languages down the coast very different appearances from Chil. syllabo-initial s-. -n In syllables originally closing with -n, four different grades of non-reduction and reduction can be easily distinguished in the languages: (1) complete -n; (2) appearance of -n as -n; (3) appearance of -n as nasaliz- ing of the vowel which formerly preceded it; (4) complete disappearance of nasaliza- tion. Sometimes two of these grades appear as distinguishing features in the forms of a verb base. -m -m appears as a syllable-closer in a few JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 Chilcotin forms, but has gone over into the more limber -n and its developments in the other languages. DISSYLLABIC ALTERNATION A curious alternation between two-sylla- ble and one-syllable forms, accomplished factually by thrusting -r- into the middle of the one-syllable form, appears in: Shastac. daraé, black bear (compare per- haps with the last syllable Chil. caé, griz- tly); Chil. sas. =: Chil. t?aras, snake; Kwal. ti’as-khan’e, eel, literally river snake. Hupa tux’, snake; tux¥-xan, eel, show Hupa }- for t!- (com- pare for instance Hupa I- for tl- in the Hupa word for sea-lettuce; pre-Hupa for snake should be *tl’ix”). Mat. k’arax, alder; Chil. k’as, Hupa eUoey DECLUSIVIZING, DEASPIRATING, DEALIFIZ- ING, DEBUCCALIZING, ALIFIZING Certain consonants in Athapascan lan- guages, including Tlingit and Haida, have been encountered that just about run the gamut of homopositional type, and even that straddle articulational position, re- minding one of Italian basso, low, Spanish bajo. The five processes mentioned as the caption of this section, all of them except the last mentioned accomplishing an easing, are encountered, and can be listed and ex- emplified here. Perhaps the commonest of these proc- esses is declusivizing, for instance, kh- in its emphatic or overaspirated form is kx- and is leveled solely to this appearance in some of the languages, just as Siouan kh- be- comes solely kx- in Teton Sioux, and indeed in conformity for instance with the reduc- tion of t@h- to 6-. I have even heard Navajo -ko, when, if, in standard tempo talk re- duced to -xo. Chil. -khe, foot; Coq. xe’; Shas. xee. Deaspirating is, in one way of looking at it, the opposite of the above process, where- by for instance an earlier kh- becomes k-. Mat. ke’-, foot, for pre-Mattole *khe’-. Dealifizing is well examplified by Chil.. -tluh, -tluk, to do by means of string; Chil. -tVuh, -t?u’, to fasten with string. Debuccalizing is again the opposite of the Juny 15, 1943 just mentioned process. Chil. ’a-, something or someone objective, verb prefix; Hupa k’1-. An example of alifizing is shown between Chil. -k’aih, -k’an, to burn, and Chil. khwan, fire. SPECIAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SOUND There are many special or irregular de- velopments of sound in the Chilcotin lan- guages. Some of these changes are differen- tiations to avoid ambiguity. But through- out the languages one notices that special developments consist largely of easings of consonants in prefix syllables or in other much used forms. Thus Chil. ts’i-, someone, verb prefix (never a noun prefix), appears in Mattole as tji-, -’tji-, someone, verb prefix, someone’s, noun prefix—with easing out of the clicking, just as a Zunyi schoolchild will say tz for ts’; Kwal. tante’e, 4; Cod: tante’1; Hupa tink’; but Chil. tanke. These changes are also suffered by bases and have been listed as the processes of de- clusivizing, etc., but prefixes and _ post- fixes in the Chilcotin languages are espe- cially prone to what may be termed special development. One can compare, for in- stance, the irregular verbs met with in many languages, special development of sound and form being caused by commonness of occurrence in various settings. LACK OF TONAL ACCENT Inherent tone of syllables is a morpho- logic and lexical as well as phonetic feature and is a characteristic of the northern, east- ern, and southeastern Athapascan lan- guages, but it does not occur, except as rare vestiges or as the cause of reflexes, in any of the Chilcotin languages. In coming from the inherent-tone Beaver, Chippewyan and Sarcee languages, which lie to the east of the Chilcotin languages, one is struck at once that the Chilcotin languages are not tonal, so much so that in these a noun may be dis- tinguished from a phonetically equal verb form by signalizing the syllable or sylla- bles of the noun by raising of tone. This lack of tonality is another common feature that makes for the unitizing of the Chilcotin languages. In all the Chilcotin languages noun and HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 211 verb form identical with noun can be dis- tinguished by raising and loudening of voice for the nominally used form. GRAMMATICAL AND VOCABULARIAL COMPARISON The Chilcotin languages are character- ized by large preservation of the possessive form of the noun; certain same nouns throughout the languages require someone’s to be prefixed for not personally possessed form or when in certain meaning (Chil. -tche, tail; but tche, stream mouth); the same prioritive is common to a number of the languages; lack of addressative; the same postpositions with appositive personic plus postposition readier than noun plus postposition; the same personic plurals of the pronoun (we, ye); k’i- (and from this ’1-, ’a-), someone or something objective, verb prefix (not *’a-); the same demonstra- tives (Chil. -ti-, this; Chil. -yu-, that); verb base vriddhied by ablaut, orinasal umlaut, vowel lengthening, postfixation of syllable- closing consonants, as a maximum to five different forms and with k- to kw-, k’- to k’w- and kh- to khw- as a maximum of syl- labo-initial consonant change; verb bases having the vowel consist of 1 prone to have one or few forms; nonintegral and integral action, nearer perfect and remoter perfect, immediative and future sometimes distin- guishable by verb base change alone; cer- tain verb prefixes and postfixes prescribe verb base forms; a separate class of verb postfixes outside of and after the verb base constantly and vitally in use even largely for tense distinguishment; verb base classi- fication of entities such as earth, fire and water as well as according to shape or plurality; formation of passive from inte- gral base; noun incorporation not confined to special forms but pretty largely practicable, in the adverbial belt; customary a second- ary formation; nouns, pronouns, and par- ticles, painters appositive to verb elements of vagueness; yi- (related to the remoter de- monstrative) largely as adverb prop and as partial originator of the relatival; cardinal direction terms largely interlaced with stream and slope terms. In addition to grammatical features suz generis these languages have the same pe- 212 eculiar vocabulary, unitary inheritance of morphoms and etyma as well as their treat- ment; we point, for instance, to the numeral tanke, 4, which runs down the coast from British Columbia to Laytonville, to peculiar plant names, animal names, etc. WIDER COMPARISON A sensing of phonetics, morphology, and lexicality still wider than that gained from Athapascan, Tlingit, and Haida will be ob- tained by a comparison with genetically re- lated stocks. A perspective even wider than this will be obtained by following out the suggestions given by the semantics of stocks whose genetic relation with Athapascan, Tlingit, and Haida can never perhaps be proved. For instance, the Algonkin stock, and again the Yuman stock, have bundles of vocables including the meanings to be white and to dawn. In Athapascan there oc- curs a verb to be white represented in very original form by Wai. -kai, to be white, and a verb to be daylight, to dawn, appearing for instance as Chil. khaih, khai, to be day- light, to dawn. Unconnectable, we say at present, yet surely connected. INTERLINKING TRADITIONS Hardest to get of all, and at the same time ° most satisfactory, were actually remem- bered traditions corroborating the linguistic evidence, which, although in part shading off into the mythical, are clearly indicative that there has been a southern spread of language-bearing ancestors, accomplished in war, opportunism, and peace, resulting in linguistic supplanting in large just-inland and coastal regions, and that the spread has been piecemeal, consisting of the throwing off of more southerly linguistic neighbors by more northerly adjacent ones. These ty- ing traditions are 10 in number. (1) Although in the Nicola Valley I ob- tained volunteered information that the Stuwix-mux language is Chilcotin, a more detailed account of this, presenting infor- mation transmitted to Dawson by MacKay, formerly Indian agent at Kamloops, British Columbia, is to be found in Dawson, “Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia” (Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 Canada 9 (sect. 2): 3-44. 1892). The first paragraph quoted presents information ob- tained by Dawson from MacKay, the sec- ond tells of Dawson’s visit to an Indian in the Nicola Valley: A long time before the white man first came to the country, a company of warriors accom- panied by their women from the neighborhood of the Chilcotin River made their appearance in the Bonaparte valley. ... This happened during the salmon fishing season... . At that time it was customary for the Shuswaps who lived on the banks of the Thompson between Kamloops and the mouth of the Bonaparte valley to take their winter stock of salmon from the Fraser River at the western base of Pavilion Mountain. ... The strangers from Chilcotin .. . continued their ad- vance southward down the Bonaparte and Thompson valleys till they reached a position opposite the mouth of the Nicola River. At this place they were discovered by some scouts... . The intruders... took- advantage of the night to cross the Thompson and proceeded to ascend the Nicola valley. ... The strangers were driven into the Similkameen valley, where they took a firm stand.... An Indian named Joyaska, who lives in the Nicola valley, below the lake, and who is probably sixty years old, informed me [Dawson]... that he, with seven other men and some women and children belonging to them, were now the only remaining true natives of the Nicola region... . I asked him if the old language was like that of the Tsilkotin ... to the north, and he said it was the same. One may discredit this story, which is given even in more detail that I have quoted above, but I got enough information in the field to convince me that it has some basis of fact in the remote past. (2) The Kwalhioqua tradition that they spoke the language of the land-otter and migrated far from the east, apparently con- tains dim handed-down memory blended with a standardized linguistic metaphor. I have recorded elsewhere Indian language metaphors that a foreign people talks the language of ducks, or again of blackbirds. (3) The Kwalhioquas also have a tradi- tion concerning the Tlatskanai. They tell that the Tlatskanai are an offshoot of their own people. Some Kwalhioqua youths, bor- rowing and misuing a firedrill, started a great forest fire and, when this subsided, followed the tracks of an elk easily discerni- ble in the ashes south through alien terri- Juny 15, 1943 tory to the nearby Columbia River. On crossing this river they found good elk hunting in the region of the Claskanie River on the south side and sent a messenger back with a lot of dried elk meat. The messenger succeeded in persuading many of the Kwal- hioqua to migrate to the Claskanie Valley, which they did, thus initiating the Tlats- kanai tribe. (4) A third Kwalhioqua tradition is that the Umpquas are, like the Tlatskanais, a body of Kwalhioqua who migrated south. This tradition is of the utmost importance since the Umpquas belong to the southern- most group of Chilcotins. (5) The Tututunne, whose great village was on the north bank of lowest Rogue River at what was later called Bagnell’s Ferry, have a tradition that they migrated to that site. (6) The Mikonotunne, whose village was on the north bank of Rogue River about seven miles above that of the Tututunne, have a tradition that they migrated upriver. (7) There was a place somewhere up the Rogue River above Shastacosta village called Maanesta. At Shastacosta village two chiefs quarreled. One of these chiefs wandered upriver and established Maanesta in a narrow place of the river full of hazel- brush. People climbing the mountain sides at Maanesta would see the smoke of Shas- tacosta village far downriver toward the coast and would say to their accompanying youngsters, ‘Those are our people, we came from there.” (8) There is a tradition among the Smith River Indians telling that the Hupas are Smith Rivers in origin, though the Hupas are now separated from the latter by the alien-speaking tribe of the lower Klamath River, and the differences between Smith HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN 213 River and Hupa must have required long separation to attain. It is said that ten boys and ten girls left Burnt Ranch village on Smith River, that the trail magically opened up before them so that they walked with- out crossing water to Hoopa Valley and became the Hupa Indians. The Hupa Indians in their language today sometimes refer to the Smith River Indians as little Hupas, which implies recognition of rela- tionship. (9) A somewhat similar Smith River In- dian tradition states that the Whilkuts of Blue Lake, speaking a language closely re- lated to Hupa, originally lived at South Bend on the Smith River, and that ages ago they migrated south, fighting off enemies as they went, until they finally reached Blue Lake. (10) The Hupas have the tradition that the Saya, also called Nongatl (saya in the Chinook jargon means far off), who used to adjoin the Whilkut in the hills east of Hum- boldt Bay, are Hupas who moved south long ago. As proof of this, the information was volunteered that a Hupa can under- stant the Saya language after hearing it for a while. CONVERSION OF LINGUISTIC CHANGE INTO CHRONOLOGY One may ask, after all the above, the practical question: How long have the Chil- cotin languages been developing asunder? To this question no answer can probably ever be given. Linguistic change has had for various features various and varying rates, and no amount of study will convert as a whole the duration of the linguistic change sundering these languages to time reckoning, even to the extent of a good guess. 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha and Rhinoprosopa (Syrphidae).? ALAN STONE.) In recent studies of syrphid flies, some new species of Baccha and Rhinoprosopa from the neotropical regions were dis- covered and are described in this paper. The types, except where designated, are in the collection of Dr. C. L. Fluke, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, whom I wish to thank for the loan of this material. Paratypes, where available, are in the author’s col- lection. Baccha minima, n. sp. Abdomen with a pair of widely separated yellow rectangles in the basal corners of the fourth segment. Third segment with a pair of basal vittae on each side. Related to sativa Curran. Male.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front yellow, the latter with a black dot on lunula. Pile sparse, black. Antennae orange, third joint missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy black with a pair of wide, yellowish-gray vittae running nearly to the scutellum. Humeri and lateral margins widely yellow; a medial spot adjacent to the humeri, yellow. Pleura yellow, brownish on the metapleura and hypopleura. Scutellum yellow with a few black hairs and one or two black fringe hairs. Abdomen: slender, shining black; the sides of first segment are yellow, the remainder brown. Third segment with a pair of narrowly separated yellow vittae in the middle of each side. Fourth segment with a large, rectangular yellow spot on the lateral margins and base of the segment, the two spots not widely separated. Fifth segment shining black. Legs: yellow, the hind femora with a brown subapical annulus, their tibiae with the middle yellow and proximal to it a dark brown annulus and the distal third brown. Hind basi- tarsi yellowish brown, the apical joints dark brown. Wings: pale brown, the stigmal cell quite dark; costal cell clear; alulae absent. Holotype, male, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke collection.) Baccha delicatissima, n. sp. Characterized by the dark aeneous-brown 1 Received March 18, 1943. F. M. Hutt, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by mesonotum and scutellum. Hind femora and tibiae brown, yellow centrally. Related to macer Curran. Male.—Length 7.5 mm. Head: face and front yellow, the former with a black spot on lunula and black pile, facial pile yellow. Antennae orange, blackish above. Thorax: mesonotum brassy brown, the margins obscurely yellow without apparent vittae. Scutellum concolorous with four or five long black hairs, no fringe or collar. Halteres black, squamae pale. Pleura wholly yellowish. Abdomen slender, brownish black; second segment light brown on the basal corners, with small, oblique, widely separated, light-brown spots just past the middle. Third segment with a similar oblique middle spot on each side. Fourth segment with a wide, sepa- rated vittate spot beginning some distance from base and near the middle of the segment proceeding diagonally to the margin. Fifth segment with a pair of oval vittate spots. Legs: yellowish, the middle femora except at base, all of hind femora and tibiae pale brown. Femora with subapical bands and tibiae dark brown basally and apically. Wings: pale brown; stig- mal cell dark, costa lighter; alulae absent. Female.—Similar to the male, front with a slender brown stripe; spots of fourth segment form well-marked, short, inverted V’s. Holotype male and allotype female, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke col- lection.) Baccha zilla, n. sp. Related to virgilio Hull. The front is wholly pale, the third and fourth segments of the abdo- men with two vittae on each side, each pair basally confluent. Scutellum and pleura, except the metapleura, pale yellow. Female.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front pale yellow, the latter with sparse black hairs, the vertex as far as the first ocellus blackish; lunula with a black dot, antennae orange, the third joint missing. Thorax: greenish shining black, with a pair of pale gray-brown, anteriorly wide vittae reaching over the anterior half. Pleura except the metapleura, the humeri, the wide lateral margins and scutellum, ali pale yellow. The scutellum has five or six pale hairs JuLy 15, 1948 on the ventral fringe and a very few hairs on disc. Abdomen: elongate; slender; about the same length as wings; the first segment is yel- low on the sides, with yellow pile; second seg- ment with a long, narrow, medial black vitta, the apical fifth black, the sides yellowish; third segment with a long, slender pair of yellow vit- tae reaching to the base and basally fused on each side of the segment. They cover nearly three-fourths the length of the segment. Fourth segment similar, the vittate spots shorter. Fifth segment with a pair of short, reddish vittae. Legs: yellow, the hind femora brownish sub- apically, their tibiae pale brown, yellow in the middle, their tarsi dark brown. Wings: pale brown; stigma dark; alulae absent. Holotype—Female, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz Plaumann, and a paratype from Nova Teutonia and one also Puyo, Ecuador, Decem- ber 1938, F. M. and H. H. Brown. (Fluke col- lection.) Baccha nerissa, n. sp. Related to columbiana Curran. The pleura are steel-blue. Hind femora and tibiae black. Third to fifth abdominal segments trivittate. Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: face yellow laterally, its middle and the cheeks blue-black and white-pollinose; the front is black, black- pilose, narrowly yellow on the sides and linearly white-pubescent. Antennae dark brown, the third joint orange below, blackish brown above, and rather elongate. Thorax: mesonotum dull black, with a faint bronze cast and a pair of wide, narrow, gray vittae reaching almost to scutellum. Pleura steel-blackish; scutellum dark brown, with sparse black pile and long, mixed, ventral fringe. Abdomen: petiolate, the first segment metallic black and extending onto base of second. Second segment orange laterally and brown apically with opaque central tri- angles; third and fourth segments reddish brown, with a medial black vittae and a lateral black triangle, all apically confluent, the post- margins brown. Fifth segment trivittate; sixth trapezoidal, basally flattened and black, later- ally compressed apically. Legs: first four brown, dark at base of femora, pale yellow at base of tibiae; hind femora and tibiae black, tibial base narrowly yellow. Hind basi tarsi basally black; remainder of tarsi pale. Wings: pale brown, dark brown on anterior border, almost as far as end of stigmal cell. Alulae wide. HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 215 Holotype female, Pinas, Ecuador, 1,200 meters, July 21, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke collection.) Baccha nigrocilia, n. sp. All the legs jet black, with similar pile, longer on the hind pair, the hind tarsi in part yellow. Wings brown on basal half, anterior tarsi di- lated. Related to hirta Shannon. Female.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front steel-blue, the former narrow yellow on the sides, the latter protuberant anteriorly, widely shining black in the middle, with black pile; lunula and antennae black. Thorax: mesono- tum and scutellum shining black, with black pile and ventral fringe, the notapleura bluish, the humeri sepia, the pleura steel-blue with vertical silver pubescence and silver pile and black-pilose on posterior half. Squamae and fringe black. Abdomen: strongly petiolate; first segment shining black and steel-blue pos: teriorly; second segment steel-blue on the basal third and side margins, with in the middle a pair of oblique black spots meeting above. Third segment reddish in the anterior corners, with large, central, opaque black triangle, which is postmedially indented; the posterior and anterior margins are shining. Fourth seg- ment steel-blue, with, on each side, a large, opaque triangle posteromedially connected to a median black vittae that does not reach the base. Fifth segment with three black vittae on steel-blue ground. Sixth segment flattened, trapezoidal. Legs: jet black and pilose, the pile quite long on the hind pair; apex of hind basi tarsi and next two segments whitish. Anterior tarsi dilated, wings brown on basal half. Alulae very large, stigmal cell pale. Holotype female, Sao Paulo, Brazil, February 18-26, 1940, Ilha Seca; one paratype female. (Fluke collection.) Baccha nigrocilia inclusa, n. var. In this variety, from Colombia, the vittae are slender and isolated and contained within the triangles of opaque black upon the abdomi- nal segments. Baccha nigrocilia hirtipes, n. var. In this variety, from Colombia, there are large yellow-brown triangles in the lateral corners of the second to fifth segments; the vit- tate spots are also yellow. 216 Rhinoprosopa lucifer, n. sp. Related to aenea Hull but the pleura are chiefly black, the facial stripe is wider. Hind tibiae black. 7 Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: the cheeks and sides of face are widely pale yellow; middle of face widely jet black. The sides of the front are orange, broadly opaque black down the middle, expanding to reach the sides of the shining black lunula. Face pro- duced considerably beyond the antennal apex, with a low tubercle below the anten- nae. Antennae reddish brown, the third joint blackish except at the ventral base; arista black. Pile of front black and long and confined to the top and sides. Vertex black with black pile. Thorax: mesonotum brassy brownish or black, the anterior half brownish-gray pollinose, without definite vittae and with long yellow pile. Humeri, the whole of notapleura, postcalli, and a sharp wide basal margin on the scutellum yellow. Remainder of scutellum dark brown, lighter on the margin, its pile long, sparse, and black, with longer marginal bristles and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 no fringe. Only the posterior half of the mesopleura is yellow. Abdomen rather slender, especially at the end of second seg- ment, black with yellow markings as fol- lows: all but the posterior margin of the second segment in the middle yellow. Second segment with a pair of long, oblique, an- teriorly approximated, bright, central, yel- low stripes upon the sides of the segment, each stripe margined anteriorly with opaque black and posteriorly with an opaque tri- angle. Third segment with similar pattern, the stripes almost confluent anteriorly. Fourth segment with larger, similar stripes which are fused throughout most of their length in the middle. Fifth segment with oblique, transverse, short fascia fused me- dially. Legs: yellow, the hind femora dark brown on more than the apical half, their tibiae and tarsi very dark brown. Wings: wholly deep brown with slender alulae, equally developed throughout. Hobotype male, Pinas Ecuador, 1,600 meters, July 25, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Two paratype males, same data. (Fluke collec- tion.) ZOOLOGY .—A folliculinid associated with a hermit crab. | E. A. ANDREWS, Johns Hopkins University, and E. G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America. The folliculinids are a small group of ciliated Protozoa living in colored, chitinoid tests, scarcely visible to the naked eye and firmly attached to various objects in all the oceans of the world. When the animals leave these tests to make others, the old ones persist and are recognizable as representing species and genera. Hermit crabs drag about deserted snail shells, within which their soft spirally grown hind bodies are protected. That certain folliculinids live attached to the soft bodies of hermit crabs, within the shells of snails, was observed in 1888 by Giard, in France. He saw them as little black spots on the hind body, near the limbs or near the end of the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus, then called Hupagurus bernhardus. These specks proved to be groups of folliculinids, which he thought to be well placed to receive currents of water along the hind body. The 1 Received March 26, 1943. shape of each test was so peculiar, being pinched in with an upper and lower part, something like a double gourd or gourd- shaped piece of pottery, that he made them representatives of a new genus, Pebrilla. No other mention of this association was made for nearly 50 years, and then, in 1936, Fauré-Fremiet on the coast of France found these same folliculinids associated with the same hermit crab, but also with another, Clibanarius misanthropus. He found them standing solitary or in groups of four to seven on the hind body of the crab only, and never upon the inside surface of the snail shell. Though the pinched-in shape of Pebrilla suggests some outside force, Fremiet ob- served the animal secreting its test in two efforts, first the posterior part and then, with change of shape and of secretion zone, the anterior part, entirely from within and with no external compulsion. This folliculi- nid, Pebrilla paguri Giard, is known only as Juuty 15, 1948 occurring upon the above two sorts of her- mit crabs and as observed by the above two naturalists. In studying the hermit crab Pagurus pubescens Kroyer, living in the shells of the snails Lattorina litorea, Thais lapillus, Buc- cinum undatum, and some others and col- lected from shallow water in Frenchman’s Bay, coast of Maine, between Mount Desert Island and the mainland, one of the authors in 1939, 1940, and 1941 observed blackish spots, which proved to be tests of some folliculinid, scattered over the hind bodies of these crabs. After preliminary study of these objects, involving the prepa- ration of whole mounts and some serial sections of crab abdomens, he turned over this material together with preserved crabs fixed in Gilson’s fluid to the senior author for detailed investigation. This association of folliculinid and hermit crab proves not to be the same as observed in France. The folliculinid is a different species and genus, and the hermit is also a different species from either of those men- tioned in France. There are no records of folliculinids on other sorts of hermit crabs, but on one out of a dozen specimens of Pagurus longicarpus from Woods Hole, Mass., three or four tests of a folliculinid were found near together on the right side of the antepenultimate segment. These seemed to be Lagotia viridis, which is one of several folliculinids that. occur in that region. It is common on algae and hydroids, and the few found on the hermit crab may have been stray experimenters. Examination of a dozen Pagurus polli- carts, also from Woods Hole, failed to reveal any folliculinids, and P. acadianus from Maine seems likewise free of these Protozoa. However, on five out of six Pagurus hem- phillt received for examination from the U. 8S. National Museum and dredged in Cuylers Harbor, San Miguel Island, Calif., in July 1939, there were folliculinids much resembling those on Pagurus pubescens from Maine, both in general appearance and in distribution on the abdomen, but they prove to be Lagotia simplex Dons as under- stood by Fauré-Fremiet in 1936. It is not every specimen of Pagurus pubescens from ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID 217 Maine that bears folliculinids. Fifty-five adult females, not hosts of Peltogaster, showed folliculinids on 39 and none on the rest. Some of the latter were no doubt re- cently molted crabs and accordingly could not be expected to have attached com- mensals. The little tests (Fig. 1) stand fixed only to the dorsum and the sides of the hind body and are strikingly more numerous toward the posterior end. Thus, dividing the abdomen into. swollen anterior segments and the terminal part (the latter consisting of the last segment with uropods and telson), we found that in the above 39 there were 89 folliculinids on the swollen region and 237 on the terminal re- gion. This crowding toward the hind end, which lies far within the spiral of the snail shell, is just the reverse of the distribution of the little bivalves, juvenile Mytilus edulis, that were found abundantly attached by byssus threads to the rough anterior free parts of the crab, but very seldom on the hind body. Why the folliculinids find the terminal region of the crab’s body more suitable for attachment than any other arouses specula- tion. The answer, we believe, may be found in the fact that the apices of the shells in- habited by hermit crabs are generally choked with organic refuse, including fecal material, which must be a rich culture medium for various microorganisms. Since this is pocketed in a relatively stagnant environment, the folliculinids on the termi- nal portion of the crab’s abdomen seem particularly well located to have an abun- dance of food always at hand. These folliculinid tests are scattered here and there, often as solitary and quite often as grouped individuals (Fig. 1). The groups are made up of 2, 3, and up to 17 individuals (Fig. 2) and suggest that the swimmers that settle and build have some methods of re- action to one another and are to some ex- tent social. Like many species of folliculi- nids, these may group themselves in de- pressed areas of the surface, and often we find them in aggregates along the grooves bounding the last segment, where the largest groups were seen (Fig. 2). Here the swimmers must have settled about the same 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of end of abdomen of Pagurus pubescens showing distribution of about 30 folliculinid tests. Fig. 2.—Largest group of 17 folliculinids extending in groove outlining telson, all tests connected by basal colletoderm, some built on top of others with outlines distorted from crowding. Fig. 3.—Folliculinid with nine Pottsia infusorium parasites projecting from rear portion, and few dia- toms in front part. Fig. 4.—Top view of folliculinid test surrounded with halo of cement. Fig. 5.— Profile view of same specimen as Fig. 4. Kach side line represents 100u except in Fig. 1, where it represents 1 mm. : JuLy 15, 1943 ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID 219 Fig. 6.—Dorsal view of folliculinid test distorted by pressure against setae of surface of last pleopod of Pagurus pubescens. Contents of test reduced to scattered nuclei, chiefly. Outline suggests that of Lagotia. Fig. 7.—Partly preserved folliculinid with wide base of attachment to test. The wide stalk abnormally cleared of granules except at the attaching surface. Eight nucleiin view. Fig. 8.—Ventral view of folliculinid fixed in Gilson’s liquid, showing unequal peristomial lobes, pharynx, and part of gullet; with 11 unequal nuclear lobes and large fecal vacuole approaching small remnant already dis- charged. Fig. 9.—Two folliculinids fixed in Gilson’s liquid in partly destroyed test, each with one macronucleus and several micronuclei. They are the separated anterior and posterior halves of one that divided crosswise; the one on the right retains its contact with the test and is developing unequal lobes; the one on the left was the anterior half and is free from the test; its terminal membranella crown is that of a free-swimmer, but there is a small protoplasmic protrusion near it. Fig. 10.—Ventral view of folliculinid test containing two results of recent fission; the anterior part to the left has ter- minal crown of a swimmer and 10-lobed nucleus; the posterior part, to the right, retains basal attach- ment, has a 9-lobed nucleus and two unequal peristomial lobes, with the nascent pharynx still at the posterior third of the body. Each side line represents 100u. All figures (1-10) are of Platyfolliculina paguri, n. sp. 220 time and crowded as close as possible to others, and some even settled on top of - those already in place. Such overlying in- dividuals show irregular outlines, since the sides of their tests were hampered by con- tact with the necks of the tests they sat upon. It will be noted that the colony has a dense center where they parked so closely as to leave no vacant spaces, just as is the habit of Metafolliculina andrews. These tests show no common orientation; even in closely crowded groups the mem- bers that stand side by side have axes in various directions. Each test is a very flat simple flask with short neck, and it is sur- rounded by a halo of cement that fastens it to the surface of the crab (Figs. 4, 5). When two or more settle near together the cement of all binds them together by a flat membrane called colletoderm by Wright in 1859. Peeling this from the crab removes a group as one mass. It is notable that many of these tests are empty, so that good specimens of the ani- mal are not readily found. One group of ten had eight empty. To be sure, it is known that folliculinids may swim away and leave empty tests, but here we find evidences of death of the animal, such as remnants of protoplasm with groups of nuclei (Fig. 6). That some of the many empty tests may be the results of attacks by parasites is sug- gested by facts to be presented later on in this paper. Proceeding now to a detailed description of these folliculinids associated with Pagurus pubescens, we consider first the test and then the animal, not observed in life. By reflected light the tests are soot-black, but by transmitted light pale green. Each is a flat, wide sac with insignificant neck that lacks a special collar at its mouth. The floor of the sac is quite flat and the roof but slightly arched. The sac adheres by a thin layer of cement under its floor and extend- ing 20—50y as a halo around the floor of the sac. The underlying cement may rise up posteriorly to the top of the sac roof. The short simple neck has a thin wall, while the sac seems to have a thick wall, but this is the optical effect of the curvature of the sides, which in a horizontal distance of 5-6u JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 descend 25-30y, the top and bottom views suggesting outer and inner boundaries of — the wall. That is, where the greatest diame- ter of the sac is 125u the diameter of the floor is 115u—the overhanging sides simu- lating a thick wall. As the sac is so flat, top and bottom views are readily seen but profiles scarcely ever. - In bottom views the sharp line of junction of side and floor is strixing. Actual longi- tudinal sections of the test give the appear- ance of a test tube with blunt bottom and upturned mouth end. The material of the test looks homogeneous except that in the cement and sometimes in the walls of the neck there are minute particles, some of which are the original subpellicular granules (protrichocysts of Klein) discharged and more or less swollen and fused to make all the test and cement. The flimsy necks show various lengths and angles of rise from the floor of the sac, but as side views are rarely seen the meas- urements of neck length are not exact. Views down the neck sometimes suggest valves, but none was demonstrated. Rarely is the thin mouth edge thickened slightly as a Ou rim. The range in size in 25 measured tests is as follows: Potellencth es. ee 188-238 Saclengthss. 46 47 eee 138-188 Neck length.c scien seer 35-75 Dac. widths ss ohne See negra 90-150 Neck wwidith oie 5 ar es 38-60 Mouthiwidthia see eee 30-63 As estimated by focusing, the depth of the sac is often but 25yu and rarely 50u, while in paraffin sections it was measured as 25, 28, 35, and 38n. The tests are not so strictly symmetrical as in many other folliculinids, and there are some monstrosities. One had a neck from a sac of 125u length extended to a total length of 113u. This resulted from the fact that its first portion of 50u length was fol- lowed by a secondary extension of 63. off at a large angle. Straight. extensions of necks are common in some folliculinids. The sides of the sac are not infrequently indented, and usually this has arisen from resistance of.setae on the Juny 15, 1943 shell of the hermit crab, or from necks of other tests, as in Fig. 2. When, as in Fig. 6, the swimmer settled between setae too near together its test was distorted on op- posite sides so as to somewhat suggest the pinched-in form of Pebrilla paguri found on hermit crabs in France. Knowledge of the animal within the test is hampered by effects of parasitism and methods of fixation of the crabs. Though one remnant had a length of 250u, most were strongly contracted down into the sac with the peristomial lobes but poorly preserved. The left lobe was considerably bulkier than the right. What was seen of the pharynx was not deep and possessed few spirals. Nuclei appear clear in dead remnants and as dark-stained spherules after borax- carmine or haematoxylin. Generally 9, but up to 13 in number, are present. Rarely seen connected, they are of unequal mass, 5-15u in diameter. Each nuclear lobe is closely surrounded by a layer of granules. Accompanying these macronuclei were sometimes darkly staining unequal spher- ules about 1—2y in diameter and deemed to be micronuclei. Longitudinal pigment bands were counted as 30-35 in dorsal view. Food vacuoles were seen and some diatoms within the protoplasm, anteriorly; also fecal vacu- oles. What is of import is that where the animal had not been separated from the sac it was attached posteriorly by a broad base, 25—45u wide (Fig. 7). Seeking a name for this folliculinid as- sociating with Pagurus pubescens, we find that its multiple nucleus places it in the Eufolliculininae where its wide flat sac, short neck, and broad base of attachment of the animal bring it near to what Hadzi, in 1938, called Platyfolliculina sahrhageana. Hadzi found in the Adriatic two unde- scribed forms in the subfamily Semifollicu- lininae with broad bases of attachment; thinking this important he worked over the illustrations given in 1917 by Sahrhage when describing division in what he thought Folliculina ampulla (a name applied to many different species). Hadzi concluded that Sahrhage’s illustrations should be taken as representative of a new genus, ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID 221 Platyfolliculina, to be called P. sahrhageana. He estimates the dimensions to be: Total length of test......... 1387-237 Breadtheol Sac: 22 ee 91-109 Breadthvof neckties. os542 2 34-50 The extended animal was 243-250 by about 30 but when retracted 85-132 by 59-33un. The macronuclei were generally six in number and up to 17y in diameter; and the micronuclei up to five in number. Sahrhage’s species came from algae and piles in Kiel Harbor, but ours on Pagurus pubescens has much resemblance to it. Moreover, in one of these crabs fixed in Gilson’s liquid, two tests were found con- taining stages soon after division, as de- scribed by Sahrhage. In the first (Fig. 9) two animals occur side by side, each with one macro- and several micronuclei. This is evidently a stage immediately after the moniliform nucleus condensed into a rod that divided into anterior and posterior halves, as the protoplasm pinched in ventrally to separate an anterior from a posterior half. Of these the posterior stands attached, while the anterior has slipped down along the side of the posterior half and stands beside it and free. In the later stage (Fig. 10) the macro- nuclei have increased to the normal number while the original anterior half still remains alongside the posterior half preparatory to swimming free; the posterior half, on the right of the illustration, is perfecting its unequal membranella-bearing lobes, though as yet the opening of the infundibulum is far back in the posterior third of the animal and will need to be brought forward to function. In general, as here, the ontogeny of any folliculinid starts as a rodlike form, I, then this splits deep to form almost a J, and later elongates the stalk to fashion a — Y-form the arms of which are of different lengths in different species and in different phases. Provisionally, we assign this folliculinid on Pagurus pubescens to the genus Platy- folliculina, but as the nuclei are more nu- merous, the necks longer, and the sacs wider than in P. sahrhageana it seems to belong 222 to a new species here named Platyfolliculina paguri. These platyfolliculinids associated with Pagurus pubescens live well protected in the restricted, dark spaces of the snail shell, yet as they multiply there it is evident that ade- quate food is present for them and for other ciliates also residing there, such as the large branched colonies of vorticellids and up- standing tube dwellers seen in 7y sections as 45u long Cothurnza. When the animals are present in their tests they frequently bear at the posterior part (Fig. 3) several spheroidal protrusions, 4—30yu in diameter, each with a large nucleus 4—-10u wide and often also with a smaller embryo cavity 2—5y wide, external to the nucleus. That these projecting cells are actually parasites fastened to the folliculinid is cer- tain when they are compared with the re- sults of Chatton and Lwoff, who in 1927 described a new and remarkable suctorian that lives as parasite upon two species of folliculinids and two species of vorticellids. . When mature these parasites project just as in the folliculinids we find upon Pagurus pubescens. These authors, in 1924, found that Fol- liculina ampulla was badly infested with these parasites in the aquaria at Monaco, while the rare F. elegans had none. Also Folliculina ampulla brought from Samoa and from Woods Hole, Mass., by F. A. Potts, lecturer at Cambridge, showed these parasites. These suctoria, named Potisia infusorium, are peculiar in the group of acinetans in that the embryo released from the cavity of the adult in which it was formed by budding has three bands of loco- motor cilia as well as terminal sucking tubes by which it anchors itself to the body of the folliculinid and grows to maximum size by drawing out liquid from the host. As many as 22 were seen on one folliculinid, and these authors think that greater num- bers kill the host folliculinid, after which they gradually perish within the host’s test. This may account for the many emptied tests seen on Pagurus pubescens. Finding Potisia infusorium as parasite on these folliculinid associates of the hermit, Pagurus pubescens, thus adds Maine to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 their previously recorded geographical dis- tribution, Samoa, Monaco, and Woods Hole, and also adds to the previously re- corded hosts they attack, i.e., Folliculina ampulla, F. elegans, Cothurnia ingenita, and C. socialis, this folliculinid on Pagurus pubescens. Moreover, this same parasite was seen on a few Parafolliculina amphora and Metafolliculina andrewsi in September, 1941; on the west shore of the Chesapeake Bay, north of Baltimore. In passing, we note that Chatton and Lwoff previously discovered a flagellated organism, Sporomonas infusorium, living as a parasite in Folliculina elegans, as well as in Vorticella, in the aquaria at Banyuls and in F’. ampulla from Woods Hole. In the fol- liculinid this Sporomonas infusorium grows to be a mass of 70 diameter before it escapes from the folliculinid to sporulate inside the test. The folliculinid these authors call PF. ampulla is a multinucleate form with long spirally reinforced neck and may well be what Hadzi later called Metafolliculina andrews. Whether Platyfolliculina paguri occurs also in other habitats remains to be found out. It is not the only folliculinid in this habitat, for on one specimen of Pagurus pubescens there were found two long, slender folliculinids of some other kind. One was fast to the right side of the fourth seg- ment of the hind body, pointing downward, and the other was well protected on the chela closely surrounded by heavy conical spines. These two seem to represent some undescribed form. BIBLIOGRAPHY CuHaTTon, Epwarp, and Lworr, A. Sur un flagellé hypotrophique et palintomique para- site des infusoires marins: Sporomonas in- fusorilum n. gen. n. sp. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 91: 180-190. 1924. Pottsia infusorium n. gen. n. sp.: Acinétien parasite des folliculines et des cothurnies. Bull. Inst. Océanogr. Monaco 489. 1927. Dons, Cari. Neue und wenig bekannte Pro-. tozoa. Norske Vid. Selsk. Skrift. 1927 (CORMIESIEE OVA FavuRE-FREMIET, E. Division et morphogenése chez Folliculina ampulla O. F. Miller. Bull. Biol. France-Belgique 66: 77-110. 1932. yuny 15; 1943 La famille des Folliculinidae (In- fusoria Heterotricha). Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat. Belgique, ser. 2, fasc. 3: 1129-1175. 1936. Giarp, A. Fragments biologiques. Sur_ les genres Folliculina et Pebrilla. Bull. Biol. France-Belgique 19: 310-317. 1888. Hapzi, J. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der adria- tischen Folliculiniden (Inf. Heterotricha). I. Subfamilie: Eufolliculininae. Acta Ad- riatica Inst. Oceanogr. Split (Jugoslavija) 11: 1-46. 1938. Kau, A. Urtiere oder Protozoa. Die Tier- ZOOLOGY.—On a species of pycnogonid from the North Pacific.' (Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. ) HEDGPETH. The species of pycnogonid here described is based on specimens named and designated as types by the late Dr. Louis Giltay, and de- posited as such in the United States National Museum. After this paper was submitted for printing, Dr. William A. Hilton published pre- liminary diagnoses of some new species in Co- lossendeis, the genus concerned, including one under the same name.” Although the diagnosis is vague, and incorrect in one detail (“‘ocular tubercle . . . not pointed,” p. 3), the specimens consulted undoubtedly are the same species and were evidently labeled by Dr. Giltay. As it may be many years before descriptions and figures of these numerous preliminary species are published, I have deemed it wise to proceed with this paper in order to clarify the status of at least one of these species. Inasmuch as all the material examined appears to have been labeled by Dr. Giltay, his type designation, supported by the description and figure herein, should not be abandoned in favor of that in a brief diagnosis. Although it is impossible, of course, to credit Dr. Giltay with the author- ship of this species, it is unfortunate that his label name was not acknowledged in the pre- liminary diagnosis. The type specimens were taken by the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross. Genus Colossendeis Jarschinsky Colossendeis tenera Hilton? Holotype.—Male; Albatross station 3346, 44°31’ N., 124°52’ W., 786 fathoms, September 22, 1890. 1 Received March 30, 1943. * Hinton, W. A. Pycnogonids from the Pacific. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 35 (1): 2-4. 1943. HEDGPETH: A PYCNOGONID FROM THE NORTH PACIFIC 223 welt Deutschlands, pt. 25. Jena, 1932. Mosius, K. Das Flaschentierchen, Folliculina ampulla. Abh. Nat. Wiss. Hamburg 10: 1-15. 1887. Mtuumr, O. F. Animalcula infusoria fluvia- tilua et marina. MHavniae, 1786. SAHRHAGE, H. Uber die Organisation und den Tetlungsvorgang des Flaschentierchens (Fol- liculina ampulla). Arch. fiir Protistenk. 37: 39-171. 1917. Wricut, 8. Description of new Protozoa. Edinburgh New Philos. Journ., new ser., 10: 97-101, pl. 7. 1859. JOEL W. Paratypes.—Male; Albatross station 3074, 47°22/00"" N., 125°48/30" W., 877 fathoms, June 29, 1889. Three females; Albatross station 2859, 55°20’ N., 136°20’ W., 1,569 fathoms, August 29, 1888. Description.—Trunk slender, unsegmented, lateral processes separated by spaces somewhat narrower than their own diameter, except the posterior pair, which appears to be more widely separated than the preceding pairs. The eye tubercle is very high, narrowly conical, and tapers to a small blunt point. The eyes are basal, large, but indistinctly pigmented. The anterior pair is larger than the posterior. Proboscis slender, straight, slightly dilated near the distal third and slightly expanded at the tip. It is markedly longer than the trunk. Palpus covered with minute setae, especially the distal joints. Basal joint much broader than long; second joint straight, sticklike; third joint not much longer than wide, slightly curved; fourth joint little more than half as long as second; fifth joint shorter than sixth; seventh shorter than wide; eighth about three times as long as seventh; ninth joint slightly longer than eighth. Abdomen papilliform, directed upward at an angle and longer than the last lateral processes. Oviger: First and second joints subequal; third joint about half again as long as first; fourth and sixth long, nearly straight, subequal, or sixth slightly longer than fourth in the male; fifth joint about half as long as fourth. Ter- minal segments diminishing in length distally, with 7 to 10 flat, finely denticulated spines in the largest rows. Terminal claw heavy, curved, about four times as long as basal width. Third leg: Coxae subequal. Femur slightly 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7 longer than first tibia, which is slightly longer MEASUREMENTS than the second tibia. Tarsus longer than pro- sia oie! Paratype, 2 podus, terminal claw longer than propodus but eg ES ee ay namie a ees oe mc not as lone as tarsus) ‘Whe legs! areystraieht, “Casnalceerment a meeee 1.8 1.9 slender, and without marked swellings or pro- Width,secondlateralprocess 3.0 3.0 eaeranices Abdomen tcdc schon 0.8 1.0 ; be : IDK WHOS Oso55cc0c0nsuee x (tip broken) 2.0 Remarks——This species resembles Colos- Third leg: sendeis angusta in size and general appearance, First coxa............ 1.0 1.0 : : Second coxa........... 1.5 1.25 but it can readily be separated from that spe- oper ap Lod ate ve cies by its much longer proboscis. The eye emiirey ee Aco 18.0 20.0 tubercle is much higher (although in most First tibia. ........... 15.0 17.0 j HIG dart he Grae Petouneud d Second tibia.......... 11.0 11.5 specimens 18 18 € ats par 0 ge aMage ) MP ATSUS Hele ies eoeienc eet ene 4.75 4.0 and eyes are present. It is also similar to Colos- | Propodus............. 3.5 3.0 sendeis megalonyx but differs from both C. _ Were hig. coszanss a ‘ Oviger: megalonyx and C. angusta in the character of Besa LE 1.5 vil the denticulate spines on the oviger. Colos- Hourthyyoue cry eee 8.0 9.0 c : IMIR YOUNEs caoao0nscccn 3.0 4.0 sendeis tenera appears to be a North Pacific Sone eee 56 a0 basin species; all known localities are off the northwestern United States. Terminal joints coiled, not measured. Fig. 1—Colossendeis tenera Hilton, drawn from paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum: a, Dorsal view of paratype, <7; b, sketch of cephalic region of paratype; c, terminal joints of leg of paratype, 9 ; d, palpus of paratype, 2; e, terminal joints of oviger of paratype, o, with denticulate spine from sev- enth segment. All drawings except b and denticulate spine made with the aid of a camera lucida. Se Rae ee EntomoLogy.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha : prosopa (Syrphidae). F. M. uit. . PEA INC i ZOOLOGY. —A falkculnde aekocintad with : a hermit crab. DREWS AND E. G. REINHARD. 000 cua" bid 4 netes ) } ‘ C u nes VA, : ye -ZooLtogy.—On a species of pyenogonid : from the North W. HepGhere coke he BOARD OF EDITORS — ‘a ason R. SWALLEN : L. We Jupsen ie ‘BUREAU, OF PLANT INDUSTRY | NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS pie Oates EDITORS. eee 3. uy tie C.F. W. MuzsEeseck . ies he ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY LO Gs WP a an aR ga Epwin Kirk : Be ate Ne tee ie GEOLOGICAL socrETY a HES | Witt N. FENTON ee Maa Ti, ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY fay JamesI. 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Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKWEpDDE, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp §S. RappLeyE, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NATHAN R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Smrzuer, U. S. National Rice ua JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 33 GEOCHEMISTRY.—Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes.) S. Ross, U. 8. Geological Survey. The importance of clays and soils can hardly be overemphasized, for no materials play a wider and more varied role in geo- logic processes than do the clays and related minerals. These have in the past been so little understood, indeed were long looked upon as such hopeless materials, that geolo- gists tended to avoid the problems on which they had a bearing and missed much of the information that they were capable of giv- ing after intensive study. However, ad- vances in the knowledge of clays and the development of efficient techniques for studying clay and soil materials have already contributed to this branch of geol- ogy, and the way has been opened for new advances. This paper presents and illus- trates by specific studies certain geologic problems on which clay and soil materials have a bearing—problems some of which have been clarified in the course of mineral- ogic research and others on which tentative conclusions have been reached. During the meetings of the First Inter- national Soil Congress in Washington in 1927, soil mineralogy was an almost totally neglected subject, but interest began to grow almost immediately afterward. How- ever, the writer presented at these meetings a paper that was based on studies in the laboratories of the United States Geological Survey in which it was pointed out that many soils are characterized by minerals of the montmorillonite group. These studies 1 Address of the retiring President of the Geo- logical Society of Washington delivered at the 611th meeting of the Society on December 9, 1942. Published by permission of the Acting Di- rector of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received April 8, 1943. Avueust 15, 1943 No. 8 CLARENCE have since been carried forward in collabo- ration with others, including Sterling B. Hendricks, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Contributions have come from many sources in this and other countries. Some of those making noteworthy contribu- tions are Paul F. Kerr, of Columbia Uni- versity; John Gruner, of Minnesota; W. P. Kelley and associates, of California; Grim and associates, of the Illinois Survey; C. E. Marshall, of Leeds, England, but more re- cently of the University of Missouri; Har- rison and Hardy, of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad; Nagel- schmidt, of Rothemstead; Hofmann and his associates, in Germany; Edelman and Noll, of Germany; and Favejee, in Holland. Work remains to be done on the mineral- ogy of clays, but the studies have progressed until we have a fairly adequate knowledge of the minerals involved, their compositions, and their physical properties. The full de- tails of clay mineralogy are unnecessary here, but a few of the minerals whose properties have a bearing on geologic rela- tionships may be briefly mentioned. Three main groups of minerals are found among the clay minerals: the kaolinite group, the montmorillonite group, and the group variously called hydrous mica, bravaisite, or illite. All have a platy or micaceous structure. Kaolinite and halloy- site are the only minerals of the kaolinite group that are known to be present in soils, but dickite occurs in hydrothermal deposits. These three minerals differ in the arrange- ment of the lattice sheets but not in chemi- cal composition, and have the following common chemical formula: 225 226 Kaolinite Halloysite Dickite Al.Si20;(O H)4 This formula indicates that kaolinite is characterized by a high alumina-silica ratio. The valency is completely balanced within the crystal structure, and hence no balanc- ing ions (exchangeable bases) are present. There is little or no tendency for iron, mag- nesium, or other ions to proxy aluminum in the crystal structure. Kaolinite appears to be the stablest of the clay minerals. The members of the montmorillonite group, typically developed in bentonite, have an extremely wide range in chemical composition. Clays are commonly assumed to be essentially hydrous aluminum sili- cates, and yet within this single group ferric iron, magnesium, and even chromium may proxy aluminum in part or even completely, and a wide variety of ions, including lithium, ferrous iron, manganese, and nickel, may be present in minor amounts. Ions with a valency of 1, 2, or 3 may take the place of trivalent aluminum, and aluminum may take the place of at least one silicon ion out of four, thus playing two distinct roles in the crystal structure. The substitution of even small amounts of bivalent magnesium for trivalent aluminum, and of trivalent aluminum for tetravalent silicon, results in a valency deficiency within the crystal lat- tice. This deficiency is compensated by ions that are held between the crystal sheets and are the so-called exchangeable bases; that is, members of the montmorillonite group are characterized by the presence of cations which may be exchanged for other cations on treatment with water or other solvent carrying the second cation. The position of these cations between the crystal sheets permits base exchange without affecting the crystal structure of the clay. This stochio- metric exchange of cation for cation dis- tinguishes base exchange from adsorption, although the two are commonly confused. These bases are associated with the inter- layer water (the water film present between each molecular sheet), the association that gives bentonites and related clays their pe- culiar physical properties. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 Experimentally, almost any base or hydrogen may be exchanged for bases oc- curring naturally. Those occurring most widely are calcium, which is almost com- pletely exchangeable, and sodium, which is usually exchangeable but not always com- pletely so. Small amounts of potassium, magnesium, and even aluminum may be re- placeable, as is hydrogen, which gives the clay an acid reaction. These ions differ greatly in their relative ease of replacement, which is represented by the following series: Lli2 Here ferric iron and a small amount of Mg take the place of part of the Al, so this formula is more repesentative of soil-form- ing members of the group than other formu- las presented. The exchangeable base is represented as Ca rather than Na, and the ions in octahedral positions exceed 2 by a small amount. Formulas representing two other mem- bers of the group are given below: Nao.33 Saponite (Mgs) (Alo.ssSis.67)O10(O0H)2 Nao.ss 3 Nontronite (Fes 0) (Alo.ssSis.