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Sats ph arc ie ee baie ry OR ae PY et oe ‘ , ro rs et to Ry ay Bal ide We de ed sh An PR Py eikh a tad iy ) 14 gabe eer eed, otet oe. ae * reer are he & el a es ths He at Bn be +) ahs baat ae PA We He ae ae O +e) PRL Stik What ie tiaroeienaoe ah grass bods gare porary tet chiateeiea Lt fe c sates se 91 be bee ier dad St a eae: hee We pe doa heey, OF bade wee Ais 3: dyabbAne Ads a Hs 5 We" 4 fe ee “~ Ange g De iPiimed Pye: ine # % Le ih a ae it Coenen wi yew ec> on JOURNAL : OF THE rd WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34, 1944 BOARD OF EDITORS G. ARTHUR COOPER Lewis V. JUDSON HaRrRaup A. REHDER U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. S. NATIONAL MUREUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS FRANK C. KRracex ALAN STONE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Tra B. HANSEN Rauew W. IMuay BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ALBERT FE. LONELEY WILLIAM N. FENTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY JAMES I. 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OF THE AcADEM President: LeLANp W. Pate George Washing Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKWEDDE, Natio Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappuere, U. 8. Coast _ Archivist: NaTHAN R. Smuiru, Bureau of Plant Custodian of eeaaaer adel’ PRANE M. Serzier, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 JANUARY 15, 1944 No. 1 MEDICINE.—Andreas Vesalius.!| Howarp W. Hacearp, Yale University. (Communicated by WiLut1aAM A. Dayton.) We commemorate this year the 400th an- niversary of the publication by Andreas Vesalius of a textbook on human anatomy. This recognition, however, is not in grati- tude or respect for the anatomical facts that he set forth or for the benefit to humanity in his or subsequent centuries derived directly from the knowledge he gave of the structure of the human body. This gratitude and this recognition stem from a source far deeper and far more fundamental. Vesalius was one of that glorious group of revolu- tionary leaders whose conflicts were not with armies on the battlefield, not for ter- ritorial gains or national integrity, but for the fundamental right of men to see and hear and, seeing and hearing, to believe the evidence of their own eyes and their own ears. With his scalpel in the dissecting room he fought alone for the liberty of human thought. Anatomy was only symbolic: his field of endeavor might have been religion or philosophy—it might have been any field of learning. The weapons used by the great leaders who have given us the democ- racy of thought. and the democracy of be- lief-—who have given us intellectual inde- pendency and dignity—and the fields in which they used these weapons matter little; what do count are the battles they have won in a common cause. Do not view Vesalius as a man who added only to the store of human knowledge by telling us the structure of the body; view him primarily as one who helped to give us freedom of thought and opinion; do not view his Fabrica as an historical monument to anat- + Address delivered before the WAsHINGTON ACADEMY OF SciENcES, November 18, 1943. Re- ceived November 25, 1943. — omy; but view it as a monument to the struggle for truth. These words of mine which I use for preface would, if they had been said to Vesalius, have sounded strange—grandilo- quent—yes, they would have sounded silly to him. He was a simple and outspoken man who could not stomach intellectual dishonesty, who had breached the dignity of his own profession—and that profession was the lowest branch of medicine— breached it by pushing away the barber who, before the class in anatomy, did the mutilating dissection at the haughty direc- tion of the professor who deigned to touch the body. Vesalius, I am certain, would never once have thought of himself as struggling for man’s intellectual inde- pendence. I am equally certain that he did not imagine himself in a struggle of any greater magnitude than that, say, of con- vincing his teacher in Paris, Jacobus Sylvius, that he, Sylvius, did not know the true anatomy of the body and that he, Vesalius, did. If Vesalius had felt himself a hero, or had counted himself a fighter in a struggle above the level of the dissecting room, he would have shown an egotism that appears nowhere in his writings or his actions. It is _we who, four centuries later, with the ad- vantage of hindsight, can look back and give a value to his work that he and his contem- poraries could not have given. To him and to them his one virtue was his correction of anatomical errors and the presentation of splendid anatomical illustrations. Today, there are far better anatomical textbooks than that of Vesalius, and his illustrations are now only artistic medical curiosities; da Vinci, years before, made drawings that wAj\ iz 4g 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 1 were as good. As an anatomist, Vesalius is of mild historical interest; his Fabrica, as a specimen, is a fine book, but not a great book. His greatness and its greatness are not in their intended purposes and ends, but in: their influence in breaking down a tradi- tion that forced an unreality on human thought—not alone in anatomy but in all medical thought. I have used the words ‘‘tradition that forced an unreality on medical thought.” Let us now, before we turn to the life and work of Vesalius, examine something of the structure of that tradition. As we view medicine over the long ex- panse of time, one fact stands out beyond all others: medical progress is rare. The usual state of medicine is one of stagnation and sterility in which, century after cen- tury, no new fact, no new application, is made; the essence of this stagnation and sterility has always been a philosophical concept that has, with its ready-made answers, stifled the curiosities of men, made them content with the knowledge they pos- sessed in the belief that they held the ulti- mate answers. Medicine progresses only when there is dissatisfaction—when igno- rance is admitted. The first great sterilizing influence on medicine—one that held sway from pre- historic times—was that which combined medicine and religion. This combination was the inevitable result of the belief that diseases, indeed all the misfortunes of man, were due to supernatural influences exer- cised at the wills of spirits, gods, and demons. Under such a belief there was no incentive and no reason to seek the cause of disease since the cause was known. All that man could do was to devise better magic to influence the supernatural crea- tures or more clever tricks to outwit them. Under this belief man assumed no responsi- bility for his physical salvation; that re- sponsibility was placed on the spirits or gods or demons who controlled his destiny and who held disease in their hands as a slave driver holds a whip. This ancient tradition of primitive medi- cine was carried on into the early civiliza- tions. The philosophy was not altered, dis- satisfaction did not develop, and ignorance was not admitted. The alterations were all in the externals. The healing temple took the place of the tent or cave of earlier times; the priest took the place of the savage medicine man; and the crude and simple spirits that appealed to the savage mind were reincarnated as the regimented gods and demons and heroes whose names and lives are familiar to us from mythology. The first break in this priestly healing, and consequently the first known period of medical progress, came in the classical period of Greece. Prior to this break, the Grecian medicine was in the hands of the priests of Aesculapius. The ministration to the ill was in the great and magnificent temples devoted to this god. In the statues - to him there he was represented as carrying in his hand a staff about which twined a single snake that remains the emblem of the physician even to this day. Represented with him was his daughter whose name, Hygeia, has given us the English words “hygiene,” “hygienic,” and ‘“‘hygienist.” The name of his other daughter, Panacea, which now means a cure for all diseases, has never found a respectable place in modern medicine and, with the passage of our Federal food and drug laws, has diminished in repute even in the field of proprietary medicaments. . However rigid an impediment to medical progress, aS we understand that progress, the Grecian healing religion may have been, the priests themselves were men of dignity and highest integrity. The code of their ethics has, like the caduceus of Aesculapius, come down to the physician of today; this code was incorporated in a temple oath; it later was called the oath of Hippocrates, and many a doctor of our day, on graduat- ing from medical school, has sworn to this ancient oath. The symbolism in emblem, word, and ethics is all that we have retained of this priestly medicine. But it was among its priests that modern medicine was founded. In the Age of Pericles, headed by.a man—or he may have been only a name—Hippoc- rates, there developed the first scientific and progressive medicine of which we have any certain knowledge. Under this new medicine, man became responsible for his : JAN. 15, 1944 own salvation on earth; his problems were capable of solution at his own hands; and he must seek the solution. Under this phi- losophy, which brushed aside the fatalism of spiritualistic medicine, there began the sound observation by which alone the physical nature of man could be discovered; by which the causes of his diseases could be found out and the remedies obtained. There was dissatisfaction with existing knowledge, there was frank confession of ignorance, and there was deep determination to obtain knowledge. And also there was intellectual freedom. No man was an authority so great that his word must be taken as the truth; instead, truth was to be found in the evi- dence of eyes and ears and touch and in- tegrated with a clear and unbiased logic. This period was the great one of medicine; it stood out as a mountain peak, to whose heights men did not rise again for 18 or 19 centuries. Under Roman conquest the descent be- gan; and, with the Fall of Rome, it was complete. Men in later days, with the re- newal of culture, could again have climbed up to the peaks of ancient greatness if the way had been open, but in those closing years of the Roman period, a barrier—the tradition which I mentioned earlier—was built across the way. This was the Galenic tradition. It was the tradition of authority. It was the second great obstacle to the progress of medicine, an obstacle that by ready-made answers stifled the curiosities of men in the belief that they held the ulti- mate answers; it closed their eyes and ears in the blind and deaf faith in authority. The physician Galen, after whom this tradition is named, lived in the second century A.D. He was a man of great ability; he was the founder of experimental physiol- ogy, and to him are due basic discoveries in anatomy and diagnosis. But, unfortunately, he was also the most voluminous medical writer of ancient times—dangerous in itself and devastatingly so in this instance since Galen was also the greatest theorist and systematist. We know of 9 books on anat- omy; 17 on physiology; 6 on pathology; 16 essays on the pulse and therapy; 3 books on temperament; and 30 on pharmacy. He differed from Hippocrates in that instead of HAGGARD—ANDREAS VESALIUS 3 simple observation and interpretation he followed a pragmatic system of medical phi- losophy. His postulates were based on the humoral ideas of Hippocrates, the Pythag- orean theory of four elements, and his own invention of a spirit or ‘Spneuma”’ permeat- ing the body. Using these postulates with great ingenuity, he explained every phe- nomenon of health and disease in the light of pure theory. He had a mania for teleol- ogy, which he may have gotten from Aris- totle whom he took as his authority. Aristotle had said that Nature makes noth- ing in vain—that is, every creature serves a purpose and is designed for that purpose. Unquestionably structure follows func- tion in the adaptation of any living creature to its environment. But it was not Galen’s purpose to show the adaptation. Rather he sought to show that fitness to the environ- ment was a manifestation of the goodness of the Creator. As Neuberger has put it: ‘Galen made his whole physiological theory a skillful and well-instructed special plead- ing for the cause of design in Nature, whereby he lost himself in a priorz specula- tion in attempting to explain Nature’s execution before even her mechanism had been demonstrated.” And, as Garrison says: “He never really sought how an organ func- tions but in blind obedience to Aristotle he reiterated the transcendental why which Kant and Bernard have pronounced forever insoluble.” His ready-made answers, his polyprag- matism, his reason for every phenomenon, his purposefulness, his monotheism and piety, his assumption of omniscience, all appealed to the Moslems who, for a time, carried the torch of learning; and they ap- pealed also to the Church, which dominated the thought of Europe during the next 1300 years. Up to the time of Vesalius, every- thing in anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, therapy, and medical theory was referred to Galen as the final authority. It was an authority from which there could be no ap- peal. To deny it might, and did, lead to death for heresy. Thus the Galenic tradition of enforced authority was the barrier to medical progress; it was the barrier that was breached by Vesalius; and from this breaching the way was opened for modern 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES medical progress. From the days of Vesalius we date the second great period of medical advancement—the period in which you and I are fortunate to live, and to which many of us here owe our lives. Whether Galen had made any dissections of the human body we shall never know. Probably he had not. At most he may have had an occasional glimpse at interior struc- tures and some study of some human bones. The anatomy that he wrote of was that of the ox, the ape, and the hog. But in his writings this fact is not stated; it is man about whom he appears to be writing and to whom he gives a miscellaneous assort- ment of organs from the brutes. Man, ac- cording to Galen, had the abdominal muscles of an ape, a 4- or 5-lobed liver, seven segments in the sternum, and two bile ducts, and the female had a double-horned uterus. Galen further postulated minute pores in the septum which separates the right and left sides of the heart through which the blood was supposed to seep, and he found joint lines in the jaws where none were ever found afterward. These anatomi- cal misfits and vagaries were, to keep an anatomical metaphor, the heel of Achilles in Galen’s authoritative writings, and to them there was added, or subtracted as you will, by the scholastics of latter days, a dif- ference in the ribs of man and woman dating from the birth of Eve. These scholastics did not follow the simple and obvious procedure of running their fingers over the ribs to count them, but in- stead, in solemn discussion_with ancient authority—not their own observations—as premises, they did gymnastics with logie. And from this exercise they derived the state of man’s ribs, and they believed their conclusions as implicitly as they believed the teleology, of which they were indeed an integral part. Vesalius, in contrast, was one of those rude and practical people who out- raged the ethics and formality of scholasti- cism by feeling and counting the ribs and believing what he felt and counted. The incredible blindness of scholasticism, the belief in authority rather than in fact, is summed up for me best in a statement at- tributed to a philosopher whose name I can not recall. He was being shown some struc- vou. 34, No. 1 ture of the body during an anatomical dis- section; the structure differed from the authoritative description. His serious and considered statement in this dilemma was, in effect: ‘I should be inclined to believe the evidence of this demonstration if Aristotle had not stated specifically to the contrary.” It is difficult for us who have been eman- cipated in most matters from this type of thinking to realize what a hold it can have upon the human mind. But the freedom of our way of.thinking is as cultivated a one as that of blind obeisance to authority. It is kept alive by continual cultivation. In a generation with other schooling we could revert to the subservience to authority and be willing to deny the evidence of our own eyes and ears. We see something of this in the political and racial views of a generation that has grown up today in Germany. We may call it fanaticism; in reality, however undesirable it seems to us, it may be a more natural and innate way of human behavior than is our democracy of thought. Now in the days between Galen and Vesalius, there were anatomists of repute and there were anatomical dissections of a sort. But these anatomists, in the dissec- tions they demonstrated, recorded nothing to controvert Galen; if some glaring incon- sistency forced itself upon them, they brushed it aside with the statement that the body had changed since Galen described Ths When the first medical school was founded in Europe at Salerno, anatomy was taught, so we are told, from dissections of the hog. The restorer of human anatomy in medical education was Mondino of Bologna. In 1315, acting under royal authority, he gave a public demonstration of anatomical dissection with readings from Galen. In this, and in all subsequent dissections until the time of Vesalius, the medical student, the physician, and the professor did not do the dissecting. The spectators sat. or stood in the dissecting room; the professor occupied a pulpit upon which rested the books of Galen; the subject for dissection was on a table in front and beneath this pulpit; the crude dissection was done by a barber with an instrument as large as a cleaver. Mondino wrote a textbook of anatomy Jan. 15, 1944 which was issued in manuscript form in 1316 and was printed in 1478. It was the standard textbook in all Italian universities. It contained no new facts but was compiled from Galen and the Arabic commentators -of Galen. In fact, much of the nomenclature was Arabic. According to his description, the heart was in the center of the body. The valves were, to quote, ‘“‘a wonderful work of Nature,” but beyond this pious exclama- tion of admiration there was no description of their function. The blood, according to the observations of Mondino, followed pre- cisely the course described by Galen in that it passed through the septum between the right and left side. He says: “To the end that the blood which comes to the left ventricle from the right, be refined, because its refinement is the preparation for the generation of vital spirit.’”’ I use this quota- tion because this question of the movement of the blood was one of the major points at which the demonstrations of Vesalius broke the Galenic tradition. When he showed that the blood did not pass through the septum, this finding could not be dismissed on the ground of an anatomical variation or of an alteration in structure since the days of Galen. The passage was basic to Galen’s whole concept of physiology. Destroying this basis cast doubt not only on Galen’s anatomical observations but, far more im- portant, it cast doubt upon his whole thesis of function. The structures of the body might vary; it was obvious that they did in gross anatomy as between different men; similarly, they might have altered since the days of Galen. But it was inconceivable that fundamental physiology varied or that it had altered since Galen. The structure was only the building that housed the microcosmos; function—the operation with- in—had a more fundamental significance. The anatomists who worked between the time of Mondino and Vesalius added some details to the knowledge of bodily structure but none disagreed with Galen. That is, none if we except Leonardo da Vinci. He believed that a knowledge of artistic anat- omy could be gained only at the dissecting table. He probably knew Galenic anatomy and that of Mondino, but he was his own teacher. He left more than 750 sketches of HAGGARD——ANDREAS VESALIUS 9) bodily structures, strikingly accurate and magnificently presented. He was the first creative anatomist, but he had no influence on the Galenic tradition. He recorded his marginal notes in the secretive spirit of the times in minor writings. When Vesal'us published his Fabrica, and for two centuries afterward, Leonardo’s drawings were lying unpublished, first as the cherished posses- sion of his favorite pupil Melzi, later in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and still later forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor. There is one other student of anatomy to mention before I come to Vesalius. He is Albrecht Diirer. He did nothing to shake the Galenic tradition, but in his publication on human proportions he made the first at- tempt to represent shades and shadows in woodcuts by means of crosshatching. This, in turn, may have had an influence—and this is speculation—upon the work of Titan’s pupil van Calcar, who made the magnificent wood engravings for the Fa- brica of Vesalius. Now as to the man himself. Andreas Vesalius was born in 1514 under the name of Wesalius; the V was substituted for the W in the family name in 1537. Three weasels were prominently displayed on the coat of arms of the family, suggesting that previ- ously the family name, which was Whiting, had been changed to that of the locality that the family claimed as its native place —Wesel in the Duchy of Cleves. In the family there was a long line of prominent physicians who practiced in the courts of the period or taught in the universities. Andreas’s father was, throughout his life, apothecary to Charles V and to Margaret of Austria. I mention this court connection because it was the father who, on Andreas’s early retirement from anatomy, obtained for him a place in the court of the Emperor. And finally, we know from astronomical observations made by Jerome Cardan that Andreas was born at 6 o’clock in the morn- ing and under favorable stellar influences. As a youngster he was sent to the University of Louvain, which then was second in number of students only to that of Paris. Here Andreas obtained an extensive train- ing in Greek and Latin, learned much of Arabic, and something of Hebrew. But tir- 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing of these dialectics, he, for reasons we do not know, turned to the study of anatomy. The writings of the church fathers, as ap- proved of in the highly orthodox university, gave him little substance for the study. For an independent, searching mind no satisfy- ing anatomical knowledge could be gleaned from Albertus Magnus and Michael Scotus. And we are told by his contemporaries that he soon discovered that the only true text of anatomy was the opened body. We are told further that he dissected, as has many an inquisitive boy, the bodies of mice, moles, rats, dogs, and cats. In 1533, at the age of 19, he went to the Mecca of all medical students—Paris. The most notable feature of the medical educa- tion at Paris was that it had successfully removed the errors which the works of Galen had suffered at the hands of the Arabic translators. Paris taught pure Galen and taught it with a fervor for the orthodox as great as any theological institution of the period. Of the teachers of great repute whom he met in Paris, I mention only one because of the conflict that arose later. That one was Jacques Dubois, better known as > Jacobus Sylvius. He was noted for his in- dustry, his eloquence, his command of abusive language, and, above all, for his avarice. The last of these qualities is testi- fied to by his epitaph, which reads: SYLVIUS LIES HERE, WHO NEVER GAVE ANYTHING FOR NOTHING: BEING DEAD, HE EVEN GRIEVES THAT YOU READ THESE LINES FOR NOTHING. Sylvius started out in life as a philologist, but his desire for wealth led him to abandon this field and take up medicine. Before he had obtained a degree, he began a course of medical lectures explanatory of Galen and was so successful that the University of Paris protested. Consequently, in 1529 at the age of about 50, he went to Montpellier and obtained his degree. Returning again to Paris be became a free-lance teacher and again with such effect on university at- tendance that the authorities ruled that he must once more stop since, so it seemed, he had failed to obtain a bachelor’s degree before his doctor’s degree. He took two years off to satisfy this requirement and vou. 34, No. 1 then, since there could be no further legiti- mate protest, he emptied the benches at the university as the students flocked to his eloquence. Sylvius died in 1555 and, to save funeral expenses, was interred in the paupers’ cemetery. I have read his epitaph. In justice to Sylvius it should be said that he was the first professor in France who taught anatomy from human dissection. But it was dissection after the method of Mondino. Never did Galen have a more de- vout follower than Sylvius. He declared that: ““Galen’s anatomy was infallible, that his physiology was divine; and that further progress was impossible.’”? And Sylvius, with his great learning and equally great command of abusive language, was no man to be questioned by the 19-year-old Vesa- lius, who listened to his lectures and watched with distress as the barber mangled the anatomical specimen. It is said that in sheer desperation the young student some- times pushed away the prosectors, took the knife in his own hands, and carried out a systematic dissection. Recognition was given to his ability by one of his teachers, Guinter, who said of two of his students: - “First, Andreas Vesalius, a young man, by Hercules, of singular zeal in the study of anatomy; and second, Michael Servede, deeply imbued with learning of every kind, and behind none in his knowledge of the Galenic doctrine.’”?’ As to Michael, there was never a more ironic word than that of his devotion to Galen; he was the Michael Servetus who later, in showing an error of Galen, antedated Harvey in postulating the circulation of the blood and who, for a theological quibble, was burned at the stake by order of Calvin and whose books were burned with. him. Vesalius succeeded by good fortune where Servetus failed. In Paris, Vesalius made numerous dis- sections and he became a master of the bones of the body. This latter knowledge ~ was not gained from his professors but in the cemeteries, where, as in the grave digger’s scene in Hamlet, with the crude burials of the times, bones often found their way to the surface. In 1536—after he had been in Paris three years—the Franco-German War broke out and Vesalius went to the University of Jan. 15, 1944 Louvain. Soon after his arrival he obtained the famous skeleton whose theft is always portrayed as the dramatic episode of his life. At Paris he had searched for bones in ‘the cemeteries; jn Louvain he visited the gallows outside the city walls and searched on the ground. It was there that he found, not on the ground but on the gallows, a skeleton that was held together by the liga- ments and that still possessed the origin and insertion of the muscles. It is said to have been the skeleton of a famous robber who had been roasted to death and then picked clean by the birds. There, above the eyes of the young anatomist, was what he had never seen before, a complete and articulated human skeleton. In the past he had tried to make one by piecing together the bones from many skeletons, gathered from different places but this was a prize, He climbed the gallows, stole the skeleton, and carried it home. One finger, a knee cap, and a foot were missing. Again, at night, he stole out of the city and searched among the decaying bodies until he found the missing bones. Such dangerous and secret expeditions as this soon became unnecessary, for the burgomaster of Louvain agreed to furnish -Vesalius and his students with anatomical material. It was from Louvain that he began his career as an author but not on anatomy; he published a translation of an Arabic work on general medicine. He con- ducted public demonstrations of anatomy, but some remark of his concerning the seat of the soul caused theological criticism and threat of formal charges. This threat brought caution, and caution brought dis- satisfaction. He left Louvain and, in 1537, traveled to Venice. Here the study of anatomy was actually encouraged by the -Theatin monks, who _ devoted their lives to the care of the ill. At the head of this order was a young man of ereat strength of character and _ vision, Ignatius Loyola, who was to become the founder of the Jesuit order, which was ac- cepted by the Pope in the same years that Vesalius published his Fabrica. Another fortunate meeting for the young anatomist was with his countryman Jan Stephen van Calcar, student of Titian who was to make HAGGARD—ANDREAS VESALIUS 7 the drawings for the Fabrica. In December of the same year that he reached Venice, 1537, Vesalius received his degree of doctor of medicine and almost simultaneously was appointed professor of surgery with the right to teach anatomy in the University of Padua. From manuscripts of the period we have a fairly clear idea of the way in which he taught. The meetings of his classes were in a wooden amphitheater, which accommo- dated about 500 spectators. Those who at- tended were not only medical students but also distinguished citizens interested in the science of the times. The course occupied the full day from early morning until evening for a period of three weeks. During this entire time, Vesalius lectured, drew diagrams, and, with the aid of students, made magnificent dissections. No barber helped him. He opened the book and turned the pages, as it were, of the body himself. We have a description of the course he gave in December, 1537. Every seat in the amphitheater was taken, and all standing room was occupied. The professors of the university, officials of Padua, members of the clergy and learned persons of all ranks and positions were there. The crowd ex- tended to the very edges of the dissecting table. Vesalius—then at the age of 23— entered. He made a few remarks as to the general importance of anatomy. Then, by means of a dog or a sheep, he demonstrated the division of the body, the joints, and several sorts of flesh, or what today are called tissues. Next, he turned to the human cadaver and discussed the changes of age and the differences of sex. Then came the dissection, and with each succeeding day there followed a continual demonstration with sketches and pertinent discussion of all collateral medical, physiological, and patho- logical matters. Such was the success of his courses that in 1539 and 1540 he was called from Padua to Bologna to conduct public dissections. Bologna was the ancient home of Mondino, who, as you will recall, had - revived the practice of teaching human anatomy. In Bologna a special amphitheater was erected for the dissections by Vesalius. In his lectures he could not escape dispu- tations, for the errors of Galen were laid 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bare before the audience. Vesalius gave all such disputations a close anatomical basis and avoided all discussion of theoretical physiology. We have an example of this later from the Fabrica. There, touching upon Galen’s basic theory that the blood passed from the right side to the left side of the heart through pores in the septum, Vesalius says: ‘‘We are driven to wonder at the handiwork of the Almighty, by means of which the blood sweats from the right into the left ventricle through passages which escape the human vision.”’ As one of his spectators, you could, in pious faith, ac- cept that on its face value or, as a skeptic, you could read into it what significance you wished. | The culmination of the career of Vesalius at Padua was the publication, in 1543, of the Fabrica. It was the result of three years of grueling work and no less of constant vexation with his friend the artist van Calear, who made the woodcuts. These and the text were taken over the mountains in the summer of 1542 by a merchant named Danoni, who delivered them to the printer, Oporinus, at Basel. With them there was an explanatory letter from Vesalius giving minute details of the way in which he wanted the book printed. Oporinus at once set about having the type cast and the pages composed and printed. In those days the printer was a scholar, and with him there was a group of scholars; he and they took over the task not only of printing but of revising, editing, and rewriting the manuscripts. Early in 1543, however, Vesa- lius himself came to Basel and followed the book to completion. It has been suggested in the past that it was Titian himself who made the sketches for the woodcuts. This belief led, in the years following the publication of the Fabrica, to its especially high esteem among artists. At the time the woodcuts were made, Titian was over 60 and, although still vigorous, he was too busy and too honored in his established field to undertake the drawings for a youthful anatomist in Padua. Vesalius did not sign the name of the artist in the Fabrica, but increasing evidence points to van Calcar. It was he who, in 1538, made the cuts for certain anatomical VOL. 34, No. 1 sheets which Vesalius issued for his stu- dents. The drawings are essentially the same as those in the Fabrica, as vividly executed and as detailed. In the Fabrica, the drawings vary con- siderably in merit. Those of the skeleton and of the muscles are the best. Those of the nervous system are of much less merit. The Fabrica consisted of 659 folio pages of text: 34 pages of index; 6 pages of preface; and 2 pages of a letter to the printer, Oporinus. From our standpoint, there were many unavoidable errors in the anatomical de- scriptions in the Fabrica. As Vesalius main- ‘tained—and soundly so—function can be determined only from structure; and there- fore it is useless to speculate as to function until the structure is known. But even his eyes were occasionally blinded by those theories of function which he believed were facts. He did not know of the circulation of the blood but assumed, without apparent question, that the blood ebbed and flowed in the veins. Hence the anatomical signifi- cance of the valves which he saw in the veins escaped him completely. He con- sidered them mere excrescences that for- tunately did not interfere with the flow of blood in either direction. But such features are carping criticisms. The main point is that Galen had been wrong. Not wrong in details as Vesalius was occasionally, but wrong in plainly observ- able facts and in easily demonstrable facts. The Fabrica was a denial of Galen. The reader could believe Vesalius and his own eyes and ears; or he could close his eyes and ears and believe Galen. The Fabrica forced the issue. And if the reader believed Ve- salius and his own senses in anatomy, doubt was cast upon all the interlocking system of Galenic medicine. What is more, the issue now was not be- fore a few interested and sympathetic spectators in an anatomical amphitheater but before the whole world. The Fabrica was for all men to read. If the physician believed Vesalius, then he was forced to throw aside much that he had believed and taught and to stop the veneration of one who, throughout his whole education had been held before him Jan. 15, 1944 as the authority—to discredit the saint, the prophet, the dictator of medicine. Men do not easily change so radically in matters that. would touch them deeply, that would shake them from the mental security of an orderly and satisfying system of beliefs. The intellectual labor of making the change bewilders them. To discard what they have believed and to follow the teachings of another touch upon their egos. Their emo- tions rise; and the height of the rise is often an indication of depth to which the instru- ment has probed their convictions. Sylvius, the teacher at Paris, he of the vituperative tongue, was a leader in the opposition. He spoke of Vesalius as Vesanus (a mad man) whose pestilential breath poisoned Europe. It is from conflict that views are altered. It is only in conflict that sides are taken, that wide interest is aroused. This conflict was essentially an election; men were mak- ing their speeches, as it were, for the candi- date of truth: Vesalius vs. Galen. And what was most important, many anatomists de- cided to settle the choice, not by disputa- tion, but by recourse to dissection. It was in the midst of this struggle that he had precipitated that Vesalius returned to Padua from his year’s absence. Padua was seething with the controversy. Some of his own pupils turned against him. The arguments were bitter and personal. Vesa- lius was a strong fighter, but he was first and foremost an observer and a student. Why should he waste his time in arguing over the existence of what any fool could see with his own eyes? He was disgusted. He went to Pisa in 1544 and conducted a course in anatomy. He declined the chair in that university offered him by the Medici. He was tired of the continuing controversy —sick of disputes and of persecution by members of his own profession. How could he study anatomy when interest was only in him as the center of a storm and in his efforts at defense? In a fit of passion he, at the age of 30, threw his manuscripts into the fire. This gesture ended his career as a scientist. He accepted an appointment as physician to Emperor Charles V of Spain. Gabriel Fallopius, formerly professor at Pisa, and a pupil of Vesalius, was appointed at Padua to succeed Vesalius. Fallopius HAGGARD——ANDREAS VESALIUS 9 studied anatomy undisturbed by the storm that still raged about his predecessor. Vesalius was a court physician; his reputa- tion as a physician grew great in Madrid but only in Madrid. The scalpel with which he had made his dissections grew rusty while he treated the maladies of the ladies and gentlemen of the court. Then in 1561, when he had been 17 years away from Padua, he received a book by Fallopius—a book of anatomical observa- tions. It was a complete confirmation of his work. The battle was won. In Padua, in the world outside of Spain, one could now speak freely against the anatomy of Galen; one could use eyes and ears and believe what one saw and heard. It was now Fallopius who led in anatomy—already men were forget- ting Vesalius. That little dart of inescapable bitterness that any human being would have, even amid his rejoicing at the ac- ceptance of his work, is stated deftly by Edith Wharton in her poem ‘Vesalius in Zante’’: Vesalius? Who’s Vesalius? This Fallopius It is who dragged the Galen idol down Who rent the veil of flesh and forced a way Into the secret fortalice of life. Then, in 1563, Vesalius made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. The reason is not known. Perhaps it was the restlessness that grew out of reading Fallopius and the fact that Fallopius had died and the chair at Padua was vacant. It may have been a dozen reasons, for Vesalius was an impetuous man. There is a legend—and I have grave sus- picions of all legends of medical history— that rests on a letter written in 1565 be- tween two physicians of that period: It says: ““Doubtless you have heard that he went to Jerusalem. The journey had, they tell us from Spain, an odd reason. Vesalius, believing a young Spanish nobleman whom he had attended to be dead, obtained leave from the parents to open the body for the sake of inquiring into the cause of the illness which he did not rightly comprehend. This was granted; but he had no sooner made an incision into the body than he perceived the symptoms of life, and opening the breast saw the heart beat. The parents coming afterwards to the knowledge of this, were not satisfied with prosecuting him for 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES murder, but accused him to the Inquisition of impiety, in hope that he would be punished with greater rigor by the judges of that tribunal than by those of the common law. But the King of Spain interfered, and saved him on condition that by way of atoning for the error he should undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Lands.” Edith Wharton has put it thus: This pilgrimage They call a penance—let them call it that; I set my face to the East to shrive my soul Of mortal sin? So be it. If my blade Once questioned living flesh, if once I tore The pages of the Book in opening it, See what the torn page yielded ere the light Had paled its buried characters—and judge! VOL. 34, No. | Whatever the cause may have been, he made the pilgrimage. That was a year, as I said, after the death of Fallopius at Padua and the chair of anatomy was vacant. Per- haps this may have been the cause of the journey. If it was, it bore fruit, but fruit that was never eaten. In the Holy Land, Vesalius received an invitation to resume his old chair at Padua. He shipped for home. A violent storm swept the Ionian Sea, his boat was wrecked on the Island of Zante. There, of a sudden and obscure malady, he died. He died—the author of the Fabrica, which Osler says was ‘‘the greatest book ever written, from which modern medicine dates.” ECONOMICS.—Comparison of two methods of estimating capitalized value of earn- ang capacity. A. J. Lorka, New Estimates of the capitalized value of human earning capacity have been made by two different methods. It is rather singular that no examination has ever been made of the relation between these two methods. The first method, dating back to William Petty,” computes the capital C which, in- vested at an interest rate 7, would yield the total annual earnings EF of the population, and then regards == (1) as the capital value of the population of NV persons (of all ages and both sexes) or C/N as the average value per head of the population. The second method, developed by Wil- liam Farr,’ equates the capital value of a wage-earner to the present worth of his net future earnings (i.e., earnings less expense for his own personal maintenance). De- noting the value thus defined by V, for a wage-earner of age a, Farr’s method, ex- pressed in an algebraic formula, gives 1 Received October 16, 1943. 2 Perry, Sir Wiuuram, Political arithmetic, or a Discourse concerning the extent and value of lands, people, buildings, etc., p. 192. 1699. - 3 Farr, Wituram. Journ. Stat. Soc. London, 1853, p. 43. Yorke lo Lv Vi= pe LW ,v2t? (2) where W, denotes the earner’s neé annual earnings at age x to x+1 and v=1/(1-47) is the annual discounting factor to reduce fu- ture receipts to their present worth at age zx. The symbol I,, with its usual significance, denotes the number of survivors to age x out of ly) born (age zero), and L, is the number of persons of ages x to ++] in a “‘life table population,” so that within linear approxi- mation L,=(Irz+l241)/2. The symbol w de- notes the limiting age of life. Since Jp is a purely arbitrary constant (the radix. of the life table), we can arbitrarily put [)=1. Then J, and L,, instead of numbers of in- dividuals, represent corresponding propor- tions. It will simplify our formulae to adopt this convention. It is at once obvious that Petty’s and Farr’s estimates can not be quite generally equivalent, since the total value of the pop- ulation, in the sense of Petty’s estimate, must depend on the age distribution, as must also the value per head deduced from it; whereas Farr’s estimate of the value of the individual earner does not involve the age distribution of the population, as it applies specifically to an individual of given age. JAN. 15, 1944 The question, however, arises how Farr’s estimate, applied to a natural standard population, compares with Petty’s applied to the same. Such a natural standard is presented in a so-called life table popula- tion, that is, a stationary population main- tained, with constant annual births B and an equal number of annual deaths D, under the regime of a fixed life table. In the stationary population the number of individuals between the ages x and x+dz evidently is Bl.dx. If w, denotes the aver- age annual earnings at age x per head of the population of both sexes and of age z, then the total earnings of the population will be E=B [towne (3) 0 or, in linear approximation FoR So1LW. (4) where ; W =e (5) According to Petty the capital value of the population would thus be BW. ee (6) t with W, in this case referring to gross earn- ings. On the other hand, if V, is the average value of an individual of age x, in the sense of Farr (but averaged over all occupations, including unemployed, and both sexes) then the sum‘ of these values for all the individuals of the population is =F f 1,V dx (7) 0 or, in linear approximation (trapezoid Forma) 4 We may form this sum in a purely arithmetical sense, without committing ourselves to any physi- cal interpretation; that is, without enquiring in what physical sense, if any, ‘‘Farr Values’? may be additive. LOTKA—CAPITALIZED VALUE OF EARNING CAPACITY tot; =3} Py LV.—BaVol (8) 0 and hence, ae (2), with ee, oS pe LW wv? @ 0 (10) ys LW .v7til ve (11) Omitting terms of second degree in the ex- pansion of v-V/?=(1-+72)!/?, that is, putting p/2=1+7/2 this gives J = : ' De eee 1 (12) = SS LW asish 0 or finally, putting Xe i 2i aes Ago ne 2 B | > L.W.- > L.Wewe } OE SEE ET eines FG) ) where 6 is (in linear approximation) the instantaneous rate of interest correspond- ing to an annual rate 7. Petty’s procedure for the same stationary population gives fi, ben © t 4 0 Thus, even in the simple case of a sta- tionary (life table) population, Farr’s pro- 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cedure leads to a result at variance with that of Petty. The nature of the difference calls for examination. The points of difference fall into two categories. Those of the first reside merely in the kind of data to which the procedures have been applied, namely: Petty starts from a total gross income of a population, and obtains a per capita average for the entire population of all ages and both sexes by dividing by the number of the population. Farr applies his procedure to the neé in- come of individuals of a specified earning capacity. The procedure can, however, be applied equally to the corresponding gross income, and this has actually been the plan adopted by A. Barriol.6 Conversely, if the data were available, Petty’s method could be applied to net income. Also, it would be possible to apply Farr’s procedure to an average individual repre- sentative of all earning capacities and of the two sexes jointly. We shall, in what follows, assume that this is done, and that formula (2) is construed accordingly with reference to net earnings. Petty’s indirect estimate of the earnings of the population as the excess of the total income over the income from property is questionable. Aside from numerical inac- curacies in the data, this method involves an error in principle. The earnings of a man can not be considered apart from the earn- ings of the capital invested in his inanimate aids to production. The two form one oper- ating unit, and its performance can not be summed up by the mere addition of two items, one for the human labor, and one for the contribution of the machine, plant, etc. Even the contributions of the several parts of a plant are clearly not additive. The productive performance of a motor plus machine tool is not the sum of the performance of the motor alone—this would be zero—plus that of the machine tool alone—this also would be zero. In the same way the productive performance 5 Revue Economique Internationale, Dec. 1910; March 1911. vou. 34, No. 1 of manufacturing plant without human operators would be zero, and the produc- tive performance of the human operators without the plant, though not necessarily zero, would in the majority of cases be relatively very small. The performance of man plus plant is far from being merely the sum of the performance of man alone plus that of plant alone. : These, then, are incidental differences, which, in principle at least, could in part be removed by suitable selection of data. There remain three fundamental differ- ences, not arising merely from the nature of the data, but representing inherent de- fects of Petty’s method: 1. Petty’s method gives at best an aver- age value per individual of the particular population (having a certain distribution by sex, age and earning capacity) as against Farr’s method, which evaluates the individual according to age, the values so obtained being then in turn applicable to any population. 2. Petty’s formula as applied to a life table population lacks the term —B>°*L,W w**?, He has treated the capital value of the population as a per- petuity, overlooking the fact that actually the population suffers a constant drain through deaths, which, in a stationary pop- © ulation, is replaced by the values of incom- ing new births. 3. A minor correction to apply to Petty’s formula is the introduction of the instan- taneous interest rate 6 in place of the com- mon interest rate 7, to allow for the fact that, regarded as an income-yielding capi- tal, the population brings a continuous income, unlike a loan of money, which brings an income at finite intervals. These results can be generalized some- what. Still considering the case of a popu- lation with fixed life table and age-specific earning capacity, but with variable annual births (and consequently deaths) let us denote by B(t—z) the annual births at time t—x, so that at time ¢ the number of persons of ages x to x+dz will be B(t—2z)l,dx. Then, using the instantaneous interest rate 6, the Farr value of the popu- lation will be Jan. 15, 1944 | [ BU-nlav.e “dade (16) 0 a = f BU-Dlaoe | eedzda 0 0 J°B(t—a)l,wda— [°B(t—a)lw dx a 5 (17) (18) KIRK—A NEW RHODOCRINOID GENUS 13 Petty’s procedure in analogous application would give pada BP wate ; (19) which lacks the second term of the result given by Farr’s procedure. PALEONTOLOGY.—Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus.: Epwin Kirk, U. 8. Geological Survey. The genus Rhodocrinus, in common with other early crinoid genera, has had a great number of diverse forms referred to it. Sev- eral genera have been separated from this amorphous assemblage in the past. It is here proposed to erect another genus, C77- banocrinus, for the reception of a fairly homogeneous. group of species from the lower Mississippian. Cribanocrinus, n. g. Synonym.—Rhodocrinus (in part of authors). Genotype.-—Rhodocrinus wortheni Hall. Theca. Dorsal cup typically subglobose to urceolate or ovate. Base flattened, de- pressed or with a well-defined central in- vagination. Maximum diameter of cup usually at about one-half its height, or lower. The cup contracts distad, having its least diameter at the level of the arm bases. The tegmen is very small, convex, and made up of small plates. The anal opening is at the apex of a relatively small protuberance that can scarcely be digni- fied by the term anal tube. This protuber- ance is seldom preserved, and its base may be marginal at nearly the level of the arm bases, or excentric on the tegmen. Owing to the reduced diameter of the cup at the level of the arm bases, the arm groups are closely spaced. They are somewhat more widely separated in the posterior inter- radius than elsewhere. Typically the surface of the plates is smooth, except for the customary fine granulation. The plates are convex, becoming tumid in such spe- 1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received October 25, 1943. cies as C. whiter. In some species there is a low, inconspicuous rounded ridge traversing the radials and brachial series within the cup. In the later species of the Keokuk, Borden, and War- saw there is a variable development of surface ornamentation consisting of low radiating ridges or irregular rugosities. IBB. Usually entirely enclosed within the basal pit and concealed by the column. In forms with slight invagination, such as C. worthent, they extend beyond the column. Very large, may be larger than or some- what smaller than the RR. In the majority of the species the proximal portions of the BB are flexed inward, forming the wall of the basal pit. RR. Large. TBrr. The first JBr is typically quadrangular but may be pentagonal, hexagonal, or even heptagonal. It is relatively small. [Az is small and may be either somewhat smaller or larger than J Br;. In most of the species, even in individuals of maximum size, there is but a single J7 Br incorporated in the cup. The number of incorporated IIT Brr apparently does not exceed two in any case. IRR. The interradial fields are narrow at the base, widen distad, and then narrow. The posterior interradius is appreciably larger than the others. The first interbrachials in all cases rest on the truncated distal faces of the BB. Exceptionally in very large specimens, and particularly in C. wachs- muthi, two interbrachials may rest on the post B. In such cases the second plate ap- pears to be a lateral plate of the second range that has migrated downward within the lifetime of the individual. Usually BB. 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES there are three plates in the second range in the post JR and two in the others. Occa- sionally there is a poorly defined median row of plates in the post IR, but this is ex- ceptional. In the other interradii one com- monly finds two plates in each range above the second, the increasing and diminishing width of the interradius being compen- sated for by increased size of the plates rather than the presence of additional interbrachials. At the level of the arm bases the interradial field is narrow, and in some cases is little wider than the space between the arm bases within a radius. No intersecundibrachs have been seen in any species referred to the genus. Arms. The arms are relatively short and stout, tapering rapidly distad. They are uni- serial below and compactly biserial above the bifurcations. The branching of the arms is somewhat variable but falls within a well-defined pattern. The first division of the free arms takes place on the sixth to tenth secundibrach, the number varying even as between the halves of a ray. Sev- eral species consistently hold this number of 20 rami. In other species there may be additional bifurcations. One or more of the rami may divide in an arm group, and in some species all do so, giving a maximum of 40 rami. In an occasional radius, in the Kinderhook species, there may be but two rami. Column. The column is relatively stout, circu- lar in section, and has a small pentagonal lumen. Geologic and stratigraphic distribution.—The described species of Cribanocrinus are found in the Kinderhook, Burlington, Keokuk, and Warsaw of the Mississippi Valley and the Bor- den of Indiana. It is probable that some Euro- pean species fall within the genus. Relationships——Rhodocrinus, as is the case with several of the early crinoid genera, has a very doubtful nomenclatorial status. For the purposes of this paper I treat Rhodocrinus ac- cording to currently accepted usage, that is, with the type species verus based on Miller’s (1821) plate 1, figure 2 (opposite p. 107). That this usage may not be valid is admitted. The validation of Rhodocrinus verus as based on the specimen indicated will require a ruling from the International Commission of Zoological VoL. 34, No. 1 Nomenclature, if and when that body again - functions. The dorsal cup of typical Rhodocrinus has a flattened base. The sides of the cup are nearly vertical, or diverge distad. There may be aslight constriction at the level of the lower fixed brachials and an outward flare above. There are typically three or more secundibrachs in- corporated in the cup and intersecundibrachs are present. The interbrachial fields are wide and merge distad into the tegmen. The radials and incorporated brachial series are traversed by strong, rounded ridges, and the interbrachial fields are somewhat flattened, giving the cup a definite pentagonal cross section. Passing from - plate to plate throughout the cup are rounded ridges. As viewed from below, one sees a well- defined stellate pattern, formed by these ridges. The tegmen, as seen in an English spe- cies nearly allied to the type, is low, with de- pressed interambulacral areas. As viewed from above, the theca appears definitely lobate. There are a number of characters in which Cribanocrinus differs from Rhodocrinus. The lack of ornamentation in the typical group of species of Cribanocrinus or its slight develop- ment in the later species is one of the most striking differences. The rounded subglobose to ovate cup of Cribanocrinus and its constriction at the level of the arm bases is perhaps the most important difference. Stemming from this are: the narrow interbrachial fields, all but cut off from the tegmen; the tegmen greatly reduced in size; and the relatively great size of the bas- als and radials as compared with the primi- brachs. The incorporation of but one or two ITBrr in the cup and the concomitant lack of intersecundibrachs in Cribanocrinus are like- wise important, although, of course, in very young individuals of Rhodocrinus the same con- ditions would obtain. In the Kinderhook is a group of species that may be referred to Rhodocrinus, such as nanus, kirbyt, and cavanaughi. Such strongly orna- mented forms, which have other Rhodocrinus characters as well, do not pass up into the Bur- lington, so far as known. No one can doubt the close relationship of the Kinderhook species of Rhodocrinus and Cribanocrinus, and that they had a common Devonian ancestor. In the Kin- derhook species of Cribanocrinus, C. watersi- anus, and in the species from that horizon identified as wortheni the cup has a subpenta- JAN. 15, 1944 gonal cross section. In the earlier species of a genus where much material is available, the ref- erence of a given form to one genus or a closely allied one is always more or less arbitrary. In later phylogeny, when the generic characters become well established, there is, of course, lit- tle difficulty. Remarks.—Specimens of Cribanocrinus are very rare. This is probably not due to the fact that they were uncommon in the Mississippian seas. Rather, the thin plates of the theca made for an incompetent structure that was rarely preserved. A large percentage of the specimens are more or less crushed and are often imper- fect. Specimens are rarely found on weathered surfaces, the thin plates being readily destroyed. Species referred to the genus.— Cribanocrinus benedicti (Miller), n. comb. Rhodocrinus benedicti Miller, 1892, p. 15, pl. 2, figs. 18-20: ‘Keokuk Group, Harrison County, Indiana”’ (Borden); 1894, p. 269, pl. 2, figs. 18-20.—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897, p. 224. Cribanocrinus bridgerensis (Miller and Gurley), n. comb. Rhodocrinus bridgerensis Miller and Gurley, 1397,-p. 41, pl. 3, fig. 3: “Burlington or Keokuk Group, Bridger Mountains, Mon- tana’’ (Madison limestone). Cribanocrinus coxanus (Worthen), n. comb. Rhodocrinus coxanus Worthen, 1882, p. 29: “Upper part of the geode bed, one mile below Keokuk” (Keokuk) (The geode bed is placed in the Warsaw by some authors) ; 1883, p. 305, pl. 28, fig. 7—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1885, p. 99 (321); 1897, p. 222, pl. 13, figs. 6, 7. Cribanocrinus parvus (Miller), n. comb. Rhodocrinus parvus Miller, 1891, p. 39, pl. 5, figs. 8, 9: “Keokuk group, Booneville, Cooper County, Missouri” (at present considered Warsaw).—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897, p. 229. Cribanocrinus punctatus (Weller), n. comb. Rhodocrinus punctatus Weller, 1909, p. 282, pl. 11, figs. 15, 16: Fern Glen formation, Jef- ferson County, Missouri. KIRK—A NEW RHODOCRINOID GENUS ES) Cribanocrinus urceolatus (Wachsmuth and Springer), n. comb. Rhodocrinus worthent Hall, var. wurceolatus Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897, p. 221, pl. 12, figs. 8a, b: “‘Age of the Lower Bur- lington limestone, Lake Valley, New Mexico” (Lake Valley limestone). Cribanocrinus wachsmuthi (Hall), n. comb. Rhodocrinus wachsmuthi Hall, 1861, p. 18: No horizon or locality given (Lower Burling- ton, Burlington, Iowa).—Wachsmuth and Springer, 181) p:. 213 (387); 1897, p. 222, pl. 13, figs. 5b—d (not fig. 5a =C. worthent), pl 15, fee 7: Cribanocrinus watersianus (Wachsmuth and Springer), n. comb. Rhodocrinus watersianus Wachsmuth and Springer, 1889, p. 184, pl. -17, fig. 16: Kinderhook, Le Grand, Iowa (Hampton formation).—Miuiller, 1889, p. 278, text fig. 421.—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1890, p. 184, pl. 17, fig. 16; 1897, p. 221, pl. 12, fig. 9.—Laudon and Beane, 1937, p. 241, pl. 155 fies: Cribanocrinus whitei (Hall), n. comb. Rhodocrinus whitei Hall, 1861a, p. 9: ‘In sand- stone of Chemung group at base of Burling- ton limestone, Burlington, Iowa’’ (Lower Burlington); 1861b, p. 325; 1872, pl. 6, figs. 19-21—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1881, p. 213 (387) ; 1897, p. 223, pl. 13, figs. la-—c; pl. 15, figs. 6a, b. Cribanocrinus wortheni (Hall), n. comb. Rhodocrinus worthent Hall, 1858, p. 556, pl. 9, figs. 8a-c: Burlington limestone, Burling- ton, Iowa (Lower Burlington).—Wachs- muth and Springer, 1881, p. 213 (387); 1897, pl. 11, fig. 6; pl. 12, figs. 7a—c; pl. 13, fig. 5a (as Rhodocrinus wachsmutht). LITERATURE CITED Hatt, JAMES. Paleontology. Iowa Geol. Surv. Rept. 1 (2): 473-724, pls. 1-29. 1858. . Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea and other fossils, from the Carboniferous rocks of the Mississippi Valley. On title page: Descriptions of new species of Crinor- dea; from investigations of the Iowa Geolog- ical Survey. Preliminary notice. Pp. 1-12, 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES incl., February 14, 1861; pp. 13-18, incl., February 25, 186la. Privately issued, Albany, N. Y. . Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of the Missis- sippt Valley. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 7: 261-328. “January” 1861b. . “Photographic plates.” Plates 1-7. Pri- vately issued, Albany, N. Y. Plates dis- tributed in covers with reprints of James Hall, ‘January’ 1861. Plates bear printed title, “St. Mus. N. H. Bul. 1” (New York). 1872. Laupon, L. R., and Beans, B. H. The crinoid fauna of the Hampton formation at Le Grand, Lowa. Iowa Univ. Studies 17 (6) (new ser. no. 345). December 1, 1937. Miuuer, J. 8S. A natural history of the Cri- noidea, or lily-shaped animals; with obser- vations on the genera Asteria, Euryale, Comatula and Marsupites. Pp. 1-150, pls. 1-50. 1821. Miturr, S. A. North American geology and palaeontology for the use of amateurs, stu- dents and scientists. Pp. 1-664. 1889. . A description of some Lower Carbontfer- ous crinoids from Missouri. Missouri Geol. Survey Bull. 4: 1-40, pls. 1-4. 1891. . Paleontology. Advance sheets from the eighteenth report of the Geological Survey of Indiana. Pp. 1-79, pls. 1-12. Septem- ber 1892. . Palaeontology. In Gorby, S. S., 18th Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. Resources, pp. 257-357, pls. 1-12. 1894. , and Guruey, W. F. E. New species of crinoids, cephalopods and other Paleozoic fossils. Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 12: 1-59, index to Bulls. 3-12, pp. 61-69, pls. 1-5. January 25, 1897. »’ VoL. 34, No. 1 WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 2, pp. 1-237, pls. 17-19. (With 2-page unnum- -bered index to pts. 1 and 2.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1881: 177-414, pls. 17-19. September-November 1881. . Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 3, sec. 1, pp. 1-138, pls. 4-9. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1885: 225-364, pls. 4-9. September-December 1885. . New species of crinoids and blastoids from the Kinderhook group of the Lower Carboniferous rocks at Le Grand, Iowa; and a new genus from the Niagara group of western Tennessee. Pp. 155-208, pls. 15-17. Distributed by the Illinois Geological Survey in 1889. 1889. . New species of crinoids and blastoids from the Kinderhook group of the Lower Carboniferous rocks at Le Grand, Iowa; and a new genus from the Niagara group of western Tennessee. Illinois Geol. Surv. 8 (pt. 2, sec. 2): 155-208, pls. 14-17. 1890. . The North American Crinoidea Camer- ata. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 20 and 21: 1-837, 83 pls. May 1897. WELLER, STuART. Kinderhook faunal studies; V, The fauna of the Fern Glen formation. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 20: 265-332, pls. 10-15. 1909. WortTHEN, A. H. Descriptions of fifty-four new species of crinoids from the Lower Carbon- iferous limestones and Coal Measures of Illinois-Iowa. Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 1, art. 1, pp. 3-388. February 1882. . Description of fossil invertebrates. Tlli- nois Geol. Surv. 7 (pt. 2, sec. 2): 265-338, pls. 27-30. 1883. BOTANY.—The Alaskan species of Puccinellia.t Jason R. SwAaLLen, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Several years ago, Dr. Eric Hultén, Botaniska Museet, Lund University, Swe- den, sent a large number of specimens of Puccinelua from Alaska for study and identification. Most of them were collected by Dr. Hultén on rather extensive trips in Alaska and Yukon. The report on this collection was to have formed the basis for the treatment of Puccinellia in Dr. Hul- tén’s Flora of Alaska, but it was not received until after the second part con- taining the grasses had gone to press. Since 1 Received October 12, 1943. the author’s treatment differs considerably from that in Dr. Hultén’s flora this account was prepared for publication. This study is based on the specimens sent by Dr. Hultén, those in the U.S. National Herbarium, and those in the her- barium of the U.S. National Arboretum. Dr. J. P. Anderson, who has made exten- sive botanical collections in Alaska over a period of years, also sent all his specimens of Puccinellia to the author for examina- tion. The assistance given the author by Dr. Hultén and Dr. Anderson is gratefully acknowledged. Jan. 15, 1944 Puccinellia is one of the circumpolar genera of grasses well represented in North America, especially in Alaska. The species furnish a considerable amount of forage, being leafy, densely tufted grasses. The genus is taxonomically a difficult one, the species being variable and closely allied. Many species have been proposed, but the genus as a whole has not been intensively studied, and the nomenclature is much in- volved. Some species are common to Amer- ica and Eurasia, and in the preparation of this paper those of the circumpolar regions have been studied so far as possible. Puccinellia Parl. Fl. Ital. 1: 366. 1848. Atropis Rupr. in Griseb. in Ledeb. FI. Ross. 4: 388. 1853. Spikelets several-flowered, usually terete or slightly flattened; glumes rather firm, often scarious at the tip, 1- to 3-nerved; lemmas usu- ally firm, rounded on the back, usually scarious and often erose at the tip, 5-nerved, the nerves parallel, usually indistinct. Low smooth cespi- tose annuals or perennials with narrow to open panicles. Puccinellia differs from Poa chiefly in the rounded lemmas with usually indistinct parallel nerves. The species are mostly found on sea- shores, in brackish marshes or meadows near the coast, or in alkaline soils in the interior. They range from the Arctic regions of both hemispheres to the middle Western States in America, with a few species in southern South America; to the British Isles and the north coast of the Mediterranean, and to central China and Japan in the Old World. One species is found in Africa and a few in Australia and New Zealand. Key To ALASKAN SPECIES Anthers 1.8 to 2 mm long; plants low, frequently with widely spreading stolons. 1. P. phryganodes Anthers not more than 1.5 mm long; plants not stoloniferous. Panicle branches distinctly scabrous. Anthers 0.3 to 0.5 mm long; lemmas mostly 1.6 to 1.8 mm long; panicle branches very slender, distinctly reflexed at maturity... ey enki scat Gens os ey: 2. P. hauptiana Anthers 0.7 mm long or more; lemmas 2 to 4 mm long; panicle branches, if reflexed, rela- tively stout. Lemmas 3 to 4 mm long; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 mm long; panicle branches usually nar- SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 17 rowly ascending, stout, 10 to 20 cm lomipnrte. tee eee nae sic | 3. P. grandis Lemmas 2 to 2.5 mm, rarely 3 mm, long; anthers not more than 1 mm long; pan- icle branches ascending to reflexed, slender, rarely more than 5 cm long, not Silber. Suerte chen. geaey hs. 4. P. borealis Panicle branches glabrous or (in P. nutkaensts) only very sparsely scabrous. . Lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long; anthers mostly 1.3 to 1.5 mm long. Panicle branches ascending, elongate. Culms 25 to 40 cm tall; spikelets 5- to 7-flowered, 8 to 10 mm long, the florets Spreadings say he 5. P. glabra Panicle branches stiffly spreading or re- flexed. Spikelets 2- to 3-flowered, 5 to 7 mm long; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long, ob- tuse; culms densely tufted, erect, 45 GonOO cormat Dll ssc 6. P. triflora Spikelets 5- to 7-flowered, 6 to 8 mm long; lemmas not more than 3.5 mm long, acute or subobtuse, sometimes irregularly toothed; culms 15 to 30 cm tall, erect from a rather long de- cumbent base...... 7. P. andersoni Lemmas not more than 3 mm long, or if so, the panicle branches appressed; anthers mostly less than 1 mm long. Lemmas thin (see also P. kamtschatica), strongly nerved; anthers 0.3 to 0.6 mm long. Lemmas 3 to 3.3 mm long; anthers of lowest floret 0.3 to 0.4 mm long; culms as much as 30 em tall.8. P. alaskana Lemmas 2 to 2.5 mm long; anthers of lowest floret 0.5 to 0.6 mm long; culms usually less than 10 cm tall.... Re Pee ee ea ee 9. P. paupercula Lemmas firm (thin in P. kamtschatica but the nerves not prominent), the nerves obscure (except the lateral nerves at the base in P. pumila); anthers mostly 0.8 to 1 mm long. Palea longer than the lemma; plants soft with slender culms 15 to 25 cm tall; panicle branches ascending or, at maturity, spreading or reflexed. Lem- mas thin, shining, obtuse.......... 2 atte RN Semen ee, 3, 13. P. kamtschatica Palea. equaling the lemma or shorter; plants relatively hard, the culms densely tufted or coarse; panicle branches appressed or stiffly spread- ing, usually stout. Panicle branches stout, stiffly spread- ing or reflexed, naked in lower half. Culms stout, erect from a decum- bent base; blades erect, flat, 2 to 2.5 mm wide; lower panicle branches in whorls, long and short ones intermixed, glabrous or obscurely scabrous............ RE a etc eatin 10. P. hultent 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Culms relatively slender, densely tufted, erect or ascending, but the base not decumbent; blades spreading, usually convolute; panicle branches solitary or in pairs with no short ones inter- mixed, glabrous, with a charac- teristic pearly lustre. Pedicels . swollen below the spikelets..... Ree AV aR athe eae 11. P. pumila Panicle branches slender, usually closely appressed, sparsely hispid- Scabrous ne. 12. P. nutkaensis 1. Puccinellia phryganodes (Trin.) Scribn. & Merr. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 13: 78. 1910 Poa phryganodes Trin. Mém. Acad. St. Pétersb. VI. Math. Phys. Nat. 1: 389. 1830. Perennial; culms 5 to 15 cm tall, erect or as- cending from slender rhizomes, frequently with | widely spreading stolons; culm sheaths over- lapping, those on the stolons usually much shorter than the internodes; ligule 0.5 to 1 mm long, truncate, decurrent; blades soft, lax, mostly involute, 2 to 8 cm, usually less than 5 cm, long; panicles 2 to 2.5 cm long, few-flow- ered, the short glabrous branches appressed, naked below; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 5 to 7 mm long; glumes firm, obtuse, the first elliptic, 1.8 to 2 mm long, 1 nerved, the second elliptic to obovate, 2.5 to 3 mm long; lemmas firm, obtuse, elliptic, glabrous, the lowest 3.5 to 3.8 mm long; palea as long as the lemma, subacute, the keels glabrous; anthers 1.8 to 2 mm long. Type locality: Kotzebue Sound, Alaska. Seashores, mud flats, and brackish marshes, Pribilof Islands, Alaska, and Greenland. SEWARD PENINSULA: Port Clarence, Wal- pole 1633, 1718. Norton Sounp: St. Michael, Hitchcock 4714. Pripitor Isuanps: St. Paul, Johnston, June 8 and July 4, 1923 (H), Hultén 7330; J. M. Macoun Geol. Surv. Can. 16238. ALASKA PENINSULA: Port Moller, Murie 2150. SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA: Glacier Bay, Cooper 130. 2. Puccinellia hauptiana (Krecz.) Kitagawa, Rep. Inst. Sci. Res. Manchukuo 1: 255.1980 Atropis hauptiana Krecz. in Kom. Fl. U.R.S.S. 2: 485, 763, pl. 36, f. 21. 1934. Poa haupti- ana Trin. ex Kom. Fl. U.R.S.S8. 2: 485, 763. 1934, as synonym. VOL. 34, No. 1 Perennial; culms slender, erect to prostrate, sometimes forming mats, 10 to 40 em long; sheaths mostly longer than the internodes; ligule 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, obtuse, decurrent; blades 3 to 8 cm long, not more than 1.5 mm wide, flat or loosely involute, especially those on the innovations, the margins more or less scabrous; panicles 3.5 to 15 cm long, the slender scabrous, somewhat flexuous, spreading to re- flexed branches mostly in rather distant pairs, | naked in the lower third or half, the lowest as much as 7 cm long; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 3 to 4mm long, appressed; glumes acute or sub- obtuse, the first 1 to 1.5 mm long, 1-nerved, the second 1.2 to 2 mm long, 3-nerved; lemma of lowest floret 1.6 to 2 mm long, obtuse, tinged with bronze or purple, glabrous or very sparsely pubescent on the callus; anthers 0.3 to 0.6 mm long. Type locality: Siberia. Wet ground and river banks, Siberia; Alaska, | Yukon, and Alberta. ALASKA: Rampart, Hitchcock 4460; Circle City, Hitchcock 4437, J. P. Anderson 2548; Tanana, Hitchcock 4641; Fairbanks, Hitchcock 4576, 4617; Copper Center, Heideman 2, Went 207(H);-Gulkana, J. P. Anderson 2734; Chi- tina, J. P. Anderson 2028. YuxKon: Dawson, Hitchcock 4323, 4852. ALBERTA: Banff, Mc- Calla 2324. 3. Puccinellia grandis Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi 50—90 cm alti, dense caespi- tosi, erecti vel geniculati; vaginae glabrae, in- feriores internodiis longiores, superiores inter- nodiis breviores; ligula 2-3 mm longa, obtusa, membranacea; laminae firmae, elongatae, 2-3.5 mm latae, eae innovationum molles, angusti- ores; paniculae 10-20 cm longae, ramis appres- sis vel denique patentibus, ad apicem scabris, basi nudis; spiculae 8-15 mm longae, 5—12-florae, appressae; gluma prima 2-3 mm longa, obtusa vel subacuta; gluma secunda 3-3.5 mm longa, obtusa, minute dentata; lemmata 3-4 mm longa, obtusa vel subacuta, obscure nervosa, basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma aequans, carinis obscure ciliatis; anthéerae 1.3-1.5 mm longae. Perennial; culms 50 to 90 cm tall, densely tufted, erect or geniculate at the lower nodes; sheaths glabrous, the lower longer, the upper shorter than the internodes; ligule membrana- | 7 FEN ss. wed iv Jan. 15, 1944 ceous, obtuse, 2 to 3 mm long; blades firm, flat or drying involute, elongate, mostly 2 to 3.5 mm wide, those of the innovations often soft and fine; panicles 10 to 20 cm long, pyramidal, the scabrous branches at first appressed but often finally stiffly spreading, usually naked at the base; spikelets 8 to 15 mm long, 5- to 12- flowered, appressed, rather prominently tinged with purple; first glume 2 to 3 mm long, 1- nerved, obtuse or sometimes subacute; second glume 3 to 3.5 mm long, 3-nerved, broader than the first, obtuse, often minutely toothed; lem- mas 3 to 4 mm long, rather abruptly narrowed to an obtuse or subacute apex, sparsely pilose at the base, the nerves rather obscure; palea as long as the lemma, obscurely ciliate on the keels; anthers mostly 1.3 to 1.5 mm, rarely as much as 2 mm long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 948937, collected on high sea beaches at Seattle, Wash., June 1890, by C. V. Piper (no. 1451). Salt marshes and sandy or rocky seashores, Alaska to central California. Specimens of this species have previously been referred to Puccinellia nutkaensis, which is much smaller, the culms mostly 15 to 30 em tall, with closely appressed, obscurely scabrous branches, the lemmas not more than 3 mm long the anthers mostly only 0.8 to 1 mm long. ALASKA: Skagway, Hitchcock 4186, 4197, 4203; Juneau, Hitchcock 4068, 4077; Aurora, Piper 4699; Glacier Bay, Cooper 106. YuxKon: Whitehorse, Hitchcock 4289. BritisH Co- LUMBIA: Cadbow Bay, Macoun 66; Crescent, Henry 7; Vancouver Island, Hitchcock 4887, Macoun 245, Geol. Surv. Can. 81008, 91951. WASHINGTON: Seattle, Prper 1451; Olympic, Hitchcock 23448. Onrrcon: Gearhart to Tilla- mook Head, Chase 4923; near Gearhart, Shear & Scribner 1718. Catirorntia: Eureka, Hitch- cock 13085, Tracy 3742, 4820; Samoa, Tracy 3147; Point Reyes Peninsula, Burtt-Davy 6749. 4. Puccinellia borealis Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi densi caespitosi, 25-35 cm alti, erecti, basi decumbentes; vaginae inter- nodiis paulo longiores, glabrae, inferiores mol- les rufo-fuscae; ligula 2 mm longa, obtusa vel truncata, hyalina; laminae 4-8 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae, planae, infra glabrae, supra scabrae, marginibus scabris; paniculae 10-14 cm longae, SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 19 ramis gracilibus scabris adscendentibus vel re- flexis, inferioribus 4—5 cm longis in dimidio in- feriore nudis; spiculae 4—6-florae, 4-5 mm lon- gae, appressae, breviter pedicellatae; gluma prima 1—-1.5 mm longa, acuta; gluma secunda 1.5-2 mm longa, obovata, obtusa; lemmata 2—2.3 mm longa, obtusa vel subtruncata, mi- nute eroso-ciliata; palea lemmate paulo brevior et multo angustior, carinis hispido-ciliatis; an- therae 0.6—0.7 mm longae. Perennial; culms densely tufted, 25 to 35 em tall, erect from a usually decumbent base; sheaths mostly a little longer than the inter- nodes, glabrous, the lowermost soft, reddish brown, loose, papery, becoming more or less fibrous; ligule about 2 mm long, obtuse or trun- cate, hyaline; blades 4 to 8 cm long, 1 to 2 mm wide, flat, glabrous below, scabrous above and on the margins; panicles 10-14 cm long, the slender scabrous branches ascending to re- flexed, in rather distant fascicles of 2 to 4, the lower mostly 4-5 cm long, naked for nearly half their length; spikelets 4- to 6-flowered, 4 to 5 mm long, tinged with purple, short-pediceled, appressed to the branches; first glume 1 to 1.5 mm long, acute; second glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, obovate, obtuse;lemmas 2 to 2.3 mm long, obtuse or subtruncate, minutely erose-ciliate; palea a little shorter than the lemma, bifid at the apex, about 0.5 mm wide between the his- pid-ciliate keels, much narrower than the broad lemma; anthers 0.6 to 0.7 mm long. Type in the U. §. National Herbarium, no. 379136, collected on tundra bank, Teller Rein- deer Station, near Port Clarence, Alaska, Sep- tember 7, 1901, by F. A. Walpole (no. 2015). Seacoast and moist ground, mostly along rivers, Alaska and Yukon. SEWARD PENINSULA: Deering, J. P. Ander- son 4788; Kotzebue, J. P. Anderson 4670; Port Clarence, Walpole 2015; Nome, Hitchcock 4815, J. P. Anderson 4991. Norton Sounp: St. Michael, Hitchcock 4700. YuKON VALLEY: Fort Yukon, Bates in 1889; Tanana, Henderson 14988. TaNnana VALLEY: Fairbanks, Hitch- cock 4594, J. P. Anderson 1444. YuKon: Dawson, Hitchcock 4358. These specimens have been referred to P. dis- tans (L.) Parl., but they are very different in appearance from typical European material. The Alaskan plants are perennial, while the typical European species appears to be annual; 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the panicle branches are more slender and not so densely flowered, and the lemmas not so con- spicuously broad at the summit. J. P. Ander- son, who has studied the plants of Alaska for many years, states that the Alaskan species that has been referred to P. distans is appar- ently native, not introduced into America as is P. distans. Puccinellia borealis is closely related to P. sibirica Holmb., differing chiefly in the smaller florets. None of the Siberian material examined agrees with the Alaskan specimens cited above; hence, without a specimen of Holmberg’s spe- cies for comparison, it seems better to propose a new species than to refer these doubtfully to Pe estbirica: 5. Puccinellia glabra Swalien, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi 25-40 cm alti, erecti vel basi decumbentes, glabri; vaginae glabrae inter- nodiis longiores; ligula obtusa, decurrens, 3—5 mm longa; laminae 5-14 cm longae, 1.5-3 mm latae, planae vel ad apicem involutae, glabrae; paniculae 10-20 cm longae, ramis adscendenti- bus, glabris, 4-10 cm longis, basi nudis; spiculae 5—-7-florae, 8-10 mm longae, appressae; gluma prima 2-3 min longa, 1-nervia, acuta vel sub- obtusa; gluma secunda 3—4 mm longa, 3-nervia, obtusa, minute ciliolata; lemmata 3.5-4 mm longa, obtusa, glabra vel basi sparse pilosa, lucida, obscure nervata; paleae in carinis gla- brae; antherae 1.3—-1.5 mm longae. Rather densely tufted perennial; culms 25 to 40 cm tall, erect or decumbent at the base, gla- brous; sheaths glabrous, longer than the inter- nodes; ligule thin, obtuse, decurrent, 3 to 5mm long; blades 5 to 14 cm long, 1.5 to 3 mm wide, flat or becoming involute toward the tip, glabrous; panicles mostly 10 to 20 em long, the glabrous branches ascending, 4 to 10 cm long, naked at the base; spikelets 5- to 7-flowered, 8 to 10 mm long, appressed, the florets somewhat spreading, pale or tinged with purple; first glume 2 to 3 mm long, 1-nerved, acute or sub- obtuse; second glume 3 to 4 mm long, 3-nerved, obtuse, minutely ciliolate; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long, obtuse, glabrous, or with a few hairs at base, rather thin and shining, the nerves ob- scure; palea a little shorter than the lemma, the keels not ciliate; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 mm long. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 749542, collected on flats frequently over- flowed by tides, Kasilof (‘“‘Kussiloff”’), Kenai VOL. 34, No. 1 Peninsula, Alaska, in 1898 by Walter H. Evans (no. 609). The relationship of Puccinellia glabra to the other Alaskan species is obscure. The relatively long ascending panicle branches, the spreading florets, and long lemmas are characteristic. Tidal flats, Alaska and Kenai Peninsulas and Kodiak Island. ALASKA PENINSULA: Women’s Peninsula, Church in 1916. Kernat PENINSULA, Kasilof, Evans 609. Kop1ax Isuanp, Piper 4696, 6. Puccinellia trifiora Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi erecti, dense caespitosi, 45— 60 cm alti; vaginae glabrae internodiis paulo longiores; ligula 4-5 mm longa, tenuis, obtusa, decurrens; laminae 4—6 cm longae vel eae in- novationum longiores, 1-1.5 mm latae, molles, glabrae, planae vel involutae; paniculae 15-20 cm longae, ramis fasciculatis abrupte patenti- bus vel reflexis basi nudis; spiculae 5-7 mm longae, 2—3-florae, appressae, purpurascentes; glumae acutae vel subobtusae, prima 1.5-3 mm longa, 1—nervia, secunda 2.5-4 mm longa, 3- nervia; lemmata 3.5—-4 mm longa, lata, obtusa, basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma aequans, carinis prominentibus glabris; antherae 1.3-1.5 mm longae. Erect, densely tufted perennial; culms 45 to 60 cm tall, glabrous; sheaths glabrous, over- lapping or a little shorter than the internodes; ligule thin, obtuse, decurrent, 4 to 5 mm long; blades 4 to 6 cm long or those of the innova- tions longer, 1 to 1.5 mm wide, soft, glabrous, flat or becoming loosely involute; panicles 15 to 20 cm long, the branches glabrous, in rather dis- tant fascicles of 2 to 4, naked at base, stiffly and abruptly spreading or reflexed, the branchlets appressed; spikelets 5 to 7 mm long, 2 or 3-flowered, appressed, deeply tinged with pur- ple; glumes acute or sometimes subobtuse, the first 1.5 to 3 mm long, 1-nerved, the second 2.5 to 4 mm long, 3-nerved; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long, broad, obtuse, the nerves evident, sparsely pilose at the base or nearly glabrous; palea as long as the lemma, the keels prominent, gla- brous; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 mm long. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 948675, collected on flat near creek, at Tyoo- nok (‘‘Tyoonock’’), Cook Inlet, Alaska, by Walter H. Evans in 1897 (no. 480). Puccinellia triflora is related to P. glabra, differing in the taller culms and stiffly spread- JAN. 15, 1944 ing or reflexed panicle branches, and in the spikelets only 2- or 3-flowered. This species was also collected on flats that are overflowed by spring tides at Kasilof (“‘Kussiloff”’), Kenai Peninsula, Evans 684. 7. Puccinellia andersoni Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi densi caespitosi, erecti, basi decumbentes, 15-30 cm alti; vaginae glabrae, internodiis longiores, inferiores tenues, rufo- fuscae; ligula 2 mm longa, decurrens; laminae planae, 5-11 cm longae, 1—2.5 mm latae, gla- brae; paniculae 4-8 cm longae, ramis rigidis, glabris, adscendentibus vel patentibus, 2-4 em longis, 1—5-spiculatis; spiculae 5-7-florae, 6-8 mm longae; gluma prima 2 mm longa, acuta; gluma secunda 2.5-3 mm longa, latior, acuta vel subobtusa; lemmata 3-3.5 mm longa, acuta, dentata, basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma aequans, carinis prope apicem sparse scabris; antherae 0.8—1 mm longae. Perennial; culms densely tufted, erect from a decumbent base, 15 to 30 cm tall, with short ones, 5 to 8 em tall, apparently from the out- side of the clump; sheaths glabrous, longer than the internodes, the lower loose, thin, reddish brown, becoming fibrous; ligule thin, decurrent, 2 mm long; blades flat, 5 to 11 cm long, 1 to 2.5 mm wide, glabrous; panicles 4 to 8 cm long, the branches relatively stout, glabrous, stiffly as- cending to spreading, 2 to 4 cm long, bearing 1 to 3 or sometimes 5 appressed spikelets; spike- lets 5- to 7-flowered, 6 to 8 mm long; first glume 2mm long, acute, the second 2.5 to 3 mm long, much broader, acute or subobtuse; lemma 3 to 3.5 mm long, usually acute, sometimes irregu- larly toothed, sparsely pilose at the base and on the lower part of the prominent nerves; palea as - long as the lemma, the keels sparsely scabrous near the summit; anthers 0.8 to 1 mm long. Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National Arboretum, collected in very wet soil, Point Lay, Arctic Alaska, August 5, 1938, by J. P. Anderson (no. 4399a). This is a rather distinct species and its rela- tionship is not evident. The long decumbent base, short, stiffly spreading panicle branches, and acute, more or less toothed, lemmas are characteristic. Only known from the type col- lection. Mr. Anderson’s no. 4399 consisted of specimens of this species and of Puccinellia paupercula. Those of P. andersont have been SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 21 labeled 4399a, while those of P. paupercula have been labeled 4399b. 8. Puccinellia alaskana Scribn. & Merr. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 13: 78. 1910 Puccinellia paupercula var. alaskana Fern. & Weath. Rhodora 18: 18. 1916. Perennial; culms in small dense tufts, erect or ascending, 6 to 30 cm tall; sheaths soft, much longer than the internodes; ligule 2 to 3.5 mm long, hyaline, decurrent; blades flat or loosely folded, 2 to 9 cm long, 1 to 2 mm wide; panicles 3 to 9 cm long, the short slender glabrous branches appressed or ascending; spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 4 to 5 mm long; glumes contorted, strongly nerved, the first 1 to 1.5 mm long, subacute to obtuse, entire, the second 2 to 2.5 mm long, 3-nerved, oblong to obovate, entire or erose; lemma prominently 5-nerved, abruptly narrowed to an irregular subacute tip, densely pubescent at the base, the lowest 3 to 3.3 mm long; palea as long as the lemma, ciliate on the keels; anthers of lowest floret 0.4 to 0.5 mm long. Differs from P. paupercula in its usually larger size, flat broader blades, and its longer more distant lemmas, densely pubescent below (nearly glabrous in P. paupercula). Type locality: St. Paul, Pribilof Islands. Islands of Bering Sea and Western Alaska. SEWARD PENINSULA: Port Clarence, Walpole 1889. Nunivak Isutanp: Nash Harbor, J. P. Anderson 3864. St. Marruew IsLanp: Cole in 1899. Pripitor Isuanps: St. Paul, Haley in 1925, Hultén 7489, 7498(H), Johnston, June 30, 1923(H), Kincaid, Aug. 24, 1897, Macoun, Aug. 11, 1892, and in Geol. Surv. Can. 94198, Merriam, Aug. 4, 1891, Trelease & Saunders 2960; St. George, W. H. Palmer “Aug. 11,” Johnston, Aug. 5, 1920. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS: Agattu, Hultén 6319; Semisopochnoi, Steenis 4619(H); Atka, EHyerdam 994, Hultén 6996, 7017; Amlia, Eyerdam 1272, 1273; Carlisle, Eyerdam 1387; Umnak, Hultén 7086(H); “Ogliuga,’ Murie 2108. SHumacin IsLANDs: Popof, Kincaid, July 14, 1899. 9. Puccinellia paupercula (Holm) Fern. & Weath. Rhodora 18: 18. 1916 Glyceria paupercula Holm, Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 3: 337. 1907. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Perennial; culms very slender in small dense tufts, 5 to 15 cm tall, scarcely exceeding the blades; sheaths crowded, the lowest rather pa- pery becoming shredded in age; ligule 0.5 to 0.8 mm long, usually not decurrent; blades 2 to 4 em long, 0.5 to 1 mm wide, flat or usually loosely involute, straight or falcate; panicles 1 to 7 em long, few-flowered, the slender glabrous relatively distant branches appressed or sometimes spreading, naked below; spike- lets 3- to 5-flowered, 4 to 8 mm long, the florets not crowded; first glume 1 to 1.5 mm long, 1- nerved, acute to subobtuse; second glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, 3-nerved, subacute to obtuse; lower lemma rather strongly 5-nerved, 2 to 2.5 mm long (rarely to 2.8 mm), elliptic to obo- vate, erose, glabrous or very sparsely pilose at the base; palea a little shorter than the lemma, the keels glabrous; anthers 0.5 to 0.6 mm long. Type locality: Mansfield Island, Hudson Bay. Rocky and sandy shores, Arctic America. Arctic ALASKA: Point Lay, J. P. Anderson 4399b; Point Hope, J. P. Anderson 4603; Point Martin, Johansen 145 (Geol. Surv. Can. 97948). - BERING Strait: St. Lawrence Island, Geist, July—Aug. 1931; ‘‘Arakamtchetchene”’ Island, Wright in 1853-56. AumuTIAN ISLANDS: Agattu, Hultén 6320; Unalga, Steenis 4658(H). 10. Puccinellia hulteni Swallen, sp. nov. Perennis; culmi rigidi, erecti, basi deeumben- tes, 35-40 cm alti; vaginae internodiis longiores, glabrae; ligula 2.5-3 mm longa, tenuis, decur- rens; laminae 5-11 cm longae, 2—2.5 mm latae, erectae, nervosae, glabrae; paniculae 8-14 cm longae, ramis rigide adscendentibus vel paten- tibus, glabris vel obscure scabris, inferioribus 5-8 cm longis, in parte superiore floriferis; spiculae 3—4-florae, 5-6 mm longae; gluma prima 1.5—2 mm longa, 1-nervia, acuta vel sub- acuta; gluma secunda 2-2.5 mm longa, 3- nervia, obtusa vel subacuta; lemmata 2.5—-2.8 mm longa, subobtusa, basi obscure pubescen- tia; palea lemmate brevior, minute dentata, carinis scabris; antherae 0.8 mm longae. Perennial; culms stiffly erect from a decum- bent base 35 to 40 cm tall; sheaths much longer than the internodes, glabrous; ligule hyaline, decurrent, 2.5 to 3 mm long; blades 5 to 11 em long, 2 to 2.5 mm wide, narrower on the innova- tions, stiff, erect, strongly nerved, glabrous; panicles 8 to 14 cm long, the glabrous or ob- VoL. 34, No. 1 scurely scabrous branches stiffly ascending or spreading, the lower 5 to 8 cm long with shorter ones intermixed, loosely few-flowered above the middle; spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 5 to 6mm long; first glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, 1-nerved, acute or subacute, the second 2 to 2.5 mm long, broader than the first, 3-nerved, subacute or obtuse; lemma 2.5 to'2.8 mm long, acutish, ob- scurely pubescent on the strong lateral nerves at the base; palea a little shorter than the lemma, minutely toothed, rather strongly scabrous on the keels, especially toward the summit; anthers 0.8 mm long. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 18196138, collected at Port Hobron, Sitkalidak Island, Kodiak, Alaska, August 20, 1931, by W. J. Eyerdam (no. 131). The stiffly erect culms with erect flat blades and open panicles with stiffly ascending branches of irregular length are characteristic. Probably most closely related to P. pumila which is much smaller, with short densely flowered branches and much more obtuse lem- mas. Seashores, Kodiak and neighboring islands, Kenai Peninsula, and southeastern Alaska. Kontak: Old Harbor, Eyerdam 651; Sitkali- dak Island, Kyerdam 131. Krnat PENINSULA: Tutka Bay, Hultén 7782. SourHEASTERN ALASKA: Sitka, Hultén 8582. . 11. Puccinellia pumila (Vasey) Hitche. Amer. Journ. Bot. 21: 129. 1934 Glyceria pumila Vasey, Torrey Bot. Club Bull. 15: 48. 1888. Atropis kurilensis Takeda, Journ. Linn. Soe. Bot. 42: 497. 1914. Puccinellia kurilensis Honda, Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo See. ITI, Bot. 3: 59. 1930. Perennial; culms in loose or rather dense tufts, erect or decumbent at the base and geniculate-ascending, 10 to 30 cm tall; sheaths usually much longer than the internodes; ligule 1.5 to 2.3 mm long, hyaline, truncate, decur- rent; blades flat, as much as 20 cm long, usually much shorter, 1 to 2.5 mm wide, scaberulous; panicles 2.5 to 15 cm long, the glabrous branches stiffly ascending to reflexed, naked in the lower half, sometimes in depauperate speci- mens bearing only a single spikelet; spikelets 4- to 6-flowered, 5 to 7 mm long, appressed; JAN. 15, 1944 first glume 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, 1-nerved, sub- acute; second glume 2.5 to 3 mm long, 3-nerved, subacute; lower lemma about 3 mm long, rather abruptly narrowed toward the subacute apex, the nerves usually conspicuous, sparsely pubes- cent on the callus; palea as long as the lemma, the keels glabrous; anthers of lower floret 0.8 to 1.2 mm long. The eastern material which has been re- ferred to this species requires further study, at least some of it may represent another species. Type locality: Vancouver Island. Brackish marshes and seashores, Alaska to Vancouver Island. Koptak: Griggs, Aug. 15, 1915, Piper 4701. Cook INLET: Halibut Cove, Coville & Kearney 2456. Prince WILLIAM Sounp: Orca, Coville & Kearney 1336. SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA: Sitka, Hitchcock 41394; Skwashianski Bay, Piper 4698. 12. Puccinellia nutkaensis (Presl) Fern. & Weath. Rhodora 18: 22. f. 49-53. 1916 Poa nutkaensis Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 272. 1830. Perennial; culms relatively slender in dense tufts, mostly 15 to 30 cm tall, rarely as much as 45 em, erect or sometimes ascending at the base; sheaths overlapping or the upper occa- sionally shorter than the internodes; ligule 1 to 2 mm long, obtuse or truncate, decurrent; blades 3 to 13 ecm long, 1 to 2 mm wide, soft, flat or folded, glabrous or very sparsely sca- brous on the upper surface; panicles 5 to 12 em long, the few slender glabrous branches ap- pressed, naked toward the base, the lower rarely more than 5 cm long; spikelets 4- to 6-flowered, 7 to 8 mm long; first glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, l-nerved, subobtuse; second glume 2 to 2.5 mm long, 3-nerved, ovate or broadly elliptic, obscurely ciliolate; lemma of lowest floret 3 mm long, elliptic, glabrous except for a few hairs on the callus and sometimes on the lateral nerves near the base; palea as long as _ the lemma, sparsely scabrous; anthers 0.8 to 1.2 mm long. Type locality: ‘““Nootka Sound?” Beaches and sandy or rocky soil near the coast, Alaska. SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA Dies This is on the whole a characteristic and uni- form species, apparently the commonest of those found in Alaska. ALEUTIAN IsuANDs: Atka, Hultén 6989(H), 7012, Turner 1208. SHUMAGIN ISLANDs: Popof, Hultén 7742, Saunders, July 7-18, 1899, Tre- lease & Saunders 2946. KopitaKx ISLAND: Eyerdam 497, Covtile & Kearney 2240, Trelease & Saunders 2942, 2945, 2973, Cole, July 19, 1899, Kincaid, July 20, 1899. AwtasKa PENIN- suLA: Kukak Bay, Coville & Kearney 1588; Fox Bay, Griggs, July 28, 1913. Kenat PEn- INSULA, Tutka Bay, Hultén 7785 (H). PRINCE Witu1aM Sounp: Hinchinbrook Island, Nor- berg, June 4, 22(H), and 28, July 14, 1936, July 14 and 20, 1937; Knight Island, Eyerdam 10; Cordova, Hitchcock 4145. YaxuraT Bay: Funston 31, Trelease & Saunders 2939. SouTu- EASTERN ALASKA: Skagway, J. P. Anderson 1717(H), 1719, Hastwood 730, 730A, Walker 808; Yes Bay, Howell 1718, Lynn Canal, Krause 276, 276a(H); Juneau, J. P. Anderson 197; Howkan, Evans 144; Davidson Glacier, Cooper 76; Sitka, Coville & Kearney 843, EHvans 257, Hitchcock 4053, Piper 4697, W. G. Wright 1585, 1593; Chichagof Island, Norberg 183, 188, 203; Ketchikan, J. P. Anderson 481. 13. Puccinellia kamtschatica Holmb. var. sublaevis Holmb. Bot. Not. 1927: 209. 1927 Perennial; culms rather densely tufted, erect or somewhat decumbent at the base, 12 to 25 em high; sheaths smooth, all longer than the internodes; ligule membranaceous, about 2 mm long; blades smooth, rather soft, flat or drying involute, not more than 2 mm wide; panicles 4 to 10 cm long, the branches rather narrowly ascending, or eventually spreading, sparsely scabrous, mostly spikelet-bearing in the upper half; spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 3 to 4 mm long; first glume acute, about half as long as the first lemma; second glume much broader, obtuse, the tip hyaline; lbommas 2 mm long, obtuse, glabrous; anthers 0.6 to 0.8 mm long. Type locality: Schtschapina, Kamchatka. Cold wet soil, Kamschatka and Alaska. SHumMAGIN Is~aNps: Popof, Hultén 7747. SouTHEASTERN ALASKA: Glacier Bay, Cooper 165; Holkham Bay, Cooper 369. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOTAN Y.—Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru.' United States National Museum. The new species of Dryopteris herewith described are part of the extensive collec- tions made by Dr. J. Francis Macbride in Peru under the auspices of Field Museum of Natural History in 1922 and 1923, the ferns of which were entrusted to the writer for study. The series is a valuable one; but like most large Andean fern collections ob- tained recently it includes a great deal of critical material which it is impossible to identify without recourse to type specimens in European herbaria or, in the case of several especially difficult genera such as Elaphoglossum, without monographic stud- ies. Anything like a complete report is thus not feasible at present. Owing mainly to Christensen’s ‘‘Revision” and later monographs the situation with respect to Dryopteris is sufficiently clear, however, to justify proposing the present new species, all belonging to the subgenus Lastrea. Dryopteris assurgens Maxon, sp. nov. §Lastrea. Rhizoma epigaeum, oblique ad- scendens vel rampans, 15 cm et ultra longum, gracile (3-4 mm diam.), brunneum, laeve, levi- ter sulcatum, radices crassas perpaucas emit- tens, subnudum, parcissime paleaceum, paleis adpressis, interdum propinquis sed non imbrica- tis, 3-4 mm longis, e basi cordata anguste ovatis vel oblongo-ovatis, 1-1.5 mm latis, acuminatis, glabris, castaneis, lucidis et reticu- latis, marginibus scariosis pallidioribus. Folia ut videtur ca. 6, 60-70 cm longa, stipitibus oblique affixis, decurrentibus, non imbricatis, 20-25 em longis, 2 mm diam., e basi brunnea stramineis, epaleaceis, lucidis, glabris; laminae anguste lanceolatae, 45-55 cm longae, medio 12-16 cm latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, basi abrupte angustatae, rhachi straminea, glabra; pinnae ca. 25-jugae, pleraeque opposi- tae et patentes, infimae (2 vel 3 paria) auriculi- formes, deflexae, 5-15 mm longae; pinnae me- diales maximae 6-8.5 cm longae, medio 12-16 mm latae, basi usque ad 18 mm latae, lineari- lanceolatae, attenuatae, subpinnatisectae, mem- branaceo-herbaceae, glabrae, costis supra stri- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 20, 1943. VOL. 34, NO. 1 WiLuiAM R. Maxon, gosis et segmentis ciliolatis exceptis; segmenta ca. 20-juga, pleraque 5-9 mm longa, 2—2.5 mm lata, anguste oblonga, acutiuscula, patentia, subfalcata, fere plana, oblique ciliolata, basi angustissime conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque ca. 0.5 mm lata; segmenta basalia superiora maxima, usque ad 1 cm longa et 3.5 mm lata, saepe crenata et rhachin incumbentia; venae 6—8-jugae, obliquae, manifestae sed non prominulae, simplices vel (segmentis basalibus superioribus) furcatae; sori 6—8-jugi, exacte mediales, mediocres, non-indusiati; sporangia numerosa, glabra. Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of Natural History, no. 1136977, collected near Playapampa, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, shaded situation in sphagnum, June 16-24, 1926, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4517a). The description is drawn partly also from an excel- lent detached frond mounted on the type sheet of Dryopteris furva, the two species, though ut- terly unlike, having somehow been combined under a single number now divided as no. 4517 and no. 4517a. In its very long, slender, epigaeous rhizome and few, very oblique fronds with decurrent non-imbricate stipe-bases Dryopteris assurgens is similar to D. longicaulis (Baker) C. Chr.? and D. cornuta Maxon,* and to these species only. It possibly belongs to the group of D. sancta (L.) Kuntze. Dryopteris furva Maxon, sp. nov. §Lastrea. Rhizoma (pars) curvato-adscen- dens, 5 cm longum, ca. 8 mm diam., apice laxe squamosum, paleis 3-4 mm longis, ovato-del- toideis, acutis, integris, concavis, brunneis, minute pubescentibus, subopacis. Folia ut videtur 10-12, fasciculata, ca. 55 cm longa, sti- pitibus ca. 15 cm longis, 1.5 mm diam., brun- neis, lucidis, minute pubescentibus, demum glabratis; laminae anguste lineares, 40 em longae, maxime 4—4.5 cm latae, apice attenua- tae, basin versus longe et gradatim angustatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi stipiti simili sed graciliore, parce et minute pubescente; pinnae 2 Tllustrated in Hook. Icon. Pl. 17: pl. 1658. 1886 * Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 19: 245. fig. 1. 1929. Jan. 15, 1944 infra apicem pinnatifidum ca. 30-jugae, ses- siles, pleraeque oppositae, inferiores ca. 8-jugae reductae, quarum 4 vel 5 paria infima 1-2 mm solum longa, inter se ca. 3 cm distantia; pinnae mediales maximae 2-3 cm longae, 8-11 mmlatae, oblongae vel anguste deltoideo-oblongae, pa- tentes, falcatae, pinnatifidae, apice subacuto leviter lobatae, aerophoris basi pinnarum ellip- ticis, planis, humilibus, vix perspicuis; seg- menta ca. 10-juga, rigide herbacea vel sub- coriacea, oblonga, integra, concavo-revoluta, costae latere utroque ala 1-1.5 mm conjuncta, venis 4—6-jugis, simplicibus, obliquis, utrinque prominentibus; costae costulaeque et venae subtus substrigillosae, supra (cum parenchy- mate) parce strigillosae; sori numerosi, medi- ales, mediocres; sporangia glabra; indusia firme et rigide affixa, persistentia, pallida, reniformia, coplose pubescentia et ciliata, pilis brevibus, rigidis, simplicibus. Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of Natural History, no. 535604, collected near Playapampa, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, shaded situation in sphagnum, June 16-24, 1926, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4517). Although the present species runs to the West Indian D. scalpturoides (Fée) C. Chr. in Christensen’s key, it obviously needs no com- parison with that, nor is it closely related to any species previously described. In general appear- ance, and especially in their polished brown stipe and rachis, individual fronds resemble a narrow form of D. pavoniana (KI1.) C. Chr., but that species is larger and, though similar in pu- bescence, differs greatly in its very slender, wide-creeping, branched rhizome, its abruptly reduced blades (with only one or two pairs of auriculiform or glanduliform basal pinnae), its depressed venation and non-indusiate sori, and the presence of conspicuous tuberculiform aero- phores at the base of the larger pinnae. Dryopteris macbridei C. Chr. & Maxon, sp. nov. §Lastrea. Rhizoma suberectum, crassum, fortasse 5-8 cm longum, ca. 1.5 cm diam., con- spicue paleaceum, paleis numerosis, imbricatis vel apice fastigiatis, e basi anguste retusa ca. 1 mm lata subulato-attenuatis, ca. 1 cm longis, brunneo-castaneis, subflexuosis, glabris, inte- gris vel subintegris. Folia ut videtur 8-10, sub- erecta, 40-60 cm longa, stipitibus 5-10 cm longis, 1.5-2.5 mm diam., basi laxe et decidue MAXON—NEW SPECIES OF DRYOPTERIS FROM PERU 25 paleaceis, dense hirtellis, pilis sordide ochroleu- cis, subrectis, 1-1.5 mm longis; laminae lanceo- lato-ellipticae, 35-55 cm longae, medio 7-12 cm latae, apice acuminatae, basin versus ab- rupte reductae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi valida stipiti simili; pinnae majores 25-30- jugae, sessiles, pleraeque alternae et patentes, inferiores reductae ca. 8-jugae, quarum ca. 5 paria infima minute glanduliformia, inter se distantia; pinnae mediales maximae 5-6 cm longae, medio 8-10 mm latae, basi 10-13 mm la- tae, lineari-lanceolatae, subpinnatisectae, apice attenuato oblique lobatae, spongioso-herba- ceae, ubique conspicue hirtellae; segmenta patentia, ca. 25-juga, pleraque 4-6 mm longa, ca. 1.5 mm lata, anguste oblonga, acutiuscula, recta, ciliata, marginibus late et valde revolutis, basil anguste conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque ca. 0.5 mm lata; venae 7—9-jugae, sim- plices; sori 6—8-jugae, paulum supramediales, magni, conferti, a marginibus late revolutis partim occulti, sporangiis non setosis; indusia mediocria, persistentia, conspicue setosa, pilis rigidis ochroleucis. Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1193334, collected near Yanano, Peru, altitude about 1800 meters, at edge of thicket, June 29, 1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 3828); iso- type in herb. Field Museum of Natural History, no. 534890. In general appearance D. macbrider resem- bles D. utafiagensis Hieron., of Colombia and Ecuador, of which (besides five specimens from Colombia) there is at hand an excellent photo- graph of the incomplete type specimen from Ecuador (Stiibel 809); also it was regarded by Christensen as probably most closely related to that species. Among other characters D. utanagensis differs sharply, however, in its fal- cate segments, which have 10 to 12 pairs of veins, margins narrowly and closely revolute, pubescence substrigose, sori medial and non- indusiate, and under surface mostly exposed. In strong contrast are the very deeply and widely revolute margins in D. macbridei, which nearly meet over the costule, crowding together the conspicuously setose-indusiate sori and wholly obscuring the leaf tissue. The subhirsute or hirtellous condition is nearly uniform throughout. . Dryopteris densa Maxon, sp. nov. §Lastrea. Rhizoma ut fragmento parvo vide- 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tur erectum, magnum. Folia valida, certe sub- erecta et caespitosa, saltem 1—1.2 m longa, stipitibus 25-30 cm longis, 6-8 mm diam., alte suleatis, sordide ochraceo-brunneis, tenuiter albido-pilosulis, et praecipue ad basin paleis usque ad 1 cm longis e basi ovata longissime at- tenuatis ochraceo-brunneis flaccidis tenuibus in- structis, demum denudatis; laminae anguste ovatae, 80-90 cm et ultra longae, 30-40 cm latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, basi abrupte angustatae, rhachi albido-pilosula, paleis caducis angustis pallidis paucis praedita; pinnae ca. 30-jugae, pleraeque leviter adscen- dentes vel subrecte patentes, inferiores (4 vel 5 paria) reductae, suboppositae, deflexae, infimae fere alternae, ca. 1 cm longae; pinnae mediales maximae 15-23 cm longae, basi et medio 2.5- 3.9 cm latae, lineares, apicem serratum versus longe attenuatae, pinnatifidae, spongioso-her- baceae, basi aerophoro ochraceo verruciformi humili instructae, costis subtus paleis caducis linearibus laxis pallidis paucis praeditis, utrin- que cum costulis et pagina superiore laxe pilo- sulis; segmenta ca. 30-juga, subrecte patentia, leviter falcata, pleraque 12-18 mm longa, medio ca. 4 mm lata, deltoideo-oblonga vel e basi dila- tata lineari-oblonga, acutiuscula vel false acuta, marginibus anguste sed firme revolutis, basi late conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque 1.5-2 mm lata; venae 9-12-jugae, simplices, sub an- gulo 45° egredientes, immersae; sori 8—11-jugi, mediales, rotundi, magni, creberrimi, sporan- giis numerosissimis segmenti paginam infe- riorem omnino obtegentibus; indusia perspicua, suborbicularia, papyracea, fere plana, albida, albido-pilosula, receptaculo elevato firme af- fixa, persistentia. Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of Natural History, nos. 535250 and 535251, col- lected at Huacachi, a station near Mufia, Peru, altitude about 1950 meters, May 20—June 1, 1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4175); iso- type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1193387. This is a truly remarkable species. The Na- tional Herbarium specimen was sent to Chris- tensen, who annotated it (1927) as follows: ‘‘To- tally different from all species described. Should be described after more complete specimens, if at hand.”’ No new collections have since been received. Nevertheless the necessary additional data are provided by the Field Museum speci- mens, which include the lower half of a blade, vou. 34, No. 1 a nearly complete stipe, and a fragment of the rhizome. Dryopteris densa is a sturdy plant and prob- ably grows to a height of 1.5 meters or more. The species name refers to the superabundant sporangia of the closely crowded sori, com- pletely covering the segments beneath from costule to tightly revolute margin. Except for the presence of the conspicuous but slightly folded, elevated, persistent, whitish indusia in a double regular row, the sori at maturity have lost their distinctness. They are not at all con- cealed by the margins. These features, coupled with the weakly pilosulous covering of the up- per surface of the segments, are noteworthy and, in combination, distinctive. As to habitat the collector’s note reads, ‘“‘Large clump, in thicket.”’ Dryopteris dumetorum Maxon, sp. nov. §Lastrea. Rhizoma ut videtur late repens (pars praesens ca. 10 cm longa), gracile, 3-5 mm diam., brunneum, laeve, crasse radicosum, praecipue apice paleaceum, paleis subulato- attenuatis, 4-7 mm longis, basi truncata ca. 1 mm latis, opace brunneis, albido-pubescenti- bus, integris. Folia 3 vel 4, disticha, 45-85 em longa, stipitibus 10-20 cm longis, 2-3.5 mm diam., suleatis, e basi brunnescente arcuata olivaceis vel subferrugineis, hine inde laxe paleaceis, hirtellis, pilis valde inaequalibus, usque ad 1.5 mm longis; laminae anguste lanceolatae, 25-65 cm longae, medio 11-20 em -latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, basi subgradatim vel abrupte reductae, rhachi 1-2 mm diam., notis omnibus stipiti simili; pin- nae 20—25-jugae, pleraeque alternae, patentes, inferiores (2-4 paria) reductae, infimae minu- tissimae, remotae; pinnae maximae 5-10 cm longae, 12-18 mm latae, lanceolatae vel lineari- lanceolatae, basi raro paulum angustatae, apice acuminatae, pinnatifidae, herbaceae, basi aero- phoro brunneo rotundo duro instructae, costis supra subdense subtus parce hirtellis, etiam subtus paleis brunneis lineari-lanceolatis parvis (1.5-2.5 mm longis, 0.2-0.4 mm latis) paucis praeditis; segmenta 18—23-juga, pleraque 5-8 mm longa, basi 3-4 mm lata, oblonga, false acuta, subfalcata, subrecte patentia, margini- bus anguste revolutis, basi late conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque 1.5-2 mm lata; venae 7-10-jugae, obliquae, prominulae, simplices, cum costulis utrinque oblique hirtellae; sori Jan. 15, 1944 6-9-jugi, mediales, rotundati, mediocres; sporangia glabra; indusia ex pilis pluribus al- bidis rigidis suberectis longis constata. Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of Natural History, no. 518164, collected near Mito, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, in partly sunny places of thickets, July 8-22, 1922, by J. Francis Macbride and William Featherstone (no. 1667); isotype (an immature plant) in U. §S. National Herbarium, no. 1121953. COE—NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 27 Dryopteris dumetorum belongs to the general group of D. rudis (Kunze) C. Chr., though it is not closely related to that species itself. Appar- ently it has no very near relatives; but the boundaries of this group as defined by Christen- sen are not very clear, and its dozen or so spe- cies need to be redescribed and compared on the basis of better material, the original speci- men in several instances having lacked, for example, the rhizome. ZLOOLOGY.—Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the Pacific coast of North America, with descriptions of two new species.' WESLEY R. Cos, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (Communicated by Watpo L. Scumirt.) An examination of the nemerteans in the collections of the United States National Museum revealed two species from the Pacific coast of North America believed to be new to science, in addition to many others from new localities. Most of them were dredged on the cruises of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross off the coasts of California, Washington, and Alaska and in the seas adjacent to the Japa- nese islands. These records are included in the following list, which shows the habitat and geographical distribution of each of the Pacific coast species so far as known at the present time. This list will supplement the data contained in the “Revision of the nemertean fauna of the Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern South Amer- ica’? (Coe, 1940). The total number of species now known from the Pacific coast of North America is increased to 99. Of these, 65 have been found only on the Pa- cific coast of North America, including Ber- ing Sea and the adjacent Arctic coast of Alaska; 16 occur also on the coasts of Japan; 11 on the Atlantic coast of North America; 14 in European waters; 5 on South African shores; and 7 on the Pacific coast of South America. Order PALEONEMERTEA Family Tubulanidae 1. Tubulanus albocinctus Coe. Among red 1 Contributions of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, new ser., no. 216. Received October 27, 1943. algae at depths of 100 to 200 meters; off coast of southern California. 2. T. capistratus Coe. Intertidal zone; coast of Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif.; Japan. One specimen nearly a meter in length was collected by the Albatross in 1906 near Hakodate, Japan. 3. T. congulatus Coe. Yes Bay, Behm Canal, Alaska, 290-400 meters; intertidal zone; Mon- terey Bay, Calif. 4. T. frenatus Coe. Intertidal zone; southern California. 5. T. nothus Birger. Intertidal zone to 40 meters; coast of Alaska; South Africa; Mediter- ranean. The Alaska records are from preserved specimens only, and there remains the possibil- ity they may actually have represented T. annulatus (Montagu), which is similar in mark- ings and which is widely distributed on north- ern coasts from Greenland to Norway, Great Britain and the Mediterranean and has also been reported from South Africa. 6. T. pellucidus Coe. Intertidal zone; coasts of New England and southward; Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif. 7. T. polymorphus (Renier). Intertidal zone; northern coasts of Europe; Mediterranean; Aleutian Islands, Alaska, British Columbia to Monterey Bay, Calif. 8. T. sexlineatus Griffin. Intertidal zone; Alaska to southern California. 9. Carinomella lactea Coe. Intertidal zone to 20 meters; Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif. Burrowing form, found on sandy shores of boys. Family Carinomidae 10. Carinoma mutabilis Griffin. Intertidal 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES zone to 40 meters; British Columbia to Gulf of California. Burrows on sandy shores of bays. Family Cephalothricidae 11. Cephalothrix major Coe. Intertidal zone; southern California. 12. Procephalothrix spiralis Coe. Intertidal zone to 20 meters; New England; Alaska to San Diego, Calif. Order HETERONEMERTEA Family Baseodiscidae 13. Baseodiscus delineatus (Delle Chiaje). Widely distributed in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres; Mediterranean to Cape Verde Islands; Mauritius; Bermuda; Barba- dos; Fiji Islands; Chile; Japan; Gulf of Cali- fornia. 14. B. delineatus var. curtus (Hubr.). Coex- tensive with the preceding. 15. B. mexicanus Birger. Gulf of California; west coasts of Mexico and Panama; Galapagos Islands; intertidal zone to 100 meters; among shells and corals. 16. B. princeps Coe. Alaska to Puget Sound; intertidal zone and off shore to depths of 50 meters or more; off Goloi Island, Alaska, 50 meters; off Oshima, Japan, 250 meters (Alba- tross) ; Sea of Japan 135-290 meters (Albatross) ; off Ose Saki, Japan, 260 meters (Albatross); south of Hokkaido, Japan, 340 meters (Alba- tross). This species was also found by Yamaoka (1940) in the intertidal zone at Hokkaido, Japan, but was erroneously assigned by him to B. curtus Hubr. Supplementing the original description by Coe (1901) it has since been ascertained that some individuals of B. prin- ceps on the coast of Alaska and in Puget Sound have the lateral margins and ventral surface of the head white or colorless. These white areas disappear when the head is strongly con- tracted. 17. B. punnetit Coe. Monterey Bay to Gulf of California, Mexico; intertidal zone to 380 meters. 18. Zygeupolia rubens (Coe). Intertidal zone to 50 meters; southern New England and southward to North Carolina; Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico. Family Lineidae 19. Euborlasia maxima Coe. Gulf of Cali- fornia. 20. HL. hancockt Coe. Coasts of Mexico, Pan- ama, and Peru; 17 to 100 meters. VOL. 34, No. 1 21. E. nigrocincta Coe. San Francisco Bay, 20 meters; Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico; intertidal zone to 30 meters. 22. Euborlasia variegata, n. sp. This spe- cles was represented in a collection of nemer- teans from Alaska by a headless fragment about 160 mm in length. The width of the body is 7 to 10 mm and the thickness 6 to 8 mm. The body is somewhat flattened in the middle in- testinal region but becomes rounded poste- riorly. The posterior extremity is rounded and without caudal cirrus. This specimen is put on record because of the remarkable and distinctive coloration of the body. In spite of preservation in alcohol for about two years the color pattern is still con- spicuous, consisting of an orange ground color, overlaid with bluish black longitudinal bands and transverse rings. On some portions of the body the black pigment covers most of the dorsal and ventral surfaces but in other por- tions it is confined to narrow rings which en- circle the body. Several adjacent rings become wide and confluent on dorsal or ventral surface, or both, giving the appearance of broad, in- terrupted longitudinal bands connected by nar- row lateral rings. This specimen represents a ripe female and the abundance of ova pre- sumably influences the color pattern to some extent. Sections show that the bluish-black pigment is confined to the cutis and that the pattern is formed by the relative thickness of the pigment layer, which is thin in certain areas and much thicker and denser in others. The epithelium and the muscular layers are colorless or yellow and the intestinal epithelium and ova deeper yellow or orange. This specimen (U.S.N.M. 20633) was dredged at a depth of about 30 meters in Port Graham, Cook Inlet, Alaska, by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt in connection with the Alaska King Crab In- vestigation, 1941. 23. Lineus bilineatus (Renier). Northern coasts of Europe; Mediterranean; Madeira; South Africa; Alaska to San Diego, Calif. 24. L. flavescens Coe. Southern California to Gulf of California, Mexico. 25. L. geniculatus (Delle Chiaje) (=L. di- guett Joubin). Intertidal zone to 30 meters; Gulf of California; west coasts of Mexico and Panama; Mediterranean and Black Seas; west coast of Africa. ; 26. L. pictifrons Coe. Intertidal zone; Puget JAN. 15, 1944 Sound to coast of Mexico. 27. L. ruber (O. F. Miiller). Intertidal zone to 10 meters; circumpolar; Siberia; northern coasts of Europe; Mediterranean: Madeira to South Africa; Greenland to southern New England; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif. 28. L. rubescens Coe. Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif. 29. L. torquatus Coe. Coast of Alaska to’ San Francisco Bay. 30. L. vegetus Coe. Found in the intertidal zone beneath stones and decaying vegetation in estuaries, harbors and bays, as well as in crevices of rocks and among corallines and other growths exposed to the full force of the surf; sometimes above middle of intertidal zone; occasionally in brackish water. Com- monly associated with dead barnacles and mol- lusks; feeds on ciliates and other small organ- isms, living or dead. San Francisco Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico. Reproduces asexually by fragmentation as well as sexually by fertilized eggs; has remarkable regenerative capacity. 31. Micrura alaskensis Coe. Intertidal zone; Prince William Sound, Alaska, to Ensenada, Mexico; Japan. 32. M. impressa (Stimpson). Bering Strait. 33. M. nebulosa Coe. Dredged at depths of 120-900 meters off the coasts of Alaska and California. 34. M. nigrirostris Coe. Among kelp hold- fasts and other growths on rocks at low-water mark and below; southern California. 35. M. olivaris Coe. Monterey Bay and off San Francisco, Calif.; low-water mark to 120 meters. 36. M. pardalis Coe. Intertidal zone; Mon- terey Bay, California, to Ensenada, Mexico. 37. M. verrilli Coe. Intertidal zone and be- low; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif. 38. M. wilsont Coe. Intertidal zone to 35 meters; Monterey Bay, California, to Gulf of California. : 39. Cerebratulus albifrons Coe. Muddy flats between tide marks and below to depths of 100 meters or more; Alaska to San Diego, Calif. 40. C. californiensis Coe. On muddy shores and in bays to depths of 35 meters or more; Puget Sound to Gulf of California. 41. C. herculeus Coe. Bering Sea, coast of Alaska to central California and off the coast to depths of 60 meters or more. 42. C. lineolatus Coe. Muddy bays, southern California, Gulf of California and west coast of COE—_-NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 29 Mexico; intertidal zone to 70 meters or more. 43. C. longiceps Coe. Intertidal zone; Ya- kutat Bay, Alaska; off Oshima, Japan, 250 meters. 44, C. marginatus Renier. Sandy and muddy shores to depths of 100 meters; circumpolar; Norway to Madeira; Greenland and Labrador to Cape Cod; Alaska to San Diego, Calif.; Bering Sea (62°N. 173°W.), 70 meters; Japan. 45. C. montgomeryt Coe. Coast of Siberia; Bering Sea; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif.; Behm Canal, Alaska, 150-400 meters; Moss Cape, Belkofski Peninsula, 40 meters; off Hok- kaido, Japan, 600 meters. 46. C. occidentalis Coe. Alaska to San Fran- cisco Bay; off central California, 120 meters; Cold Bay, Alaska, 40 meters; Bellingham Bay, Wash., 20 meters; intertidal zone, Prince Wil- liam Sound to Puget Sound. A7. C. signatus Coe. Bering Sea, 110 meters. 48. Diplopleura vivest Joubin. Gulf of Cali- fornia, Mexico. Order HoPpLONEMERTEA MONOSTYLIFERA Family Emplectonematidae 49. Emplectonema biirgeri Coe. Intertidal zone to 500 meters; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif.; off Vancouver Island, 300 meters; Chatham Strait, Alaska, 500 meters; off Oshima, Japan, 250 meters. 50. EH. gracile (Johnston). Northern coasts of Europe to Madeira; Aleutian Islands and coast of Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico; Chile; Kam- chatka to Japan; intertidal zone to 100 meters. In many localities on northern coasts the most abundant of all species of nemerteans. 51. EH. purpuratum Coe. Aleutian Islands. 52. Nemertopsts gracilis Coe. Intertidal zone and below; Puget Sound to Ensenada, Mexico. 52a. N. gracilis var. bullocki Coe. Intertidal zone; coast of central California. 53. Paranemertes californica Coe. Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico; in sandy and muddy bays. 54. P. carnea Coe. Intertidal zone; Alaska to Puget Sound. 55. P. pallida Coe. Intertidal zone; Alaska. 56. P. peregrina Coe. Commander Islands; Aleutian Islands, Alaska, to Gulf of California; Kamchatka to Japan. Intertidal zone and be- low, among mussels and other growths; often very abundant. 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 57. Dichonemertes hartmanae Coe. Inter- tidal zone; San Diego, Calif. Family Carcinonematidae 58. Carcinonemertes epraltt Coe. Commensal parasite on crabs of the genera Portunus, Pu- gettia and EKuphylax. Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif.; Peru. Family Ototyphlonemertidae 59. Ototyphlonemertes spiralis Coe. On sandy shores of bays; San Diego, Calif. Family Prosorhochmidae 60. Prosorhochmus albidus (Coe). Intertidal zone; Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico. 61. Oerstedia dorsalis (Abildg.). Intertidal zone and below; circumpolar; Norway to Mediterranean; Madeira; Nova Scotia to Florida; Puget Sound to Gulf of California. Danley Sumplipocdee 62. Zygonemertes albida Coe. Intertidal zone; British Columbia to Ensenada, Mexico. 63. Z. thalassima Coe. Intertidal Alaska. 64. Z. virescens (Verrill). Intertidal zone and below to depths of 120 meters; Bay of Fundy, New England and southward to North Caro- lina; Puget Sound to Gulf of California. 65. Amphiporus angulatus (Fabricius). Cir- cumpolar; Greenland; Davis Strait; Labrador to Cape Cod; Bering Strait; Bering Sea; Aleu- tian Islands and Kamchatka to Japan; Alaska; British Columbia; Puget Sound and southward to Point Conception, Calif. 66. A. bimaculatus Coe. Intertidal zone; Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico; off San Diego, Calif., 250 meters; Okhotsk Sea, 140 meters. 67. A. californicus Coe. Intertidal zone to 80 meters or more; coast of southern California. 68. A. cruentatus Verrill. Intertidal zone to 80 meters or more; New England to Florida; Puget Sound to San Diego, Calif. 69. A. flavescens Coe. Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico. 70. A. formidabilis Griffin. Bering Island, Aleutian Islands, coast of Alaska and soul be ward to Niomberey Bay, California. 71. A. fulvus Coe. Intertidal zone to 85 meters; southern California. 2s me gelatunosus Coe. The absence of the proboscis in the type specimen did not permit zone; VOL. 34, No. 1 a satisfactory description of this species (Coe, 1905). Specimens collected by the U.S. Fish Commission have since become available for study and in these the proboscis proves to be typical for the genus Amphiporus. The basis is pear-shaped, of moderate proportions and not quite so long as the rather slender central stylet which measures 0.16 to 0.18 mm in length in an individual 150 mm long. There are four pouches of accessory stylets, with 4-5 stylets in each, and 15 to 17 proboscidial nerves. The body contains a larger proportion of gelatinous tissue than has been reported for any other species of the genus. Length of body 100 to 150 mm; width 10 to 16 mm. Dredged at a depth of about 300 meters. southwest of Kodiak Island, Alaska; at 400 to 450 meters in Clarence Strait; at 40 meters near Port Townsend, Wash., and at 130 meters in Uraga Strait, Japan. 73. A.imparispinosus Griffin. Intertidal zone to 50 meters; coast of Siberia, Bering Sea, Alaska to San Diego, Calif., and Ensenada, Mexico. Abundant in many localities. 73a. A. imparispinosus var. similis Coe. Dif- fers from the typical form in having 2, instead of 38, pouches of accessory stylets. Puget Sound to Ensenada, Mexico. 74. A. macracanthus Coe. Dredged in the Arctic Ocean off the northern coast of Alaska. 75. Amphiporus maculosus, n. sp. This species is distinguishable from others of the genus by the reddish brown spots and blotches on the dorsal surface. Another species, A. nebulosus Coe, has the dorsal surface more nearly covered with confluent dark brown spots and blotches, while in A. maculosus they are widely separated. A. nebulosus has 18 to 25 ocelli on each side of head but in the only specimen of A. maculosus available for study ocelli could not be detected. The stylet basis in A. nebulosus is much swollen posteriorly and about as long as the stylet, while in A. maculo- sus it is only moderately enlarged posteriorly and much longer than stylet. The nephridia, caecal diverticula and proboscis show minor anatomical differences. Body moderately slender, narrowed posteri- orly; head with inconspicuous oblique grooves. Length of type specimen 36 mm, width 3 mm, thickness 2 mm after preservation. Color of body pale gray, with numerous red- dish brown spots and blotches on dorsal sur- face; head without spots. These markings vary JAN. 15, 1944 in size from dots to large blotches, usually separated by much larger spaces without pig- ment. The spots in this specimen cover less than one-third the dorsal surface. Ventral sur- face pale gray. Ocelli could not be detected either in the specimen cleared in oil or in the sections. Proboscis sheath extends entire length of body. Proboscis large, stylet basis pear-shaped, about twice as wide posteriorly as anteriorly and twice as long as the posterior diameter. Central stylet two-thirds as long as basis. In this specimen there are 18 large proboscidial nerves. Each of the two accessory stylet pouches contains three stylets. Cerebral sense organs large, situated anterior to brain, each with a relatively large canal leading anteriorly to an oblique groove on lateroventral surface near tip of head. Cephalic glands voluminous. Nephridia extend anteriorly as far as pos- terior borders of cerebral ganglia. Intestinal “caecum extends forward on ventral side of pylorus but terminates some distance posterior to brain; caecal diverticula short, not reaching brain. Gonads more numerous than intestinal diverticula; oviducts open ventrolaterally. The single known specimen was collected at Lagoon Reef, St. Paul Island, Bering Sea. Type, U.S.N.M. no. 16797. 76. A. nebulosus Coe. Intertidal zone; coasts of Alaska and Japan. 77. A. occidentalis Coe. Dredged at depths of 70 to 170 meters off the coast of Washington. 78. A. pacificus Coe. Dredged at depths of 70 to 180 meters in the Bering Sea and off the coasts of Washington and California. In two specimens from Bering Sea the ocelli are more numerous than figured by Coe (1895) and are arranged in two groups on each side of head. The anterior, marginal, group on each side con- _ sists of about 10 large and 8 smaller ocelli, while the posterior, cerebral, group has about 8 large and 6 small ocelli. Most of the cups of those in the marginal groups are directed forward and those of the cerebral groups backward. 79. A. paulinus Punnett. Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea. 80. A. punctatulus Coe. Intertidal zone; Catalina Island, Calif. 81. A. rubellus Coe. Intertidal zone to 200 meters; coast of southern California. 82. A. tigranus Coe. Intertidal zone; British Columbia and Puget Sound. COE—NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 31 Family Tetrastemmatidae 83. Amphinemertes caeca Coe. Dredged with tunicates at a depth of 5 meters; Kodiak Island, Alaska. 84. Tetrastemma aberrans Coe. zone; coast of Alaska. 85. T. bicolor Coe. Shallow water; Kodiak Island, Alaska. 86. T. bilineatum Coe. Intertidal zone; San Diego, California. 87. T. candidum (Miller). Circumpolar; Greenland and Norway to Madeira; South Africa; Labrador to New England and south- ward; Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico. 88. T. nigrifrons Coe. Intertidal zone; Puget Sound to coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica; Japan. 89. T. quadrilineatum Coe. Intertidal zone; Monterey Bay, Calif. to Ensenada, Mexico. 90. T. reticulatum Coe. Southern California; intertidal zone. 91. T. sexlineatum Coe. Dredged at a depth of 35 meters near San Clemente Island, Calif. 92. T. signifer Coe. Intertidal zone to 10 me- ters; Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif.; lo- cally common on kelp holdfasts. Intertidal POLYSTYLIFERA REPTANTIA Family Drepanophoridae 93. Drepanophorus crassus (Quatrefages). Dredged at depths of 2 to 100 meters or more; Arctic Ocean; European coasts; tropical Pa- cific islands; Cape San Lucas, Mexico; Panama; West Indies; Peru. 94. D. ritteri Coe. Dredged at depths of 50 to 300 meters off coast of southern California. POLYSTYLIFERA PELAGICA Family Planktonemertidae 95. Planktonemertes agassizii Woodworth. Bathypelagic at depths of 1000 meters or more off coasts of Panama and Ecuador. Family Nectonemertidae 96. Nectonemertes pelagica Cravens and Heath. Bathypelagic at depths of 100 meters or more off coasts of California and northern South America. Family Pelagonemertidae 97. Pelagonemertes brinkmannt Coe. Bathy- pelagic at depths of 600 meters or more. Bering Sea and off coasts of Alaska, Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka. Bye JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Family Dinonemertidae 98. Dinonemertes mollis Coe. Bathypelagic at depths of 600 meters or more; off coast of Mexico. Order BpDELLONEMERTEA Family Malacobdellidae 99. Malacobdella grossa (Miller). Commen- sal in various species of bivalve mollusks. Northern coasts of Europe, Mediterranean; Nova Scotia to Chesapeake Bay; Puget Sound to California. REFERENCES Cor, WresLeyY R. WNemerteans of the west and northwest coasts of America. Bull. Mus. _ vou. 34, No. 1 Comp. Zool. 47: 1-319. 1905. . Revision of the nemertean fauna of the Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern South America. Allan Hancock Exped. 2: 247-323. 1940. . Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci. 35: 129-328. 1943. GRIFFIN, B. B. Description of some marine nemerteans of Puget Sound and Alaska. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 11: 193-218. 1898. WHEELER, J. F.G. Nemerteans from the South Atlantic and southern oceans. Discovery Reports 9: 215-294. 1934. YAMAOKA, TerticHt. The fauna of Akkesht Bay, IX; Nemertini. Journ. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Imp. Univ. (ser. 6, Zool.) 7: 205-2638. 1940. Obituary The premature death of CHARLES ELMER REsSER, on September 18, 19438, at the age of 54, deprived the AcapEmy of one of its newest members. Born in East Berlin, Pa., on April 28, 1889, young Resser grew up in country under- lain by the Cambrian rocks and fossils to which he devoted much of his later life. He graduated from Pennsylvania State Teachers College in 1912 and in 1913 received his A.B. degree from Franklin and Marshall College. Here he came under the influence of the inspiring geologist, Justin Roddy, who imparted his enthusiasm for fossils and the earth sciences to his student. In 1914 Dr. Resser became assistant to Charles D. Walcott, great student of the Cambrian. Working under this mentor for some years, he received his paleontological training and his wide knowledge of the Cam- brian period and its fossils. In 1915 he became assistant curator of paleontology in the U. S. National Museum and associate curator in 1923. From 1929 until his death he held the title of curator of stratigraphic paleontology. Although Dr. Resser’s practical training was received under Walcott, he continued his more formal education at Princeton and George Washington Universities, receiving the Ph.D. degree from the latter in 1917. In 1915 he was appointed part-time instructor in geology and geography in the George Washington Uni- versity and was advanced to assistant professor in 1923. This position was relinquished in 19382. Dr. Resser also taught geology in the Uni- versity of Maryland for several years. After the death of Walcott in 1927, Dr. Resser became custodian of the Cambrian col- lections and devoted most of his time to re- search on the fossils and stratigraphy of this period. He made field investigations in the Great Basin, Rocky Mountains, and Canadian Rockies and in his later years made several trips into the southern Appalachians to study Cambrian strata. Two visits were made to Europe for the same purpose. This concen- trated effort on one period of time gave Dr. Resser a knowledge of Cambrian fossils, par- ticularly trilobites, which enabled him to see relationships between strata in this country and abroad that had hitherto been unsuspected. His untimely death abruptly terminated sever- al ambitious programs that would have brought to fruition the results of his life’s studies. Although Dr. Resser’s scientific interest lay in Cambrian fossils, he was perhaps equally devoted to the service of his fellow men through his activities in church and educational affairs. He was long time president of the District of Columbia Sunday School Association, a mem- ber of the Board of the Central Union Mission, and chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Washington City Church of the Brethren. He was a member of the Board of Trustees of Bridgewater College and was active in behalf of other colleges of his church. Foremost of Dr. Resser’s honors was the D.Se. conferred by his alma mater, Franklin and Marshall College, in 1934. He was a fellow of the Geological Society of America and a member of Sigma Gamma Epsilon. In 1908 Dr. Resser married Anna M. Evans, who, with his two children, Harold and Mrs. Helen R. Yates, survives him. By his death Christianity has lost a devoted servant and geology and the AcapEMy a member who was not granted time to fulfill his best promise. His affable disposition and kindly ways will be missed by all his friends. G. A. CooPER * € , ‘ ! Ma d ies v9 i < oe! % ‘ ae N ¥ 5 1 4) “ C = if Uy ’ me CONTENTS Page Mepicine.—Andreas Vesalius. Howarp W. HAGGARD............. 1 Economics.—Comparison of two methods of estimating capitalized value of earning capacity. Av J. Lorka. 2 10 PALEONTOLOGY.—Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus. Epwin FAIRE oe ee ee Se ed ee 13 Borany.—The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. JASON R. SwALLEN... 16 Botrany.—Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru. Winiram R. EASON occ op Woot che he igtars a eae elle Rit ne gl ee ae 24 ZooLocy.—Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the Pacific coast of North America, with descriptions of two new species. WasLey dh. Con... eda es es 20 OBITUARY: CHARLES ELMER RESSER.. 00... 22032 ee 32 This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Wo Vou. 34 FeBruaRY 15, 1944 No.. 2 i JOURNAL \m,, 2 OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS G. ARTHUR CooPER Jason R, SWALLEN L. V. Jupson U. 8. 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VOLUME 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FEBRUARY 15, 1944 No. 2 ETHNOLOGY.—Western Mediterranean island names and survival of Arabic’s most divergent dialect.* JoHN P. HARRINGTON, Bureau of American Ethnol- ogy, and GrorcE M. Baraxart, Board of Economic Warfare. (Communicated by M. W. STIrRuina.) The present article has as its aim the as- sembling and placing on record the latest and most accurate information on the names of certain sizable islands of the west- ern half of the Mediterranean Sea, mention- ing the high points of the linguistic and other history of these, and at its end the outlining in some detail of the survival on the Maltese Archipelago of what is Arabic’s most divergent dialect or language, one curiously beset with Italian. The island name etymologies include that of the Arabic name of Etna Mountain, Sicily’s prominent geographical feature. Original expatiation on Maltese Arabic has been curtailed to save space. Grateful acknowledgment is due to J. Whatmough, professor of com- parative philology, Harvard University; Philip K. Hitti, professor of Oriental lan- guages and literatures, Princeton Uni- versity; Julian H. Bonfante, professor of Italian language and literature, Princeton University; Mario A. Pei, Department of Romance Languages, Columbia University; Arthur Jeffery, professor of Semitic lan- guages, Columbia University; Elio Giantur- co, Law Library, Library of Congress; Habib Kurani, Office of War Information; A. B. Antar, Office of War Information; and several others. Henry B. Collins, Jr., Bureau of American Ethnology, contrib- uted a bibliography. Especially are we obligated to Professor Hitti, speaker of Arabic, who became independently in- terested and turned over to us his notes on the mention of Pantelleria Island in the 1 Received November 11, 1943. 33 geography of Yaaquut; to Professor Bon- fante, who has written us four times; to Dr. Kurani, who contributed the unique ety- mology of the Arabic name of Etna; and to Mr. Antar, who has furnished clippings and has assisted on ten different points. Mr. Gianturco, who talks Italian as his mother tongue and has an unusual knowledge of Latin, has helped in a negative way more than in a positive one. Realizing that all etymologies go back only a jog, he has had fun even with our triumphs. For instance, the famous city of western Sicily is known in Italian as Palermo; its name crops up in Greek, even in Modern Greek, as Pénormos, which sounds in Greek exactly asif it means very much of a harbor, being formed like pan-agathos, good indeed. But it has for years bothered Gianturco to know why Italian has in this name a form that shows no nicety of conformity with the Greek. At last he mustered sufficient courage to ask Dr. Herbert H. Vaughan, Department of Romance Languages, University of Cali- fornia, how the change came about—and was told: the Saracens brought it about! It is possible that PAnormos is a corruption of an aboriginal language land name and is not Greek or Italian at all. We are indebted es- pecially to Professor Hitti and to Mr. Antar for their independent finding of the articles by Dr. Bernard Lewis in the Arabic Listener and in the Rabat newspaper Hs-Sa‘aada. Dr. Hitti copied passages from the same in his own hand, and Mr. Antar translated all of the same prior to the incorporation of important points into the present article. Finally, Dr. Kurani, whose knowledge is FEB 12 44 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES better than any dictionary because based on wide reading of Egyptian and other newspapers, checked on all the Arabic names of places herein, and his checking was verified by Arabic dictionaries and, on top of this, thoroughly by the researches of Paul Vogenitz. Throughout the following it should be borne in mind that not only Greek and Latin island names, but also Arabic, are feminine. Spellings with y and with the macron of Latin names taken over from the Greek have been in some few instances retained for practical purposes. THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA By far the largest sea on the face of the earth, with exception of island-bounded ones, is the Mediterranean of the Old World, by its vast saltwater-filled depression all but separating Eurasia and Africa. Leading off from the Mediterranean to the north are the wide-mouthed Adriatic Sea and the narrow-mouthed Black Sea; whereas the Caspian Sea, formed by a depression similar to that which originated the Mediterranean, is landlocked and is not connected with the Mediterranean at all. The Sahara Desert, some distance south of the Mediterranean and paralleling it in its extension across northern Africa, lies partly below ocean level and would if filled with water become what might be termed a second and more southerly Mediterranean Sea. The strangest fact about the Mediterranean Sea, as re- gards languages, is that it is nameless. In the most various languages it is merely referred to as the sea. Basque itxaso, also itsaso, Latin mare, Phoenician *yaam, Arabic bahr, Ancient Egyptian im, Tuareg Berber egeriu—all mean ‘‘sea”’ and are used of the Mediterranean. If the speaker wishes to be specific, the sea is described as the sea here, the southern sea, the northern sea, our sea, or the like. Thus Arabic sometimes says bahr-no, our sea. The name Mediter- ranean itself is in origin a description, saying the sea amid the lands. Ancient Egyptian Uatch-ur, god of the Mediterranean Sea, is the only example we can find of the Medi- terranean appearing as a named divinity. There was no general name of the lands of the northern shore of the Mediterranean, VOL. 34, No. 2 or to any extent of the eastern shore, but there was a name for the southern shore. Ancient Egyptian applied Lebu to the region west of Egypt, and Greek shows this same word in its Libtiee, which was applied by the Greeks to northern Africa west of Egypt, an application still more or less followed in Latin with the Latin spelling Libya, although the term Africa, applied to all the region south of the Mediterranean became the general designation, and in Italian Libia is restricted to the region just west of Egypt. To Arabic speakers, all north Africa west of Egypt was, and is, Mayrib, a term which also means the west in general. The Strait of Gibraltar, narrow outlet of the Mediterranean, was known to the Greeks as the Pillars of Hercules, but the Phoenician name of the Strait of Gi- braltar is unknown. The portion of the Mediterranean Sea comprised between the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily and the peninsula of Italy was known among other names to the ancient Greeks as Tuurreendios Pélagos, alias Tuurreenikos Pélagos, meaning the Etruscan Sea, taken into Latin as Mare Tyrrhénum, and is standardized in Italian as Mar Tirreno, and in English as the Tyrrhenian Sea. GENERAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Before the names of the islands of the western Mediterranean are presented, a pre- liminary anchoring should be gained in the general history of the region, for this history has everywhere been much the same. The islands were at the dawn of written history, and doubtless during long pre- historical times, inhabited by populations speaking languages that early became ex- tinct as a result of military conquest. Not one of the aboriginal island languages has survived even to the extent of going on inscriptional record, but each of them has no doubt left topographical and gentilitious names, or words used as names, and perhaps other words as well, incorporated into the language of newer comers. Some of these words are at the present remote date no doubt still existent, but only in a battered and bartered form which is indefinite for linguistic purposes. Parallelism would sug- = \ alae yi tb Frs. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 30 gest that diversity of language, possibly to the extent of there having been two or several stocks, obtained on the islands. There may have been a condition like the string of vastly diversified Berber languages which extended along the north African coast until driven inland by the -Arabs, where the Berber languages still obtain. But the archeology of the western Medi- terranean insular peoples is not question- able or silent. Stone towers and other struc- tures still stand or have been uncovered. Excavation has already yielded temples and the artifacting of cultures from nonscrip- torial times, while future ages will vastly increase and definitize this archeological record. Aboriginal insular blood doubtless also persists on each of the islands. There came to these islands two Semitic thrusts from the far-away eastern end of the Mediterranean, where the so-called Semitic family of languages obtained, both of them of course water-borne. The first of these was the Phoenician thrust, very early in origin, starting from the region of Tyre and impelled by trade and coloniza- tion; the second was the Arabic, also known as the Saracen, thrust, originating at the close of what is known to European his- torians as the Early Middle Ages, starting from inner Arabia, largely land-borne, and impelled by religion and colonization. It is one of the minor aims of this paper to present a new etymology of the word Phoenician, worked out by the senior author. Greek Phéinix, m, Phoenician, genitive Phodinikos, feminine Phdiniissa, is the standardized form of ancient Greek and survives into modern Greek, in which latter the vowel of the penult is, however, short, the pronunciation being Fi{nix, m, genitive Finikos. Latin Poenus, later Puunus, m, Phoenician, diminutive noun Puunulus, adjective Puunicus, stipulates an unrecorded ancient Greek *Phdéinos, m, Phoenician, adjective *Phdinikos, lacking the -ik- formative and therefore being what in Greek would be called heteroclitic, just as the Messapian language of ancient Italy had panos, m, bread, versus Latin panis, m, bread, and Gothic, a North Germanic language, had fisks (earlier *piskos), m, fish, versus Latin piscis, m, fish. One of the common Greek words for red was phoinix; and if one looks up red in Yonge’s English-Greek dictionary, phdinix will be found to lead off the entry of equiva- lent words. Phoiniikdé-pedos, m, lit. red- bottomed, was one of the Greek terms for the Red Sea, and phoiniiké-pteros, m, lit. red-feathered, is indicated by ancient Egyptian to have been the Greek word for the ibis of Egypt, the ancient Egyptian for ibis meaning red. It has been generally ac- cepted that Phoinix was applied to’ Phoe- nician because of tawny or ruddy appear- ance, but our new etymology is that the term was applied because of the association of the Phoenician with the snail crimson industry. Brief mention should be made here of this industry, which had its headquarters among the Phoenicians at Tyre and to which a Phoenician was by the Greeks at sight, or at mention, aligned. Several species of snail could be used, but notably two species of the genus Murex were concerned. Greek sea- farers early ran into Phoenician sea-farers, the latter engaged in gathering snails. Pliny describes in Latin the details of the dyeing process by which a sort of pus secre- tion of the head of the snail was made to produce encrimsoned cloth of a color known to the ancients as royal “purple.” One gets the impression in reading this ac- count that the coloring was sometimes dim or unsuccessful. Snail encrimsoning was largely abandoned already in the Middle Ages, and modern analJine and cochineal dyeing has relegated it to merely historical curiosity. The snail species, however, still survive, and are well known, having, ac- cording to communication received from Dr. Paul Bartsch, United States National Museum, been thoroughly studied by conchcologists. As to the anterior history of the word *Phdinos alias Phoinix, we can point out only that this word does not occur in what fragmentary Phoenician language record- ings we possess, nor does it occur in the closely related Hebrew, from which we have a much larger fund of words. Nor is it the ancient Egyptian word for Phoenician or Phoenicia. One can not say anything about commonness of occurrence as regards such a 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES language as ancient Egyptian, where we are fortunate to get any occurrence at all, but there occurs in Egyptian Poun-t, Arabia, including the lands of the Persian Gulf, and since -t is a feminine postfix, one can well perceive in Poun- a possible source of Greek *Phéinos. Egyptian Tchah, also Kefti, are the names of Phoenicia. On record also are Egyptian Kharu, Syria, and Reth- enu, Syria and Palestine together. It may be that Greek *Phéinos is an Oriental word in origin, but what we actually know is that it meant in Greek evidently dyester, and if assumption of Greek origin is correct derivation may well have been from Greek phénos, murder, Aryan *chwonos, for there occurs in Greek phoinés, for *aGhwon-yé-s, poetical, red with blood. If Greek deriva- tions are here in order, one can also get *Phdéinos from phoitaoo, to rove, a new etymology proposed by the senior author. Phoenician inscriptions indicate that the Phoenicians never referred to themselves as Phoenicians, but as Canaanites, and for- tunately we know considerable about the Canaanites from non-Phoenician sources. The Phoenician language was termed by the Phoenicians themselves Canaanitic. The Phoenicians’ first Mediterranean island conquest was Cyprus, a large island of the eastern part of the Sea in front of Tyre and therefore outside the field of the present article. Their subsequent and great- est conquest was not an island, but the planting of Carthage on the north African coast in what is now called Tunisia, for which purpose a native Berber-speaking population had to be dealt with. This colony of Carthage, which became a vast city eclipsing even the mother Tyre itself, was apparently known to the Phoenicians only by the descriptive term Qert Haadaast, meaning the new city, the first word mean- ing city and the second meaning new. This _ name was too much in its sounds for either Greek or Latin, and the standardized Greek corruption became Karkhedéon, the Latin Cart(h)aago. One casts about, according to the training of philology, to discover some other word in Latin toward which the foreign name became assimilated, and thinks at once of Latin caartilaago, carti- lage. Both Cartaago and caartilaago are VOL. 34, No. 2 feminine and are phonetically much alike. In later Phoenician history it became hard to say whether colonization of islands was perpetrated from Tyre or from Carthage, or from both. Eastern Spain became a power- ful Phoenician center, and one of the towns established there was known as the new new-city, in Latin as Cartaago Nova, to which the Spanish descendant form, Cart4- gena, still in use and applied to the same settlement, bears interesting testimony. The Phoenician name of the inner harbor of Carthage is also known to us. It was Qaatoon, lit. the small one, corrupted and standardized in Greek as Kéothoon and having nothing to do with the name Carthage. The Mediterranean was during a long period a Phoenician lake, and since history comes to us from Greek and Latin we are left largely in the dark as to Phoenician history. It can be safely assumed, however, that the Phoenicians in the history of many of the islands preceded the Greeks, but whether as mere traders or as linguistic supplanters is a matter to be determined by archeology and history of each individual island, and is sometimes only to be sur- mised. The Phoenicians very occasionally ventured beyond the Strait of Gibraltar to trade with the Britain or Ireland barbarian inhabitants, where they could have been described as Mediterraneans. The account of the so-called Punic wars between Rome and Carthage is one of the chapters best known in history. The second Punic War, terminating in 202 B.C., left the Phoenicians with only Africa, and the Third Punic War, ending in 146 B.C., put — an end to Carthage. The war culminated in — five days of frenzied street fighting in the city of Carthage. Phoenician mastery of the Mediterranean was followed by Roman. As has been stated above the Phoenician language was Canaanitic, so similar to Hebrew that a speaker of one language could with a little practice understand the other. As history has turned out, the most remarkable fact about the Phoenician lan- guage is that it gave the alphabet to Greek, thus causing Greek to become a written language. Not only Greek but also Latin and Etruscan became written languages, Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 37 written in forms of the Greek alphabet. Western Phoenician disappeared with the fall of Carthage, but in the east Phoenician lingered on, and it is not known just when it became extinct. Phoenician became sup- planted by Latin in the west, by Aramaic in the east. Arabic Fiiniiqii, adj, Phoenician, plural _ Funiugiiyiin, simply shows an Arabicized form of the Greek. The second Semitic wave, like the first, was largely anchored to northern Africa but originated in the religious movement of Mohammed, 570-632 A.D. The name Mohammed, in Arabic Muhammad mean- ing the elevated one, is one of the most famous in history, his hegira, or flight, from which Mohammedans date their era, having occurred in 632. Semitic, in a form different from Phoenician, was carried west more thoroughly than the Phoenicians had ever carried it, to supplant the endemic lan- guages of the entire coast of north Africa and to be spoken by a ruling class through- out the southern half of Spain and the large islands of the western Mediterranean. The entire Iberian Peninsula was known in Arabic as Al-Andalus, whereas in Spanish Andaluz, andaluz means only Andalusian and the former province was called Anda- lucia, English Andalusia. The Arabic is from the Spanish, and the Spanish is from alow Latin *Vandaluuc, the Latin gentilitious noun being Vandalus, and this for Vandalic *“Wandils, expressly determined by Pliny to have meant rover. In Arabic-speaking northern Africa, poetry was written about Al-Andalus. The Arabic language, carried west, broke up in course of time into sepa- rate dialects or languages, and there came into being west of Egypt 11 varieties: (1) Hispano-Arabic, (2) Balearic, (3) Mor- ocean, (4) Algerian (including Tunisian), (5) Corsican, (6) Sardinian, (7) Sicilian, (8) Pantellerian, (9) Lampedusan, (10) Maltese, and (11) Libyan. All these were known collectively in Arabic as the tongues of the Mayrib, also transliterated Mayreb, that is, the tongues of the West. Numbers 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are extinct, having yielded in every instance to some variety or another of lLatin-derived Romance _lan- guage. In Arabic the generic name of the lan- guage as a whole, and the name of any one of these languages or dialects, is ‘Arabii. How Latin-originated Romance came into several of the islands causing extinc- tion of Arabic is a matter of individual island history, one about which thick vol- umes can be written. Of all the islands, only on Malta and adjacent Gozo does Arabic survive. THE BALEARIC ISLANDS The Balearic Islands are situated in the central part of the sea off the eastern coast of Spain and southeast of the large Cata- lonian-speaking city of Barcelona. The Balearic islands of size are four in number: Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera; in Spanish: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera; in Catalonian the same as in Spanish except that the name of the third- mentioned island is spelled Ibica. The Ba- learic islands constitute the Spanish prov- ince of Baleares, but the older usage is to apply the Spanish term Baleares to Majorca and Minorca Islands only and to apply the Spanish term Pitiuses to Iviza and For- mentera. Greek Gumneesios is the adjective mean- ing Balearic inanimate or animate. The masculine plural is what is mostly in use referring to the aboriginals or natives, while the islands are termed Gumneesiai Néesoi. Although expressly told that this term re- fers to the custom of the aborigines of going naked during the summer seasons, there was in ancient times a contradictory and evidently incorrect etymology to the effect that the name was a memory of a vigorous light-armed defense which the islanders put up against early Greek in- vaders, connecting the term with Greek gumneées, light-armed soldier, and a form Gumnéetides Néesoi, the adjective being as from a singular Gumnéetis, is also occurrent in Greek. Gumneesios is derivative to Greek gumnés, naked, and this last is surely for *nugwndés. In Greek, the adjectives Baleaaris, Baleaaréus, and Baleaarikés are also on record. Some of the Greek forms have i for e, as do also the forms of Latin, or the second vowel is omitted altogether. Gumneesios.is the standard Greek term. 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Greek term, with the spelling Gymnésius, occurs in Latin, but the regular Latin term is: Baleaaris, Baleaaricus, adj, Balearic, also with i for e in these, or with omission of the second vowel, and this name also occurs in Greek, but with an impromi- nency comparable to that of Gumneesios in Latin. From Latin descends Spanish Balear, balear, adj., Balearic; Catalonian ditto. Spanish speaks of las islas baleares, Cata- lonian of les illes baleares. A pronunciation occurring in several of the Spanish dialects and notably that of American Spanish is: Balyar, balyar. Since Latin Baleaaris has no known etymology, it may have its provenience from the aboriginal language or languages of the Balearic Islands, which may have been allied to Berber, or indeed to Basque. Basque does not assist toward etymology of Latin Baleaaris. Basque has borrowed the Spanish or Catalonian word. Arabic Balyaar, f, a Balearic island, plu- ral Balyaaraat, is from Romance. The com- mon Arabic adjective is Balyaarii, pertain- ing to a Balearic entity, plural Balyaari- iyiin. The Balearic Islands are called in Arabic Djazaa’ir Al-Balyaaraat, but better Arabic for them is, according to Dr. Kur- ani, simply Djazaa’ir Al-Balyaar. The olden, and still somewhat used, Arabic term for the Balearic Islands is: Al-Djazaa/ir A&s-Sarqiiya(h), lit. the Eastern Islands. We shall probably never know the earlier names, if there were any, of the larger two Balearic Islands. These islands were re- ferred to in Greek merely by descriptive terms: Méizoon, f, larger, and Méioon, f, smaller, in Latin by Maajor, f, larger, and Minor, f, smaller, comparatives of the Greek and Latin adjectives for large and small, respectively. Only in late Latin do we find Maajoorica and Minoorica, these being feminines of adjectives in -ic- and formed exactly like Latin Corsica. We have above given the standard Spanish ° cor- ruptions of these Latin descriptive names and have stated that the Catalonian de- scendants are the same. The noteworthy fact is that the name of the larger island has in its Spanish and Catalonian form, Il, although Spanish has mayor, Catalonian major, larger, and one should in this con- nection notice that Catalonian majorca VOL. 34, No. 2 equals Spanish mazorca, ear of corn. That an older usage was to confine the term Balearics to these two islands has also been mentioned above. One also says in Arabic Al-Kubra(y), The Larger, and As-Suyra(y), The Smaller, of Majorca and Minorca, respectively, but the usual Arabic designations are May- urgqa(h) and Minurqa(h), from the Rom- ance. In contradistinction to Majorca and Minorca, there was a Greek adjective pitudeis, piny, from Greek pitus, f, pine, equated to Latin piinus, f, pine in Greek- Latin dictionaries, applied by the Greeks to the group of islands consisting principally of Iviza and Formentera, since this group was in part covered with coniferous trees. The Greek feminine plural as Pitudussai, uncontracted Pitudédessai, the piny ones, Latinized as Pityiisae, and in Spanish Pitiuses, showing simplification of Greek double s into single s of Latin, as in several such names. This Greek group name would be rendered in Latin as Piineae, but the Greek name was taken over bodily into Latin and was never translated. Greek Pitudussa was also the name of two differ- ent piny islands located elsewhere. Knoche (Herman), Flora Balearica, vol. 1, pp. 270— 271, Montpellier, 1921, states that there are two species of the family Pinaceae on Iviza Island: (1) Pinus pinea L., concerning which he quotes Barcelo as follows: “In montosis aridis Ivizae frequens, le bois de cet arbre employé dans la construction des navires’; and (2) Pinus halepensis Muill., stated to be commoner on Iviza, at least at the present time, than P. pinea. Evi- dently both of these species were termed by the Greeks pitus. : The only name of one of the Balearic Islands that may be of native insular origin is Iviza. The name of this island is recorded in Greek in four spellings: Ebesos, Ebusos, Ebousos, and Ebosos. Ebousaios is one of the possible adjectives that can be formed in Greek. Latin shows Ebusus, Eboosiia, while an adjective on record from Pliny is Ebusitaanus. We have in a Phoenician inscription Ibrusim, which has been con- jectured to be a plural versus Greek Ebesos, r being accounted for as possibly due to Fes. 15,1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES Libyan pronunciation of Phoenician. Iviza is not only the name of the island but of the town on the island. In the museum at Iviza town there are on exhibit Phoenician and other local finds. The Arabic is Ibisa(h), from the Ro- mance. Just south of Iviza is the still smaller island of Formentera. There is on record in the Greek dictionaries designation of three different islands by the term snaky, and Formentera is the island of the Balearic group designated by this name. Greek ophideis, adj., snaky, from 6phis, snake, has as its feminine ophidussa, uncontracted ophidessa, the snaky one, and this is the Greek name of Formentera Island. Latin merely imitated Greek spelling the name Ophitsa. The real, or earlier, name will probably never be known. The island emerges in modern times under the name Formentera, a name like the ancient one merely descriptive, but unlike the name Pantelleria, which we shall consider below, having an easy etymology. The ordinary Catalonian word for wheat is blat, m, but there is also a word forment, m, which is used mostly in two couplings: forment eandial, Spanish trigo candeal, summer wheat, and forment rotg alias forment rojal, Spanish rubi6n, red wheat. Blat can be substituted for forment in these two expressions. Catalonian forment is from Latin fruumentum, n, grain. Catalonian formentera, f, means wheat granary, trans- - latable into Spanish as triguera, and with this one can compare Spanish Granada, literally granary. The Phoenicians probably reached the Balearic Islands before the Greeks, and Phoenician language inscriptions have been found there. But it is uncertain whether the Phoenician language ousted the ab- original one, or ones. Not knowing whether a native, Phoenician, or Greek language ob- tained in the islands at the time, we have information that Latin was introduced into the islands subsequent to the fall of Car- thage, and this doubtless developed into the dialect of Catalonian that still obtains on the Balearics. The definite article of this dialect begins with s-, from Latin ipse, a feature common to Sardinian Italian dia- a9 lects. When Arabic speakers entered south- ern Spain from Africa in 711 A.D. and es- tablished a kingdom there, the Balearic Islands remained untouched, and it was not until 903 that a Hispano-Arabic expedition from Cordova conquered the islands, if one can judge from analogy with the history of southern Spain and of Corsica certainly not extinguishing the Latin-based language. In 1203 the Balearic Islands became an inde- pendent kingdom with the help of the Ara- gonese of northeastern Spain, so that the conquest of the Spanish over the speakers of Arabic in Spain in 1492 had no effect on the Balearic islanders. CORSICA Greek Kurnos, Kurnia, Korsfs, f, Corsica. Greek adjectives are Kurnios, Kurnaios, and others. Latin follows Greek in showing Corsis, but also Corsica (originally the feminine of an adjective; compare Latin Maajoorica, Minoorica), and the name Corsica persists in modern Italian. Corsica persists as the standard name in Italian. But Italian has as its adjective corso. French has Corse, corse, both as the name of the island and as the adjective, the island name being derivable from Latin Corsis. One can see in these forms possibly the bat- terings from a native name of the island, from some place name of the island, or from some term for inhabitant. Arabic Kursika(’), Kursika(h), Italian. The earliest surmised inhabitants of Corsica possibly spoke Ligurian, tongue of the nearby mainland coast to the north. These were followed in succession by Greeks, Etruscans, Phoenicians, and Ro- mans. Arabs, said to have come from Spain, conquered Corsica in 810, about a century before the Balearic Islands were conquered, but lost Corsica again about 930. At the present time, the island of Corsica consti- tutes the Department of Corsica, which is a department of France. from SARDINIA Greek Sardéo, f, declined like Sapphéo, name of the poetess, also less standardly Sardéon, f, and Sardénos, f. The Greek ad- jective is Sdrdos, as well as other forms. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Latin Sardinia, adjective Sardus. Italian Sardegna, adjective Sardo. Perhaps Sardos is the more original appearance and from some insular term. Arabic Sardinya(’), Sardinya(h), from Latin and Italian. Sardinia has had, like Corsica, a long and motley succession of ethnic occupants. SICILY Sicily is the largest island of the Mediter- ranean. The eastern coast of Sicily was very early colonized by Greeks, while the west- ern part of Sicily was colonized and held by Phoenicians. Wars between these two ethnic groups were carried on for genera- tions. The Greek colonies were first started in 735 B.C., the term for the variety. of eastern Sicilian aboriginal tribesman en- countered by the Greeks being Sikelés. Ancient accounts also give another sus- piciously similar sounding term: Sikanés. From Sikeldés the Greeks coined a name for the eastern part of Sicily and for the whole island: Sikelia, from which came Latin Sicilia and from this Italian Sicilia (of same spelling but of different pronunciation). The Greek colonists also formed a term for the whole island: Triinakria, literally the three-cornered one, which may have had a short vowel in the first syllable. The regu- lar Greek adjective for three-cornered was, in contrast, trigoonos. According to Greek source, the Phoeni- cians first appeared in Sicily in 536 B.C. Greek and Phoenician languages may have caused extinction of the aboriginal tongue, or tongues, of Sicily. With the winning of the Second Punic War, Sicily became Rome’s earliest province. The Latin lan- guage became established there and through the centuries became the Sicilian dialect of Italian, but not to the doing away with Greek until something like 1700 A.D. Arabic Siqliya(h), Sicily, an old borrow- ing from Greek and Latin and from Ro- mance before the k or c was fronted, a word considerably used in Arabic. One should notice the emphatic initial 5, which keeps company with the q. With the fall of the Roman Empire, Sicily became part of the Vandal kingdom, later of the Visigothic. Later Sicily went VOL. 34, No. 2 with the Eastern Empire, which perhaps pleased the Greek-speaking colonists of the eastern shore. Then came the Arabian period of Sicilian history, concerning which there is a 3-volume work by Amari giving sources in Arabic. The article in the Rabat, Morocco, newspaper Es-Sa‘aada under date of July 5, 1943, is translated by Mr. Antar in part as follows: The Arabs occupied Sicily in the year 827 a.p., during the time of Ma‘awya Ibn Sefyaan. During that period one of the Sicilians had rebelled against the Byzantine governor and had asked for aid from Ziyaada Al-Aylabii, Amiir of Qayra- waan [in what is now Tunisia], who sent an Arab fleet of 70 warships and 10,000 Moslem troops under the leadership of ‘Asad Ibn Al-Foraat. The Moslem troops landed at the island and occupied Palermo and the western part of Sicily. ... By 902 the Arabs had occupied the whole island of Sicily, which became a part of the Arab Empire. From Sicily the Arabs launched a campaign of conquest into the southern part of Italy and oc- cupied Bari, Taranto, and other cities... . Their literature and culture flourished in Sicily which ... produced a number of literary men, poets, historians. ... The Arabic language was used by the administration for literary and commercial purposes until the middle of the 6th century of the Mohammedan era.... We are told that the Christian as well as the Moslem population lived in a peaceful atmosphere. ...It was in Sicily that several books were translated from Arabic to Latin and from these knowledge was diffused into Europe. Such a book was the medical treatise of Imaam Al-Raazil. ... This book has been the foundation of the study of medicine in Europe. It was from southern Italy that the Normans conquered Sicily from the Arabs during the period from 1060 to 1090. As is plain from the quotation above, the Sicilian variety of Italian persisted throughout the Arabic occupancy, so that at that period there were spoken in Sicily three languages, each with great and growing dialecticality: Italian, Arabic, and Greek. No one knows just when Arabic became extinct in Sicily, yielding to Italian, but Arabic land names, some of them coined in Arabic and some of them taken into Arabic from other or older languages, still obtain in Sicilian Italian. The most notable geographical feature of the entire island of Sicily is Etna Mountain, the largest volcano of Europe, which rises about 10,000 feet high beside Sicily’s east- ern shore and is visible from the outlying Me ies Mialiav In Sicilian: ‘Italian ‘this mountain is called Mongibello, which evi- dently consists of Mon-, mountain, plus the first part of the Arabic name of the moun- tain, which name is Djabal Hutaamaat, literally ash-residue mountain, the last word from the verb huttam, to shatter. This in- formation is furnished by Dr. Habib Kurani. In ancient Greek, Etna Mountain was called Aitnee, from which descends Aitnee, pronounced Ettni of the Greek dialect spoken in southernmost Italy, also standard Italian Etna, in the Abruzzi dia- lect clipped to Etn. For +t instead of th in Aitnee compare ancient Greek aitria, clear sky, commonly aithria. With the entire word compare Old Irish aed, fire. Greek is no longer spoken in Sicily, but Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194— 1250), published a book of Sicilian laws in both Italian and Greek, which indicates that Sicilian Greek at that time obtained. At, the present, Greek is spoken only in Calabria and in Terra d’Otranto, both situ- ated in southernmost Italy. This Greek dialect has been thoroughly looked into by Italian scholars and is believed by them to come from the period of Byzantine rule. Rohlfs, however, thinks it comes from the time of the ancient Greek colonies of Sicily and that it shows only Byzantine dressing and influencing, basing his conclusions on the occurrence in the dialect of pre- Byzantine words. PANTELLERIA Pantelleria is the name of a small water- less island roughly midway between the western prong of Sicily and the northern coast of Africa, and also of the town addi- tionally called Oppidulo at the northwest end of this island. . The ancient name of the island appears in Greek in three spellings: Késsura, Késura, and Korsura. The Latin merely follows the Greek, calling the island Cosyra. This name may well have been taken from the in- digenous language of the island, whatever that was. Phoenicians, who knew and colonized the island, perhaps called it by the same name; at least we do not know what they called it. A Phoenician etymology of the name Koéssura is therefore more or ' Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 41 less absurd, since the name is not known to be Phoenician in origin. Arabic took over the Latin-descended Romance name which it found in use for the island as Qawsara(h), rarely spelled Qawsara(’), with q for Romance hard ec, with aw anomalously for Romance o, with s instead of s because of the gq, and with a for y or i. Arabic already had a similar- sounding word, qawsarra(h), a kind of basket woven of reeds for holding dates, but the soon-to-be-standardized name of the island was different from this in that it had r instead of rr. Professor Hitti located the mention of Qawsara(’) (spelled with final ’ in the source!) in Yaaquut (Ibn Abdallaah Al-Hamawii), Ma‘djam ’Al-Buldaan [geog- raphy, lit. compilation of countries], vol. 4, p. 200. This work was written at Mosul, 1228. The following translation is by Mr. Antar: “Others mention Qawsara(’), with | final ’, as an island in the Mediterranean be- tween Mahdiis [which is apparently an Arabic name of what is now Tunisia or of some place therein] and Sicily. Ibn’ Al- Qattaa confirms Qawsara(h) as an island -in the sea which was conquered by the Moslems in the days of Ma‘aawiya and re- mained in their occupation until the days of Ibn Marwaan. Then it was destroyed.”’ Mr. Antar, who speaks Iraqan Arabic, knows well the Arabic word qawsarra(h), a kind of basket made of reeds used for tamr, dates. The name Qawsara(h) is still used of the island in Arabic, but became lost to Romance generations ago when the island was conquered by the Arabs. Pantelleria was conquered back from Arabic-speaker possession into Romance- speaker possession by an expedition led by Roger of Sicily in 1123, and apparently from that, or from some subsequent time, but possibly from a time prior to the recon- quest, the island emerges to speakers of Romance no longer as Cosyra, but as Pantelleria, a name that has found its way into Modern Greek, Arabic, Turkish, etc., but from Romance source, the name Cosyra being perpetuated to the present day by Arabic speakers of North Africa. That the name Cosyra must still have been in vogue for the island at the time of the Arabic Conquest is evidenced by the fact that con- 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quering Arabs evidently learned the name of the island to be Cosyra and took over into their own language that name. The present official or governmental Italian spelling of the name is Pantelleria, but there are also on record two other Italian forms: Pantalleria and Pantellaria. The unwritten accentuation is on thei. The initial p alone is sufficient to suggest that the word is Romance and not Arabic, since Arabic has no p and such a word as Peter is pronounced in Egyptian Arabic Butrus. The 1] of the name need not worry us, for Italian is noted for interchanging | and Il freely in some words. For instance, one hears and writes lila, lilla, lilac. The name Pantelleria has a Romance and Greek- derived appearance, and we shall see below that it is doubtless an Italian and medieval Latin word derivatory to Greek. After weeks of concentration on the ety- mology of Pantelleria, we would say that the etymology is by no means hopeless, and that even with our present documentation an extent of plausibility can be gained. The etymology is just difficult enough to make it entrancing. Du Cange (Charles du Fresne), Glossar- ium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis, still constitutes our principal thesaurus of Medieval Latin. Du Cange, one of France’s © greatest scholars, lived 1610 to 1688, and his Glossarium was first published at Frank- furt am Main 1669. The latest edition of this work, printed at Niort, France, in 1883, consists of ten great volumes, and a new and vastly enlarged edition remains yet to appear, but undoubtedly will appear in the future. The Du Cange Glossarium, vol. 6, p. 144, has an entry on ‘“‘pantaleria,”’ - which is apparently the same word as the name of the island, in which this word is found to mean the same as panthera and to occur just once, this occurrence being in the Statutes of Mondovi (called Mons Regalis, royal mountain, in Medieval Latin), Piedmont. Although Du Cange un- fortunately does not give the date of this occurrence, if indeed the date were known, but states only that the quotation is from folio 204. Mondovi was founded in 1198, so no occurrence could be prior to that date. The wording of the occurrence is: ‘‘subter VOL. 34, No. 2 pantalerias,’”? beneath canopies. The word pantaleria is flatly stated by Du Cange to be derivatory to panthera, of which he has an entry on the following page as meaning: a canopy in which merchants expose their wares for sale, and gives for this shorter word another sole documentary occurrence in the Statutes of Asti, Piedmont, the date of occurrence lacking as in the instance of pantaleria. Du Cange indicates that the meaning: of panthera as canopy is an exten- sion of its meaning as duck-net, Seabird-net, and that panthera in any meaning is the same as Medieval Latin pantera, panteria, both of which he gives under the entry pantera. Turning to the much famed ‘“Vocabo- lario” of Fanfani, the first edition of which came out in 1863, one finds that pantera, -alias pantiera, continues to exist as an un- usual word in modern Italian and has three meanings: (1) duck-net, evidently also sea- bird-net; (2) ditch or natural run where such a net is placed or could be placed; and (3) gay woman. Meanings 2 and 3 are un- known to even widely versed speakers of Italian but are on record in Fanfani. Greek dictionaries show pantheeros an adjective meaning catching all kinds of wild animals, and the neuter of this adjective, pantheeron, to be used as a noun meaning a net for all kinds of wild animals in contradistinction to a fish-net, the derivation being from pan, all, and theer4oo, to catch or hunt wild animal or animals. Compare Greek théera, a catching or hunting of wild animal or animals. Latin takes over pantheeron, a neuter noun, as panther, a masculine noun. Greek panthéera, a catching of all kinds of wild animals, is taken into Latin as pan- theera, f, with the Greek meaning, and a purist would have to derive Medieva! Latin pant(h)era from this rather than from Latin panther. The word has found its way not only into Italian, but into French, in which language pantiére, f, means draw-net, shooting-pouch. The peculiar Medieval Latin meaning of display-canopy rests on an extension due to some resemblance that such a canopy bore to such a net. As if the above were not already enough evidence for the ferreting out of the prob- able provenience of the name Pantelleria, Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 43 Avolio (Corrado), Saggio di Toponomastica Siciliana [Essay toward a Treatise on Sicil- ian Landnames], 7n Supplementi Periodici all’ Archivio Glottologico Italiano, Torino, 1898, vol. 4, p. 98, announced his finding of a place name Pantiddaria situated near Mineo in the province of Catania, Sicily. With the apparent clusivizing of the ll to dd compare that shown in Gozzo, Ghawdax, Italian and Maltese Arabic names, respec- tively, of the island of Gozo, for which see below. Mineo is on maps and is situated about 50 miles northeast of the coastal city of Syracuse. Syracuse was called in Greek Surakousai, with preplacing of the definite article, and was spoken of in ancient times in Greek as the largest city of Sicily. Syra- cuse was in origin a colony founded from Corinth in 733 B.C., and we are expressly told that it was so called because there was a place nearby called Suraké6o in the Sikelés language. Latin still keeps the Greek plural, having the form Syracusae. Italian Sira- cusa, the word having become singularized, is the name of the city and of a province. Mineo is a “comune,”’ this Italian term being translated into English as borough. We have been unable to find any map that gives Pantiddaria, but Avolio is an author- ity of the highest reputation and calls at- tention to the resemblance of this name to the name of the island. We accept Medieval Latin pantaleria as the same word as the name of the island. The undocumented point is how this word became applied as the name of the island. There are three possibilities: (1) that there was some spot where there was, or might be, a duck-net or seabird-net, and the existence of such a place would also account for the name Pantiddaria in Sicily; (2) that a dis- play-canopy was, or perhaps was on occa- sion, erected on the island; (3) that there was a gay woman, or gay woman place, on the island. The two latter contingencies would perhaps presuppose the name to have been originally applied to the town. It is barely possible that thorough questioning of living informants at the island or at Pantiddaria, Sicily, may result in advance- ment of knowledge, or that further docu- mentation may be found. In addition to Qawsara(h), which is the regular Arabic name of the island, Arabic also shows some use of Bantalariiya(h), with b for p because the Arabic alphabet has no p, and with an unusual degree of variation in spelling, rarely with t for t and regularly with | for ll. Italian e of the sec- ond and third syllables becomes a in Arabic. Final (’) instead of (h) also occurs. LAMPEDUSA Lampedusa is the principal one of the group of small islands situated midway be- tween Malta and the coast of Africa, the official Italian name for which group being Isole Pelagie, this being based on an ancient Greek Néesoi Peldgiai, lit. islands of the open sea, pélagos, though largely overlap- ping with thélassa in meaning, referring more to the open or high sea. One map calls this group in English the Pelage Islands. The Arabic rendition of the group name would be Djazaa’ir Al-Bahr. Greek Lupadéussa, Lampedusa, was taken into Latin as Lopadusa, with the usual rendering of Greek ss as s. Both Greek and Latin forms are possibly from an insu- lar endemic name; and it will be noticed at once that both lack m, whereas Italian has Lampedusa. When we look around for some form toward which the name has become analogized, we have only to _ consider Lampione Island, 13 miles west of Lampe- dusa, which has the m, it being unnecessary to refer to other forms in amp in ancient and Modern Greek and in Latin and Italian. The Arabic name of the island is Lam- baduusa(h) or Lambaduusa(’), from the Italian name, Italian e of the second syl- lable appearing in Arabic as a. MALTA Malta and its adjacent islands lie south of the southeastern corner of Sicily, as Pantelleria lies south of Sicily’s western corner. Greek Melitee, Malta, is possibly a name taken from the indigenous island language. Latin, with its rules of accentuation differ- ent from Greek, has Melita, from the Greek, but with antepenult accented, though Greek accents the penult. From the Latin form comes Old French melide, melite, utopia. From the Latin comes also Italian Malta, in 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Abruzzi pronunciation shortened one step further to Malt. Arabic Malta(h) is from Italian and is always with t, whereas Maltese Arabic has Malta, this dialect or language doing away with all emphaticism of consonants. Dr. Kurani informs us that in Arabic Malta(’) is a rare spelling and that he has also heard Maliti, the last as a sporadic direct borrow- ing from the modern Greek Melitee. Malta is the principal island of what is called the Maltese Archipelago, but the island just north of Malta and nearly as large is almost as much mentioned. This northern island is Greek Gdaulos, possibly of insular origin, and from the Greek is taken Latin Gaulus. From Latin form come Italian Gozzo and Maltese Arabic Ghawdex, both of these showing the clusivizing of 1, to which we have compared above that apparently contained in the name Pantiddaria. English has simplified the Italian form to Gozo. The history of Malta is largely that of Sicily: early Greek and Phoenician coloni- zation, followed by Roman conquest and introduction of what became the Sicilian dialect of Italian. In 395 Malta went with the Eastern Roman Empire. There were three Arabic invasions, but they have left little survival except the language. In Malta alone Arabic has survived, becoming ex- tinct in Sicily, Pantelleria, and Lampedusa. The British acquired the Maltese Archi- pelago in 1800 after the French had held it for two years. MALTESE ARABIC As stated above, the only Arabic of the western Mediterranean islands is that of Malta and Gozo, and this is also the most curious dialect of Arabic that can anywhere be slated. It leans evidently on the extinct Sicilian and southernmost Italian mainland Arabic, for many words existing only in the Sicilian dialect of Italian, such as Sicilian Italian clummu, lead (the metal), are tell- tale. PHONETICS OF MALTESE ARABIC That of the Maltese Archipelago is the only Arabic written with Latin letters, this romanization in Malta having antedated VoL. 34, No. 2 that of Rumania and Turkey by several centuries. Maltese Arabic is written using 29 letters, counting touched-up ones, and with Italian values. For instance, j has the sound of English y. Vowels.—Maltese has the five vowels a, O, u, e, 1, short and long, not merely short as in Italian. The most common diphthong is ie, pronounced asin Italian chiesa, church. Thus ktieb, book. Consonants.—The most astonishing feat- ure of the Maltese consonants, and of the phonetics of the language in general, is that there are no so-called emphatic consonants. In Hebrew three emphatics have merged into s, but in Maltese Arabic all emphatic consonants have become their nonemphatic correspondents. Hamzated alif occurs but is unwritten. The results of a terrible impact of Italian are found especially throughout the consonantism of Maltese. Some Maltese words are metathesized: artal, altar, for Italian altar. The letter x has the value of §. MORPHOLOGY OF MALTESE ARABIC ACTIONAL Verb.—The verb is constructed like werds of the other etymal classes out of tricon- sonantal groups, rarely out of quadricon- sonantal or biconsonantal, or out of bi- consonantal with one consonant defective, and may be simple or formed according to any one of eight derivative classes. The fourth class, active in other Arabic dialects, is vestigial only in Maltese Arabic,causative meaning having passed to the second class. There is no infinitive, but there is a dever- bal noun. . Adverb.—As in the verb, one can distin- guish primitive and derived adverbial formation. Adverbs can be _ practically grouped as answering the questions how, when, or where. The preposition is a transitive adverb. Prepositions are classed as inseparable and separable. Conjunction.—Conjunctions are sentence, phrase, and word connectives of adverbial or particle origin. One noticeable feature is that the Arabic wa-, and, written in ordi- nary Arabic as a prefix, isin Maltese written as a separate word: u, and. Interjection—The language is rich in Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 45 interjections. Sometimes an interjection is a contracted phrase; thus jommi, oh my!, for ja ommi, oh my mother! (ja, oh!; omm, f, mother). SUBSTANTIVAL Noun.—The Maltese noun has il- pre- fixed as a definite article, identical in form with the masculine definite article of Italian. Maltese is the only Arabic dialect which has il-; Egyptian and all the non- Maltese which leans on Egyptian Arabic has el-; the Classical and Middle East pro- nunciation is al-. That Italian influence partly accounts for the Maltese definite article having this form is perceived by the requirement in Maltese of, for instance, the idiom 1-Italja, just as is the idiom in Italian itself, whereas extraneous Arabic merely says Itaalyaa(’). The noun has masculine and feminine gender; six nouns of feminine form are masculine. There are two kinds of plural: (1) determinate, used for designat- ing from 3 to 10 if the noun has no dual, from 2 to 10 if the noun has a dual; (2) in- determinate, denoting collectivity or ma- terial. Certain nouns can form a dual. Ac- cording to formation, there are broken plurals and postfixal plurals. Some nouns have doublet plurals; for instance, durba, stroke, forms as its plural both draabi and draabijiet. Maltese has no case. Occasional- ly Arabicity crops out. It is a common trait of Arabic to refer to “‘the sons of Turkey” and the like, whereas other languages use such an expression only figuratively or po- etically. Maltese not only has this Arabic usage, but man in general is bniedem, liter- ally a son of Adam. The Maltese noun has five diminutive formations. Adjective-—The adjective is handled on the whole like the noun but is a mere qual- ity denoter. The adjective follows the noun, and in such an expression as ‘‘the door is large’ one has to use two definite articles: In Maltese one says: il-bieb il-kbir, the- door (is) the-large, but in the entire ex- traneous Arabic speaking world one says: al-bab kabiir, the-door (is) large. Pronoun.—Only the third person singular of the etymal personic has sexual gender distinction. The forms are: jien(a), I ahna, we int(i), you intom, ye hu(wa), he numa, they hi(ja), she The possessive personopostfixes used with a noun are: -l, -Ja, my -na, our -ek, -ok, -k, your -kom, yer -u, -h, his -hom, their -ha, her The demonstrativals are: daan, m, diin, f, this daak, m, diik, f, that Interrogativals are: xl, what? min, who? The cardinal numerals from 1 to 10 are: wiehed, 1 sitta, 6 tnejn, 2 sebgha, 7 theta, 3 tmienja, 8 erbgha, 4 disgha, 9 hamsa, 5 ghaxra, 10 SAMPLE TEXT OF MALTESE ARABIC Missier-na, li inti fis-smewwiet, yi- tqaddes ism-ek, Our Father in heaven, hallowed be thy name. missier, father, pls. missiriet, missirijet (Sicilian Italian misseri, also patri, father). sema, sky, pl. smewwiet. tqaddes, fifth class, to be sanctified. isem, name. This same passage in standard Sicilian Italian, the language which Maltese Arabic probably replaced in Malta, should be com- pared: Patri nostru, chi (also largely spelled ki) stai in celu, sia santificatu lu to nomu. (Contrast the standard Italian: Padre nostro chi sei ne’ cieli, sia santificato il tuo nome; and the standard Arabic: Abaana(’) al-laéii fis-samaawaat, liyataqaddas ismuk.) SUMMARY The aboriginal languages of the large islands of the western Mediterranean are extinct, and so is Phoenician. Arabic sur- vives only on the Malta group. Otherwise these islands show only Romance, derived from Latin. The five island names Iviza, Corsica, Sardinia, Lampedusa, and Malta are possibly of native insular origin. The island names Majorca, Minorca, and Cor- sica are feminines of Latin adjectives in -ic-. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOTANY.—Three new species of Alsophila from Colombia and British Honduras. Wiuiiam R. Maxon, U. 8. National Museum. The term ‘‘tree-fern,” though occasion- ally applied to treelike members of Poly- podiaceae, is tacitly restricted by botanists to the family Cyatheaceae, being in fact its vernacular equivalent. This usage, long in effect, is based on the treelike propor- tions of a great majority of the Cyatheaceae, which have strong upright woody trunks, commonly 5 to 10 meters high, surmounted by a crown of huge, finely dissected fronds. But just as the leaf blade ranges from quadripinnate to once-pinnate (even simply strap-shaped) in the hundreds of species constituting this group, so also there is every intermediate condition from massive towering fern-trunks to slender shorter ones, to others of moderate size that are weakly ascending or even prostrate (though bearing a crown of good-sized fronds), and still others with short decumbent rhizomes and small, simply pinnate fronds that are not larger than some of our common wood-ferns (Dryopteris), which in general appearance they considerably resemble. Seven tropical American species of Also- phila with simply pinnate fronds and short, ascending or erect rhizome are currently recognized, all these being at hand. Three are added herewith. The assemblage is a heterogeneous one, and the species are for the most part not closely enough related to justify detailed comparison. Alsophila haughtii Maxon, sp. nov. Rhizoma erectum, usque ad 10 cm longum et 1.2 cm diam., deorsum copiose et crasse radi- cosum, apice paleaceum, paleis deltoideo-ovatis, acutiusculis, paulum supra basin affixis, 3-4 mm longis, 1.5—2 mm latis, medio brunnescenti- bus, striatis, lucidis, marginibus albidis. Folia 6-8, polysticha, usque ad 40 cm longa, patentia vel decurvata; stipites 10-12 cm longi, 1-2 mm diam., sordido-olivacei, inermes, incon- spicue hirtelli (pilis septatis ochroleucis), paleacei, paleis numerosis, late oblongo-ovatis, acutiusculis vel obtusis, 4-6 mm longis, 2-3 mm 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of Beco taouiee Institution. Received November latis, supra basin asymmetricam punctillo af- fixis, patentibus, sursum gradatim minoribus; laminae lineares vel lineari-oblongae, apice sensim acuminatae, basi paulum angustatae, usque ad 28 cm longae et 7 cm latae, 1-pin- natae, rhachi olivacea, hirtella, parcissime paleacea; pinnae ca. 16-jugae, patentes, anguste oblongae, pleraeque 2.5-3.5 cm longae et 10-13 mm latae, breviter petiolulatae, apice rotunda- tae, basi truncatae vel aequaliter subcordatae, vix auriculatae sed utrinque rotundatae, basin versus late crenatae, sursum: remote et obscure vel leviter crenatae, apice ipso valde crenato- dentatae, textura membranaceo-herbaceae, su- pra glabrae, infra costis glabratis basin versus paleis albidis rotundatis parvis paucis primum praeditae; venae 10—12-jugae, liberae, tenues sed prominulae, 2—4-jugae basales pinnatim ramosae, venulis 3-6 parallelis, mediales plerae-. que 1-furcatae, apicales simplices; sori in- framediales, inter se subremoti, medio dorso venularum infimarum anteriorum posteriorum- que vel (gregibus minoribus) solum anteriorum siti, parvi, receptaculo rotundo, sporangiis plerumque delapsis; paraphyses ut videtur paucae, parvae, cinereae, simplices. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1705805, collected on Cerro Armas, Depart- ment of Santander, Colombia, altitude 1,300 to 1,500 meters, on the face of sandstone cliffs, July 26, 1936, by Oscar Haught (no. 1957). Except for Alsophila kuhnit (Hieron.) C. Chr., of Colombia, A. haughtii is by far the smallest member of the family Cyatheaceae known. It belongs apparently to that small group of tropical American species called Trichopteris by Presl, which includes A. corcova- densis (Raddi) C. Chr., A. dichromatolepis Fée, A. elegans Mart., A. marginalis Klotzsch, A. sagittifolia Hook., and A. williamsit Maxon, these agreeing essentially in type of soriation and, with the exception of A. williamsit, in having bipinnate blades and free veins. With A. williamsti,? which is wholly anomalous in its long-stalked simple pinnae, several-rowed sori, and large semi-octagonal costal areoles, it needs no comparison. The persistent broad, concave, pale scales of the stipe and rhizome recall those of A. dichromatolepis. 2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 46. pl. 17. 1922, VOL. 34, NO. 2 So sb gh eat 47 NEW SPECIES OF ALSOPHILA MAXON Frp. 15, 1944 One-half natural size. Fig. 1.—Alsophila parva Maxon. 4s JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Alsophila parva Maxon, sp. nov. Rhizoma suberectum, ca. 15 cm longum et 1.5 cm diam., crasse radicosum, paleaceum, paleis adpresso-imbricatis, subdeltoideis, ca. 5 mm longis, 1.5-2 mm latis, longe acuminatis, aterrimis, crassis, opacis, subintegris. Folia ut videtur pauca, 70 cm longa; stipites 20 cm longi, 2-3.5 mm diam., olivaceo-brunnescentes, supra hirtelli et obtuse sulcati, subtus glabrati, basin versus decidue paleacei, paleis anguste triangu- laribus, longe acuminatis, 5-9 mm longis, 1.5—2.5 mm latis, faleatis, haud crassis, brunnescenti- bus, minute eroso-denticulatis; laminae exacte ovatae, apice abrupte acutae, basi angustatae, 50 cm longae, 25 cm latae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi epaleacea, glabrescente; pinnae infra apicem lobatum 7-jugae, alternae, remotae, patentes, oblongae, infra ad insertionem aero- phoro maculaeformi instructae, infimae 7-8 cm longae, 3-4 cm latae, petiolulatae (5 mm); pin- nae mediales subsessiles, 13-14 cm longae, 4—5 em latae, apice abrupte acuminatae, basi sub- truncata paulum angustatae, membranaceo- herbaceae, pinnatifidae, costa supra substrigosa, infra cum costulis et venis atque parenchymate pilis glanduliformibus unicellularibus hinc inde primum praedita; segmenta 10- vel 11-juga, late oblonga, paulum obliqua, 1—-1.5 cm longa, 8-12 mm lata, apice oblique rotundata, con- tigua vel pleraque leviter imbricata, costae latere utroque ala 8-10 mm lata confluentia, sinubus vix apertis, costulis infra ad inser- tionem aerophoro maculaeformi instructis; venae 8—10-jugae, remotae, prominulae, basales pleraeque simplices, arcuatae, ad sinum egredi- entes, apicales simplices, alterae plerumque infra medium furcatae vel steriles bis (raro ter). furcatae; sori 3—4-jugi, mediales, magni, inter se 3-4 mm distantes, receptaculo globoso, paraphysibus perpaucis minutissimis instructo. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1140061, collected in forest near Cérdoba, De- partment of El Valle, Colombia, altitude 80 to 100 meters, May 6-8, 1922, by Ellsworth P. Killip (no. 5254). Duplicates were distributed to the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botani- eal Garden, and the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Although the present plant suggests in a general way the subgenus Cnemidaria of Hemitelia, it must nevertheless be referred to Alsophila, since the sorus is completely non- VOL. 34, NO. 2 indusiate, lacking even the vestige of a minute inferior scale such as is noted in a few species of Alsophila. A suggestion of Cnemidaria is found also in a single instance of the junction of op- posed basal veins by a transverse veinlet, and in other minor anomalies of venation. The presence of suborbicular black aerophores at the base of the costae and especially the cos- tules throughout is a conspicuous character. Alsophila ursina Maxon, sp. nov. Rhizoma erectum, fortasse 10-15 cm longum (pars praestans 6 cm), ca. 2.5 cm diam., crasse radicosum, apice praecipue paleaceum, paleis numerosis, tenuibus, lanceolatis vel ovatis, longe acuminatis, 7-10 mm longis, 1.5—-2.5 mm latis, brunneis, marginibus albidis integris abrupte scariosis exceptis. Folia pluria, cespi- tosa, ca. 1.25 m longa; stipites ca. 15 cm longi, 7-10 mm diam., brunnei, valde sulcati, ubique dense paleacei, paleis 1—-1.5 cm longis, e basi lanceolata longissime attenuatis, brunneis, plerisque deflexis, numerosissimis et persistenti- bus; laminae lineares vel anguste oblanceolaiae, ca. 110 cm longae, medio ca. 25 cm latae, apice acuminatae, basin versus gradatim angustatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi stipiti simili, solum laminae apicem versus interrupte alata, ubique paleacea, paleis sursum gradatim minoribus; pinnae 35—40-jugae, fere horizontales, infimae oblongae, ca. 4 cm longae, apice rotundato- | obtusae, petiolulatae (3 mm); pinnae mediales alternae, non contiguae, pleraeque sessiles, lineares, 11-13 cm longae, basi et medio 2.5-3 cm latae, apice acutae vel acutiusculae, pin- natifidae, herbaceae; costae supra substrigosae, — subtus minute fibrillosae et paleis 2-4 mm longis lineari-attenuatis divaricatis rigidis brun- neis intructae; segmenta ca. 16-juga, late oblonga, 8-10 mm longa, 5-6 mm. lata, apice oblique rotundata, faleata, subintegra vel un- dulata, late conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque 2-3 mm lata, supra glabra, subtus in venis primum minute fibrillosa, parenchymate gla- bro; venae ca. 8-jugae, sub angulo 45° egredi- entes, prominulae, acroscopicae pleraeque sim- plices, basiscopicae pleraeque paulum supra medium acutissime furcatae; sori 4—6-jugi, paulum supramediales, inter se remotae, mediocres, receptaculo globoso; sporangia nu- merosa, paraphyses teneras cinereas brevis- simas maxime superantia, Frp. 15, 1944 Type in U. S. National Herbarium, nos 1791403-404, collected on Antelope Ridge, Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras, Febru- ary 5, 1940, by Percy H. Gentle (no. 3197). It consists of a nearly complete frond (lacking only the extreme tip), attached to the apical portion of the caudex. Additional material of this collection is in the Herbarium of the REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 49 University of Michigan and the National Herbarium. Alsophila ursina is notable for the very dense persistent covering of long, spreading or retrorse, bright brown scales of its stipe and rachis. These give it a remarkable shaggy ap- pearance, which has suggested the specific name. ZOOLOGY .—Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs from the Northwest Pacific.' Epwarp G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America. Only two rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs have previously been reported from the Northwest Pacific: Peltogasterella socialis Kriiger from Puget Sound (Potts, 1915) and Peltogaster sp. from Nanaimo, British Columbia (Boschma, 1931). The material discussed in the present paper in- cludes five genera and eight species, of which one genus and four species are new. This is not surprising in view of the limited attention the Rhizocephala have received in North America and the absence of any studies on these animals from Alaskan waters, where many specimens of the pres- ent collection were gathered years ago by the United States Fish Commission steamer Albatross. A small but interesting lot of Rhizo- cephala from Puget Sound received from - Dr. Roland Walker of Troy, N. Y., in 1940 provided the nucleus for the present study. This collection was especially noteworthy because on one species of crab, Orthopagurus schnutti (Stevens), there were three different rhizocephalans, two of which were new species. A personal search by the author of the general collection of Paguridae in the United States National Museum brought to light many additional parasitized hermit crabs, hitherto unstudied, and a few others were obtained from the Museum of History, Science and Art, Los Angeles, Calif. Grateful acknowledgments are due Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt and his associate Clar- ence R. Shoemaker for many courtesies and ever-ready help extended the author during his visits to the division of marine inverte- brates of the United States National Mu- seum. To my former student, Sr. Mary 1 Received December 20, 19438. Andrew Rauwolf, thanks are also extended for laboratory assistance in studying some of the Puget Sound material. Family PELTOGASTERIDAE Lilljeborg Genus Peltogaster Rathke Peltogaster paguri Rathke Material examined.—Coal Harbor, Unga Island, Alaska Peninsula, 8-9 fathoms, 1872, six specimens on six Pagurus capillatus (Bene- dict), W. H. Dall coll. U.S.N.M. 80471. Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, tidal zone, July 10, 1937, two specimens on one Pagurus hir- sutiusculus (Dana), V. B. Scheffer coll. U.S.N.M. 145827. There is only one previous record of Pelto- gaster paguri from the Pacific Ocean, that of Kriiger (1912), who mentioned this parasite as occurring on Pagurus gracilipes (Stimpson) from Japan. One specimen from each of the above hosts has been sectioned, and they exhibit no peculiarities when compared with specimens from the North Atlantic. This spe- cies probably parasitizes a number of other hermit crabs in the Alaska region. A peltogaster on Pagurus trigonocheirus (Stimpson) (U.S. N.M. 80472) and another on Pagurus cornutus (Benedict) (U.S.N.M. 80481), both from the Bering Sea, appear to be this species, but these specimens are too poorly preserved to permit certain identification and were not sectioned. For anatomical details and literature on Peltogaster pagurt see Boschma (1928, 1933); for life history and host-parasite relationship see Reinhard (1942, 1942a, 1942b). Peltogaster boschmae, n. sp. Fig. 3 Cotypes—San Juan Archipelago, Wash., north shore of Stuart Island, 45 fathoms; off 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES False Bay, San Juan Island, 10-20 fathoms; south of Skipjack Island, 32 fathoms; August, 1940, three specimens on three Orthopagurus schmitti (Stevens), Roland Walker and Mel- ville Hatch coll. The host crabs in all three cases were females of about 4 mm carapace length and carried the parasite on the left side of the abdomen be- tween the first and second pleopod. The speci- mens were oriented with their long axis parallel to the long axis of the host and with the mantle aperture directed forward. All three have been sectioned. Diagnosis—Body small, plump, curved. Stalk in the center of the dorsal surface, with elongated shield. Colleteric glands simple, at level of stalk. Male organs coextensive with shield; testes straight, bordered by distinct basement membrane, vasa deferentia coiled near their terminations. Ganglion overlapped by anterior ends of testes. Description.—The dimensions of the largest specimen are: length 3.8 mm, breadth 1.5 mm, thickness 1.7 mm. Another specimen, slightly smaller, measures in length 3.3 mm, in breadth 1.5 mm and in thickness 1.5 mm. The third was damaged but its size must have been almost identical with the latter. Despite their small size, all three are mature animals with embryos present in the mantle cavity. The slightly elevated mantle aperture lies at the anterior end of the animal but appears to be anterolateral because of the curvature of the sac. A prominent, slightly sinuous shield, resembling that found in Peltogaster pagurt, attaches the central stalk to the dorsal surface of the animal. At its insertion into the body wall of the host the stalk lacks the projections of chitin which radiate from the holdfast of P. pagurt. The smooth external cuticle is 5u to 9u thick. Well developed muscles, including those of the sphincter, characterize the mantle, which is variable in thickness. It is thicker dorsally than ventrally and presents a number of low eleva- tions on its inner surface. Although the nature of the retinacula was not ascertained, indica- tions of their presence were occasionally seen on the internal cuticle examined in sections. The mesentery is nearly as broad as the visceral mass and together they give a some- what columnar appearance in transverse sec- tion. They extend the entire length of the sac. VOL. 34, No. 2 All the organs, except the ovaries, are confined to the midregion demarcated by the dorsal shield. In ‘‘reading”’ the serial sections, the anterior ends of the testes are encountered before the ganglion comes into view. This organ in trans- verse section is shaped somewhat like an ox- yoke and rests ventrally against the front tips of the testes. In Peltogaster pagurt the ganglion is located anterior to the blind ends of the testes. The male genital organs are comparatively thin-walled straight tubes and the hyper- trophied region (honeycomb wall) is not so pronounced as in P. pagurt. The outer surface of each testis is composed of a rather thick structureless membrane which is enveloped ex- teriorly by a thin layer of connective tissue cells. The presence of this membrane may be taken as a specific feature, since nothing like it occurs in the testes of P. pagurt. At their posterior ends, the testes gradually pass into the vasa deferentia which are fairly long and become coiled near their terminations on the lateral surfaces of the visceral mass. The colleteric glands begin in front of the stalk and end at the level of the stalk. They therefore occur in sections with the anterior portions of the testes. In one of the smaller specimens they are broadly crescentic in cross- sectional appearance but in the largest speci- men they are more irregular. The epithelial wall of the gland is well developed. There can be no doubt that this is the para- site studied and figured by Boschma (1931) under the name Peltogaster sp. in his account of the Rhizocephala of Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition, 1914-16. His material con- sisted of four specimens found on small un- identified pagurids collected at Nanaimo, British Columbia. The largest specimen had a length of 4 mm. As far as Boschma’s deserip- tion goes, it agrees in every detail with the ani- mals described above. He noted the well- developed shield, the central stalk, the position and general characteristics of colleteric glands, testes, and vasa deferentia, but failed to ob- serve the ganglion and the histology of the testes, the two main points, which, together with size, distinguish this species from P. pagurr. | ‘Differences in size,’ remarks Boschma, ‘‘do not furnish sufficient evidence for regarding the XN RS Sas TWEE Bar es PUTER NLRO S bhp IK he “SA SS BP _-GN ( S Se) iy ~----RT ID Fig. 1.—Angulosaccus tenuis, n. gen. and sp., from Parapagurus armatus Benedict, off Washington. A, Dorsal aspect of external sac viewed in tetralin, X38. Lines C’ and D’ indicate planes of sections C and D, respectively. B, Right lateral aspect of same external sac, X3. C, Transverse section through region of colleteric glands, X25. D, Section passing through testes and stalk, X25. Fig. 2.—Peltogaster depressus, n. sp. A, From Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Kodiak Island, Alaska, dorsal surface, 5. B, Various retinacula from internal cuticle, 300. C, Transverse section through anterior portion of dorsal shield, X18. Fig. 3.—Peltogaster boschmae, n. sp. A, From Orthopagurus schmittt (Stevens), San Juan Archipelago, Washington, lateral view, <7. B, The same, dorsal surface, with anterior end directed towards the left, <7. C, Portion of transverse section at anterior edge of stalk, X67. CG, colleteric gland; DS, dorsal shield; GN, ganglion; LV D, left vas deferens; MC, mantle cavity; MO, mantle opening; RCG, right colleteric gland; RT, right testis; ST, stalk; VM, visceral mass. 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES specimens from Nanaimo as representatives of a species which differs from Peltogaster pagurt. But on the other hand I do not feel justified to identify them as P. pagurt. For the present it is better to wait till more material from the locality has been examined.”’ The San Juan Archipelago, from which my specimens were obtained, is sufficiently close to the Nanaimo region to be considered the same general locality and accordingly I identify the Nanaimo specimens with the species de- scribed here and name the animal P. boschmae in honor of Dr. Boschma. Peltogaster depressus, n. sp. Fig. 2 Type.—Off Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska, 31 fathoms, July 19, 1897; one specimen on Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80476. Additional specuomen.—Bering Sea, 57° 43’ 00’’ N., 164° 42’ 00” W., 31 fathoms, July 29, 1893; one specimen on Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Albatross coll. The hosts in both instances are males of 15-16 mm carapace length, and the parasites were attached to the abdomen, ventrolateral to the first pleopod, with their longitudinal axis parallel to that of the host. Both specimens have been sectioned, and the slides of the type are in the U. 8. National Museum. Diagnosis.—Sac flattened in dorsoventral direction, mantle opening on dorsal side near anterior margin, stalk central arising from fusiform dorsal shield. Testes straight, vasa deferentia coiled. Colleteric glands adjoining anterior portions of testes. Visceral mass fan- shaped in cross section. Retinacula consisting of two to five spindles on a prominent ex- crescence. Description.—Compared with the other spe- cies of Peltogaster, this species is remarkably flat and broad. The type specimen has the following dimensions: 10.5 mm long, 5 mm wide, 3 mm thick. The measurements of the second are: 19 mm long, 10 mm wide, 5 mm thick. The smaller parasite is practically straight, the larger one bent a little to the right. Both are flat dorsally and slightly arched ventrally. The mantle opening, at the. anterior end, is peculiar in being shifted dorsally. It is.a small aperture surrounded by a very low corrugated VOL. 34, NO. 2 papilla. The stalk, approximately central in location, is comparatively narrow and arises from a fusiform dorsal shield. The insertion of the stalk in the body of the host is a heavily chitinized holdfast having branched marginal projections. In both specimens the mantle cavity is spa- cious and contains numerous developing eggs. The visceral mass in cross section is rather fan- shaped, its mesenterial portion being much narrower than the broad distal portion which is flattened or slightly concave. It is well sup- plied with muscles: a circular layer at the periphery, and slender bundles at the interior, some of which run vertically, others trans- versely, and others diagonally. In most other details of internal anatomy the animals resemble Peltogaster paguri very closely. The male genital organs and the col- leteric glands are located under the dorsal shield, the glands being adjacent to the germi- nal or anterior portions of the testes. Coiled vasa deferentia pass backwards from the tubular testes as in P. paguri and end within the limits of the shield. The ganglion lies a short distance in front of the blind ends of the testes. The retinacula that occur on the thin in- ternal cuticle furnish further evidence that this is a distinct species. Each retinaculum (Fig. 2, B) is a rather tall and broad hillock, from the sides or summit of which arise two to five spindles, or rarely a single spindle. These have a more or less pointed extremity and a nar- rowed, stalklike basal part. They vary in thick- ness and length in the same cluster. Usually there is one large spindle 20u to 24y in length in each group along with others of lesser length. The smallest are 5u to 6u long. In Peltogaster paguri the spindles are fairly uniform in size, about 16yu long, are often single, and arise from the summit of a much less prominent excres- cence. Genus Peltogasterella Kriiger Because of the new species described below the diagnosis of this genus (Boschma 1933) is here amended: Gregarious, external sacs elongate, more or less cylindrical. Mantle opening at the anterior extremity, stalk at or near the posterior ex- tremity. Mesentery broad (as in Peltogaster). Testes enclosed in a common sac, dorsally Fr. 15, 1944 situated in the posterior third of the animal. Vasa deferentia short, opening backwards into the mantle cavity. Colleteric glands near middle of body at lateral surfaces of the visceral mass, consisting of simple flattened cavities. Nauplius larvae, on Paguridea. Two species known. Peltogasterella socialis Kriiger Fig. 5 Material examined.—Yaquina Light, Oregon- Washington coast, 34 fathoms, September 2, 1914; 7 specimens of 3-4 mm length on one Pagurus alaskensis (Benedict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80461. Straits of Juan de Fuca, Wash., 53 fathoms, September 2, 1891; 10 specimens of 8 mm length on one Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80462. Kasaan Bay, Prince of Wales Island, south- eastern Alaska, 42-47 fathoms, July 1903; 3 specimens of 7-8 mm length on one Pagurus U.S.N.M. aleuticus (Benedict), Albatross coll. 80466. REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 53 Northwest of Unimak Island, Alaska, 41 fathoms, June 24, 1890; 52 specimens of 5-9 mm length on Pagurus splendescens Owen (40 on one host, 12 on another), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80467. 7 Alaska, Bering Sea, 56° 12’ 30’’ N., 162° 13’ 00” W., 47 fathoms, June 28, 1890; 6 specimens of 3 mm length on one Pagurus splendescens Owen, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80468. In external form the specimens conform to the descriptions and drawings of previous authors (Kriiger, 1912; Potts, 1915; Boschma, 1933; Hiro, 1935). Boschma is the only one who has given details of the internal anatomy, and to his description a number of new points are here added. Diagnosis.—Body slender, cylindrical, con- cave dorsally; length at least three times the breadth; broadest near anterior pole. Stalk thin, feebly chitinized, arising dorsally from posterior pole. Testes in posterior third of body, enclosed in common sac; vasa deferentia short and straight, opening posteriorly. Col- leteric glands simple, placed slightly posterior Fig. 4.—Peltogasterella subterminalis, n. sp. A, From Pagurus hemphilli (Benedict), San Miguel Island, Calif., lateral view of cleared specimen, X8. B, From Orthopagurus schmitti (Stevens), San Juan Lom Wash., lateral view, <8. C, Stalk of specimen from P. hemphilli, X17. D, Eye of nauplius larva, 400. Fig. 5.—Peltogasterella socialis Kriiger. A, From Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), Straits of Juan de Fuca, Wash., lateral view of cleared specimen, X8. B, From Pagurus splendescens Owen, Alaska; im- mature animal with undeveloped mantle opening (at left); dorsolateral view of cleared specimen, X13. C, Eye of nauplius larva, X400. D, Saccular type of testis; entire organ dissected from parasite, X180. Note pigment spots in testis. Fig. 6.—Clistosaccus pagurt Lilljeborg. A, Mantle aperture and adjacent area, <7. B, Specimen from Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Bering Sea, lateral view, x5. MO, mantle opening; S T, stalk; TE, testis; VM, visceral mass. 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to middle of body. Ganglion at extreme an- terior end of visceral mass. External cuticle smooth, thin; internal cuticle without reti- nacula. Description.—The specimens examined can be divided into two forms, those having tubular testes and those with saccular testes. The tubu- lar type was found in the parasites on P. alaskensis and in those on P. splendescens from Alaska, Bering Sea. All other specimens had saccular testes (Fig. 5, D). Unfortunately, the parasites with tubular testes were all very young animals, so a possibility exists that this may be a juvenile feature. However, the specimens that Boschma examined, also parasites of P. alaskensis from the same general locality as ours, were mature animals of 6 to 8 mm length, and these evi- dently possessed tubular testes since he states that the testes and vasa deferentia formed a more or less straight tube and that the testes gradually passed into the vasa deferentia. It is relatively easy to see the gross appear- ance of the testes of Peltogasterella, previous to sectioning, by examining the animal in a clear- ing oil which renders it transparent. We used tetralin (tetrahydronaphthalene) for this pur- pose. Viewed in this way, the tubular testes of a 4-mm animal were found to measure 360yu in length and 108u in width for the left testis and 328u in length and 99u in width for the right testis. Measurements of saccular testes from 6-to-7 mm animals gave lengths varying from 167y to 184y and an average width of 85y. In the case of the saccular testes the vasa deferentia emerge quite abruptly. Since in all other structural details these two forms of Peltogasterella seem identical, I do not think it necessary to separate them into differ- ent species, particularly since we cannot be sure which form of testes Kriiger’s type speci- mens possessed. Regardless of whether the testes are tubular or saccular, they are always enclosed in a common sac, a feature that Boschma fails to mention but that evidently existed in his speci- mens as evidenced by his figure 6. This sac is filled with a mesenchymatous tissue in which the gonads are embedded. The testes proper are comparatively thin-walled with a distinct basement membrane. In the majority of cases they contain brownish pigment spots. The vasa deferentia, which are included in VOL. 34, NO. 2 the sac only at their point of origin, diverge to open on the lateral surfaces of the mesentery. They are relatively thin, short and uncoiled. The colleteric glands, seen in cross sections as comparatively tall, narrow sacs with a simple unfolded lumen, extend in mature ani- mals about 300u in a dorsoventral direction along the lateral surfaces of the visceral mass in a locus slightly posterior to the center of the body. At the very beginning of the visceral mass, a small ganglion is located. The mantle is uneven in thickness, varying from 20u to 60u in the same cross section. Its musculature is feebly developed. The external cuticle of mature specimens measures 5yu to Su in thickness. On the thinner internal cuticle no retinacula were found. Since the visceral mass in a 6-mm specimen is solidly packed with large eggs, and early embryos are likewise present in the mantle cavity, it is likely that more than one brood of nauplii is produced. The much shrunken visceral mass, practically devoid of eggs, oc- curring in an 8-mm specimen which has prac- tically mature nauplii in the mantle cavity is interpreted as a sign of old age. Fifteen nauplii from this specimen were measured. They varied in length from 207u to 247 with an average of 230u. The pigmented eye of the nauplius is relatively large, 32u to 36y long, and has a characteristic shape (Fig. 5, C). Peltogasterella subterminalis, n. sp. Fig. 4 Cotypes.—Off San Juan Island, Wash., 20-30 — fathoms, August 5, 1940; 10 specimens, of 4 to 5 mm length on two Orthopagurus schmitts (Stevens), Roland Walker and Melville Hatch coll. Additional specimens.—Cuylers Harbor, San Miguel Island, Calif., July 1939; 35 specimens of 5 to 6.5 mm length on six Pagurus hemphillt (Benedict), Museum of History, Science and Art, Los Angeles, Calif. U.S.N.M. 80464. Stephens Passage, Alaska, 198 fathoms, July 14, 1903; 4 specimens of 5 mm length on one Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80463. Afognak Bay, Afognak Island, Alaska, 19 fathoms, August 3, 1903; 15 specimens of 3 to 5 mm length on one Pagurus dalli (Bene- dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80459. Alaska Peninsula, 54° 55’ 00” N., 159° 52’ Fu. 15, 1944 00” W., 35 fathoms, August 4, 1888; 12 speci- mens of 3 mm length on one Pagurus splen- descens Owen, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80480. The specimens on Orthopagurus schmiatts from the Friday Harbor region (San Juan Island) have been selected as the cotypes. Four of these were sectioned and two macerated in an effort to discover retinacula. The remainder have been deposited in the collections of the United States National Museum. One speci- men from each of the other hosts was likewise sectioned, and some others were examined either cleared or as stained whole mounts. Diagnosis.—External form slender, cylindri- cal; mantle opening at anterior extremity, tilted dorsally; stalk near posterior extremity but not terminal, arising from a thin conical shield. External cuticle thin, smooth; internal cuticle without retinacula. Male genital glands saccular, pigmented, in front of stalk; vasa deferentia short, straight, opening posteriorly. Colleteric glands simple, in anterior half of _ body. Ganglion at anterior end of visceral mass. Description.—These parasites differ exter- nally from P. socialis in being smaller and more uniform in diameter with a stalk that arises from a slightly elevated conical shield near the posterior end but never terminal in position (bence the specific name subterminalis). In- ternally, the chief difference lies in the position of the colleteric glands which are farther for- ward than in P. socialis. Moreover, this species appears to average fewer specimens per host than is the case with its congener socialis. The largest specimen encountered measured 6.5 mm in length. The average length of 21 adult individuals was 5.2 mm. Width and thickness are approximately equal, varying from 1.2 to 1.7 mm in adult specimens. The mantle, which measures from 20y to 50u in thickness, has rather numerous lacunae and well-developed bands of circular muscle. Longi- tudinal muscle fibers are practically restricted to the ventral side of the animal where they interrupt the circular layer. The external cuticle is 4u to 8y thick. ? The visceral mass appears rounded in cross sections of immature animals, but becomes laterally compressed when embryos are present in the mantle cavity. On the lateral edges of the visceral mass are to be found the paired colleteric glands, the left gland being slightly anterior to the right. Their position is a little REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 55 less than half the distance from anterior to posterior ends of the animal. The dorsoventral height of these glands, measured at the highest portion, is 200yu to 225u; the lateral width about 90u to 140p. The testes lie in front of the stalk, often so close that the shield covers them. As is the case with the colleteric glands, the left testis begins a little anterior to the right, and is often larger. The testes have a length of 215yu to 250u and a maximum width of 110u to 130y. As in P. socialis both are enclosed in a single sac and have a well-defined basement membrane. The vasa deferentia are likewise similar to those of P. socialis. A ganglion is present at the anterior extrem- ity of the visceral mass and a sheet of what may be nervous tissue is sometimes seen as a thin transverse band between the ovaries and male genital organs. The nauplii of this species differ from those of P. socialis in their smaller size and in the size and shape of the pigmented eye (Fig. 4, D). Twelve measured specimens averaged 202y in length (max. 216u, min. 1904) and 135y in width (max. 148y, min. 126u). The eye meas- ures 22u to 27u in length as compared with 32u to 36u for socialts. There is a small gregarious European pelto- gastrid, Gemmosaccus sulcatus? (Lilljeborg), which presents some points of resemblance to this new species of Peltogasterella. In both, the stalk is posterior and the testes are saccular and pigmented. But in Gemmosaccus the stalk is located at a distance of about two-thirds from the anterior end, while here the distance is greater, being about five-sixths of the total length. Moreover, the finer points of the in- ternal anatomy of subterminalis such as the conspicuous testicular sac, and the character of the nauplius larvae likewise, definitely place it in the genus Peltogasterella. This general resemblance of our species to Gemmosaccus sulcatus suggests that Kriiger’s report of finding the latter species on the coast of Japan may be erroneous. Kriiger’s (1912) account is brief and unsatisfactory, and it may be that the parasites he called Peliogaster sul- catus were actually Peltogasterella of the species described here. 2 This species also occurs in the literature under the names Peltogaster sulcatus or Chlorogaster sulcatus. 06 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Angulosaccus, n. gen. Diagnosis.—Gregarious, body elongate, pos- terior portion reflexed laterally. Mantle open- ing at anterior extremity, stalk dorsal at the angle between anterior and posterior arms. Mesentery and visceral mass broad. Ganglion near anterior end. Colleteric glands simple. Testes saccular, paired, situated in front of stalk, with vasa deferentia emerging anteriorly. On Paguridea. Genotype.—Angulosaccus tenuts, n. sp. In all respects, except one, Angulosaccus conforms to the structural characteristics of the Peltogasteridae. The forwardly directed vasa deferentia, however, constitute a unique feature, certainly of generic significance, al- though not important enough in my opinion to justify setting up a new family. Inclusion of this new genus in the Peltogasteridae, necessi- tates, however, a redefinition of the family, since in all known genera of Peltogasteridae, except Angulosaccus, the testes open back- wards into the mantle cavity. For the latest diagnosis of the family see van Baal (1937). Angulosaccus tenuis, n. sp. Figs. 1; 7, A Cotypes.—Off Washington, 47° 22’ 00” N., 125° 48’ 30” W., 877 fathoms, June 29, 1889; 12 specimens on one Parapagurus armatus Benedict, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80479. Of the 12 specimens attached to the abdomen of the host, two were made into stained whole mounts, two were cut into serial sections, and one damaged specimen was used to study the nature of the cuticula. Diagnosis.—Body slender, broadest near an- terior end, posterior third reflexed dextro- laterally. Testes immediately in front of stalk, with straight vasa deferentia opening ante- riorly. Colleteric glands about midway between stalk and mantle opening. No retinacula. Description.—In external form the sacs are long, slender, and cylindrical, and are sharply bent at the region of the stalk so that the ani- mal is somewhat V-shaped, but with the pre- peduncular arm considerably longer than the postpeduncular. The anterior arm is curved in a dorsosinistral direction, and at its forward extremity a small inconspicuous mantle open- ing is present. VOL. 34, No. 2 Eleven of the specimens are almost identical in size, measuring about 10 mm in length for the anterior arm and from 3 to 4 mm in length for the posterior arm. From a maximum width of 3mm near the mantle opening, the sac tapers to a width of 1.5 mm within the first half of its length and thereafter remains relatively uniform to the posterior extremity, which de- creases slightly to 1 mm in width. One speci- men was very small, having a total length of 5.38 mm of which 3.8 mm represented the an- terior arm. The external cuticle is smooth and about 5yu thick. The internal cuticle lacks retinacula. Because the soft tissues of the mantle had, to a large extent, disintegrated, as is to be ex- pected in specimens preserved for more than half a century, nothing further could be learned about the nature of the mantle. The mesentery and visceral mass are broad and extend the whole length of the sac. In the entire region in front of the colleteric glands the visceral mass, in both sectioned specimens, has a rather broad midventral notch. Since preser- vation occurred shortly after the animals had released eggs into the mantle cavity, the visceral mass contained only a pair of thin ir- regular egg cords, which could be traced to their connections with the colleteric glands. A small ganglion is located in the mesentery a short distance behind the mantle opening. The colleteric glands, found on the dorso- lateral sides of the visceral mass a little more than halfway between the mantle opening and the stalk, have a simple undivided lumen. They measure 225u to 300u in a dorsoventral direc- tion, 100u to 135y laterally, and 325yu to 450u in anteroposterior direction. The two saccular testes le dorsally, just in front of the stalk. They are comparatively small, measuring 250u to 265u in length and 170pu to 180yu in width. The thin vasa deferentia are not coiled and run forward a distance of 300u to 450u, being therefore longer than the testes. Each vas is lined with chitin through- out its length. The stalk is fairly broad and arises from a disk-shaped plate. Both are chitinized, but not heavily so, the chitin measuring 20u to 30u in thickness. The curious shape of this species is remi- niscent of that of Gemmosaccus delager de- scribed by Duboscq (1912) from the coast of Fes. 15, 1944 France, except that the latter species is bent in a ventral direction. Family CiisTosaccIDAE Boschma Genus Clistosaccus Lilljeborg Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg Figs. 6; 7, B This is the only known species of the genus Clistosaccus. It has been found on the following hermit crabs: Pagurus bernhardus, Anapagurus chiroacanthus and A. forbesi, and Pagurus pubescens. All previous records are from the North Atlantic region. I am now able to report its occurrence in the North Pacific and add several new hosts. This animal is also referred to in the litera- ture as Apeltes paguri Lilljeborg, but Boschma (1928) has shown that the two alleged species are different stages of one species only, Clisto- saccus being the younger form, Avpeltes the older mature form. Material examined.—Bering Sea, 54° 48’ 00’ N., 165° 13’ 30”’ W., 70 fathoms, June 24, 1890; five specimens on five Pagurus capillatus (Bene- dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80474. South of Alaska Peninsula, 54° 20’ 30” N.., 163° 37’ 00” W., 61 fathoms, May 21, 1890, one specimen on one Pagurus capillatus (Bene- dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80460. South of Alaska Peninsula, 54° 05’ 30” N., 162° 54’ 00” W., 49 fathoms, May 21, 1890; three specimens on two Pagurus dalli (Bene- U.S.N.M. 80475. dict), Albatross coll. REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 57 Kodiak Island, Alaska, off Karluk Head, 122 fathoms, July 19, 1897; three specimens on one Pagurus splendescens Owen, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80473. The 12 specimens varied from 7 to 25 mm in length. The mantle opening when present has the appearance of an arched cleft on the summit of a short, smooth elevation. The arms of the opening enclose a pluglike extension of the visceral mass which projects to the exterior. Lilljeborg (1861) described the mantle opening of A peltes (=Clistosaccus) as having an inferior border in the form of an obtuse point. If ‘dorsal’ is substituted for “‘inferior’” this de- scription is essentially correct. All but two of the specimens had this type of opening; one, the smallest of 7 mm length, lacked a mantle opening; the other, of 10 mm length, had the beginning of a mantle opening, which had not yet perforated. Boschma (1928) remarks that older speci- mens of Clistosaccus can not usually be dis- tinguished from Peltogaster paguri without recourse to microscopic sections. There are, however, good external diagnostic features. The stalk of attachment in Clistosaccus is broad, in P. paguri it is much narrower; Clistosaccus completely lacks the thick chitinous dorsal shield (hence ‘‘A peltes’’) which in P. paguri ex- tends prominently anteriorly and posteriorly from the stalk and is the feature that suggested the name Peltogaster.2 Moreover, at no stage in 3 Rathke, who gave the name to the genus, was mistaken in considering the shield-bearing surface as the ‘“‘gaster’”’ or ventral side of the animal. Fig. 7.—A, Angulosaccus tenuis n. gen. and sp., on Parapagurus armatus Benedict, Washington. B, Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg on Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Alaska. Both natural size. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES development does Peltogaster have a mantle opening like that described above for Clistosac- cus. Two specimens were sectioned and compared with material from the North Atlantic, but no essential difference could be detected between east and west coast animals. The single sac- like testis in the anterior region with its two short vasa deferentia and the lobulated col- leteric gland at the posterior end of the visceral mass are as described by Boschma. Likewise, _ his statement that the internal cuticle lacks retinacula can be confirmed. It may be mentioned that the visceral mass in normal specimens reaches only to the poste- rior margin of the stalk, which is located in the posterior half of the body, at variable rela- tive distances from the middle. There is thus a fairly extensive post-peduncular region often present where internal organs are lacking. Family Uncertain Genus Thompsonia Kossmann Thompsonia sp. Material examined.—San Juan Archipelago, Wash., off False Bay, San Juan Island, 10-20 fathoms, Aug. 5, 1940; seven specimens on one Orthopagurus schmitti (Stevens), Roland Walk- er and Melville Hatch coll. These parasites are small ovoid or pear- shaped sacs attached to the dorsal surface of the anterior abdominal segments of the host. The stalk of attachment is very short and has a proximal constriction. Stumps or scars of about 20 stalks are present on the abdomen in addition to the 7 stalked sacs still remaining. These sacs were mature since they contain cy- pris larvae. The body of the parasite, exclusive of the stalk, measures 1.2 to 1.5 mm in length and 0.8 to 1.0 mm in thickness. The stalk is one-sixth or less the length of the body. The cypris larvae appear to lack pigmented eyes. Boschma (1933) is of the opinion that in the present state of our knowledge it is impossible VOL. 34, NO. 2 to decide which of the named forms of Thomp- sonia are distinct species. In accordance with this view I believe it best not to give a specific name to these specimens on Orthopagurus. The host, however, constitutes a new record for this genus. The parasites have been deposited in the collections of the United States National Museum. LITERATURE CITED Baatu, I. van. Brtological results of the Snellius expedition. II. Rhizocephala of the families Peltogasteridae and Lernaeodiscidae. Tem- minckia (Leiden) 2: 1-96. 1937. BoscumMa, H. Rhizocephala of the North At- lantic. Danish Ingolf Expedition 3(10): 1-49. 1928. Rhizocephala. In: Zoology of the Faroes (Copenhagen) 2(art. 28): 1-3. 1928a. Rhizocephala. Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition, 1914-16. Vid. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren. 89: 297-380. 1931. The Rhizocephala in the collection of the British Museum. Journ. Linn. Soc. London 38: 473-552. 1938. Dusposca, O. Sur les Peltogastrides des cétes de France. Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gén. (5) 9, Notes et Revue, pp. ix-xv. 1912. Hiro, F. The fauna of Akkeshi Bay. II. Cir- ripedia. Journ. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido (6), Zool. 4: 213-229. 1935. Kriticer, P. Uber ostasiatische Rhizocephalen. Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. (math.-phys. Ki.) Suppl. 2(8); 1-6. for” LILLJEBORG, W. Supplément au mémotire sur les genres Liriope et Peltogaster. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsal. (3) 3: 73- 102. 1861. (English translation in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 7: 47-63, 1861.) Ports, F. A. On the rhizocephalan genus Thompsonia and its relation to the evolution of the group. Publ. Dept. Marine Biol. Carnegie Inst. Washington 8: 1-32. 1915. REINHARD, E. G. The endoparasitic develop- ment of Peltogaster paguri. Journ. Morph. 70: 69-79. 1942. The reproductive role of the com- plemental males of Peltogaster. Journ. Morph. 70: 389-402. 1942a. : Studies on the life history and host- parasite relationship of Peltogaster paguri. Biol. Bull. 83: 401-415. 1942b. * = Sar Fes. 15, 1944 COE: NEMERTEANS FROM ARCTIC SEAS 59 ZOOLOGY.—Nemerteans from the northwest coast of Greenland and other Arctic seas.| WESLEY R. Cog, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (Communi- cated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.) A small collection containing 12 speci- mens of nemerteans was obtained in July, 1940, by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett at depths of 23 to 115 meters off the northwest coast of Greenland. The four species represented are of interest because none of them had been reported previously from that locality. All, however, had been collected formerly from other portions of the coast of Green- land and elsewhere in the Arctic. In this paper the distribution of each of these species as known at the present time is in- dicated, and a supplementary account is given of such organ systems as had hereto- _ fore been inadequately described. A list of the 30 other species that have been found in the Arctic is appended, with the geo- graphical distribution of each. Tubulanus annulatus (Montagu) Gordius annulatus Montagu, 1804. Carinella annulata Birger, 1895, 1903. One incomplete individual was dredged at a depth of 50 to 115 meters 1 mile northwest of Conical Rock. This specimen is 3 to 4 mm in width, indicating an individual having a total length of 20 to 30 cm when living. This species is widely distributed on the eastern shores of the North Atlantic, from Norway and Great Britain to the Mediter- ranean; it has also been found in the South Atlantic, near the Cape of Good Hope (Stimp- son, 1856). It is closely similar to T. nothus Burger, which has likewise been found near the Cape of Good Hope (Wheeler, 1934). In the Arctic it was previously dredged near King Karl Land; also off Cape Platen and in the Karajek Fiord, Greenland. Only a few other species of nemerteans are known to have such an extensive geographical distribution. Micrura purpurea (Dalyell) Gordius purpureus spinifer Dalyell, 1853. Micrura purpurea Joh. Miller, 1858; Birger, 1903. ! Contribution of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, new ser., no. 217. Received October 27, 1943. Four large individuals evidently belonging to this species were dredged at depths of 45 to 115 meters 1 mile northwest of Conical Rock, northwest Greenland. The specimens after preservation measured 60 to 90 mm in length and 4 to 5 mm in width, indicating a length in life of 150 mm or more. As is the case with many other invertebrates, these worms fre- quently reach a larger size in the Arctic than in warmer regions. Individuals from the coast of Scotland average considerably larger than those of the same species in the Mediterranean and if the specimens in this collection are cor- rectly identified, those of the Arctic regions become even larger. The same condition holds for Tubulanus annulatus. This species is common on the European coasts from Scotland to the Mediterranean. It occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 200 meters or more. In the Arctic it was previ- ously reported from Karajak Fiord, Green- land; also from Hinlopen Strait at a depth of 80 meters. Cerebratulus barentsi Biirger, 1895 One incomplete specimen measuring 11 mm in width was dredged at a depth of 24 meters off the north shore of Wolsterholm Sound, northwest Greenland. The deep reddish brown pigmentation of the body was still retained after preservation for three years. This species is known only from Arctic seas, having been reported from Kara Strait, from the sea north of Spitsbergen, Hinlopen Strait, Karajak Fiord, Greenland, off Amsterdam Is- land, and elsewhere at depths of 40 to 1000 meters. Amphiporus groenlandicus Oersted, 1844 The collection contained six specimens of this common Arctic species. These measured 60 to 80 mm in length and 4 to 6 mm in width. They were dredged off the north shore of Wolsterholm Sound, northwest Greenland at a depth of about 20 meters. These specimens were without ocelli and agreed in all essential respects with the pub- lished descriptions of this well-known species. 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Serial sections of one individual showed that the internal anatomy conforms with that of other individuals described by Biirger (1895, 1903) from other portions of the Arctic seas. Since Biirger’s account contained no de- scription of the armature of the proboscis nor of the reproductive organs, such descriptions may be included here. The stylet basis is rather slender, conical or elongated pear-shaped and about twice as long as the basal diameter. In these specimens the bases measure from 0.08 to 0.10 mm in length and 0.035 to 0.05 mm in diameter at the base. The central stylet is nearly equal to the basis in length. With one exception the pro- boscis was provided with 2 pouches, each con- taining 3 to 5 accessory stylets. In one of the six specimens one of the pouches was divided into two parts. The number of proboscidial nerves varies from 16 to 18. The cerebral sense organs are large and situ- ated immediately anterior to the brain, with posterior extensions on the ventral sides of the dorsal ganglia. Large nerves unite them with the dorsal ganglia and from each of them a slender canal extends forward to open ventro- laterally in an oblique groove near the tip of the head. The nephridia extend forward as far as the lateral borders of the brain. Near the posterior end of the nephridial system a large efferent duct opens ventrolaterally on each side of the body. The intestinal caecum extends forward nearly to the brain and sends lateral branches as far as the dorsal sides of the dorsal ganglia. The gonads are much more numerous than the intestinal diverticula, as many as four or even six Ovaries or spermaries being cut in a single transverse section of the body. They are situated both dorsally and ventrally to the lateral nerve cords, but the genital ducts with few exceptions open dorsolaterally. Each of the six specimens was infested by protozoan parasites. These were most abun- dant within the blood vessels but others were imbedded in the adjacent connective tissue parenchyma. This species is widely distributed in Arctic seas, having been reported from both the east- ern and western coasts of Greenland, from Hinlopen Strait, Barents Sea, and from the waters off King Karl Land, Jena Island, Franz Joseph Land, and Spitsbergen at depths of 4 to VOL. 34, No. 2 450 meters. A similar species, A. caecus Verrill, was dredged at a depth of about 35 meters off the New England coast north of Block Island, Mass. Coe (1943) suggested the possibility that the two supposed species may later prove to be specifically identical. Other species previously reported from the Arctic seas include the following: Tubulanus groenlandicus (Bergendal). North Greenland. Lineus koalensis Uschakow. Barents Sea. Lineus maris-albt Uschakow. White Sea. Lineus ruber (O. F. Miller). Circumpolar; coasts of Siberia; Greenland; Norway and Great Britain to Mediterranean; Madeira and South Africa, Labrador to southern New Eng- land; Alaska to California. Lineus saint-hilairi Uschakow. White Sea. Micrura impressa (Stimpson). Bering Strait. Micrura lithothamnii Uschakow. Kola Fiord. Cerebratulus brevis Uschakow. White Sea. Cerebratulus fuscus (McIntosh). Off the coasts of Greenland and elsewhere in Arctic seas; Great Britain and Norway to Mediter- ranean. Cerebratulus greenlandicus Punnett. Green- land and North Greenland. Cerebratulus marginatus Renier (=C. fuscus Verrill). From off King Karl Land, Bremer Sound, Hinlopen Strait, Amsterdam Island, and Hast Spitsbergen. This species has a wide circumpolar distribution, being found on Euro- pean coasts as far south as Madeira; on the eastern North American coast southward to Cape Cod and farther south in the offshore current; on the western North American coast southward to southern California and in the western Pacific as far south as Japan. Cerebratulus melanops Coe and Kunkel. Gulf of St. Lawrence and northward. Cerebratulus rigidus Isler. Novaya Tne Cerebratulus zachst Uschakow. White Sea and Kara Strait. Emplectonema derjugint Uschakow. Kola Fiord, Barents Sea. Emplectonema neest (Oersted). Greenland, Iceland, Norway and Great Britain to Mediterranean. Nemertopsis actinophila Birger. Coasts of Baren Island; Ross Island; King Karl Land; Lomme Bay; Hinlopen Strait; from low-water mark to 240 meters. Amphiporus angulatus Grapdicias): This com- Coasts of - = c: 3 * sgt i tl Fen. 15, 1944 mon and widely distributed Arctic species appears to have been described also by Verrill as A. stimpsoni, A. heterosorus, A. multisorus, and A. superbus; also by Punnett as A. thomp- sont and in part as A. arcticus. Greenland, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Labrador, Nova Scotia, and southward to Cape Cod on or near the coast and farther south beneath the off- shore Arctic current. On the west coast of North America the species extends from the Arctic Ocean through Bering Sea, along the coast of Alaska and southward to Point Con- ception, California. On the Asiatic coast it occurs from Kamchatka to Japan. Amphiporus hastatus McIntosh. Coasts of southern Greenland and northern Europe. Amphiporus lactifloreus Johnston. Shores of Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans, extending southward to the Mediterranean Sea and on the American coast to Cape Cod; intertidal zone to 200 meters. Amphiporus littoralis (Uschakow), Gurjano- vella littoralis Uschakow. Barents Sea, White Sea. Amphiporus macracanthus Coe. Arctic coast of Alaska. Amphiporus murmanicum Uschakow. Kola Fiord. Amphiporus pulcher (Johnston). Coasts of Spitsbergen, Norway, and Great Britain to Mediterranean; Greenland to Massachusetts Bay. Some of the specimens described by Punnett as A. arcticus evidently belonged to this species. Tetrastemma albicollis Uschakow. Kola Fiord. Tetrastemma arctica Uschakow. White Sea, Novaya Zemlya. Tetrastemma candidum Miller. Circumpolar; PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 61 Greenland to Madeira; South Africa; Alaska to Mexico. Tetrastemma laminariae Uschakow. Kola Fiord; Novaya Zemlya. Uniporus borealis (Punnett). Davis Strait. Drepanophorus crassus Quatrefages. Widely distributed in Arctic, Antarctic and Tropics; dredged at a depth of 250 meters near Franz Joseph Land; coasts of Europe, Madeira, Mauritius, Kerguelen, Samoa, Tonga, Panama, West Indies. REFERENCES Btreer, Orro. Bertrage zur Anatomie, Syste- matik und geographische Verbreitung der Nemertinen. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 61: 16- 37. 1895. . Die Nemertinen. Fauna Arctica 3: 57- 64. 1908. Cor, W. R. Nemerteans of the west and north- west coasts of America. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 47: 1-819. 1905. . Revision of the nemertean fauna of the Pactfic coasts of North, Central and northern South America. Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 2: 247-323. 1940. . Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci. 35: 129-328. 1943. Punnett, R. C. Arctic nemerteans. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1901: 90-107. 1901. Uscuakow, P. Zur Fauna der Nemertinen des Weiszen Meeres. Explor. des Meeres d’ U.R.S.S. Inst. Hydrolog. Leningrad, 1926. . Contribution to the fauna of nemerteans in the Barents Sea. Trans. Inst. Sci. Ex- plor. of the North, pp. 55-66. Moscow, 1928a. . Beschreibung einige Nemertinenarten vom Barents-Meere, Weiszen Meere und Nowaja-Semlja. Zool. Jahrb. 54: 407-424. 1928b. WHEELER, J. F.G. Nemerteans from the South Atlantic and southern oceans. Discovery Reports 9: 215-294. 1934. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES CHEMICAL SOCIETY 549TH MEETING The 549th meeting (59th annual meeting) was held at the Cosmos Club on January 14, 1943. The reports of officers for 1942 were read and accepted. The membership of committees for 1948 was announced. Dr. P. Honic, com- missioner of the Board for the Netherlands- Indies, Surinam, and Curacao, spoke on Agriculture and nutrition in the Netherlands Indies. 550TH MEETING The 550th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 11, 1948. Dr. C. B. Purvss, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, spoke on The distribution of unsubstituted hy- droxyl groups vn some technical cellulose acetates and ethers. 551st MEETING The 55l1st meeting and the annual dinner of the Society were held at the Y.W.C.A. on March 11, 1943. The Hillebrand Prize for 1942 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was awarded to J. F. Scuarrer, of the Geo- physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, in recognition of his work on phase relations in silicate systems. Dr. N. L. Bowen, of the University of Chicago, spoke on High temperature chemistry of the silicates. 552p MEETING The 552d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 8, 1948. Dr. R. W. Catrns, di- rector of the Experiment Station, Hercules Powder Co., addressed the Society on The properties of explosives. 5538p MEETING The 553d meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences in the audi- torium of National Museum on April 22, 1943. Dr. Linus Pautine, of the California Institute of Technology, spoke on Chemical studies of the structure of antibodies. 554TH MEETING The 554th meeting was held at the Catholic University of America on May 13, 1943. At the conclusion of a general meeting, the following divisional meetings were held: Biochemistry, J. P. GREENSTEIN, presiding The effect of dietary deficiency of certain B vitamins on the growth of tumors. Haroup P. -Morrzis (National Cancer Institute). New tests in the guanidine field. M. X. SuLuI- VAN (Georgetown University). A histochemical analysis of thyroid colloid. I. Gersu (U. 8. Naval Hospital). Organic Chemistry, Howarp S. Mason, presiding The preparation of diazomethane. F. O. Ric, RaupeH Rosperts, and H. P. Warp (Catholic University). A survey of some researches on ketones and di- ketones. R. P. Banrnes (Howard University). Explanation of some reactions in the carbo- hydrate field by application of the concept of suc- cessive electron displacement. H. S. IsBEuy (National Bureau of Standards). Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, H. P. Warp, presiding The electron microscope in ceramics. H. F. McMourpie (National Bureau of Standards). Separation of small amounts of chromium from vanadium with ethyl acetate. Marcaret D. Foster (U. 8. Geological Survey). VOL. 34, No. 2 Determination of glass in Portland cement. ARMIN W. Heuz (National Bureau of Stand- ards). Physical Chemistry, DARRELL V. SICKMAN, presiding The effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on overvoltage. G. E. KimBautui (Columbia Uni- versity). Calculation of vapor pressure. F. R. Br- CHOWSKY (Catholic University). Investigation of the structure of the wool fiber by the electron microscope. CHARLES W. Hock and H. F. McMuropie (Textile Foundation and National Bureau of Standards). 555TH MEETING The 555th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on October 14, 1943. Dr. H. Mark, of © the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, spoke on The elasticity of high polymers. 556TH MEETING The 556th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 11, 1948. Dr. H. A. Bru- son, Resinous Products and Chemical Co., spoke on Newer developments in phenolic- formaldehyde resins. The election of officers for 1944 was held with the following results: Presi- dent, E. R. Smiru; Secretary, M. M. Harine; Treasurer, L. A. SHrnn; Councilors, F. G. BRICKWEDDE, N. L. Drax, H. L. HALumr, R. M. Hann, 8. B. Henpricks, J. H. HIBBEN, B. H. Nicouet, I. C. ScHoonover, J. RK. Spires, M. X. Suuuivan, E. Wicuers; Man- agers, J. J. Fanny, R. Gitcurist, W. L. HALL, A. T. McPuerson, C. E. Wuirs, J. K. Wore. 557TH MEETING The 557th meeting was held at the George Washington University on November 24, 19438. After a general meeting, the following group meetings were held: Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding Chemistry of the castor bean allergen. JOSEPH R. Spizs and E. J. Couuson (Allergen Investi- gation, Agricultural Research Administration) The successful treatment of blood dyscrastas by a new member of the vitamin B complex. The reduction of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by tussues in vitro. BENTON B. WESTFALL (National Insti- tute of Health). Fup. 15, 1944 Organic Chemistry, W. Warp PieMan, presiding Precise macroanalysis of carbon and hydrogen by combustion. D. D. WaaMman and F. D. Ros- SINI (National Bureau of Standards). A study of the in vivo conversion of methionine to cystine by means of the carbon and sulphur isotopes. G. KinmMErR (University of Maryland). Choice of reagents in the Diels-Alder synthesis of compounds with angle groups. L. W. Butz, M. Orcuin, W. Nupenserec, B. M. Gappis, and E. W. J. Burz (Bureau of Animal In- dustry). A probable relationship between turanose and maltose. C. S. Hupson (National Institute of Health). Acetolysis of trimethylene-d-mannitol; 2,5- Methylene-d-Mannitol. A. T. Nuss, R. M. Hann, and C. 8. Hupson (National Institute of Health). Physical Chemistry, F. D. Rossrn1, presiding Significance of internal structure in gelatiniz- ing silicate minerals. K. J. Murata (U. 8. Geo- logical Survey). Standards for pH determinations. RocEr G. Batss (National Bureau of Standards). Time-temperature freezing and melting curves. Aucustus R. Guascow, Jr., Wutuiam J. OBITUARIES 63 TayYLor, and FrepERICcK D. Rossini (National Bureau of Standards). Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, RALEIGH GILCHRIST, presiding Determination of boron in steel and tron by the distillation-titration (Chapin) method. Joun L. Hacue (National Bureau of Standards). Determination of beryllium in ores. ROLLIN E. STEVENS and MaxweLu K. Carron (U. S. Geological Survey). Analytical separations by means of controlled hydrolytic precipitation. RALEIGH GILCHRIST (National Bureau of Standards). 558TH MEETING The 558th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the National Museum on December 9, 1943. Dr. R. D. Cocuttt, of the Northern Regional Research Laboratory, spoke on Fer- mentation as a tool in the industrial uttlization of farm products. Dr. C. A. Browne, of the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chem- istry, addressed the Society in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of its affiliation with the American Chemical Society. EpGar REYNOLDS SmiTH, Secretary @Obituaries AEs HrpuicKa, founder of physical anthro- pology in America, former president of this ACADEMY, and one of the world’s foremost anthropologists, died in Washington on Sep- tember 5, 1943. Born at Humpolec, Bohemia, March 29, 1869, he came to the United States at the age of 13. In 1892 he graduated from the Helectic Medical College, New York City, and in 1894 from the New York Homeopathic Medical College. In 1894 he became research interne at the State Hospital for the Insane, Middletown, N. Y., and in 1896 was appointed associate in anthropology at the Pathological Institute of the New York State Hospitals. Hrdlicka’s studies of the American Indian began in 1898 with an expedition to Mexico. From 1899 to 1902 he made trips to the South- west and Mexico for the American Museum of Natural History. In 1903 Dr. Hrdli¢ka came to the National Museum as an assistant curator to establish a Division of Physical Anthropology. In 1910 he became curator of the division, a position re- tained until 1941 when he retired to continue his research as associate in anthropology. To enumerate the accomplishments of Dr. Hrd- li¢ka’s long and fruitful career and to record the profound influence he exerted on physical anthropology would require far more space than is available here. He published more than 350 books and articles. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and numerous other American and foreign societies. He received the honorary degree of D. Nat. Sc. from Briinn University in 1926 and Se.D. from Charles Uni- versity, Prague, in 1929. Dr. Hrdlitka’s anthropological studies took him to many parts of the world. The thousands of skulls and skeletons he brought back to the National Museum form the nucleus of one of 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the world’s greatest collections of human skeletal material. His six Catalogs of human crania in the United States National Museum collections, presenting measurements on about 7,000 non-White crania, constitute one of the most valuable sources of basic anthropometric data in existence. The seventh catalog, now in press, records measurements on 600 skulls ex- cavated on Kodiak and the Aleutian Islands and comparable data on prehistoric and modern Siberian crania measured on his last trip to Russia in 1939. This is but one of the notable results accruing from Dr. Hrdlicka’s ten expeditions to Alaska between 1926 and 1938. His volume, The old Americans, 1925, a physical study of over 1,000 white Americans whose ancestors for three or more generations had been born in this country, is the most important study of its kind that has been made. Hrdli¢ka’s interest in the origin and an- tiquity of the Indian led to critical examination of numerous finds of alleged geologically ancient man in America (Skeletal remains at- tributed to early man in America, 1907; Early man wn South America, 1912; and others to 1937). In each instance his verdict was the same—a vigorous denial of antiquity. This un- compromising viewpoint was not relaxed even in the light of numerous discoveries. in the West showing association of man with fossil -vertebrates. He made many trips to Europe and other parts of the world to examine sites and physical remains of paleolithic man (The most ancient skeletal remains of man, 1914; The skeletal re- mains of early man, 1930). He maintained that Neanderthal man was ancestral to Homo sapiens, in opposition to the prevailing theory that the Neanderthalers were a collateral branch that disappeared on the advent of modern man. His theory is supported by the recent discovery of paleolithic remains in Palestine that are intermediate in many re- spects between Neanderthal and modern man. In 1927 he received the Huxley Medal and presented the Huxley Memorial Lecture before the Royal Anthropological Society of Great Britain on The Neanderthal phase of man. In 1918 Dr. Hrdlicka founded the American Journal of Physical Anthropology and was VOL. 34, NO. 2 largely responsible for establishing the Ameri- can Association of Physical Anthropologists in 1928. The 1940 volume of the Journal was published in his honor, on his 70th birthday. In Czechoslovakia a similar honor was be- stowed by another journal he had helped to establish, Anthropologie, the 1929 volume of which was issued in commemoration of his 60th birthday. In 1896 Dr. Hrdlitka married Marie S. Dieudonnee, who died in 1918. In 1920 he married Mina Mansfield, who survives him. Henry B. Couuins, Jr. ALLEN CULLING CLARK, member of this AcapEMY and one of its vice-presidents for many years, died on May 16, 1943. He was born in Philadelphia, Pa. on February 23, 1858, of New England parentage and became a resident of the District of Columbia when his family moved here in 1863. Educated in the District public schools and graduated in law from the National University Law School, he was admitted to the Bar of the District shortly after his twenty-first birthday. In 1885 his vision of the future of insurance led him to found a company in West Virginia that later became the Equitable Life Insurance Co., of Washington. As secretary of this firm he worked long and earnestly for its growth, the entire financial policy being largely directed and controlled by him. Mr. Clark had a sustained interest in histo- rical research. Besides being the author of four books, he wrote about 40 historical papers, nearly all of which were published in the Rec- ords of the Columbia Historical Society. He took great care to ensure that his historical publications were accurate. Although his liter- ary style was regarded as being that of an in- dividualist, yet it did catch and hold the inter- est of the reader. He was honored each year beginning in 1916 by being elected president of the District of Columbia Historical Society. He was also a member of the Maryland, Vir- ginia, and Mississippi Valley Historical Socie- ties. Mr. Clark married Sarah Pearce, who died in 1910. There were four children, all of whom are living. * } i le CONTENTS Botrany.—Three new oe of “4 Leophila from Colombia and } Br ritish Honduras. Wr.iiam R. MAXON 7 tee west Pacific. Epwarp G. rae lec a. ZooLocy.—Nemerteans from fhe northwest coast of Greenland and other Arctic seas. Wersiey R. COB. eee eee This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals . Vou. 34 Marcu 15, 1944 No. 3 JOURNAL OF THE OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS G. ArtHuR CooPrER Lewis V. Jupson Haraup A. REHDER U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS FRANK C. KraceK ALAN STONE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Ira B. HANSEN Raupu W. ImMiay BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY . AuBEerT E. LoNGLEY Wiuuram N. Fenton A es BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 4 vier, » ? Pe x Wisik 4 JAMES I]. Horrman t. sou ae CHEMICAL SOCIETY /, ~~ \ as WN —_ x Va Ty ce Eu) . a ; anijot eo PUBLISHED MONTHLY SONAL MUS Lae agi pale BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Auwarp ST. aT MmNaSHA, WISCONSIN : Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized January 21, 1933. 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Brick WEppB, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappiere, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: Narnan R. Smita, Bureau of Plant Industry. ey Custodian of Publications: Franx M. Serzter, a a National JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 Marcu 15, 1944 No. 3 ETHNOLOGY .—The requickening address of the Iroquois condolence council.” J. N. B. Hewirt, late ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology. (Edited by WitiiamM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology.) INTRODUCTION [As originally organized the presentation of the Requickening Address was postponed by an extended discussion of the League of the Iroquois, Deganawi’dah its founder, and an organic theory of social organization that seeks to explain certain characteristics of Iroquois social institutions, such as con- federation, family, kin, clan, moiety, tribe, chiefship, and clan apportionment by tribe, the status of Iroquois woman, and the meaning of the symbolic council fire. These subjects, while pertinent to an understand- ing of Iroquois society, do not bear directly on the subject and appear therefore as ex- planatory notes after the text, while the discussion of the Condolence and Installa- tion Ceremony itself is retained as introduc- tion. Those readers who feel the need of background material on the League of the Iroquois may profit by reading the explana- tory notes before plunging into the subject itself. ] 1 Received November 26, 1943. 2? The manuscript of this paper, originally en- titled ‘‘The Requickening Address, or Fifteen Burdens, the Third Ritual of the Convocation to Condole the Dead Federal Chieftains (Yaa’nehr (M.) ) and Install Candidates for Chiefship in the Council of the Iroquois League,”’ is a revision of Mr. Hewitt’s article ‘The Requickening Address of the League of the Iroquois” in the Holmes An- niversary Volume (1916), and it had been sub- mitted for publication in 1936 shortly before his death. In later years, however, Hewitt’s style, which had always been characterized by indirec- tion and an attempt to translate Iroquois ideology into English that gradually acquired private meanings, had become so involved that many of his sentences needed recasting for reading. In the spring of 1939, shortly after I joined the Bureau of American Ethnology, the manuscript was turned over to me for revision. Aside from style, the text raised many points that needed clarifying in the 65 The Requickening Address, the subject of this paper, is the third of five essential rituals used in the Condolence Council, which is the tribal convocation for condol- ing deceased federal chieftains and installing candidates in the vacant chiefships. In the order of their first appearance in the cere- mony the five rituals of Condolence and Installation are: (1) Journeying on the trail, sometimes called the Eulogy or Roll Call of the Founders of the League; (2) Welcome at the Woods’ Edge; (3) Requick- ening; (4) Six Songs of Farewell; and (5) Over the Great Forest. The Requickening field to render the discussion intelligible to other students. Since I had not been so long steeped in Iroquoiana as Hewitt, I found it profitable during field trips spread over 1939-1943 to take up vari- ous points in the manuscript with the brothers Simeon and Hardy Gibson, sons of the Late Chief John Arthur Gibson and nephews of Cayuga Chief Abram Charles, Hewitt’s principal sources for the ceremonial texts. American ethnology should be grateful to the Gibson family for preserving these ancient political ceremonies. The editor acknowl- edges his gratitude for the help that present members of that family have extended him. Initialed footnotes are by the editor (W.N.F.) unless attributed to the author (J.N.B.H.). Para- graphs enclosed in brackets are condensations by the editor and opinions of his informants. The editor does not necessarily subscribe to all opin- ions of the author. Abbreviations employed to designate dialects of Iroquois are as follows: M., Mohawk; Oe., Oneida; Oa., Onondaga; C., Cayuga; and &., Seneca. The orthography of Iroquois words has been considerably simplified to eliminate dia- critical marks commonly used in phonetic tran- scription of Indian languages, except the stress mark and the apostrophe for the glottal stop. Vowels have their common continental values. When long they are doubled; followed by ‘‘n” they are nasalized; and double ‘‘nn”’ occurring in the middle of a word denotes nasalization of the preceding vowel followed by initial ‘‘n’”’ commenc- ing the following syllable-—W. N. Fenton. 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Address derives its distinctive name from its symbolic power and function of restoring life—requickening—through prescribed acts and set forms of words—to the dead chief in the person of a legally chosen clansman; and the name also derives from its ascribed power to requicken and heal the sorely wounded body and soothe the grief-stricken mind of a sorrowing cousin phratry of tribes; and this end is accomplished by raising up or installing a clansman of the deceased who shall bear the same official name and live instead of the dead lawgiver. Thus in the civil polity of the Iroquois peoples an office never dies; only its bearer dies. The name is one; the bearers are many. Thus the five rituals for Condolence and Installation of chiefs comprised an institu- tion of vital importance for maintaining the integrity and efficient functioning of the Iroquois state. It must be remembered, however, that this great convention of tribes was in no sense a funeral ceremony, since the dead officers had already been buried with fitting rites; but it was rather a memorial service for the honored dead, a fitting preparation of the mourners and of their unscathed cousin tribes for celebrating the investiture of candidates chosen for preferment. When all sorrow had been wiped away, the new candidate was shown and the antlers of office were placed on his head. Then followed a feast and a social dance, known as “rubbing their antlers together.” Power of the condolence ritual.—The Iro- quois conception of the state, composed of statesmen and stateswomen and expressed in the ordinances of the League, required that the number of federal chiefs constitut- ing the federal council should be maintained undiminished. And the elders, chiefs, and matrons of the Iroquois tribes looked to the orenda, or mystic power, which they be- lieved was inherent in the words of the chants and in the rituals of condolence and installation themselves, for the preservation of their political integrity and welfare. The founders of the Iroquois League [whom Hewitt called prophet-statesmen], or at least their descendants, thought that this ceremony was so laden with magic power, which was useful in achieving welfare and VOL. 34, No. 3 yet so uncontrollable and sinister when evoked out of season, that it was believed imperative to hold this solemn assembly only in autumn or in winter. This was be- “cause the rites were so deeply concerned with the dead and with the powers that quicken and preserve the living from the hostile activities of the Great Destroyer that it was thought that the rites might be deadly and destructive to growing seeds and plants and maturing fruits, should their per- formance occur during spring or summer, the period of rebirth and growth. Their purpose in part was to nullify and overcome the destructive powers of Nature and to re- store to its normal state the mystic potence of the stricken phratry of tribes. Indeed it was taught that the death of even one per- son weakened the orenda of the people, and naturally the death of a leader to whom the people looked for guidance was a much greater blow; and to restore the life of the people the several institutions for con- dolence and installation were devised to thwart the vicious assaults of death on the power of the people to live in health and peace. The Requickening Address is noteworthy and unique in several important aspects. It sheds light on the psychology, mental stamina, and imaginative powers of the teachers and leaders of the Iroquois tribes during the Stone Age of America. Briefly, it portrays in symbolic language the un- flinching mental courage and fortitude of these Indian state builders when sorely afflicted by the pain and sorrow occasioned by the death of respected leaders and when confronted with other imminent losses. The role of the condoling phratry—The Requickening Address dramatically por- trays the celebrant, in the person of the speaker, as gathering together the torn and scattered remains of the stricken phratry of tribes; as bringing back to the devastated hearth of their council fire, while their ad- versary Death, the Great-faceless, hovers above them, the scattered fire-brands (i.e., the living federal chiefs) which were dis- persed when the Great Destroyer in a rage kicked and stamped out the council fire with his feet; the speaker charges this being, who is a fiend by nature and who is faceless, Mak. 15, 1944 with having caused the present calamity; and he says that the grandfathers of the ancient times failed to recognize the linea- ments of his face, but the Great Destroyer is conceived as going about at all times with his club couched at the very top of men’s heads, and exulting: ‘It is I, I will destroy all things.’”’ Then the celebrant is portrayed as making preparations to undo and repair the destruction that this being has wrought; he pours the Water-of-pity down the mourner’s throat before him and rearranges the organs in his breast and wipes away the gall-colored spots of bitterness engendered by grief from within his body; and finally he declares to the mourner before him, ““Now, I have finished thy restoration. I now stand you back among the ranks of living men. Direct my eyes to the candidate to be installed. This is the sum of my words.” Thus, in highly redundant phrases, the Requickening Address paints in bold strokes the evils and wounds that daily befall a people—the calamitous effects of death’s power over the lives and welfare of the mourning phratry of tribes; and it affirms that by counteracting the effects of these evils it restores the dying people to new life in the person of their newly installed chief. Condolence law.—A fixed rule or regula- tion of the federal organization of the League was that in the event that one or more federal chiefs in either tribal phratry should die, the tribes of this moiety became mourners for a year, or until the vacant chiefships had been filled, in accordance with strict rules of civil and ritualistic pro- cedure that governed the proceedings of the Condolence Council. At that time it is the official duty of the ‘‘cousin”’ tribes, ‘‘the unscathed ones,”’ to perform the elaborate rites and ceremonies that are used to re- habilitate the mourning ‘“‘cousin” tribes stricken by death, who, during the mourn- ing period, can not, or may not, transact any public business. — | More simply stated, the above procedure ig reciprocity between moieties that ob- tains at the community and tribal level and is projected as custom law of the League. In the deaths of individuals, the clans of the opposite moiety to that of HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 67 which the deceased was a member invari- ably conduct the rites, and the clans of his phratry are likewise mourners. In the League, whole tribes play the roles of clans. |] The loss of one person from an Ohwachira (uterine or maternal family) is indeed great; and it was thought necessary to restore this loss by replacing the lost person by one or more persons, according as the deceased was of more or less importance and standing in the community. [This principle operated in the adoption of prisoners in ancient times, and it functioned in the succession of chiefs until recently. | In Iroquois polity it was not the duty of the members of the bereaved blood-kin group [bilateral family (Goldenweiser)], maternal family, or clan to effect this re- placement; but it was rather the duty and obligation of all those persons of alien ma- ternal families who are connected by mar- riage with the afflicted maternal family, and who are specifically called ronton’ni (masc. pl.), or sadon’ni (2d person sing.); the noun stem being -fon’nz, or -don’nt. [There is no term in the English language that satisfied Hewitt for translating this term, but Adon’ni means approximately “‘my father’s lineage.’’] [It is interesting and necessary, Hewitt thought, to submit tentatively the following definitions of the term: Adon’ni (in certain dialects the d is softened to t) denotes all tribes, the maternal families of whose clans have contracted marriage, through males, with the maternal family of ego. The group of which Adon’ni is a specific name includes all of the men and women of the maternal families, clans, and tribes, who have con- tracted marriage relationships with ego’s maternal family, and therefore it includes the father of ego. In other words, it is ego’s father’s lineage. This raises a nice theeretical point. If Hewitt’s definition of this term is carried to its logical conclusion, it sets up the con- ditions for original moiety exogamy among the Iroquois tribes, in which clan and phra- try (or moiety, for there are only two phra- tries) behave as if there were two intermar- rying lineages with maternal descent.| The articles of the ritual of the Requick- 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - ening Address end with this term, and so may be applied to either the Father side or the Mother side, the use of course depend- ing on the side from which the celebrant (speaker) of the ritual is chosen.’ It is thus seen that the translation of this term by ‘‘Father’s Brothers’”’ does not include all the persons named by it. The version of Chief John A. Gibson.— Sometimes the ritual has been recited in ‘blank verse”’ by the great native speakers of a past generation. [Hewitt had heard it so rendered, but the text from which he made the following translation is not in that form. The original is a carefully revised Onondaga Iroquois text, which was dictated to Hewitt by the late highly esteemed Federal Chief John Arthur Gibson, bearer of the chiefship title, Sganyadai’iyo’, ‘‘Handsome Lake,”’ the first title on the Seneca list, and repre- senting the Turtle clan. -At the time the dic- tation was made Chief Gibson had been completely blind for 24 years. During this time he had represented the Seneca of his maternal family in the Federal Council of the Six nations of the Iroquois on Grand River, Ontario, Canada. Born of a noble lineage, he became an astute and worthy expounder of the ideals of Deganawi’dah, founder of the League of the people of the Longhouse. Somewhat later, this text was revised with the aid of two other federal chiefs, Abram Charles (Cayuga), who died in 1929, and John Buck, Sr. (Onondaga), also de- ceased. Only minor corrections and amend- ments were found necessary. | Chief Gibson, a Seneca, who spoke On- ondaga or Cayuga equally well, was for years principal speaker for the Onondagas at all their ceremonies, and consequently he dictated the form of Requickening Address in use by his phratry, ‘‘the Three Brothers,” who are also called ‘‘Adon’ni,”’ and are com- posed of the Mohawk, Seneca, and Onon- daga tribes. By substituting the words ‘‘the 3 In actual practice, however, the term is cus- tomarily used by the Four Brothers’ side (Oneida, Cayuga, Tuscarora, and Tutelo) in addressing the Three Brothers’ side (Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) in this particular ceremony. Thus it ap- pears on the texts collected by Hewitt and Golden- wees and all of my informants affirm it.— VOL. 34, No. 3 Two Brothers,” i.e., the Oneida and Cayuga tribes, instead of the words ‘‘the Three Brothers,’ and also the word ‘‘My Child” or ‘‘My offspring,” and the kinship terms arising from this relationship, the form of this address would then be the one used by the tribal phratry, which Hewitt called Mother or Offspring, that the. Iroquois sometimes refer to as the Younger Brother Nations. [In modern times, since the admis- sion of the Tuscarora, Tutelo, Nanticoke, and Delaware tribes to the latter phratry of tribes, the phrase ‘‘the Four Brothers” has displaced that of ‘the Two Brothers,”’ which obtained until the beginning of the eighteenth century. | “Fifteen Matters.’’—In its full form the Requickening Address consists of 15 articles but only when condoling for a chief that was murdered. For an ordinary condolence only 14 articles are used; and so, commonly, it is called ‘““The Fourteen Matters.’’ These- are accompanied in delivery by 14 skeins or strings of wampum as attesting tokens, which the Onondaga call Ne’’Adon’daksh’ha@’, freely rendered, ‘“‘the Aittestations.” The Address is composed of two parts, the first part containing 3 and the second part 12 of the 15 burdens. The first part is spoken or intoned by an appointed speaker from the unscathed tribal phratry beside the temporary fire, which is lighted beside the thorny bushes which fringe the forest and cleared lands surrounding the lodge-of-as- sembly [longhouse]; whence its name, ‘““The fire-beside-the-thorny-shrubs”’ or sim- ply ‘‘At-the-woods’-edge.”’ The fire is kindled by a brand drawn from the prin- cipal-fire in the lodge-of-assembly by the bereaved tribal phratry for the express purpose of greeting the visiting tribal phra- try with the Chant of Welcome. Of course, either moiety of tribes may be in the role of the unscathed because at that time it is not in mourning. The three articles or burdens of the first part deal with the eyes, ears, and throat of the bereaved phratry and derive their names from their supposed function of restoring fully the faculties of seeing, hearing, and speaking, which had been destroyed or at least impaired by the shock of the chief’s dying. (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) Mar. 15, 1944 The late Cayuga Chief Abram Charles [who died February 14, 1929], was a pro- found student of the origin and laws and institutions of the League of the Iroquois. [Chief Charles was able to explain to Hew- itt’s satisfaction the actual or traditional facts underlying certain obscure rites and passages in the native records.] Chief Charles alone of all my native informants was able to give me, for example, the tra- ditional reason for kindling the temporary fire ‘‘Beside-the-thorny-bushes,’’ where the first three articles or burdens of the Re- quickening Address are intoned by a cele- brant for the unscathed phratry. It was after an acquaintance of more than 12 years that Chief Charles concluded that the writer [Hewitt] could appreciate the reasons for kindling this temporary fire “Beside the Thorny Bushes.”’ In reply to a question which had been asked in previous interviews, Chief Charles is quoted: In olden times when death had ruthlessly stricken a loved one, the nearest kindred would indulge in excessive, even frantic, expressions of grief, commonly casting herself on the hearth among the ashes which were thrown over the head and shoulders, there to mix with tears and drivel from the mouth and with blood oozing from many ‘lacerations on the body; there the mourner re- mained for long periods of time, until the bitter- ness of grief would in a measure become as- suaged. Naturally, a mourner in such condition would not be thought fit to appear in public at a formal assembly of chiefs of allied tribes. So by analogy, a tribe or phratry of tribes, which had lost its trusted leader, was likened to such a mourner writhing on her ash heap; and therefore, before taking a seat in a formal assembly at which repre- sentatives of neighbor peoples would be present, it was thought proper and neces- sary, as Chief Charles quaintly declared, “to clean up a little bit’’ by wiping away the tears, by dislodging the obstruction in the ears, and by clearing from the mourner’s throat the accumulated mucus and phlegm. Such, it seems, was the courtesy due to the afflicted mourning phratry. This closes the prescribed ceremonies ‘“‘Beside-the-thorny-shrubs,”” and then the two tribal phratries separately enter the HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 69 lodge-of-assembly (longhouse) from oppo- site sides, a warrior chief of the mourners leading the condolers by the arm. Then, after three other chants—Eulogy of the Founders, Six Songs, and Over the Great Forest— have been sung alternately by the two tribal moieties, then the twelve remain- ing articles or burdens of the Requickening Address are delivered; first by the condoling moiety and later by the mourners, when the wampum strings which accompany each “word” are returned across the fire. Each burden recites an injury to life but affirms its cure within the hour by virtue of the orenda, magic power, inherent in the rites and in the very words spoken by the cele- brant. For convenience, or by custom, when in- toning the 12 articles or burdens each mes- sage is accompanied by a string or skein of wampum beads; the first three should be attested likewise, but these confirming strings are customarily omitted from the ceremony, and on such occasions it is said, referring to this omission, ‘‘Our words are bare and clear.” All the five chants making up the cere- mony of condolence and installation are, with a single exception, the Eulogy, used in two parts, between which like parts of other chants are regularly interpolated. [Al- though this type of reciprocal singing, first by the leading moiety and then by the other moiety, is characteristic of other Iroquois ceremonies, this peculiar method of inter- locking the parts of these chants remained a moot question with Hewitt.| At least six hours of ceremonial activity intervene between the delivery of the Three Burdens of the first part At-the-Woods’- edge and the recitation of the Twelve Bur- dens of the second part of the Requickening Address. [Since the first part occurs third on the program, Hewitt called it the Third Chant; the second part, however, concludes the main features of the Condolence Coun- cil. There remain only the Installation, or | Charge to the New Chief, a terminal feast, and a social dance in the evening. | When the closing words of the Chant fo Welcome, solemnly congratulating the vis- iting cousin phratry for its safe arrival At- the-woods’-edge, have been intoned by the 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES appointed chanter in behalf of the be- reaved tribal phratry, then the chosen speaker for the unscathed tribal phratry, whose minds are filled with pity, stands be- VOL. 34, No. 3 side the ashes of the wayside fire-pit and intones the first three articles or burdens of the Requickening Address, called ‘“The Tears,” ‘‘The Ears,”’ and ‘‘The Throat.” TEXT OF THE REQUICKENING ADDRESS FIRST PART THE FIRST ARTICLE—TEARS: OR ONE’S EYES The Orator says: Oh, my offspring,‘ lo, verily, this present day, such as is this day in kind and aspect, He Himself, He the Finisher of our Faculties, He the Master of All [Dehayenhyaawa’gih] (He the Sky rememberer), has made. Even He has prepared the light of this day, such as it is (I say). Now therefore, they who are customarily called the Three Brothers are journeying along the path of the Ritual as it was prepared for us by our forefathers upon whom our minds rested in confidence (I say). : It is that, therefore, that brings their persons here, the calamity, so hopeless and dreadful, which has befallen thy person, this one (in- dicating), thou whom I have held in my bosom, thou noble one [Sayaa’neh Federal Chief] the two of you who are the Two Brothers (The Oneida and the Cayuga) (I say). It is that, therefore, as to that, verily, this present day, I thrust aside the door-flap from the place where thou art lying as an object that is black; it is that in the midst of great darkness thou art sitting too prone in grief, thy back alone visible in the thick darkness (I say). Thou whom I have weaned. | It is that, therefore, that I shall stoop low there at the edge of thy ash-pit, grasping my knees, and that, therefore, I shall utter such words that I shall with them soothe and appease by caresses any displeasure of thy guardian spirit (I say). It is that, therefore, that I come for the sake of my Offspring (i.e., the mother’s side) (I say)). Itis that, therefore, that this present day, we, thou and I, seat outselves side by side, and that, therefore, it is here in the very midst of very many tears (I say). It is that, therefore, that the cause of it, indeed, of the dreadful thing that has stricken thy person, this one (indicating), thou noble 4 Cayuga say: howeyanen’don’. one whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). It is that, therefore, that now today has been caused to be vacant the seat of husk matting, the place whereon he who was a co-worker with thee, and upon whom rested the eyes of the wise minds in full confidence, was wont to be seated (I say). It is that, therefore, that has caused it to be so, the being that is demonic in itself, the being that is faceless because its lineaments were un- known to our ancestors, the Great Destroyer that it is, which every day and every night roams about with its weapon couched, yea, uplifted, at the very tops of our heads, wherein it and its kind desiring it, and so they severely boast “It is I, I will destroy all things, even the Commonwealth of the League”’ (I say). It is that, therefore, that there it delivered a vital stroke whereby it snatched away from thee one in whom thou didst trust for words of wisdom and comfort; and now in his turn it has borne him away, it may be indeed, now, there- fore, today, thou dwell amidst many tears (I say). It is that, therefore, oh, thou my offspring, thou yaa’nehr (thou Federal Chief), are not thy Father’s blood-kin, the Three Brothers, making their preparations, and now, therefore, let them say ‘‘Now do we pass our hands through thy tears in sympathy; now, we wipe away the tears from thy face, using the white fawn-skin of pity.’’? Now, therefore, let them say, ‘‘We have wiped away thy tears.’ Now, therefore, in peace of mind, thou wilt continue to look around thyself, enjoying again the light of the day. Now, also, thou wilt again be- hold what is taking place on the earth, whereon is outspread the handiwork of the Master of All Things. Now also thou wilt again see thy sister’s sons and daughters (thy nephews and nieces), as they move about thy person, even to the least of them, the infants. Now, thou wilt see them all again (I say). Now, therefore verily, thou wilt again do your thinking in peace, this one, my offspring, ad ma ‘ Beas Sr te ree Mar. 15, 1944 thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), thou whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). Enough, therefore, verily, that even for one brief day, also in peace, mayst thou do thy thinking (I say). Thus, perhaps, let them do, The Three Brothers, who had been so called ever since the establishment of their affairs (the institution of the League) (I say). Now, therefore, do thou know, this one, my weanling, that now the Word (attested by wampum strings) of thy Adon’nz is on its way hence to thee. (Fig. 1.) THE SECOND ARTICLE—THE EARS: HEARING Oh, my offspring, there is a different matter, and we will say as we continue to speak that it comes to pass where a great.calamity has be- fallen one’s person that the passages of the ears become obstructed and the hearing is lost. One then hears not the sounds made by mankind, nothing of what is taking place on the earth. It is that, therefore, that this dreadful thing has indeed befallen thy person, thou my wean- ling, thou, you Two Brothers (I say), thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief). | Is it not then true that what has befallen thy person is so calamitous that it must not be neglected? Indeed, now thou hearest nothing of the sounds made by mankind as they move to and fro about thy person, nor anything of what is taking place on the earth. Now, there- fore, let the Three Brothers say, ‘‘We have made our preparations, and so we proceed to restore thy person by removing the obstacles obstructing the passages of thy ears.’’ Now, therefore, thou wilt again hear when one will address words to thee on whatever matter it may be, words which may be directed to thee personally, thou yaa/nehr (Federal Chief), and next in order, the sounds made by thy sister’s sons and daughters (thy nephews and nieces), moving around thy person. Now, thou wilt again hear all things, also all that is taking place on the earth, all these things thou wilt again hear. And, now, also thou wilt be able to hear clearly when we Three Brothers address you ceremonially in the Chief Place (I say). It is that, therefore that we do this that even for one brief day also in peace, mayst thou do thy thinking, thou, my offspring, thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), thou, my weanling (I say). HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS fal Thus, perhaps, let them do, the Three Brothers, who had been so denominated ever since the establishment of their affairs (namely, the institution of the League) (I say). Now, therefore, do thou know, this one, my weanling, that now the Word (attesting wam- pum strings) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence (to thee) (I say). (Fig. 2.) THE THIRD ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE THROAT Oh, my offspring, there is still another matter to be considered now, and we will say, as we continue speaking, that it comes to pass where a great misfortune has befallen a person, where the Great Destroyer has been harshly cruel, that the throat of the flesh-body becomes sorely obstructed, so that then it is plainly to be seen that the vitality of the person’s life has become lessened, also that of the mind of that person (I say). Verily, therefore, this has happened to thy person, this one, my offspring, thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), this one, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom. Is it not then the fact that what has befallen thy person is so dreadful that it must not be neglected? Is it not true that thy flesh-body has become choked up? Now, verily, thou canst breathe only with great difficulty, also thou art not able to say anything except in distress. Now, therefore, surely the powers of thy life are greatly weakened by it (I say). Now, then, verily, let the Three Brothers de- clare: We have now made our preparations, and now, therefore, we remove from thy throat of thy flesh-body again the throttling obstruc- tions (I say). Now, verily, again thou wilt breathe with ease and comfort, and now, too, thou wilt again move thy members with ease (I say). Now, too, thou wilt again speak with pleasure when soon we, thou and I, will mutually greet each other in the Chief Place (I say). It is that, therefore, that we do this, that even for one brief day, and also in perfect peace, mayst thou do thy thinking, thou my offspring, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), this one (in-— dicating) whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). In this manner, perhaps, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since the time they had established their Commonwealth, do this (I say). 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Now, therefore, my weanling know it, that the Word (attesting wampum strings) of thy Father’s Kinsmen, is on its way hence (to thee) (I say). This is the sum of our words at this place. (Fig. 3.) (Remember that these three articles of the Requickening Address are delivered at the rites which take place at the Fire-kindled-near- the-thorny-bushes, marking the limits be- tween the forest and the clearing surrounding the Lodge of Assembly, usually called, ‘““The- fire-beside-the-thorns.”’ The remaining 12 arti- cles, except one, are reserved for later presenta- tion in the Lodge of Assembly, as already ex- plained above. The article omitted is the one used only in case of a murder.) SECOND PART THE FOURTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: WITHIN HIS BREAST The Orator of the unscathed visiting tribal sisterhood now continues: Oh, my offspring, now there is still another thing that ever occurs wherever and whenever a great calamity has befallen a person; verily, this affliction comes when the being demonic of itself, the Faceless One, the lineaments of whose face our ancestors failed to discern, the Great Destroyer, puts forth excessive ferocity against one. It is ever true -that the organs within the breast and the flesh-body are disordered and violently wrenched without ceasing, and so also is the mind, Now, verily, therefore, there always develop yellow spots within the body. Verily, now, the life forces of the sufferer always become weakened thereby. This ever takes place when the Great Destroyer puts forth excessive ferocity against one in causing such great affliction (I say). Oh, my offspring, thou art now such a suf- ferer, Oh, my offspring, verily, in this manner too thou hast suffered this affliction, this one, thou yaa’nehr (thou Federal Chief) (I say). ~ Isnot what has befallen thee then so dreadful that it must not be neglected? For, at the present time, there are wrenchings without ceasing within thy breast, and also within thy mind. Now truly, the disorder now among the organs within thy breast is such that nothing can be clearly discerned. So great has been the affliction that has befallen thee that yellow spots have developed within thy body,® and truly thy life forces have become greatly VOL. 34, NO. 3 weakened thereby; truly thou dost now suffer (I say). It is that, therefore, that in ancient times it thus came to pass that the hodiyaane’hshon’, the Federal Chiefs, our grandsires, made a formal rule, saying, ‘‘Let us unite our affairs; let us formulate regulations; let us ordain this among others that what we shall prepare we will designate by the name, The Water-of-pity (Djawakahon’den’) and which shall be the es- sential thing to be used where Death has caused this dreadful affliction, inducing bitter grief.” And, so, in whatever place it may be that such a tragedy will befall a person, it shall be the duty of him whose mind is left wnscathed by it to take up and make use of the ‘“‘ Water- of-pity,’’ so denominated by us, by taking it in hand, and then by pouring it down the throat of the one on whom the great affliction has fallen; and, it shall be that when the ‘‘ Water- of-pity’’ shall have permeated the inside of his body, it will at once begin the work of re- organizing all the many things there which have been disarranged and disordered by the shock of the death, not only in his body but also in his mind; and it will also remove utterly all the yellow (gall) spots from his throat and from the inside of his body (I say).