¢7)O10(OH)> In both of these formulas Si is being proxied by Al and is balanced by Na between the lattice sheets. Within the same crystal structure there may be substitutions of other ions for Al in the octahedral group, and also of Al for Si in the tetrahedral group. Where the triva- lent ions, Alt* and Fet, are dominant in the octahedral group, the number of ions in that group is close to 2 but may exceed that number slightly, and where bivalent ions such as Mg are dominant, their number is close to 3 but can not exceed that number. Three octahedral positions are available but are not necessarily all occupied. In none of these formulas has the highly variable water been included; it would, if necessary, be represented by (+nH,0). The members of the bravaisite group re- quire further study, but they are known to be widely distributed. They have a rela- tively small base-exchange capacity, and in some of their properties are intermediate between micas and montmorillonite. In the micas and bravaisite the potassium lies between the crystal sheets, forming bonds that tie sheet to sheet, and hence is locked in a nonexchangeable position, in contrast with the exchangeable bases of montmoril- lonite, which are held on only a single sur- face in a manner that permits their ready displacement. The bravaisite type of mica is not well 228 enough known to justify more than a gen- eral formula to represent its range of com- position, but its relation to the true micas can be represented as follows: Muscovite K(Al2) (AISis)O10(0H). Bravaisite =. (Al, Fet?, Mg)o(Al, 81)4010(0H)2 Fe and Mg are present in subordinate amounts in bravaisite but are commonly present in greater amounts than in true muscovite. The K has been represented as ‘one-half of that in micas, but it may range down almost to zero. A typical formula for _ bravaisite would be +3 f Bravaisite = (Alt. 65F'€0.15M go.30) (Alo.50Si3.50) O10(0H)2 An unusual clay mineral, but one forming extensive deposits of fullers earth in the Florida-Georgia region, has been called altapulgite. This is characterized by a fi- brous rather than a platy structure andseems to be related to the so-called mountain leather (paligorskite). The seemingly very specialized conditions that produced so un- usual a sedimentary material present a real problem, but the high content of magnesium tells something of the genetic environment. The opallike, noncrystalline clay material known as allophane may be present in some soils. : A few of the physical and chemical fac- tors that are most important in controlling clay formation should be mentioned. The alteration of any parent material to a clay or soil aggregate takes place in a physical- chemical system whose varied factors, taken one at a time, are approximately known. There are, of course, many varying sets of conditions that may dominate the development of a clay material, but in general it is the combined effect of difficultly evaluated interrelationships, more than the unknown effect of any one factor, that in- troduces the complexity that characterizes many clay problems. In reality there is only one fundamental factor in clay formation—the chemical character of the reacting system. This may be divided into two secondary factors: the chemical character of the parent material JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 and the chemical character of the altering solutions. These factors will be most con- veniently illustrated by specific studies to be mentioned later. The other factors are complex and varied but serve only to im- pede or accelerate reactions in the system. Varying physical conditions such as perme- ability affect the access of solutions and hence the rate, but not the final character, of the reaction. Time is a factor only in that it permits reactions that proceed with ex- treme slowness. Organic materials have a marked effect on soil texture, water retention, and fertility, but the chemical effects are in general due to their reducing action (essentially the re- duction of ferric to ferrous iron) and to the solution and removal of bases by organic acids. In humid and especially in cool humid climates, and in swamps where peaty and lignitic materials collect, the effect of or- ganic materials is a dominant factor; in desert regions, or where there is rapid oxida- tion of organic materials, their effect may be small or absent. Living organisms play an important role in soil processes, some of them modifying physical relations, as when they facilitate the access of air or water to the system. Bacteria and other micro-organisms play a very important role, and their use of such materials as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphates contributes chemical factors to the soil- or clay-forming system. The mineralogic, chemical, and physical processes discussed above provide a basis for a general outline of the manner in which they interact to form the three different groups of clay minerals—montmorillonite, bravaisite, and kaolinite. The four distinctive relationships of mem- bers of the montmorillonite group may be restated: the essential role of magnesium in the chemical composition, the entry of iron in all proportions into the crystal structure, the replaceable bases, and the interlayer water between each molecular sheet. Mont- morillonite and other members of the group have been synthesized in the presence of alkalies and alkaline earths, but montmoril- lonite has been formed under the widest range of conditions in the presence of mag- Ave. 15, 1943 nesium. Other work indicates that alkaline conditions may not be absolutely necessary, especially if magnesium is present, but montmorillonite probably does not form under acid conditions. Experimental evidence does not cover the effect of other bases, but chemical composi- tion and conditions of formation indicate their effect rather clearly. Ferric iron enters the crystal structure of members of the montmorillonite group but forms no part of the kaolinite structure; hence the presence of ferric iron in the clay-forming system favors the formation of montmorillonite. Ferrous iron plays the same role as mag- nesium in silicate minerals, so it too would tend to favor the formation of montmoril- lonite. Even where little or no ferrous iron enters the crystal structure, its mere pres- ‘ence, owing to its higher solubility, would increase the availability of iron in the clay- forming system. The presence of organic materials in association with suitable bac- teria gives reducing conditions, and, there- fore, reduction or even the absence of active oxidation, would tend to favor the forma- tion of montmorillonite. The lithium of hectorite would exert the same effect as magnesium. Other bases including calcium and sodium tend to give alkaline conditions and in this way promote the formation of montmorillonite. Chemical composition, experiments on synthesis, and the interrelations of ions as revealed by X-ray studies of crystal struc- ture, combine to explain the tendency for solid rock and detrital materials rich in ferromagnesian minerals and calcic feld- spars, to alter to montmorillonite. The soils of the Piedmont region are under investigation by L. T. Alexander and associates of the Department of Agriculture, and some of the interpretations by S. B. Hendricks of the relations between parent rock and the resulting clay minerals are about to be published. This interpretation shows that the soils derived from Triassic diabase are in general composed essentially of montmorillonite, whereas some of the other ferromagnesian rocks of the region under similar physical and climatic condi- tions have weathered to kaolinitic soils. It ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS 229 seems evident that in the diabase the ferro- magnesian minerals and feldspar break down together, releasing iron (part of it ferrous), magnesium, alumina, and silica, giving conditions favorable for the forma- tion of montmorillonite or beidellite. In these other rocks the ferromagnesian minerals break down first, the magnesium is re- moved by solution, and the iron is either removed or is altered to oxides. The feld- spars break down later, and in the absence of magnesium, and with the iron absent or effectively isolated from reaction by oxida- tion, kaolinite forms. The alteration of basaltic rocks to mont- morillonite under suitable conditions has been described by Hosking (1940), who has made a study of the origin of a group of Australian soils. According to him, ‘‘It is evident that granite types of parent ma- terial will weather to kaolinite or halloysite under a very wide range of climatic condi- tions ... In the case of basaltic soils, the internal moisture conditions ... appear to play an important part in determining the mineral clay type formed ... The first two profiles (developed on basalts) are charac- terized by good drainage conditions, allow- ing of complete oxidation, whereas the third is subject to a certain degree of water- logging. The soils with good internal drain- age, whether formed on granite or basic rock, are both characterized by a clay mineral of the kaolinitic type... In the clay where waterlogging is apparent and free oxidation restricted, montmorillonite is formed to the exclusion of kaolinite. The absence of crystalline iron (oxide) minerals, despite the high content of iron in the clay is undoubtedly due to the restriction in oxidizing conditions, a fact reflected in the greenish color of the clay.” Glacial materials are composed of feld- spars, other aluminous and ferromagnesian silicates together with sedimentary ma- terials derived from calcareous beds, shales, and sandstones. On weathering aluminum, silicon, iron, magnesium, calcium, and alka- lies are released and a chemical system favorable for the development of mont- morillonite is formed. Lamar, Grim, and Grogan (1938) give 230 the following description of the soils formed from glacial materials: ‘‘Gumbotil is de- rived from glacial till by weathering... Gumbotil does not occur on glacial drift as young as the Wisconsin drift, but is com- mon on the older drifts—the Illinoian, Kansan, and Nebraskan. It formed under conditions of poor drainage usually just below the soil layer over broad, flat upland tracts ... The conversion of till to gumbo- til in nature involves oxidation, leaching of carbonates, and chemical decomposition of the silicate materials... The original till contained large amounts of clay minerals of the illite group and in general the processes of weathering have tended to remove alkali, particularly potassium, and to alter the illite minerals to those of the montmoril- lonite group.” Bentonites, whose essential mineral is montmorillonite, have a world-wide distri- bution and show no observable relation to climatic zones. Their derivation from glassy voleanic ash has long been established and needs no discussion. This ash seems to have fallen on land, in fresh-water lakes, in saline lakes, and in marine embayments. The fail- ure to show a clear mineralogical relation- ship to these various environments is not easily explained, but perhaps leaching was in some places a subsequent process brought about by ground water after burial. Such a genetic environment has been indicated by the work of Bramlette on the bentonites in the Monterey shales of California. The exact composition of the volcanic glass from which bentonite was derived is known for only a few occurrences, but the associated minerals show that it was most commonly the latite type of rock—that is, essentially a feldspathic rock. More rarely it was rhyolitic. In a few occurrences the re- sulting bentonite is known to be higher in magnesium than the glass from which it was derived, indicating that magnesium was derived from magnesium-bearing ma- rine or ground waters. Marine waters are slightly alkaline and ground waters are alkaline or neutral. The need for more detailed information about the mineralogic relations of the bravaisite group has been mentioned, and the same is true of their geologic relations. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS VOL. 33, NO. 8 Minerals of this group are dominant ma- terials in marine shales, and in soils derived from such shales. Over wide areas, especially in the east-central United States, they are major soil-forming materials. The Ordovician of the eastern half of the United States contains bentonitic beds that are characterized by a clay mineral of the bravaisite type; it therefore differs from the more normal montmorillonite type of bento- nite. So far as known, this type of bentonite is confined to the Ordovician, a restriction in occurrence that has not been explained. The wide distribution—from Georgian Bay, Canada, on the north to Alabama on the south, and from Pennsylvania on the east to Minnesota and Missouri on the west—is one of its interesting features. Over these wide areas, the bravaisite bentonites con- tain over 5 percent of potash, or about one- half of that of muscovite. Some, if not all, of the Ordovician bento- nites represent marine deposits, and it seems probable that these, like the marine shales, derived their potash from ocean waters. However, some of the montmorillonite bentonites that are essentially potash-free contain marine fossils and must have formed in marine embayments, although we do not know that leaching took place in the pres- ence of ocean waters. Geologists have long known that where potassium in solution in river, ocean, or saline lake comes in contact with clay ma- terials there is a preferential fixation of po- tassium. Potassium salts are commonly minor constituents of such waters and sodium salts are dominant, even where the two were originally supplied in nearly equal amounts. Spencer and Murata in an unpub- lished paper have shown that preferential adsorption of potassium from sea water is not an adequate explanation of this rela- tionship. The gradual inversion of montmorillonite to bravaisite or micalike minerals seems to offer an explanation of this preferential fix- ation of potassium and the dominance of potassium minerals in marine deposits. The formulas representing mineral compositions indicate the chemical similarity between the mica minerals and montmorillonite, and X-ray work shows that the crystal struc- Ave. 15, 1943 tures of the two minerals are very similar. There is the physical difference that the potassium of micas is linked between the sheets in a nonreplaceable condition. In montmorillonite, sodium and calcium are readily replaceable, but experiments on soils show that potassium, even where ini- tially replaceable, gradually becomes non- replaceable. It seems probable that under favorable conditions potassium comes to occupy positions tying sheet to sheet— that is, positions characteristic of the micas. Thus potassium may gradually become fixed at the expense of replaceable bases. Kaolinite is the common end product re- sulting from several geologic processes and is especially characteristic of areas of deep and thorough weathering and of areas where leaching has been unusually effective. Its occurrence as an end product of such rigor- ous geologic processes is no doubt related to its high degree of stability and its com- mon association with the most stable min- erals. These are commonly quartz, iron oxides, and hydroxides, and in some occur- rences aluminous hydroxides. The red or red-brown color imparted to kaolinitic soils by associated free iron oxides is in contrast to the greenish, blue-gray, or pale-yellow colors of montmorillonite in which ferric iron forms a portion of the crystal structure. The association of kaolinite with iron oxides in many deposits shows that it formed under oxidizing conditions. In other deposits, from which iron had been re- moved, the kaolinite formed in the presence of organic materials which gave reducing conditions. Reduction and solvent action by organic acids favor the removal of bases, including magnesium, calcium, and alkalies as well as ferrous iron. The tendency for acids derived from organic materials and oxidizing sulphides to form kaolinite is well _ known. It seems evident, therefore, that the removal of bases from the clay-forming sys- tem is the essential factor in kaolin forma- tion and that the kaolinizing action of acids is due to their efficiency in removing bases rather than to their effect as acids. Long- continued leaching in essentially neutral waters may remove all bases, except where active oxidation inhibits the removal of iron. Feldspar pegmatites in the southern ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS 231 Appalachian region have been altered to kaolinite to a depth of a hundred feet or more. The pentration of acid solutions to such depths during the course of weathering is improbable, and such kaolin bodies have undoubtedly been due to the leaching ac- tion of essentially neutral waters. The common association of iron oxides and kaolinite should be considered in con- nection with the earlier statement that iron may favor the formation of montmorillo- nite. The effect of ferrous iron in promoting the formation of montmorillonite, as al- ready pointed out, would be destroyed by oxidation. Under extreme oxidizing condi- tions iron would be leached from silicate minerals and immediately redeposited as oxide; in this form it would be removed from the reacting system almost as effec- tively as when removed by solution. Soils formed from limestone are com- monly characterized by kaolinite, and since this mineral has a low base exchange ca- pacity, such soils are commonly deficient in calcium. On the other hand, volcanic ash low in calcium will alter to montmorillonite containing essential calcium. Harrison, and later Hardy and Follett- Smith (1931) who cited the work of Harri- son, studied the soils of British Guiana. The former author reports: ‘‘Under tropical conditions, the katamorphism of basic and intermediate rocks at or close to the water table, under conditions of more or less per- fect drainage, is accompanied by the almost complete removal of silica, and of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium oxides leaving an earthy residuum of trihydrate (in its crystalline form gibbsite). ... This residuum is termed primary laterite... . The process of primary lateritisation is suc- ceeded by one of resilication.... Under tropical conditions acid rocks do not under- go primary lateritisation, but gradually change ...to more or less quartziferous and impure kaolins... On well drained mountain plateaux, where rainfall is very high and more or less continuous through- out the year, primary laterite appears to be permanent... On badly drained low-ly- ing areas on the other hand, primary later- ite appears not to be permanent but gives rise to argillaceous earths... 232 ‘“‘During the passage upwards by capil- lary attraction in dry seasons when evapo- ration exceeds rainfall, the silica-bearing solutions derived from underlying rock forms surface films of moisture in the spongy primary laterite where some of the silica reacts with some of the finely divided gibbsite to form a hydrated aluminum sili- cate principally a crystalline kaolin.”’ Alexander, Hendricks, and Faust (1941) report that, ‘“Gibbsite has been shown to be a component of a number of soil colloids from continental United States. It is a major component of some of them. “The primary weathering products of norites, amphibolites, an epidote green- stone schist, a diabase, and muscovite- biotite schists, have been shown to contain gibbsite ... Where silica is being liberated. by mineral weathering in close proximity to the gibbsite, resilication to kaolinite takes place.” The bauxite deposits of Arkansas, the Gulf coastal region, and the valley of Vir- ginia show an invariable association with the more abundant and widespread kaolin beds from which they are believed to have been derived. The relations in all these areas indicate that the formation of these de- posits is not comparable to the usual picture of laterization, where ferric iron is concen- trated together with aluminous minerals. In most of these areas no iron-free parent ma- terial is available for the formation of white, commonly very pure kaolinite, as where ka- olin is derived from feldspar pegmatites. In widely separated areas there is an asso- ciation of kaolinitic materials with lignitic beds, or with horizons characterized by widespread swampy conditions. The rela- tions between bauxite and lignite beds in Arkansas has been discussed by Behre (1932). Almost without exception ferrous iron carbonate has been deposited in under- lying or closely associated beds. Siderite concretions are not rare within the beds themselves. Thus iron has been removed, a removal normally possible only after reduc- tion; ferrous iron carbonate is a constant associate; and there is a widespread associ- ation with swamps or lignitic beds, which provide a most efficient source of reducing JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 agents and organic acids that dissolve and remove bases. The control that this group of interrelations has exercised in the pro- duction of the kaolin beds in these particu- lar regions seems obvious. This, however, leaves many problems that require inten- sive study, in particular the genetic rela- tions between the bauxite and the kaolin beds. In the presence of mineralizing solutions or volcanic vapors, the pressure, tempera- ture, and concentrations commonly favor the formation of ferromagnesian silicates, feldspars, and micas more commonly than clays. In the later stages of activity, how- ever, as temperatures decrease there is an increased tendency for clay minerals to form and clays have been reported from numerous veins and other mineral deposits, all three types of clay materials having been identified. Dickite, the hydrothermal mem- ber of the kaolinite group, is very wide- spread and is commonly associated with vein quartz. Bravaisite is probably reported as sericite in most lists of minerals as the two are very difficult to distinguish. If montmorillonite is observed only in thin section, it too may be mistaken for sericite; however, its low mean index of refraction clearly distinguishes it. The relative temperatures of formation of these three clay groups are not definitely known, but perhaps dickite forms at higher temperatures than montmorillonite. The common association of dickite with quartz and a seeming absence of associated ferro- magnesian silicates is no doubt significant, and the absence of iron and magnesium may be necessary for its formation. On the other hand, it is evident that montmorillo- nite forms in the presence of the bases, ferric- iron and magnesium, and under alkalic if not alkaline conditions. The alteration of the feldspar of pegmatites to kaolinite under leaching conditions has been men- tioned, but a number of pegmatites have been described in which hydrothermal al- teration has produced montmorillonite. In these, introduction of bases has predomi- nated over their removal, and montmoril- lonite has been produced. The genetic processes revealed in two in- Ave. 15, 1943 teresting occurrences of clay minerals il- lustrate the relations between kaolinite and montmorillonite. Studies of the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park by Allen and Day indicate that acid waters are the result of oxidation of hydrogen sulphide near the surface, and that the primary waters or va- pors are all alkaline in depth. Fenner (1936) in his detailed studies of the materials encountered in drill holes put down in selected parts of the hot-spring areas of the park, gave special attention to the relation of these materials to depth, pressure, and the chemical character of the escaping vapors. He says: “The effect of acidity is thus apparent in the formation of kaolinite as far down as 95 feet, ... at greater depths the alteration produced be- idellite only.”’ That is, below the zone of acid solutions a clay of the montmorillonite group formed. The highest pressure meas- ured was 27734 pounds at a depth of 2463 feet, where the temperature was 205° C. Thus a mineral of the montmorillonite group may form at rather high tempera- tures and pressures in the presence of alka- line solutions. Fenner observes that pyrite commonly accompanies beidellite in the Yellowstone materials. The conclusions by Fenner about the ori- gin of clay minerals at Yellowstone coincide with relationships at Magnet Cove, Ark. (Ross, 1941). Steam-shovel operations con- nected with rutile mining have shown the existence of a volcanic neck filled by an ag- glomerate made up of various rock types and enclosed in a matrix of clay minerals. Abundant rutile and pyrite are associated with these materials. A nearly pure feld- spathic rock shows various degrees of al- teration to montmorillonite. The matrix material around rock fragments was orig- inally glassy voleanic ash, but this has been altered to montmorillonite, which has been in part later altered to kaolinite. The rela- tionships indicate that voleanic waters and vapors carrying bases and rich in sulphides, rose through the porous agglomerate alter- ing both feldspar and glass to montmoril- lonite. It seems evident that as volcanic ac- tivity waned, these sulphide-bearing vapors were in part condensed and oxidized in con- ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS 233 tact with air. This resulted in sulphuric- acid-bearing solutions, which percolated back into the porous agglomerate, partly altering the montmorillonite to kaolinite. The foregoing outline presents a much generalized picture of soil-forming processes in which many of the factors discussed have been qualified as trends or tendencies. Detailed studies of individual occurrences will no doubt show many apparent excep- tions, which will be cleared up only by in- tensive geologic work involving correlation between mineral composition and the physi- cal and chemical factors that interacted to produce the clay material. The relationships between many different parent rocks and their products of weather- ing need to be studied. Information is es- pecially needed about the clay minerals in fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and the re- sulting product, where these are exposed by erosion and themselves undergo weathering. The relative effects of leaching in the pres- ence of solutions of differing chemical char- acter have not been determined in adequate detail. Alternate wetting and drying prob- ably is more destructive than either con- tinued aridity or humidity, but this question has never been fully investigated. Inter- mediate or transitory products may in- tervene between the parent rock and the end product, and may influence the charac- ter of that product. The effect of base ex- change on the quality of ground water is being studied, but the effect of salts carried in solution upon the sedimentary materials is too little known. Is the clay or soil the result of reactions in a single physico- chemical system or have there been changes that make it the result of several genetic episodes? Is the clay material in equilibrium with its environment or not; that is, to what extent may clay minerals be in a me- tastable condition? Has there been admix- ture with materials from several sources that developed under distinct environ- ments? What were the conditions of final disposition, was it in fresh or salt water? How have all these processes been modified by associated organic materials? Numerous soil types from many parts of the world have been described, and soil specialists 234 have given particular attention to the differ- ent horizons of the soil profile, and those geologists particularly interested in soil problems are under obligation to consider this work and understand the geologic sig- nificance of soil types and soil profiles. Much of this needed information will be at- tained only by detailed studies of selected areas where the greatest number of con- trolling factors are determinable; but also much more may be determined and re- corded as incidental results during the course of general geologic studies of a re- gion. This is needed because the science of soil geology is in many ways in the early stages in which the mere accumulation of information by workers in many fields is necessary as a basis for future progress. Here are problems for the mineralogists, geologists, soil specialists, chemists, and physicists—in particular geologists and physical chemists. Dr. W. P. Kelley, of the University of California, one of our most far-seeing soil scientists, presented as a part of a sym- posium on clays at the University of Chi- cago in 1941 a paper entitled ‘‘Modern clay researches in relation to agriculture” (1942), which should interest all geologists. In this he said: “‘A knowledge as to the kind of clay minerals found in soils bids fair to throw important light on soil formation processes, that is, on soil genesis... ‘““Modern researches on the clays are, therefore, placing the subject of soils on a new footing. They have served to emphasize the close relationship between soil science and geology and mineralogy ... There is simply no point where you can separate geological from soil processes . . . “That clay research is drawing soil science into closer contact with geology is one of its important by-products. In my opinion the closer the cooperation between soil workers and geologists the better. In fact I look upon several of the important phases of soil science as aspects of geology.” Dr. Kelley has made himself the leading advocate among soil scientists of the neces- sity of the geologic and mineralogic ap- proach to many soil problems and of the inadequacy of purely chemical methods. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 However, he and other leading soil workers feel, seemingly not without some reason, that geologists have not given all the help for which their training fits them. Clay studies are not without their bearing on the broader problems of geology—the problems of those geologists who are not primarily interested in soils and related materials. The promptness with which clay materials react to changes in environment is a measure of the information they may hold. Clays respond to acid or to alkaline conditions, to swamps or to aridity, to oxidizing or reducing conditions, to fresh water or to marine deposition, to the pres- ence or to the absence of organic materials. No one can see all the possibilities that may come of any research, but some of the re- sults may be suggestive. The bentonites have told us much. These clays are the only record of the ash showers that fell so widely in Ordovician seas. They are also evidence of the volcanic activity that ringed the Gulf of Mexico in Creta- ceous and Tertiary time, with a dozen or more ash showers recorded in the clays of Mississippi. They seem to present evidence that certain embayments were of fresh or at most brackish water, whereas other em- bayments of the same general region were marine. Clays have presented very definite evidence as to the chemical character of mineralizing solutions and no doubt will present much more as they are intensively studied. The clays hold a story that will grow as we know them better. Should we not heed the earnest plea of men like Dr. Kelley that geologists accept as their own some of the problems of soils? LITERATURE CITED ALEXANDER, L. T., Henpricks, S. B., and Faust, G. T. Occurrence of gibbsite un some soil forming materials. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 6: 52-62. 1941. Beure, C. H. Origin of bauxite deposits. Keon. Geol. 27: 678-680. 1932. Fenner, C. N. Bore hole investigations in Yellowstone Park. Journ. Geol. 44 (no. 2, pt. 2): 225-815. 1936. Harpy, F., and Fouurtr-Smiru, R. R. I. Studies in tropical soils. II. Some char- acteristic igneous rock soil profiles in British Guiana, South America (includes Ave. 15, 1943 citations of the studies of J. B. Harrison). Journ. Agr. Sci. 21 (pt. 4): 750. 1931. Hoskine, J. 8S. The soil clay mineralogy of some Australian soils developed on granitic and basaltic parent material. Journ. Aus- tralian Counce. Sci. and Industr. Res. 13: 206-216. 1940. Kewiey, W. P. Modern clay researches in re- lation to agriculture. Journ. Geol. 50: 307-319. 1942. PHYSICS.—The scientific significance of ferromagnetism.* sachusetts Institute of Technology. Half a century or so ago theoretical and experimental investigations were under- taken that revealed the main facts about ferromagnetism. On the one hand, they made possible the formulations of ideas that are basic in an understanding of the subject and, on the other hand, led to technical de- velopments that made possible the enor- mous electrical industry of today. It would be interesting to follow both of these de- velopments simultaneously, but I have chosen to concentrate on the scientific rather than on the engineering aspects of the subject. Ewing, Weiss, and Curie showed us that a ferromagnetic substance owed its peculiar properties to the interac- tion of elementary magnets of atomic di- mensions, that these interactions were not entirely of magnetic origin, and that the transition from ferromagnetism at low tem- peratures to paramagnetism at high tem- peratures was not a real change of phase, as melting for instance, but a new sort of transition associated with a discontinuity of specific heat rather than a latent heat. Weiss showed that to a first approximation, at any rate, ferromagnetism could be under- stood as a special case of paramagnetism in which Langevin’s fundamental equation relating magnetization to the dimensionless quantity nH /kT had to be modified only by assuming that the field acting on each ele- mentary particle was not the externally applied field alone, but the resultant of this field and an internal field resulting from the interaction of the elementary magnets 1 The twelfth Joseph Henry Lecture delivered before the Philosophical Society of Washington at its 1210th meeting on December 19, 1942. Received April 13, 1943. BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM 235 Lamar, J. E., Grim, R. E., and Grogan, R. M. Gumbotil as a potential source of rotary drilling mud, bonding clay and bleaching clay. Illinois Geol. Surv. Inf. Cire. 39: 1-23. 1938. Ross, C. 8. Titanium deposits of Nelson and Amherst Counties, Virginia, compared with those of Magnet Cove. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 198: 1-88, 20 pls. 1941. FRANCIS Bitter, Mas- (Communicated by R. E. Gipson.) with each other and on the average propor- tional to the intensity of magnetization it- self. Thermodynamically the results a- chieved were sound and satisfying, except perhaps that stress and strain tensors were omitted from the theory, and all phenomena related to magnetostriction and thermal ex- pansion were omitted. These are, however, not fundamentally important and can be incorporated into the theory at the expense of simplicity. Statistically, the results were not satisfactory. Although the Boltzmann constant appears, this is due only to the in- corporation of the theory of paramagnet- ism, and the real problem of interpreting the atomic interactions is avoided alto- gether by the simple assumption of an in- ternal field. From the point of view of atomic physics, one important result was achieved: namely, the specification of the order of magnitude of atomic magnetic moments. On the other hand, the actually observed values of Curie temperatures of the order of 1,000° K. could not be ex- plained on the basis of known interatomic fields, and the origin of these fields was a major mystery for many years. ~ One last item remains to be mentioned to complete the picture prior to the advent of the quantum theory and more recent de- velopments in atomic physics. The Weiss theory, because of its simplifying assump- tions regarding atomic interactions and the internal field, predicted spontaneous mag- netization of an entire sample to saturation at all temperatures below the Curie point. This was completely contrary to fact, and left unexplained the origin of hysteresis, and all the phenomena related to mag- netization—of such great technical impor- 236 tance. Ewing’s work on models consisting of many small magnets free to rotate near each other indicated that Weiss’s spontane- ous magnetization existed only in small re- gions and that the magnetic interactions of these regions was probably sufficient to ac- count for the main features of the process of magnetization. This was capable of direct experimental observation, and it is interest- ing to note that, although all the means for making such observations were at hand, more than a quarter of a century elapsed be- fore these observations were actually made. This brings us to an entirely new aspect of the subject, which I should like to discuss briefly by way of digression from the main argument of this lecture. The physics of crystals has been developing most satisfac- torily wherever theoretical interpretation was possible, and the advent of X-rays helped to emphasize the fundamental regu- larity which so much facilitated theoreti- cal treatment. There is, however, a stage between the atomic and the truly macro- scopic, which has great importance and which has properties peculiar to itself. Crys- tallographers have, of course, made many observations bearing on this point, and fer- romagnetism contributes but one more of the many aspects of the problem to be studied. By using very fine magnetic pow- dersthestray fieldsonferromagnetic crystals have been studied, and the existence of a complex and often highly symmetrical mag- netic structure has been revealed, varying in shape and design in a most intriguing manner. This may be related to a more fundamental submacroscopic or ‘‘block”’ structure of crystals, and so to the mechani- cal properties of strength, plasticity, fa- tigue, etc. Much work, however, remains to be done before real progress in these fields is to be expected. The discovery of the spinning electron, as well as the recognition that it was the pri- mary source of the magnetic moment in most ferromagnetic substances, was a nec- essary preliminary to the advances in our understanding of the subject due to Heisen- berg. Of the two great advances for which he is responsible, only one is usually empha- sized, and that is the interpretation of the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 internal field in terms of short-range forces postulated in quantum theory to explain a wide variety of phenomena. The mystery of the high Curie temperatures was satisfac- torily solved. The other important contribution, how- ever, in no way depended on the quantum theory. It was an attempt to give a satis- factory statistical background to the inter- nal field assuming short-range forces and interaction between only nearest neighbors in a crystal. The difficulty of this problem, essentially the definition of the entropy, or the number of states associated with any given energy, is largely responsible for our failure to make real progress in understand- ing cooperative phenomena. We know far more about the atoms themselves than about the manner in which they ‘‘cooper- ate’ to produce macroscopic matter. Even for the simplest conceivable elementary par- ticles the treatment of interacting aggre- gates breaks down except for special cases (the linear chain), which do not have the discontinuous properties of particular inter- est in actual substances. It seems that the kind of mathematical functions we use are inherently unsuitable and that mathemati- cians must develop for us some new treat- ment of discontinuities of various sorts before we can handle phases and their transi- tions with anything like the satisfying ele- gance with which we describe simpler atomic processes. Since it was not possible to derive the entropy function, Heisenberg assumed that it could be adequately de- scribed in terms of a suitably chosen func- tion containing parameters that could be calculated for the particular kind of atom assumed. This led to equations essentially similar to those first presented by Weiss, but with two relevant modifications. These were, first, that the equations were consist- ent with the idea of short range forces, and, second, that ferromagnetism could exist only in certain types of crystals, and prob- ably not in simple cubic lattices. The equa- tions broke down at low temperature, however, because of the limitations of the approximation used. They also gave some indication of why ferromagnetism appeared only in certain ones of the transition ele- Ava. 15, 1943 ments, but the treatment was inherently too complicated to allow detailed analyses of particular substances to be made. It was a tantalizing prospect to interpret the be- havior of alloys with various degrees of order and disorder and in concentrations ranging from dilute solutions exhibiting only feebly magnetic properties to pure ferromagnetic substances. Heisenberg’s treatment can, in principle, take into ac- count the particular arrangements of atoms among each other, and may yet be of great value in helping to interpret many purely metallurgical phenomena. Although no such applications of the theory have as yet been carried through, a qualitative study has shown that many unfamiliar magnetic phenomena are to be expected. Experi- _mental results, which I shall review briefly at the close of this lecture, indicate that these predicted anomalies do in fact exist and that the investigation of the properties of certain alloys and compounds at low tem- perature may be expected to throw con- siderable new light on the theory of atomic interactions in solids. It is now known that ferromagnetism is due to electrons that are neither so tightly bound to atomic cores as electrons in the lower energy levels nor so loosely bound as the conduction electrons. This intermediate condition between tight and loose binding seems particularly difficult to describe ade- quately. In addition to the approach from the atomic side discribed above, another at- tempt was made, primarily by Bloch and Slater, starting with the electron theory of metals. This recognizes the fact that the atomic energy levels are split up into over- lapping energy bands in solids and that the main features of metallic phenomena are due to the extent of the population of the energy bands by electrons. Thus the main differences between copper and nickel are due not to changes in the possible energy states, but to the fact that copper has more electrons to fill these states. The ferromag- netism of nickel is, then, due to the fact that a certain “‘band”’ of states is not com- pletely occupied, and some of the proper- ties, particularly the saturation value of the magnetization of copper—nickel and of other BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM 237 alloys, can be interpreted simply in terms of the number of electrons available to fill the energy bands. The treatment, however, does not lend itself to the interpretation of many of the observed phenomena, particu- larly those depending on the arrangement of atoms among each other in alloys. So much for the theoretical aspects of the subject. Experimentally, the scope of mag- netic phenomena investigated has been fairly limited. The common ferromagnetic elements have been thoroughly studied, and certain alloys and compounds that are easy to prepare have been investigated in con- veniently available ranges of fields and tem- peratures. During recent years there have been several attempts to expand our knowl- edge experimentally. I shall describe briefly one that I have been associated with at M.I.T. Drs. A. R. Kaufmann, Chauncey Starr, and 8. T. Pan and other members of the student body and of the faculty were to a large extent responsible for the results ob- tained. The aim was to explore new fields rather than continue the investigation of known phenomena in greater detail. This has been done by extending the available range of temperatures, fields, and sub- stances to be studied as much as possible. Up to the time that work had to be aban- doned, temperatures ranging from that of freezing hydrogen to the melting point of common metals had been used. Fields up to 100,000 gauss of adequate constancy for long periods of time had been produced in sufficiently large volumes for investigations in the above temperature range. These fields were not used in the investigations mentioned above, but can be had when wanted. The measurements made used fields up to 30,000—40,000 gauss. The use of more intense fields at even lower tempera- tures offers attractive possibilities, not only because of the new phenomena to be ex- pected, but also because it should make a direct measurement of atomic magnetic moments possible—a quantity of funda- mental importance which now has to be de- duced with considerable uncertainty from other measurements. Finally measurements were made not only on readily available pure metals and alloys but also on some of 238 the rare earths, and on anhydrous salts of the transition elements. In general greatest interest lies in the substances having incom- plete inner electron shells and in physical aggregates in which the separation of atoms and their geometrical arrangement are sub- ject to variation. The investigations carried out can not be considered more than a preliminary survey, but they do indicate the direction in which more work would be profitable. It was found that, in addition to typical paramag- netic and typical ferromagnetic substances, there is an intermediate class that is neither the one nor the other. In alloys the transi- tion from the one to the other is not sharp, and the nature of the transition requires further investigation. It is also qualita- tively different in different alloy systems, as, for instance, Cu-Ni and Cu-—Fe. The limited solubility of iron in copper limits the experiments, and other systems, such as Au-Ni and Au—Fe, may be expected to clarify the situation further. The rare earths have interesting anomalous proper- ties especially at low temperatures. The main difficulty in investigating these lies in the preparation of sufficiently pure samples. This is technically difficult and very impor- tant, since at low temperatures small quan- tities of magnetically active impurities can completely mask the normal behavior of a substance. The salts of the transition ele- ments, especially when the atoms are not separated too much by water molecules, may be expected to show interesting proper- ties, in part because of their crystal struc- ture, which makes possible more compli- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 cated interaction patterns then the cubic metals. This is borne out not only by the temperature dependence of the suscepti- bility, which is quite anomalous in some cases, but also by the magnetization curve itself which in some substances has been found to have an ‘‘S” shape as in ferromag- netic materials, but without hysteresis. Fields at least as intense as those used are necessary for the study of this phenomenon. The interpretation of the magnetic mo- ments of atoms in various states of aggrega- tion is also very incomplete, in large meas- ure because of the difficulty of defining it adequately in terms of measurements so far made, as previously pointed out. The study of very dilute solutions of magnetic atoms in magnetically inactive metals at low tem- peratures and high fields should produce very valuable results. Summing up, then, we may say that al- though theory has made very considerable progress in the interpretation of ferromag- netic phenomena, it has so far been confined to a limited class and a considerable expan- sion of the ideas involved is needed. Recent experiments have shown that much more complicated phenomena exist than had been suspected. Finally, it seems that the next move is up to the experimentalist—to sur- vey the field and define the magnetic properties of matterin such a way that the theorist has something definite and reason- ably complete to work on. All the tools for doing this are at hand, or at least can be had when we once again return to our labora- tories to resume the work that, for the pres- ent, has had to be abandoned. ANTHROPOLOGY.—The relocation of persons of Japanese ancestry in the Umited States: Some causes and effects. JoHN F. EMBrEE,”? War Relocation Author- ity. (Communicated by Wiuuti1AM N. FENTON.) BACKGROUND OF EVACUATION In ten new communities from California to Arkansas, there live today 107,000 per- sons of Japanese ancestry, two-thirds of whom are American citizens. These people 1 Based on a talk given before the Anthropologi- cal Society of Washington, March 16, 1943. Re- ceived May 10, 1943. 2 On leave from the University of Toronto. were all evacuated from the West Coast as a result of the war and are now living under conditions of ‘‘protective custody.” This situation presents a number of important problems both political and sociological. Politically, most of the issues of war and of the peace to follow are bound up in these “relocation centers.’ For instance, is the United States fighting a racial war as Japan Ava. 15, 1943 claims, or is she fighting an ideological war; if administrative problems involving a hundred thousand people can not be intelli- gently and democratically solved, how are we to solve the complex postwar problems of, say, Southeast Asia with its mixed population of a hundred million? Socio- logically, some of the important problems raised by the situation are the social effects on the people who have been relocated. How are these people living? What have evacuation and life in relocation centers done to the social organization and set of social sanctions that had grown up in the Japanese communities on the West Coast? In order to gain some understanding of present attitudes and social developments, it is necessary to look briefly at the history of the people since December 7, 1941. The first effect of Pearl Harbor on the Japanese population in California was one of shock. The stunning effect was even greater for the resident Japanese than for the rest of the West Coast population. This was the be- ginning of the much-talked-of, much-feared war between the land of their parents and the land of their children. When nothing drastic happened after the initial internment of a number of Japanese by the intelligence agencies, people relaxed somewhat and went about their business. It looked as if nothing further would occur as long as the people of Japanese ancestry remained law-abiding and did their bit in the war effort by buying war bonds and volunteering to join the Army. Then things gradually began to happen. Civil Service dropped Japanese-Americans from its rolls, and the Army ceased to ac- cept Japanese-American volunteers. To the niset, as Japanese-American citizens are called, these were bitter pills to swallow. Then rumors from Hawaii of sabotage and fifth-column activity began to drift into California via returning Navy wives and others. In spite of the fact that these rumors were specifically branded as untrue by na- tional intelligence agencies operating in. Hawaii, they gained wide currency on the West Coast and added to the fears of the people both military and civilian—fears that what was said to have happened in EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES 239 Hawaii could happen all up and down the West Coast. Newspaper columnists such as Pegler and McLemore began to beat the drum for internment of all Japanese regard- less of citizenship. McLemore, for instance, wrote, ‘‘Let us have no patience with the enemy or with anyone whose veins carry his blood,’’? and Pegler shouted, ‘‘To hell with habeas corpus!’ Economic interest groups -and professional anti-Oriental groups real- ized that in this situation there was a golden opportunity for carrying out some of their rather undemocratic policies. Finally and decisively, the Army became worried by Japanese victories in the Pacific and by the rising tension in California. They asked for the right to move people as they saw fit from vital West Coast areas. On February 19, 1942, the President issued an Executive Order authorizing General De- Witt, as Commander of the Western De- fense Command Area, to move any persons or groups of people as he felt necessary to protect the military security of the area. On March 2, a restricted area was de- lineated from which all persons of Japanese ancestry, regardless of citizenship or past behavior, were to be evacuated. By March 29, 8,000 persons had “‘voluntarily”’ moved eastward. As might have been predicted, opposition arose in the inter-mountain States to any mass migration into their ter- ritory, and finally it became impracticable for any further movement of this sort. Con- sequently the voluntary migration was called to a halt, and it became necessary to provide some sort of Federal control and protection. The War Relocation Authority, which had been established on March 18, 1942, to assist évacués financially or otherwise in their movement eastward, was now faced with the problem of having to establish areas where the people could go and live until the crisis was passed. Thus came into existence the relocation centers, not as a part of any original plan to detain all the people, but rather as a practical expedient made necessary as a result of the war emer- gency. It was necessary in locating sites for 3 Column of January 29, 1942. 4 February 16, 1942. 240 and establishing relocation centers to enter into agreements, not only with the Army in regard to internal security, but also with the governors of the States concerned. Since all this took time it was necessary to establish in the meantime a number of temporary ‘“‘assembly centers” in various parts of Cali- fornia, Washington, and Oregon. These as- sembly centers were run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration, a branch of the Army. Being largely made-over parks or race tracks, they were not intended orig- inally for housing large numbers of people; and even in this emergency period it was not intended that they house people very long. However, they functioned for several months, and the living conditions within them have had serious effects on the people concerned. The people, workers, business men, col- lege students, priests—all were herded to- gether in what they regarded as degrading conditions and humiliated by being penned behind fences and guarded by military guards. A deep sense of shame was created by the circumstances of induction to these centers. The long uncertain waiting period, during which people had little opportunity or incentive for reorganizing community life, had a demoralizing effect. The relocation centers were long in build- ing, owing to problems of location and pri- orities, and most of them were incomplete when trainloads of 500 évacués at a time came into them. The trip was by coach, usually during very hot weather. On ar- rival the évacués, hot, tired, and worried, went through “intake’’ where a nurse looked at each throat and someone else took down names and assigned housing space without much attention to the needs and desires of the people to be housed. The housing was inadequate at first and meals were disorganized. The centers were guarded by military police, and later barbed-wire fences were built. EFFECTS OF RELOCATION CENTER LIFE Halting of the assimilation process.—Each center houses 6,000 to 17,000 people, all of Japanese ancestry. In fact, this ancestry is the only thing in common to the whole JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 ~ group. Many individuals who had formerly lived in non-Japanese communities in Cali- fornia felt-very strange in this all-Japanese community. There is the now familiar story of the child who after a few days in a center said to her mother, “‘Let’s go home now. I don’t like it in Japan.”’ One of the effects of this situation was the increase in the use of Japanese language and also an increase of the influence of older Japanese. In Cali- fornia, before the war, young Americans 18 to 20 years old were gradually becoming in- dependent of their parents and following American patterns of life. In the relocation centers the only older people to guide them were the Japanese, and because of the breakdown of various social and community organizations the average person was thrown back to a greater dependency on his family as the only stable group left. Effects of housing conditions.—Housing in the centers consists of army-type barracks divided into four or five rooms or “apart- ments.’’ These structures were made by the Army and are more suitable for housing single men than for housing families. Owing to-overcrowding in many centers, members of more than one family are frequently housed in one room. Toilet and bathing fa- cilities are in a separate structure, in each block of 12 barracks. In both the wash rooms and the apartments there was at first no provision whatever for privacy. Eating was in mess halls, one for each block of barracks. There is no special provision for family eating, so that individuals sit down more or less as they arrive in the mess hall. Parents have been worried by the effect of this type of eating on the manners of their children: The whole housing situa- tion has had a demoralizing effect on family standards of living and on family controls over children’s behavior. Anzteties.—As a result of evacuation a great many anxieties afflict the people living in relocation centers. They are worried as to the effect of relocation on their children; they are worried as to their future and the future of their children in the United States. Fears in regard to food, in regard to citizen- ship rights, in regard to all sorts of things both large and small are prevalent. This Ava. 15, 1943 feeling of insecurity is reflected in numerous alarmist rumors—rumors that they will be left and forgotten in the desert, contrary rumors that they will be moved again to another center, rumors that there is not enough food in the storehouse for more than 24 hours, rumors that the hospital facilities are dangerously inadequate. Breakdown of community controls.—Be- cause of the fact that people in the centers come from various social and economic backgrounds and owing to the disorganizing effects of evacuation and assembly center life, most of the usual community controls on behavior are lacking. There has been a breakdown, for instance, of the economic position of fathers as heads of the family. Some of the results of this loss of commun- ity solidarity and control over its individ- uals are to be seen in the growth of truancy among the children. Delinquency of various sorts and other antisocial conditions are in striking contrast to the usual law-abiding well-regulated manner of living of the Jap- anese of California before the war. For in- stance, there was no provision for the mak- ing of furniture, with the result that it-be- came necessary for individuals to pick up scrap lumber wherever they could find it. People who never would have thought of such petty thievery before relocation were forced into it by circumstances of center life. Another element in this situation is a lack of motivation for doing things that one does in a normal community. Why work for $16 a month? Why study in a barracks school with no future ahead of one? Family dependency.—Most of the familiar sources of social security have been lost— the neighborhood group, the occupational group, business or farm, and home. One re- sult of this has been an increased depend- ency on the family as the only stable unit left. Many nisez who before the war were drifting away from their parents and enter- ing other social groups now put great store by family unity—so much so that many are reluctant to leave the center if a job is avail- able because it would mean separation of the family. Magnification of minor issues.