® Oh, my offspring, this great tragedy has be- fallen thee too. Do thou know it, therefore, that now the Three Brothers so called from the beginning have made their preparations. Now, verily, therefore, they take up the ‘‘Water-of- pity’? and now, then, let them say, We now pour into thy body the ‘‘Water-of-pity.” Oh, my offspring, it shall, therefore, come to pass when this ‘‘Water-of-pity”’ settles down in thy body it shall at once begin the work of re- storing to order the organs which have been disarranged and disordered in thy body, and will bring order to thy mind also; all things will be restored and readjusted, and also all the yellow (gall) spots in thy body will be severally cleared away from thy body; now, therefore, 5 These yellow spots are symptoms of “gall trouble” for which the prog regularly take emetics in springtime.—W.N.F. 6 The ‘‘Water-of-pity”’ that is poured down the mourner’s throat is consonant with other Iro- quois medical practice. The midwife drops an infusion of poplar bark down the baby’s throat to purge its bowels, and the council of animals cure the good hunter by dropping the sacred Little eee Medicine down his throat and revive him. —W.N.F. Mar. 15, 1944 all things shall be in good condition as to the powers of thy life. Then, therefore, there will be health and comfort in thy life (I say). Thus, therefore, for one brief little day mayst thou think thy thoughts in peace, thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). In this manner, then, it may be, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they established their Commonwealth expedite this matter (I say). Now, therefore, do thou know it, thou noble one, thou whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’nt is now on its way hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 4.) THE FIFTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE BLOODY HUSK-MAT BED Now, Oh, my offspring, there is still another matter to be considered at this time. It is this, that it invariably comes to pass where a great calamity has befallen a person that a trail of blood is smeared over the husk- mat couch of that person. Now, invariably of course that one’s place of rest is not at all pleasant, sitting cross-legged in wretchedness (I say). Thus, therefore, art thou stricken in thy person in this very manner, Oh, my offspring, whom I have been wont to hold in my, bosom, thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief). Is not then what has befallen thy person so dreadful that it must not be neglected? Now, at this time is there not a trail of blood smeared over thy husk-mat couch? Today, thou dost writhe in the midst of blood (I say). Now, therefore do thou know it, that the Three Brothers have made their preparations, that now, therefore, let them say it, ‘‘Now, théh, we wipe away the several bloody smears from thy husk-mat resting place. That, therefore, we have employed the skin of the spotted fawn (=words of pity and comfort) to wipe away the bloody trails from thy husk-mat” (I say). That that, therefore, shall come to pass, there will be a day at some future time when our minds shall again be parted. And that that shall be, therefore, when thou shalt arrive again where thy husk-mat couch is, it shall be in the highest degree peaceful and pleasant HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 73 when thou wilt resume thy seat where thou art wont to rest (I say). Thus, therefore, may it be that for the one poor brief day, also in peace, thou mayst carry on thy thinking in contentment, this noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). In this manner, perhaps, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since their Com- monwealth was completed, do this. Now, therefore, do thou know it, Oh, my offspring, that the Word (attesting wampum ° string) of thy Adon’nz is on its way thence to thee (I say). (Fig. 5.) * THE SIXTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE DARKNESS OF GRIEF?’ Now, Oh, my offspring, there is still another matter to be considered at this time. It is this, that where a direful thing befalls a person, that person is invariably covered with darkness, that person becomes blinded with thick darkness itself. It is always so that the person knows not any more what the daylight is like on the earth, and his mind and life are weakened and depressed (I say). This very thing, then, has befallen thee, my weanling, thou noble one (Federal Chief), whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom. Is not then what has befallen thy person so direful that it must not be neglected? Now, therefore, at this time thou art become thick darkness itself in thy grief. Now, thou knowest not anything of the quality of the light of day on the earth (I say). Now, Oh, my offspring, do thou know it, that now the Three Brothers have made their preparations, and now, therefore, let them say, “Now therefore, we make it daylight again for thee. Now, most pleasantly will the daylight continue to be beautiful when again thou wilt look about thee whereon is outspread the handi- work of the Finisher of our Faculties on the face of the earth” (I say). Thus, therefore, for one brief little day mayst thou think thy thoughts in peace, thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), my weanling (I say). In this manner, then, perhaps, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they estab- 7 When a chief dies, everything gets dark, hence the ‘‘Deep Darkness” of grief is as the night.— S. Grpson. ~ 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lished their Commonwealth, effect this matter (I say). Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- spring, thou noble one, thou whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 6.) THE SEVENTH ARTICLE OR_ BURDEN: THE LOSS OF THE SKY _ Oh, my offspring, now there is another mat- ter to be considered at this time. It is that, then, that where a great calamity has befallen a person it invariably comes to pass that the sky is lost to the senses of that person; invariably he does not know anything of what is taking place in it (I say). Verily, my offspring, this very thing has be- fallen thy person, thou noble one, thou yaa’ nehr (Federal Chief). Verily, then is not what has befallen thy person not to be neglected? Now, therefore, the sky is completely lost to thy view. Now, thou dost know nothing of what is taking place in the sky (I say). So, now, therefore, do thou know it, that now the Three Brothers have made their preparations, and now then let them say, “Now, then, we beautify again the sky for you. It shall now continue to be beautiful. Now, thou wilt do thy thinking in peace when thy eyes will rest on the sky. The Perfector of our Faculties, the Master of All Things, intended that it should be the source of happiness to mankind” (I say). Thus, therefore, for one brief little day, also in peace, mayst thou do thy thinking, thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), my offspring (I say). In this manner, perhaps, let them do it, the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they had established their Commonwealth (I say). Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- spring, that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Father’s blood kin is going hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 7.) THE EIGHTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: ' HIS SUN IS LOST Oh, my offspring, now there is still another matter for serious thought. Thus it invariably comes to pass where a great calamity has be- fallen a person that the Sun is lost to that per- VOL. 34, NO. 3 son’s senses. Then such a person knows nothing about the movements of the Sun, nothing of its drawing nearer and nearer to him; he is then in darkness (I say). This very thing, therefore, has happened to thee, my weanling, thou noble one, thou yaa’- nehr (Federal Chief). The Sun is now lost to thee. Verily, then, is not what has befallen thy person not to be neglected? No more art thou aware of the movements of the Sun, nothing of its drawing nearer and nearer to thee (I say). So, now therefore, do thou know it, that the Three Brothers have made their preparations. Now, then, let them say it, ““Now, we attach the Sun again in its place for thee; that then shall come to pass when the time shall come for the dawning of a new day, that verily thou shalt see the Sun when it shall come up out of the horizon, when, indeed, our Elder Brother (The Sun), who lights up the earth shall come over it’’ (I say). ) Thus, then, my offspring, thy eyes shali rest on it as it draws ever closer to thee. That, therefore, when the Sun shall reach, or place itself in mid-heaven then around thy person rays or haloes of light will abundantly appear. Then, indeed, shall thy mind resume its wonted moods; then also wilt thou remember the many things of whatsoever kind they may be, per- taining to the welfare of thy people, thy chil- dren, and thy grandchildren, matters, indeed, in which thou hadst been toiling (I say). Thus, then, may it be, that for one brief little day thou mayst do thy thinking in peace, thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), thou my weanling (I say). In this manner, therefore, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since the insti- tution of their Commonwealth, do this. Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- spring, that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 8.) THE NINTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE HEAP OF CLAY ON THE GRAVE! Oh, my offspring, now, again, there is an- other matter for consideration. Now, this other 8 This refers to the mound of freshly upturned earth or clay over a new grave. Chief Charles gave the Onondaga form heyo’dadgwaiin’da’; Cayuga is heyo’daa’gwa’ont. Simeon Gibson thought it odd of his uncle to confuse the two forms. Symbolizing death, the string is entirely black. es ae = ees te te Mar. 15, 1944 things concerns the course of action caused in a case where a great tragedy has stricken a per- son, where it occurred with outrageous harsh- ness, for invariably the mind of that person is simply tossed and tormented on the grave of him in whom he fondly trusted. So then this self-same thing has happened to thee, thou noble one, thou yaa/nehr (Federal Chief). Now, it is that thy mind is simply lying there on the grave of the one whom thou didst trust. Is not what has befallen thee so serious that it must not be neglected? So, therefore, do thou know it, that the Three Brothers have completed their preparations, and let them say, ‘““We now level the rough ground over the grave of him in whom thou didst fondly trust.”’ Now, then, they place over it a fine slab of wood, and now too they pull up several kinds of grasses which they will cast on it for, truly, there are two different things that always take place dur- ing the days and during the nights; one is that it may become very hot, but now it will then not reach into the place where his corpse lies; the other is that it may rain heavily, but now it will then not reach the place where his bones lie (I say). And so the bones of him on whom thou didst fondly trust shall rest peacefully and un- disturbed (I say). (Fig. 9.) THE TENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE INTERPOLATED CLAUSE: TWENTY IS THE PENALTY FOR HOMICIDE? | And, more than this, we now restore thy land to orderliness, and now the Three Brothers say, “We have pity for your lost homeland. Now, we rush forward, throwing ourselves here and there, in that we may now gather together again thy other bones, so widely scattered as they have been by the Being Malefic in Itself, the Being that is Faceless—the Being that is the Great Destroyer—Death”’ (I say). More than this (I say), that our departed grandsires made a ruling, in that they said that twenty (strings of wampum) shall be the value of this [i.e., a death by murder], at that price did they fix it, in that they denominated it by this: That it shall be worth (or valued at) twenty (strings of wampum); they declared that one shall bind their bones thereby [i.e., to keep them from being murdered by a clan or tribal enemy] (I say). ° Cf. Hewitt, The Requickening Address of the League of the Iroquois, p. 174. 1916. HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS ma Do thou know it, furthermore, this one (indi- cating), my offspring, that now, do not the Three Brothers take that up now, and that now, completing their preparations, let them say it, ‘‘Now, we bind thy bones one and all, restating the value of twenty (strings of wam- pum) on them” (I say). Now, then my offspring, thou wilt again do thy thinking in peace in future. Thus, there- fore, let it be, that for one brief little day thou mayst do thy thinking in peace and content- ment. In this manner, therefore, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they had established their commonwealth, do this (heal- ing act) (I say). And, now, my offspring, do thou know it, that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 10.) THE ELEVENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE COUNCIL FIRE Now, another thing (I say): That our grand- sires, now long dead, and in whom our minds rested in trust, decreed, because they did not know its face, the face, indeed, of that Being that abuses us every day, every night, that Be- ing of Darkness, lying hard by the lodges where it is black night, yea, that Being which here at the very tops of our heads, goes about menac- ing with its couched weapon—with its uplifted hatchet—eagerly muttering its fell purpose, “‘I, I will destroy the Work—the Commonwealth,” they decreed, I say, that therefore they would call it the Great Destroyer, the Being Without a Face, the Being Malefic in Itself, i.e., Death. More than this it has already done; it has put forth its lethal power there in thy frail lodge of bark, this one (indicating), my weanling, my offspring, thou noble one, and so snatching therefrom one on whom thou didst depend for words of wisdom and kindly service. And so now, at this very moment, there is in that lodge of bark a vacant mat because of this - stroke. And, in striking this cruel blow, it scattered the Fire-brands (i.e., the yaa’nehr or the Fed- eral Chiefs) widely asunder from the place where thou art wont to kindle thy (Council) Fire, and, now, more than this, the Great De- stroyer has danced exultingly stamping that hearth under foot. 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Thou sittest there now with bowed head; thou no longer dost meditate on anything whatsoever of thy former affairs—wherein thou wast laboring for thy niece and for thy nephew, i.e., the men and the women of thy people; yea, for thy children, and also for thy grandchildren, who run about thy sides, and for these also who are still swathed to cradle-boards, and also for those children who, still unborn, whose faces, still underground, are coming toward thee; yea, for these warriors and for these women; that is the extent, indeed, of the solicitude and vigilant ~ care which were in the hands of him, thy uncle —thy mother’s brother—who has departed, while he labored for their daily welfare, and who at this moment is floating away far home- ward (I say). $0, now, do thou know it, this one, thou yaa'nehr, my offspring, thou noble one, that the Three Brothers have perfected their prepara- tions, and so let them say it, ‘‘Now, we gather again the scattered Fire-brands [i.e., the Fed- eral Chiefs], and now, indeed, do we rekindle the (Council) Fire for thee. And now, in fact, verily, the smoke shall rise again, and that smoke [=the business of the Council] will be fine, and it will even pierce the sky.”’ So, now again, the eyes of the peoples—alien to us, perhaps—shall see again, also, the full number of our Council Fires [i.e., the tribal governments]. . Now, again, indeed, we raise thee up to full stature, erect among thy people. We also cheer up thy mind. More than this, we again set thee in order around the place where we have re- kindled the (Council) Fire for thee, my off- spring. Let the Three Brothers, furthermore, say it, “Do thou again transact the business upon which thou wert hitherto engaged promoting the welfare of the prosperity of thy families (ohwachira).” Thus, furthermore, let it be so, that for one poor short day, thou mayst continue to think in peace, thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, thou no- ble one, my weanling. In this manner, then, shall they now perform this duty of requickening, the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since their affairs had been completed (I say). Lastly, more than these things, do thou know it, thou yaa’nehr, my weanling, thou noble one, VOL. 34, NO. 3 that the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is now going hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 11.) THE TWELFTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE CREATOR’S ASSISTANTS— MATRON AND WARRIOR. (Fig. 12.) Now, there is another thing to be considered, today (I say). It is that wherein the Perfector of our Faculties who dwelleth in the sky did es- tablish this matter, in that He desired that He should have assistants everywhere, even down to the earth, that these latter assistants shall devote their solicitous care to the number of matters which pertain especially to the earth, and which, I have ordained, He says, one and all. It is that, in fact, that first among others, He caused the body of our mother—the woman— to be of great worth and honor. He purposed that she shall be endowed and entrusted with the duties pertaining to the birth—the becom- ing—of men, and that she shall, in the next place, circle around the fire in preparing food,— that she shall have the care of all that is planted by which life is sustained and sup- ported, and so the power to breathe is fortified; and moreover that the warriors shall be her as- sistants (I say). So that, too, is a great calamity, that, it may be, the Great Destroyer will make a sudden stroke there in the ranks of our mothers, and that he will thus snatch away one there, so that her body shall fall. The evil of this misfortune is that a long file of expected persons shall fall away, which, indeed, would have come in the many-fold lines of grandchildren who would have been born from her in the future. In that case, moreover, her assistants, the warriors, will then just stand around listlessly, but grieving. For, now, that one on whom they so much depended is now, very probably, floating away to the homeland, and now the minds of all those who still remain have fallen low (in grief) (I say). So now, moreover, the Three Brothers, hav- ing perfected their preparations, do say, “Let us comfort them now and raise up their minds.” And that, indeed, shall happen—they will now again devote themselves to their cares and their duties (I say). Mar. 15, 1944 [Hoyaa’neh, the Federal Chief. (Fig. 13.)] More than this, now, thou yaa’nehr, thou no- ble one, my offspring, thou hast a nephew and a niece, that is to say, the warriors and the women. They are and shall be thy immediate care (I say). And that more than this (I say), thou yaa'nehr, thou noble one, thou shalt and must give a full hearing to whomsoever will speak to thee for counsel or for service. That, too, let the Three Brothers say, ‘‘Do ye heed and obey one another.”’ It is, in fact, a grievous thing, should it be that thou, noble one, should cast over thy shoulder whatsoever word is spoken to thee. That mood of mind may have place only when the time is near in which the feet of thy people will hang over the abyss of the sundered earth (of impending ruin). There is no one dwell- ing beneath the sky who has the power to come out therefrom, when that shall have come to pass. Furthermore, this great responsibility rests both upon thee and upon thy niece and thy nephew—that ye listen to and obey one an- other (I say). Thus, too, let it be done, that for one poor short day, thou mayest continue -to think in contentment, my offspring, thou noble ruler, whom J have been wont to hold in my bosom. In this manner then, perhaps, let them do it, the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they were in the prime growth of their affairs (I say). - Now, more than this, do thou know it, this one (zndicating), my offspring, thou noble ruler, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). (Figs. 12 and 13.)}° THE THIRTEENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: ANYTHING CAN HAPPEN ON EARTH— EVEN INSANITY Now, another thing, I say. That, verily, it is a direful thing for the mind of him who has suf- fered from a grievous calamity to become in- 10 Hewitt’s personal copy of his 1916 paper, in the Holmes Anniversary Volume, bears a penciled insertion ‘“‘Hoyd’ne’,”’ the Federal Chief, on p. 177 after line 3; this agrees with Chief Abram Charles’ set of Requickening strings, of which XIII is Hoya’ne’ [the Chief]; while in the present text this is the fifteenth burden.—W.N.F. HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 74 sane, that, in fact, the powers causing insanity are immune from everything on this earth, and has the power to end the days of man, and that it may be caused by the lack or falling away of the mind. That, more than this, do thou know it, my offspring, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, that the Three Brothers have now perfected their preparations, and now, further- more, let them say it, that ‘‘We forbid thee in this matter. We caution thee, let not the minds of thy people become insane from grief; let the matter, instead, remain in perfect peace” (I say). Thus, furthermore, let it be that for one poor short day thou mayest continue to think in con- tentment and peace, thou noble ruler, my off- spring, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). In this manner, then, may it be, let the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they were in the prime of their affairs, do it thus. Now more than this, do thou know it, this one (zndicating), my offspring, thou noble ruler, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 14.) THE FOURTEENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE TORCH OF NOTIFICATION” Now, another thing I say. That when our grandsires who have departed this life, con- joined their affairs, they made a decree, saying: ‘““Here we place two rods together, and therein, moreover, we fix a torch between the two rods. We, every one of our council fires, own this torch equally. Moreover, this torch shall be one of the essential things wherever be the place in which a direful thing may occur” (I say).¥ 11In the Cayuga set of Requickening strings which Abram Charles conveyed to Hewitt, this string is numbered XIV.—W.N.F. 12 No. XV in Chief Charles’ set; and in Hewitt’s summary papers Hihnological Studies among the Iroquois Indians (Exploration and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution, 1926: 246. 1927; and ‘““The League of Nations”’ of the Iroquois in Canada (Ibid., 1929: 204. 1930). 18 Torches were formerly made by binding shell bark hickory rind around the end of a stick. A supply of these was always kept in the longhouse of assembly.—S. GIBson. 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES If it so be, that one will see what may cause them death then that person shall take this torch and that person shall indeed start at once through the Lodge of the League, and in such manner shall he go that in the shortest possible time that person shall pass the Lodge of the League, and all the council fires shall have no- tice of the message, even that very night. And it shall be done in such manner that there shall be no traces—no ‘‘forms—of lying down on the path.’”’ Now, more than this, the Three Brothers say, ‘‘Now we again put the torch between the two poles, and we also now put back there the small pouch of an (un- known) animal containing the Short [Purple String of Notification (Hewitt, Ethnological Studies... , 246)] wampum which we equally own”’ (I say). Thus, furthermore, let it be, that for one poor short day, thou noble ruler, my offspring, thou mayest continue to think in contentment. In this manner, then, perhaps, let them do it, the Three Brothers, so denominated while they were in the prime of their affairs. Now, furthermore, do thou know it, thou no- ble one, my offspring, their Word (wampum string) is going hence to thee (I say). These are the number of words, then, that the Three Brothers desired to address to thee, this one (indicating), my offspring, thou noble ruler, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom. Now more than this, we do expect that all our words, thus addressed to thee, have come to pass, for thy peace and welfare. Now, more than this, do thou know it, this one (indicating), thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, thou noble ruler, whom IJ have been wont to hold in my bosom, the Word (attesting wam- pum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). VOL. 34, No. 3 THE FIFTEENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE APPEAL FOR THE CANDIDATE Now, another matter let us consider this day. Thou must give strict attention to the words, thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom. Now, again I have set in order all thy affairs. Now furthermore, the Three Brothers have been noticing that the mat whereon thy co- worker was wont to rest has been caused to be vacant (I say). Moreover, that they upon whom our fore- fathers depended for wisdom and guidance, in uniting their affairs, decreed, saying: “It mat- ters not, indeed, on which side of the Council Fire-there is a loss, it shall be possible, and it shall be urgent that they shall again set the candidate’s face fronting the people; that they shall again raise him up (requicken), that they shall again name him, and that also he shall again stand upright in front of the people (I say).” More than this, thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, thou noble ruler, the Three Brothers are on the ceremonial path; and so now let them say it, “Do thou now point out to us the one who shall be our co-worker’’ (I say). Thus, now, thou yaa'nehr, my offspring, thou noble ruler, do thou know it; we Three Brothers have completed the ceremony. Now, then lastly, that which gave us notice of this matter (a short string of black wam- pum) now goes hence to thee. _ Also, do thou know it, thou yaa’nehr (Fed- eral Chief), my offspring, thou noble ruler, that immediately now the Three Brothers, shall rise to depart homeward; and there, moreover, at the forest’s edge, they will lay down their pouches for the night (I say). There it is. The Requickening Strings of Wampum of the Cayuga Nation (collected in 1919 from Chief Abram Charles, Six Nations Reserve, Canada, by J. N. B. Hewitt): Fig. 1.—oga’hthri, Tears, or one’s eyes: Seeing. Fig. 2.—hahondaga’ronde’, His ear openings: Hearing. Fig. 3.—dehanya’doo’gen, One’s throat is full: Speaking. Fig. 4.—eya’dagon’wah, Within his breast. Fig. 5.—ondyeendak’khwa’, One’s customary resting place: The bloody husk-mat bed. Fig. 6.—dayo”gaah, The deep darkness of grief. Fig. 7.—wa’hodronhya’‘hdoon, One has lost sight of the Sky. Fig. 8.—wa’hohdrahgwa'hdoon, One has lost the Sun. Fig. 9.—heyo’dadgwatin'da’, At the Grave. Fig. 10.—Dewa’hshen niyot'hwaks, Twenty is the cost—for homicide. Fig. 11.—deyonshdjisdadon’hkwa’h, At the hearth of the home: The Council Fire. Fig. 12.—Onthonwi'sas; hohsken’engeh'da’, Woman and Warrior: The Creator’s Assistants. Fig. 13.—Hoyaa’neh, the Federal Chief. Fig. 14.—hya’hden de’aonhwendjana’goo’was, Anything can happen on earth—even suicide or insanity. Fig. 15.—gahashra‘heen’, The Torch. Mm 7) = a a) am) < e) Z —_ Z _ Na 'S) e =) <; fel fa m e (eo) =) ey eo) fam Leal H i) | oo | es <3 a Figs. 1-15.—For explanation, see opposite page. Mar. 15, 1944 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 34, NO. 3 EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY AND ITS SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Deganawi'dah, founder of the League.—The League, or Confederation, of Five Iroquois Tribes, had already been formed by the year 1570 a.p. This accomplishment derived chiefly from the unwearied labors during several dec- ades of one man who was named Deganawt'dah from a dream which his mother experienced during her pregnancy. Deganawi’dah was, tra- dition informs us, born of a virgin mother, and his paternity, like that of all other great na- tional heroes, came from Heaven; however, it tells nothing of his nationality or tribal descent. It sufficed Iroquois tradition that Degana- wi’dah was a divine man. Therefore, no ethnic brood (band) or land claimed him as a son. During the years of his great work he consist- ently declined chiefship or official position, but in imitation of his refusal to assume an official title, the class of Pine Tree Chiefs—Chiefs of Merit—was later instituted. The traditional annals put his place of birth in the immediate vicinity of Bay of Quinte, in northeastern Lake Ontario, which at his time was in Huron terri- tory. Authentic tradition relates that the mother and grandmother of Deganawi’dah were mem- bers of a moribund uterine family (Ohwachira), which, therefore, lacked sufficient status in the community to be thought worthy of having their clan membership mentioned, and so tra- dition is silent as to their clan. The mother of Deganawi’dah was ‘“‘born with a caul.”” At that time the belief was popular among her people that this was a good omen. The Giver of Life destined such a child to grow in the knowledge of esoteric doctrine and spir- itual powers through proper discipline and teaching by close blood relations. To accom- plish this divine purpose, they held the future mother of Deganawi’dah closely concealed from birth to maidenhood, keeping her strictly hidden from all kin and other persons, except her own mother who served as guardian. The guardian must not only maintain a ceaseless vigil over the ward by night and day, but also teach the candidate the esoteric wisdom be- longing particularly to her own uterine family, ever emphasizing the pupil’s duty to attend carefully the words and cautions whispered by surrounding spirits and the Giver of Life. In view of the tabus and confinement attend- ing the education and rearing of such a child to puberty, and particularly a girl, it is not strange [Hewitt reasoned] that she should be thought worthy to receive life directly from the Giver of all life and to become a mother with- out natural intercourse. So in tradition she be- came the virgin mother of her first born; and from this, too, is derived her name, Djigonsah- sée’, ‘‘she whose face is doubly pure’—imply- ing physical as well as moral beauty and recti- tude.¥4 The foresight, unwearied efforts, broad statesmanship, and the disinterested love of mankind, which made of Deganawi’dah a re- markable personality, primarily shaped and later perfected the peculiar organic institutions on which the League of the Five Iroquois tribes rested. [Despite Hewitt’s enthusiasm for the great man theory of history, the editor feels that the League rested rather on basic princi- ples of Iroquois social organization already operative in the tribes which confederated.| These were the Mohawk, Onondaga, and Sen- eca tribes of the one moiety, which was known as the Male or Father group (moiety), and the 14 Djigonhsa’sen’, is ‘fat face,’’ according to S. Gibson, and it means one of great influence.— W.N.F. The name which the poet annalists of Iroquois tradition bestowed on the mother of Dega- nawi’dah was Djigonsahsee’e’, the literal signifi- cance of which is “a face, doubly pure and spotless”; i.e., ‘‘a face which is new, pure, and spotless in a superlative degree,’ exceeding in these qualities and attributes those of a new born baby, because she had given birth to a son whose life she had received from the Creator of life. [In spite of a uniform contrary tradition... (Hewitt) . . . in 1931 was successful in recovering the authentic tradition, showing conclusively what for some years he had suspected.) Undis- criminating popular tradition had unwittingly displaced the real mother of Deganawi’dah by an unhistorical figure named Djigonhsa’’sen’, ‘‘the wild cat,” or, literally, “fat face.’’ This name was loosely applied by Iroquois speakers to the Neu- tral and Erie Nations, and the early French ex- plorers called the latter the “Cat Nation.” This, then, was a tribal name, and there is no evidence that it was also a personal name except as used by false tradition. This fortunate recovery of the true name of Deganawi’dah’s mother and of the attendant circumstances has clarified a number of contradictory incidents and corrected some serious incongruities in Deganawi’dah’s traditional biog- raphy, which is the origin legend of the founding of the Iroquois League.—J.N.B.H. : See also Hewitt, Field studies among the Iroquois tribes. Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution, 1931; 178. 1932. Mar. 15, 1944 Oneida and Cayuga, of the other moiety, con- stituting the Female or Mother group. [The Father group is, according to Hardy Gibson, also known as the Three Brothers; while the Four Brothers side comprises Oneida and Cayuga, possessing the right to install chiefs (the hai/hai’ privilege), and the Tuscarora (ad- mitted to the League before 1722), and the Tutelo and Delaware, who joined the League afterward. | Moiety or dual division—The remarkable and ineffaceable dualism that characterizes the functioning of. Iroquois social institutions rests [Hewitt thought] on certain cosmic and biologic ideas and concepts implicit in their beliefs re- garding the manner in which the universe of “Matter and Mind” came into being and by which it exists. Failure to recognize this obvi- ous but persistent duality in Iroquois social institutions led some writers [notably Golden- weiser and Lowie] needlessly to use the phrases ‘Sn control” and ‘‘tripartite arrangement” when attempting to explain the significance of the positions which certain clans take in tribal councils, and by the Onondaga tribe in the Council of the Iroquois League; however, in these councils the positions occupied by certain clans and by the Onondaga tribe does not in- fringe or militate against this higher duality." The longhouse as social symbol.—To under- stand the meaning and purpose of the great me- 15 Goldenweiser’s reports on Iroquois field work remain the only brilliant expositions of Iroquois social organization, although the bulk of his field notes remain unpublished in the editor’s hands. Inasmuch as Hewitt could not bring his materials to the point of publication, his criticism of later students is neither fair nor entirely accurate, as Goldenweiser blueprinted a spatial arrangement that had existence in practice (Goldenweiser. On Iroquois Work, 1912, Canada Department of Mines, Summary Report, Geological Survey, 1912, 464-475, Ottawa, 1914, and On Iroquois Lele 1913-14, Ibid., 19138, 365-372, Ottawa, 1914. I find an unpublished squib by Hewitt in criti- cism of Robert H. Lowie’s article Queries (Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 36: 324-335. 1934). He resented as superficial Lowie’s statement that ‘“‘the Iroquois League councils formed a tripartite instead of the otherwise customary dual grouping...’ The Iroquois League council was organized originally into two brotherhoods, the first, of three tribes: Mohawk, Seneca, and Onondaga; and the second, of two tribes: Oneida and Cayuga. The Onondaga, being the firekeepers, did not sit with their brothers the Mohawk and Seneca but sat apart from both as judges of the correctness of the pro- ceedings and as such were prohibited from discuss- ing questions before the council. The Onondaga were nevertheless included in the expression ‘‘We three brothers.” —W.N.F. HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 81 morial service to condole dead League officials and to install new candidates to office some ex- planation of the social and political organiza- tion of the Iroquois tribes and their confederacy is necessary. Near the last quarter of the sixteenth cen- tury, five linguistically cognate tribes—the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and most of the Seneca—had united in a confeder- acy that they called Ganonsyon’nv’, ‘the com- pleted longhouse,”’ and that English historians call the League of the Iroquois. At the time of confederacy these five tribes as independent states occupied central New York between Schenectady and the Genesee River. Subse- quently, when the unincorporated factions of the Seneca were admitted into the League, it was done on condition that their two chief warriors should be made members of the fed- eral council with certain special rites and duties. In the face of bitter opposition, the astute prophets and statesmen, Deganawi’dah and Hiawatha, for the latter had suffered per- sonal discomfort from sorcery, blood feud, and cannibalism, accomplished a peaceful reforma- tion and social revolution in the social forms, scope, and purposes of government among the peoples that formed the five tribes. These changes were at once fundamental and far- reaching in immediate results and influenced subsequent history of neighboring tribes and colonial ventures in northeastern America. Deganawi’dah at his mother’s suggestion had sought the cooperation of a reputed cannibal, who resorted upon occasion to this practice which although current was rather the excep- tion among his people. After a lengthy con- ference, Deganawi’dah aroused in him a latent love for mankind, causing him to resolve firmly to renounce his former way of life and to adopt Deganawi dah’s principles of reason, righteous- ness, law, and peace. Tradition says that Deganawi/dah named him Hiawatha. The lat- ter from then on became the disciple and collab- orator of Deganawi’dah in the difficult task of organizing the League. Strangely enough, tradition makes both of these heroes master sorcerers, a reputation they received from their fellows because they achieved noteworthy suc- cess against insidious opposition and particu- larly because they overcame the power and bit- ter antagonism of Dehadoda’/ho, that master sorcerer and man-eater of the Onondaga. The biological analogy of society—[Hewitt 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES thought that tribal society rested on certain fundamental organic analogies.] A fundamental clan and tribal dualism, already alluded to, consisted in the symbolic recognition of sexual principles, male and female, which lay at the very bottom of Iroquois civil and religious institutions. This formal acknowledgment of the complementary character of the interrela- tion of the sexes was first wrought into the structure of the tribe. [Hewitt attributes this to the prevailing inhibition of sexual relations between certain maternal lineages or Ohwachira which he calls uterine families.] In turn this ban on promiscuity may have determined the group- ing of the maternal families into clans. Hence, arose the rule that clan members must avoid sex relations among themselves. And, there- fore, the maternal families, if more than one in number, which composed a clan, were sisters to each other. This symbolization of the sexes in the tribal and federal institutions of the Iroquois was designed to secure and promote the fertility of the community; and it seems to have been the effect of a naive trust in the esoteric power of symbols." Family.—[The simplest unit of Iroquois society is the ‘‘fireside,”’ or the primary family of husband and wife and their children who live with them. ] Lineage.—|[Stemming from the fireside fam- ily by virtue of common residence in the long- house of the matriarch is the household of fact and legal fiction composed of a lineage of per- sons tracing descent from a common mother and forming an exogamic incest group called the Ohwachira, the maternal or uterine family. This is the primary unit of Iroquois govern- ment. In time it might occupy several long- houses in several villages. | Clan.—[An Iroquois clan is composed of two or more maternal families who behave as if the members of each generation were siblings, or as if they constituted a single maternal family. 14% The editor feels, in view of the character of clan organization among the Muskhogean peoples of the Southeast and among the Siouan and Algonquian peoples of the upper Mississippi and the Great Lakes region, which like that of the Iroquois was given to classificatory kinship sys- tem, unilateral descent, and sibs, that Hewitt’s view of Iroquois clan organization is essentially unhistorical. One might attribute a “naive trust in the esoteric power of symbols, a form of belief so characteristic of inchoate mentation...” to Hewitt and not to the Iroquois.—W.N.F. VOL. 34, NO. 3 Hewitt calls these sisterhood relationships. Ac- tually the two families may be derived from a single lineage, but frequently the links con- necting collateral lines have been forgotten; or long ago a woman was adopted whose de- cendents in the female line may not know that they were not true kindred of their clansmen. The Iroquois clan, therefore, is a legal fiction, but the maternal family is a physical reality. Iroquois constantly confuse the two. As time passes family lines are forgotten but clanship is remembered so that in a given generation in- _ dividual behavior is strongly colored by mem- bership in a clan.| Anciently, the uterine or maternal families were units in marrying. Big bear married Small bear, etc. Later people married only within the tribe, i.e., Cayugas were reluctant to marry Onondagas, etc. Now they marry between tribes. I think that after the formation of the League marriage was across the fire. My father, Chief John A. Gibson, said that it was preferable to marry in the op- posite moiety rather than on the “‘same side of the fire.’—-SIMEON GIBSON. Phratry.—One or more clans constituted a sisterhood (phratry) of clans, and two such sisterhoods (phratries) of clans composed an Iroquoian tribe. Two similar sisterhoods (tribal phratries) constituted the League of the Iro- quois. The first sisterhood (tribal phratry)—the Mohawk, Onondaga, and the Seneca tribes— represented symbolically the Male principle or the Father side; and the second sisterhood (tri- bal phratry), the Oneida and Cayuga tribes, represented the Female principle in nature or the Mother side. [This is clearly a moiety sys- tem with reciprocity between the dual divisions as the keynote of its functioning. ] It is important to remember when reading the rituals of the Condolence Council that the foregoing dualism is embodied in the terms of address employed between participating tribal phratries. One phratry of tribes condoles the other—the side which has lost one or more of- ficers; it intones the prescribed rituals to com- fort and restore the minds of the mourners. It does this in the name of the father’s clansmen, Adon’ni ‘‘the sires,’’ of the mourners who are addressed as if they were ‘‘our brother’s ¢chil- dren, our offspring.” — Clan, tribe, and chief.—Three is the smallest number of clans found in Iroquois tribal or- ganization. The Mohawk and Oneida each have this number. Each of these clans has three Ma. 15.7 1944 ohwachira, maternal families each bearing a distinctive name and respectively owning a male chiefship title, which is held in trust by the matron of the family, and the incumbent to the title represents the family in both the tribal and federal councils in the transaction of public business.!7 Yaa’nehr is the native Mohawk dia- lectic form for the federal chiefship status. Further, the Mohawk and Oneida tribes, re- spectively, having three clans each, have nine chiefships in the council meetings held by males, and nine trusteeships held by females. [Hewitt says that attendance at councils is optional with female officers, but it would seem that within recent years matrons seldom at- tended councils. According to Hardy Gibson, the matron does not come to the council when she has someone to represent her there. How- ever, the chiefs may invite the matrons to at- tend when a special issue involving the welfare of the whole tribe such as the sale of land is be- ing discussed.] Now the maternal families in the same clan regarded one another as “‘sisters’ (siblings), but they do not on that account in- terfere with one another’s affairs. The joint action of the three maternal families consti- tutes the action of the clan they represent. De- fined in terms of representation and jurisdic- tion, Iroquois chiefs, both male incumbents and female trustees, were not clan officers strictly speaking. Rather these officers represent the maternal familiés which own their titles and which, for cause, could recall them from their official positions. The three clans of the Mohawk and Oneida tribes were grouped in each tribe into two com- plementary kinship units or moieties, the one group representing the male or father princi- ple, and the other, the female or mother princi- ple in nature. Each of these groups is customa- rily called a sisterhood (phratry) of clans. Remember that the Bear clan in these two tribes is actually constituted of three Bear Ohwachira (maternal families), which are the 17 Hewitt’s original manuscript reads, ‘‘a male chiefship title and a female chiefship title... ,’ which is correct insofar as the statuses occupied by male federal chief and matron of the appointing family receive masculine and feminine forms of the same term, but all the evidence that I have been able to gather indicates that the clan and family were represented in council by a male chief, the holder of the title. Behind him at home, his mother or sister or mother’s sister, as the case might be, literally held the short string of office, the wampum emblematic of his status.—W.N.F. HEWITT: TROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 83 Adult Bear lineage, the Weanling Bear, and the Nursing. Bear lineages, so that, strictly speak- ing, the so-called ‘‘Bear clan’”’ is really a sister- hood (phratry) of Bear maternal families; and the same statement is true of the Turtle and Wolf clans, for they are constituted of three kinds of animals bearing the name. Members of the clans or of the tribal sister- hoods (phratries) of the male or father side of the symbolic council fire address the members of clans or tribal sisterhoods (phratries) of the female or mother side across the fire as ‘‘cou- sins.”’ Reciprocally, members of the clans or tribal sisterhoods (phratries) on the female or mother side of the fire likewise claim ‘‘cousin- ship’ with the members of the father side. . There is, however, a higher form of ritualistic address which is special and peculiar to one or the other of the two basic organic units (moie- ties), i.e., to the male or father group of clans or tribes, or to the female or mother group of clans or tribes. As defined above, speakers of the mother groups (moieties) address the op- posite moiety, and the father groups, as ‘‘my father’s clansmen” (agadonihee’nun’ (Oa.)) or (agadoni’shun’ (Oe. and C.)) or ‘‘our father’s clansmen.” Conversely, the speakers for the father groups address the mother groups as ‘my offspring’? (gunya’daa’wen’ (Oa.)) (used by M.-Oa.-S., Three Brothers for Four Brothers) or ‘our offspring,” because in the “‘fireside’’ family of husband and wife, the children belong to the mother side of the lodge, and as this is the symbolic mother-group—the mother-clan group or tribe group (moiety)—it is also the “offspring’”’ side or group (moiety); but this side (moiety) may be also addressed as the “Woman (gono/ha’ (Oa.)) or the ‘‘Woman- hood” (gontonwi’sas (Oa.)), as may be seen in the words of the Farewell Chant in the me- morial ceremony of condolence and installa- tion. It is thus seen that the fundamental dualism in the organic structure of the Iroquois League is based on an analogy with nature and consists of the concepts: male sex principle, father, or fatherhood in nature, on the one hand; and the female sex principle, mother, or motherhood in nature, on the other. Ceremonial obligations between the two moieties are conceived as re- ciprocal or complementary functions. Moreover, the rule tracing descent of rights, duties, membership in a family, succession to office, and property, through the female line, is 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES not in the least affected by the device of this symbolic duality or moiety system in tribal organization. The men of the half representing the male or father principle have rights or obligations which the men of the group repre- senting the female or mother principle do not exercise or possess. Within the League council authority is equal although certain offices carry specific responsibilities. In rank and preroga- tives the federal chiefs of the League, both male incumbents and female trustees, were in all respects coequal; speciai functions in the coun- cil chamber did not add to their rank, author- ity, or to their jurisdiction. Clan apportionment—The Mohawk tribe had three clans: Turtle, Wolf, and Bear. The first two, Turtle and Wolf, formed a phratry [sisterhood, according to Hewitt], addressing each other as “brothers” (sisters); and the Bear clan alone comprised the other moiety, being composed of three maternal families (eponymic Ohwachira). In the council chamber the three Turtle chiefs acted as ‘‘firekeepers”’ (or judges); and as such, they did not discuss the subject matter before the tribal council. The Wolf and Turtle clans addressed the Bear clan as ‘“‘cousin,”’ and reciprocally. In consider- ing an issue, the three Wolf chiefs first discussed the question before the Council, and having reached a decision they passed the question over the symbolic council fire to the chiefs of the Bear clan, who then discussed it. When the latter had reached a decision, the two decisions, agreeing or conflicting, were referred to the firekeepers (judges), the Turtle chiefs, who in case the two decisions agreed confirmed them; but in the event of a disagreement between them they referred the matter back to the chiefs of the Wolf and the Bear clans, with sug- gestions as to how the two opinions might be reconciled. The Oneida tribe had the same three clans, but enumerated them somewhat differently: Wolf, Turtle, and Bear. Wolf and Bear formed a phratry, and again Bear alone comprised the other moiety, again being composed of three maternal families, each represented by a fed- eral male chief, appouited by a matron. But in the Oneida council the Wolf chiefs were the firekeepers (judges), and the council procedure was the same as with the Mohawk.18 18 See Fenton, Problems arising from the his- toric northeastern position of the Iroquois. Smith- sonian Mise. Coll. 100: 204-205, 217-218. 