—Owing to the restricted conditions of living behind EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES 241 barbed-wire fences and under the control of an administration whose acts often appear arbitrary, many things that in an ordinary community would cause little comment of- ten become magnified in importance. As already mentioned, rumors are very com- mon, most of them of an alarmist nature. Numerous small and violently antagonistic cliques have grown up within the centers. Lengthy discussion and argument over what in normal life would be regarded as inconsequential is typical.® Developments of caste attitudes.—Practi- cally all the évacués are of Japanese an- cestry, while the Government officials are Caucasian. The administration has better eating and housing facilities, and members of the administrative staff have much greater social security than have the evacuees. Such a social situation where one racial group does the administrating and another is administered leads inevitably to a caste distinction. Disillusionment in American democracy.— Most of the younger évacués have been brought up in American schools and indoc- trinated in the ideals of American democra- cy, which teaches, among other things, that racial discrimination is undemocratic. To many of these people the evacuation from the West Coast was a shocking contradic- tion on the part of the Government of this basic teaching. The fact that no distinction was made even for war veterans or families with sons in the United States Army led to the embitterment of many people. One man, for instance, who was a veteran of the last war and who was formerly a very patriotic American citizen gradually got to brooding over his treatment as a result of the evacua- tion order and eventually became the leader of an anti-American group. Wardship.—People in the centers are provided with food and shelter, however in- adequate they may be. They are also re- lieved of all responsibility for making deci- sions affecting the community, since these decisions are made by the Government. As 5 Similar social conditions are typical of the internment camp for British and Americans in Hong Kong. See Alsop’s articles in the Saturday Evening Post for January 9 and 16, 1943. 242 a result there is beginning to grow up an attitude of dependency on the Government, a loss of individual initiative on the part of some individuals. The centers also represent security in contrast to the insecurity of the outside world. This is perhaps one of the most significant developments of life in the centers, because it means that many of the people now in the centers may never leave regardless of what opportunities may be of- fered to them. It is easier to sit back and let someone else provide the food and shelter and make the decisions than to undertake the burden of life in a competitive society. PRESENT POLICY OF WAR RELOCATION AUTHORITY The War Relocation Authority came into the picture of evacuation shortly after the original evacuation order. The original plan of the Authority was to assist persons ex- cluded from certain areas in finding work and to provide food and shelter for those who could not. The work was not (and is not) restricted to persons of Japanese an- cestry. However, as is indicated in the first BOTANY.—kKillipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vacciniaceae.' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 part of this paper, the relocation centers for Japanese came into existence through a number of unforeseen factors. Since last summer, however, the Authority has been concerned with the problem of how to get people out of the centers and back into American life. In this connection, a number of specific things have been done. Last Oc- tober a special leave policy was developed whereby individuals could apply for leave from the center if they had a job or some other means of support. In February, 1943, the Army reopened its ranks to a limited number of Japanese-Americans. In connection with the general policy of resettlement now of primary concern to the Authority, there are a number of special problems that are rather difficult to over- come. American public opinion does not always distinguish between our Japanese enemies in the Pacific and the Japanese- American minority group in this country. The growth of wardship and institutionaliza- tion in the relocation center residents them- selves is another factor that tends to perpetuate the existence of centers. A. C. SMITH, Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. (Communicated by WiiuiAm R. Maxon.) Among many plants of unusual interest from the Chocé region of Colombia, E. P. Killip obtained in 1939 a specimen of the family Vacciniaceae that apparently repre- sents a new genus. At first glance this plant, with its stiff parallel-veined leaves and 1-flowered bracteate inflorescences, re- sembles the family Epacridaceae, which is scarcely to be expected from the region. Examination of the flowers proves it to be- long to the Vacciniaceae, in which it is only remotely related to described genera. It is a pleasure to dedicate the new genus to the collector, my colleague and friend, in appre- ciation of his invaluable work on the flora of Colombia. The accompanying illustration has been prepared by Gordon W. Dillon. Killipiella A. C. Smith, gen. nov. Calyx cum pedicello minuto articulatus, tubo 1 Received May 1, 1943. conico-cupuliformi, limbo erecto quam tubo longiore fere ad basim 4-diviso, lobis papy- raceis textura bracteis similibus. Corolla cy- lindrico-conica, lobis 4 sub anthesi conspicuis lanceolatis demum valde reflexis. Stamina 8 similia corollam subaequantia sub anthesi ex- serta, toro basi corollae inserta, filamentis liberis vel inter se basi leviter cohaerentibus, antheris basim versus dorsifixis gracilibus rig- idis erectis, thecis minute granulosis basi con- spicue appendiculatis, tubulis quam thecis fere duplo longioribus gracilibus copiose sed minute tuberculatis per rimas introrsas apicales plus minusve elongatas dehiscentibus. Ovarium in- ferius, loculis 4, dissepimentis ut videtur de- mum evanescentibus, placentis parvis basim angulorum versus dispositis, ovulis maturis paucis plerumque 1-3 in quoque loculo (aliis abortivis) conspicue reticulatis. Discus ovarium coronatus pulvinatus apice depressus, stylo fili- formi corollam subaequante sub anthesi ex- serto, stigmate truncato. Ave. 15, 1943 Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis gracilibus elon- gatis, stipulis nullis. Folia alternata parva breviter petiolata nervis subimmersis copiosis subparallelis. Inflorescentia axillaris uniflora abbreviata, rhachi brevi bracteis imbricatis ad- pressis concavis obtecta, flore solitario termi- nali apice rhachis subsessili. Killipiella styphelioides A. C. Smith, sp. nov. Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis 1-2 mm. dia- metro saepe nodis inferioribus radicantibus dense tomentellis (pilis brunneo-stramineis 0.5-0.7 mm.longis) demum glabrescentibus basi petiolorum incrassatis; petiolis 1-2 mm. longis sub- vel semiteretibus circiter 1 mm. diametro primo ut ramulis pilosis; laminis coriaceis anguste oblongis, 15-32 mm. longis, 4-8 mm. latis, basi rotundatis vel obtusis, apice acutis et saepe calloso-mucronulatis, glabris vel basi et margine basim versus pilosis, costa supra plana vel leviter impressa subtus prominula, nervis secundariis numerosis e basi adscendentibus venulis inconspicuis conjunctis interdum sub- tus prominulis; rhachi subtereti glabra 3-4 mm. longa circiter 0.7 mm. diametro bracteas 7—10 gerente; bracteis papyraceis in sicco stramineis oblongis vel ovatis, apice acutis vel subacutis, margine pilis crispatis 0.15—0.3 mm. longis dense ciliato excepto glabris, bracteis inferioribus minimis, superioribus ad 6.5 mm. longis et 3 mm. latis basim calycis circumdantibus; pedi- cello circiter 0.15 mm. longo inconspicuo; calyce 7.5-8.5 mm. longo, tubo 2—2.5 mm. longo et circiter 1.5 mm. diametro pilos paucos min- utos brunneo-glandulosos gerente, limbo lobis inclusis 6-6.5 mm. longo, lobis oblongis basim versus 1.3-2 mm. latis superne gradatim angus- tatis, apice subacutis vel obtusis et inconspicue callosis, ut bracteis ciliato-marginatis, glabris vel interdum extus obscure brunneo-glandulo- sis; corolla glabra tenuiter carnosa circiter 10 mm. longa et 2mm. diametro ante anthesin api- cem versus gradatim. angustata, lobis 5-7 mm. longis et basim versus circiter 1.5 mm. latis, ad apicem subacutum angustatis, margine leviter inflexo tenuioribus et obscure undulatis; fila- mentis ligulatis tenuiter carnosis 3-3.5 mm. longis circiter 0.3 mm. latis margine parce pilo- sis, antheris 7.5-9 mm. longis, thecis 2.5-3 mm. longis, appendice basali conspicua 0.2-0.5 mm. longa saepe subspathulata, tubulis 5-6 mm. longis; disco glabro circiter 0.5 mm. alto et basi 1 mm. diametro. SMITH: A NEW COLOMBIAN GENUS OF VACCINIACEAE 243 Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1771962, collected in dense forest of the Corcovado region, upper Rio San Juan, ridge along Yeraciii Valley, Intendencia El Chocé, Colombia, altitude 200-275 meters, April 24 or 25, 1939, by E. P. Killip (no. 35222). Although the curious plant here described is obviously a member of the Vacciniaceae, I am unable to refer it to any described genus. At first appearance it does not suggest the known members of the family, its stiff leaf-blades, stri- ate with copious ascending veins, and its 1- flowered profusely bracteate inflorescences giv- ing it a very distinctive aspect. The superficial resemblance of Killipiella to the family Epa- cridaceae is striking; its foliage is remarkably similar to that of Styphelia spp., while its in- florescences are precisely matched, in general aspect, by those of certain species of Epacris and Styphelia. Examination of the flower, with its inferior ovary and typical vacciniaceous stamens, indicates the true place of the Colom- bian plant. The deeply lobed calyx-limb, which is similar to the bracts in texture, the corolla with elongate reflexed lobes, the slender stiff anthers with appendaged bases and tuberculate tubules, the conspicuous pulvinate disk, and the few and reticulate ovules are all highly noteworthy features. In the most recent general revision of the Vacciniaceae, Sleumer (Bot. Jahrb. 71: 375- 510. 1941) does not emphasize the traditional distinction of two tribes, the Vaccinieae and the Thibaudieae, although he does base the major divisions of his key upon this cleavage. In 1932 (Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 28: 320), I briefly discussed the intangible nature of the two tribes, and since then I have been forced to the conclusion that such tribes are entirely artificial. Such a genus as Killipiella, for in- stance, demonstrates relationships with mem- bers of both tribes, although it has no close relatives in either. An ultimate revision of gen- eric lines in the Vacciniaceae will probably be based primarily upon staminal characters rather than upon such indefinite features as size and texture of corolla. Killipiella appears to be a very isolated genus. Possibly Disterigma (Kl.) Niedenzu is its closest relative, but in that genus the pedicel is obvious and bears two large clasping bracte- oles at its summit. The inflorescence bracts of Kullipiella are somewhat suggestive of these, 244 but they apparently arise from the rachis, the actual pedicel being reduced to an inconspicu- ous length. I have interpreted the inflorescence of Killipiella as consisting of a short rachis, bearing several imbricate bracts and a terminal subsessile flower. If this interpretation is cor- rect, such an inflorescence is probably a reduc- tion from the racemose several-flowered type which is common in the family. The deeply cleft JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 calyx-limb and corolla of the new genus are un- like these organs in Disterigma, while the rro- portionately short filaments, the basal anther- appendages, and the conspicuous disk further differentiate it. The copiously tuberculate anther-tubules of Killipiella are not matched in any other vacciniaceous genus known to me, the tubules elsewhere being smooth, or in some cases obscurely tuberculate at the very base. ive tC CLE CCC EL ee CCC EC twee rin ts Lt ke t cn ccc’ Ce tebiak SH greet eeu eee es etecs veel: 12 ray OA oT ASPAS osu NGau eee Fig. 1.—Killipiella styphelioides: a, Portion of branchlet, with four inflorescences, the lowermost with corolla in position, <1; b, an inflorescence, with projecting corolla-bud, 2; c, calyx, with one lobe re- moved, showing disk and style, X38; d, ovule, X12; e, corolla and stamens, X38; f, stamen, introrse view, X4;g, detail of base of stamen, <6; h, detail of apex of tubule, X50. BOTAN Y.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).1 ANNA E. JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, and Aums&s P. Vineas, Instituto Agronémico do Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil. New findings in widely separated parts of the world of a previously little known but destructive disease of sweet potato (Ipo- moea batatas Poir.), including the discovery of a hitherto unknown stage in the life his- tory of the pathogen Sphaceloma batatas Saw., are here reported. It seems desirable also to review the two sole accounts? of this disease, since these earlier records, in Japanese, are not readily available to occi- dental readers. HISTORICAL In 1931, Sawada (6) reported the occur- rence in Formosa of what he termed the 1 Received March 30, 1943. 2 For a translation of these two articles the writers are indebted to K. Katsura. ‘bud stunting disease’ of sweet potato. This had been present in Formosa since as early as 1910, as shown by the 19 specimens cited in connection with the description of the pathogen. The first of these, as well as five others, were gathered by R. Suzuki. It has been learned, however, from cor- respondence with Sawada (1938) that Su- zuki did not realize at the time that a new disease was concerned. ‘‘When the disease is severe,’’ Sawada states (6), ‘it is impossible to correct it.’? He continues: “The disease is severe in localities where rain, dew, or mist is abundant. In high mountainous regions sweet potatoes grown at high elevations are easily attacked, be- cause of abundant mist; also those grown in shaded places because of dews. Among Ave. 15, 1943 sweet potato varieties ‘Red Skin’ is the most susceptible.” In 1937, K. Goto? reported (2) severely diseased sweet-potato vines from Kago- shima-Ken, Amami Islands, as affected by Sawada’s bud stunting disease. He noted: ‘The writer received a specimen of diseased potato stems and leaves from Mr. Taro Hoko of Kagoshima-Ken, on September 23 of this year (1937), with a note by him stat- ing that there is an outbreak of the disease every year in the Amami Islands, and ask- ing the author’s opinion regarding the dis- ease. He was of the opinion that the disease is caused by a fungus belonging to Sphace- loma, since it resembles anthracnose of grapes.” (Fig. 1, C.) Goto referred to the vine disease of sweet potatoes as “shoot scab.” It is here called “stem and foliage scab.” GEOGRAPHIC RANGE In September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, of the United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, found this same disease on the island of Guam; he sent specimens to his Bureau, whence they were referred to the senior writer, who made the diagnosis. The symptoms represented (Fig. 1, B) were entirely in agreement with the description. A specimen from Guam was then sent to Sawada, who was of the same opinion and who contributed part of the type specimen of Sphaceloma batatas (Fig. 1, A). In 1938 and 1939 Oakley again sent speci- mens of the disease from Guam. In trans- mitting the specimen of 1938 (Guam 726) he wrote’ that ‘‘the appearance of sweet potatoes affected by the disorder is very un- usual as they, in some cases, grow straight upwards a foot higher than vines growing normally.’’ He has furnished a summary of the prevalence of the disease in Guam dur- ing 1937-1939 as follows: “The disease was plentiful in 1937 when patches of infected vines could be discerned at a distance of 25 yards by the straight ’ Laboratory of Black-rot Control, Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Tiba, Japan. 4 Letter dated June 5, 1938, addressed to E. R. Sasscer, Division of Foreign Plant Quarantine. JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO 245 and high growing shoots,” these extending ‘above the normal growth. Field infections in 1938 were less plentiful, and in 1939 dis- eased vines could rarely be found and then only after extended search.”’ In Guam, where sweet potatoes have long been cultivated, only two previous references to diseases of the crop have been found. During Weston’s (7) plant-disease survey of the island in 1918, he reported white rust (Albugo sp.). Several years ear- lier, when David T. Fullaway, entomologist of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, made an entomological survey of Guam (1), he found “‘sweet potatoes badly blighted by a fungus disease.’’ In 1938, replying to an inquiry, accompanied by a photograph of a specimen from Guam (Fig. 1, B), he wrote that he believed this disease was the same as that discovered by Oakley in 1937, although it was difficult to remem- ber over so long a period. About this time replies to similar inquiries were received as follows: O. H. Swezy, of Hawaii, who made an insect pest survey in Guam in 1936, wrote: ‘“‘My recollection is that the leaves [of sweet potatoes] were always in good condition, except for a small amount of caterpillar work, which was distinctly different from the condition shown in your photos.’”’ G. O. Ocfemia stated that so far as he knew, stem and foliage scab had not been found in the Philippines. G. K. Parris, who catalogued the plant diseases of Hawaii (4), wrote that the disease had not been recorded in that Territory. In Brazil stem and foliage scab of sweet potatoes was discovered on plants growing on the experiment farm of the Instituto Agronomico at Campinas, first in January, 1939, by A. S. Costa, and again in February, 1940, by O. Boock. Diseased specimens gathered at Campinas are similar to those from Pacific regions. A specimen of diseased sweet-potato leaves from Alagoinhas, Bafa, Brazil, collected in March, 1937, by H. S. Fawcett and A. A. Bitancourt resembles closely the specimen from Campinas and evidently represents the same disease. It was collected as a possible Sphaceloma dis- ease, but upon microscopic examination in Sao Paulo no organism was distinguished, 246 nor was any isolated.’ Such a situation is not unusual in the case of infection by species of Sphaceloma. S. batatas was scant on the material from Guam examined microscopically; the specimens sent in 1938 were picked fresh and forwarded by clipper mail but cultures from them yielded nega- tive results as did those made from speci- mens sent by Sawada in August, 1988. Goto, however, succeeded in isolating the organism. SYMPTOMS Symptoms of the disease on leaves as de- scribed by Sawada are as follows: “On leaves, veins are mostly attacked; spots small, round or oblong, slightly con- cave, cinnamon or vinaceous tawny, 1-2.5 mm in diam., mostly in groups, which later coalesce; outer surface of more or less corky appearance, depending on the degree of the attack ; leaves become curled or their growth checked, petioles curled, veins shrunken.” Sawada did not describe stem cankers, although these are present on specimens that he sent (Fig. 1, A). Goto states that the disease appears to attack young organs, and that the growth of leaves and stems becomes irregular and produces many abnormal shapes, as well as stunting of petioles and blades. The follow- ing description of stem cankers is from Goto’s account: On the extreme tip of the shoot and some- what below, spots appear as flat or some- what raised purple brown dots, depressed at the center, with a gray or light brown border. The marginal region appears water- soaked when the weather is damp. Farther downward the diseased spot becomes gradually larger, 0.5-3 mm, and is circular, oblong, or spindle-shaped, or intermediate between these shapes, somewhat depressed, gray or brown, and somewhat roughened or scablike. Where the stem is green, the spot is surrounded by a narrow purple margin, which is sometimes depressed. Dark brown spots also appear on the attacked area. Where cankers are numerous they coalesce, ° Data furnished by A. A. Bitancourt, Instituto Biologico, Séo Paulo, Brazil, who contributed the specimen from Alagoinhas. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8 forming a large scab. Spots on petioles are of similar appearance to those on stems; however, they seem a little larger, over 5 mm in length. All the spots become whitish with age. The stem cankers on the specimens from Brazil agree with those described by Goto. On the leaves, however, interveinal spots are fully as numerous as those on veins. THE PATHOGEN Sawada’s illustration of Sphaceloma ba- tatas is reproduced in Fig. 2, D, and his description of the fungus is given below: Sphaceloma batatas Saw. Mycelium scanty, penetrating the cell walls of the diseased tissue, colorless, septate, 2-2.5u in diameter, acervuli colorless, forming under the epidermis and later become exposed by rupturing the epidermis, 12—25u in diameter, with 1 or 2 layers of stroma, cells polyangular, about 4u in size, upon which many conidio- phores are produced. Conidiophores short, single celled, 6—-8u in length, conidia oblong, colorless, single celled, smooth, 6—7.5u by 2.5— 3.0. On the material that Goto studied he found the acervuli to arise subcuticularly. He gave the following measurements: acer- vuli, 14-61, in diameter, with some of those that have united once reaching over 109y; conidiophores, about 10u long and 3y wide; conidia 4.2-9.3 by 2.4-3.3u, or about the same as those of the Formosan type. Referring to the fact that Sphaceloma fungi are difficult to isolate because of their slow growth, Goto reported that he was able to isolate S. batatas by placing a piece of diseased stem upon onion agar after it had been dipped in mercuric chloride (1:1000) for about one minute and washed. In the first set of cultures one out of eight tubes showed growth after seven days; in the second, two tubes out of eight. This growth was similar to cultures of S. rosarum from rose, S. tsugiz from Paulownia, and #. fawcettit from Citrus. The cultures grew slowly and gradually became reddish brown and raised in the form of a crust. Sphaceloma was not detected on speci- mens of stem and foliage scab from Campi- Ava. 15, 1948 JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO 247 nas, but on stem cankers an ascomycete of the genus Hlsinoé (3) was present. Means are not available at this time to show whether the Elsznoé is the perfect stage of S. batatas. It is here suggested that it may well be; for in all species of Sphaceloma § i where the life history is known, Elsinoé has proved to be the ascogenous stage. It thus seems feasible to treat S. batatas as the conidial stage of the Elsinoé discovered on sweet potato stems in Brazil. This is de- scribed as follows: Fig. 1.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato caused by Sphaceloma batatas Saw.: A, From Taihoku, Formosa, June 25, 1925, K. Sawada, part of the type specimen, received from Sawada in August, 1938, <1; B, from Radio Hill, Guam, September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, 1; C, from Amami Islands, Japan, September, 1937, T. Tamotu, received from Goto, September, 1939, 1. 248 Elsinoé batatas Viégas and Jenkins, sp. nov. Fig. 2, A-C Maculae in foliis plerumque circulares, par- vae, cinnamomeo- brunneae; cancri in caulibus circulares, elliptici vel elongati, purpureo- brunnei interdum centro pallidiores; hyphae intraepidermicales vel subepidermicales de- mum fere superficiales, atro-cinereae, stromata 20-60 X 16—20u formantes; asci in stratum sin- gulum dispositi, globosi, 4—(6 ?) sporici, 15-16u longi, 10-12u lati; ascosporae hyalinae, 7—8u longae, 3—4u latae, septatae, curvatae. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 30, NO. 8 On leaves, spots on interveinal regions, veins, and petiole, generally circular, small, on the dry specimen ‘“‘mikado brown’; on stems, circular, elliptical or elongate, ‘‘Hays brown,” often with ‘‘wood brown” center; mycelium at first intraepidermal, later passing to the sub- epidermal tissue, i.e., to the cortical paren- chyma, which becomes hypertrophied, the cells dividing actively in different planes, lower cells of this tissue divide longitudinally, collen- 6 The color readings given in quotations are based on Ridgway’s color standards (5). Fig. 2.—Elsinoé batatas on stem cankers of sweet potato from Campinas, S40 Paulo, Brazil: A and B, Sections showing fruiting layer of the Elsinoé, with asci (A, b and B, a) ina single series, 500; A, c, and B, b, hypertrophied parenchyma in longitudinal sections; C, ascus from B, X1,800; D, acervulus of Sphaceloma batatas, after Sawada, Ava. 15, 1948 chyma also hypertrophied, and soon the entire mass of tissue collapses, and the walls of the necrosed tissue darken; during this alteration of the tissue, hyphae of the fungus develop stromatically, at maturity they are external or practically so, dark gray, 20-60 by 16—20u with a single row of asci; asci globose, with 4—-(6 ?) spores, 15-16 by 10—-12yu; ascospores hyaline 7-8 by 3—4y, septate, curved. Conidial stage, Sphaceloma batatas Saw. On leaves and stems of Ipomoea batatas Poir., Alagoinhas, State of Bafa, and Campinas, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Type specimen: Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil, January 14, 1939, A. 8. Costa (Herb. Inst. Agron. de Sao Paulo 2726 and Mye. Coll. Bureau of Plant Industry 74289). While it is likely that Elsinoé batatas might be introduced into new regions on slips of sweet potatoes, there is no indication as to whether it might be carried also on dormant tubers, which seems less plausible. SUMMARY Stem and folliage scab of sweet-potato vines *was first reported from Formosa in 1931 by Sawada, for the period 1910-1928. In 1937 Goto identified the disease from the Amami Islands. Their accounts of the disease are the only ones previously pub- lished. Specimens collected in Guam in 1937 by Oakley are diagnosed as affected by stem and foliage scab. In the field the disease could be recognized by the upright growth of the vines, as compared with their normal growth. Sweet potatoes in Guam ‘‘badly blighted by a fungus disease” in 1911 may have been affected by this malady. FRIEDMANN: A NEW HONEY-GUIDE FROM CAMEROON 249 Stem and foliage scab was discovered in Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil, by Costa in 1939, and by Boock in 1940, and also in Alagoinhas, Bafa, Brazil in 1937, by Faw- cett and Bitancourt. Symptoms of the disease as described on leaves by Sawada and on stems by Goto are given, as well as Sawada’s description of the pathogen which he named Sphaceloma batatas. An ascomycete of the genus Elsinoé, dis- covered on cankers of stem and foliage scab from Campinas, is regarded as the perfect stage of S. batatas and is described as E. batatas. LITERATURE CITED (1) Fututaway, D. T. Entomological notes. In Thompson, J. B., Summary of in- vestigations. Ann. Rep. Guam _ Agr. Exp. Stat. for 1911: 26-35, illus. 1912. (2) Goto, K. Outbreak of shoot scab of sweet potato in Amami Islands. Ann. Phyto- path. Soc. Japan 7: 143-145, illus. 1937. (In Japanese.) (3) Jenkins, A. E., and Brrancourt, A. A. Revised descriptions of the genera Elsinoé and Sphaceloma. Mycologia 33: 338- 340. 1941. (4) Parris, G. K. A check list of fungi, bac- teria, nematodes, and viruses occurring in Hawaii, and their hosts. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Plant Dis. Rep. Suppl. 121, 91 pp. 1940. (5) Ripeway, R. Color standards and color nomenclature, 43 pp., illus. Washington, 1912. (6) Sawapa, K. Descriptive catalog of For- mosan fungi, pt. 5: 105, illus. 1931. (In Japanese.) (7) Weston, W. H. Report of the plant dis- ease situation in Guam. Ann. Rep. Guam Agr. Exp. Stat. 1917: 45-62, illus. 1918. ORNITHOLOGY.—A new honey-guide from Cameroon.1 HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U.S. National Museum. W. E. C, Todd, of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, has recently forwarded to me for study and identification three little honey-guides from Cameroon. Two of these are Indicator exilis exilis, but the third one 1 Published by permission ‘of the Secretary of > Smithsonian Institution. Received May 6, 43. does not fit any known species. It is appar- ently an adult bird and seems sufficiently different from the first two to warrant nam- ing. Because it occurs in the same general area as I. e. exilis, it can not be described as a race of that species and must therefore be treated as a distinct species. It is proposed to call it— 250 Indicator propinquus, n. sp. Type.—Carnegie Mus. no. 118425, ¢, col- lected at Donenkeng, Bafia, Cameroon, April 25, 1934, by Jacob A. Reis, Jr. Description.—Similar to Indicator exilis exilis but with the forehead, crown, occiput, nape, and interscapulars more greenish and definitely streaked with dusky; the lores, cheeks, auricu- lars, and entire underparts paler and more greenish, less olive-gray, and the bill slightly more swollen. Forehead, crown, and occiput olive lake, the crown and occiput streaked with dusky olive (the streaks formed by dark shaft stripes); ‘‘mantle,”’ 1.e., interscapulars, similar but with the dusky streaks wider; back, lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts very dark olive-brown, the feathers conspicuously edged with olive lake tinged with olive-ocher (as in exilis); upper wing coverts and remiges dark olive-brown, the coverts completely edged with olive-ocher, the remiges externally so (as in extlis); tail as in exilis—the median rectrices very dark olive-brown to clove brown, the others whitish merely externally edged and terminally broadly tipped with dark olive- brown to clove brown; lores, cheeks, auriculars, and sides of neck pale citrine-drab; chin and upper throat whitish streaked with pale citrine- drab; lower throat, breast, and sides deep olive-buff streaked with citrine-drab (shaft streaks) ; upper abdomen slightly paler and buf- fier and with the streaks ashier; lower abdomen, thighs, and under tail coverts pale creamy car- tridge buff; bill chaetura black (when fresh); feet water green (when fresh). Measurements of type—Wing 72, tail 42.5; culmen from the base 8; height of bill at angle of gape 4.8, tarsus 14; middle toe without claw JE Tova, Remarks.—It may seem hazardous to de- scribe a new honey-guide from a single speci- men when the differences between it and the fairly similar Indicator extlis exilis are rather slight, but we may recall that a parallel situa- tion is to be found in the larger species I. macu- latus and I. feae. Thus, in speaking of the for- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ed VOL. 33, NO. 8 mer species, Bannerman (The Birds of Tropical West Africa 3: 408. 1933) writes that ‘‘unless handled, this honey-guide is impossible to dis- tinguish from Indicator feae, and even then the greatest care must be exercised.’ The two spe- cies apparently occur together, as do also the two small forms J. exilis and I. propinquus. The possibility of the type of J. propinquus being a seasonal variant of exzlis is ruled out by the fact that I have compared it with specimens of the latter species taken in January, March, April, July, August, October, and December. There is no seasonal plumage variation in exilis. Unfortunately I have had no opportunity to examine material of the recently described In- dicator appelator Vincent (Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 53: 130. 1933), known so far only from the Mozambique-Nyasaland border, a couple of thousand miles to the southeast of Cameroon. However, in the description of appelator it is stated that it has the ‘‘upper parts uniform and not heavily striated... ,”’ although “the dark centres to the feathers are evident in striations on the forehead and crown, but do not extend on to the nape....’’ The bill appears. to be very similar to that of propinquus, ‘‘shorter and narrower than any minor—in fact, of similar length to exilis, but more swollen.’”’ Additional information and material may some day demonstrate the conspecificity of appelater and propinquus, but it would be mere guess work to claim any such degree of relationship now. Chapin (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 75: 540. 1939) writes that ‘‘appelator ... must be a very close ally”’ of exilis. I am indebted to Mr. Todd for permission to study his material and to describe the new form included; to J. T. Zimmer, of the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, and to Dr. H. C. Oberholser, of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, for generous loans of perti- nent material. Through the cooperation of these institutions I have been able to study a series of 10 specimens of Indicator exilis exilis as well as a good series of the larger but less pertinent Indicator conirostris. Aue. 15, 1943 SCHULTZ AND MILES: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA 251 ICHTHYOLOGY.— Descriptions of anew genus and a new species of Parodontinae, characinid fishes from South America. LEONARD P. Scuuutz, U.S. National Museum, and Crcit Miuss, Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia. During the latter part of 1942 we were comparing a specimen of a characinid fish from Colombia with Apareiodon dariensis Meek and Hildebrand. The Colombian fish had a color pattern almost exactly like the Panamanian species, but upon making fur- ther studies we found it differed in several respects and decided to describe it as new. When Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann described the genus Apareiodon (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 10: 71. 1916; genotype: Parodon piracicabae Eigenmann), he referred Apareiodon dari- ensts Meek and Hildebrand to it. This latter species, from the Rio Cupe at Cituro, Darién, Panama, was based on three speci- mens, 105, 120, and 135 mm in length. The second specimen, U.S.N.M. 78379, has been carefully studied by us, and we must con- clude that it belongs to the genus Saccodon Kner and Steindachner. Since we desired to understand more thoroughly why Eigenmann would refer A. dariensis to the genus A pareiodon, we stud- ied all the fishes of this subfamily available in the United States National Museum, and, in addition, Dr. W. M. Chapman, curator of fishes, California Academy of Sciences, kindly lent most of their speci- mens of this group for study by the senior author, who appreciates this courtesy ex- ceedingly. While working with the material, it soon became obvious that a new genus should be recognized and that the generic relationships needed further examination. This new genus is described below. Subfamily PARODONTINAE Parodontops, n. gen. Genotype—Parodon ecuadoriensis Eigen- mann and Henn, in Eigenmann, Henn, and Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12. 1914 (Vinces, Ecuador; Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecua- dor). This new genus is based on paratypes of 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of Bae sonian Institution. Received April 9, Parodon ecuadoriensis EKigenmann and Henn from Vinces, Ecuador, U.S.N.M. 76974, and on another specimen of the same species, U.S.N.M 83535, from Ecuador, measuring 117 mm in standard length. After careful study of the 67-mm type (In- diana Univ. Mus. 13104) of Parodon terminalis Eigenmann and Henn (in Eigenmann, Henn, and Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12. 1914) from Vinces, Ecuador, we conclude that it represents the young of P. ecuadoriensis. Parodontops may be recognized from the other genera in the subfamily Parodontinae by its teeth, the two simple pectoral rays, i, 8 pelvics, along with the wide inner second sub- orbital and narrow interopercle. The following key will aid in separating the various genera related to Parodontops, as well as indicate some of the generic differences that we have observed in this study. KEY TO THE GENERA OF PARODONTINAE la. Teeth in upper jaw 0+6-+0 and not in a straight line; edge of thin upper lip free and crossing middle of teeth on premaxillaries; no teeth in lower jaw, the edge of which is 5-lobed; pectoral rays ii, 12 to 16; pelvics MGWalibyaik sy (ites Mice... . Semen ate ome me Sete epics Saccodon Kner and Steindachner 1b. Teeth in upper jaw normally 2+8-+2 (2 teeth on each maxillary); upper lip not free but forming part of flesh between bases of teeth on premaxillaries. 2a. Pectoral rays ii, 14 to 17; pelvics i, 8; no teethonlowerjaw....Parodontops,n. gen. 2b. Pectoral fin rays i, 11 toi, 16; pelvics i, 7, rarely 1, 8. 3a, No teeth omilower jaw. bE was a little girl her parents joined a party of families that made an expedition to the ‘pigeon roosts at some place below Warren; and Chauncey Johnny John, although born at Cattaraugus Reservation, N. Y., and not so old as some others, had been on several such hunts when quite young. Evidently, among the Seneca such trips to the pigeon _ roosts were a regular event in the annual round of getting a living. That this custom comes down from ear- lier days with every likelihood that it is pre- - Columbian is indicated by the narratives of early travelers. Since the passenger pigeon - was one of the most abundant birds, if not the most abundant in North America, it is not unreasonable to assume that the In- _ dians had long depended upon its annual 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of pte Smithsonian Institution. Received June 8, — 1948. - OcTOBER 15, 1943 No. 10 _ETHNOLOGY.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanter Senecas.* WiuuiaM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology, and Mertz H. DEaAR- ““Perhaps again one will say, ‘Now once again they are nesting’.”’ return to the nesting grounds, where they procured the squabs in great numbers to supplement their diet; in fact, at this season of the year it seems to have constituted the principal part of the food supply. EARLY REFERENCES Netting The Relations of 1656-57 of the first Jes- uit mission to the Onondaga remark how the pigeons gather in the spring at the salt springs adjacent to Onondaga Lake in such numbers that they are taken in nets.. “that sometimes as many as seven hundred are caught in the course of one morning.” (Jesuit Relations, vol. 48, p. 153; see also Le Mercier’s Relation of the previous year.) In the Cayuga country, where the game was so plentiful that 1,000 deer were killed in a single season, Father Raffeix (1671), re- porting on the Mission of St. Joseph at Gotoguen [Cayuga], says: ‘‘Fish—salmon, as well as eels and other kinds—are as plenty here as at Onnontagué [Onondaga]. Four leagues [12 miles] from here I saw by the side of a river, within a very limited space, eight or ten extremely fine salt springs. Many snares are set there for catching pigeons, from seven to eight hundred being often taken at once.” (J. R., vol. 56, p. 49.) Further evidence that the Onondaga net- ted passenger pigeons at the famous salt springs is found in Pehr Kalm’s monograph (1759), which contains the following de- scription of the activity: I have also observed that the pigeons have a special fondness for the kind of soil which is 289 OCT G 43 290 much mixed with common salt; this soil serves them as food, as a spice to blend with the food, or for its medical properties, I do not know which. At the salt springs of Onondago [szc],.. . where the soil is so strongly mixed with salt that the ground during a severe drought becomes en- tirely covered with it and as white as frost, mak- ing it impossible for plants to grow, I noticed with astonishment, in the month of August, 1750, how covetous the pigeons were of this kind of soil. The savages in Onondago had built their huts on the sides of this salt field, and here they had erected sloping nets with a cord attachment leading to the huts where they were sitting; when the pigeons arrived in swarms to eat of this salty soil, the savages pulled the cords, inclosing them in the net, and thus at once secured the entire flock. At certain times, when they come in such numbers that the ground could hardly be seen for them, the savages found it more advisable to use a gun, as by a single discharge-of bird-shot they could sometimes kill as many as 50 or more; and this proved a splendid source of food supply. (Kalm, 1912, p. 415. See also ‘“‘A Bibliography of Peter Kalm’s Writings on America,” in Kalm, 1937, p. 774.) Although it would appear from these ac- counts, and one other by Pierre Boucher which follows, that the Iroquois from early times had used nets for taking pigeons, whether their use was learned from the white men remains an open question. Pierre Boucher, in his ‘‘true and genuine descrip- tion of New France’’ in the seventeenth cen- tury, says: ‘There are birds of another kind called wild pigeons.... There are pro- digious numbers of them . . . they are to be found everywhere in this country. The Iro- quois take them in nets as they fly, some- times by 300 or 400 at a time.’”? The two accounts by Boucher and Kalm sound rather as if the Indians originated the idea of netting pigeons, but Mitchell points out that the English colonists of Massachu- setts took them in nets about 1660 and had done so for some time previously, according to John Josselyn. Eye-witness accounts of the Seneca net- ting and snaring pigeons are scarce, if not lacking, in the literature. Morgan, who worked mainly with Seneca informants at Tonawanda circa 1850, says: “‘Nets of bark 2 MONTIZAMBERT, Epwarp Louis, Canada in the seventeenth century. Being a translation of a true and genuine description of New France, by Pierre Boucher. Paris, 1664, p. 43. Montreal, 1883, ain Mitchell, 1935, p. 119. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 and twine were... spread for pigeons and quails.””’ And he describes a simple bird snare, formerly much used against blue jays that came for corn, which might have been used on single pigeons with great effect. (Morgan, 1901, vol. 2, p. 24.) The Cayuga evidently set nets for pi- geons on high places. The nets are said to have been made of twine from swamp milk- weed fiber, basswood, or slippery-elm bast. The net (gada’qy’dakwa’) was spread be- tween two upright sticks, and the netter sat back at some distance holding one end, waiting for a high wind to blow the pigeons into it, when he would pull the net. The folk-tale of “the foolish nephew,” in which this information occurs, does not disclose how the netted pigeons were killed, but they were tied in bunches to take home. When the hero and his uncle reached home they plucked the feathers, spitted the birds on sticks, roasted them beside the fire, and dried them for later use.* In later times professional pigeoners set out similar nets without any tripping de- vice on high bluffs along Lake Ontario. That this practice was probably in use among the Cayugas of the region is indi- cated by their folk-lore and by the authori- ties already cited. Raiding Nests for Squabs Historical accounts of Seneca pigeon hunts sustain the statements of informants that when the squabs were ready to leave the nest the nesting-trees were felled and the fattened squabs were taken by hand and killed and gutted for smoking and drying before packing them home. The Gilbert Narrative of the sufferings of a Pennsylvania family during their captiv- - ity among the Senecas, 1780-83, tells how Benjamin Gilbert, Jr., was adopted into the family of a Seneca chief who settled on Buf- falo Creek; and, being considered the ‘“‘King’s’”’ successor, Benjamin was entirely freed from restraint and permitted to go fishing and hunting with his Indian con- temporaries. In the spring of 1781— _ 3 Coox, Exvias (Cayuga), ‘““Grand River Re- serve (Canada) (1918),” in F. W. Waugh, Iroquois folk-lore (MS.), Notebook 5, p. 40 ff. National Museum of Canada. Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS the whole Family moved about six Miles up Lake Erie [near Big Tree] where they staid about two Months to gather their annual Store of Maple Sugar, of which they made a considerable Quantity. As soon as the Season of this Business was over, they returned to their old Settlement [on Buffalo Creek], where they had not continued long, be- fore an Indian came with an Account that an astonishing Number of young Pigeons might be procured at a certain Place, by falling Trees that were filled with Nests of young, and the Distance was computed to be about fifty Miles: This In- formation delighted the several Tribes; they speedily joined together, young and old, from dif- ferent Parts, and with great Assiduity pursued their Expedition, and took Abundance of the young ones, which they dried in the Sun and with Smoke, and filled several Bags which they had taken with them for this Purpose. Benjamin Gil- bert was permitted to accompany them on this Excursion, which must have been a curious one for whole Tribes to be engaged in. On this Rarety they lived with extravagance for some Time, far- ing sumptuously every Day. (Severance, 1904, pp. 15—116.) It was probably the same hunt that Ho- ratio Jones and his Indian foster parents attended. They had gone down from Niag- ara and Buffalo Creek to the Allegheny River to visit Cornplanter, his mother’s brother, when a runner came in shouting, “YVu-ak-oo-was, yu-ak-oo-was!” [jah’gowa’- son’on] (‘‘Pigeons, pigeons!’’) [‘‘Big breads,” or passenger pigeons.]| He said the birds had roosted in a wood on the Genesee River, about two days’ journey above Caneadea village. All was now bustle and confusion, and every person in the village who could bear the fatigue of travel at once set out for the Genesee. On their arrival at the place designated by the runner, Jones beheld a sight that he never forgot. The pigeons, in numbers too great to estimate, had made their temporary homes in a thick forest. Each tree and branch bore nests on every avail- able spot. The birds had exhausted every species of nesting material in the vicinity, including the small twigs of the trees, and the ground was as bare as though swept with a broom. The eggs were hatching and thousands of squabs filled the nests. Every morning the parent birds rose from the roosts, the noise of their wings sounding like con- tinuous rolls of distant thunder, as flock after flock soared away to obtain food. A little before noon they began to return to feed their young; then arose a deafening chorus of shrill cries as the awkward younglings stood up in the nests with wide open mouths. ... Soon after noon the old birds departed again to return about sunset, 291 when they came in such dense flocks as to darken the woods. All night long the sound of breaking branches caused by overloading the roosts, and the whirring and fluttering of falling birds trying to regain their foothold, disturbed the usual silence of the forest. As the annual nesting of the pigeons was a matter of great importance to the Indians, who depended largely [?] on the supply of food thus obtained, runners carried the news to every part of the Seneca country, and the inhabitants singly and in bands, came from as far east as Seneca Lake and as far north as Lake Ontario. Within a few days several hundred men, women, and chil- dren gathered in the locality of the pigeon woods.... For their temporary accommodation the people erected ... huts constructed by setting up two crotched stakes on top of which a pole was laid. Other poles were placed against the ridge, three or four on each side, with the lower ends resting on the ground. One or two poles were then tied across the others parallel with the ridge-pole and to these were fastened long over-lapping sheets of bark forming tent-shaped huts with one open end that was closed at night by curtains of skins and blankets. This form of cabin was easily erected in a short time, and afforded a fair shelter to the occupants during the brief period of their stay. The Indians cut down the roosting-trees to secure the birds, and each day thousands of squabs were killed. Fires were made in front of the cabins and bunches of the dressed birds were suspended on poles sustained by crotched sticks, to dry in the heat and the smoke. When properly cured they were packed in bags or baskets for transportation to the home towns. It was a festi- val season .. . and even the meanest dog in camp had his fill of pigeon meat. (Harris, 1903, pp. 449-450.) No one missed the annual fun at the pi- geon roosts if he could possibly get there. That year “forty warriors on their way from Niagara southward, halted... for a few days to enjoy the sport and obtain a supply of cured birds for food on their jour- ney”’ (zbid., p. 450); and there were a dozen or more white captives in the encampment. Marriages were evidently sometimes con- tracted at the pigeon roosts, for it was at one of these rendezvous near the shores of Seneca Lake, where the Indians assembled annually for days and weeks together, that Sarah Whitmore in 1782, at the time of her proposed marriage to a Mohawk chief, met Horatio Jones, who succeeded his Indian rival. “The young birds were fat and juicy and were devoured in large numbers; while the squaws smoked great quantities of them 292 for future use. Consequently, with the In- dians, the ‘Pigeon Roost’ was synonymous of a feast and dance, and especially of a council.’”’ (Gunn, 1903, p. 517.) Moreover, on occasion the serious busi- ness of a council was set. aside so that the people could go after squabs. In May of 1791, while Col. Thomas Proctor was at Buffalo Creek holding councils with the Iro- quois, seeking to get some of them to ac- company him to the tribes on the Wabash River, the Senecas invited him to watch them gather pigeons: May 6. Red Jacket and Captain O’Beel came to see me, when the former acquainted me with the reason why no council would be held this day, to wit: That it was their pigeon time, in which the Great Spirit had blessed them with an abundance; and that such was his goodness to the Indians that he never failed sending them season after season, and although it might seem a small matter to me, the Indians wiil never lose sight of those blessings. This is, therefore, the reason why our men, women, and children, are gone from their towns, but on tomorrow our headmen will return and your business again shall be taken up. ’Tis a matter worthy of ob- servation, that at some convenient distance from every one of the Indian settlements, the pigeons hatch their young in this season of the year, and the trees, which they commonly light on, are low and of the bushy kind, and they are found in such great abundance, that exceeding a hundred nests, a pair of pigeons in each are common to be found in a single tree, so that I have seen in one house, belonging to one family, several large baskets full of dead squabs; these they commonly take when they are just prepared to leave the nests, and as fat as possible for them to be made; when after they are plucked and cleansed a little, they are preserved by smoke and laid by for use. (Proctor, 1896, p. 497.) Feasts and Festivals Pigeon time evidently coincided with one of the periodic festivals when the Iroquois invariably returned thanks for an abundant flight of pigeons. Pigeon time came soon after the maple harvest; and it is notewor- thy in the modern Seneca Maple Festival, as it 1s still celebrated toward the end of March at Tonawanda, that Pigeon Dance regularly leads off the social dances (Fen- ton, 1941). Likewise, Proctor himself found the Senecas in a festival mood. On the third of May, several days before he witnessed the pigeon hunt, Proctor went out to the Onon- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 10 daga settlement, three miles east of Buf- falo, to honor an invitation to dine with the principal chief of the Onondaga. He re- marks how well the women were dressed in silken stroud and ornamented with many — silver trappings, and says that the feast ‘principally consisted of young pigeons, some boiled, some stewed, and the mode of dishing them was, that a hank of six were tied with a deer’s sinew around their necks, their bills pointing outwards; they were plucked but of pen feathers [sze] [pin- | feathers (Ketchum)] there plenty remained; the inside was taken out, but it appeared from the soup made of them, that water had not touched them before. The repast being the best I had seen for a long time, I ate of it very heartily, and the entertain- ment was given with the appearance of much hospitality.”’ (Proctor, 1896, p. 497.) The Iroquois apparently considered their own feasts and religious exercises of equal importance with Proctor’s business, and be- tween such delays and those caused by the— British commandants, Proctor lost an equal amount of time. Cornplanter assembled the chiefs on May 7 to allot planting grounds to tribes and families who had put themselves under the protection of the Six Nations; and the great dance which was performed the next afternoon was presumably the Plant- ing Festival or Seed Dance, which, it ap- pears from Proctor’s journal, was then of four days’ duration, ending in a general community drunk. Moreover, the Seneca religiously remem- ber their obligation to the Creator for the things which he annually sends them in abundance by returning thanks in season, and they also pray that this condition shall continue always. In the old days they did not trust to chance to conserve the supply — of plants and animals on which they sub- sisted, but they took some regular precau- tions to insure their perpetuation. To this day, when they take medicinal plants, tobacco is offered at the first plant of the desired species, which is then left to grow to seed for ensuing years. Deer were not taken at certain seasons; and the Seneca say that they did not molest pigeon hatcheries until the squabs were ready to leave the nests, while the older birds Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS were allowed-to go free. What is more, the Senecas ascribed human qualities to the pigeons, which alone of all the birds nested in communities. It was customary when they took their young to levy among the hunters a collection of gifts such as silver brooches, wampum, and articles of apparel as an offering to propitiate the pi- geons. These gifts were borne by a priest to the wood’s edge beside the pigeon colony, where he set them down and kindled a small fire. On the embers of this fire he sprinkled sacred tobacco (Nicotzana rustica L.), and it is believed that the words of his invocation were carried aloft on the smoke to the Crea- tor and to the spirit-forces of the pigeons, who were ordained to sustain the people living on the earth. His voice alone carried the entreaties of all the people, returning thanks that the pigeons had once more nested near their settlement and making this offering in exchange for the squabs they were about to take; and they prayed that this privilege should continue always. As late as 1896 aged Senecas living at Cattarau- gus remembered this custom, which was unknown to our informants, but which is fully illustrated by a series of myths col- lected by Hewitt that we shall return to later.* Conservation Religious-minded individuals among the Seneca could feel satisfied that the pigeons, having smelled the tobacco and thinking they had been thanked, would remain well disposed; but there were undoubtedly more practical individuals, like the savages (Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks) who came under Peter Kalm’s observation, who 4 In 1870 Esquire Johnson, then in his nineties, in an interview with Mrs. Ashur Wright, which Parker, 1923, p. 424, has published, mentioned a tobacco-smoke offering ‘‘to propitiate the pigeons when they took their young, the offering of pay- ment to the old ones,—a brass kettle or other littte dish full of ot-go-ah [wampum], brooches, and various other things which the man who raised the smoke would deposit on the ground before he put the tobacco on the fire, and he says that he left the kettle there when they left home [?], con- sidering it a real payment to the pigeons... . ”’ The prayer is said to have been the same as one related elsewhere by Oliver Silverheels, which is lost. (A. C. Parker, p. c.) 293 made sure the annual pigeon-flock increase was not endangered by pre-season hunting. Kalm says: While these birds are hatching their young or while the latter are not yet able to fly, the sav- ages or Indians in North America are in the habit of never shooting or killing them, nor of allowing others to do so, pretending that it would be a great pity on their young, which would in that case have to starve to death. Some of the French- men [presumably those Kalm met in 1749 enroute from the Hudson River to Montreal, when im- mense flocks of pigeons were encountered] told me that they had set out with the intention of shoot- ing some of them at that season of the year, but that the savages had at first with kindness en- deavored to dissuade them from such purpose, and later added threats to their entreaties when the latter were of no avail. (Kalm, 1912, p. 412.) Archery Of the ancient Iroquoians, at least the Huron (J.R., vol. 10, p. 143), Seneca, and Cayuga pursued the adult pigeons in the woods and shot them with bow and arrows. In a Cayuga folk-tale, ‘““The Mischievous Uncle and the Boy Wizard,” the hero twice shoots a single arrow through a row of pi- geons sitting on the same limb, getting a great string of birds both times (Waugh, MS.). The Senecas formerly used bows and arrows to shoot pigeons on the wing, and the great nestings were sometimes the oc- easion of intertribal archery contests, ac- cording to “‘Antler,’”’ an anonymous author who witnessed these trials during the first third of the last century when the Six Na- tions, as in Proctor’s day, were still in possession of Buffalo Creek. Detailed infor- mation on how the Iroquois tempered hick- ory and ashen bows with hot oil, on how bow strings were made, and on the use of blunt-headed arrows in taking birds and small game lends credence to this record. Al- though in retrospect the immensity of the nesting may be exaggerated, nevertheless the pigeon grounds must have been exten- sive to cover the townships mentioned and to provide hunting for the several bands of Senecas concentrated there. ‘“‘Antler’’ writes: During my boyhood days I lived in close proximity to a tribe of Indians of whom I took my first lessons in the use of the bow, and subse- - quently became much attached to that kind of sport. Partridges, wild pigeons, squirrels and numerous small fry fell victims to my aim.... 294 The bows which the Indians used in early days (say fifty or sixty years ago) were made of white ash or hickory, worked out of seasoned timber and washed over at different times with hot oil. They became impervious to water and and retained the natural strength and supple- ness. However plenty hickory and ash trees may be, there are comparatively few which are of the quality which is required to make a good bow. The strings were made of a single strand of raw hide evenly cut and slightly twisted and made perfectly round by rolling, being about the size of common fence wire and apparently about as hard. Blunt-headed arrows were used for killing birds and small game, and were invariably used among the wild pigeon roosts and nesting grounds. Among the happiest recollections of these latter days are those that carry me back to boyhood sport among the wild pigeons. Reader, have you ever visited the nesting grounds of wild pigeons? .. one of the wonders in natural history. The first and most extensive nesting grounds that I visited was in the western part of the State of New York as early as 1823. The nesting began in Cattaraugus County, near the Allegheny River, reaching north to the town of Collins, Erie County, covering a section of country about 30 miles in length and supposed to average 6 miles in width, including a part of all the following towns: South Valley, Coldspring, Napoli, New Albion, Dayton and Towanda [?], most of which have been organized and settled long since the date mentioned. Here was an area estimated at 180 square miles, covered with a thick growth of timber, every tree bearing from one to 50 nests, according to size of top. ... I enjoyed the satis- faction of rambling through this enormous hatch- ery. ...I was a youngster at the time... [this was the biggest nesting he recollected]. ... None but large and extensive forests, with an over- abundance of beech mast, could support such a vast body of pigeons during the time of building, hatching and feeding which lasts 6 or 7 weeks, more or less. The building begins about the first of April, or before. ...The nest consists of a bunch of dry twigs and sticks which seem to be slightly thrown together, yet ...so strongly and ingeniously connected with the branches that winds and storms cannot dislodge them. ... It was seldom that more than one young pigeon was raised on a single nest, but occasion- ally two were found. During the time of building and hatching, the mast on the hatching grounds would be mostly consumed, consequently the old birds were compelled to forage for long dis- tances to collect food while feeding their young; and... [each pair is able to return to its own nest], which is the counterpart of thousands... . Perhaps there is nothing that will draw out a whole tribe of Indians, old and young, like a pigeon hatchery. The flesh of the young wild pigeons is fat and juicy and fine flavored, and doubtless a young pigeon is the sweetest and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 daintiest morsei that ever tickled an Indian’s palate. Here were gathered at different points most of the natives, old and young, from three or four tribes of Indians. Here the best archers from the Buffalo, Cattaraugus, and Alleghany reserva- tions had met for a trial of skill. I am not well posted in the scores of modern times, but it was then and there that I saw greater feats of archery than I ever witnessed before or since. It seems that the Seneca nation of Indians have wholly or nearly abandoned the use of the bow, save among the small boys.—ANTLER. Piney Falls, Jan. 13th. (‘‘Antler,’”’ 1880, p. 14.) CORNPLANTER PIGEON HUNTS Taken together with the previous histori- cal records, the following narrative accounts of pigeon hunts that live in the memory of old Cornplanter residents assume some im- portance for local history in western New York and Pennsylvania. It is, however, the wider implication of the facts contained in these narratives that will interest students of Iroquois ethnology, since they demon- strate a continuity of custom coming down from early times to the recent past that broadens our understanding of the economy of these woodland tribes. These accounts, too, illustrate some Indian attitudes toward conservation, revealing a set of values at odds with the ‘‘pioneer spirit” of our fore- bears. Scouting the Pigeon Nestings “Early in March or April,” said Willie Gordon whose Indian name is gak’j7’, “‘dishful,”’ “‘we would see the jah’gowa, ‘big bread’ (passenger pigeon) flying north in flocks so large that their numbers darkened the sky and their wings sounded as thunder. They came as a plague of locusts and de- voured every sprouting plant. They would nest in patches of beechwood timber where they flocked to eat the beechnuts.”’ Informants agree with authorities that — the passenger pigeons could be seen going over in March at the end of the sugar sea- son, before the snow was off the ground (Todd, 1940, p. 267). | Under date of April 15, 1822, Joseph El- kinton, first teacher at the Friends’ Indian School at Tunesassa (Quaker Bridge, N.Y.), noted in his diary that no pupils showed up for school that day. He supposed they had gone with their parents to hunt pigeons. Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS School reopened on May 7. It appears that thereafter school was regularly closed for the sugar-making and pigeon season. People knew that in about two weeks from the time they nested the eggs would hatch, and so the word went about. Lydia Bucktooth, whom Marsh Pierce—‘‘a very bossy man’’—used to call niga’negagz'sa’a, “little soup,’ said that there was no partic- ular organization to the hunt at Corn- planter—‘“‘one man said to another, ‘Let’s go,’ and he said the same to somebody else; and so everyone went who could possibly go because the pigeon hunt was a good time— just like a fair or picnic.”’ In the old days decisions regarding move- ments of the band rested with the chiefs, and group economic activities that involved abandoning the village in large numbers usually followed a decision of the council. And so when the pigeons flew over in March scouts were sent out to follow them to the nesting grounds. These scouts stayed per- haps a month, as it took the pigeons a while to build sketchy nests; two weeks to hatch the young; and then a period for the young to grow. At this point the scouts returned to the chiefs with sample squabs. Estimates were made as to the time when the squabs would be ripe; and then the whole com- munity started. The object was to take the squabs when they were at their best: at the point just before they were ready to leave the nest.° On matters of formality Cornplanter Senecas bow to their neighbors upriver in York State, where the conservative long- house people of Coldspring keep up the old ways. And in the matter of scouting the pi- geon roosts Chauncey Johnny John did not fail us with details. He said: “In spring when the pigeons flew over on their way to hadinonhgwa’ee’, their roosts (pigeon nest- ing grounds) [literally, their habitat], the chiefs would send out scouts to follow them and find out where they alighted. Pigeons _ According to Todd (p. 269), the incubation period was two weeks, and the young were ready to leave the nest in another two weeks. ‘‘They became very fat and weighed almost as much as the old birds.”’ Cf. Forbush, 1936, pp. 39-46. It is remarkable how well the testimony of these old Senecas stands up in comparison with the facts as established by ornithologists. 295 made nests in all kinds of trees: ti.e nests were just a few sticks laid together—worse than a crow’s nest; they laid one or two eggs. When the nest had been made and the eggs laid and hatched, the scouts would bring back a few samples of the newly hatched squabs to the chiefs, telling them where the pigeons nested. The chiefs would examine the squabs and say, ‘two weeks’ or ‘three weeks’—meaning it would be that long until the squabs were ready to take. During this time the old pigeons would fly away every day to get food. There were so many of them that they soon used up the food about the nesting place; so they would fly off to the fields and particularly to the beechwoods in all directions. Later, when the buckwheat and other seeds sprouted, they would raid the fields.”’ Windsor Pierce remembers being sta- tioned at the buckwheat fields with a shot- gun to shoo away the pigeons, and Willie Gordon said, ‘“‘As soon as it was discovered where they were nesting, the scouts would pass this way (through Cornplanter) say- ing, ‘Onenh gyon’ a’ jah’gowa dyodinonh- gwa’ee’’ (Now they say once again the big- bread [passenger pigeon] is nesting there). People would know immediately when and where to go, because dyodinonhgwa’ee’, ‘where they are nesting,’ or ganonh’gwaee’, ‘the pigeon nestings,’ was back of Sheffield [in Forest County].”’ Migration to the Pigeon Grounds The ancient ‘‘pigeon country” for these Seneca was for the most part comprised of the following northern counties of western Pennsylvania: Warren, McKean and Pot- ter, Elk, Cameron, Forest, and northern Jefferson. These were also the old hunting grounds of the Seneca. The watersheds of Tionesta Creek and the Clarion River were familiar to these Indians as favorite deer and bear hunting grounds, and the pigeon nesting mentioned in these accounts were on the high plateaus toward their many 6 This is correct, according to some authorities, although competent ornithologists are inclined to regard one egg per female pigeon as the normal yield per nesting, and the second egg may repre- sent use of the same nest by a second female. (A. Wetmore, p.c.) 296 heads. The hunt which Willie Gordon de- scribes took place on the site of what is now called Ox-Bow Hunting Camp, south of Byromtown in Forest County, near the heads of Blue Jay and Spring Creek. Now much of the land where pigeons used to nest is cleared for farms or is growing up again in the huge half-million acre timber-farm called Allegheny National Forest. In this region the beech once flourished, and there was a plentiful supply of food for the birds. Willie Gordon says: ‘‘People would come here from Cattaraugus and Coldspring by wagon, and we would go off beyond Shef- field to get the squabs. Families traveled in box-wagons driving teams of oxen or horses, if they had them; and the wagons were heaped high with axes, guns, cooking uten- sils, and children and with barrels or bark casks for packing the squabs. Some of the families from Cattaraugus [Reservation] would stop overnight ‘where the bridge [bank?] is steep’ (dwas’gwanezot) south of Leon, N. Y. They reached dyo’neganoo, ‘Coldspring,’ the second night, and the combined parties came down the river road to Cornplanter. If they continued from here by wagon, the shortest way leads up the south fork of Hodge Run, ‘where the trail comes down’ (djai’nhdon’), and one climbs up on Quaker Hill and goes down again to Glade, where they crossed over.”’ Alice White of Coldspring recalls that her family passed “between the rocks”’ (degas’- deogen’) on Quaker Hill, where—according to the Gordons—travelers used to seek shelter returning from Warren. “When it was time to leave Coldspring,” says Chauncey Johnny John, “everybody packed up and went as he could. Some had wagons; most hadn’t; so they went down the river in boats or rafts to what they then called Glade (just north of Warren Boro limits). Here they left their boats with peo- ple to watch them, and took off for the pi- geon country.” Routes to the Pigeon Country Two main routes led from Cornplanter to this “pigeon country.” One went via Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s Corner and Lud- low, where one could take the train to Shef- field. This was the route most commonly JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 used by the walkers. Those who came down from Cornplanter on rafts, or over the hill by wagon, went up Dutchman Run through Clarendon to Sheffield, where the two routes merged at least as far as Barnes. | Willie Gordon outlined two different ways that he followed when he went to the © pigeon country: (A) From his home at Cornplanter he crossed the Allegheny and walked to Kin- zua, “‘fish on spear’’ (genzo’aa’), and fol- lowed up Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s Corner, thence to Ludlow; from Ludlow he took the Pennsylvania train to Sheffield; on foot from Shefheld to Barnes; then to Brookston, where the big tannery was, and they turned off south west for Watson Farm and on through to Pigeon (which is the name of the post office, but the railroad sta- tion is Frosts), and Byromtown. Here they went a mile and a half south into the woods to the site of the present Ox-bow Hunting Camp. Formerly an old Scot named Cun- ningham lived there. He was a miser, Willie says, and he lived there in a log house and raised some potatoes which he sold to the Indians. (B) From his home at Cornplanter, like the majority of people from higher up the river at Coldspring, he boated down to Glade and walked in. Ascending Dutchman Run, he went to Stoneham where he camped the first night out. From Stoneham — he went to Sheffield; and so on by the same route as A. ate Willie was able-accurately to retrace his footsteps, remembering such landmarks as the Brookston tannery and old man Cun- ningham, the miser, who is also recalled by Mrs. Maggie Frost (74), a native at Pigeon or Frosts, whose recollections of the pigeon © nestings checked at every point with Wil- lie’s. Lydia Bucktooth had no recollection of the route, but she remembered very well what took place when they reached the camp. Informants agree that they always went to the same place to camp. Many Coldspring people hunted the same grounds with the Cornplanters; but it appears that others customarily camped — several miles away on Blue Jay (di’’di’geh). — Chauncey Johnny John says his party — came down the river to Glade (dedye’hdtha’) Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS 297 Morrrson . Cf A \ my \S SS\ DUNKLES CORNER : KX inzey NN WARREN WCO. \ \) oO 4 e-” LUDLOW “SHEFFIELD BARNES(S B\ HENR ~, CHAFFEE On 7 *% . f . PIGS EAR INE CAMP wo W w BYRO/ITOWN & = OX-BOW CAMP3 = eo MARIENVILLE FOREST 60. r aa see! i Fie. 1.—Routes to the Cornplanters’ pigeon country in northwestern Pennsylvania. 298 ‘“‘where they turned off,’’ where the roads to Kinzua and Kane fork. In retracing his steps Chauncey directed us from Claren- don, to Sheffield, to Barnes. There were no Indian names for places enroute because the Indians had never settled there. At Barnes an improved road now turns off to the right, following Tionesta Creek down to Blue Jay and Lynch. It helps Chauncey’s story to know that he declined to take this road; and it has since been developed that it was not in existence at the time he passed that way to hunt pigeons. In the old days they turned off farther along, on what is still a dirt road. Chauncey remembered that two or three families of deaf and dumb people lived on the corner of this old road to Henrys Mills, and later we found that the descendants of these people (also deaf and dumb) still hve there. From Henrys Mills Chauncey’s party had gone down to Lynch, where Blue Jay enters the Tionesta Creek. Near the head of Blue Jay is Pigeon. Ac- cording to Chauncey, the whole region from Watsontown and Pigeon downhill to Lynch was occupied by pigeon nestings. The In- dians camped on Blue Jay flats because, as Chauncey said, ‘‘the water was good.”’ He thinks there were not so many nests on top of the hills as there were on the slopes. His locations check with all the stories as to where pigeons nested in these parts. There were doubtless other routes that were followed to the pigeon nestings, de- pending on where they had been reported for that year. The trail down the Tionesta from Barnes to Blue Jay followed lower ground than did the route via Watson Farm and Brookston. The road from Lynch to Pi- geon was usually muddy. These considera- tions no doubt also influenced the hunters, the drier trails being preferred in wet sea- sons. Another big pigeon nesting ground, ac- cording to the whites, was at Pine Camp 1 in Elk County, which boul be reached by fol- lowing the road from Barnes through Brookston to Chaffee and on into the woods about Pig’s Ear. Organization of the Hunt To say that the Seneca pigeon-hunting expeditions were formally organized affairs JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 would be an overstatement, for they do not assume the formal aspects of the Buffalo hunts of the Plains Indians. Yet, individual- istic as the Senecas are, one can observe in their behavior together a tendency to repeat year after year certain traditional ways of behaving, which become set forms observa- ble as definite cultural patterns. People got to the pigeon nestings any way they could, as we have seen: Some boated down the river and walked in, others went in wagons, and still others went via Kinzua and Lud- low and took the train to Sheffield, walking the rest of the way. Most just went. Never- theless, once they got together at the camp- ing grounds, an organization came into be- ing. The hunting party from each locality was sometimes in charge of a leader or headman whom the families had appointed for the duration of the hunt. He was selected for qualities of character and leadership: he must be a speaker (hazwano’ta’), one who knows how to address an assembly, and he must be a sober man to whom the people look up. His duties were to order the line of march, arranging the camp each night on the road by assigning camping sites to the families of his band. Every morning, ac- cording to Alice White, before they broke camp the leader would preach to the peo- ple: First he returned thanks to our Maker for all living things on earth and upward to- ward the sky-world, and then he asked for good luck on the day’s journey. Then he urged the people to keep order. Again at night when they had retired he would preach to the camp, exhorting the adults to avoid recrimination and sin and urging the children to behave. Thus the Indians camped along the way; they were in no hurry to get there. ; This tendency of the Iroquois peoples whenever they are gathered in a group in- evitably to select a speaker, who always be- haves in this traditional way that is ex- pected of him, is what is meant by “ob- servable cultural patterns.’’ In this sense the hunts were organized affairs. The following incident related by Lydia Bucktooth of Cornplanter as to what prompted her family to join the hunters at the nesting grounds on one occasion illus- Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS trates their spontaneity. Lydia first went with her parents when she was 6 or 7. Her mother had been sick (she died when she was 52), and her father said when word came that the pigeons were nesting, “Come on, you might as well go along and see this once before you die.’”’ Although she was sick, she went anyway. They canoed down to Glade; then they traveled over the hills—there was no road—taking a short- cut to a place back of Sheffield, to the ‘place where the pigeons were nesting”’ (djoditnonhgwa'iee). (Lydia said that this term, which literally means ‘‘the place of their habitation or residence,’ hence “roost,’”? means the whole pigeon-roost or nesting grounds.) The Carp: Lean-tos When they arrived at the nesting grounds lots of people were there, both white and red. Lydia’s family made a camp for them- selves which she described in some detail. It was a lean-to, closed on three sides and open only in front. It rested on posts, with hemlock boughs laid on for a roof. She did not say whether the posts were crotched to support a ridge pole on which the rafters were presumably laid. The fire was built out in front. As far back under the side as possi- ble a pile of hemlock boughs several feet thick was laid as a bed, on which they slept. (Lydia does not say whether they slept with heads, sides, or feet toward the fire, but the last seems to have been the usual orienta- tion.) They stayed several weeks; and sleep- ing under the lean-to on a hemlock bed did her mother so much good that “‘it cured her of consumption.” Indians who came every year to the vicin- ity of Bells Run near Ceres, N. Y., to hunt in the spring and to make splint baskets, “would build wigwams of hemlock bark, which were too low for them to stand up in, but which afforded them a comparatively comfortable place to sleep, into which they could crawl in time of storm. They built their fires close to the opening, and slept with their feet to it... [on]... hemlock boughs,... rolled up in blankets...” (Mann and King, 1896, p. 144). As early as 1805 John Lyman had encountered, in May, a party of 30 Senecas from Allegany 299 Reservation encamped upon the abandoned site of a town near the mouth of Trout Run, 7 miles below Coudersport, Pa. This was during the pigeon nesting season (French, 1919" %. 23): People returned year after year to the same camping sites. If there was any pre- emption of hunting grounds, in the sense that the Senecas of Tonawanda used to blaze witness trees to mark off a sector of the sugar grove which a given family had preempted for that year, it was rather of camp sites than of pigeon trees. This is, of course, only natural, as the trees were cut down to get the pigeons. Since, however, families returned year after year to the same sites, the younger men had to go farther down to new sites as they came along. On arriving they built themselves lean-tos in the manner already described (C. J. John). As the season advanced, the pi- geons moved gradually farther north. It ap- pears that only the young men and those older men who were themselves professional pigeon-catchers or who were employed by white professionals followed them as they moved out of range of the original band camp site. When a large party under the guidance of a headman or leader arrived where the pi- geons had been reported nesting, the leader instructed his party how to conduct them- selves at the nesting ground. The hunting camp, as Willie Gordon remembers it, was a clearing enclosed by open-face shanties or lean-tos that were covered with a deep thatch of hemlock boughs. He said that a steep roof with lots of boughs would turn a heavy rain. In these shelters individuals bedded down for the night on hemlock boughs or bracken ferns, which gave off a stimulating aroma. Informants agree that there were two camps. All the Cornplanter people lived to- gether in one—‘‘on one side of the fire,” as the Iroquois say; and some of the Cold- spring and Cattaraugus people occupied the opposite side. Thus the camp was divided in two by locality as well as by religion, for the Cornplanter people were then Christians; but the Coldspring and Cattaraugus camp- ers were followers of Handsome Lake, the prophet, and were therefore so-called 300 ‘“‘pagans.’’ Between the two camps a plat- form of stones was built for the use of the ‘“‘speaker’’? who roused the camp at day- break. Someone was appointed to go to each shelter early every morning to inquire whether everyone was well. The runner for the chief or “‘speaker,’’ as is customary in Iroquois society, then came back and re- ported to the ‘‘speaker,’’ who stood up on the stone platform and returned thanks to the Creator for keeping all well during the night and asked for good luck during the day’s hunt. “‘He returned thanks for every thing all the way from the ground up to the sky.”’ The same people officiated for both camps. ‘“‘T can remember,’’ Willie Gordon related ‘chow the ‘speaker’ used to arise before day- light and preach every morning while we were at the pigeon camp. He returned - thanks that everyone was well and asked for protection and good luck during the day of hunting, and then he chanted our thanks to our Maker with the prayer they call ganon'yonk.”’ This is the regular Seneca prayer of thanksgiving for all things from the earth upward to heaven that the Creator ordained for man’s sustenance and improvement. ‘‘This chant always re- minded me of the baying of a hound, be- cause the speaker would begin each article with—Da’onen di’ oya’’ko (‘And so now then another thing’)—and continue on a high note to the end of that subject, when his voice would fall. Then, having finished the whole prayer, he would charge the people to be honest: he would say the worst thing for a man to do is to drink. ‘Be careful not to use liquor or to sin while on this hunt!’ Then he would tell the old people to stay in camp and watch the little children so that they did not stray into the woods and get lost.”’ Hunting Techniques As soon as they had eaten, they all went out, both camps working together during the day. There was no particular organiza- tion to the hunt; everybody was for himself. Individual families worked for themselves, and there was no such thing as sharing the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 10 kill. The Indians were interested only in the squabs, and to get them the men cut down the beech and hickory trees about 6 inches in diameter, according to Willie Gordon, so that the women and children could raid the nests. When a tree fell, the men, women, and children scuttled about picking up the squabs out of the bushes. They were killed by knocking them on the head with a stick, by pinching the heads at the temples be- tween thumb and forefinger, or by wringing their necks.” The squabs were at once cropped and gutted, and a little salt was put on them. Willie Gordon emphasized the need of cleaning the squabs immediately: ‘We would open them and take out the ‘innards’ and crop, for the meat smells badly if the crop is left.’’ However, the squabs were not plucked of feathers then or later. They were carried back home with the feathers on. The weather was usually cold enough so they would keep; but, to repeat, the crops had to be taken out at once or the meat would spoil. Many of the squabs were eaten at the camp; but large quantities were packed for transportation to the homes. In later years there were increasing numbers of white buy- ers who took, sometimes, the whole catch. The hunters lived principally on squabs that they had caught. These were bailed, after the women had picked them clean of feathers; but those to be taken home were salted and roasted until dry before the fire, or boiled and smoked in strips as fish. Here our informant illustrated with his hands how the meat was cut into strips. Others do not recall that pigeons were smoked. Per-— haps this reflects only a failing interest in 7 Biting the head just back of the eyes was the approved method of killing the catch among pro- fessional netters both in Ontario and Pennsyl- vania. (Mitchell, 1935, p. 124; French, 1919, pp. 82, 102.) However, it is possible that this trait was adapted from Indians. The western Eskimos bite the necks of auklets when netting them (Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., conversation), and this seems to be a widespread trait among the Eskimo as far east as Greenland. How much farther it extends is uncertain. French (opp. p. 152) illus- trates pincers that were invented and patented by James V. Bennett to reduce such ‘‘cruelty at the wholesale butcheries to a minimum.’— W.N.F. Oct. 15, 1944 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS _ preserving them in quantity. The hunters ~ grew fat on squabs and squab grease spread on potatoes, which they bought from Cun- ningham, the white man. Each family strove to fill as many as pos- sible of the barrels they had brought, and when they returned to settlements such as Coldspring and Cattaraugus the families who had not gone on the hunt begged to buy squabs of those who had made the trip to the pigeon roosts. Willie Gordon said: ‘‘A long time ago the Senecas salted the squabs like pork in casks of elm bark which they made, or in big stone crocks which they had obtained in trade.’ Each family worked for itself. Leaders of the hunt got nothing extra for their efforts.”’ An extract from the personal correspond- ence of Jesse Cornplanter of Tonawanda Reservation, N. Y., summarizes and con- firms the statements of other informants. Although Jesse is too young to have gone out from Cattaraugus to hunt squabs, his statement is an interesting example of how such knowledge persists among the Iroquois long after a custom is dead. I will tell you this much about this matter. My mother [deceased] had the good fortune to be born early enough to have gone with this hunt for squabs in her childhood, but she recalled clearly what they did. She said that they had some scouts that they sent out before the pigeons starts to nest or hatch their young; these scouts had to report back to the village, and then when the time came, they all would start out in wagons with empty barrels. They would travel all day and then would camp for the night. They used to go to some place around Kinzua, Pa., in the big hardwood forest. They had one Head Man who had full charge when en-route, [and] they would all gather every morning for a speech of thanks and ask for blessing and luck in their venture. When they arrived at the spot, which seems to have been in the hills or young mountains of the Alleghenies, it would be all of beeches. The limbs would be just covered with the nests of these pigeons, (she said it looks like a crows nest— just a few sticks), and there would be three or four squabs [others say two] in each nest. Then they would cut the trees down and as the tree falls, then the children and women did gather the squabs, and they would gut it and then salt it and put it in layers in the barrels. She never saw them smoked as your version says... 8 Salting for winter use is a trait that was ac- quired early from the white settlers (Mitchell, 1935, p. 107). 301 In the evenings each camp had its own doings. The Cornplanters were at this time pretty much Christian; so they sang hymns, prayed, and listened to preaching. The preacher at that time was John Jacobs Esquire, and he was always called Esquire to distinguish him: it was as much part of his name as the rest. Over in the Coldspring camp, where the Handsome Lake followers were quartered, they would sing and dance and have preaching according to their own custom. Willie Gordon never went to see it, as—he says—he was at that time ‘‘full of religion” (Christianity); and he stayed away. Lydia Bucktooth was too small, and Chauncey Johnny John, who would know, remembers no ceremonies attached to the hunt, and said there was no connection between hunting pigeons and the Pigeon Dance, that he had ever heard of. ‘‘It is just another animal dance with non- sense words.’’ Willie said even John Jacobs Esquire could not see any harm in what was done in the morning—the thanksgiving to all the spirit-forces; but in the evening the two camps did not mix. This activity continued for two or three weeks, often longer. ‘‘After the squabs got so big that they would fly when the trees were felled, we would leave that place and go somewhere else,’’ said Willie Gordon. As the pigeon nests were destroyed they would move ahead and build others. The younger people would follow the pigeons for a long time, runners going on ahead and reporting back to the chiefs, as we shall see below. The pigeons roosted all over that country. The forest was mostly beech, but Willie pointed out stands of ‘‘pigeon cherry” (Pru- nus pennsylvanica L.f.) (ganondjo’’gwane’) from which the Senecas took pitch for burns. It is notable that some of the finest stands of cherry anywhere are yet in this forest. Unlike Chauncey Johnny John, Willie and Lydia say the pigeons nested mostly on the plateau and they had no recollection of find- ing them in the Blue Jay and Spring Creek Valleys at all. THE PIGEON IN SENECA FOLKLORE Several legends involving the passenger pigeon were formerly current among the Senecas. Our informants neither knew how 302 their ancestors acquired the technique of hunting pigeons nor did they connect this activity with the beginnings of the Pigeon Dance, of whose origin they are ignorant. Moreover, the few published myths have been overlooked by historians among orni- thologists, who are more or less unfamiliar with the literature of American Indian folklore. Mitchell (p. 17), after considerable search, found only three stories—two Hu- ron and one Neutral; and thought it strange that such legends should be so scarce, and somewhat unnatural that this amazingly spectacular creature was not more closely linked with the folklore of the Indians, who were ordinarily acute naturalists. But, as we shall see, these birds were more than a source of provender. Among the Seneca, at least, folk-tales furnish answers to our ques- tions concerning the introduction of hunt- ing, the origin of the pigeon songs and dance, the nature of the invocation at the cere- mony for propitiating the pigeons, and the sacred character of albino or white pigeons. Taboo on Taking Albino Pigeons The white or albino pigeon, like the ‘white crow,’ was considered sacred. be- cause ‘“‘he was the headman”’ or “‘chief of the pigeons.”’ ““Never disturb him, and never cut down a tree in which a white pigeon has nested,’ said Chauncey Johnny John. Ascription of supernatural power to white animals pervades Seneca mythology: wit- ness the magic white beaver, the white otter, the white dog sacrifice, etc. It is well known that albino bison were considered sacred among the Plains Indians. None of our informants recalls seeing such a white passenger pigeon. For further information we turn back a generation to the Cattarau- gus informants of Curtin and Hewitt. Pigeon Hunting in Mythology A tendency for afolk to project their daily activities into ancient times is a constant characteristic of mythology. As the myths themselves sometimes survive the _ pro- jected activity, they become a source of in- formation on the former culture of the folk. This is precisely the case with pigeon hunt- ing. A Seneca myth purporting to be the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 33, No. 10 origin of the porcupine people, a clan not present among the Seneca, refers to an an- cient time when the Iroquoians were appar- ently a single nation of hunters and gather- ers. As they became numerous, the game be- came so scarce that it was necessary for the tribe to divide. This decision was made in public assembly, which guaranteed to each band of maternal kindred (ohwachira) its own hunting territory. Subsequently, inter- necine warfare arose out of attempts to punish trespassers. Now, the porcupine peo- ple of this myth are said to be the descend- ants of one Wendat (Huron) woman, the matron of one of these separated bands. In this account of the yearly cycle of their economy, one sees projected the funda- mental patterns around which later Seneca economy was organized as recently as the pigeon hunts we have described. The porcupine people knew where to gather nuts, berries, and small fruits, and they also knew just where the wild pigeons had their roosts. They noted the whereabouts of these places, and when the season was fully come their leaders and chiefs would call to their people in a loud voice: “Come! Let us go to feed ourselves abun- dantly where the wild pigeons have now prepared their roosts for the purpose of breeding.’’ At this time the wild pigeons were so numerous that many flocks stretched over large tracts of territory darkening the light of the sun and making with their wings a loud rushing sound resembling that of an approaching tornado. Giving heed to the call of their leaders, the people would make the necessary preparations to go to the roosts of the wild pigeon. Having reached the desig- nated place, the people quickly put up temporary camps and.then went out at once to kill the squabs, which they brought to their lodges to broil and eat with boiled corn bread and corn soup. All were delighted with the bounty of nature—the gift of the Master of Life. Having thus spent part of the summer killing wild pigeons, after the birds had departed, a leader among the people would say: “Oh! friends, cousins and kindred, the deer people have now gone in this direction and are now fat and in good condition to be killed for food and for their skins. Let us decamp now and go the place where they may be found. Up and let us be going. Let us lose no time in delay.’ So, leaving the grounds of the pigeon roosts early in autumn, they would journey to the land where the deer were accustomed to feed and raise their young. (Curtin and Hewitt, 1918, pp. 654-656.) Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS White Pigeon, Chief of the Pigeons Seneca story-tellers depicted the white pi- geon as chief of the pigeons who live as peo- ple in colonies and hold councils. The deci- sion of the council of birds is revealed to an old man in a vision while on a solitary hunt. The pigeons offer their young for the sup- port of man and decree rules for conducting the hunt. This supports the contention of Coldspring informants that a master of the hunt governed the conduct enroute to the pigeon grounds. The pigeons entered into a contract with mankind: in return for their young they expected an offering and invo- cation with tobacco smoke. Violations led to misfortunes among the hunters. This is the story of the White Pigeon, the chief of the pigeons (after Curtin and Hew- itt, 1918, pp. 694-696): [White pigeon chief of colonies] It. is said that among the wild pigeons the white ones are the chiefs of their communities. According to tradition, a white pigeon once flew into the forest lodge of a noted man, the Wild Cat. The visitor did not appear ill at ease but stood in the lodge wherever it seemed good to him, and then without remark he flew away. The old man, Wild Cat, somewhat amazed by this quiet conduct of his visitor, related the inci- dent to his neighbors, saying that this visit por- tended ...something out of the ordinary.... But an entire year passed and nothing unusual happened to old Wild Cat... [Council of birds: Pigeons ordained for man] But at about the same season the next year the same White Pigeon again visited the old man’s lodge. At this visit the old man believed that the White Pigeon was a man..., so he conversed with him.... White Pigeon informed the old man... that all the various tribes of birds had held council... [and]’... had decided that the wild pigeons should furnish a tribute to mankind, because their Maker had selected the wild pigeons for this important duty .. . other birds had only very little to give... because... [they lived] dispersed here and there, and... could be ob- tained only with difficulty, while the others had nothing to offer toward the support of mankind. [Taking squabs] So, being the only tribe of birds which built their nests and reared their young in a single community, it was resolved by the various tribes of birds that the pigeons should spare some of their young men for food. White Pigeon con- tinued by saying that he had come purposely to notify old man Wild Cat of this .. . decision, and 303 tell him the young pigeons were to be taken in proper season, and the manner in which this must be done. [Master of hunt: Places “‘pole across path,’ | He said: “‘In the season of the roost, when the young pigeons have attained a suitable size for eating, the people should select a suitable person as superintendent or master of the hunt, and he should give the essential directions to the people for... [preparing]... for the hunt before start- ing for the hunting grounds where the pigeons have their roosts in the forest.” On such a hunting expedition the entire com- munity was engaged, and so it was not unusual to have a very large crowd of people moving along a common path at this time. However, to secure order and obedience certain rules for the march must be observed by all.... When the party halted to rest, to eat, or to camp, for the night, the leader would place a rod, suitably painted, across the path, and no one was permitted to pass over it or to go around it for the purpose of con- tinuing the journey regardless of the rest of the party. It was held that should one break this in- junction some misfortune would inevitably befall the party. When the party was ready to proceed the leader would take up the rod and then the journey would be resumed. [Offering to pigeons] Upon nearing the roosting place of the pigeons it was customary to make a collection of gifts from the people, consisting of various articles of orna- ment and trinkets of all kinds, for an offering to the pigeons. These . . . gifts were placed in a bark bowl and this was borne... into the forest to some swampy place where the tall weeds were plentiful, and these gifts were spread out on a piece of elm bark while native tobacco was burned and an invocation... was made to the pigeons and their Maker. Tradition reports that for the first hunting ex- pedition the people . . . did not observe the rules of the master of the hunt, . . . some went around the painted rod ... others withheld presents... and many accidents happened to them: some broke their legs, others their arms, some fell sick, and some died... . Killing both young and old pigeons at any season is by implication proscribed. The Song of the Pigeons The white pigeon as chief and elder of the Pigeon Tribe discloses their songs and dance to a pure man who has a vision at the nest- ing grounds in another tale which Hewitt obtained in 1896 from Joshua Buck (Onon- daga) (BAE MS. No. 2883) of Grand River, Canada; and published with the Curtin col- 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lection (pp. 663-666). The original text is in Onondaga, Buck’s native tongue. He called the story Djo'hd Hodiénna’, ‘The Song of the Pigeons.”’ [Families had separate camps] These birds had formed a nesting place.... Having received knowledge...a great number of men, women, and children, starting from their villages, went to the place where the pigeons formed their roosts... arrived... they at once began to build their temporary camps according to their ohwachiras [maternal families] and clans and kindred. [Puberty vision quest] ... A man who had just reached .. . puberty and had no evil habits went with this crowd of people. ... He was a very good person... they began to travel from place to place through the roost to kill such pigeons as they needed. At this time the upright young man heard the tumult arising from the cries of pigeons (conversing) to- gether and he also saw the pigeons in vast num- bers wheeling in circles. Suddenly ... greatly surprised to see flying among the pigeons one white in color... As he watched .. . the white pigeon left the others and alighted ... nearby. At once the pigeon began to speak, saying: ‘‘Understand that we have se- lected you to tell your people what ... we desire . most... You must tell your chief that we do not like to have so many among you in this place who do not remember Him who has created us. [Our Maker.] There are many who think only evil things to please themselves. We wish that they who have evil thoughts should put away evil desires, and we believe that whoever does not do so will suffer some grave misfortune. [Thanksgiving morning and night] ‘We further wish you and your people to join us in daily returning thanksgiving when each morning and evening shall return to us. We think this profitable. ... You see us when the morning comes making a great tumult, and you hear us all talking while we circle around the place in which we have our roost. The reason for this behavior is . we are offering thanksgivings to Him who has created our bodies. In the evening this takes place again ...and you see us then circling around our roosting place, and you hear the accompany- ing sound and confusion of voices. Now, under- stand, we are going through the ceremony of the dance, and we are singing. This signifies that we are happy; we are full of joy. ‘“‘We have no protest to make against your coming to this place to obtain the young whose bodies resemble ours. Indeed, you wish that these [offspring] shall become a source of satisfaction [subsistence]... we have only the kindest of feelings toward you in this pursuit of your de- sires. You must know, too, that Our Maker has VOL. 33, NO. 10 ordained that this our flesh shall be for the wel- fare and contentment of human beings dwelling on the earth. [Pigeon dance and tobacco offering] “You must understand further that I, at whom you are looking—I who am speaking to you, am indeed the oldest person among my people, and it is on account of my great age that they have chosen me to come to you and tell you our wishes and to teach you our songs. You, too, are able to sing them. It is essential that you should enjoy ‘yourselves; that you shall dance in order to do this; and that all your people who are here shall take part. In dancing you shall make circuits around the places where you have kindled your fires. When you have finished the singing and dancing you shall go with your chief to make an offering of tobacco at the very border of our en- campment [roost], where you two shall stand to perform this ceremony. When you have kindled a fire you shall cast native tobacco on it, and while thus occupied you must pray our Creator to per- mit you and your people to pass the period of your stay here in health and prosperity. At that time, your chief, too, shall cast something on the fire—things of which you make daily use, and these objects shall become the token or message of the people. Furthermore, we together, you and my people, must unite in performing this cere- mony, and we must also be of one accord when we make this prayer and request of the Creator of our bodies. Now it is for you to return to your people and tell them fully what I have said to you. This is what I have to say.’ Then the upright young man replied to his pigeon friend: ‘“‘Your proposition is agreeable to me, and I will fulfill my duty... by telling my people all that you have said to me.”’ [Youth learns songs] Without speaking further the white pigeon . flew away. The young man, while watching it fly off, saw a large number of pigeons moving in a circle as they flew along; and he heard the birds sing, making a very loud song, a tumult of voices. He listened very attentively and for a long time and finally learned the songs which the pigeons were singing so loudly. Then he returned to his lodge and his own fireside. [Youth relates vision to clan chief who carries out contract with the supernaturals | At once he related in every detail all the white pigeon had said to him. A messenger was sent for the chief of his clan, and when he arrived the up- right young man again repeated all that the white pigeon had said to him concerning the duties of the people who were there to hunt squabs. When the chief had heard ... he at once said: ‘‘Let us at once do as the white pigeon has proposed. Let someone be detailed to make a collection of offerings, and then we shall proceed with the re- — a - S e Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS mainder of the ceremony.”’ Certain headmen were detailed to make the collection of offerings. Going from lodge to lodge, they collected various articles presented to them as offerings in the ceremony. Some gave wristlets, some bracelets, some neck- laces, while others contributed articles of dress, moccasins, and tobacco of the native variety. When they had visited all the lodges they re- turned to the lodge of the upright young man, where he and their chief awaited them. [Offering to pigeons] After they had properly arranged the offerings the chief said: ‘‘Let us start now; we will go to- ward the place which borders on the pigeon roost or nesting place.’”’ Then they two started, the chief and the upright young man. When they reached the border of the pigeon roost they kindled there a very small fire, and the young man made an offering of native tobacco by casting it into the fire, at the same time asking the Creator for health and welfare and contentment for all the people while they were at that place. His prayer was long and earnest, and when he ceased his invocation the chief stepped forward to begin his prayer. Bringing all the articles which had been offered and standing before the fire, he said in prayer: ‘‘Thou who hast created our bodies, here lie all those things by which we support our message (by which we support its head), all the words of our prayer. We offer these to Thee. Accept them as a testimony of our faith.’”’ Then he laid all the objects which he had brought near the fire. Thereupon the two men returned to the. lodge of the upright young man. [People called to repent, and to learn new dance] When there they went at once from lodge to lodge to call a council of the people. As soon as the people had come together and had seated them- selves according to their families-and clans the chief arose and addressed them. He urged them to repent of their evil deeds... and to offer... thanksgivings to their Creator in the morning and also in the evening. .. . When he had finished his address on the need of observing faithfully the things which had been taught them by the Pigeon people, he said: ‘‘ Now let us severally give thanks- givings to the Creator of our bodies, and moreover we will dance to the songs of the Pigeon people. Every person should take part in this ceremony.” [Two leaders lead. whirling column of pigeon dancers | Thereupon the upright young man and the chief took their stations at the head of the line of dancers. When all were in line and ready the young man began to sing the songs of the pigeons, and all danced following their leaders. In dancing they made a circuit of the lodges, moving slowly to the rhythm of the songs as they turned from the right toward the left. When the young man had sung all the songs the young man had reached the point of departure. 305 [Explanatory elements: Counter-clockwise movement of social dances] Then the chief, addressing the people, said: ‘‘We have now, indeed, performed this ceremony as it has been taught to us by the people of the pigeons; and when we shall depart from this place we must take back with us this ceremony, which will be of great benefit to us. We have learned these songs here from a superior people, and so we must cherish this ceremony. We have learned, too, that in dancing we must always make the circuit of the fires in one direction: namely, from the right to the left. The reason for this is that you use your right hands either to seize or to release whatever you wish, so it is necessary that the right side at all times be on the outside of the circle of dancers, and that the part of the body in which lies our life shall at all times be on the inside of the line of dancers. Let us now make ready to start for our homes.” With loud shouts of approval and of exuberance or joy the dancers returned to their lodges to make preparations to depart for their homes. RELATIONS WITH WHITE PIGEONERS: NETTING Our informants emphatically stated that Seneca Indians never took the old pigeons, which they deemed inferior as food, for their own account; and that they never knew Indians to shoot into the trees with shotguns to slaughter the roosting old pi- geons wholesale as did the whites; but many Indians did work for the numerous white pigeoners who used these practices as well as nets. Chauncey Johnny John remembers big nets that covered the whole tree and re- calls that some Indians did as the white people and set up nets on posts, into which the pigeons flew and fell down. That, how- ever, was when Indians were selling to the white people. This is interesting in view of Morgan’s statement already cited and the evidence of Cayuga folklore. The Rochester Museum has two pigeon nets and a stool- pigeon stool which came from the neighbor- hood of Irving, adjacent to Cattaraugus Indian Reservation (Seneca). They are indubitably quite old (A. C. Parker, p.c.), but there is no assurance that they were made and used by Indians. The U. 8. National Museum has a pas- senger pigeon trapping outfit consisting of net, releaser pole, and pigeon baskets for transporting live pigeons that was used by white commercial trappers. It was con- - tributed by Courtenay Brandreth, of Ossin- 306 ing, N. Y., through Dr. A. K. Fisher (Divi- sion of Ethnology, Acc. No. 1009389: _A. Wetmore, Assistant Secretary, p.c.). According to Mr. Brandreth, the equip- ment belonged to Tot Acker, of Sing Sing, NOY: The net was used in southeastern New York by white people, and I think the technique they used came from Europe. ... The nets were laid flat on the ground a few feet apart. The spaces between them were baited [with salt or corn], and the nets were sprung inward. A live pigeon was tied to the hover and it was raised up and down to simulate a bird lighting. Also, live birds had their eyelids sewn together and were thrown into the air and pulled down with a string for the same effect. I think you will find needles and thread still in the decoy basket. (Courtenay Brandreth, p.c. 11/24/1942.) Such devices were widely employed by professional trappers, or catchers, as they were usually called. Willie Gordon described how, when working with professionals, the Indians would clear all leaves from a piece of ground; bait it with salted corn; and put up a very large net, either suspended from trees or tied down to saplings. The hired Indians hid in the bushes until the ground was covered with feeding old birds to pull the ‘‘trigger’’ and release the net, which would envelop the pigeons: This descrip- tion is not unlike that of Peter Kalm’s ob- servations of hunting practice among the Onondaga, and it seems unlikely that the Seneca had not tried netting birds at an ear- lier time. White men were usually present among the Indians to buy all the squabs that were for sale. Lydia Bucktooth’s family went just for a good time, with the idea of selling all the squabs they caught to white buyers. Lydia said that if there was any way to bring the squabs home people would do it, of course; but many had all they could do to get home themselves with their axes, ket- tles, and camping paraphernalia. She thinks not many squabs were brought back from the hunt. Alice White, whose people went in an ox-cart, says that her father brought back barrels filled with squabs, most of which were at once given away to the old people who had not been able to go on the hunt. Many Indians, no doubt, did as Willie Gordon who says he carried home as many JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 33, No. 10 dressed squabs as he could pack into ash- splint carrying baskets suspended from a burden strap or tump line, passing across the chest and shoulders, or forehead, to the back. A carrying basket filled with dressed squabs was a pretty heavy load. Indians hunted side by side with profes- sional pigeon hunters for many years. Com- petition gradually sharpened. The pigeons were disappearing, and large timber acreage was destroyed. As the railroads entered the pigeon country—which was also the timber country—public opinion was stirred against the waste of both. The year 1868 is said to have seen the last great nesting on New York soil, at Bells Run, near Ceres in Alle- gany County. According to Fred R. Eaton, of Olean, the whole Cattaraugus band of Senecas moved to the nesting grounds and remained for two weeks to take pigeons. White professionals attended, of course, and their method of stretching and baiting nets is well described; but it does not appear that the Indians used this technique. “They also invaded the roosts and knocked the squabs from the nests, felling trees so as to shake down hundreds to- gether. In preparing them for shipment their crops were torn out to prevent the breast meat from souring, they were packed in barrels and hurried to the city. Pigeons continued to nest. in this locality until 1872.” (Eaton, 1910, p. 383; Mann and King, 1896, p. 99.) This business of shipping pigeons was apparently engaged in by both Indians and whites; and thus the Indian techniques were commercialized when squabs were taken for the market. There were large nestings after this in some years, at least in northwestern Penn- sylvania. The flight of 1878 was unusually heavy, accounted for by the professionals— who followed the pigeons wherever they were, east or west—by guessing that the Wisconsin—Michigan flights were following the eastern route that year. Some idea of the extent of the traffic, the movements of the pigeons and the shift of attention from dead to live birds as the weather grew warm — may be had from the extracts from The Warren Mail for 1878, presented in the Ap- pendix hereto. : The advent of railroads in the pigeon Ocr. 15, 1948 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS country—which was also the timber coun- try of northwestern Pennsylvania—brought the eastern markets for both birds and lum- ber closer and made both more valuable. Public opinion, impressed by the failure of the pigeon flights to materialize annually in such large numbers as formerly, forced legislative protection for the birds on their nesting grounds, in Pennsylvania; and local land owners no longer looked with indiffer- ence on the destruction of their trees. It does not appear that much attention was paid to the provisions of the laws made to protect the pigeons themselves. So long as the hunters let the trees alone, there was lit- tle interference with them. Willie Gordon tells how on one occasion officers from the sheriff’s office came on horseback to stop the Indians from felling trees. ‘‘They said, ‘If you Indians cut down any more trees we will arrest you.’ Now, old Jesse Logan, Frank Logan’s grandfather, who was among us objected. He reminded them of the white people’s treaty with Corn- planter which reserved for the Indians of his band the right to hunt, fish, take pigeons, and fell timber wherever they may be in 22 counties of New York and Pennsylvania. One of the party, Jonathan Pierce, returned here to Cornplanter for the treaty papers, but he did not arrive back at the pigeon camp until late the following day, since it was a day’s walk each way to the camp in Forest County some way south of Sheffield [see above]. When the officers were shown the papers, they said that if the Indians would leave the big trees so that the timber would be spared and just cut down the smaller ones, this would satisfy them. And so we did this.”’ - Willie says further: ‘‘At that time there was a great crowd of Indians, and whites who had come on horseback and in wagons to buy the squabs which we had caught. They were always right there to fill them with squabs. There were traders and mer- chants, for then the only white settler in that region was a man named Cunningham of whom we bought potatoes that he raised in a small clearing beside his log cabin in which he was continually troubled by ma- rauding bears who came in the night and clawed on the door.” 307 Willie Gordon’s Narrative of His First Pigeon Scout Now, as I have said, when the squabs got so big that they would fly every time the men felled the trees in which they perched, we would have to quit that place and move our camp to enother nesting grove. On the occasion of this story, white horsemen had reported a place where the pigeons had gone in great flocks. So then our leaders called a council there to decide among ourselves whether to return home next morning or to continue hunt- ing. The council appointed two scouts: my uncle, the late Charlie Gordon, and Alfred Halftown, to go see if they could locate the reported pigeon roost and to report back to the council. Now I was just a small boy at that time and I wanted to tag along with Uncle Charlie, but he did not want the bother of having me with him for fear that I might get lost in the big woods. But I went any- way. Moreover, I had a double-barrel muzzle- loader shotgun that I carried and a powder horn and various sizes of shot. And so I followed. We had gone some distance when we com- menced to hear a rumbling noise—mmmmmmm!: like that. We went on, trying to determine which way the noise came. We were in the big timber— no path, no trail—way back of Sheffield. Then we saw fresh tracks which we thought were the tracks of a panther, he”’7is. In front of us we could see the passenger pigeons at work on the beech- nuts on the ground. When they would fly they would all fly at once, making this great humming noise—mmmmmmm! We crossed a little brook where the shores were completely white with feathers of the birds that had bathed there. Here a tree was uprooted and in the upturned earth we could see for certain the tracks of a big panther. We were afraid of that. Now the older ones wanted my gun. Up to that time they had considered me and my double-barrel gun a nuisance—something to stop and wait for. Now at that time I had two shots in there; I had loaded it that morning with fine birdshot. One of the men took my gun and shot it off and then reloaded it with buckshot, and I had nothing. But we walked on and at last we came to the place where the pigeons had nested. Here we cut down a little tree intending to take some squabs back to camp, as we had been instructed to find the nests and bring some squabs to let the people see their condition. Then the council would de- cide whether to remove to that place or to return home. When we were ready to start back each of us had a different idea as to which direction our camp lay. Finally, after much discussion, we decided to take one way, and we walked on and on through the woods, becoming very hungry and thirsty. It was growing late when we saw smoke far off and we decided to go see what it might be, for we thought it might possibly be our own camp. When we at last reached the place where the smoke arose, we discovered that some white people had.been camping there. There were 308 hemlock-bough shanties, and outside a fire was still smouldering. We went inside one shanty and found provisions: there was canned milk—this was the first time I ever saw milk in cans; there was coffee and sugar. So now then we sat down and prepared a meal and so then we ate. After we had had enough, we returned thanks and packed up everything there was left over and carried it with us; and we followed the white men’s trail, which at its end came down to the muddy road where it was rutted by the wagons of many pigeon traders driving toward our camp. So at the end of this road that so many people had traveled we found the Indian camp. When we reached camp it was getting dark and the people had gathered to discuss what had become of us. They were afraid that we were lost. If I ever again hear that there is to be a pigeon hunt I will try and go there. It is the best fun you ever saw. When we get back people will not know us—we will be fat from eating squabs and drink- ing pigeon-oil. You ought to see how fat those squabs are! DISAPPEARANCE Nevertheless none of the old Senecas ever again expect to see the jdh’gowa fly north in the spring. Several Cornplanter people told us that they had heard the old folks say those birds tried to cross the ocean and that they had all perished in a storm by drown- ing, starvation, or exhaustion. However, this is “old hat,” as every ornithologist knows. So the “big breads” live now only in the memories of a few old people like Willie Gordon and Lydia Bucktooth. But the young people of Coldspring Longhouse con- tinue to dance the Pigeon Dance, still a favorite social dance among all the Iro- quois; and at Tonawanda it is an integral part of the spring Maple Thanksgiving Fes- tival. Of the numerous reasons advanced by ornithologists to explain the disappearance of the passenger pigeon, adequately treated by Mitchell in her monograph of this spe- cies, only those theories entertained by In- dians concern us here. The Indians believed that their practice of taking squabs when they were ready to leave the nests was a measure of conservation. By long observa- tion they knew that there were plenty of birds until white competition and attention to the adult birds, shot and persecuted re- lentlessly with nets and traps, gradually re- duced the number and size of the annual nestings, until they disappeared entirely. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 10 The notion that the passenger pigeon was present in great numbers one year and com- pletely gone the next has been proved a popular fallacy. As early as 1660 they had already begun to disappear from the New England coast; and in the Iroquois country of New York and western Pennsylvania, and in Ontario, their disappearance was no- ticeable by 1850. In 1848 there is record of shipment from Cattaraugus County, in western New York, alone of over 80 tons of the birds. Four years later occurred the last great nesting at Ashford, between the Alle- gheny and Cattaraugus Senecas. Practically all the squabs, together with a greater por- tion of the old birds, were captured (Mer- shon, 1907, p. 122). After the great nestings at Ceres in 1868-72, there is still record of occasionally very heavy flights in north- western Pennsylvania for the next decade or so. According to Todd, the last at- tempted nesting of any size in northwestern Pennsylvania was observed in Potter County in 1886. After that only a few birds appeared at Sheffield, the locus of the Cornplanter Seneca hunts, which pretty well dates them. The last passenger pigeon seen in Warren County by one who was competent to identify it was reported by Ralph B. Simpson on the Allegheny near Warren, in company with a flock of mourn- ing doves, May 20, 1893. No single cause serves to explain the dis- - appearance of the passenger pigeon. Mitch- ell thinks the immediate cause was the up- set of its equilibrium of life in terms of its optimum population density—which was certainly high—to which the increasing dis- turbance of its nesting contributed. All authorities seem agreed that the culprits in this process were the market hunters who destroyed the annual crop of squabs by raiding the nests and substantially reduced the size of the adult flocks by netting and shooting. Clearing the land was detrimental of course; but as the forests have survived the pigeons, this alone will not account for their extinction. Diseases introduced along with domestic poultry may have taken some toll; but their effect could be only inconsid- erable as compared with that of man’s de- struction of the species. The market hunters Ocr. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS 309 found a ready explanation for what hap- pened in a legend that persists, as we have seen, as a tradition among the Senecas: The theory that a cyclonic disturbance on the sea drowned the birds in great numbers. Kalm advanced it in 1740 (1759), and the story has been cropping up in one form or another ever since. It is certain, therefore, that the passenger pigeon’s disappearance can not be attribut- ed to natural enemies, or to the Indian. Forbush, who gave this problem some thought, pointed out that for the years that pigeons were most abundant its natural en- emies were most numerous; and that its ex- tinction is coincident with the disappear- ance of bears, panthers, wolves, lynxes, and birds of prey. Forbush says: The aborigines never could have reduced ap- preciably the number of the species. Wherever the great roosts were established, Indians always gathered in large numbers. This, according to their traditions, had been the custom among them from time immemorial. They always had slaughtered these birds, young and old, in great quantities; but there was no market among the Indians, and the only way in which they could preserve the meat for future use was by drying or smoking the breasts. They cured large quantities in this way. Also, they were accustomed to kill great quantities of the squabs in order to try out the fat, which was used as butter is used by the whites. (Forbush, 1936, p. 41; cf. 1927, vol. 2, p. 59. Italics added.) At least two authorities have argued that all that is required to bring about the ex- tinction of a species is to kill off a large pro- portion of its offspring each year before they reach maturity. Nature cuts off the rest. (Forbush, 1936, p. 44; Townsend, 1932, p. 382.) The Indian practice of taking only the young birds and leaving the breeding stock which they considered a measure of con- servation became a means of extinction when employed by professional pigeoners. Dr. Alexander Wetmore, who has read this manuscript, offers another explanation: ‘“As one matter of biological import there is little question in my mind that but one egg was the normal complement in the set of this species. Occasionally two eggs were found, but where this occurred it is my opinion that the second egg came from a female other than the rightful owner of the nest. It is not unusual for birds of this type to lay an occasional random egg in this way. The fact that the birds normally reared only one young per season is enough to account for their disappearance under the heavy persecution to which they were subjected by commercial trappers and hunters, since no species can stand such a toll with a rate of reproduction that requires at least two years to reproduce the original pair (A. Wet- more, p.c., 11/9/1942).”’ | In any event, the commercial hunter was the principal factor in the extinction of this species. HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS Value as Food to the Seneca Indians The question naturally arises as to how important was the passenger pigeon as food in the diet of the Seneca Indians. We have already seen that the neighboring Cayuga and Onondaga netted pigeons at salt licks and on bluffs, and we have presented a number of early and modern records of huge nestings that were attended by whole bands of Senecas and segments of the aforemen- tioned tribes. Presumably for several weeks between maple harvest and planting season, when the pigeons nested, the Seneca settle- ments were more or less evacuated while the population concentrated at the nesting grounds to take squabs and smoke them for transportation home. Great quantities were consumed on the grounds; all informants testify how fat they became. During this period, and for some weeks thereafter, squabs constituted the bulk of their diet. In fact, one wonders whether the Indians must not have become as fed up with eating pi- geon and drinking pigeon broth as did the pioneers of Canada (Mitchell, pp. 106-107). However, with the Indians, their ceremo- nies at hunting suggest that the pigeons very often came in time to relieve starvation. At this season the Iroquois were often reduced to eating their seed corn. In good years there were squabs aplenty to keep the Sene- cas, and all the Iroquois for that matter, through the planting season—particularly if one can accept as typical such nestings as the one observed by John Lyman, an early settler. He says it extended 100 miles along 310 the Upper Allegheny in late May and early June of 1805, and again in 1810 (French, 1919, pp. 23-25). Prehistoric Evidence Before the white man settled in America, ancestors of the Iroquoian peoples took pas- senger pigeons and presumably ate them. Bones of adult birds are common among the bird remains from refuse heaps of precon- tact village sites in the Iroquoian area. It seems reasonable to assume that these early peoples preferred the squabs to adult birds, as did their descendants. Moreover, since the bones in young birds are not completely ossified until the fledglings leave the nest, and remembering that it was the practice to take the squabs just before they left the nests, it follows that if, as we suspect, pre- historic Iroquoians took great quantities of squabs and ate them on the grounds, squab bones—if they survived at all—would not be represented in the village site remains. This fact may account for the dearth of re- ports on this species for New York State Iroquois sites. (However, absence of data may also reflect careless archeological tech- nique. Pigeon bones are small.) In the refuse heaps of two prehistoric sites within the historic area of the Neutral tribe (Niagara Peninsula), reported by Wintem- berg on identifications by A. Wetmore (U.S. National Museum), passenger pigeon bones are dominant among the bird remains at Uren, while at Lawson village site the passenger pigeon is the third ranking bird (in their diet) after turkey and ruffed grouse. But the numbers of mammal bones were by far in the majority.?® At Roebuck, a prehistoric Mohawk-On- ondaga site in the St. Lawrence Valley, again mammal bones were most abundant, and bird bones were not numerous. Of 13 species of birds reported, the passenger pi- geon was sixth in order of frequency (Win- 9 Wintemberg, 1928, p. 5; 1939, p. 9. In the Lawson prehistoric village site in Middlesex County, Ontario, of 11,000 animal bones, the majority (10,000) were of mammals; second in rank were 186 bird bones, ‘‘in order of their abun- dance: wild turkey, ruffed grouse, Passenger Pigeon, Canada goose...” Acknowledgement is made to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, who made the identifications, for the opportunity to discuss these matters with him. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 temberg, 1936, p. 14). While these figures are suggestive, they remain inconclusive without comparable statistics from prehis- toric Seneca sites in western New York. Comparative Notes From the fragmentary archeological evi- dence we turn to some comparisons of pas- senger pigeon hunting among other historic eastern woodland tribes whose territories were traversed by these migratory creatures. To know that neighboring tribes followed the annual pigeon nestings, observed simi- lar customs and utilized hunting techniques identical with those of the Senecas would strengthen the case for the aboriginality of the Seneca activity. The Seneca material assumes proper perspective in such a com- parison; and, other things being equal, what we have been able to establish for Seneca passenger pigeon hunting illuminates refer- ences to other tribes, broadening our view of the relation of man to his natural environ- ment in eastern America. | Passenger pigeons nested in eastern Mas- sachusetts and were relatively abundant throughout New England until nesting be- gan within fifty years of white settlement. The early nestings at Essex, near the coast, were only 30 miles from the white settle- ments; Wood (1629-34) describes a nesting colony that filled a great pinery, ‘from whence the Indians fetch whole loades of them’”’ (Wood, 1865, zn Forbush, 1927, vol. 2, p. 59). Wood does not say that Indians trapped adult birds. The inference is that they took the squabs from the nests. Wuskéwhan is given by Roger Williams (1643) as the Algonquian word for “‘pi- geon”’; of which Cotton Mather writes, “Or Indians call these Pigeons, by a name that signifies Wanderers’ (Schorger, 1938, p. 474). Mather’s statements are probably of Natick origin. They are a tribute to the keenness of Indian observation on the hab- its of birds, but they contain no information regarding the Indians in relation to the pi- geons other than the apparent fact that Mather met them, too, at a salt marsh. | Williams, however, observes: ‘‘In the ‘Pi- geon Countrie’ [which Trumbull assigns to the northern part of Nipmuck territory, now Worcester, Mass.; then occupied by a Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS little band called ‘furthermost Neepnet men,’ next neighbors to the Showatucks] ... these Fowls breed abundantly, and by reason of their delicate Food (especially in Strawberrie time when they pick up whole fields of the old grounds of the Natives, they are a delicate fowle, and because of their abundance, and the facility of killing them, they are and may be plentifully fed on.” (Williams, 1866, p. 116.) Asin New England, the passenger pigeon receded from the coast of New York and New Jersey with the Indians. It may be in- ferred from the following accounts that the coastal Algonquians, the aborigines of New Netherland, once took these birds in much the same manner as the Iroquois. In ‘“‘De- scription of New Netherlands, 1671,’ it is said by Montanus that fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons and other feather game are also easily obtained. “‘The pi- geons fly in such flocks that the Indians de- signedly remove to their breeding places, where the young birds pushed by hundreds from their nests, serve for food during a long month for the whole family’? (Montanus, p, 123), 7 We do not find accounts of the early Del- aware hunting them, but it is reported that their annual custom of burning the woods in hunting deer ‘‘kept the woods clean, so that pigeons readily got acorns, which then not being devour’d by hogs, were plenty almost everywhere.”’ (Samuel Smith, 1890, p. 511.) However, for the eighteenth century David Zeisberger, writing of the Delaware of whom many had accompanied him from eastern Pennsylvania to the present site of New Philadelphia, Ohio, in the years 1779 and 1780, says: ~The wild pigeon is of an ash-gray color, the male being distinguished by a red breast. In some years in fall, or even in spring, they flock together in such numbers that the air is darkened by their flight. Three years ago (i.e. 1776 or 1777) they appeared in such great numbers that the ground under their roosting place was covered with their dung above a foot high, during one night. The Indians went out, killed them with sticks and came home loaded. At such a time the noise the pigeons make is such that it is difficult for people near them to hear or understand each other. They do not always gather in such numbers in one place, often scattering over the great forests. (Zeisberger, 1910, p. 66.) oll He is speaking here of pigeon hunting on the fall return-flight, when the pigeons nested for only one night; and these must have been old birds that his tame Indians knocked out of their nests. These Indians had guns. It is curious that Zeisberger, who lived for three years in the pigeon-nesting country near Tionesta, Pa., says very little about pigeons during this period. The process of taking squabs and melting down the fat for domestic purposes as a sub- stitute for butter and lard is reported as a general practice among Indians and many whites: tribes are not specified (Wilson, 1812, vol. 5, p. 107). In Virginia the early settlers took pigeons in winter. John Law- son (1709) speaks of prodigious flocks of pi- geons during 1701-1702; and of the Indians of Carolina he writes: ‘““You may find sev- eral Indian towns of not above seventeen houses, that have more than one hundred gallons of pigeon’s oil or fat; they using it with pulse or bread as we do butter, . . . the Indians take a light and go among them in the night and bring away some thousands, killing them with long poles, as they roost in the trees’”’ (Lawson, 1860, pp. 78-79). This seems to be the only specific refer- ence for the Southeast, and one can not es- timate to how many tribes it applies. West- ward in Tennessee we lack eye-witness accounts of the Chickasaws taking pigeons; but within 50 miles of Memphis, Lusher’s map of 1835 specifies ‘“‘Pigeon Roost Creek’’ which Myer says was also the name of the short-cut trail or ‘‘Pigeon Roost Road,”’ leading between the home of the Chicka- saws in northern Mississippi and the Chick- asaw Bluffs. Here there were vast roosts in heavily timbered bottoms, which must have been famous far and wide, as they are re- membered in place names. Myer thinks they were known to the Chickasaw and were the probable reason for the trail (Myer, 1928, pp. 817-819). To the north in the Great Lakes area, the Siouan-speaking Winnebago of Wisconsin poked pigeons out of their nests with long poles after the manner of Lawson’s Indians of Carolina. They considered pigeons their ‘“ohief”’ birds, and hunts were undertaken in season when the chief decided to give a 312 feast. They were prepared by broiling or steeping and had a delicious taste. Large quantities were taken after storms when many died of exposure (Radin, 1923, pp. 112-1138). It is among the Potawatomi of Michigan, however, that we find the closest approxi- mation to Seneca pigeon hunting. In Chief Simon Pokagon’s classic portrayal of the Michigan nestings, which Forbush has called the best description of the nesting of these birds, the Potawatomi techniques are those of the Seneca. He says: “‘A pigeon nesting was always a source of revenue to our people. Whole tribes would wigwam in the brooding place. They seldom killed the old birds, but made great preparation to se- cure their, young, out of which the squaws made squab butter and smoked and dried them by thousands for future use. Yet, un- der our manner of securing them, they con- tinued to increase.’’!° The Ottawa ate pigeons (Kinietz, 1940, p. 240), but we find no details as to their methods of hunting them. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Once more we have seen the reminis- cences of a few old Senecas, bolstered by historical fact, grow into a study of mono- graphic proportion. As usual, Seneca tradi- tion clarifies some points on which history is silent, while recorded history serves to date the disappearance of one more activity that old Senecas recall as being formerly part of their yearly economic cycle. In the case of pigeon hunting most of our materials come from members of the Cornplanter Band of Senecas in northwestern Pennsylvania. These people have been generally disre- garded by ethnologists because they have been so long acculturated to white ways, but the authors of this paper have long sus- pected that the Cornplanter people could still yield information on material culture of hunting, with which they are still preoccu- pied. In the present study of the last pas- senger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanters, Willie Gordon and others have contributed to the increase of the literature on this ex- 10 Chief Simon Pokagon, from The Chautau- quan 22 (20). Nov. 1895; in Mershon, 1907, p. 54. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 tinct species. During the last years of their annual migration to the pigeon roosts around Sheffield and Byromtown, in War- ren and Forest Counties, Pa., the Corn- planter people came into contact with the professional white pigeoners at the climax of their activities in the late 1870’s. After this, the birds for the most part disappeared under the relentless persecution of the pro- fessional netter. While it is apparent that from early times the Iroquois—notably the Onondaga and Cayuga—set nets for pigeons, both station- ary nets on high places and trip nets at salt licks, nest-raiding seems to have been the predominant hunting technique among the Iroquois. This was certainly true of the Seneca, who seem to have used no nets ex- cept when they hired out to white pigeon- ers, aS was true of the Indians of Massachu- setts, New Netherland, Carolina, Wisconsin and Michigan. In aboriginal times squabs were generally considered more palatable than adult birds, and the pigeon roostings offered such abundant store of provender— both meat and oil—for the taking, that net- ting and archery, mainly effective with adult birds, were of secondary importance. There was no market for the adult birds, then, as trade was undeveloped. Nor does there seem to have been any sport in Indian life akin to trap-shooting. The Iroquois regarded the annual return of the passenger pigeon as one of the bless- ings ordained by the Master of Life. The sudden arrival of great flocks of birds to nest in the neighboring forests not only re- lieved the economic strain at a period when they were sometimes reduced to eating their seed corn, but also justified their faith in the bounties of nature. For this great blessing they were duly thankful, and they prayed that this condition might continue always. They allowed the birds to nest and to hatch their young; and the nests were not dis- turbed until the young were ready to leave. They believed that the practice of taking squabs at their prime and of allowing the - adult birds to go free to reproduce the spe- cies was a measure of conservation, which was probably true under the circumstances. Our Seneca. informants were shocked at the way professional pigeoners violated nature Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS by indiscriminate slaughter of old and young birds alike and by the relentless pur- suit of the flocks from place to place. The Iroquois ascribed human traits to the animal and plant world. It is small wonder that the folklore of these people observes that the passenger pigeons were the one bird that congregated in communal settlements like Indian villages, and that folk-tales ascribe to the pigeon colonies a humanlike society. An albino pigeon as chief fulfills the role of the sacred white animal, a common belief among woodland Indians. In a myth- ological encounter, the culture hero, a pure youth, meets the sacred white pigeon during a@ vision and enters into a compact with him. Rules are established governing the conduct of the hunt and the taking of squabs. These data cover such details as the master of the hunt who as in later times or- ders the migration, keeps the crowd to- gether, places a “‘pole across the path at night”’; keeps separate the camps for mater- nal kindred. Even the construction of lean- tos is covered. Continuing the pattern for Iroquois origin legends, the myth provides the rationale for ceremonies attending the hunts of later years: the camp caller, morn- ing and evening thanksgiving, a ceremony for propitiating the pigeons with an offering of trinkets and sacred tobacco which—as al- ways in Iroquois ceremonialism—is the in- termediary between man and the spirit- world. Moreover, we, find here an origin legend for the Pigeon Dance of later Iro- quois ceremony; and its tenuous connection with the Maple Thanksgiving Festival is strengthened by the fact that pigeon hunt- ing followed soon after the sugaring and lasted well into planting time. The youth re- lates his vision to the clan chiefs who carry out his contract; they call a council of the people to learn the new dance. Two dance leaders precede the whirling column, and an explanatory element about the counter- clockwise movement of social dancers repre- sents the projection of a modern usage into ancient times. Whether Indians or whites originated the pigeon-netting techniques is a question that can not be resolved entirely. The “‘nettings’”’ at the Syracuse salt licks and westward into the Cayuga country may not have been the 313 same as the techniques of the professional netters. On the contrary, the complicated set-nets of the white pigeoner, with their weights, releasing poles, stool pigeons, decoy baskets, etc., seem to have emanated from southern Europe. They were used in New England as early as 1660. We have shown that the Indian method involved knocking the young out of the nests with long poles or cutting down the trees to get at them. We must accept the Seneca testimony that they used European devices when assisting white pigeoners, for the Iroquois knew other types of traps, and it was not beyond their abilities to devise adequate bird-trapping devices had they so desired, or had they any interest in taking the adult birds. There is a possibility that there was some trade latterly in splint decoy baskets of the type Indians sometimes make, but the specimens examined do not appear to have been made by any of the In- dian tribes of the northeast. Willie Gordon’s narrative of his first pi- geon hunt, from which this study sprang, is a tale of the late period of acculturation, of course. It represents the best of the last shreds of Cornplanter Seneca ethnology, which can be made to serve a useful purpose in reconstruction. We have said something of the disappear- ance of the passenger pigeon, principally be- cause the last nestings in Pennsylvania were in the area under study and to show that the stock explanation given by the Indians, and by many whites, is only a bit of recur- rent folklore. The Seneca by themselves could not and would not have depleted this species. Finally, it may be said that the passenger pigeon had a definite place in the hunting economy of the Iroquoian tribes from very early times. This is indicated by the evi- dence of archeology in the area. Although the accounts of pigeon hunting among the other northeastern tribes from New Eng- land south to the Carolinas are fragmentary, we believe that the material we have col- lected for the Senecas is probably fairly typical of other tribes throughout the range of the passenger pigeon. At least, the evi- dence in the way of comparative distribu- tion, fragmentary as it is, does not reveal 314 much cultural diversity in hunting this spe- cies, from tribe to tribe. Perhaps this is obvious: there were limitations to ways of killing squabs. APPENDIX The discovery of oil in territory near and in the pigeon country in the 1860’s was na- turally attended by very rapid extension of railroads all through this area. The increased slaughter of wild pigeons, especially by pro- fessionals who came from all over the coun- try attracted by the market facilities provided by the better transportation, was attended by a decline in the size and num- ber of pigeon flights. By the Acts of May 1 1873, and of May 1, 1876, Pennsylvania at- tempted to protect the birds, using the theory that disturbance of adults on their “roostings’”’ was the cause of the trouble. This was not effective; so the Act of June 10, 1881, extended protection specifically to the squabs, banning the taking of any birds, young or old, with gun, net, or trap within a mile of the nesting grounds. A heavy li- cense fee of $50 was to be collected by each county in which the trapper worked. During this period The Warren Mail, a weekly paper in the largest town near the pigeon grounds, was edited by an honest, high-minded gentleman greatly interested in law enforcement. His paper makes only casual mention of pigeons before 1878. The flight of that year was heavy, attended by large numbers of professionals from every- where who paid no attention to the laws— and by a rising of the editor’s dander on ac- count of this. For us the result is an unusu- ally good account of what went on in the pi- geon woods. We extract from the Mail’s weekly reports enough to give some idea of the extent and character of these activities. Mar. 18, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons were seen flying over town last Thursday morning [i.e., Mar. 7]. Too high for shooting.”’ Mar. 19, 1878: ‘Pigeons are feeding and flying around Warren and the shot-gun squad are wide awake.” Mar. 25, 1878: “The pigeons have been flying in large flocks in this section for several days. They are reported as nesting in the wild woods of Forest County, beyond Sheffield. Numerous pigeon catchers are at Sheffield, Kane, Tidioute, Tionesta and all along the line. Last week nearly JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 100 barrels of dead birds were shipped from Shef-_ field. At this rate the pigeons will soon be ex- terminated.” Same issue: Quotes from the Tionesta [Forest County] Republican to the effect that ‘“‘Sheffield is the shipping point for large quantities of pigeons. A small army of men are trapping them at their roosting and feeding places in Forest Co. It is alleged that large numbers have been shot near their roosting places, which act is contrary to law. In 3 days last w eek about 50,000 pigeons were shipped.”’ Same issue: Again quoting the Tionesta Repub- lican: “The pigeon trappers are not doing very big business here, we believe, owing to the dif- ficulty they experience in keeping spectators and hunters at a sufficient distance from their base of operations as not to scare the birds. The gang up about Balltown [up the Tionesta Creek, below Blue Jay mouth], however, are scooping them in at a great rate. They took 80 dozen in 2 days. They ship them to Sheffield for New York where, we hear, they sell for $3 per dozen.” April 4, 1878: “The pigeons shipped to N. Y. from Warren and Forest Counties are sold at $2.00 a dozen.” . April 23, 1878: “Up to last Saturday [the 20th] 291,741 pigeons had been shipped from Sheffield. Probably nearly as many have gone from Tionesta while some 40,000 have been shipped from Tidioute. Over half a million birds have been caught, for which probably $75,000 were received. Who says this ‘neck of the woods’ is not produc- tive?”’ April 30, 1878: “Mr. Gemmill [the freight agent at Sheffield] informs us that the total number of birds shipped from Sheffield up to April 27 is 353,846. Lately, the price of dead birds is low and 14,600 live ones were shipped during the last week. Counting 50,000 from Tionesta and 40,000 from Tidioute, which is no doubt below the actual figure, we have 443,846. Some have been shipped from Kane and other points while many have been carried away by shootists. It is probably safe to say that 500,000 bir ds, dead or alive, have been taken in this section.’ May 14, 1878: “The ese of pigeons, dead and alive, shipped from Sheffield up to and in- cluding Miondar 7 May 18, is 505,516! So says Mr. Gemmill, the freight agent, who has the exact number. They are still nesting in the woods of Forest County. The pigeon men say the Michi- gan birds have come to this ‘neck of the woods’.” May 28, 1878: Quoting the Tionesta Republican: “Davy Hilands shipped 500 pigeons to N. Y. this morning—the first that have been shipped from this station for some time. The trappers are now operating near Brookston and also about Kane and altogether the pigeons get no rest at all.” June 11, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons are still being shipped from Sheffield. Up to last Monday over 700,000 pigeons have been shipped and 200,000 from Kane Mr. Gemmill tells us that there are over 2,000 Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS dozen pigeons in coops awaiting shipment. They are now nesting up Kinzua Creek on Chapel Fork.” BIBLIOGRAPHY “ANTLER” (Anon.). With bow and arrow among wild pigeons. Forest and Stream 14:14. 1880. GuRTIN, JEREMIAH, and Hewitt, J. N. B. Seneca fiction, legends and myths. 32d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 37-919. 1918. DearporFrFr, Merrie H. The Cornplanter Grant in Warren County. Western Penn- sylvania Hist. Mag. 24 (1): 22 pp. 1941. Eaton, Eton H. Birds of New York. New York State Mus. Mem. 12. Albany, 1910. Fenton, WitiuiAm N. Tonawanda Longhouse ceremonies; ninety years after Lewis Henry Morgan. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 128 (Anthrop. Pap. No. 15): 189-165. 1941. ForsusH, Epwarp H. SBirds of Massachusetts, 2 vols. 1927. —-—. Passenger pigeon, in “Birds of America,” pt. 2: 39-46. Garden City, BNE es 1936, ‘FRENCH, JOHN C. The passenger pigeon in Pennsylvania. Altoona, Pa., 1919 Gunn, SaraH E. Sarah Whitmore’s captivity in 1782. (Frank H. Severance, editor.) Publ. Buffalo Hist. Soc. 6: 515-520. 1903. Harris, Grorce H. Life of Horatio Jones. (Frank H. Severance, editor.) Publ. Buf- falo Hist. Soc. 6: 381-514. 1903. _ Jesuit Reuations. The Jesuit relations and allied documents. (Reuben Gold Thwaites editor.) 73 vols. Cleveland, 1896-1901. Kaum, PrEuR (PETER). The passenger pigeon. [Accounts by Pehr Kalm (1759) and John James Audubon (1831).] Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1911: 407-424. 1912. . Travels in North America, 2 vols. (Adolph P. Benson, editor.) New York, 1937. KinietTz, W. VERNON. western Great Lakes. 1940. Lawson, JoHN. History of Carolina, etc.... (London, 1714). Raleigh reprint, 1860. Mann, M. W., and Kine, Maria. The history of Ceres and its. near vicinity... (1798- The Indians of the Ann. Arbor, Mich., 1896). Olean, N. Y., 1896. MersHon, W.B. The passenger pigeon. New York, 1907. MircuEtt, Marcarer H. The _ passenger pigeon in Ontario. Mus. Zool. No. 7. Contr. Royal Ontario Toronto, 1935. 315 Montanus, A. Description of New Nether- lands, 1671, in E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., “Documentary History of New York” 4: 113-131. Albany, 1851. More@an, Lewis Henry. League of the Ho-dé- no-sau-nee, or Iroquois... (Rochester, 1851). (Herbert N. Lloyd, editor.) 2 vols. New York, 1901. Myzr, Witiram E. Indian trails of the South- east. 42d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 727-857. 1928. ParRKER, ARTHUR C. Seneca myths and folk- tales. Publ. Buffalo Hist. Soc. 27. 1923. Proctor, THomas. Narrative of the journey of Col. Thomas Proctor, to the Indians of the North-west, 1791. Pennsylvania Archives, ser. 2, 4: 463-524. Harrisburg, 1896. Rapin, Pauu. The Winnebago tribe. 37th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 35-550. ScHoRGER, ARLIE W. Unpublished manu- scripts of Cotton Mather on the passenger pigeon. The Auk 55: 471-477. 1988. SEVERANCE, FRANK H. (editor). The captivity and sufferings of Benjamin Gilbert and his family, 1780-83. Cleveland, 1904. SMITH, SAMUEL. The history of the colony of Nova-Caesaria, or New Jersey... 1765. Trenton, 1890. Topp, W. E. Crypr. Birds of western Penn- sylvania. Pittsburgh, 1940. TOWNSEND, CHARLES W. Passenger pigeon, in A Bent’s ‘“‘Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds.’”’ U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 162: 379-402. 19382. WILLIAMS, Rocmr. A key to the language of North America... (London, 1643). (J. Hammond Trumbull, editor.) Publ. Nar- ragansett Club, ser. 1, 1. Providence, 1866. WILSON, ALEXANDER. American ornithology 5. Philadelphia, 1812. Woop, Wiuiuiam. New England’s prospect. Prince Society, Boston, 1865. WINTEMBERG, W. J. Uren prehistoric village site, Oxford County, Ontario. Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.-51. Ottawa, 1928. Roebuck prehistoric village site, Gren- ville County, Ontario. Nat. Mus. Canada Bull. 83 (Anthrop. ser. No. 19). Ottawa, 1936. Lawson prehistoric village site, Middle- sex County, Ontario. Nat. Mus. Canada Bull. 94 (Anthrop. ser. No. 25). Ottawa, 1939. ZEISBERGER, Davip. AHuistory of the northern American Indians... (1779-1880). (A. B. Hulbert and W. N. Schorger, editors.) Ohio Archeol. and Hist. Quart. 19. Co- lumbus, 1910. 316 BOTAN Y.—New grasses from South America.! tional Herbarium. Among recent collections of South Ameri- can grasses received by the U. 8S. National Herbarium are three undescribed species, one each from Colombia, Uruguay, and Curacao, one of the Dutch West Indies. Al- though this island is popularly regarded as one of the Antilles, biologically it belongs with Venezuela. Stipa rosengurttii Chase, sp. nov. Perennis, caespitosa; culmi erecti, subfili- formes, 25-85 cm alti; folia basi crebra, vaginis inferioribus dense imbricatis; ligula circa 1 mm longa; laminae involutae, filiformes, 6-12 cm longae, interdum longiores, erectae, hispidulo- scabrae vel scaberulae; panicula 4-6 cm longa, ramis erectis, paucifloris; spiculae brevipedicel- latae; glumae 3-nerves, acuminatae, margini- bus hyalinis; gluma prima 6-7 mm longa, gluma secunda 5-5.5 mm longa; lemma con- volutum, 3.3-3.4 mm longum, 1—1.2 mm latum, anguste obovatum, fuscum, tuberculatum, co- ronatum, infra coronam constrictum, dorso pubescens, callo brevi, longe barbato, pilis lemmate 2-3-plo brevioribus; arista 1.8-2 cm longa, bigeniculata. A cespitose perennial; culms erect, subfili- form, 25 to 85 cm tall with 2 or 3 nodes above the base, the nodes ascending-pilose or in age glabrescent; leaves crowded at the base, the lower sheaths overlapping and forming a swol- len base, the lowermost relatively broad and loose, appressed pilose at the very base between the strong nerves, the middle and upper sheaths glabrous or scaberulous; ligule firm, about 1 mm long; blades involute, filiform, 6 to 12 em long in the type specimen (to 25 em in Rosen- gurtt B 216), erect or nearly so, hispidulous- scabrous to scaberulous; panicle long-exserted, 4 to 6 cm long in the type specimen (to 12 em in Rosengurtt B 216), the few short branches erect, few-flowered, the axis and branches angled, scabrous; spikelets on erect sparsely hispidulous pedicels 1.5 to 3 mm long; glumes firm-membranaceous with hyaline margins, acuminate, 3-nerved, the first 6 to 7 mm long, the second 5 to 5.5 mm long, the delicate apex 1 Received June 26, 1943. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 10 AGNES CHASE, United States Na- of both readily breaking off; lemma convolute, 3.3 to 3.4 mm long, 1 to 1.2 mm wide, the callus very short with a dense ring of stiff, white hairs from one third to half as long as the lemma, the body of the lemma narrowly obovate, brown, finely tuberculate throughout, with a line of pubescence on the back extending nearly to the summit, the summit of the lemma smooth, cylindric forming a whitish crown stiffly ciliate to erose, the lemma constricted below the crown; awn 1.8 to 2 cm long, twice geniculate. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1819591, collected in a moist meadow, Monzén- Heber, Estacién Juan Jackson, Province of Soriano, Uruguay, December 3, 1942, by Gal- linal, Aragone, Bergalli, Campal, and Rosen- -—gurtt, PE-5120. This species, with its dense tufts of filiform blades, narrow panicle, and plump tuberculate lemmas resembles Piptochaetium. It belongs in the section Stephanostipa Speg. of Stipa. It is a pleasure to name this species for Dr. Bernardo Rosengurtt, a keen student of the grasses of his country, whose collections in the past few years have more than doubled the number of specimens of Uruguay grasses in the U.S. National Herbarium. The only other collection known is a taller, overmature specimen, Rosengurtt B 216, from Rio Negro and Arroyo [?] Palleros, Province of Cerro Largo, Uruguay, January, 1936. Paspalum curassavicum Chase, sp. nov. Perenne, dense caespitosum, glabrum, sto- - loniferum, stolonibus elongatis arcuatis, circa 50 cm longis; culmi erecti, foliosi, 30-40 cm alti, ramosi; vaginae arctae, imbricatae; ligula ciliata, 0.5 mm longa; laminae planae, 4-12 cm longae, 2.5-4 mm latae; racemi 2, conjugati, erecti, 3-3.5 em longi; rhachis 0.7 mm lata; spiculae solitariae, 2.2-2.4 mm longae, 1.1 mm latae, ovato-ellipticae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile aequalia, 3-nervia; fructus 2 mm longus. An erect densely cespitose glabrous peren- nial, with a hard knotted base and brittle arching stolons 50 em or more long, with erect leafy branches from knotted bases, the stolons compressed or sulcate; culms rather rigid, leafy, -Ocr. 15, 1943 30 to 40 em tall, only one flowering to 8 to 15 sterile culms, all branching at the middle nodes, the branches erect or nearly so, sometimes in small fascicles; sheaths close, overlapping, the lower two or three with reduced blades from rudimentary to 5 mm long; ligule a ring of hairs 0.5 mm long; blades rather firm, flat, 4 to 12 cm long, 2.5 to 4 mm wide, rather sharp-pointed, sometimes with a few hairs at base; racemes 2, included at base, erect, 3 to 3.5 cm long; rachis 0.7 mm wide; spikelets not imbricate, 2.2 to 2.4 mm. long, 1.1 mm wide, ovate-elliptic, pale; second glume and sterile lemma equal, mi- nutely pointed beyond the fruit, 3-nerved (the midnerve occasionally suppressed) ; fruit 2 mm long, the tip of the palea enclosed. Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1762213, collected under tall opuntias, west of Hato, near north coast of Curacao, February 27, 1940, by Agnes Chase (no. 12282). Du- plicate type in the Herbario Nacional de Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Caracas. Known only from the type collection, from soil of disintegrated coral and shells. Only a small colony of overmature plants found. It is possible that in a favorable season inflores- cences may be more plentiful. The species be- longs in the Disticha group, related to Paspalum vaginatum Swartz and P. distichum L. It differs from both in its cespitose erect habit and arching stolons, in the ciliate ligule, and in the smaller spikelets. Paspalum reclinatum Chase, sp. nov. Annum, glabrum; culmi decumbentes, ra- mosi, 50-65 em longi, compressi ‘vel sulcati; vaginae laxae, subcompressae, glabrae vel mar- ginibus obscure pubescentibus; ligula circa 0.2 mm longa; laminae planae, flaccidae, patentes, 3-9 cm longae, 4-8 mm latae; racemi 8-13, maturitate patens vel reflexi, 1-2.5 cm longi; CHASE: NEW GRASSES FROM SOUTH AMERICA 317 rhachis 0.7-1 mm lata, apice spiculam gerens; spiculae solitariae, vix imbricatae, 2.5-2.7 mm longae, 1—-1.1 mm latae, lanceolato-ellipticae, glabrae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile aequalia, tenuia, 3-nervia, fructum superantia; fructus pallidus, laevis. A decumbent, straggling, annual, glabrous as a whole; culms rooting at the lower nodes, 50 to 65 cm long, bearing a few flowering branches nearly as long as the primary culm; culm compressed or grooved; sheaths rather loose, subcompressed, glabrous or very obscurely pubescent along the margin; ligule about 0.2 mm long; blades flat, thin, spreading, 3 to 9 cm long, 4 to 8 mm wide, rounded at base, abruptly acuminate, glabrous or very ob- scurely puberulent back of the ligule, the margin scaberulous; racemes 8 to 13, at ma- turity spreading or reflexed on a flattened axis, 6 to 7 cm long, the racemes 1 to 2.5 cm long; rachis 0.7 to 1 mm wide, minutely pubescent at the base and with a spikelet at the apex; spikelets solitary, approximate but not imbri- cate, pale to faintly yellowish, 2.5 to 2.7 mm long, 1 to 1.1 mm wide, lanceolate-elliptic, glabrous; glume and sterile lemma loose, very thin, 3-nerved, slightly exceeding the fruit; fruit about 2.2 mm long, pale, smooth and shin- ing. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1795921, collected in Colombia, Dept. Cauca; Cordillera Occidental: Cerro de Munchique, Hoya del Rio Tambite, 2,000—2,500 meters al- titude, July 16, 1939, by E. Pérez Arbeldez and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 6211). This species belongs in the Dissecta group, and resembles Paspalum prostratum Scribn. & Merr. It differs from that in being glabrous as a whole, in the narrower rachis with a spikelet at the apex, and in the slightly larger spikelets, with the loose glume and lemma exceeding the fruit. 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 10 ZOOLOGY.—A new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Scytonotus and a new species from Florida.} In the summer of 1937, while enroute to Florida, I collected a number of immature specimens of a milliped in leaf litter near Panorama, on the Sky Line Drive, Va. The specimens were recognized as an unde- scribed species of the order Merocheta, but continued search in the time available yielded no mature animals and only a few more young ones. The locality was revisited in 1938 with similar results, and farther south, in Tennessee near the Virginia line, additional young were collected. Since then several entomologist friends of mine have unsuccessfully attempted to find specimens in the region. The oldest individuals thus far collected have 18 segments, with the gonopods of the males represented by low, rounded mounds, although in other respects the animals might pass as fully grown. In dorsal sculp- ture and form of the pore-bearing callus of the lateral keels they appear more closely related to Scytonotus than to any other American genus, although the keels project farther from the body. However, this does not preclude inclusion in the Sphaerotricho- pidae, to which Scytonotus belongs, and it is expected that mature animals may have 19 segments, as does that genus. Since there is no other American milliped bearing close resemblance to the new Vir- ginia form, illustrated in Fig. 1, its presenta- tion as a new genus is hazarded although based on juvenal material. With the exten- sive collecting that has been done in the region about Washington it is somewhat unusual that this milliped remained hidden so long. Its name has been chosen in recog- nition of this and because of its somewhat shaggy appearance. In order that descrip- tion and illustration of important features of mature specimens may be made, it is hoped that naturalists visiting the Blue Ridge region will be stimulated to collect full-grown individuals of this interesting addition to the fauna adjacent to Wash- ington. 1 Received June 10, 1943. H. F. Loomis, Coconut Grove, Fla. The second milliped treated here belongs to the established xystodesmid genus Eury- merodesmus Broelemann, most males of which have two elevated lobes of varying length and shape, according to the species, projecting from the margin of the orifice through which the gonopods are thrust. The new member of this genus, discovered in north Florida, is by far the smallest species in it and shows less coloration. Types deposited in the Museum of Com- parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; para- types are in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Lasiolathus, n. gen. Type.—Lasiolathus virgunicus, n. sp. Diagnosis.—Differing from Scytonotus in the smaller size, broader body, more convex and tuberculate dorsum with longer setae, serrate margins of the segments, and the greater pro- duction outward of the lateral carinae. Description—Body small, relatively broad and probably composed of 19 segments at maturity; dorsum evenly convex and densely beset with tiny, sharply conic, setiferous tuber- cles arranged in a semblance of transverse rows. Head large, exceeding the first segment in width but not so wide as segment 2; vertex densely pubescent and with a pronounced median furrow; antennae moderately long, sub- clavate, increasing in thickness to joint 6. First segment subelliptic in shape; front margin bordered by numerous setiferous teeth or tubercles projecting upward and forward; seta-bearing tubercles of the surface scattered instead of seriate as are those of the other seg- ments. Second, third, and fourth segments with lateral carinae produced forward, those of the ensuing segments projecting outward, and only on the two segments preceding the last are the carinae posteriorly produced; dorsal tubercles in five or six transverse rows, in addition to which both the dorsal and ventral surfaces are finely granular; outer and posterior margins of the segments with projecting tubercles similar to those of the dorsal surface; pores each open- Oct. 15, 19438 ing from a quite large and almost smooth swelling near the posterior corner of segments mao 10; 12, 138, 15, 16, and, at. maturity, possibly from segment 17 also; metazonites sharply raised high above the prozonites, which have the surface finely reticulated; metazonites with finely fimbriate supplementary posterior margin. Last segment with surface minutely granular and setiferous but lacking tubercles as found on the other segments; apex with four long setae. Anterior and posterior sternum of each seg- ment broad, separated by a transverse depres- sion; each with a longitudinal median furrow deepest at its anterior end. Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp. Fig. 1 Numerous specimens with 17 and 18 seg- ments, an 18-segmented male being the type, collected at Panorama, Sky Line Drive, Va., July 13, 1937, and June 21, 1938; three speci- mens with 16 or 17 segments collected at Jonesboro, Tenn., June 25, 1938, by E. M. and H. F. Loomis. Description.—Living color very light pink, probably darker at maturity. Body stout, about five times longer than wide; actual length 9 to 10 mm, width 1.8 to 2 mm; dorsum strongly convex. Head with vertex very convex and with a deep median sulcus, the surface minutely gran- ular and densely beset with short, erect hairs; frontal area less granular and with fewer hairs; clypeal area smooth, shining and with a still smaller number of hairs; in front of the an- tennal socket and extending obliquely outward from it there is a pronounced swelling of the surface; lateral margin in front of the socket emarginate; antennae rather short and thick, joints 3 and 6 subequal, exceeding the others in length but joint 6 thickest of all. First segment much narrower than the head; broadly and evenly rounded in front and with about 22 to 24 small, conical tubercles project- ing upward and forward from the margin, each with a seta at the apex; perhaps 80 more similar tubercles are crowded together on the surface but these are inclined toward the rear. Second segment considerably wider than the head; lateral carinae produced forward, those of segments 3 and 4 decreasingly so and all others LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS c 319 with the carinae projecting directly outward; outer margin of the carinae with five or six projecting tubercles, the first of which is formed by a continuation of the slightly thickened an- terior margin of the carina and lacks an apical Fig. 1.—Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp.: 18-segmented male. X 12. seta; on pore-bearing carinae several of the marginal tubercles are replaced by the large pore callus at the posterior corner; posterior margin of segments with 20 to 24 projecting setiferous tubercles; dorsum of segments 2 to 4 with setiferous tubercles in five irregular rows, those of the ensuing segments in six rows except 320 that on the last segment no tubercles are pres- ent and the setae are scattered and reduced in number; surface of the tubercles, the intervals between them, and the ventral surfaces, includ- ing the sterna, finely granular; anterior corners of the lateral carinae rounded in outline, the posterior corners also rounded and not pro- duced backward except on the penultimate and antepenultimate segments where small angles are developed. Last segment with a short, slightly deflexed apex. _ Eurymerodesmus minimus, n. sp. Fig. 2 One mature male (type) and three immature specimens collected at Marianna, Fla., October 27, 1941, by E. M. Loomis. Diagnosis. —This is by far the smallest mem- ber of the genus as it is known today; the dilute color may. be diagnostic, although in older specimens it may become more intensified; the gonopods differ from those of other members of the genus. : Description —Length 15 mm, width 2 mm. Color of living animal translucent white with a light pinkish tinge, which was lost soon after preservation in alcohol. Head with a shallow but definite groove on the vertex; labrum with a forwardly projecting fringe of 24 to 30 setae; behind the labral fringe is a clypeal series of about 20 stout setae, and still farther back, near the junction of the clypeus with the front, 2 to 4 erect setae cross the median surface, and a group of about 5 setae occurs on each side near the labral margin; the clypeal-frontal setae longer than those of the two anterior series; antennae with joints 2 to 5 subequal in length, somewhat exceeded by joint 6; longitudinal ridge under the mandibulary stipe of uniform height, end- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 33, NO. 10 ing simply instead of in an incurved process as in males identified as Z. mundus Chamberlin from between Duncanville and Cedar Hill, Dallas County, Tex. Segments of the usual form but with the lat- eral margins somewhat more thickened than in mundus. Male with the ventral surface of the legs, and the sterna, somewhat hairy, but not to the great extent found in mundus; sterna of pre- genital legs 3 to 7 lacking special processes; claws of male legs lacking a bulbous process at the base as in mundus, a character not previ- ously mentioned for that species. Fig. 2.—Eurymerodesmus minimus, nN. Gonopod, lo:e of sternum, and base of eighth leg; lateral view. Sp.: Margin of the opening around the gonopods raised on each side at its outer posterior limits into a broad triangular lobe, the base of which is on a line extending obliquely outward and backward, the process raised only about to the height of the base of the first joint of the eighth legs; posterior or inner face of the process with a few erect setae; process on one side of the body widely separated from the opposite one, the surface between the processes descending from the sternum of the eighth legs toward the inside of the body with its edge very much lower than the margin elsewhere. | Gonopod as shown in lateral view in Fig. 2. Eranotocy.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the -Corpla . Senecas. Witii1am N. FENTON AND MERLE lee DzEAR eg Botany,—New grasses from South America. + ZOOLOGY. ae new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Seyton : a new species from Florida. H. F, ‘Loomis. . ae Daa pate NOVEMBER 15, 1943 No. 11 JOURNAL OF THE ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS _ G, Artuur CooprrR Jason R. SwALLeN L. V. Jupson 'U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS W. Epwarps Dremina C. F. W. MugsEBEcK PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY % Harautp A. REHDER Epwin Krirx BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CuHARLOTTES ELuiorr Wiuiiam N, Fenton BOTANICAL SOCIDTY ANTHROPOLO ICAL. SOCIETY James I, Horrman es SUNTAN LN SF ‘CHEMICAL SOCIETY ~ . to # SS i sp. \ i HV = a , “ ; UV1o1S43 4 s WV. ms : 4 ry, 4 ye PUBLISHED MONTHLY ON A; MUSED. hag ltt eee i BY THE Pita eR Se SOR re WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Aunaip Sv. AT MEeNasHA, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. _ Authorized January 21, 1933. 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Seonal Museum. : JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 33 NovEMBER 15, 1943 No. 11 A scientific recreation—the extent and accuracy of our measurable concepts.!| HARVEY L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. Before giving consideration to the subject I have chosen for this evening’s address, I wish to assure members of the Washington Academy of Sciences that I am not unmind- ful of the fact that this nation .is in the midst of a war which demands all our intel- lectual acumen as well as our physical stam- ina. It would seem fitting that the address of the retiring president should deal with some of the problems that are concerned with the war effort. However, any scientific topic connected with the war could not be adequately treated because of restrictions imposed by military necessity. That would limit a discourse involving the war effort to an emotional subject that would either stimulate our egotism by praising our ac- complishments or would raise our morale by appealing to our sense of responsibility as leaders in science. I am convinced that no pronouncements of mine would appreciably influence your morale. Concerning egotism, I prefer to make no comments. I have, therefore, chosen a subject that has no rela- tion to this war. My purpose is to furnish a little recreation to those who are scientifi- cally minded. The description of the universe in which we live is facilitated by our ability to evalu- ate numerically many of our concepts con- cerning it. Thus a length can be expressed numerically in feet, a mass in kilograms, a time in hours, and other quantities in terms of appropriate units. The concepts that can be expressed by reference to a single unit are the simplest of those which are recog- nized by human beings. Other concepts, such as heat, light, and sound, require for 1 Address of the Retiring President of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at the 317th meeting of the Academy, February 18, 1943. Received March 15, 1943. their evaluation two or more numbers, each associated with its own unit, and the rela- tionship between these numbers may be expressed by means of a mathematical equa- tion of some complexity. Still other con- cepts such as odors, emotions, and physical pain ean not yet be numerically evaluated. This address will be concerned only with the simplest concepts, so that any quantity to be discussed can be completely evaluated by a single number when associated with a specific unit. The accuracy with which a given object or quantity may be measured can be ex- pressed numerically. Thus the equatorial di- ameter of the earth, a distance of more than 12% million meters, has now been measured with an accuracy of about 1 part in 300,000. The uncertainty in the value of the diameter is, in this case, solely the result of errors in the experimental determination, since both the standard meter and the equatorial di- ameter are definite to a much higher degree of accuracy. However, if our standard of length were a-wooden meter stick, which might change in length from day to day by a part in a thousand, then the accuracy of determining the equatorial diameter would be limited by the definiteness of the stand- ard and might be 5,000 or 10,000 meters in- stead of the experimental error of 50 meters. It is the aim of all standardizing laborato- ries so to maintain their fundamental stand- ards that the accuracy of any measurement involving them will depend either on the ex- perimental method used in making the measurement or on the indefiniteness of the object or quantity to be measured, and not on the definiteness of the standard. The accuracy that can be attained in measuring a quantity depends on its magni- tude. A very large or a very small distance, 321 Np ML ; tg #5 Ys 322 or mass, or time, or any other quantity can not be measured with as much accuracy as one of intermediate value. It is of interest to trace the accuracy of measurement in a few of our concepts throughout their entire range. Another interesting feature of our simple concepts is the extent of their range. The evaluation of the range of any concept re- quires that the largest and smallest object or quantity of this concept be measured in terms of the same unit. Then the extent of the concept may be taken as the ratio of the value for the largest known object or quan- tity to the value of the smallest. The meas- urements must be in terms of the same unit, but the extent of any concept is independent of the unit used in making the measure- ments. Our evening recreation will therefore consist in considering the accuracy of measurement of various physical quantities throughout their entire range and in giving an estimate of the extent of the range of the same quantities. For each of the physical quantities considered there have been se- lected a number of familiar objects, which range in size from the smallest to the largest for that quantity. For each physical quan- tity there has been prepared a chart show- ing the relationship between the size of an object and the accuracy with which it can be measured. A comparison of the charts will show interesting similarities and dif- ferences between the quantities. The three basic quantities in our system of physical measurements are length, mass, and time. Each can be measured over a wide range. Also, the accuracy with which measurements can be made in every part of the range of each is known. Hence, they have certain features in common. A loga- rithmic plot of accuracy of measurements vs. range will be made using the same rela- tive scale for each, so that comparison can be made of the three curves. The plot of length or distance shown in Fig. 1 has for its basic ordinate the meter and for its other ordinates multiples or sub- multiples of the meter. The abscissas are the accuracy of measurement. The scale of distance extends both below and above the unit line, each step representing a factor of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 1,000. The scale of accuracy, the abscissa, which has for its unit line one part in one, extends in the positive direction only; each step representing a factor of 10. The distances indicated on the chart and the accuracy with which they can be meas- ured will now be considered in detail. The object corresponding to the unit ordinate line is the standard meter bar. Two meter bars can be compared with an accuracy of a part in 10 million, or perhaps under very favorable conditions to a part in 30 million. One can appreciate the attainable accuracy by noting that the error in comparing two meter bars is about one-twentieth of the diameter of a fiber of spider silk. Be Se a REBAR Sun to Alpha Centauri BESRERo een aE Hest 2-82205 Earth to Moon LS * °2z107 |Diameter of Earth BARRE Primary base line ReRSSE OS ee a feter bar .: ' Millimeter standard BRRee Ac aoe BREE ans 6.4x10~-/ |Wave length of cadmium "a 75x1079 Separation of H nuclei BEE 288 4.6x10-3piemeter of proton Hott 2 Fic. 1.—The accuracy of measurements of length. The base line used in primary triangula- tion, usually a kilometer, can be measured with an accuracy of a millimeter, or a part in a million. The diameter of the earth, about 12 million meters, is known with an accuracy of only a part in 300,000. The larger distances are all astronomical. The accuracy decreases as the distance increases. The values for the accuracy both in this chart and those to follow were, for the most part, either obtained from published data or have been supplied by men experienced in the different fields. In only a few cases is the author’s judgment involved. The greatest distance that can be meas- ured is the diameter of the known universe. The distance to the farthest observed neb- ula is considered to be of the order of 500 million light years. Assuming this to be the radius of our known universe, the diameter is 10% meters. The 200-inch telescope is expected to double this. | Nov. 15, 1943 For distances less than a meter, which are plotted below the unit line, the accuracy decreases rapidly as the measured distance becomes smaller. For millimeter standards the accuracy has dropped to a part in a few hundred thousand. The distance between the nuclei of a hydrogen molecule is known only to a part in a thousand, while the diameter of a proton, the smallest known object, is known only to 10 per cent. Exceptions to the uniform decrease in accuracy with decrease in size are the wave lengths of light. The universally accepted standard is the wave length of the red cadmium line. While less than a millionth of a meter in length, this wave length is known with an accuracy of a few parts in 10 million. This accuracy in measurement can - be attained because nature places hundreds of thousands of the waves end to end with such fidelity that it is only necessary to measure from the first to the last and count the number of intervening waves. I have included the diameter of a spider web (a fiber of spider silk) as it is about the smallest distance with which everyone is familiar. However, spider webs vary greatly in diameter, so that one can not assign a definite value to the accuracy of their meas- urement; hence a dot is placed on the unit line of accuracy at the approximate dis- tance. This chart shows that, at the present time, length measurements can be made with the greatest accuracy for distances of about 1 meter. This region has not ma- terially changed for several hundred years. Recently interference methods permit the comparison of two end standards which are a decimeter long with about the same ac- curacy as can be obtained in comparing two line standards which are a meter in length. Thus, while the meter has not been dis- placed as the length that can be most ac- curately measured, it is conceivable that it may be when electron microscopes or X-ray interferometers are applied to the measure- ment of length. The extent of our concept of length, which is obtained by dividing the largest known length by the smallest, is 210°’. As pointed out when extent was defined, this is not dependent on the unit used in CURTIS: ACCURACY OF MEASURABLE CONCEPTS 323 measuring distance. It is a ratio of two like quantities and is therefore dimensionless. The accuracy with which masses of vari- ous magnitudes can be measured is shown in Fig. 2. The coordinates have the same relative values as the preceding chart, each step in the vertical direction representing a factor of 1,000 and each step in the hori- zontal direction representing a factor of 10. The unit ordinate is 1 kilogram. Two kilogram standards can be compared with an accuracy a little less than one part in a billion. However, two tons can be com- Battleship Blue whale Ton Kilogram standard Gran Milligramn ~44) Human blood corpuscle ~““ antipneumoooceus <7] Uranium atom Proton Electron Extent - 4x1071 Fic. 2.—The accuracy of measurements of man. pared only to a part in a million, while a battleship can be weighed only to a part in a, thousand. The blue whale has been in- troduced, as members of this species are probably the largest animals that ever in- habited the earth. Since the accuracy of weighing is not available, the weight is in- dicated by a dot on the unit line of accuracy. A battleship is one of the largest of the ter- restrial objects that are ordinarily weighed. The accuracy with which the mass of nearby astronomical objects, such as the moon, earth, and sun, can be determined is largely dependent on the accuracy with which the universal constant of gravitation can be measured. Hence, all have been given the same accuracy. Our galaxy is the largest 324 mass considered, being about that of a hundred billion suns. One might include the mass of the known universe, that is probably a hundred billion times that of our galaxy. However, the value is so uncertain that the accuracy scale would have to be extended to negative values of the expo- nents before it could be represented. When values less than a kilogram are _considered, the accuracy decreases rapidly with decreasing weight. Two living objects. may interest the biologists. An antipneumo- coccus germ or virus is among the smallest of living things. It would require 10?’ of them to weigh as much as a whale. The human blood corpuscle is, on the multiplica- tion scale, about midway between the ex- tremes of living things. The weighing of the very small objects: viz., atoms, protons, and electrons, requires an entirely different technique than employed for ordinary ob- jects. The electron is the object having the smallest mass known. Its value has been determined with an accuracy greater than 1 per cent. The extent of the measurement of mass is 41071. ' Value in Daye Interval Measured f th £826 on BEEP Length of Human History Vesuvius eruptions Accuracy - one part in Year Day - Sideréal Seconds pendulum Standard Quartz crystal Sodium molecule Nucleus of Silver atom Gamma rays of beryllium SRE BESESS eS aise : 1O ie ls | | ge an c Fic. 3.—The accuracy of measurements of time. The accuracy with which time intervals can be measured is shown in Fig. 3. The unit ordinate is the day. This is universally used as the standard of time, the second being merely a convenient submultiple of the day. The accuracy of measuring a single day is about a part in 10 million. A single year can be measured to about a part in 3 million. For the next interval I selected the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 = A Z VW is = > LATOOT AS Kep/m ,,01xe ausTT Jo ARTOOTAA Fia. 4.—Comparison of the accuracy of measure- ments of length, mass, and time. time between the two great eruptions of Vesuvius, the first on August 24, 79 A.D., and the second on December 16, 1631. If we consider the changes in calendar that took place, an error of a day or two in establishing these dates is quite probable. The length of human history is too indefi- nite to warrant more than a dot on the line of unit accuracy. It is now established that the first solid crust still remaining on the earth solidified about 2 billion years, or 8X10"! days, ago. This, then, is the age of the earth, and it is the oldest point on our time curve that can be definitely established. Life has existed for about one-fourth of that time. There is an uncertainty of at least 10 per cent in both these times. When times less than a day are con- sidered, the period of the seconds pendulum Nov. 15, 1943 and that of a standard quartz crystal can each be determined with the same accuracy as the day itself. The period of the sodium molecule is.known with great accuracy, and even that of the nucleus of the silver atom is comparatively well known. The shortest vibration that can be ascribed to a known source is the gamma radiation from beryl- lium, which is known with an accuracy of about 10 per cent. The extent of the measurement of time i o< 10°. easecte Quantity to be measured - hours 75x Earth in Orbit Emitted daily by Sun Rotation of Farth Accuracy - One part in Received daily by Earth @gorrny Ton of coal Emitted daily by 40-watt lemp A lerge calorie A kilogram raised one seter Qe Oo Dt oct | Flash of firefly Flectron-volt Minimum required for vision le oer ale la eee ai Bush hee BnUoeesEsaess! Setet eae alee ee SCecseee bose Bose Se 7 eor eee Sic RGaw mac CES eiaeee Se se eee ees al HEnrshi GE ol Csembdoeea? “1] Molecule of gas at O°C(aver- age) Fig. 5.—The accuracy of measurements of energy. It is interesting to compare the accuracy curves of the three fundamental quantities of our system of measurements. The curves of the three preceding charts are, therefore, brought together in Fig. 4. An application of these curves is the selection of a suitable base line for measuring the velocity of light. This velocity is about 3 X10" m/day. If the length of the base line is from 10 to 100 meters, the time to be measured is between 6X10-" and 6X10-" days. Both this length and this time can be measured with an accuracy of about a part in a million. If a longer base line is chosen the length can not be measured with this accuracy, while if a shorter base line is chosen the accuracy of the time measurement will be decreased. In each realm of science charts similar to those here presented can be prepared. Out- side the fundamental quantities the physical quantity of widest interest is energy. Un- CURTIS: ACCURACY OF MEASURABLE CONCEPTS 329 Accuracy - one part ino Value in volts Potential to be Measured Lightning stroke 6 t+) % experimental vol izes Highest Soamereial vol 321077 Concentration cell 6x10" ‘| Thermal emf/1°C(al-Pb) Fic. 6.—The accuracy of measurements of electrical potential. fortunately, there is no one unit of energy that is regularly used in all fields where measurements of energy are made. I have chosen to take the kilowatt-hour as the basic unit in preparing the chart in Fig. 5. Nearly every adult has some feeling for this unit because it appears on all electric bills. It may be given some semblance of reality by noting that the electrical energy con- verted to radiant energy in 24 hours by a 40-watt lamp is approximately a kilowatt- hour. The accuracy with which energy measure- ments can be made is much less than in the case of the basic quantities of our measure- ment system. In no case is an accuracy greater than a part in a hundred thousand obtainable, and that accuracy holds for the range from unity to 10-* kilowatt-hours. The energy of a ton of coal can be measured to 0.1 percent, but all astronomical energy only to 1 percent. On the other hand, molec- ular and electronic energy can be measured with reasonable accuracy. It is expected that a retiring president shall make some mention of the field of science to which he has given special atten- tion. In order that I may not disappoint you I will extend our recreations to include Accuracy - one part in ee Object to be Measured One kilogran finest Sichrome wire Telephofie wire - N. Y. to Prisco Standard Ohm Meter of trolley wire o“} Silver dollar 4 Superconducting aetel Fig. 7.—The accuracy of measurements of electrical resistance. 326 some of the electrical units. The first of these to be considered is electric potential, which is shown in Fig. 6. The scale is the same as previously used. The unit ordinate is the volt, which is repre- sented by the electromotive force of a stand- ard cell that can be measured with an ac- curacy of a part in ten million. The upper limit is the potential of a lightning stroke, and the lower limit is the thermal electro- motive force between similar metals. The second electrical unit to be con- sidered is electrical resistance, represented in Fig. 7. The unit ordinate is the ohm, which can be measured with an accuracy of 1 part in 10 million, the same as for electrical po- tential. The values range from 101” ohms for the resistance of an amber rod to about 10-8 for a silver dollar, although a wire of a superconducting metal has a resistance less than 10-” ohm, the limit of measurement. An interesting feature of electrical resist- ance is the possibility of bringing before you objects representing nearly the extremes of the values that are normally measured. The chart for electrical capacitance is shown in Fig. 8 to illustrate the small extent of some units. The most precise measure- ments of capacitance can be made on an air capacitor having a capacitance of about 0.1 microfarad. This is equal to the capacitance between two plates, each 4 meters in diame- ter and 1 mm apart. The capacitance be- tween the earth and the Kennelly-Heavi- side layer is only 40,000 microfarads. The capacitance between a ball 2 mm in diame- ter and the walls of a large room in the center of which the ball is placed is 10-7 microfarad. The chart in Fig. 9 has been prepared to show the extent of each of the quantities which have been considered. The scale is a multiplication scale, with each numbered division being a factor of 101°, or 10 billion. The enormous difference in the extent of the different quantities is apparent. It would be interesting to extend this study to measurements outside the physical field. As an example, consider the measure- ment of intelligence. There can be little question that the accuracy that can be attained in determining the I.Q. of an in- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 33, NO. 11 dividual in the normal range of intelligence is much greater than for a genius or for a moron. Other examples will doubtless occur to workers in the biological and sociological fields. 7 Objects between which ads Capacitance is measured Earth & K-H layer Accuracy - one part in ne 6 8 t+) meee far (=) 107! |two 4-meter plates, lam apart \) ZS SAGnearnot.e KE d. 1077 | 2-om ball Inside an inft- te sphere se BeGeos Beene fe aa Pam GSReRE LIC Coe Fic. 8.—The accuracy of measurements of electrical capacitance. The charts that have been given apply only to measurements as they can be made at the present time. Had a scientist of the last generation prepared such charts, the accuracy of measurement would, for almost every quantity, have been appreciably less throughout the entire range. Also, for many of the quantities the extent would have been much less than can now be claimed. It is to be expected that future scientists will improve the accuracy of measurement and extend the range. It is intriguing to con- template a chart with a series of curves showing, for the beginning of each century for which data are available, the accuracy and extent of the measurement of such fundamental quantities as length, mass, and time. For those to whom this type of recrea- tion has an appeal, there is ample room. Length Resistance potential Capacitance Fig. 9.—The extent of measurements of seven physical quantities. Nov. 15, 1943 HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE 327 HISTORY OF SCIENCE.—The genealogical tree of modern science.1Pauu R. HeEyt, National Bureau of Standards. Science may be defined as an ordered and correlated body of knowledge, as distin- guished from a group of uncoordinated facts. Any branch of knowledge which has reached this ordered stage of development may be called a science, though in common usage this term is often understood as re- ferring to what are called the natural sciences—astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, and biology. There are, however, other branches of knowledge equally en- titled to rank as sciences under this defini- tion, such as mathematics, logic, linguistics, economics, ethics, and that which its de- votees like to call ‘‘the science of sciences’ — philosophy. In fact, in the Middle Ages theology was called ‘‘the Queen of the Sci- ences.’ Viewed from this aspect, the term “science”? may be regarded as covering al- most the whole range of human thinking; and as it is obviously impossible to cover such an extent of territory in a limited time, we shall confine ourselves to a more re- stricted field. : The first thing necessary is to get a good perspective of the subject, to see where and when the earliest scientific records are to be found, how scientific centers arose in other places, while the activity of the earlier ones faded away, and to which of these early centers modern science is most in- debted for its heritage. The oldest civilizations are those of China, India, Egypt, and Babylonia. It is not always possible to assign definite dates to the earliest events mentioned in the ancient records of these countries, as these records sometimes disagree among themselves by hundreds of years. All that modern historical scholarship feels safe in saying is that recorded history in China and India dates from somewhere in the third millennium B.C., and in Egypt and Baby- lonia perhaps a thousand years earlier. In all these countries (except India) the earliest scientific records are in the field of 1 Address delivered at the 1216th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington, March 27, 1943. Received May 15, 1943. astronomy. This is but natural, as a prac- tical acquaintance with the rudiments of astronomy is indispensable to primitive people. The sun is their clock; the moon affords a measure of periods of time too long to be counted conveniently in days; and eclipses of the sun and moon must have inspired terror from earliest times. The astronomy of these early days con- tained a large element of astrology; never- theless, a considerable amount of astronom- ical knowledge was accumulated. In con- nection with this a parallel development of mathematics was unavoidable. The be- ginnings of the other sciences came later. China, for geographical reasons, was long isolated from the western world. Even the silk trade did not become important until near the beginning of the Christian Era, and this involved no cultural relations be- tween China and Europe. The silk was sent from depot to depot, serving the Indian and Persian empires, and changed hands many times along the route. The first Europeans to reach Peking were the Polos, in the latter part of the thirteenth century. Marco Polo records in the account of his travels only one item that may be regarded as of a sci- entific nature. He says in one place: “It is a fact that all over the country of Cathay there is a kind of black stones exist- ing in beds in the mountains which they dig out and burn like firewood. If you supply the fire with them at night, and see that they are well kindled, you will find them still alight in the morning; and they make such capital fuel that no other is used throughout the country. It is true that they have plenty of wood also, but they do not burn it, because these stones burn better and cost less.” But Marco Polo’s account of the manners and customs of the Chinese was not taken seriously by his contemporaries. He was popularly known as ‘‘Marco Millions,” and his book was regarded as a collection of travelers’ tales. It was centuries before his account of his travels received the attention it deserved. 328 The Chinese annals contain lists of com- ets dating back ostensibly to about 2300 B.C. The early parts of this record are rather confused, but modern astronomers have checked the later parts and found them intelligible and trustworthy as far back as 611 B.C. The Chinese seem to have been early acquainted with the length of the solar year, as the first Jesuit missionaries, who arrived in China in the seventeenth century, found that it was an immemorial custom among the Chinese to divide a circle into 365;°. The Chinese seem also, at an early period, to have used astronomical instruments with graduated circles by which measurements of right ascension and dec- lindtion could be made. Some of these in- struments, constructed about 1280 A.D., were still to be seen at Peking in 1881. They show that the Chinese anticipated by at least three centuries some of Tycho Brahe’s most important inventions, and one of their sages is credited with having measured with considerable accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptic. The inventions of gunpowder, of print- ing, and of the magnetic compass are also ascribed to the Chinese. The art of printing from movable blocks was undoubtedly known in China in the early centuries of the Christian Era. It is possible that the claim of antiquity for the invention of gun- powder is also well founded, as explosives were a natural development from the in- cendiaries used in warfare by all the nations of antiquity. There is some doubt, however, as to the antiquity of the Chinese knowl- edge of the compass, as their first documen- tary record of this device is not earlier than the sixteenth century. But even granting the early invention of all these things, the western world received none of them from China. The beginning of cultural intercourse between Europe and the Far East dates from the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in China in the seventeenth century, and by that time western science had developed to such a degree that China had nothing of value to offer. The ancient records of India are silent on scientific matters, but it is reasonable to assume that astronomy (or astrology) was JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 not nonexistent there in early times. Indi- rect evidence of this is found in the growth of Hindu mathematics. About 600 A.D. Hindu algebra and geometry had reached a remarkable stage of development, and to some unknown Hindu sage the western world is indebted for two inventions of the first rank in practical importance—the sym- bol for zero and the principle of position in numeration. These devices were taken up by the Arabs and later transmitted by them to Europe, whence we speak of the “‘Arabic”’ numerals. In ancient Egypt astronomy was to a certain extent the handmaid of religion. The stars were observed that they might be duly worshiped. These observations, however, were not without their usual practical as- pect. For example, the heliacal rising, or ‘first appearance at dawn of the bright star Sirius, heralded the beginning of the rise of the Nile, so important in Egyptian agricul- ture. The ancient Egyptian mind excelled in practical engineering rather than in theo- retical science. In geometry, the Egyptians laid emphasis on making constructions and determining areas. This was probably a consequence of the necessity of determining boundaries anew after the recession of the annual Nile flood. The Greeks (perhaps rather contemptuously) called the Egyp- tian geometers ‘“rope-stretchers,”’ rather than philosophers, and there is some evi- dence that this opinion was not unjustified. There is in the British Museum an Egyp- tian papyrus, written by one Ahmes some time before 1700 B.C. It is entitled “‘Direc- tions for Obtaining the Knowledge of All Dark Things.” It shows that the Egyptians of that day cared but little for mathemati- cal theory. It contains practical rules for de- termining areas, with no theoretical proof. These rules give more or less inaccurate re- sults. For instance, the area of an isosceles triangle whose sides measure 10 ruths and the base 4 ruths is given as 20 square ruths, or half the product of the base by one side. Occasionally, however, the results are rather close. The area of a circle is found by sub- tracting from the diameter one-ninth of its length and squaring the remainder. This is Nov. 15, 1943 equivalent to a value of z equaling 3.1604, a very fair approximation. There is evidence, however, that the an- cient Egyptians carried out their engineer- ing work with a high degree of perfection and no little ingenuity. The precise orienta- tion of the Pyramids shows the care with which they observed the heavenly bodies, and in heavy construction they accom- plished work which has called forth the ad- miration of modern engineers. The quarrying, transporting, and erecting of the many obelisks still standing in Egypt illustrate this engineering skill. It is some- times said, rather superficially, that the Kgyptians had unlimited man power; but a little reflection will show that something more than this was required. HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE 329 and written records of later periods give us some hints of the methods used. The Egyptians knew the use of rollers, of the inclined plane, and of the lever. Single pulleys for changing the direction of a rope were used, but pulley blocks and screw jacks were not known. What modern engi- neer would undertake to move and erect one of these great stones without the aid of these two important mechanical powers? Two kinds of stone were used by the Egyptians—granite and limestone. The obe- lisks were cut from quarries in upper Egypt, over 300 miles from the Mediterranean coast, and transported by water down the Nile to the place where they were to be erected. In one of these quarries there was found a broken saw in a cut in the rock. Fig. 1.—Egyptian method of loading an obelisk. An obelisk 150 feet high, with an average cross section of 100 square feet, will weigh about 1,000 tons. Allowing 2 feet per man, not more than 150 men could stand around one of these great stones as it lay on the ground; and the lifting of such a stone by unaided man power would require each man to lift about 7 tons. Our knowledge of how the Egyptians ac- complished their feats of engineering comes from three sources. The rainless climate of Egypt has preserved for us in their original perfection numerous drawings on the walls of ancient temples and tombs, depicting the daily life of the common people. Remnants of unfinished work are found here and there; This saw was a large two-man saw, of copper or bronze. It had no teeth, but fragments of emery were found lying about it. Mines of emery have been known from remote antiquity in the islands of the eastern Mediterranean. It is obvious that the cutting of the stone was accomplished by feeding the saw with emery and water. It is not an uncommon practice today to cut stone by use of belts of wire rope, driven by a steam engine and fed with sand and water. The loading of the stone on a boat was a problem requiring considerable ingenuity. A stone weighing 1,000 tons, if it got away from those handling it and fell only 6 inches, 330 would break the bottom out of any boat. Pliny, in his Natural history, tells how this loading was done. Pliny visited Egypt a thousand years after the obelisk period, but he apparently found a living tradition that he preserved for us; and when I tell you what it was, you will remember it for a thousand years, if you live that long. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 The lower surface of the stone was probably not more than a foot or so above the water level. Two large flat boats were then loaded down with stone, pushed under the obelisk —and the stone unloaded! ; The obelisk was then floated down the river to the desired locality, and the loading process reversed. Near one of the obelisks at Luxor there is still to be seen the trace of Fig. 2.—Egyptian method of erecting an obelisk. The method employed is illustrated in Fig. 1. The obelisk was brought down to the river bank and laid parallel to the river. Two canals were dug under it, so that it was supported at the middle and at the ends. the canal by which it was floated in from the river at the time it was erected. The erection of an obelisk was a task that required still more ingenuity than loading it on a boat. A thousand tons of stone in an Nov. 15, 1943 elongated form is not only heavy, but brit- tle. Unless carefully supported there is danger of its breaking by its own weight. Fig. 2 shows how the erection of an obelisk was carried out. The first thing was to prepare the stone base. Around this were built up walls of Nile mud, which were tamped down and allowed to dry thoroughly. One of these walls was extended into a long inclined plane. The empty space between the walls was then filled with dry sand from the des- ert. The obelisk, supported on a long wooden frame, was then pushed up the incline on rollers, bottom first. On reaching the top its bottom end tilted downward and rested on the sand. An opening was then made at the bottom of the walland the sand removed, a bucketful at a time. The sand ran down as in a gigantic hourglass, and the obelisk finally came to rest on its base in an upright position. In chemistry, the Egyptians were proba- bly no farther advanced than other peoples of antiquity. The arts of tanning and dyeing and the production of brass and bronze were widely practiced in ancient times. But by an accident of history the Egyptians contrib- uted something to the science of chemistry that no other nation had an opportunity to do—they gave it its name. The fertile land of Egypt is a streak of black Nile mud, 5 to 15 miles wide, across the yellow sand of the desert. In the ancient Egyptian tongue the country was called “Khem,” or ‘“Khmi,” meaning “black earth.” When the Mohammedan Arabs came into Egypt in the seventh century A.D., they were interested in the simple chemical arts they found there. They com- bined an Arabic prefix with the native name of the land, and coined the word “‘al-Khemi,” meaning “the Egyptian art.’ Not until the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury did this word lose its Arabic prefix, and the alchemist become a chemist. In the early records of Babylonia we find much of importance in the field of astron- omy, especially well preserved for us on clay tablets. The principal constellations, as we know them, including the signs of the HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE 331 zodiac, originated in Babylonia. The period called the Saros, of 18 years and 11 days, in which eclipses of the sun and moon repeat themselves very nearly, was discovered in Chaldea at an unknown epoch. By means of this cycle the Babylonian sages were able to predict eclipses. The first ‘Nautical Alma- nac”’ was published annually on clay tab- lets, now in the British Museum. These tablets contain times of new moon, of heliacal risings and settings, of conjunctions and oppositions of the planets, and predic- tions of eclipses. One of these old tablets contains an interesting astronomical report: “To the king, my lord, thy faithful servant, Mar-Istar: “On the first day, as the new moon’s day of the month Thammuz declined, the moon was again visible over the planet Mercury, as I had already predicted to my master, the king. I erred not.” It is from the Babylonians that we have derived our division of the circle into 360°, as they had a calendar of 12 lunar months, which is still preserved by their modern kinsmen, the Mohammedan Arabs. It was from the Babylonians that the Greeks obtained their first scientific stimu- lus. The genius of the Greek mind lay not so much in invention as in development and perfection. The great Greek teacher Plato (429-348 B.C.) recognized this when he said: ‘‘Whatever we Greeks receive, we im- prove and perfect.’”’ This was well illus- trated in the genesis of Greek science. Greek science did not originate in the mainland of Greece but in the Greek colo- nies in the Ionian islands in the eastern Mediterranean. It was 200 years before this movement reached the mother country. About 650 B.C. certain Babylonian sages found their way to the shore of the Mediter- ranean, where they came in contact with Greek colonists. A school was founded on the island of Cos, which soon became a new center of learning. Among the Ionian phi- losophers we find the names of many famous scientific pioneers, not only in astronomy and mathematics but also in physics and medicine. Thales of Miletus was one of the earliest 332 philosophers of this school. His name is traditionally associated with the prediction of a solar eclipse and with the electrical properties of amber. Pythagoras of Samos was a pupil of Thales, and his name sug- gests a well-known geometrical theorem. He later migrated to the Greek colonies in Magna Grecia (Sicily and southern Italy), where a new scientific center grew up that later furnished teachers to the mother coun- try. In the Ionian island of Samothrace, at some time prior to 400 B.C., there was dis- covered the magnetic toy known as the Samothracian rings. Aristarchus of Samos, about 250 B.C., was the first to suggest a heliocentric theory of the solar system. Hip- pocrates of Cos, about 450 B.C., is still known as the ‘‘Father of Modern Medi- cine,”’ and framed copies of the Hippocratic oath, which was administered to all candi- dates for the profession in his day, are now to be seen hanging in physicians’ offices. Certain of these Ionians are known to have visited Egypt, and undoubtedly they profited to some extent by what they learned there, but the greater part of the credit for Te origin of Greek science is undoubtedly due to Babylonia. The rise of Athens and the ensuing Golden Age of Greece (480-338 B.C.) brought in another new center of learn- ing. Here we have the names of Plato and his pupil Aristotle. With the fall of Athens and the rise of Alexander the Great, a new center of sci- entific learning grew up at Alexandria. This city was founded by Alexander in 332 B.C., and its first ruler, Ptolemy Soter (not to be confused with the astronomer Ptolemy), offered opportunities to Greek scholars to continue their studies under his auspices. He built for their accommodation the mu- seum where, maintained by royal bounty, they resided, studied, and taught. He laid the foundations of the great Alexandrian library and originated the search for copies of all written works, which resulted in the formation of a collection such as the world has seldom seen. The successors of Ptolemy Soter carried on his original plan vigorously, and one of them, Euergetes (247-222 B.C.), compelled all travelers who arrived in Alex- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 andria to leave a copy of any literary work that they possessed. The Alexandrian school, though located on Egyptian soil, was essentially Greek in its personnel and habits of thought. About 80 B.C. Egypt came under Roman domina- tion. After this time the character of the school gradually suffered a change. The earlier scholars had devoted themselves to science and literature, while in later times their main interest was in what we would now called philosophy. Yet while it lasted (until the fifth century A.D.) the school of Alexandria included some great names: Kuclid (about 300 B.C.); Apollonius of Perga (200 B.C.), the author of a treatise on conic sections; Eratosthenes (230 B.C.), who made the first measurement of the cir- cumference of the earth; and Hipparchus (160-125 B.C.), who found the epicyelical theory of the heavens, later known as the Ptolemaic system, from its most famous ex- positor, Claudius Ptolemaeus. The culture of Rome was largely bor- rowed from the Greeks. The Romans ex- celled in their own right in law and adminis- tration and developed considerable ability in the building of roads and aqueducts, but manual labor of any kind was held to be de- grading. Seneca (3 B.C.-65 A.D.) said: In my own time there have been inventions of this sort, transparent windows, tubes for diffusing warmth equally through all parts of a building, short-hand which has been carried to such a perfection that a writer can keep pace with the most rapid speaker. But the inventing of such things is drudgery for the lowest slaves; philosophy lies deeper. It is not her office to teach men how to use their hands. The object of her lessons is to form the soul. In them there is nothing of instruments for the necessary use of artisans. With such a stigma resting upon it, no great development of science could ee been expected under Roman auspices. The fall of Rome (476 A.D.) made matters worse, for the barbarians who overwhelmed Rome had no traditions of culture; and in addition to this indifference to science there developed in Europe a positive hostility to it in an unexpected quarter. Nov. 15, 1943 In the early centuries of the Christian Era there existed a widespread belief that the Last Judgment was close at hand and might be expected to occur within any one’s lifetime. In consequence, time was precious and should be devoted to saving souls rather than to the study of natural phenomena that were so soon to pass away. Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (260-340 A.D.), speaking of scientific investigators, said: “It is not through ignorance of the things admired by them, but through con- tempt of their useless labor that we think little of these matters, turning our souls to better things.’”’ His successor, Basil, de- clared: “It is a matter of no interest to us whether the earth is a sphere or a cylinder or a disk, or concave in the center like a fan.” As the years passed and the last day did not occur, the prophets revised their calcu- lations and finally announced that the great event would happen in the year 1000. This prediction received wide belief and was a factor in prolonging for centuries in Europe the idea that the study of nature was a waste of time. When the year 1000 finally arrived this belief was as strong as ever. Many European peasants thought it useless to till their fields, and in consequence much suffering occurred. This feeling that scientific study was a waste of precious time undoubtedly had much to do with the almost total eclipse of science in Europe during the Middle Ages. However, during this period scientific knowledge was kept alive in the East by the Arabs. — Arabia, at: the time when Mohammed came upon the scene (about 613 A.D.), was in a state of political chaos. Part of it was under Persian influence; the rest of the pop- ulation either lived in towns, each of which had its own government, or else belonged to various wandering tribes maintaining the traditions of family and tribal rule and fighting continual battles with one another. Mohammed’s success in welding together this apparently unpromising material into ‘a united and conquering nation is one of the wonders of history. At his death in 632 he left Arabia practically unified. His succes- HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE 333 sors conquered the whole of northern Africa and crossed the strait of Gibraltar into Spain, where they remained an important element of the population until the time of Columbus. The post-Mohammedan Arabs encouraged learning, exalted the supremacy of reasoning, founded schools from Bagdad to Granada, and did everything possible to apply scientific knowledge to the purposes of every day life, so much so that the Crusaders were astonished at the magnifi- cence and splendor of the civilization with which they were confronted. Arabic scholars made translations from the Greek writers and added contributions of their own. The extent of the scientific knowledge of the Arabs is illustrated by the following words, all of Arabic origin, which still preserve their original signification—nadir, zenith, alchemy, alkali, algebra, cipher, carat, elixir. The esteem in which the Arabs held scien- tific study at a time when Europe regarded it as worthless is illustrated by a burst of enthusiasm from one of their own writers (850 A.D.), who said: “‘In the Last Day, may Allah have mercy on the soul of Al- Razi, for he was the first of mankind to draw up a table of specific gravities.”’ It is impossible to regard this change in the group psychology of the Arabs in post- Mohammedan times without feeling that there must have been something dormant in their heredity that responded in its own way to the general stimulus given by Moham- med. It is unthinkable that Mohammed could have brought about the same result with any of the tribes of central Africa. In this connection we think at once of the in- tellectual achievements of that other an- cient branch of the Semitic race—the Babylonians. Scientific learning seems to. have been indigenous to the soil of ancient Arabia. It is true that there is another side to this story. Besides those Arabs who kept the lamp of learning burning, there were others, religious fanatics, such as the Caliph Omar, who ordered the destruction of the rem- nants of the great Alexandrian library on the ground that if the books agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if they did not they were pernicious, and should be de- 334 stroyed. Fortunately, Arabs of his type seem to have been an insignificant minority. To return to Europe, after the critical year 1000 had passed the people seem to have gradually lost faith in the prophets of doom, and interest in scientific investigation began to reappear here and there. In the lat- ter part of the twelfth century the magnetic compass came into use, and in the thir- teenth century we have Roger Bacon, a scientific pioneer. The revival of interest in science in Europe was a part of the general renewal of interest in learning. The Renaissance period was not, as it is sometimes represented, a sudden break with medievalism and a birth of the modern world. It extended over a period of a century or more. A number of conditions favorable to the rapid develop- ment of learning happened to coincide, and as a result man’s outlook on himself and nature in general became profoundly modi- fied. One of these conditions resulted from the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. With the fall of the Byzantine Empire many learned Greeks fled into Italy, bringing with them manuscripts of Greek literature and (what was more important) the ability JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 to read them. A revival of interest in the culture of the ancients ensued, especially in Italy, which became the chief center of the Renaissance. The invention of printing at about this time made it possible to obtain many copies of books at a comparatively trifling cost, and the voyages of Columbus produced new ideas and prepared men’s minds to accept the more human and naturalistic view of the universe which had been current among the Greeks, in place of the mystical aspect which it wore to the medieval schoolmen and ecclesiastics. It will be seen from this brief sketch of the genealogical tree of European science . that its roots are to be found in the ancient civilizations of Babylonia, Egypt, and India, in the order of importance as named. It is probably safe to say that Babylonia con- tributed more than Egypt and India to- gether. The contributions of these ancient civilizations converged, partly for geograph- ical reasons, on Greece, where they fell on fertile soil. From the Greeks this heritage of knowledge passed to the Romans, and later, on the decline of Greece and Rome, it passed to the Arabs, who were its custodians until the revival of learning in Europe. ETHNOLOGY.—Hokan discovered in South America.: JoHN P. HARRINGTON. (Communicated by WiuuiamM N. FENTON.) : The purpose of this paper is to show the Hokan affinity of Quechua, “lengua gen- eral,”’ that is, general language, of the Inca Empire, formerly, and still at the present day, spoken in large parts of what are now the countries of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, in South America, and much heard at the present moment even on the streets of Cuzco, Quito, and Potosf. Hitherto the af- finity of Hokan has been carried only to the Subtiaba language of the Pacific watershed of Central America.? The present discovery carries Hokan a step farther, and for the first time unites the two continents of North and South America linguistically. I 1 Received August 28, 1943. 2 Sapir, E., The Hokan affinity of Subtiaba in Nicaragua. Amer. Anthrop. 27: 402-435, 491- 527. 1925. wish to express deep indebtedness and gratitude to Dr. Luis E. Valecarcel and to Prof. J. M. B. Farfan, the latter having gone farther than any other person in a bold analysis of Quechua linguistic forms. Following Sapir’s discernment that simi- larity of meaning should have precedence over similarity of sound as a guide in the as- sembling of forms for comparison, Farfan and the present writer, with entirely differ- ent backgrounds, have analyzed Quechua forms, with the result of becoming entirely convinced that these are made up of ag- glutinated elements, stereotyped and worn into a peculiarly nonperspicuous condition. Bases and their endings, and even bibases in origin, have become phonetically improved and evaluated for statement and for label- ing of entity. But in origin Quechua forms Nov. 15, 1943 were conglomerations, like those of other Hokan languages, consisting of bases and affixes amalgamated together, and are still thus composed, and could be advantage- ously pried apart, if we only had some good means of doing so with certainty. Quechua doubtless contains bases of first and of sec- ond position and many affixes. The Quechua language has changed through countless generations since the time when it was more nearly related to Hokan, many of those which were perhaps in early times principal forms having gone out of use. Yet the main Hokan traits of affinity still remain, in sounds, in structure, in vocabulary. The as- sumption of the present status has been attended with ablautings of vowels and with changings of consonants. Component sounds in various settings have developed differ- ently; yet in spite of this phonetic shifts can be worked out, some of them not too good, and being not too good they are the more convincing for showing genetic affin- ity. Hokanity pervades the entire make-up of Quechua. Wesimply do not possess a good approach to the analysis of Quechua. The dialects of Quechua are not sufficiently differentiated for furnishing such an approach. And there is no extraneous language closely enough related to Quechua to render synchronic findings in it well worth while. Early record- ings in Quechua itself throw light on only a few forms. The name of the Quechua language.—The native name of the Quechua language in Quechua itself is runasimi, which means literally a person’s mouth, but the second member is extended by metaphor to signify language, so that the whole means native’s language, coinciding exactly with the cur- rent Spanish term: lengua general. The lan- guage is called Quechua in Spanish, but not so in Quechua speech itself. The geographi- cal term qheswa, mountain valley, was also used as a place name and from this usage became applied to an inhabitant or collec- tivity of inhabitants of a place. The term qheswa was in use meaning inhabitant of the province of Cuzco, and from this use it was only a step to the taking of the term into Spanish in the form Quechua and as the name of the language in its entirety. HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED'IN SOUTH AMERICA 339 Loan words of Quechua origin in Spanish. —No better appreciation of the prominent position of the Quechua language with re- gard to influence on Spanish can be gained than from an examination of some of the words common in Spanish which have come into it from Quechua. A large bilingual population has for generations helped along this borrowing. Well-known Spanish words which have found their way into Spanish from Quechua are: Andes (from anti, mountain-region); campa, Campa (from kampa, coward); chaco, Chaco (from teaku, hunt); chacra (from tcaxra, culti- vated field); charqui (from tcarki, jerky); condor (from kuntur, condor); Cuzco (from Qotcqo, name of the Inca capital); guaca- mayo (from wakamayu, macaw); guano (from wanu, manure); pampa (from pampa, plain); papa (from papa, potato); pita (from pita, string); puma (from puma, mountain lion); puna (from puna, elevated plain); quina (said to be from kina, Peru- vian bark); quipo (from ghipu, knot). The three approaches to the analysis of Quechua.—(1) The main approach will al- ways have to be internal analysis within the Quechua language itself, by comparison of forms with related ones and with forms not related. It was by internal analysis and with a guiding background knowledge of some of the Hokan languages of North America that realization of the Hokan nature of Quechua first dawned upon me. Starting with wi-qe, tear, which reminded me vividly of Pomo yu-xa, tear, lit. eye-water, I.e., eye’s mois- ture, I obtained old Quechua elements for eye and for water: wi-, eye; -qe, water. It was easy to see that Quechua nyawi, eye, also occurring in nyawpa, in front of, must have replaced an older and once dominant wi-, eye. Three forms are to be found of the old word for water: -qe, as in wi-ge, tear; qo-, for instance in qo-tca, lake; and qa, seasonal stream. Sun-kha, beard, was sensed to be literally mouth-hair, the first syllable a form of simi, mouth, the second syllable evidently to be identified with qa-, skin, pelt. To adduce the very rare great similarity between Quechua and a Hokan language far north, I formed wa-si-lya-y, my little house, and compared it with Chimariko a-wa-lla-’i, my little house. 336 Comparison within Quechua itself some- times shows what is the meaningful part of a word. For instance, it becomes apparent that haly- signifies earth, upon comparison of (h)aly-p(’)a, earth; haly-pi, to dig; haly-ma, to dirty. Sometimes one is at a loss to know which forms to select for com- parison. Thus pa-na, sister, and pa-ya, old woman, may belong together. 2. It is rare indeed that early spellings of Quechua are helpfully divirgent from the present-day ones. Examples of useful early spellings are rinkri, ear, now oridinarily rinri; -kta, objective, not standardly -ta. 3. Sometimes a dialect of Quechua, diver- gent in its retention of a form, offers mate- rial for comparison which the standard language does not offer. Thus phy-yu, cloud, is shown by the Cajamarca dialect of Quechua pu-kuta, cloud, to have its first syllable carry the meaning of cloud. Notably the Chinchay dialect of Quechua, a vocabulary of which first was published in the second edition of Torres Rubio’s Arte de la langua Quechua, Lima, 1700, is removed from the standard Quechua as regards forms and vocabulary. Comparison of Quechua with the Hokan languages is more restricted by lack of sure analysis in Quechua than by any other fac- tor. Metaphorical extension of definition.— When for instance nyaw-sa, blind, lit. not having eyes, is found to have had its mean- ing extended by metaphor to sightless, we contemplate what has been called a meta- phorical extension of meaning. Metaphori- cal means, literally, carrying beyond. Ranking of elements negligible as regards comparison.—lIt is found again and again upon comparing extraneous Hokan forms with Quechua that the compared elements override the weight which they have as- sumed in a given language, with the result that a theme or base has sometimes to be compared with an affix, or vice versa. Abbreviations.—The name of the lan- guage from which taken is placed before a compared form. If the name of the language is short, or if the name occurs rarely, it is written out in full. And in general descrip- tion, language names are not abbreviated. For instance, Yana, the name of a Hokan JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 language of California, is so short that it would be unnecessary to abbreviate it. The few language names which it is advanta- geous to shorten as labels of provenience pre- ceding cited forms are: Chime 424, a ees Chimariko Choet? ge Rae Choctaw ne) aaa Bt Aeon f Quechua Salley. At cae tune Salinan Sulla gers aycoe hy Wo eater Subtiaba PHONETICS In bird’s-eye view, the Hokan languages show a. contrastive distinguishing of six vowels, for the most part, which vowels can be written by the familiar symbols: aouei 39. Some of the Hokan languages further- more distinguish short and long vowels, but Quechua does not. In far perspective as regards consonants, what may be called the principal character- istic of the Hokan languages is that while many of them, as for instance Yana, have only one articulatory series produced by the back of the tongue and again only one pro- duced by the front of the tongue, Quechua, for instance, has two back-of-the-tongue series, which could be spoken of as the q and the k series, and Salinan is noted for possessing two front-of-the-tongue series, which could be spoken of as the t and the t series. No Hokan language has been found which has both the two rear and the two | front series. It is a general feature of the phonetics of the Hokan languages to have developed, in addition to unaspirated clusives, which would naturally be written with the un- aspirated values of Spanish t and p for in- stance, also a clicked variety of clusives, and again a strongly aspirated variety of clusives, thereby greatly increasing the number of distinctive consonant sounds. The Hokan system of consonants, with- out listing in separate lines the doubling of rear or of front series, yet taking into cog- nizance the widespread triple appearance of clusives as unaspirated, clicked and aspirated, would be somewhat as follows: ? ah k ko kh x y t+ t? th c te te’ tech s ts ts’ tsh ron pp ph wm Nov. 15, 1943 Comparison of sounds.— Widespread stud- ies have shown that consonant sounds when syllabo-initial and again when syllabofinal diverge in development, and that languages long apart, as for instance Quechua and Yana, have been preceded by scores of gen- erations of linguistic change of which there is no record, of which change we do well to puzzle out the results without ever being able to learn the details of development. Both vowel and consonant appearances in Quechua are shockingly diverse. Rit’i, snow, appears in the Ancachs dialect of Quechua as raku, snow. Even articulatory series of consonants are not adhered to in development. Thus urgo, mountain; hirka, mountain top. Appearance of a word with two of the three forms of clusive can be il- lustrated by: goso, husband; ghari, man in prime; Cajamarca Q tayka, heel; Q t’ayku, heel. VOWELS: a, 0, U—a Q qaqa, rock; Pomo kabe, stone; Sal (t)cxa’, stone; Q -qo, water; Yana xana, water; Pomo -xa, water; Q phuyu, cloud; Sal pa’’i’’, cloud. u, a—o Q pu-, to sleep; Chim po-, to sleep; Subt -apo, to sleep; Q mukiy, to be suffocated; Sal (i)mo’kLop, to be drowned (pl.); Q muqgqo, knee; Pomo moko, knee; Q matcay, cave; Pomo mo, cave. It should be noticed in this connection that Spanish o regularly appears as u in Spanish loan words into Quechua. Thus Spanish cotén, shirt; Q kutun, shirt. u, W—uU Q phu-, to blow; Pomo pu-, to blow; Q wi-, eye; Q uy-a, face; Pomo ui, eye. a, i—e Q amu, mute; Yana ‘ému, to stop crying; Chinchay Q tcatca, old woman; Sal tc‘ene”’, old woman; Q waman, falcon; Chim wemer, eagle; Q silyu, unguis; Sal icele”’, unguis. 1, U—2 Q silya, gravel; Subt sivnu, stone; Q nyiy, niy, to say; Pomo ni, to say; Q tuta, night; Chim diwe-, night. HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA 337 CONSONANTS: 4 q; C= Q iwa, plant, tree; Subt i‘ci, tree; Q galyu, for *alyu, tongue; Chim -pen, tongue; Q yawar, blood; Sal a:’kat, blood. h—h h is non-occurrent in any of the Hokan lan- guages except in interjection or song padder, or as a secondary development. q; gh, k, w—4Y, k Q khipuy, to tie; Pomo qo, to tie; Q gowl, cuy; Sal kol’, hare; Q orgqo, male; Q qosa, husband; Q ghari, man in prime; Pomo kawi, boy; Q kun-ka, neck, throat, voice; Chim -ki, neck; Q yawar, blood; Sal a:’kat, blood. k—k’ ; Q kuru, worm; Sal ck’ot, snake, worm, grub. q’; gh—x Q saq’aqa, bone of dead; Sal axa’k, bone; Q qho-, nose; Chim -xu, nose. ie t——b,.0) 1 Q tayta, father; Sal tele”, father; Q inti, sun; Pomo da, sun; Sal na, sun. Within Quechua itself one finds Q pirutu, piruru, bone-flute; Q tchataku, ragamuffin, tchanaku, rag. Ue, UE Q tulyu, bone; Chim -txun, bone; Q tawna, walking-stick; Sal itxau, cane; Q tca(n)ka, leg; Chim -txan, leg. ic’—tc Q te’ini, small; Chim tcitc, child. (Glee, Q tcuta, to drag; Chim-texa-, to pull. s,T—s Q sonqo, heart; Chim -santce, heart; Q simi, mouth; Pomo si-, with the mouth; Q rin(k)ri, for *sinkri, ear; Shasta isak, ear; Q yawar, blood; Chantal awas, blood. tc—ts | Q tciwtci, fledgeling; Pomo tsita, bird. ly, yl n _Q qalyu, tongue; Chim -pen, tongue; Sal epa’’l, tongue; Q ilyay, to shine; Yana -’lai-, to warm; Sal lo-L, to get burnt; Q muyu, circle; Chim nolle, round; Q nyoqa, nogqa, I; Chim nout, I. 338 Y—Y Q ay-a, corpse; Yana ya, person; Q yu-, to think; Pomo -yi-, referring to thinking. P—P, b Q ispiwi, lamp; Chim pi’a, n, fat; Q para, rain; Yana ba-ri-, to rain; Q pupu, navel; Chim -napu, navel. w—w Q wira, n, fat; Pomo wi-m, n, fat; Q wanu, manure; Chim -wax, excrement; Sal p‘xat’, excrement, intestines; Q wixsa, belly; Pomo woxa, belly. p—m, b Q patca, the earth; Pomo ma, earth; Chin- chay Q paqa, head, chief; Chim me-, with the head; Pomo ba-, with the head. Accent.—Each Hokan language has its own accentuation. In Quechua the accent has settled on the penult, but is kept dis- tinctive on the ultima in words in -tca, du- bitative. The Chinchay dialect of Quechua has inherited more of the ultima accentua- tion than has the standard Quechua. MorPHOLOGY Morphology, as the term is applied to language, is the study of denotatory form, Greek morphée being the equivalent of Latin forma, both signifying form. Morphol- ogy amounts in actuality to the analysis of words, the word consisting of a denota- tory theme, or of extended theme known as base, or of a pair of these, without or with affix or affixes. A general term for the de- notatory element of language is morphom. Identity of usages and parallelism of the words for ant and fear convince me with Brugmann that foorma and morphée are the same word, while Sanskrit shows that it is the Greek which has become metatheti- cal, the Latin and Greek originating back- ground having been *thormda. The Hokan languages have two parts of speech: actional and substantival. The ac- tional is split into four etymal classes: verb, adverb, conjunction, and interjection; the substantival is split into three etymal classes: noun, adjective, and pronoun. The actional is the main part of speech, the sub- stantival being subsidiary, or adverbial, to it. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 Almost every linguistic form is what could be termed in Latin: versiformis, changing in form. A widespread Hokan trait is the infre- quent occurrence of a completely dupli- cated word, which could bear such Latin terminology as reduplicatio tanta. Such duplication occurs in Quechua, where there is a tendency in the vernacular writing of the language to place a hyphen between the two duplicate members: sira-sira, scorpion. A thorough study of compounding in several of the Hokan languages, including Quechua, -has arrived at the conclusion that all compounds are double only, con- sisting of an antebase and a postbase, each of which may not, or may, in itself be a compound, the two together constituting a bibase. Furthermore, in all these languages it is illuminating that the modificatory precedes the modified, the postbase con- stituting the main weight of the compound and carrying the conjugation or declension, or whatever is the inflection of the bibase as regards sentence. When the postbase is a verb and the antebase is a noun or adjec- tive, the noun or adjective is adverbial to the verb. Although vernacular orthography may employ the custom of writing antebase and postbase as separate words, or of writ- ing affix as a separate word, as is largely in vogue in the vernacular writing of Quechua, cobasing and affixing are the actual status and writing as a single word is preferable; an affix is never etymable and in this an affix differs from the usual theme or base. Every compound in Quechua is a doublet. Thus the well known Quechua compound inkawasi, palace, lit. emperor-house, is a bi- base, each of its members consisting of a theme enlarged by addition of a little-un- derstood postfix, but if either, or both, of the members were in itself a compound, the entirety would still be a bibase, and this is a characteristic not only of Quechua, but of every Hokan language that I have looked into. Postbasal or the like is often a short- cut term for postbasal noun, to which term postbasal adjective is to be contrasted. Languages far apart sometimes co-inherit minor traits. One should notice a wide- spread peculiar feature of Hokan com- pounding which consists of an -n- of un- Nov. 15, 1943 known origin thrust between the two bases of certain bibases, while other bibases do not have or permit of this. Thus Q uma-n- tulyu, skull, lit. head-bone; but Q uma- qara, scalp, lit. head-skin; Chim himi-n- alla, moon, lit. night-sun; Chim _ himi- samdu, devil In Quechua very rarely a postbase is on the verge of becoming a versal post- fix. Thus -ruma, person, which frequently occurrs merely with the force of a gentili- ceous postfix. Or the meaning of one of the bases of a bibase may have become ob- scure, as in Q kaw-lyama, llama divinity, the first base of which has lost assertion of a meaning which it must once have had. Again, where one might expect to find co- basing in Quechua, the antebase may be represented by the postpositioned form of a noun or adjective. Thus Q wasi-q punku, house door, lit. house’s door, instead of wasipunku, house door. It is a widespread trait of the Hokan languages, including Quechua, to vary the form of certain much-used postfixes with the result of producing a better fitting to- gether. Doublet forms arise, one post- vocalic, and the other postconsonantal. The shortest way of indicating such twoforms is to let v stand for vowel, c for consonant. Thus in Subtiaba a certain postfix has the doublet forms: v-yi, c-i. If a postfix does not have doublet forms, even a harsh com- ing together of consonants has to occur. Thus Q takeq-kuna, singers. Whenever a morphon manifests itself in two forms, these forms are known as doublets, and each has a separate background and usage; just as pre-Latin *dvis- appears both as dis- and bis-. Another feature common to many Hokan languages and shared by Quechua is that now and then a base without change func- tions in two or more etymal classes. Thus - Q tcalywa, to fish, fish. Or the functioning may be in two etymal subclasses. Thus Q nyawpa, locational adv., in front of, tem- poral adv., long ago. In Quechua in rare instances a noun can even occur as a post- position. Hyphenization to indicate analysis.— Navarro Tomas has a system which em- ploys seven different ‘‘signos analiticos’”’ for HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA 339 indication of pried apart constituent ele- ments of a word. Common usage employs instead of this system, advantageous when one gets used to it, merely the hyphen for indication of such analysis. Listing of affices—The Hokan languages on the whole run largely to the postfixation of affixes. Yana for instance has no prefixes at all, and Quechua recognizes only eight. It is practical to list affixes separately ac- cording to whether prefixed or postfixed, under each of the speech classes to which the affix can be added, and in three lists as regards whether the affix is sentential, ver- sal, or paradigmatical. ACTIONAL The main part of speech is the actional, presented before the other part of speech, which is the substantival, because this presen- tation conforms with psychology. Dinner should be presented before dessert, verb before extraneity, all of which is merely expletive to the verb. VERB The Quechua verb is thoroughly Hokan in its complications, having only one mode (I in- clude the imperative, hortatory, and prohibi- tive in this mode), no gender, singular and duoplural number, progressive, integral and static aspect, four tenses, including near and remote past, and a passive voice built by coup- ling the static participle with the verb to be. An example of this last formation is Q rikusqa kany, I am seen, formed from Q riku-sqa, seen. Verb Affixes Verb Sentential Q -taq, interrogative; Pomo da, interroga- tive. Verb Versal Prefix Q as-, slightly (compare Q as, numeric pro- noun, 4 little); Sal as, child, son; Subt ax, a little. Postfixes Q -ku, reflexive; Yana -gu-, self. Q -lya, petitive; Chim -la, diminutive. Q -pu, applicative; Yana -t‘p‘au, own. Q -ri, future; Yana ni, ni, to go; Pomo ne-, to gO. Q -tcd, dubitative; Chim -dialhin, dubita- tive. 340 Q -tci, causative; Yana -dju, causative; Choct -tci, causative. Verb Paradigmatical Q -i, imperative; Yana -’i’, imperative with third person object; Subt -la, -l, imperative. Q -n, present; Chim -n, -ni, -in, incompleted action, present; Pomo -n, present. Q -na, future static participle, purposive, instrumentative; Sal na-, purposive; Choct na, instrumentative. Q -q, -qe, present participle; Pomo -k, agen- tive. Q -sqa, static participle; Chim -ak, com- pleted action; Sal -k, static participle. Q -y, infinitive; Yana -’i, infinitive; Sal i,- versusverbal nominal. List of Verbs Q hanlyay, to yawn; Chim -xaca-, to yawn. Q hap’iy, to take; Choct habe-na, to receive. Q kaniy, to bite; Q kiru, tooth; Yana -gal, to bite; Pomo g‘a-, with the teeth. Q kay, to be; Pomo ke-m, to be. Q kirpay, to cover; Choct ialipa, to cover. Q kuteuy, to cut; Choct katce-li, to cut. Q mi-, to eat; Chim ma, ama, to eat; Sal ama, to eat. Q mukiy, to be suffocated; Sal *(i)mo’kLop, to drown (plural). Q munay, to love, to want; Chim mi’ina, to like, to love; Pomo mara, to like. Q nyiy, niy, to say; Pomo ni, to say. Q onqoy, to get sick; Q umphu, sickly; Q unay, to delay; Subt -ndi-yu, to be sick. Q pakiy, to break tr; Sal (k)a’p‘axtenop, to smash, to shatter. Hunancayo Q paly-puy, to fall; Yana midja-, to be heavy; Choct il-beca, heavy. Q pampa-tcay, to even, to forgive; Yana -p‘al-, to be flat; Pomo pai, a flat. Q punyuy, to sleep; Chim po-, to sleep; Subt -apo, to sleep. Q putututuy, to stink; Chim -potpot, to boil; Sal (k)o’potot‘na, to boil. Q -puy, to swim; Yana p‘u-, to swim. Q phatay, to burst tr.; Choct mita-i, to burst intr. | : Q -phay, to wash, in u-phay, to wash the face; Chim -pok-, to wash. Q phukuy, to blow; Yana p‘6-, to blow; Pomo pu-cul-, to blow. Q -qoy, to sleep; Subt -gu’, to sleep. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. ll Q raqray, to split intr.; Q raxra, a crack; Pomo dak, to split. Q rikuy, to see; Yana da-, to see. Q riy, to go; Yana ni, ni, to go; Pomo ne-, to go. Q ru-, to burn intr.; Q nina, fire; Choct lua, burnt. Q ruray, to do, to make; Sal ti’, to do; Subt -da, to make. Q saqtay, to pound up; saq-ma, a blow with the fist; Pomo sax, to strike; Choct isso, to strike. Q takiy, to sing; Chim tak-, to sing. Q tiyay, to sit, to stay; Q tuhu (archaic), chair; Subt -ta‘u, to sit. Q t’aq-lya, a slap; Yana -t!at’a-, to pat, to slap; Pomo t’ap, to slap. Q t’i-piy, to pull up by the roots, to pull out (a hair); Choct ti=fi, to pull out or up. Q teuray, to put; Q teurkuy, to load; Choct tala-li, to put. Q te’aqtcy, to water; Q tc’aran, moist; Q - teapuy, to dip; Choct tcabbi, to dip. Q urmay, to fall; Q ura, beneath; Q urupi, be- low; Yana -di-, -di-, down. Q wanyuy, to die; Subt -nyu-, to die. Q wagqay, to cry; Chim wo-, to ery; Yana -wa-, -w4-, to cry; Sal xdta, to cry. Q yuypay, to count; Pomo mi-yi, to count. ADVERB Statemental Adverb Negative Q manan, no, not; Chim -nan, negative. Q -tcu, negative; Chim xu-, not; Yana k‘u-, not; Pomo kui, not; Sal ko-, not. SUBSTANTIVAL NOUN Noun A ffixes Noun Versal Postfixes Q -tca, nominal, diminutive nominal; Yana -ts!i, collective diminutive nominal. Q -na, nominal; Yana -na, -la, nominal. Q -r, nominal; Chim -r, nominal. Q -lya, nominal, diminutive nominal; Chim -la, diminutive nominal. Noun Paradigmatical Postfixes Q -kuna, duoplural; Chim -kule, duoplural, in qa’-kule, ye. | eae oe em es Nov. 15, 1943 Q -wan, instrumental, comitative; Chim -mdi, -mdu, instrumental; Choct -iba, instru- mental. List of Nouns PLANT Puant Parts Q i-wa, plant, tree; Choct iti, tree; Subt ici, tree. Q maly-ki, tree; Q mily-m(w)a, wool; Q maly-qo, fledgling already having fuzz; Q maly-ta, whelp, young mammal; Choct bafalli, brushy. Q gisga, thorn; Q khisa, nettle; Q khisa -kuru, fuzzy caterpillar; Sal xa’ke, spine. ANIMAL ANIMAL Parts Corporeal Q ay-a, corpse; Q ay-lya, meat; Q ay-tca, meat; Q ay-lyu, kinsperson; Yana ya, person. Q han-k’u, sinew; Q han-k’a-tcakiy, to limp; Yana ba'ma, sinew. Q yawar, blood; Chinchay Q yaar, blood; Q yawi-ru, soldier; Chontal awas, blood. Q wi-ra, n, fat, lava; Q wira-p’uku, lantern; Q wira-qotca, god, God, Mr.,lit.lava-lake; Pomo wi-m, n, fat. Q saq’aqa, bone of dead; Sal axa’k, bone. Q tulyu, bone; Chim -txun, bone. Q tcuxtca, bodyhair; Sal ecax, feathers, whiskers. Q qa-ra, skin, pelt; Q sun-kha, beard; Pomo he-le, hair. Q aka, excrement; Q aka-yoq kelyay, rusty iron, lit. iron having excrement; Q t-axya, ball- excrement (e.g. of llama); Chim -wax, excre- ment; Yana wak!i-, to defecate. Head Chinchay Q pe-qa, head, chief; Chim me-, with the head; Pomo ba-, with the head. Q yu-yay, to think; Q yu-kay, to deceive; Q yu-pay, to count; Q yu-yay-kuy, to imagine; Q yu-yay-sapa, discreet; Pomo ba-yi, to teach; Pomo mi-yi, to count. Q ma-t’i, forehead; Chim -mo-sni, forehead. Q rin(k)-ri, for *sink-ri, ear; Shasta isak, ear; Atsugewi asmak, ear. Q wi-, eye, in wi-ge, lacrima; Q uy-a, face; Shasta oy, eye; Pomo ui, eye; Sal u’, face. Q wi-ge, lacrima, lit. eye-water; Pomo yu-xa, lacrima. HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA 341 Q qho-nya, nose mucus; Q qho-rqoy, to snore; Chim -xu, nose. Q simi, mouth; Q sin-si, to show the teeth; Q sun-kha, beard, lit. mouth hair; Q san-qa, roof of the mouth (with -qa compare wasi- qata, house roof); Pomo si-, with the mouth. Q galyu, for *alyu, tongue (from qalyu has come into Spanish Callao, name of the prin- cipal port of Peru); Chim -pen, tongue; Sal epa’’l, tongue. Q kiru, tooth; Q ki-pi, worn-down dentition; Q kaniy, to bite; Yana -gal, to bite. Q kun-ka, neck, throat, voice; Q kunay, ad- vice; Chim -ki, neck. Q wax-ra, horn; Chim -wec, horn; Yana weyu, horn. External Trunk Q qhasqo, chest; Chim usi, chest; Sal ico”, chest. Q tcutcu, female breast; Chim ci-ra, female breast; Yana tc’ik’i, female breast. Q wixsa, belly; Pomo woxa, belly. Q pupu, navel; Chim -napu, navel; Sal xapi’- cucwe't, navel. Q wasa, dorsum; Subt giitca, behind. Viscera Q songo, heart (also used with congruent noun having illative postposition, e.g. a friend to dogs, lit. heart into dogs); Chim -santce, heart. Q kuku-pi, liver; Ancachs Q kukus, liver; Subt gi‘ko, liver. Q hayagen, gall; Sal t-e’rk, animal’s gall. Q uspun, guts; Chim -pxa, guts; Sal p‘xat’, excrement, intestines. Privates Q wa-, buttocks, anus, in wa-ra, pants; Q wa- nu, manure; Chim -wi, anus. Q tcupa, tail; Q teutcupay, to drag behind; Q tcuta, to drag; Chim -texa-, to pull. Pectoral Q ma-ki, hand, arm; Q ma-te’in, upper arm, upper leg; Chim -tran-pu, arm; Chim imu, to hold; Yana mé-, to reach, to hold; Pomo mi-, ma-, with the hand; Pomo ma, to hold; Sal me‘’n, hand; Sal t’o’puk, arm, wing; Subt nyau’, hand; Subt paxpuu, arm. Anal Q mexlyay, lap; Sal ma’pok, thigh. 342 Q tca(n)ka, leg; Q tcaki, foot; Chim -txan, leg. Q muqo, knee; Q maki-muqo, wrist, lit. hand-knee; Chim hitxani-maxa, knee, lit. leg- knee; Pomo moko, knee. Pectoral and Anal Q silyu, unguis; Q sily-q’uy, to scratch with the nails; Sal icele’”’, unguis. ANIMALS Low Forms Q kuru, worm; Q khisakuru, fuzzy caterpil- lar, lit. nettleworm; Chim xawin, caterpillar; Sal ck’ot, snake, worm, grub; Sub unyu’, worm. Insects Q usa, headlouse; utha, chicken-louse; Q isa, louse species; Q uru, spider; Q uru-si, spider; Pomo atci, louse. Q tchilyiku, cricket; Sal tc‘e'l’, cricket. Q pilypintu, a small butterfly species; At- sugewl palala, butterfly; Washoe palolo, butter- fly; Pomo lilawa, butterfly. Q t’oxto, bee; Chim x6wu, yellowjacket. Fishes Q tcalywa, to fish, fish; Q tcalytcaly, to wriggle in the water as a fish does when swim- ming; Q tcalypu, to submerge intr.; Pomo ca, fish; Sal swan, fish; Tonkawa esva-la-n, fish. Amphibians Q q’ayra, frog species; Chim qAtus, frog; Subt kosta-lu’, frog. Birds Q tciwtci, fledgling (compare also Q tcutci, thrush); Chim tira, bird; Pomo tsita, bird; Sal ca’xwe, bird. Q tciwtci is the general term for fledgling, with which is to be contrasted Q malyqo, fuzzy fledgling. Recuay Q watas, crow; Chim wa’la, wa’da, crow. Q waman, falcon; Chim wemer, eagle. Mammals Q huk’u-tca, mouse, lit. inner cornerlet, from Q huk’i, inner corner; Pomo -uk, corner. Q qowi, cuy (Cavia aperea) (this animal is called in Spanish cuy alias conejillo de Indias, the former having been taken over from Quechua into Spanish); Q kututu, male jack- rabbit; Sal kol’, hare. Cajamarca Q tcitci, bat; Sal tc’e’mtcem, bat. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 AGE-SEX Q qhari, man in prime; Q qosa, husband; Q orqo, male; Pomo kawi, boy. Q warmi, woman in prime; Q watca, woman (vulgar expression); Q warma, young; Q wara- ray, to chatter; Pomo xatai, woman. Q tcina, female; Q tcitcu, pregnant; Chim -sa, woman. ; Q wawa, child; Q wawasimi, childhood di- alect; Q makipwawa, finger, lit. handlet; Yana -’ala-, child. Q te’ini, small; Q hute’uy, small; Q tcuri, father’s son; Chim tcitci, child; Choct uci, child; Subt tci‘tci, small. Chinchay Q teatca, old woman; Sal tce-, old; Choct tcikki, old. STATUS Q masi, companion; Esselen -i’wis, friend. KINSHIP Q tayta, father; Q Tayta-tca, God; Sal tele”, father. Q@ mama, mother; Q ma-rq’a, to carry in arms; Sal apai’”’, mother. Q qosa, husband (already given above). PHENOMENA Q aqo, sand; Q tc-’aqo, white clay; Chim ama-yaqa, sand, lit. earth sand. Q katci, salt; Pomo keé, salt. Q matcay, cave, Q matcu-la, grandfather, ancestor; Yana mu-, hole; Pomo mo, hole, cave. : Q nyan, trail; Choct hina, road. Q pampa, n, plain, adj, flat. (that pampa means primarily flat land is shown by pampa- tciy, to forgive, lit. to even); Q paxra, bald, lit. smooth; Q pax-ta, perhaps; Pomo pai, a flat. Q para, rain; Q parqo, to irrigate; Yana ba- ri-, to rain. Q pa-tea, the earth (that the primary mean- ing is the earth is shown by Q patca-phuyu, fog, lit. earth-cloud) ; Q patcax, 100; Pomo ma, earth; Subt u:mba, earth. Q phosoqo, foam; Pomo phus, foam. Q phuyu, cloud; Cajamarca Q phukuta, cloud; Sal pa’’i’’, cloud. Q qaqa, rock; Chim q@a’a, stone; Yana k!ai-na, stone; Sal (t)cxa’, stone. Q qasa, cold weather; Q qhasay-ukhu, in winter; Chinchay Q qaca, cold weather; Chim xatsa, cold; Yana hats!it’-, cold; Choct ho- tcukwa, cold. Nov. 15, 1943 Q qa, seasonal stream; Q qo-, water; Q -qe, water in wi-qe, lacrima, lit. eye-water; Chim -xa, water; Yana xa-na, water; Sal (t)ca’, water. Q rumi, stone; Q ruru, fruit pit, seed, eye- ball; Q runtu, egg; Q ranra, gravel; Pomo ta, sand. Q silya, gravel; Subt si--nu, stone. Q tuta, night; Chim diwe-, night; Subt m-i- duu’, night. Q tciraw, dry season; Chim atcxumni, dry. Q tchisi, to become night; Q tchilyu, black; Q tchi-maxlyu, night-snow; Q tc’isi, last night; Q te’extci, gray; Chim tcélé-i, black. Q witca, up; Q wayra, wind, aloft; Q wayq’0, valley; Q waylya, meadow; Chim wiemu, up; Chim waida, upstream, east; Yana -wasa-, above. Q yaku, water; Pomo g‘oki, to drink. ASTRONOMICAL Q inti, sun; Q inka, emperor (one title of the emperor was inti-p tcuri, son of the sun); Q intu, to conquer; Q ilyay, to shine; Q lyilyi, heat-eruption; Chim alla, sun; Pomo da, sun; Sal na, sun. Q paxsa, moon; Washoe d-i‘be, luminary; Subt bii', day. ABSTRACT Q muyu, circle; Q muyuy, to circulate; Chim nolle, round. Q sinri, line; Q siq’e, line; Q siray, to sew; Q sirk’a, vein; Q siru, net; Pomo ca-, with end or point. Q su-ti, name; Sal a’’se, name. CoLors Q puntcaw, day, daylight; Q pagar, morning; Washoe pi-, white. MatTERIAL CULTURE Fire Q k’antca, fire; Q q’ontca, hearth; Q k’an, heat; Q q’onyi, hot;°Q q’ilyimsa, charcoal; Q kanay, to burn; Q ghonoy, also qhanoy, to light (ceremonial fire at festival); Q kanka, a roast; Chim kowa, coals. Q q’osnyi, smoke; Chim qe, smoke. Q nina, fire; Q inti, sun; Q ilyay, to shine; Yana -’lai-, to warm; Sal lo-L, to get burnt. House Q wa-si, house; Chinchay Q wa-hi, house; HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA 343 Chim a-wa, house; Chim w-issa, door, lit. house’s trail. ADJECTIVE Adjective Affixes Adjective affixes are partly the same as noun affixes. List of Adjectives Q alyi, alyin, good; Choct ath, true, good. Q amu, mute; Yana ‘ému-, to stop crying. Q hatun, large; Pomo m-at6, large. Q hun-t’a, full; Q hun-t’a-q, punctual; Q hunu, a million; Yana ba’ni-, to be full; Sal ep‘enateL, to fill (plural subject). Q nyuxnyu, sweet and soft; Q nyunyu, fe- male breast; Q lyulyu, tender shoot of a plant, tender meat; Chim lo’or-en, soft. Q lyusk’s, slippery; Chim -klu-, to slip; Yana -lili-, to be smooth; Pomo les, to smear. Q mosoq, new; Subt ma‘ca, raw. Q poges, adj, fat; Yana p‘ui‘-, to be fat; Pomo pui, greasy; Sal upi-nit, fat. Q q’engo, twisted; Chim p’qélé’-in, crooked; Sal (Sitjar) upk’i’na, to twist. Q q’urqo, bitter; Yana k!ai-, to be bitter. Q tchaki, dry; Q tchaka, hoarse; Chim atexumni, dry. PRONOUN Personal Pronoun Q nyo-qa, no-qa, I; Chim n6-ut, I. Q -y, my; Chim -i, my; Sal e-, my. Q qan, you; Sal k-, you (employed in the im- perative only). Q pay, he; Sal pa, that. Demonstrative Pronoun Q kay, this; Chim qe, this. Q teay, that (by you); Pomo te’-, that; Subt ta-, that. Q tcay is the only demonstrative which is also used as a verb prefix meaning that already referred to. Interrogative Pronoun Qima, what?; Sal ma-s, someone; Subt ma’‘-na, what? Q pi, who? Yana apbi-, who? Numeric Q as, alittle. (Q as-, slightly, as a verb prefix, has already been presented above.) Subt ax, a little. 344 Numeral Q -puni, self; Chim p’un, 1. Q iskay, 2; Chim xoku, 2. Q kinsa, earlier kimsa, 3; Chim xodai, 3. Qtawa, 4; Hokan (as reconstructed by Sapir) *axwa, 4. Consonant Prefixes Several consonant prefixes, isolated in Que- chua with great difficulty, have been found, and are here presented together, since they have bearing together on connection with Salinan, one of the Hokan languages noted for develop- ment of such consonants. Cajamarca Q qewa, plant; Q iwa, plant; Sal k-, intransitive, less commonly transitive, rarely indicative of plural subject. The pres- ence of initial q can also be interpreted as in place of initial ’, unwritten in the present paper. Q p-ilyu, crown; Q ilya-y, to shine; Q m- alyma, earth prepared for sowing; Q halyma-y, to bank earth around a plant; Sal p-, transitive, less commonly intransitive, rarely indicative of singular subject. Q sage-y, to leave; Q haqe-y, to leave; Sal se-, substantive. Q t-awa, 4; Hokan (as reconstructed by Sapir) *axwa, 4; (but compare Yana daumi-, 4); Q t-axya, ball-excrement; Q aka, excre- ZLOOLOGY.—Another Mexican snake of the genus Pliocercus.! (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) SmM1tTH, University of Rochester. Through the courtesy of the authorities of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, of the University of California, and particu- larly of Thomas Rodgers, I have had the privilege of examining and describing an in- teresting specimen of Pliocercus elapoides, which not only extends the known range of the genus northward about 300 miles from central Veracruz to central Tamaulipas and into another faunal area, but also represents a race distinct from any known previously. Pliocercus elapoides celatus, n. subsp. Holotype.-—Mus. Vert. Zool. 24689, collected by Meldon Embury at Ciudad Victoria, Ta- maulipas, Mexico, on June 31, 1937. Diagnosis.—Like P. e. elapoides, but outer black rings of each triad on body greatly re- 1 Received September 15, 1943. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 ment; Q tc-’aqo, white clay; Q aqo, sand; Sal {-, nominal. | WORD ORDER W ord order has in each one of the Hokan languages an established precedent. Initial and final positions in the sentence are the most emphatic. In Quechua the standard word order is ovs, in which o stands for objective, v for verb, s for subjective. The interrogative postfix -taq, which has been given above, is the only postfix of sentential stratum presented in this paper, and im- parts interrogation to a word or to an en- tire sentence, a modulation which could also be executed by voice alone. Chimariko has two standard word orders: svo and sov. RESUME Experience in the evaluating of Quechua words for comparison has been like that of the geologist who explores waterway cob- bles. The interior of the cobbles has to be looked into and anchored before proveni- ence is certain. As Quechua words become in the future better analyzed, their connec- tion with Hokan forms will become more certain and standardized. Hopart M. duced, shorter than yellow rings, sometimes absent; ventrals perhaps fewer (126 in a male as compared with 128 to 131); black rings on body perhaps more numerous (12 as compared with 9 or 10) in males. Like P. e. schmidti, except snout uniformly black (except at lip); nuchal black collar not involving labials or parietals and covering 8 instead of 5 scale lengths on nape; and the primary black rings longer, involving 3 or 4 ventrals and 43 or 5 dorsal scale lengths. Description of holotype—Head scales nor- mal; portion of rostral visible from above about as long as median suture between internasals and about two-thirds the greatest length of internasals; latter two-thirds as long as broad, a little more than half as long as prefrontals; frontal pentagonal, the anterior edge forming a slight convexity, sides markedly convergent, posterior edges meeting at an acute angle; Nov. 15, 1943 frontal longer (4 mm) than its distance from tip of snout (3.3 mm) and posterior median edge of parietals (3 mm); nasal completely divided, posterior section a little larger and higher than anterior; loreal about as large as anterior sec- tion of nasal, a little longer than high; a large upper and a very small lower preocular; latter separating third labial from orbit, former widely separated from frontal; 2 postoculars, lower two-thirds size of upper; temporals 1-1-2, the anterior longest; 8-8 supralabials, the last 2 subequal in size and larger than oth- ers; 9—9 infralabials, 5 in contact with anterior chinshields, 2 with posterior, the anterior in contact medially with its mate, 6th largest; chin- shields equally elongate, anterior slightly the broader; posterior chinshields in contact for about half their length; 2 small scales between chinshields and 1st ventral. Dorsal scales smooth, pitless, in 17-17-17 rows; ventrals 126; tail tip missing; anal di- vided; snout-vent length 230 mm; male. Black head cap extending posteriorly to tip of frontal and anterior tips of parietals, uniform . on snout except near lip, extending laterally to about the middle of the first 5 infralabials; edge of entire upper lip light; a light collar following this, presumably yellow in life; a black nape collar involving tips of ventrals, occupying 8 scale lengths dorsally, and involving extreme posterior tips of parietals, the posterior parts of the tertiary temporals, but not the labials. Eleven other, similar dark bands on body, all complete, involving 3 or 4 scale lengths ven- trally and 43 or 5 dorsally, separated from each other by areas about equal to or a little greater than their length. A narrow light ring bordering each black ring, occupying little more than one- half of 1 scale length. Between the yellow rings are red bands in which most of the dorsal scales are black-tipped; this black spotting is usually, but not invariably, more concentrated next to the yellow bands, thus forming the effect of sec- ondary black rings; these secondary rings are indistinct, however, narrower than the yellow rings, and sometimes not evident. On the tail the pattern is much the same, except that the SMITH: MEXICAN SNAKE OF GENUS PLIOCERCUS 345 secondary black rings are more distinct. In no place do the secondary black rings extend onto the ventral surface. The belly and subcaudal surfaces are unpigmented except for the pri- mary black rings; the chin and lower labial re- gions are also immaculate. The red rings are evident ventrally, however. Remarks.—This specimen is markedly differ- ent from e. elapoides, the nearest race geo- graphically, particularly in the reduction of the secondary black rings (see diagnosis). It re- sembles e. schmidti more than any other race, but in addition to being geographically distant has narrower primary black rings and a mottled snout; e. schmidti and e. celatus may be con- sidered either as parallelisms or as slightly dif- ferentiated forms of a more primitive and more widely distributed stock. The latter alternative appears the more attractive, for although e. elapoides is centrally situated between the other two races, its pattern is relatively highly spe- cialized and is subject to frequent bizarre varia- tion. P. e. laticollaris is another slightly differ- entiated form similar to e. schmidti and e. celatus, but having incomplete black rings and more numerous infralabials. With the addition of the present race to the list of known forms, it is of considerable interest to observe that every biotic province on the Atlantic coast of Mexico is now represented by its distinctive race of P. elapoides. While the details of the distribution of the four Atlan- tic races in Mexico are not known, a strong correlation with the four corresponding prov- inces is indicated, although a certain amount of discrepancy in exact boundary lines of races and provinces is to be expected. Although the east coast subspecies of P. elapoides are now perhaps completely outlined, at least with no further additions to be anticipated, the races of the Pacific coastal regions are very poorly known. That two or three races remain to be discovered and defined in that region is highly probable. Whereas eight species and subspecies of Pliocercus are now known from Mexico, about 11 are to be expected, and, of course, more may occur. 346 PALEONTOLOGY .—Identification of Actinocrinus chloris Hall.1 U. 8. Geological Survey. Wachsmuth and Springer (1881, p. 146 (320), and 1897, p. 571) cite McChesney’s species Actinocrinus tenuisculptus and place A. chloris Hall in synonymy with it. This precedent has generally been followed by authors. It turns out that the two species are quite distinct and indeed referable to different genera. My attention was called to this case of mistaken identity while checking over some of McChesney’s spe- cies. It was obvious that the specimen figured by McChesney, if accurately drawn, could not be the species figured by Wachs- muth and Springer (1897, pl. 55, figs. 4a, b). Fortunately, I found in the U. 8. National Museum a sulphur cast of the holotype of A. tenuisculptus made by Whitfield, which agrees with McChesney’s illustration. The type itself was destroyed in the Chicago Fire. I had long known the beautiful lit- tle species identified by Wachsmuth and Springer as A. tenuisculptus. The identity of the “A. tenuisculptus’’ of Wachsmuth and Springer (1897) was established by the fortunate discovery of the cotypes of A. chloris Hall in the portion of the White col- lection acquired by Springer from the Uni- versity of Michigan. The species has never been figured, and its identity has never been recognized. It proves to be the form errone- ously identified by Wachsmuth and Springer as A. tenuisculptus. The following citations will correct the synonymy: Actinocrinus chloris Hall Actinocrinus chloris Hall, 1861a, p. 3; 1861b, p. 275. “Burlington limestone, Burlington, Iowa. Collection of C. A. White.’”’? (Lower Burling- ton.) =Actinocrinus tenuisculptus Wachsmuth and Springer (not McChesney), 1897, p. 571, pl. 55, figs. 4a, b—Moore and Laudon, 1948, pl. 10, fig. 11. The cotypes of Actinocrinus chloris Hall are two specimens in the Springer collection in the U.S. National Museum numbered § 1142. One is an imperfect dorsal cup. The other is a some- 1 Published by permission of the Director, Ge- ological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior. Received July 9, 1943. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 EpwIn Kirk, what crushed theca. There can be no question as to their identity, thanks mainly to the dis- tinctive character of the species. Many of the crinoids described by Hall, Meek and Worthen, and others in the early days are based on badly preserved specimens, and a minimum amount of time was spent pre- paring them. There was such intense rivalry in describing new species that a name was at- tached to almost any specimen found, however imperfect. When figured the specimen took on a more passable aspect, owing to the kind ministrations of the draftsman. Wachsmuth was the first to be sedulous in collecting good crinoids and spent days in preparing them. Cactocrinus tenuisculptus (McChesney), n. comb. Actinocrinus tenuisculptus McChesney, 1860, p. 15, pl. diagram p. 17 (‘‘Burlington division of the Carboniferous limestone series, Columbia, Missouri’’); 1865, pl. 5, figs. la, b; 1868, p. 11, pl. diagram p. 12, pl. 5, figs. la, b. Not Actinocrinus tenwisculptus (= Actinocrinus chloris Hall) Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897, p. 571, pl. 55, figs. 4a, b.—Moore and Laudon, 1943, pl. 10, fig. 11. This species is referred to Cactocrinus. With equal propriety it could be referred to Teleto- crinus. In a species such as this the decision as to generic assignment must be arbitrary. It is placed in Cactocrinus because it more nearly resembles some species referred to that genus than any species referred to Teletocrinus. LITERATURE CITED Hau, JAMES. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea and other fossils, from the Car- boniferous rocks of the Mississippr Valley. On title page: Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea; from investigations of the Iowa Geological Survey. Preliminary notice. Pp. 1-12, inclusive, February 14, 1861. Pp. 13- 18, inclusive, February 25, 1861. Privately issued, Albany, NENe 1861a. . Descriptions of new spectes of Crinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of the Missis- sippt Valley. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 7: 261-328. “January” 1861b. McCuesney, J. H. Descriptions of new species of fossils, from the Palaeozoic rocks of the Western States. Ext. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci. 1: 1-56 (Chicago, 1859). January 3, 1860. Author’s edition. Nov. 15, 1943 . Plates illustrating in part the new species of fossils, from the Palaeozoic rocks of the Western States. And two new species, no- ticed March, 1860. Pls. 1-9, ‘‘plates’”’ 10 and 11, with explanations. Chicago Acad- emy of Sciences, April 1865. Author’s edi- tion. . Descriptions of fossils from the Palae- ozoic rocks of the Western States, with illus- trations. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci. 1 (pt. 1, PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 347 art. 1): 1-57, pls. 1-9. April or [earlier, 1868. Moors, R. C., and Laupon, L. R. Evolution and classification of Paleozoic crinoids. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Paper No. 46: i-x, 1-153, ‘‘figures” 1-18 in text, pls. 1- 14. June 15, 1943. WaACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. The North American Crinoidea Camerata, 837 p., 83 pls. May, 1897. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY | 601sT MEETING The 601st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 14, 1942, President C. S. Ross presiding. Informal communications—J. B. MeERTIE, JR.,spoke on nomograms of formulae on optical properties of minerals. Program—W. T. Pecora and S. W. Hoses: Geology of the Nickel silicate deposit near Rid- dle, Oregon. W. G. Prerce: Heart Mountain and South Fork thrusts, Wyoming. The Heart Mountain thrust sheet of northeastern Wyoming is trace- able from Clark Fork Valley southward beyond the South Fork of Shoshone River. If it con- tinues still farther southward into the north- western part of the Wind River Basin, as ap- pears possible, its linear extent is more than 90 miles. The South Fork thrust is beneath, and is older than, the Heart Mountain thrust. A troughlike fold of the South Fork thrust sheet, which appears to have been downfolded after the thrusting, lies in the valley of the South Fork of the Shoshone River. The rocks in the trough have been folded into a syncline, and a recumbent anticline presumably formed during the emplacement of the thrust. Northeastward from the South Fork of the Shoshone, the thrust extends as a low-angle fault into the Shoshone Reservoir, where it is thought that the inclination and trend change abruptly, and that the fault thence continues to the north- west up Rattlesnake Valley as a high-angle shear fault. The Heart Mountain thrust probably was not shoved eastward for a distance of many miles by a pressure applied at the western edge of the thrust. The active compressional force that produced the thrust may have been di- rected westward as an underthrust. It seems doubtful if the western source of the Heart Mountain thrust extends down into the crystalline basement, for throughout its known east-west extent of 35 miles there are no rocks older than the Ordovician Bighorn dolomite in the thrust sheet. Likewise the South Fork thrust probably does not extend below the Sun- dance formation of Jurassic age, for, although this formation commonly floors the thrust, there are no older rocks anywhere in the thrust. The emplacement of the South Fork thrust followed the deposition of early Wasatch strata. The emplacement of the Heart Mountain thrust followed the deposition of later Wasatch strata, and after partial erosion of the thrust sheet the ‘‘early basic breccia” of the region were deposited. Vertebrate fossils indicate that the Heart Mountain thrust was emplaced near the close of the lower Eocene. The South Fork thrust was formed some time earlier in the Eocene. (A uthor’s abstract.) F. E. Matruss: Glacial events of the historic period. Fairly complete records exist of the major advances and recessions that the glaciers in the European Alps have experienced during historic times. These records show that toward the end of the sixteenth century climatic con- ditions grew more severe than they had been during the Middle Ages, and the glaciers gained considerably in length and volume. Alpine vil- lages that had prospered for centuries were overwhelmed by advancing glaciers, or ren- dered uninhabitable by torrents of melt water; and such catastrophes occurred repeatedly dur- ing the first half of the seventeenth century. Other periods of marked glacier expansion were chronicled in 1680, 1719, 1743, and 1770. The last notable glacier advances took place in 1820 348 and 1850. All these advances were of about the same magnitude, but most of them fell short of the limits reached by those of the early 1600’s. Since 1855 recession has been dominant, and since 1920 it has proceeded at an accelerated rate. From comparative studies of the moraines in the Alps it is clear that the historic glacier ad- vances have been by far the greatest that have occurred since the Pleistocene ice age. The moraines in Norway and Iceland tell a similar story. These facts, taken together with the abundant evidence that is now at hand that great warmth prevailed during the middle part of postglacial time, warrant the view, it is be- lieved, that the historic period had been, in ef- fect, a period of moderate reglaciation—a “‘lit- tle ice age,”’ as a clever journalist has called it. 602D MEETING The 602d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 28, 1942, President C. S. Ross presiding. Informal communications—H. D. Miser spoke on the Red River Dam near Denison, Tex. Program—E. B. Ecxe.: Geology of the New Idria District, California. EUGENE CALLAGHAN: Some features of tin, tungsten, and antumony deposits of Bolivia. Rosert HE. ALLEN: The oil outlook in this war. 603D MEETING The 603d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 11, 1942, President C. 8. Ross presiding. Program—W. C. ALDEN: Cirques, hanging valleys, and high-level benches of Glacier National Park. WatterR H. BucHer: Method proposed to in- troduce a concept of ‘“‘lamits of error’ into the stratigraphic tuming of tectonic movements. 604TH MEETING The 604th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 25, 1942, President C. 8. Ross presiding. Informal communications—Earu INGERSON spoke on measurements of linear elements in the field. Program—J. B. Mertiz, Jr., and R. R. Coats: Tin deposits of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. R. N. Jauns: Sheet structure in granites; its JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 origin and use as a measure of glacial erosion in New England. Sheet structure in New England | granites consists of lenticular, flat to gently curved exfoliation shells that tend toward parallelism with the exposed rock surface. In general they become progressively thicker, flatter, and more regular with increasing depth, and they have been observed at and near the bottoms of the deepest quarries. Sheeting is completely independent: of all primary struc- tures in the rock and commonly transects con- tacts between the granite and xenoliths, roof pendants, the country rock itself, and minor postgranite intrusive bodies. Evaluation of the possible causes of sheet structure in the light of present available data indicates that the re- lease, through removal of superincumbent load, of a primary confining pressure to which the rock has become adjusted is chiefly responsible for the large-scale exfoliation phenomena in- volved. Insolation, the progressive hydration and formation of chemical alteration products in certain susceptible minerals, and the me- chanical action of fire, frost, and vegetation are possible minor contributory causes. With very few exceptions the sheet structure on the granite hills of northeastern Massachu- setts and adjacent parts of New Hampshire, where detailed studies have been made, is pre- | glacial in origin. Its attitude with respect to present topography therefore facilitates certain comparisons with preglacial topography, and thus permits minimum estimates of the thick- ness of material removed by glacial ice from specific localities. Cross sections that show the critical relations have been constructed for sev- eral typical hills. The minimum depth of glacial erosion. can also be estimated by a second, less direct method. Not only do the granite sheets or shells thicken with depth, but statistical data demon- strate a fair degree of quantitative consistency in this relation. The sizes of large granite bould- ers—and therefore of the respective sheets from which they were torn by the ice—thus furnish an additional clue to their original depth be- neath the pre-glacial surface. Results of studies by the above methods suggest the removal of a blanket of rock and preglacial regolith at least — 10 to 15 feet thick by glacial abrasion and plucking from the stoss, or north slopes of most hills, and of a somewhat greater thickness from their east slopes, summits and west slopes. Severe plucking and quarrying of jointed rock bs setae Nov. 15, 1943 appears to have been responsible for strongly concentrated erosion on the lee, or south and southeast slopes of many hills to maximum demonstrable depths in. excess of 100 feet. CHESTER R. LONGWELL: Some structural fea- tures in southern Nevada. 605TH MEETING The 605th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 11, 1942, President C. S. Ross presiding. Program.—R. L. Nicuous: Flying bars in Boston Harbor. R. P. FiscHer: The vanadium deposits of Colorado and Utah. Deposits of carnotite and vanadium-bearing sandstone are widely dis- tributed in western Colorado and eastern Utah and have been the principal domestic source of vanadium, uranium, and radium. At present these deposits are being intensively mined for vanadium. Most of the deposits are in the Morrison formation, but there are some in the Entrada sandstone and the Shinarump con- glomerate. Recent X-ray studies by Sterling Hendricks of the Department of Agriculture indicate that the principal vanadium mineral, heretofore considered to be roscoelite, belongs to the hy- drous mica group of clay minerals. This mineral impregnates the sandstone, coating sand grains and partly or completely filling interstitial spaces between the grains. Shale pebbles and finely divided ‘“‘mud” material in the ore-bear- ing sandstone are rich in absorbed vanadium. Carnotite and other vanadium minerals are found in some of the fossil plant material as- sociated with the ore. The vanadium-bearing hydrous mica is in part rather uniformly dis- seminated through the sandstone and in part concentrated along bedding planes or in thin zones that cut across bedding. Because these zones form curved or undulant planes, they are called ‘‘rolls’’ by the miners. Where the sand- stone was strongly mineralized, as along the favorable bedding planes or along the rolls, the grains of quartz sand have been partly dis- solved, resulting in a small decrease in volume of the mineralized sandstone and causing minor “slumping,”’ which is evident where the rolls cut across the bedding at a moderate angle. Ore bodies are irregularly tabular masses which lie essentially parallel to the sandstone beds, but the ore does not follow the beds in de- PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 349. tail. The trend of elongate bodies is indicated by the orientation of the rolls within the ore, and this trend also suggests the probable alignment of any adjacent bodies. No satisfactory explanation can yet be of- fered for the origin of these deposits. The ore bodies appear not to have been localized by such geologic structure as fractures or folds, but within limited areas they are restricted to certain stratigraphic zones. Louis McCase: Application of a nes petro- graphical method to the study of coal. 606TH MEETING The 606th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 25, 1942, President C. S. Ross presiding. Program.—W. C. ALDEN: Some aspects of the geology of Glacter National Park. P. D. Trasx: Some ideas on the origin of northern California manganese deposits. N. W. Bass: Relationship of crude oil to stratigraphy. 607TH MEETING The 607th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 8, 1942, President C. S. Ross pre- siding. Informal communications —H. D. MIsER spoke on the use of a common geophysical in- strument for afternoon field parties. Program.—J. PEopiEs: Some features of the chromite of the Stillwater Complex, Montana. R. E. STEVENS: Composition of some chro- mites of the Western Hemisphere. T. A. Henpricks: A cold spring manganese deposit in North Dakota. 608TH MEETING The 608th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 22, 1942, President C. 8S. Ross pre- siding. Informal communications —H. C. SPICER demonstrated an A. C. microchemical heater. J.S. WiLuraMs presented lantern slides of an Alaskan glacier surface. Program.—W. M. Cany: Quicksilver deposits of Sleitmut, Georgetown District, southwestern Alaska. G. A. Coopsr: Silicified fossils and their sig- nificance. D. F. Hewett: The Morro da Mina mine, Brazil. 300 609TH MEETING The 609th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 11, 1942, President C. 8S. Ross presiding. Program.—R. W. Imuay: Jurassic formations of the Gulf region. CuarLes Mitton and Jack Murata: The occurrence of Weinschenkite in Virginia. L. G. Hensesst: Sandstone dikes near Salida, Colorado. 610TH MEETING The 610th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 25, 1942, President C.S. Ross presiding. President Ross announced the death of Dr. HERMAN STABLER, Of the U. 8S. Geologi- cal Survey. Program.—MIcHAEL FLEISCHER and W. E. RicHMOND: Mineralogy of the manganese oxides. W.S. TWENHOFEL: A molybdenite deposit in the Glacier Bay area, southeastern Alaska. JouHN W. Frey: Oil in the mind. 611TH MEETING The 611th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 9, 1942, Vice-President Cur- RIER presiding. C.8. Ross presented his presidential address, Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes, published in this JouRNAL 33 (8) : 225-235. 1943. 50TH ANNUAL MEETING The 50th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjournment of the 611th regular meeting, Vice-President Cur- RIER presiding. The annual reports of the Sec- retaries, Treasurer, and Auditing Committee were read and approved. The results of balloting for officers for the en- suing year were as follows: President: HERBERT InNsLEY; Vice-Presidents: W. H. BRADLEY and GEORGE TUNELL; Treasurer: K. J. Murata; Secretaries: J. J. Fanny and K. E. Louman; Members at large of the Council: R. 8S. Cannon, L. W. Currier, M. D. Fostrrer, E. N. Gop- DARD, and E. F. Ossporn; Nominee as Vice- President of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society: C.S. Ross. MEMORIAL TO MISS OLIVE C. POSTLEY, READ BEFORE THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON BY H. D. MISER, MARCH 26, 1941. OuivE C. PosTLEY, a member of this Society JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 11 for the past 20 years, died at Emergency Hos- pital in Washington on January 14, 1941. She was born in Washington, the daughter of Dr. Charles E. and Clara M. Postley. She acquired her professional training at George Washington University, where her major subject was geol- ogy. Early in life she joined the staff of the Geological Survey as a clerk and devoted her- self to varied and responsible duties in that or- ganization. In 1926 she qualified under the Civil Service as junior geologist, and in 1931 was ad- vanced to assistant geologist. She served most efficiently as assistant to the chief geologist for a period of almost 30 years—during the admin- istrations of David White, W. C. Mendenhall, T. W. Stanton, and G. F. Loughlin. Her capac- ity for accomplishment merited and received continued recognition and advancement. Miss Postley, besides serving as the chief geologist’s assistant, handled personally a great volume of direct and written inquiries to the Survey about the oil, gas, and coal resources and the geology of the United States. She made occasional field studies, chiefly under David White’s guidance, in Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, and Virginia, and through wide travel elsewhere in the United States acquired much personal knowledge of the geology of the coun- try. Her knowledge of oil and gas is indicated in her publications, which include several papers on the oil and gas geology of the United States, and maps showing the oil and gas fields in Louisiana and Kansas. The Kansas map is unique in that it shows the geologic ages of the producing formations in the fields. It is the first oil and gas map of this type that the Geological Survey has issued. The Survey’s recently pub- lished oil and gas map of the United States bears Miss Postley’s name as a joint author. In recognition of her work in petroleum geol- ogy she was elected in1926to membership in the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. — As an individual Miss Postley was vivid and eager, absorbed in the adventure of life, and alert to all that it had to offer. She was in- stantly responsive to friendliness; her generos- ity, unselfish and untiring devotion to others, and intense loyalty were among her outstand- — ing characteristics. Her energy and enthusiasm outran her strength and continued to the end— perhaps hastened that end. Thus a great void is left in her personal circle, and the Society has lost an energetic member. Nov. 15, 1943 OBITUARIES 351 @bituaries Mary JANE RaTHBUN, an original member of the Academy, died at her home in Washing- ton, D. C., on April 4, 1943, in her eighty-third year. She was born in Buffalo, N. Y., on June 11, 1860. What she knew of zoology she learned largely through her own efforts and powers of observation. Educated in the public schools of Buffalo, where she was graduated from the Central High School in 1880, she majored in English and received a gold medal for excellence in that subject. To her thorough knowledge of the English language she attributed a great deal of her success in later life. This mastery of English is reflected throughout her extensive correspondence with zoologists in this country and abroad and in her many published works. The first time she ever beheld the ocean was in 1881, when she accompanied her brother Richard, later the director of the U. S. National Museum, to Woods Hole. She often remarked that it truly opened up to her a whole new world, and from that time on she devoted her- self largely to studies of marine life. Her first employment was wholly on a volun- tary basis with the old U. S. Fish Commission, with which she spent the summers at Woods Hole from 1881 to 1884, when she was ap- pointed to a clerkship with a very modest stipend. As Spencer F. Baird in those days was both Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and the head of the Fish Commission, which he founded, it was but a step from one organi- zation to the other. In 1886 Miss Rathbun was appointed copyist in the division of marine in- vertebrates of the National Museum, where her duties as record-keeper and cataloger brought her into intimate contact with the veritable flood of marine life which descended upon the Museum as the result of the intensive investiga- tions of fisheries and aquatic resources of the United States in which the Commission was pioneering at that time. The beautifully written specimen labels and catalogue entries in her clear, flowing Spencerian hand have never been equaled for clarity and legibility, and today they form the backbone of the records of the division of marine invertebrates. She was one of the first to use that early block-letter type- writing machine known as the Caligraph. The station data and accession lists of the once famous and still valuable Gloucester Fisheries Donations which she ran off on that machine are still in use. Very early in her career Miss Rathbun be- came interested in the decapod Crustacea, and almost without exception they form the subject matter of her 158 published works. The first of these was a study dealing with the genus Panopeus, published jointly with Dr. James E. Benedict, her superior officer in the division of marine invertebrates at the time. The last was a monograph of the oxystomatous and allied crabs of America, published by the U. S. Na- tional Museum. Included in her bibliography are a number of truly monumental accounts of marine and fresh-water crabs. The Paris Museum published her treatise on the fresh-water crabs as De- scriptions de nouvelles espéces de crabes d’eau douce appartenant aux collections du Muséum - d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. [Paris], no. 2, 1897. The U. 8. National Museum issued her four monographic bulletins dealing with marine crabs as follows: The grapsoid crabs of America, Bulletin 97, 1918; The spider crabs of America, Bulletin 129, 1925; The cancroid crabs of America, Bulletin 152, 1930; and The oxystomatous and allied crabs of America, Bulletin 166, 1937. Two other notable papers dealt with fossil crabs. The first, on The fossil stalk-eyed Crustacea of the Pacific slope of North America, was published as U.S. National Museum Bulletin 138, 1926; and the second was issued as Special Paper No. 2 of the Geological Society of America, entitled Fossil Crustacea of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, 1935. In 1916 she received an honorary M.A. from the University of Pittsburgh, and in 1917 her doctorate from the George Washington Uni- versity. In 1914 Miss Rathbun relinquished her salary and title as assistant curator in charg? of the marine invertebrate collections, in order that the money so saved might be devoted to the hire of an assistant to ease the burden of routine falling to that much understaffed division. She continued her research work, however, as associate in zoology, and in the 25 years that followed before her retirement from 352 full-time active work in the Museum some 80- odd of her total 158 papers were completed. Such personal sacrifice and devotion to science, and to the institution which gave her her op- portunity of pursuing the studies to which she had dedicated her life, are seldom encountered in this world. | During her lifetime Miss Rathbun gave the Museum her extensive carcinological library and at her death bequeathed the Smithsonian Institution $10,000 to further the work on decapod Crustacea in which she never lost in- terest and in which many another student be- came interested because of her works and personal encouragement. Wa.po L. Scumirt. With the death of CHARLES ScHUCHERT of Yale on November 20, 1942, geology lost one of its most eminent and most devoted students. Professor Schuchert was born on July 3, 1858, in Cincinnati, Ohio, where he lived for about one-third of his long life. He was educated in ‘ the public schools there but never had the ad- vantages of a university education. Like several other noted geologists from Cincinnati, Schuchert became interested in the geology and fossils for which that region is noted. His leisure and spare time from his trade of cabinet making were spent in collecting and studying these fossils. The Schuchert collection of brachiopods attracted the attention of Prof. James Hall, of Albany, N. Y., who invited Schuchert, then 30 years old, to become his assistant. In Albany Schuchert came under the influence of J. M. Clarke and C. E. Beecher, and under these incomparable mentors his education in paleontology was completed. - After leaving the influence of the great Albany school, Schuchert started his practice of paleontology and geology with the Min- nesota Geological Survey. Then he became assistant to C. E. Beecher at Yale for one year. From Yale he went to the U. S. Geological Survey for a short term and in 1894 became assistant curator of paleontology at the U. S. National Museum. There he served for ten years, leaving in 1904 to become professor of historical geology and curator of geology of Peabody Museum at Yale on the death of C. E. Beecher. In these capacities he served until 1923, when he relinquished the curator- ship at the Museum. In 1926 he became pro- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11 fessor emeritus and retained this title until his death in 1942. | At Yale Schuchert taught many graduate students and carried on numerous researches in paleontology and historical geology. His most important contributions to the latter are con- tained in his writings on paleogeography and — paleoclimatology which he, more than anyone © else, has made into a fascinating story. In © paleontology Schuchert made contributions to — our knowledge of many groups of fossils. His first love among the invertebrates was the — brachiopods, and he devoted much time and considerable money to accumulating the fine Schuchert collection of brachiopods now at — Yale. In stratigraphy he made contributions to — our knowledge of the Devonian and Silurian — periods, but in later years his interest turned — to the Permian period. He died a few weeks be- fore the appearance of the second volume of his ~ ambitious Historical Geology of North America. — Schuchert served geology and Yale with — single-minded devotion. As he once expressed — it to the writer, he ‘‘married the science” and ~ gave his whole life and much of his wealth to — the welfare of his abstract mate. Having no — immediate family with its drain on his time © and pocketbook, Schuchert devoted himself to — research, writing, and collecting. His salary — and revenue from books were largely spent on © geology and the field work of many deserving 4 graduate students. His writings include more — than 200 titles covering stratigraphy, paleon- — tology, historical geology texts, and biographi- a eal sketches and memoirs. } Professor Schuchert was very generous and — encouraging to the young men. In his later — years his mellow philosophy and kindly in- — terest strengthened and comforted many — struggling students. Schuchert will long be © revered for these qualities as well as for his de- _ votion to geology, a devotion that helped him q surmount the difficulties of early poverty and — lack of training and led him to the foremost — professorship of historical geology. z Professor Schuchert received many honors: — the Hayden and Thompson Gold Medals of the National Academy and tthe Penrose Medal of — the Geological Society of America. He received an LL.D. degree from New York University — (1914) and the honorary Se.D. from Yale — (1930) and Harvard (1935). 4 G. A. CooPER. aisle Ne h cepts. Harvey L. Curtis. . a noe ms op Bs veer Pane atl geen my This J ournal Is Indexed i in the International In Index to Periodicals Lee - JOURNAL, OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS Jason R. SWALLEN | L. V. Jupson BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BURBAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS e. Pk Epwarps Drmina C. F. W. Mursesecx ‘PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ; ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ae A. RexpER > oe te Epwin Kirx ae _ BIOLOGICAL SOCINTY © ; GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY - CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT -Wituiam N, Fenton Sb se _ BOTANICAL SOCINTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY gS Se er JamesI. 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Smitru, Bureau of Plant Industry. ‘ Custodian of Publications: FRanK M. Serzusr, U. S. Negee. Museum. % JOURNAL OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 33 ~ENTOMOLOGY.—Jnsect taxonomy and principles of speciation.: DeEcEMBER 15, 1943 No. 12 J. MANSON VALENTINE, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. : Probably no taxonomic science has been _ built upon so many conflicting systems and standards as has entomology. There are three apparent reasons for this heterogene- ity—the tremendous scope of the science, its long history, and the diversity of ap- proach of its many contributors. Further- more, during the past few decades it seems to have suffered an era of isolation during which it attained a high degree of speciali- zation and artificiality. The effort to stand- ardize in terms of simple ‘‘generic’”’ and ‘specific’ characters, usable in keys, has resulted in great confusion and has consider- ably obscured the evolutionary picture. Na- ture, deeply subtle, can not reveal itself fully when examined piecemeal, each part dissected from the whole; and a collection of organisms so Classified is therefore apt to re- flect merely an arbitrary system in the mind of the worker, and to contribute little to- ward a comprehension of evolutionary phe- nomena. Some of the early naturalists, such as Thomas Say and John L. LeConte, un- hampered by conventionalities that have arisen since their time, seem to have had almost an intuitive approach to problems of speciation. Knowingly or not, they worked as if impressed by the more or less qualita- tive characteristics distinguishing repro- ductively insulated populations—the true test of specific integrity. They used their judgment and rarely did they commit a .serious error. Contrast their relatively sound work with that of turn-of-the-century nomenclators, whose deductive, conven- tional taxonomy often led to such extremes as the attachment of multitudes of specific names to individual variations and anoma- 1 Received September 25, 1948. lies, worn and bleached specimens, vague geographic races, stages of maturity, and, not infrequently, to the sexes of the same species. Of recent years, systematic workers have begun to treat insects more as complex, liv- ing organisms. They have found it better science to study a relatively few species ex- haustively than a large number of miscel- laneous species superficially. There has thus accumulated enough evidence in entomol- ogy alone to place the species principle on a firm basis of fact, and some hope now dawns that the naming and arranging of insects will reflect the biological forces under which © they have evolved. This practice, contin- ued, will tend to produce a simple, flexible taxonomy—one that may eventually bring a gratifying degree of order to a subject now in cqnsiderable chaos. In simplest terms, the species may be de- fined as a unit population of genetically similar though sometimes outwardly varia- ble organisms that will interbreed freely in their natural habitat. No barrier due to in- ternal factors operates to prevent normal individuals from reproducing. In other words, the species is a clan whose members are compatible psychologically, physiolog- ically, and morphologically. When closely related species of this ideal type are not iso- lated by spatial or temporal limitations, they are insulated from one another as a result of the operation of internal specific systems (‘‘mechanisms’’), which may be classified as follows: 1. Anatomical insulation. The lock-and- key-like, sclerotized genitalic structures of both sexes, often extremely complex and usually characteristic of the species, tend to restrict successful insemination to within the species. _ “05° 393 SS "ay 354 2. Physiological insulation. Egg-sperm specificity, i.e., incompatibility between the sexual products of two species as exhibited in resistance to cross fertilization, in abnor- mality of development, in disturbances of fertility of offspring, etc. 3. Ethological (behavioristic) insulation. Specific selectivity, i.e., reluctance under natural conditions to engage in interspecific mating. This may be extended to include ostracism and isolationism of hybrids and anomalies. The first is hypothetical but doubtless op- erates to a greater or lesser extent in insects; the second is a possibility that lacks experi- mental proof in insects; the third, however, is a demonstrable fact not only in insects but in other groups of animals as well. Related species of migratory ducks, for example, traveling in mixed company during the mating period, preserve perfectly their spe- cific integrity in spite of occasional crossing, whereas the same species will hybridize much more freely in confinement. A similar phenomenon occurs in ungulate, carnivo- rous, and primate mammals. Indeed, it may be said of all closely related and associated species that a most important segregating factor, and perhaps often the chzef one, is preferential selectivity. This amounts to habitual or instinctive reluctance on the part of an individual to accept for a mate any other individual, presumably of another species, presenting sexual stimuli other than those to which the first has been condi- tioned. That this specific conditioning can be artificially overcome, at least in the higher vertebrates, has been adequately demonstrated, and there is little reason to doubt that, in like manner, ethological (so- cial) interspecific avoidances between re- lated and associated species of insects will also tend to dissolve as a result of selective confinement under laboratory conditions. From a general survey over the whole compass of speciation, beginning with minor, local variants and culminating with very distinctive aberrant species (many monobasic genera), it is at once obvious that the gradient is not a simple, gradual one but is beset with numerous plateaus and peaks that represent categories into which various kinds of ‘‘species’”’ may be roughly JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 12 classified. Further analysis reveals a rather distinct split of the entire picture into two curves, which are more or less superimposed at their bases. The object of the present pa- per is to compare these two major categories in their purest form in an effort to detect a possible fundamental, causal difference that might justify a clear-cut taxonomic inter- pretation. In groups of plastic organisms exhibiting an abundance of valid species, it is a com- mon phenomenon to find the most similar forms (perhaps those of most recent origin) living in closest ecological proximity. This is well illustrated in the Coleoptera, where species closest of kin very often live in inti- mate association, providing evidence that environmental segregation in these cases may be virtually ruled out as a functional isolating mechanism. Very similar and ap- parently congenetic species of Carabidae, for example, commonly share the same micro-habitats, nor is there any reason to believe that in most instances their respec- tive breeding seasons do not at least overlap. Two and even three species of cave beetles (Pseudanophthalmus), showing extremely close affinity yet representing unquestiona- bly distinct forms, repeatedly have been taken running together in the same cave or cave system in which they are localized. To cite another example, out of an almost in- exhaustible field, certain species of archaic, flightless weevils (Proterhinus) in the Ha- walian Islands are proximate not only in | kinship but in habits as well, being found together on identical host plants. Very closely related but discrete species not in- frequently occur in pairs and occupy the same macro- and micro-ranges. Familiar ex- amples among the carabids are Calosoma _ scrutator (F.) and C. willcoxi LeC., Scar- ites subterraneus F. and S. substriatus Hald., and Galerita janus F. and G. bicolor Drury. Such species automatically receive the acid test of integrity since, in the natural state, they habitually refuse to cross with their related associates although there is no apparent lack of opportunity. The separat- ing factor appears to be essentially an in- ternal one—a specific ‘‘awareness’”’ or recog- nition of kind. Furthermore, the phenome- non is suggestive of an intrapopulational Dec. 15, 1943 origin of an important class of species which may owe their existence, in large measure, to self-restricting conditionings, sexual and social, within the morphological (muta- tional?) range of the population. Indeed, it can be maintained that speciation of this type is fundamentally psychophysiological. At least, when once it is started there is no reason to suppose that it can not be sus- tained by autoselectivity over and above any help from anatomical incompatibilities that may have arisen during the course of specia- tion. Although the first-stage products are not always easy to distinguish taxonomical- ly, careful study usually reveals separating characters that are multiple and localized rather than generalized, constant rather than fluctuating, and qualitative rather than quantitative. Oftener than not, drastic changes in male genitalia, of a higher order than the usual variations in this plastic structure, give the clue’ to such specific dichotomy. Unfortunately, there is a current tend- ency on the part of biologists to treat geni- talic barriers merely as another ‘“‘isolating mechanism” on a par with environmental segregation. Perhaps it would be well to bear in mind that these distinctive anatomic features are, after all, part of the speciation phenomenon itself. It is confusing, if not il- logical, to accept the results of a biological process as their own initial cause. To clarify the problem one must proceed further with the analysis. Although the genitalic dis- similarities that tend to insulate related forms may contribute to the ‘“‘purification”’ of ‘a species, they should, in the writer’s opinion, be viewed also as part of the conse- quences of a far more intrinsic and complex biogenic process with roots deep in the be- havioristic psychology and sexual interac- tions of organisms. Perhaps it is not too ex- treme a view to hold that true speciation, a phenomenon not encountered in the intri- cate divergences of parthenogenetic forms, or in the plastic instability of asexually re- producing lower organisms, is essentially correlated with sex. More completely, it is the liberation of discrete morphological momenta, which are to some extent sus- tained and directed by the attractions, aver- sions, and compatibilities of organisms, but VALENTINE: INSECT TAXONOMY AND SPECIATION 355 on which these psychophysiological mo- menta or conditionings are to the same de- gree dependent. In antithetic contrast to associative spe- ciation is dissociative raciation, the prod- ucts of which are customarily (but very possibly inaccurately) termed ‘‘subspecies.”’ Typical raciation, as has often been pointed out, is the effect on a species of an external factor—environmental segregation. This operates principally to circumscribe special- ized adaptive salients and to establish genetic strains much as would selection. The segregating agency, always circumstantial, is usually secular (geographical, ecological, or temporal), though occasionally it is biological, as in the case of parthenogenetic forms whose various lines become isolated by virtue of their inability to cross. The ideal picture of raciation is one in which autoselectivity is notably absent, the local populations, or races, hybridizing freely where ranges overlap. They differ from true species in that they tend to exhibit distin- guishing characters that are relatively super- ficial, generalized, quantitative and fluctu- ating. Even when, in extreme raciation,the changes taking place may pervade the en- tire facies to such an extent as to appear of qualitative value, they may usually be in- terpreted as alterations in degree rather than in kind, since no new character is ordinarily involved. Assuming, as seems permissible from the available evidence in Coleoptera, that totally different factors enter into the origin of associative species and dissociative races, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the observable differences between the two categories reflect on the one hand the rela- tively internal nature of the speciating ‘‘drives”’ in contrast to the relatively exter- nal mechanism of raciation on the other. The two processes, though dissimilar in principle, are not, however, mutually exclu- sive, and long-continued isolation of sister colonies might conceivably result in poten- tial speciocentrism demonstrable as refusal to cross when the opportunity arrives. It is true that in cases of discontinuous geo- graphical raciation, and of raciation due to abrupt adaptation to environmental differ- ences, populations sometimes exhibit such conspicuous departure from ancestral type 356 as to render their specific or racial status a matter of considerable question. The taxo- nomic problems that thus arise are admit- tedly often very difficult; but in the writer’s experience indecision is due oftener to an inadequate knowledge of the species in its entirety than to the unavailability of valid evidence. In the Caraboidea, geographically dis- continuous or ‘‘spotty”’ distribution of a species is the exception rather than the rule, discounting, of course, the clearly obliga- tory type of segregation such as that im- posed by insular, mountain-top, and cave life. Nor does the condition involving obli- gatory segregation necessarily correlate with increased taxonomic confusion. In cavernicolous faunas, for instance, it is sur- prising how trivial are the observable differ- ences between colonies of widely ranging species of cave beetles (Pseudanophthalmus) isolated in individual caves over a subter- ranean system scores or even hundreds of miles in extent—a phenomenon in distinct contrast to the unmistakable, nonoverlap- ping distinctions between related species in the same cave. It is more than likely that most of these populations have had an ex- tremely long history of isolation; yet a re- cent survey of the genus has shown that there are remarkably few forms that can not immediately be assigned either specific or racial rank. Products of mountain-top isolation often exhibit similar conservatism. The following is a typical example: Steniridia aeneicollis (Beutenmiiller) and S. tricarinata Casey are very closely related ‘‘species”’ of an ancient stock of cychrine carabids endemic to the Appalachian region south of glaciation. These two forms are at present restricted to the forests above an altitude of about 4,000 feet, respectively, in the Black and Pisgah- Balsam-Smoky Mountain Ranges of North Carolina and Tennessee. In their consistent and distinct differences, and in their inabil- ity or unwillingness to traverse the exten- sive surrounding valleys, they stand out as conspicuous isolation products in an other- wise itinerant group containing five clear- cut species” whose comparatively wide ranges broadly overlap. At least two of these species ascend the mountains sufficiently ' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 12 high to live in association with the two sum- mit-dwelling relicts. If we consider the lat- ter as a single species, the characters that separate all six are trenchant and multiple, involving drastic genitalic and tarsal modi- fications; whereas the relicts differ one from the other only quantitatively, in minor changes of contour, development of the in- terstrial costae, and suppression of scleroti- zation in the transfer apparatus of the male copulatory organ. They represent a dis- tinctly lower order of mutual divergence. than do their associated relatives of higher rank, despite the probability that these ex- treme orophilic forms have had the long- time ‘‘advantage’”’ of complete isolation from each other. Insular races often seem to be stabilized by a similar evolutionary inertia. An experi- ment performed by the writer illustrates this rather clearly. A tiger beetle, Cicindela vitiensis Blanchard, inhabiting the larger Fiji Islands, is both abundant and ubiqui- tous throughout its range. Each large island and each of a variety of overlapping ecologi- cal frames furnishes its distinctive race or subrace. For many years vitiensis has been considered the only tiger beetle in Fiji. Not long ago, however, the writer discovered a local, mountain-dwelling colony of another cicindelid living in intimate association with witiensis but apparently not hybridiz- ing with it. The new form exhibits qualita- tive specializations of characters present in vitiensis that establish without doubt its status as a distinct species as well as its probable origin from vitzensis. Interspecific copulation tests under laboratory condi- tions gave the following results: With equal numbers of each sex of both species present, out of 38 matings observed, only 3 were in- terspecific. The latter were abortive, recog- nition apparently causing premature sepa- ration. Psychological insulation of this order coupled- with probable physiological and morphological barriers could easily account for the genetic preservation of the species, while the fact that specific selectivity in mating was not found to be absolute merely confirms the closeness of the relationship. . These data contrast strikingly with those resulting from a similar experiment in which two geographic races of vitiensis, differing Dec. 15, 1948 quantitatively chiefly in respect to color pattern, were brought together—the Viti- _ levu race (vitiensis s. str.) used in the above tests, and another (v. ¢mperfecta Horn) in- habiting the island of Taveuni 100 miles distant. Out of 121 matings observed in cages containing equal numbers of both sexes of the two races, 59, or almost exactly half, were interracial. It may well be that raciation under cer- tain circumstances, such as at the extremes of extensive, divergent clines, can proceed to the point of potential insulation tanta- mount to speciation. Indeed, there is some evidence to this effect; yet the basic con- cept of speciation through biogenic discon- tinuity is not invalidated thereby. Fulfill- ment of the species standard would still de- - pend, in the last analysis, upon the natural association of diverging groups and the spontaneous building up of an internal block between them. All the indications are that, if there is a potential split, interracial aver- sions must actuate the final disunity and determine its permanence. One would there- fore expect speciation by raciation to be, at most, atypical, since isolation, the one fac- tor most responsible for raciation, precludes association, the one condition essential to a true test of speciation. For example, the most distinctive races of caraboids, and consequently those most likely to establish species, occupy relatively restricted ranges, to which they are often secured by adaptive and sedentary instinct, or confined by actual physical barriers. Although negative, evi- dence arising from this relationship militates strongly against a total explanation of Speciation in terms of raciation. On the other hand, gradual eradication of ecologi- cal and geographic obstacles over considera- ble geologic time, followed by colonization of available areas, could and probably has played an important part in the union of isolated races; but there seems to be no more evidence that races thus thrown to- gether will take a specific stand than there is that they will cross. Field data from various sources, including vertebrate as well as in- vertebrate groups, have shown both to be possibilities. Probably significant, however, is the relative scarcity of observed instances of insulation between merging races in con- VALENTINE: INSECT TAXONOMY AND SPECIATION 357 trast to the abundance of cases illustrative of closely related and associated species ex- hibiting little or no indication of raciation, past or present. It is therefore difficult to escape the conclusion that intolerance of the unfamiliar, regardless of mode of origin or apparent tangibility of the departure, is a more fundamental factor in true speciation than isolation, which does not necessarily contribute to the establishment of distinc- tions appreciable to the organism. Radical speciation apparently resulting from ancient and complete isolation may, in some cases, be interpreted as the survival of the more specialized of two or more conge- netic and possibly competing species. It does not seem necessary, however, to assume ex- tinction of the more conservative, ancestral forms to account for drastically distinct en- demics, since it is well known that species confined to small areas, particularly to small islands, often fail to meet the usual specific standards of consistency established by free- ranging continental forms. Their variabil- ity, or “fluidity,’’ may be a direct result of a sedentary life, or it may be due to the en- trapment of genetic strains, or to both, but whatever the origin such a plastic potential must function as the ideal set-up for di- vergent speciation of the true associative type involving not only the new products but the more conservative progenitors as well. In the Carabidae, at least, endemic faunas of circumscribed ranges are largely made up either of obvious races or of com- pact groups of many species. The much rarer instances of single species occupying isolated ranges usually fall into the cate- gory of geologically antique, aberrant resid- ua of one-time flourishing evolutionary tangents. In summary, the results of an analysis of the species problem as presented by studies in various groups of the Caraboidea in- dicate that speciation may be defined as relatively complete morphogenic (muta- tional?) departure sanctioned and channel- ized by psychophysiological conditioning; and that raciation, a process involving en- vironmental closeting, is the establishment of genetic lines, adaptive or fortuitous, that are essentially superficial and devoid of in- ternal, insulating organization. The two do 308 not appear mutually dependent, nor are they mutually exclusive. Whether raciation attains the species level depends upon the synchronous introduction of antipathetic responses between two or more merging races formerly spatially remote, an event that certainly is possible but, supported as it is by very few factual data, is probably atypical. Whether or not the species level is maintained depends largely upon the degree of fixation of an internal ‘‘awareness’”’ whose sporadic involution in related associates may cause occasional anastomoses in the dichot- omous tree of normally repellent, discrete evolution. Endless shifting circumstances, such as bring about sequestration, changing habits and locale, introduction of new faunistic elements, adoption of the parthe- nogenetic method of reproduction, etc., may mask the history of a species, its origin, deployment, and restriction, but so indeli- ble is the nucleus of specific character that the relatively minor alterations due to change of life seldom, if ever, succeed in eradicating the stamp beyond recognition. Ali things considered, it is probably not too extreme a view to hold that sexual repro- duction, together with at least initial asso- ciation of divergent elements, is a sine qua non of the actual process of true speciation. From the foregoing, two fundamental evolutionary principles suggest themselves: (1) True species may not be essentially de- pendent upon isolation for their origin; (2) secular isolation, though correlated with JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 12 differentiation, may not by itself be a pri- mary speciating factor. Speciation often ap- pears to be the spontaneous introduction of new, self-insulating units within a parent- species population; it is the end product of self-augmenting, biogenic momenta involy- ing the organism in its entirety. Typical raciation, on the other hand, is the effect on the species of group segregation, a factor imposed from without and operating dis- interestedly in much the same manner as natural selection. To evaluate the mixed products of these two processes is the chief concern of taxonomy, a science whose com- plexity increases with the plasticity, youth, and colonizing drive of the group under consideration. The scope of entomological taxonomy is so vast that the experimental approach to all its problems is out of the question. How- ever, if good judgment based on carefully studied models takes the place of indiscrim- inate key-character hunting, great strides can be expected toward a system that will reflect evolution. A supposed new species should in every instance be subjected to a critical analysis, both as to the nature of its distinctions and as to the spatial relation- ships existing between it and its nearest al- lies. If these criteria were universally ap- plied, systematics would gain immeasurably in significance, for it would then portray evolution in such a manner as to bring out not merely degrees of differences but kinds of differences as well. GEOLOGY .—The paleontology and stratigraphy of the upper Martinsburg formation of Massanutten Mountain, Virginia.) Evitt, The Johns Hopkins University. During the course of field work on Silu- rian stratigraphy, Dr. Charles K. Swartz found what at first was thought to be a new species of the gastropod Lophospira in the upper part of the Ordovician Martinsburg formation in the Massanutten Mountain region of Virginia. In order to determine the significance of this fossil, Dr. Swartz ap- proached the senior author, who has been engaged for some years in a study of the general problems concerning the stratigra- phy and fauna of the Martinsburg, assisted, 1 Received July 12, 1948. Mark H. Secrist and WILLIAM R. (Communicated by E. W. Berry.) since the summer of 1941, by the junior author. As a result of this inquiry, a study was made not only of the section in which Dr. Swartz found the gastropod in question but also of another section somewhat farther south. The material collected has yielded ten new species of gastropods, pelecypods, and brachiopods. It has become evident that both the fauna and the lithology of the upper Martinsburg in these eastern sections indicate conditions different from those rep- resented by the upper Martinsburg farther to the west and south. ) Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT, GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA. Studies of intermediate regions are not sufficiently advanced to allow correlations between eastern and western areas to be in- cluded in this paper. We shall limit ourselves to a description of the new species and a statement of the evidence and conditions as they exist in the field and shall make defi- . nite correlations only between the two sec- tions investigated in Massanutten Moun- tain. Location and extent—The area covered in this report lies in the Massanutten Moun- tain region of the Appalachian Valley Province of Virginia. This mountain is a large monadnock that projects from the floor of the Shenandoah Valley and extends about 50 miles in a northeast-southwest di- rection. The mountain itself is double, composed of two roughly parallel ridges, _ which are the limbs of a synclinal fold in the Paleozoic rocks, the more resistant forma- tions of which have withstood to a greater degree the processes of erosion that have leveled the less resistant early Paleozoic limestones to form the broad, flat floor of the valley. The mountain divides this valley into a western part and an eastern part, which are occupied, respectively, by the _ North and South Forks of the Shenandoah River. New Market Gap, in Shenandoah and Page Counties, is the only large gap that cuts across the mountain, though sev- eral smaller gaps offer passage for unim- proved country roads. The outcrops studied occur in two locali- ties: (1) along the road near the northern end of Passage Creek Valley in Warren County, extending for a distance of 710 feet (road distance) northward from the contact with the overlying Massanutten sandstone; and (2) about 40 miles to the south, along the Catharine Furnace Road on the north side of Cub Run in Page County, extending eastward 1,350 feet (road distance) from the contact with the Massanutten sandstone. Passage Creek drains the minor valley be- tween the two ridges of Massanutten Moun- tain, having its headwaters north of New Market Gap. It flows northeastward and empties into the North Fork of the Shenan- doah River east of Waterlick, just beyond the northern end of the mountain. Cub Run is a small stream flowing northward and 309 eastward into the South Fork of the Shen- andoah River a few miles south of Newport in Page County. Underlying formation.—The Martinsburg formation, where observed in the Massa- nutten region, is underlain conformably by the Chambersburg limestone. In this sec- tion of Virginia we have recognized four lithologic divisions of the latter: (1) com- paratively massive, impure limestone with several thin beds of bentonite near the base; (2) nodular, thin-bedded, argillaceous lime- stone; (3) a zone of blue limestone in beds 12 to 18 inches thick separated by thin beds of shale; followed gradationally by (4) the upper part of the formation, which, in the unweathered state, consists of compact, medium-bedded, impure limestone with numerous clay partings causing it to weather into thin sheetlike layers. The transition from this last zone into buff-weathering, preponderantly argillaceous lower Martins- burg is relatively abrupt. Zones (1) and (4) are well exposed at Cub Run, though at Passage Creek the entire Chambersburg formation is concealed. However, a com- plete section of the formation is exposed along Tumbling Run on the Lee Highway 2 miles southwest of Strasburg and about 5 miles west of Passage Creek. Overlying formation.—The contact of the Martinsburg and the overlying Massanut- ten sandstone was not observed, but the concealed interval in which it occurs at both places amounts to only a few feet. The Massanutten formation is a massively bed- ded, white to gray sandstone and quartzite, conspicuously cross-bedded and very resist- ant, causing it to form prominent cliffs whose talus slopes invariably conceal the contact with the underlying Martinsburg. At Cub Run conglomerate beds with pebbles an inch or more in diameter are common. At Passage Creek the average grain size is much smaller. The contrast in the lithology of the two formations is everywhere a strik- ing feature. Regional and structural relationships.—A broad picture of the Martinsburg in the en- tire Massanutten Mountain area indicates that the upper part has experienced very lit- tle change, though the middle and lower portions have suffered both structural and 360 lithologic modification in the northern, northeastern, and western parts of the re- gion. In the Cub Run section, on the con- trary, very little alteration or deformation is evidenced. An accurate determination of the thick- ness of the Martinsburg in the Massanutten region is impractical (see Butts, 1933, p. 21). Our measurements of sections farther west and south at Monterey Mountain, Catawba Mountain, Narrows, and McCalls Gap, for example, give thicknesses ranging from 1,400 to 2,200 feet. As a result of gen- eral field observations, we think the appar- ently much greater thickness in the Massa- nutten Mountain region is due to structural readjustments within the formation as visi- bly expressed by folding, faulting, and litho- logic deformation. Inthologic description of the Martinsburg formation.—In the Massanutten area, the Martinsburg formation is not exposed suf- ficiently for continuous investigation. At Passage Creek outcrops suitable for strati- graphic and faunal studies are restricted to the upper part of the formation. The lower part, where exposed, shows the results of structural and lithologic deformation. At Cub. Run exposures are continuous from the massive Massanutten sandstone through the arenaceous upper Martinsburg and well down.into the argillaceous middle portion, below which they are intermittent and of ir- regular extent into the underlying Cham- bersburg limestone. The following descrip- tion is based largely upon the Cub Run sec- tion: The gradation from the argillaceous lime- stone of the upper Chambersburg into the calcareous shale of the lower Martinsburg is fairly rapid. Weathering of the calcareous material results in a yellow to tan or buff color that is typical of the lower and middle portions of the formation. Ascending, the beds become increasingly argillaceous with the advent of arenaceous material in the middle portion. Toward the upper part of the latter, sandstone beds for the first time become prominently abundant. The grada- tion from the middle portion into the upper is marked lithologically by a change from dominantly argillaceous to dominantly arenaceous beds (Bassler, 1919, p. 156). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 12 Corresponding to this lithologic change oc- curs the faunal change described below. As shown in the measured sections, the upper portion, characterized by an essen- tially Maysville fauna, consists mostly of brown, iron-stained, fine-grained sandstone beds of variable thickness with some shaly partings. Cross-bedding is rather general, especially toward the top. Much of the sandstone contains flakes of mica and hematite and flat inclusions of slaty shale up to an inch in size. In addition, being somewhat arkosic in nature, it has a speckled appearance. Faunal description of the Martinsburg for- mation.—Investigators of these rocks have recognized a threefold faunal division, namely, (1) an essentially Trenton fauna in the lower part, (2) an Eden fauna in the middle part, and (8) a Maysville fauna in the upper part. Thorough investigations have been made in the classic Cincinnati area where the terms ‘‘Eden’”’ and ‘‘Mays- ville’ have become well established through long usage. In the Cincinnati area, the Trenton is recognized as a well-defined time and lithologic unit. As these formations are followed eastward, the distinctions between the Trenton and the Cincinnatian, on the one hand, and between the members of the Cincinnatian, on the other, become less marked. In large measure the three lose their individualities and more or less com- bine into a whole which is known to the east as the Martinsburg formation. Our studies in the western and southern parts of the Appalachian Province of Virginia and ex- tending northward into Pennsylvania show that, on both lithologic and faunal grounds, several divisions of the Martinsburg exist, for which, tentatively, we are using the three classic terms ‘“Trenton,” ‘‘Eden,” and “Maysville” (Bassler, 1919, p. 163), pend- ing the results of more complete study. Inasmuch as the purpose of this investi- gation was to establish the relationships and significance of the upper Martinsburg, a de- tailed study was not made of the middle and lower portions in the Massanutten region. At Passage Creek only the upper or Mays- ville part of the formation is available for study. At Cub Run, on the other hand, both the upper and a considerable thickness of Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA. the middle or Eden portions are well ex- posed. The following fossils, all well-recognized Eden representatives (Bassler, 1919, p. 169), establish the identity of the Eden portion at Cub Run: Aspidopora cf. A. newberryt (Nicholson), Pholidops cincinnatiensis Hall, Sowerbyella sericeus (Sowerby) var., Hormo- toma gracilis (Hall), Cryptolithus tesselatus Green, and Ceratopsis chambersi Miller. On the other hand, the Maysville at both Passage Creek and Cub Run is recognized not so much by individual species as by a general faunal assemblage (Bassler, 1919, p. 170), which includes species of the follow- ing: Bracuiopops: Dalmanella, Lingula, Or- thorhynchula, Plectorthis, Rafinesquina, Zy- gospira. PELECYPODS: Byssonychia, Col- pomya, Ctenodonta, Cuneamya, Cymatonota, Cyrtodonta, Ischyrodonta, Orthodesma, Pteri- nea, Rhytimya, Whitella. GasTRopops: Lio- ‘spira, Lophospira, Oxydiscus. CEPHALO- pops: Paractinoceras, Spyroceras. 'TRILO- BITES: Calymene, Isotelus. OstRacop: Dre- panella. In contrast to the Maysville of our west- ern sections, there is evidence of only one distinct faunal zone at Passage Creek and Cub Run. Because of its excellent develop- ment at the former locality, we have called it the Passage Creek Zone. This zone, at both localities, may be recognized readily by the presence of several abundantly fos- siliferous and conspicuously iron-stained horizons, which weather into a porous con- dition. In the foregoing fossil list of Mays- ville forms, the only genera that have not been found in the Passage Creek Zone are Lingula and Oxydiscus. Very few and scattered fossils were found in the increasingly arenaceous beds of the upper portion above the Passage Creek Zone. Among these are the following: Buthotrephis cf. flexuosa Hall, Palaeophycus sp., Lingula sp. The upper 96 feet of the exposed section at Cub Run have produced no fossils. Discussion.—The Eden at Cub Run is comparable in lithology and fauna to the shaly Eden of the western sections. The general fossil representation in the Mays- ville, however, is meager; pelecypods and 361 gastropods predominate with a relative scarcity of brachiopods and trilobites in contrast to their abundance in the argilla- ceous and calcareous material of comparable age farther west. The following, which are associated with the Maysville elsewhere, were not found at either of the Massanutten localities: Platystrophia sp., Hebertella sp., abundant Bryozoa, phosphatic masses (Butts, 1940, p. 208). According to Butts (1933, p. 22), the Maysville is characterized ‘‘by the profuse and universal occurrence at the very top of Orthorhynchula linneyt.’”’ Bassler (1919, pp. 168, 170), in contrast, states: “This Ortho- CUB RUN SECTION Thickness Inter- | Hori- Description Total val zon 242.1 95.3 = Contact with Massanutten sandstone. Barren, massively bedded sandstone, rust-stained and prominently jointed. Highest bed containing plant remains. Lingula cf. L. nickelst Bassler. Moderately cross-bedded, medium to fine-grained sandstone. Highest gastropod (Lophospira sp. in- det.). Highest abundantly fossiliferous bed, 2 to 3 inches thick: argillaceous sand- stone, weathering reddish brown (Colpomya faba cf. C. pucilla Foerste). Shale beds becoming less frequent and thinner. Sandstone generally lighter in color. Cross-bedding more evident. Highest Passage Creek fauna bed. Passage Creek Zone consists of fossilif- erous, rotten, rusty-brown lenses in and between heavier sandstone beds. Lophospira, Rafinesquina, and Parac- tinoceras abundant. Lowest Passage Creek fauna bed. Heavy sandstone beds: very little shale. Very prominent spheroidal weathering in sandstone beds. Heavy sandstone beds with shaly part- ings. Lowest pelecypod bed (Whitella mas- sanuttenensis, n. sp., and W. nasuta, n. sp., abundant). Increase in thickness of sandstone beds. No fossils observed. Highest typical Eden fauna, containing Cryptolithus, Sowerbyella, Cornulites. A lithologic transition zone marked by an increase in sandstone. Below this horizon is typical Eden lithology consisting of alternating light and dark beds of sandstone and shale, breaking into small, platy fragments. Eden thickness undeter- mined. 146.8 129.2 SGronl a 109.9 90.7 109.9 | 49.6 —_— 60.3 9.3 9.3 == 0.0; 0.0; 0.0 362 PASSAGE CREEK SECTION Thickness Inter- | Hori- Description Total val zon Lowest Massanutten sandstone out- crop taken as contact. Entirely concealed, largely covered with Massanutten sandstone float. Spring enclosure on west side of road containing highest Martinsburg out- crop. Largely concealed, with a few scattered outcrops. Barren, fine-grained sand- stone breaking into flat joint blocks. Last fossils observed. More or less massively bedded, fine- grained sandstone with a few thin beds containing Passage Creek as- semblage. Massive, fine-grained, gray to brown sandstone. Extremely prolific 6-inch porous bed in which Lophospira is very abundant. Very conspicuous porous bed. A few thin porous beds with Lophospira abundant. Massive sandstone with hematite particles and a few scattered Rafines- quina and pelecypods. Rusty weath- ering prominent. Typical Passage Creek lithologic and faunal zone, containing frequent fos- siliferous beds of variable thickness and extent, with Paractinoceras, then Lophospira, and then Rafinesquina conspicuous in ascending order. At road level, beginning of more or less continuous exposures. Arkosic, fine- grained sandstone, thinly laminated throughout, weathering into blocky beds, speckled with hematite. Concealed. 0.0 | Lowest Martinsburg outcrop consisting of brown fine-grained sandstone beds, somewhat arkosic, weathering rusty. Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata, n. var., abundant; also Dalmanella sp. 95.0 95.0 | 11.0 a 84.0 64.0 54.0 rhynchula bed everywhere marks the divid- ing line between the Lower Maysville (Fairview) and the Upper Maysville (Mc- Millan) divisions, the latter in the Appa- lachian region being an _ unfossiliferous, gray sandstone apparently of continental origin and equivalent to the Oswego sand- stone of the New York section.” In sections already examined elsewhere in the Appa- lachian region, we have found this Ortho- rhynchula zone usually well developed near the top of the formation (Bassler, 1919, p. 160). In the Massanutten region—specifi- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 12 cally, in the Passage Creek section—one depauperate specimen of O. linneyz (James) was found. This occurred in the lower part of the Passage Creek Zone, which at the type locality is 106 feet, and at Cub Run about 200 feet, below the top of the Mar- tinsburg. This paucity of characteristic Maysville forms suggests striking differences in condi- tions of both environment and deposition between this area and those farther west. Butts (1940, p. 202) reports the lack of other formations between the Martinsburg and the Massanutten in this region, and we have found neither Juniata nor Oswego beds as such in either of our sections. How- ever, close examination of the Martinsburg of Little North Mountain, which lies be- tween the western sections and Massanut- ten Mountain, may indicate whether the barren, somewhat cross-bedded, ferruginous sandstone beds lying above the fossiliferous part of the Passage Creek Zone are Martins- burg (Maysville) in age or are to be corre- lated with either the Oswego or the Juni- ata, or both, since these latter formations occur on Little North Mountain (Butts and Edmundson, 1939, p. 169). It is evident that the intermittent development of these inter- vening formations is a problem of such large scope that it is beyond the province of this paper to do more than note their apparent omission in the Massanutten syncline (Butts and Edmundson, 1939, p. 179). In the two sections under discussion, variations in the lithology of the compara- tively barren strata above the Passage Creek Zone suggest the possibility that they may have accumulated under deltaic condi- tions (Bassler, 1919, p. 161) with the source © of the material closer to Cub Run than to Passage Creek. As evidence supporting this theory, the following observations are pre- sented: 1. At Passage Creek the measured thick- ness of this zone is 68 feet, while at Cub Run it is almost three times as great, being 182 feet. 2. The sandstone beds contain scattered plant remains but no marine fossils. 3. As stated above, there is a striking ab- sence of characteristic Maysville forms. Dec. 15, 1948 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA. 4. The material at Cub Run is more con- sistently arenaceous in character than that at Passage Creek. 5. There is a stronger development of cross-bedding at Cub Run than at Passage Creek. 6. At Cub Run the basal Massanutten is somewhat conglomeratic. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES BRACHIOPODA Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata, n. var. Figs. 13, 14 All specimens are internal casts. Shell attain- ing large size, semioval, the average ratio of width to length for holotype and paratypes be- ing about 1.4 to 1. Dimensions of holotype: width 36 mm, length 30 mm. Hinge line straight, equal to the greatest width of the valve. Cardinal angles rectangular to very slightly mucronate. Ventral valve gently and evenly convex, the beak moderately promi- nent; costellae small, rounded, and distinct, usu- ally every fourth one more pronounced from the beak to the anterior margin. The pro- nounced costellae without bifurcations, but bifurcation of the smaller ones common in the anterior half of the valve. The outstanding surficial feature is a very prominent, straight, central costella extending the full length of the valve, but causing no extension of the anterior margin, which is evenly rounded. Faint con- centric growth ridges indicated. Dorsal valve same as ventral valve in size and outline; flat, except for a very slight projection of the beak; finely and evenly costellate, lacking the alter- nations of the ventral valve. Locality. Passage Creek. Remarks.—The varietal name mediolineata has been chosen because of the presence of the very conspicuous median striation on the ven- tral valve, which is lacking in R. alternata (Emmons). In other respects the two are simi- lar. This variety does not have the mucronate shape of R. mucronata Foerste; R. squamula James does not exhibit an alternation in the size of the costellae; R. alternata centristriata Ruedemann occurs much lower stratigraphi- cally; and in R. nasuta (Conrad) the prominent central line is not a constant feature and the anterior margin is noticeably produced. 363 MOLLUSCA PELECYPODA Byssonychia bowmani, n. sp. Figs. 4, 5 Cast of left valve. Shell small. Outline sub- quadrangular with rounded base. Beak small, rounded in section, acutely pointed, curving forward slightly and extending a short distance beyond the hingeline. Umbone very prominent, expanding evenly toward the entire ventral margin of the shell. Hinge line straight and about two-thirds the greatest length of the shell making an angle of approximately 90 de- grees with the anterior margin. Height 32 mm; thickness 10 mm. Anterior outline about straight, the margin projecting slightly at its lower end to form the greatest length of the shell. From this point the ventral margin is strongly and convexly rounded, flattening somewhat as it approaches the posterior cardi- nal angle. Byssal opening indistinct. Costae fine, rounded, numbering from 65 to 70 and increasing very gradually in strength from the posterior to the anterior margins. Interior not Seen. Locality.— Passage Creek. Remarks.—In outline this species is similar to B. richmondensis Ulrich, but in the latter the anterior margin is longer and the angle between the hinge line and the anterior margin is greater. Both B. richmondensis Ulrich and B. praecursa Ulrich are generally more elongate from beak to ventral margin. The specific char- acters of B. bowmani are the great number of costae (65 to 70, as compared with 38 to 42 for B. precursa and about 50 for B. richmondensis), a shorter anterior margin, and a less elongate shell. This distinctive species is named in honor of Dr. Isaiah Bowman, president of The Johns Hopkins University. Cuneamya umbonata, n. sp. Fig. 8 Cast of the interior of right valve. Shell of medium size, having a length of 25 mm and a height of 15 mm, larger at the anterior end and tapering to a rounded posterior point; beak very large, high, pointed and incurved, pro- jecting 2.5 mm above the cardinal line. Apex of beak situated about one-third the length from the anterior end. Cardinal line straight for one- Fig. 1—Whitella massanuttenensis, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype. Fig. 2.—W. nasuta, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of right valve. Fig. 3——Lophospira expansa, n. sp., cast of interior of holotype. Figs. 4, 5—Byssonychia bowmani, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype: 4, side view; 5, front view. Figs. 6, 7, 11.—Lophespira tropidophora (Meek), plastic casts of interior molds: 6, 7, two views of one specimen; 11, another specimen; all indicating common variations. Fig. 8.—Cuneamya umbonata, n. sp., cast of right valve of holotype. Fig. 9—JLophospira breviangulata, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of interior. Fig. 10.—L. trilineata, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of exterior. Fig. 12.—JL. liosutura, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of exterior. Figs. 13, 14.— Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata, n. var.: 13, holotype, external cast of ventral valve; 14, paratype, immature specimen. Fig. 15.—Pterinea maternata, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype (umbone broken away, gastropod fragment lodged in opening). All from Passage Creek except Fig. 2, which is from Cub Run. Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA. half the length of the shell, posterior to the beak; posterior portion of the cardinal area slightly alate. Escutcheon well marked; lunule heart-shaped, distinct. Base of lunule forming anterior point of shell, the ventral margin curv- ing convexly from this point to the posterior extremity. Umbonal ridge rounded, sloping to the posterior point. No trace of a sulcus, a hori- zontal longitudinal section being at no place concave. A line through the beak, through the widest part of the shell, makes an angle of about 20 degrees with the vertical. Greatest thickness of the valve 15 mm from which it tapers evenly and abruptly to the anterior, and | gently to the posterior extremities. Faint con- centric growth lines present. Locality—Passage Creek. Remarks—The striking prominence and convexity of the umbo distinguish this species - from others of the genus. Pterinea maternata, n. sp. Fig. 15 Cast of left valve. Shell subrhomboidal, ex- ceedingly convex. Hinge line straight, its length being 18 mm. Greatest length of shell 22 mm; height 20 mm; thickness 7 mm. Anterior wing short and broadly rounded. Posterior wing short, triangular, extending a little beyond the margin. Posterocardinal area alate. Beak de- stroyed. Umbonal ridge not marked, the whole valve having a swollen appearance. Postero- ventral and ventral margins evenly rounded. Anterior margin nearly straight and making an angle, if extended, of about 75° with the hinge line. Locality.—Passage Creek. Remarks.—The most distinctive characteris- tic of this species is its striking convexity. Whitella massanuttenensis, n. sp. Fig. 1 _ Cast of left valve. Shell of medium size, very convex, subrhomboidal in outline, slightly the widest posteriorly; length measured from upper anterior to lower posterior angle 43 mm; great- est height 33 mm. Anterior margin gently rounded and nearly vertical in the upper half; sharply rounded at the extremity of the hinge. Ventral margin evenly and gently convex to the posterior extremity of the umbonal ridge. Post- basal angle strongly rounded. Posterior margin subparallel to the anterior margin, moderately 365 rounded at the extremity of the hinge. Beak small and very prominent, not strongly in- curved, situated about one-third to one-fourth the length behind the anterior extremity. Um- bonal ridge very slightly developed as com- pared with the majority of the species of the genus. Sinus area slightly flattened in the ven- tral half of the shell, situated about midway in the length and subparallel to the umbonal ridge. Indications of imbricating and concen- tric growth lines present. Locality — Passage Creek. Remarks.— Whitella compressa Ulrich is more rounded, compressed, and slightly more erect than this species. W. obliquata Ulrich has much stronger umbonal ridges with the beak situated more anteriorly. W. ohioensis Ulrich is more rounded in outline and less convex. Whitella nasuta, n. sp. Fig. 2 ‘ Mold of right valve. Shell medium, com- pressed convex, subrhomboidal in outline, elon- gate; length measured from upper anterior to lower posterior angle 43 mm; greatest height 28 mm. Widest at the posterocardinal angle. Hinge line almost straight. Anterior area flat- tened and produced into arounded front mar- gin. The ventral margin shows an evenly con- vex curve from the posterior extremity of the umbonal ridge to the anterocardinal angle. Posterior end of shell evenly rounded. Postero- cardinal angle very wide. Umbone small, com- pressed, slightly incurved, protruding moder- ately above the hinge line. Umbonal ridge very low, disappearing in the posterior third. Um- bone situated about one-third the length be- hind the anterior extremity. Locality —Cub Run. Remarks.—This species bears a general re- semblance to W. massanuttenensis, n. sp., but is distinguished by its nasute anterior end and more compressed shell. GASTROPODA Lophospira breviangulata, n. sp. Fig. 9 Cast of interior. Apical angle 90°+. Height 8 mm. Volutions no more than 4. Probably tri- carinate; all carinae rounded. Toward the aper- ture there is an indication of a lower carina which seems to fuse with the peripheral one higher in the shell. The upper carina is sepa- 366 rated from the peripheral one by a distinct but very narrow concave area, the position of which makes the upper slope of the whorl very wide and slightly convex. The last whorl is greatly expanded. Sutures well indented. Whorls com- pressed longitudinally. Umbilicus and aperture not seen; surface ornamentation obscure. Locality — Passage Creek. Remarks.—This species is distinguished by the position of the upper carina which causes the slope between it and the suture to be unusu- ally wide. Lophospira expansa, n. sp. Fig. 3 Cast of interior. Shell medium, volutions 4 to 5. Height 18 mm, diameter 16 mm. Apical angle about 90°. Whorls uniangular. Earlier whorls compressed and rounded, the upper slope being a little greater than the lower. Sutures moder- ately indented. Last whorl greatly expanded with a prominent rounded peripheral keel.-Up- per slope slightly concave and of such width as to be in striking contrast to the narrow and rounded surfaces of the earlier whorls which, exclusive of the last whorl, have an apical angle of about 75°. Lower surface of last whorl convex and sloping inward abruptly to the columella, giving the whorl a shallow or com- pressed appearance in relation to its compar- atively great diameter. Surface markings indistinct. Locality.—Passage Creek. Remarks.—This species generally resembles L. tropidophora (Meek) but differs from it in the striking expansion of the last whorl. Lophospira liosutura, n. sp. Fig. 12 Mold of exterior. Apical angle about 50°. Volutions 5. Spire rather elongate. Height 13 mm, diameter of last whorl 9 mm. Peripheral carina prominent. Upper surface of the last whorl flat from the inner margin of the keel approximately to the suture. Inclination of this upper surface very steep. Upper surface of earlier whorls convex and steep. Lower surface of whorls very slightly convex, inclined very steeply, and fused with the upper surface of the next whorl to form a smooth, unbroken sutural curve. Locality.—Passage Creek. Remarks.—This species is distinguished by JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 12 its smooth sutural curve and rather elongate spire. It compares only in general shape with L. manitoulinensis Foerste which is described from the Richmond of Ontario and Quebec. The latter, however, is much larger, having a height of 45 mm, and more closely resembles L. sumnerensis (Safford) and L. tropidophora (Meek) than does the present species. Lophospira trilineata, n. sp. Fig. 10 Mold of exterior. Apical angle 30° to 35°. Height 7 mm. Volutions 4; angular. Lower ca- rina, if present, hidden. Central carina on the outer extremity of the volution very angular and prominent having on each side a sharp ele- vated ridge with a narrow groove between. These ridges are placed a short distance inward along the slopes from the keel, the distance be- ing slightly greater for the upper one. Upper carina removed a third of the width of the slope from the upper suture, and very sharp or angu- lar. Surface of whorl between the keels decid- edly concave. There is a rounded ridge inter- mediate between the sharp upper carina and the suture. Umbilicus and aperture not seen. Surface ornamentation obscure. Locality —Passage Creek. Remarks—This species may be compared specifically with those Lophospiras which pos- sess a threefold central carina. L. trilineata dif- fers from these in possessing a small, rounded but prominent ridge on the last whorl between the upper carina and the suture. L. saffordi Ul- rich apparently is more robust and much larger with seven volutions. L. pulchella Ulrich and Scofield also is larger. L. bicincta (Hall) pos- esses a much greater apical angle, thus having a shorter and fatter appearance. Lophospira tropidophora (Meek) Figs. 6, 7, 11 There is a notable lack of agreement between the description and illustrations of this form by Cumings (1907, p. 969) quoting from Meek (1872, p. 278), and those by Ulrich and Sco- field, also following Meek (not Miller, see errata p. 1081 of reference). The description given by Ulrich and Scofield (1897, p. 978) follows: ‘Height generally from 25 to 35 mm.; great- est width equalling from 75 to 80-100ths of the height; apical angle 75° to 80°. Volutions five, uniangular; base produced, rounded; umbilicus Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA. closed; columellar lip thick and slightly twisted below. Surface markings curved strongly back- ward to the peripheral band, coarse and rather irregular on the base of the last whorl, much less distinct on the nearly flat upper slope. When perfect the lines of growth are somewhat — lamellose.”’ Our specimens are in general agreement with the foregoing description, but the upper slope of their whorls is concave and the lower slope of the last whorl is more erect. We have found a number of well-preserved casts of the interior of L. tropidophora and one moderately well-preserved cast of the exterior at Passage Creek. The descriptions follow: Cast of exterior.—Shell large. Height 30 mm, width 25 mm. Apical angle 70 to 75°. Volutions 5 to 6. Last whorl very ventricose, the upper portion of the lower slope erect. Whorls uni- angular, peripheral carina rounded, prominent and marginal. Upper slope concave; sutural edge distinct but not carinate; suture slightly impressed. On the earlier whorls, the ratio of upper slope to the lower is 2 or 8 to 1, giving a general pagodalike appearance to the shell. Growth lines on upper surface of the whorls are indistinct; on the lower surface of the last whorl they are very coarse, swinging slightly forward from the keel and then curving downward. Cast of interior. —Last whorl very ventricose. The upper slope of the whorls comparatively narrow for the size of the shell; the ratio of its width to that of the lower slope for the last whorl being about 1 to 5. The upper slopeis quite concave on the last whorl, less so on the earlier ones, and is crossed diagonally with backward-curving grooves. These are strongest in the midbreadth of the slope, disappearing toward the suture and the keel. The features of the upper slope show considerable variation. The main carina or keel is rounded with a slight edge on the upper surface and is situated a lit- tle inside of the greatest diameter of the whorl. The upper portion of the lower slope is compar- atively erect and is the greatest diameter of the shell; the lower portion curves convexly in- ward. The earlier whorls are rounded and slightly compressed in appearance. There is no indication of a lower carina. The sutures are located at such a point that the ratio of the up- per slope to the lower on the earlier whorls is about 1 to 1 or 1 to 1.5. Sutural edge slightly thickened but not carinate. The growth lines on 367 the lower slope of the last whorl swing slightly forward from the keel and then curve down- ward. The lower portion of the inner lip is thickened and reflexed. FOSSIL LIST FOR PASSAGE CREEK AND GUB RUN Cub Run Passage Fossil rca PLANTAE Buthotrephis cf. B. flexuosa Hall........... TESST yaar AYO VE) Foe eee yty ee See Ses) ER Perr Gres ieee eos TA oO COELENTERATA—Graptozoa Diplograptus cf. G. vespertinus Ruedemann.. + o DES ajar ota Cun tacit cites atCaarak aries Rev anh leraaeae * ANNELIDA Cornulites cf. flexuosus (Hall)............. + BRYOZOA—Trepostomata LESH A NOY OCT) &) Oy SLING line Ho cierto a du a era Amee ce HV AUGVOTE- SPeinGetas seen. etek * BRACHIOPODA Dalmanella meeki Miller.................-. *x Dmultisecta NuCekiom fs cette ee 6 les oi Lingula ef. nicklesi Bassler................ Orthorhynchula cf. O. linneyt (James)....... * Pholidops cincinnatiensis Hall Plectorilis sp) imd Cts. oi oes = ake =r he ae eee * Rafinsequina alternata mediolineata, n. var... *X Re alternata) (Mmmons) evar... 2... 20-4 1c Owen byellaisSPs ieee oe ee eos ee ae Zygospira modesta (Hall)................- *X MOLLUSCA—Pelecypoda Byssonychia bowmani, nN. Sp......++-+.+.0-: IB PrOeCUnrs Gand Cis.