1940. \4 } i | be VOL. v.94 3 Acting as judges in the council chamber in no wise gave the clan or tribe, as the Onondaga in the council of the League, who furnished the firekeepers any measure of ‘‘control,’’!® nor did | it effect a rearrangement of the clan or tribal organization. [For the Seneca tribe, Hewitt had recorded names of nine clans: Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Tur- tle; Hawk, Sandpiper (variously called Snipe, Plover, and Kiulldeer), Deer, Doe(?), and Heron (sometimes called Swan).”° Only five of these had an unequal representation in the | federal council of the League, as follows: Sand- piper (three chiefs), Turtle (two), Hawk, Wolf, and Bear (one each).] Names of nine Onondaga clans were recorded: Wolf, Turtle (Tortoise), Bear, Deer, Eel, Bea- ver, Hawk, Sandpiper (Plover, or Snipe), and Pigeon Hawk. The Wolf, Bear, Sandpiper, Hawk, and Pigeon Hawk clans each had only one Federal Chiefship; but the Beaver, Turtle, and Eel clans each had two Federal Chiefships, while the Deer clan had three. The reason for this disparity in representation in the Federal council is still unclear. ' [For some reason, Hewitt did not list the Cayuga clans and the apportionment of chiefs among them, but his notes include the follow- ing: Ten Cayuga titles were distributed among Bear clan (three), Hawk (one), Turtle (two), Long-legged Wolf (one), Wolf (one), Large Plover (one), Plover (one) (Seth Newhouse, 1917). A list by Chief Abram Charles is in sub- stantial agreement. Here again several clans were without representatives. | Troquots woman.—A further fact must be kept in view. Every male Federal Chief (yaa’- 19 Dr. Alexander Goldenweiser had used this convenient phrase, and apparently Hewitt felt that its use implied administrative authority.— .N.F. 20 Lewis Morgan (The League of the. Iro- quoits, New York, 1901) gives, for the Seneca: Bear, Wolf, Beaver, Turtle; Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk—which is still true of the Seneca nation in western New York. The Eel clan is sometimes added to the latter moiety. Goldenweiser, who investigated this matter thoroughly at Six Na- tions Reserve (Canada), lists the old Seneca align- ment (before confederation): Turtle, Wolf, Bear, and Ball; Hawk, Deer, Duck, Snipe, and Eel. And the new alignment, which differs only in the latter moiety, is: Deer, Hawk, Sand Snipe, Big-snipe, and (Duck). The “new? arrangment (after con- federation) represents the grouping of the clans on ceremonial occasions; and it is not known to what side the Eel clan of the Seneca belonged after Confederacy (Goldenweiser, Field Notes MS., vol. 5, p. 29.) —W.N.F. Mar. 15, 1944 nehr) represented a maternal family (Ohwa- chira) which owned his official title and which was presided over by a matron or woman Fed- eral Chief (Goyanehrgoo’nah) who had the right, and the imposed duty to exercise this right in the event of an emergency, to occupy a seat in the Federal Council. Moreover, the woman Federal Chief with the advice and con- sent of the Federal Chief locally administers the affairs of the maternal family she heads. Language usage in designating the woman Federal Chief is indicative of her preeminent position and of the prerogatives of this unique official. [In theory, at least, she had dominance over the male chief, in contrast with our own society in which the reverse may be true.| The native Iroquois for the title of the male Federal Chief in the Mohawk and other rhota- cist dialects is royaa’nehr, the noun stem being -yaanehr, i.e., “‘he (is) a Federal Chief.’’ In the non-rhotacist dialects, such as Onondaga and Seneca, this term becomes hoyaa’neh, the noun stem being -yaaneh; [to this stem, which means fundamentally ‘‘agent of law, welfare, etc.,’’ Hewitt gave this rather elaborate interpreta- tion]: “having the capacity or competence of producing or effecting what is good, useful, and promotive of welfare.’ Since the League of the Iroquois aimed through its institutions at achieving the well-being of all persons subject to its jurisdiction, this term became the fitting designation of League officials, as well as of its distinctive laws and principles, and of the League itself. When this expressive term is applied to a woman officer of the League, there is suffixed to it the attributive -koo’wah (Mohawk), and -goo’ nah (Onondaga). This suffix means ‘‘great”’ PALEONTOLOGY.—Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk.) KIRK: CYTIDOCRINUS, NEW NAME 85 or ‘‘grand.’”’ Hence the full title koyaanehr- koo’wah (M.), and goyaanehgoo’nah (Oa.) ac- cordingly means ‘‘she is a great’’ or ‘“‘grand Federal Chief” [or simply the ‘“‘Matron” or ‘‘Clan mother’ of modern reservation par- lance]. Good usage restricts this form of the title, though not quite exclusively, to the wo- man Federal Chief, whose position was above that of her male representative in the council because, as custodian of the chiefship title in her maternal family, she had the power to ap- point and recall him should his conduct become unworthy of his office. The symbolic council fire—In every place of public assembly there is, or at least there is as- sumed to be, a hearth or fire-altar, which was placed at some distance from either end of the song-bench, which ordinarily occupies the cen- tral floor or space as in Iroquois longhouses to- day, or simply one fire was conceived as resting in the center of the meeting place, as formerly in the Six Nations Council House at Ohsweken. The benches of the chiefs were ranged about this fire, and issues of debate among the tribes were thought of as being “handed” or ‘“‘thrown”’ or merely ‘‘going’’ across the fire, according to the temper of the debate. [The ‘‘old council’ at Ohsweken, i.e., before 1924, was ranged in this manner: The Mohawks and Senecas, being the parent group, sat east of the fire, the former to the north, while the Oneidas and Cayugas sat across the fire on the west, with the Oneidas to the north; and the Onondaga chiefs as firekeep- ers sat north of the fire. In later times, His Majesty’s agent sat above them on a dais, and he was provided with an interpreter and clerk, whose importance grew with the passing of the years. | EDWIN Kirx, Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. In this JouRNAL (1948, p. 263) I proposed the new genus Cyrtocrinus for a Mississip- pian crinoid formerly referred to Stegano- crinus. I find that this generic name has been preoccupied by Jaekel (1891, p. 602) for a Mesozoic crinoid. I am therefore pro- posing the name Cytidocrinus to replace Cyrtocrinus Kirk non Jaekel. The genotype 1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received January 8, 1944. is Actinocrinus sculptus Hall, which will therefore read Cytidocrinus sculptus (Hall). LITERATURE CITED JAEKEL, OTro. Ueber Holopocriniden mit be- sonderer Beriicksichtugung der Stramberger Formen. Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. 43 (3). 1891. Kirk, Epwin. A revision of the genus Stega- nocrinus.. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 33 (9): 259-265. Sept. 15, 1943. 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 3 ZOOLOGY.—WNotes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), with a description of a new genus. Haroutp W. Manter, University of Nebraska. (Communicated by Waupo L. ScumirTt.) The subfamily Loimoinae was named by Price (1936) for a peculiar monogenetic trematode, Loimos salpinggoides MacCal- lum, 1917, from the gills of a dusky shark, Carcharias obscurus (Lesueur), at Woods Hole, Mass. Price (1938) redescribed this trematode, correcting several errors made by MacCallum. Manter (1938) described Tricotyle scoliodoni from a shark, Scoliodon terrae-novae (Richardson), from Beaufort, N. C. He noted some similarities between Tricotyle and Loimos. The redescription of Loimos by Price increased these similarities. Among specimens of trematodes collected by the late Dr. C. B. Wilson and sent to me for identification was a monogenetic species collected from the gills of the ham- merhead shark, Sphyrna zygaena (Lin- naeus), at Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1910. This trematode proved to be related to Loimos and Tricotyle and led to a compara- tive study of type and paratype specimens of all three species. This study revealed the need for additions to the descriptions of both Loimos and Tricotyle and indicated the reduction of Tricotyle to synonymy with Loimos and the erection of a new, closely related genus. The author is indebted to the National Museum (more particularly to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt and Dr. Paul Bartsch) for loan of original material, and to Dr. Emmett W. Price, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, for several suggestions. The following additions can be made to the description of Loimos salpinggoides: (1) A vagina is present, extending forward from the ootype slightly to the left of mid- line, parallel or almost parallel with the uterus and cirrus, and opening on the ven- tral surface to the left of midline a short distance posterior to the male pore (Fig. 5). It is less glandular, thinner walled, and much less conspicuous than in T'ricotyle. (2) The number of testes seems to be 8 or 9; these are rounded, tandem, and pressed 1 Studies from the Zoological Laboratory, Uni- versity of Nebraska, No. 217. Received Decem- ber 4, 1943. very close together but separated by mem- branes. (3) An anterior portion of the pharynx with circular muscles is distinctly demarked from the larger posterior portion with the characteristic thick muscular bands. Some indication of this anterior sphincter is seen in MacCallum’s and Price’s figures. (4) On the dorsal surface of the body near the posterior end and dorsal to the haptor are two pairs of transverse (or diagonally transverse) cuticular folds or ‘ridges with sharp edges (Fig. 6). High mag- nification reveals that the edges of these folds (Fig. 7) are provided with very small sharp papillae or spines (like a file). The folds are fairly conspicuous, appearing (in the strongly pressed specimens) as diagonal lines. They extend inward from the sides of the body but do not quite reach the midline. These sharp-edged ridges are the same structures as the two dorsal, shallow cup- shaped structures described for Tricotyle. Since the L. salpinggoides specimens were killed under excessive pressure, the ridges are probably normally somewhat elevated as described for Tricotyle. | In view of the above conditions, it seems probable that Loimos and Tricotyle repre- sent a single genus. Tricotyle Manter, 1938, should be considered a synonym of Loimos MacCallum, 1917. A revised diagnosis of the genus will be given below. Loimos sal- pinggoides MacCallum, 1917, and Loimes ‘scoliodont (Manter, 1938), n. comb., can be distinguished in that L. salpinggoides pos- sesses two pairs of suckers (rather than one pair) in the anterior haptor; is smaller in size; and has a much less conspicuous (thin- walled, less glandular) vagina, relatively longer cirrus, and more numerous, more rounded testes. The actual, normal condi- tion of the ovary in L. salpinggoides is still not clear. The organ seems to be rather compact, but its cells are well scattered, its outline rather uncertain, so that it may actually be essentially like the irregularly shaped ovary of L. scoliodoni. In L. sal- pinggorides the shell gland is more conspicu- Mar. 15, 1944 ous than the prostate gland (cells of which are immediately anterior to the shell gland), while in L. scoliodoni the prostate gland is the more conspicuous. A shell gland, how- ever, is definitely present in L. scoliodoni although not indicated in the original description. The third species (from the hammerhead shark) is clearly related to Loimos but is probably sufficiently distinct to warrant a separate genus. The following description is based on about 25 specimens in rather poor condition. The measurements are from 5 of the more favorable specimens. Loimosina wilsoni, n. gen., n. sp.? Figs. 1-4 Host.—Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus). Location.—Gills. Locality — Montego Bay, Jamaica. Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helminthological Coll. 36861 (type and paratypes). Description.—Muscular parasites of this type can exhibit a great range in body size and pro- portions depending on degree of contraction. The present specimens were apparently not pressed at all in killing. Size 0.875 to 2.389 mm by 0.750 to 0.772 mm, greatest width near midbody. Anterior haptor 0.140 to 0.190 mm in transverse diameter. In the dorsal wall of this haptor are three pairs of muscular loculi opening ventrally or ventro- laterally (Fig. 2). The median pair of loculi is larger than the others. Posterior haptor 0.345 to 0.517 mm in transverse diameter, bearing one pair of large hooks (Fig. 3) and a number of very minute hooks. There are very incon- spicuous, more or less radially arranged bands of transverse fibers within the haptor. Large hooks (two were measured), 0.046 to 0.053 mm long; outer root long and slender; inner root short and wide. Mouth at the base of a slight posterior ex- tension of the anterior haptor. Pharynx 0.172 to 0.225 mm long by 0.120 to 0.172 mm wide, transversely ribbed; with very weak, incon- spicuous anterior sphincter (not visible in some specimens). Caeca unbranched, bowing out- ward from base of pharynx, then extending to * The generic name indicates similarity to Loimos; the specific name is in honor of the late Dr. C. B. Wilson. MANTER: THE TREMATODE SUBFAMILY LOIMOINAE 87 near the posterior end of the body where they end blindly. Testis large, single, very deeply multilobed. These lobes seem to be connected at least medianly so that the testis is considered as single. The male pore is a median or sub- median, transverse slit ventral to the posterior portion of the pharynx. A large, ovoid, rela- tively wide, cirrus-sac-like organ extends dorso- posteriorly from the pore and encloses a lightly fibrous tissue (probably the tall, thin-walled cells described for L. scoliodoni) and, in its base, a small spherical, internal seminal vesicle. While this sac appears to be a cirrus sac, I interpret it to be homologous with the ‘‘ejacu- latory bulb” described for L. salpinggoides. The cirrus is rudimentary, consisting of a very short, very thinly chitinized tube near the male pore. Whether this cirrus is enclosed within the ejaculatory bulb or is external to the tip of the bulb (as in Loimos) could not be determined. The external seminal vesicle ex- tends anteriorly along one side of the ejacula- tory bulb, crosses to the other side dorsal to anterior portion of the bulb, then extends pos- teriorly to the base of the bulb. Prostatic gland external to bulb, large, bilobed, one lobe on each side at base of pharynx. Ovary immediately pretesticular, tubular, and branched. Mehlis’s or shell gland small, immediately preovarian. Vagina conspicuous, with thick glandular wall, extending diagonally to the left approximately opposite ejaculatory bulb; vaginal pore large, ventral, midway be- tween midline and left edge of body, about midway between base of pharynx and the Ovary, sometimes opposite base of pharynx. Vitellaria of numerous follicles filling sides of body from near anterior end of pharynx to near posterior end of body, dorsal and ventral to caeca, crowding the testis laterally, confluent posterior to testis but in this region they are chiefly dorsal. Transverse vitelline ducts at anterior edge of ovary. Uterus short; uterine pore inconspicuous, round or ovoid, immedi- ately posterior to male pore. An egg, perhaps not fully formed, 54u by 48u, occurred in only one specimen. A filament was not evident. Excretory bladders on each side of anterior half of pharynx. Discussion—The genus Loimosina differs from Loimos in its single deeply lobed testis; its rudimentary cirrus; its relatively larger ejaculatory bulb. The anterior sphincter of the 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 3 POUT SSS: Al IG Fig. 1.—Ventral view of Loimosina wilsont. Fig. 2—Enlarged view of anterior end of L. wilsonz, showing preoral loculi or suckers. Fig. 38.—Large hook from posterior haptor of L. wilsont. Fig. 4.— Ventral view of genital complex in region of genital pore of L. wilsoni. Fig. 5.—Dorsal view of genital complex of Lozmos salpinggoides, showing vagina. Fig. 6.—Dorsal view of posterior end of L. sal- pinggoides, showing dorsal, cuticular ridges. Fig. 7.—Enlarged view of the edge of one of the cuticular ridges of L. salpinggoides. All figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. The projected scale has the value indicated (in millimeters). The abbreviations are as follows: c, cirrus; e, egg; esv, external seminal vesicle; gp, male genital pore; ov, ovary; p, uterine pore; pr, prostate gland; s, shell gland; ¢, testis; v, vagina; vp, vaginal pore. Mar. 15, 1944 pharynx is less evident. The mouth seems to be within the anterior haptor rather than slightly posterior to it. The dorsal cuticular ridges of the posterior end were not seen in Loimosina. Most specimens, however, were not favorable to show these structures. If present, they are probably weakly developed. Price classified the subfamily Loimoinae in the family Monocotylidae. Relationships to other Monocotylidae are seen in the character of the posterior haptor, in the digestive system, and in the terminal male organs. The chief difference from other Monocotylidae is the form of the ovary, which is not U-shaped and _ does not send a loop around one caecum, but has an irregular form, at least usually consist- ing of loose cells in sinuous branching tubes. The following diagnoses are suggested: Loimoinae: Monocotylidae with ovary not U-shaped and not sending a loop around one caecum, but consisting of loose cells usually in sinuous tubes; anterior haptor with one to three pairs of loculi or preoral suckers; posterior haptor with one pair of large hooks and numer- ous small hooks; eye spots lacking; two pairs of dorsal, posterior, transverse, cuticular ridges usually present; pharynx with wide muscular bands and anteriorsphincter;caecasimple; male pore and uterine pore median, near together; vagina present; vaginal pore ventral, to left of midline; several tandem testes, or single SHOEMAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPODA 89 testis; ejaculatory bulb and chitinous cirrus present; prostatic gland present; external semi- nal vesicle with ascending and descending sec- tions, crossing cirrus or ejaculatory bulb dor- sally; uterus short and straight; egg typically with filament; parasites on gills of sharks. Loimos: Loimoinae with one or two pairs of preoral suckers; cirrus well developed; several tandem testes; dorsal, posterior, cuticular ridges well developed. Type species: Loimos salpinggoides MacCallum, 1917. Loimosina: Loimoinae with three pairs of preoral suckers; cirrus rudimentary; testis single, deeply lobed; prostatic bulb well de- veloped; posterior cuticular ridges inconspicu- ous or lacking. Type species: Loimosina wilsont. LITERATURE CITED MacCatium, G. A. Some new forms of para- sitic worms. Zoopathologica 1(2): 45-75. 1917. Manter, Harotp W. Two new monogenetic trematodes from Beaufort, North Carolina. Livro Jubilar Prof. Travassos: 293-298, 2 pls.- 1938. Price, Emmett W. North American mono- genetic trematodes. George Washington Univ. Bull. (Summaries of Doctoral The- ses, 1934-36): 10-13. 1936. North American monogenetic trema- todes. II. The families Monocotylidae, Microbothriudae, Acanthocotylidae and Udo- nellidae (Capsaloidea). Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 28: 109-198. 1938. ZOOLOGY .—Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus Anisogam- marus from Oregon.! CLARENCE R. When recently looking up specimens of Anisogammarus ramellus among the un- identified Amphipoda in the collection of the National Museum, I noticed examples of this genus from Big Creek, Lincoln County, Oreg., possessing characters quite different from those of A. ramellus. Upon study, these specimens proved to represent a new species, which I here describe and designate as Anisogammarus oregonensis. Heretofore, A. ramellus (Weckel) has been the only species described from the fresh waters of North America. Four fresh-water species of this genus have been described: A. ramellus (Weckel), known from Cali- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of ae Smithsonian Institution. Received December , 1943. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. fornia and Oregon; A. annandalez (Tatter- sall), from China and Japan; A. kygi (Der- shavin), from Kamchatka; and A. jesoenszs Schellenberg, from Jeso, Japan. A. oregon- ensis appears to resemble most closely A. jesoensis but is distinguished at once from it by the possession of a much more elaborate dorsal armature of the metasome and urosome and by the absence of plumose setae from the third uropods. Anisogammarus (Eogammarus) oregonensis, n. sp. Male.—Head scarcely produced into a ros- trum; side lobes broadly truncate, with upper and lower corners evenly rounding; eye rather large, reniform, and black. Antenna 1 about two-thirds the length of the body; second joint 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 3 a little shorter than the first; third joint half the length of the second; flagellum consisting of about 29 or 30 joints; accessory flagellum of four normal joints and one very short terminal one. Antenna 2 about two-thirds the length of antenna 1; first joint and gland cone of second joint very prominent; fourth joint a little longer than fifth; flagellum without cAlceoli, Fig. 1.—Anisogammarus oregonensis, new species: Male: A, anterior end of animal; B, metasome from the side; C, metasome, urosome, and telson from above; D, gnathopod 1; EF, palm and seventh joint of gnathopod 1; F, gnathopod 2; G, palm and seventh joint of gnathopod 2; H, uropod 3; J and J, telsons of other males. Mar. 15, 1944 SHOEMAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPODA 91 and composed of about 15 joints. Mandible with four teeth on cutting edge; accessory plate well developed and complex; five serrulate spines and two setae in spine row; molar large and strong; palp with third joint very little shorter than the second. Maxilla 1, inner plate with 13 or 14 plumose setae and several short terminal setae; outer plate with 11 pectinate Fig. 2.—Anisogammarus oregonensis, new species: Male: A, antenna 1; B, antenna 2; C, mandible; D, maxilla 1; #, maxilla 2; F, maxilliped; G, lower lip; H, peraeopod 2; J, peraeopod 3; J, peraeopod 4; K, peraeopod 5; L, coxal gill of gnathopod 2; M, coxal gill of peraeopod 5. 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and serrate spine teeth; palp with five apical teeth, the outer of which is very finely serru- late, outside surface of palp with four subapical setae, and one seta near the center of the out- side margin of the second joint. Maxilla 2, inner plate bearing submarginal row of about 13 plumose setae. Maxilliped, inner plate armed with three stout spine teeth; outer plate armed on upper half of inner margin with 10 spine teeth and on the rounding distal margin with four or five curved serrulate spines; palp with third joint strongly curved; fourth joint bear- ing stout nail, at the base of which are three or four setules. Lower lip with inner lobes very indistinct and lateral corners short and obtuse. Gnathopod 1 a little shorter but stouter than 2; the sixth joint not much longer than wide, the hind margin bearing about four groups of slender spines, each group containing only a few spines; palm oblique, concave, and armed with peglike teeth, which are somewhat crowded together at the broadly rounding de- fining angle; seventh joint strong, much curved, and bearing a slight protuberance on the inner curved edge. The seventh joint closes upon the inside surface of the sixth joint and rests against an inner row of peglike teeth. Gnathopod 2, sixth joint much longer than wide, the hind margin bearing four or five groups of stout spines, each group composed of both straight and curved spines; palm oblique, concave, and armed with a row of peglike teeth on the outside margin and a row on the inside margin. These teeth are evenly spaced and not crowded together at the round- ing palmar angle as they are in gnathopod 1. Seventh joint strong and curved and bearing a low protuberance on the inner curved margin. The seventh joint closes against the palmar angle and rests between the two rows of teeth. Peraeopods 1 and 2 much alike in form, but peraeopod 1 a little the longer. Peraeopod 3 about equal in length to peraeopod 1; second joint with hind margin slightly concave and lower hind corner forming nearly a right angle; seventh joint strong, curved, and bearing two setae at the base of the nail. Peraeopod 4 longer than 3 but not so long as 5; second joint with hind margin slightly concave, lower hind angle not perceptible; the succeeding joints as shown in Fig. 2, J. Peraeopod 5, second joint with hind margin evenly convex; the rest of the limb as shown for peraeopod 4. VOL. 34, NO. 3° Coxal plates 1—4 are about as deep as their re- spective segments; lower front corners broadly rounding, lower margins bearing spinules. Coxal plates 5 and 6 with lower front corner produced into a small lobe, lower hind margin of plates bearing three or four spines. Coxal plate 7 with lower hind margin bearing five or six spines. The coxal gills bear cylindrical accessory gills which’ are attached to the upper edge of the primary gill where it joins the peduncle, Fig. 2, L, M. Each of the first four gills (those of gnathopod 2 and peraeopods 1-3) bears two cylindrical accessory gills, and the last two gills (those of peraeopods 4 and 5) possess.one cylindrical accessory gill each. Metasome segments 1-3 with their lower hind corners slightly produced and bearing an apical spine; lower lateral hind margins each with a spine near the center; lower margin of segments 2 and 3 bearing a few spines and setae, that of segment 1 bearing only setae. The posterodorsal surface of each of the meta- some and urosome segments bears a cluster of spines and an occasional seta. The arrange- ment of these spines is shown in Fig. 1, B, C. Uropod 1 reaching back to about two-thirds the distance along the outer ramus of uropod 3, peduncle with two spines on upper outer margin and two at outer distal corner; outer ramus very little shorter than inner with two spines on the outer margin and two on the inner mar- gin; inner ramus with three spines on inner margin and none on outer margin. Uropod 2 reaching back to about two-thirds the distance along the rami of uropod 1, peduncle with two spines On upper outer margin and with one outer distal spine; outer ramus noticeably shorter than inner, with one or two spines on outer margin and none on the inner; inner ramus with two spines on inner margin and none On the outer. Uropod 3, first joint of outer ramus not quite three times as long as the peduncle; second joint about one-fifth as long as the first; inner ramus very short and about the length of the second joint of the outer ramus. The armature of uropod 3, which con- sists of spines and simple setae, is shown in Fig. 1, H. Telson reaching back to the end of or a little beyond the peduncle of uropod 3, deeply cleft, and with the rounding lobes armed apically with a spine or a spine and a long seta, and the lateral margins usually bearing a spine toward the apex. As the arrangement of the Mar. 15, 1944 spines on the telson is somewhat variable, I have figured the telson of three different males. Length of male from rostrum to end of uropod 3, 10 or 10.5 mm. Female.—Female in general like the male, the characters differing only in degree. The antennae are shorter, the flagellum of antenna 1 consisting of about 21 joints and that of antenna 2 of about 12 or 13 joints. The gnatho- pods are smaller and weaker, and the palm of gnathopod 1 is more oblique and that of gnathopod 2 less oblique. The peraeopods ap- pear to be shorter and weaker. The groups of SCHULTZ: A NEW CATFISH FROM COLOMBIA 93 spines on the metasome and urosome contain fewer spines. Uropod 3 is shorter and is armed with fewer spines and setae. The gill arrange- ment is the same as in the male. The fully grown females are as long as the males. Type.-—A male, U.S.N.M. 79439, collected by R. E. Dimick, at Big Creek, south of Wald- port, Lincoln County, Oreg. Specimens of this species have been taken by R. E. Dimick in Lincoln County, Oreg., at Big Creek and Fogarty Creek, August 6, 1932, and January 12, 1933; and at Mercer Lake, Lane County, Oreg., November 20, 1932. ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from Colombia. Lronarp P. Scuuttz, U. 8. National Museum. Recently, while studying some fishes sent to the United States National Museum several years ago by Brother Nicéforo Maria, a small pimelodid catfish was found that can not be identified with any genus or species as yet described from South America. Imparales, n. gen. Genotype.—I mparales mariat, n. sp. This new genus of pimelodid catfish from the Rio Meta system at Villavicencio, Colombia (Orinoco drainage), is related to Imparfinis Kigenmann and to Pariolius Cope. Body elongate, the greatest depth about 9 in the standard length; head flattened, about intermediate between Imparfinis microps Higenmann and Cetopsorhamdia Eigenmann; snout not produced, the jaws equal, mouth terminal; two maxillary barbels; four mental barbels, their bases practically in a straight line; no nasal barbels; premaxillary with a band of villiform teeth, the outer lateral angles rounded and not projecting backward; narrow band of villiform teeth on lower jaw; no teeth on vomer or palatines; the posterior pair of nasal openings slightly farther apart than tubular anterior nasal openings; eye small, without free margin and situated just in front of middle of length of head; head covered with rather fleshy skin, but a small fontanel shows in middorsal line behind orbits; width of head 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received December 13, 1943. 13 in its length. occipital process very short or lacking, the space from occiput to dorsal origin being fleshy; dorsal and pectoral spines en- tirely absent; pelvic insertions under base of first branched dorsal ray; the origin of dorsal and insertion of pelvic fins well in advance of _middle of standard length; adipose fin long, its origin an equal distance between middle of length of pectoral fin and midcaudal fin base; the adipose fin posteriorly over caudal peduncle has a deep notch, then continues so it is con- fluent with the caudal fin; anal origin only a trifle behind a vertical line through adipose origin; anal fin short, of five graduated simple soft rays followed by six branched rays; caudal fin deeply forked, the upper lobe much longer than the lower, both lobes rounded distally; anus between middle of length of pelvic fins, the latter short and not quite reaching halfway to the anal origin; the lateral line appears to end near midaxis of body over front of anal fin base. Among those pimelodid genera without a free orbital rim, lacking spines in dorsal and pectoral fins, and with as few as 12 anal rays, this new genus differs in having a forked caudal fin with the upper lobe greatly elongate and the adipose fin confluent with caudal fin. Rham- diopsis Haseman, Acentronichthys Eigenmann and Eigenmann, and Heptapterus Bleeker all have 18 to 28 anal rays, while the new genus has but 12. Chasmocranus Eigenmann has the premaxillary band of teeth with backwardly projecting angles and the caudal fin not deeply incised. Pariolius Cope has the caudal fin 94 rounded and the pelvics inserted well in ad- vance of the dorsal origin, instead of a deeply incised caudal fin and pelvics inserted under front of dorsal fin base as in Imparales. Im- parfinis Eigenmann differs from the new genus in having the pelvics inserted much in advance of the dorsal origin, the anal a little in advance of a vertical line through adipose origin, and the head greatly depressed forward with a nearly straight profile. In Imparales the head is not thin forward, and the profile of the snout is rounded. Cetopsorhamdia Eigenmann and Fisher differs from Imparales by having a deeply forked caudal fin with equal pointed lobes or the lower lobe longest, pelvics inserted under the posterior base of dorsal fin, adipose fin not confluent with the caudal fin, and the mouth inferior in position, the snout projecting. Nemuroglanis Kigenmann and Eigenmann has a lanceolate caudal fin and the pelvics reach to: center of anal fin. In the key to the pimelodid catfishes without a free orbital rim by Gosline (Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 2(8) : 83-84. 1941) Imparales would trace down to Pariolius. Other characters are those of the new species described below. Named J mparales in reference to the unequal caudal fin lobes. Imparales mariai, n. sp. Fig. 1 Holotype—U.S.N.M. 121251, only known specimen, 38.5 mm in standard length and 51.5 mm in total length, collected by Brother Nicéforo Maria in the Rfo Meta at Villavi- cencio, Colombia. Description (measurements recorded in hun- dredths of the standard length).—Length of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 3 head from tip of snout to end of gill cover 18.4 and to end of supraoccipital 16.9; width of head across base of pectorals 12.7; greatest depth of body 11.2; least depth of body a little in front of base of caudal fin 7.80; length of snout 6.50; diameter of eye 2.08; width of inter- orbital space 5.20; distance from eye to edge of posterior nostril 1.30; distance from anterior to posterior nostril 2.60; postorbital length of head 10.4; length of maxillary barbel 35.3; length of outer mental barbel 19.5 and of inner mental barbel 13.0; distance from base of last anal ray to midcaudal fin base 20.5; length of base of adipose fin to the notch 35.6; greatest height of adipose fin 2.86; length of simple ray of dorsal fin 12.7, of pectoral fin 10.4, and of pelvic fin 9.10; length of longest (branched) ray of anal fin 9.85, or dorsal 15.6, of pelvies 13.2 and of pectorals 14.0; length of longest ray of upper caudal fin lobe 33.8, of lower caudal lobe 22.1; length of shortest middle caudal fin rays 11.4; distance from snout to dorsal origin 34.3; snout to anal origin 65.2; snout to adipose origin 62.3; snout to pelvic insertion 37.7; snout to pectoral insertion 17.1; snout to anus 44.0; anus to anal origin 22.6. The following counts were made: Dorsal rays i, 6; anal v, 7; pectoral i, 6-i, 6; pelvic i, 5-1, 5; branched caudal fin rays 7+6; gill rakers short, about 1 or 2 +5 or 6 on first arch. In addition to the characters described above and under the generic diagnosis, the following are recorded: Maxillary barbel reaches a trifle past pelvic insertion; inner mental barbels reach to opposite pectoral in- sertions and outer mental barbels well past base of pectorals; anterior nostrils tubular, separated by about eye diameter; pectorals not quite reaching to opposite dorsal origin; de- Fig. 1.—Imparales mariat, n. gen. and sp.: Holotype, U.S.N.M. 121251. Drawn by Mrs. A. M. Awl, U. S. National Museum. & u 7 " “4 si ee es ee oe Pere a) Mar. 15, 1944 pressed dorsal not reaching quite to adipose origin; pelvics reaching nearly halfway to anal origin; dorsal fin margin truncate distally and that of pelvics rounded; middle rays of pectoral longest; anal fin margin rounded distally; gill membranes free from isthmus; mouth terminal, jaws nearly equal; head depressed with broad blunt snout; body compressed posteriorly. Color in alcohol plain light brown. Remarks.—This new species differs from all other pimelodid catfishes without free orbital rim, without any spines in the fins, without OBITUARIES 95 backwardly projecting angles on villiform band of premaxillary teeth, and without teeth on vomer by having a deeply incised caudal fin with the upper lobe much the longer, the adipose fin notched but confluent with caudal fin, and pelvics inserted under the base of first branched ray of dorsal fin. Additional differ- ences are given in the generic diagnosis. Named mariaz in honor of Brother Nicéforo Maria, the collector of this interesting little pimelodid catfish. @bituaries LEONHARD STEJNEGER, who was born at Bergen, Norway, on October 30, 1851, died in Washington, D. C., on February 28, 1943, at the age of 91 and after more than 70 years of active scientific life. To record the highlights of this long and fruitful career is not a simple task. Few people realized the versatility of his talents. Coming of a musical family related to the composer Edvard Grieg and the violinist — Ole Bull, he was trained in his youth to be a concert violinist. His love of natural history was strong enough to force him out of a promising career, and even to cause him finally to go against the wishes of his father, who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps as a lawyer. Young Leonhard did, in fact, take a law degree at the University of Christiania in 1875, but he never practiced the profession. His legal training, however, was of inestimable service to him in weighing the pros and cons of biologic evidence, which was to be his chief concern all the rest of his life. His early youth likewise saw the development of his skill in drawing and painting. For his water-color paintings of birds of his native Norway, made while he was in his early teens, he had to pre- pare even the paper for his sketches by coating ordinary writing paper with opaque Chinese white, a pigment that gave him a surface ca- pable of taking fine details in feathers and color, which show his extraordinary observational range as well as his splendid control of pencil and brush. It is not surprising that his pub- lished drawings of birds in his Asiatic bird papers are as fine as those of any professional scientific artist. His skill in accurate drafts- manship is nowhere better shown than in the maps of the fur-seal islands that he made during his several visits to rookeries of the North Pacific. They have not yet been sur- passed for detail and careful measurement. Although his first interest was in ornithology his work on mammals was of great importance. Our knowledge of the skeletal features of the extinct Steller’s sea-cow is due largely to his efforts, while the suggestions contained in his fur-seal report led directly to the control of pelagic sealing and the ultimate recovery of the seal herds that had been nearly exterminated for their valuable pelts. In 1889 he became curator of the division of reptiles and batra- chians in the United States National Museum, and for the balance of his life much of hts writ- ing dealt with herpetology. In his eighty-fifth year he published a biography of his hero Georg Wilhelm Steller, the young ship’s doctor and naturalist who accompanied Bering in his voyages to explore the North Pacific and who was the first white man to set foot on the coast of Alaska after the unlucky Bering had died of scurvy. This work will long remain a model for biographical writing, not only for the painstak- ing care with which the source material was examined over a period of years, but also for its charming English and facility of expression, very unusual in a man who did not speak the English language until he was 30 years old. His many treatises on zoogeography, especially on the Arctic fauna, will long be consulted. He preferred the Arctic to the Tropics, having been born within the Arctic Circle. Thus he thor- oughly understood the physical environment of northern countries from having grownup in one. 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dr. Stejneger’s extraordinary powers of ap- plication to the problem not only of the mo- ment but for projects begun perhaps years be- fore; his great gift for synthesizing facts to formulate zoologic concepts that have with- stood every subsequent test; his retentive memory for books, facts, and personalities encountered in nearly three-quarters of a cen- tury of research; his patience in explaining the complexities of animal taxonomy to other stu- dents after he had with even greater patience untangled the facts and drawn the proper in- ferences from them himself—all these qualities are evident from his published work or have been mentioned in the notices that have ap- peared since his death. What no one could fully realize without having experienced it, was the stimulation of his always timely suggestions to other zoologists with whom he came in contact. He unfailingly found the weak link in a chain of scientific reasoning and was equally quick in pointing out new and better applications of ac- cepted rules. He spent hours of his time in going over manuscripts presented to him for criticism and was never known to shirk his responsibility in giving a full, fair summary of his well-con- sidered opinions. His knowledge of practically every European language brought him a wide correspondence with scientists in every corner of the globe. When he was over 80, he set him- self the task of learning Polish in order to trans- late for his own satisfaction some old records of ,Bering’s and Steller’s travels published in that language. He was happy in the land of his adoption to which he came in 1881. Although he looked forward to periodic visits to his homeland, his real interests were centered in America. He loved to entertain his friends, and with his wife, who similarly enjoyed company, he kept a stream of guests of all nationalities flowing constantly to his beautiful home. He had all the social graces, and on the night of his eightieth birthday he danced until 3 a.m. at his own birthday party. A special dispensation during the Hoover administration granted to him and a few others above retirement age a life tenure of their very important positions. His last days were greatly saddened by the war. He hoped constantly for news of his sister, not heard from since the Nazis invaded y VoL. 34, No. 3 Norway. When the Museum was ordered to evacuate type specimens and other unique ma- terial, he, as head curator, personally super- vised the packing and shipping out of all the more valuable specimens and records pertain- ing to the department of biology—this when he was over 90, an age at which most men would be willing to delegate such tasks to younger shoulders. Doris M. CocHran GEORGE WASHINGTON LITTLEHALES, an orig- inal member and a past vice-president of this AcADEMY, died on August 12, 1943. Born on October 14, 1860, at Pottsville, Pa., Mr. Littlehales graduated from the U. 8. Naval Academy in 1883 and entered the service of the U. 8S. Hydrographic Office in 1885, where he served until his retirement in 1932, a period of 47 years. His long career in this office brought him recognition not only in this country but in the international world of science. An emi- nent mathematician, oceanographer, and civil engineer, he was the author of many Hydro- graphic Office publications dealing with naviga- tion, terrestrial magnetism, oceanography, and related subjects. In addition to his association with the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences, he served as chairman of the Section of Physical Ocean- ography, American Geophysical Union; vice- president of the Section of Oceanography, International Union of Geodesy and Geo- physics; and vice-president of the American Geophysical Union. A member of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, he served as president in 1905. He was also a member of the American Society of Naval Engineers. As a delegate from the United States, he ably represented the Hydrographic Office and the various scientific bodies at numerous congresses and councils on hydrography, oceanography, and terrestrial magnetism throughout the world from 1919 until his retirement from active life. In the passing of Mr. Littlehales, the scien- tific world has lost a preeminent scholar of the nautical sciences whose entire life was devoted to the advancement of knowledge in a field that will greatly feel his loss. ) G. 8S. BRYAN Pe ee, ee eS eae " CONTENTS EruHNnoLtocy.—The requickening address of the Iroquois nm ag 2 : council. J. N. B. Hewitt. eo by WiiuraM N. gaye i ie ZooLocy.—Notes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), : with a description of anew genus. Harotp W. ManTer........ | ZooLocy.—Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus — Anisogammarus from Oregon. CLARENCE R.SHOEMAKER....... 8 IcnHTHYOLOGY.—A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from. Colombia. Lronarp P. SCHULTZ. 16.0 s sees eee 3 This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. "BOARD OF EDITORS” Lewis V. Jupson sf i ae ‘Hara AL Renpzn ii 9 wATION cpsyaoae oF ‘STANDARDS: as U8. NATIONAL MUSEUM EN ta é i } } bs ik "ASSOCIATE. EDITORS . 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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its Sea son for thone of other | . ns societies. hes, OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: CLement L. Garner, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKWEDDE, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappueye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: Natuan R. Surra, Bureau of Plant Industry. . Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. Serzuuer, U. S. National Museum. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLuME 34 ETHNOLOGY.—Sanitation and health in a Japanese village. Aprit 15, 1944 No. 4 JOHN F. EMBREE, Civil Affairs Training School, University of Chicago. INTRODUCTION The present war in Asia has caught America with an acute shortage of first- hand, reliable knowledge of many aspects of Japanese culture. One such aspect is that of sanitation and health, as the writer has discovered in connection with instruction in an Army Civil Affairs Training School. For this reason the available first-hand data on the subject, as they apply to a specific community in Japan, have been brought together in this paper. Suye Mura is a small country village in Kyushu, the inhabitants of which gain their livelihood largely through cultivating paddy field rice and to a lesser extent through raising silkworms.? Though a long way from Tokyo, it is not too far from Nagasaki and Kumamoto City, where there has been a long history of contact with the West. Its standards of health and sanitation, while considerably more backward than those of the town or city in Japan, probably do not differ basically from conditions in other villages. The relative shortage of doctors and the high consumption of patent medi- eines, for instance, are reflected in the national statistics, which show that in Japan there is an average of 7.65 doctors for every 10,000 people,’ approximately half the figure for the United States, and that for patent medicines there is an annual expenditure of about 130,000,000.4 + Received February 26, 1944, 2 The data given here were collected in 1935 and 1936. A description of social life in the village may be found in Suye Mura, a Japanese village, University of Chicago Press, 1939. 5 Japan Year Book, 1939-40. * Far East Year Book, 1941. 97 CIVIC PROVISION FOR SANITATION AND HEALTH There is in the village office a sanitation bureau and in each hamlet a special person concerned with matters of sanitation, the eset kumichd. Frequently he is the same person as the hamlet headman (buraku nushid6ri) or the head of the hamlet agri- cultural association (buraku kokumzatcho). He may hold his office either through elec- tion or by a system of rotation. His chief functions are in connection with house- cleaning examinations and vaccination. There is also a cemetery overseer whose duties are to check on the condition of graves and see that they are deep enough to prevent dogs from digging in them. He 1s also charged with the duty of preventing any illegal exhumations and seeing that no body is buried sooner than 24 hours after death. This last rule is to insure against burying someone alive through an error in diagnosis of death. The village office also maintains on its rolls a doctor for the pur- pose of preconscription health examination for boys from the village and an annual smallpox vaccination at the village school. All these functions are only ocvasional duties of the persons concerned. The sanita- tion officers are mostly regular farmers, as is the cemetery inspector. The doctor lives and carries on his practice in a nearby town, coming to Suye only when his duties as Suye public-health doctor demand it. The local police assist the village officials in the carrying out of their public-health duties and of course may be called upon to enforce any rules which are not obeyed. The need for this, however, is rare. APR 2O "ss 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANDARDS OF CLEANLINESS AND HEALTH Standards of cleanliness in the village are different from those in, say, an American small town. They also vary considerably according to local standards from individual to individual. In house-cleaning, for in- stance, it is essential that the straw floor- mats (tatamz) be kept clean. On the other hand, the use of the same dishrag day after day, both as dishrag and as towel, is also considered quite proper. The average farmer takes a bath practically every day, but runny noses among the children pass unnoticed and are considered no offense. In regard to local variations, the upper-class groups, who incidentally are better able to afford cleanliness, are likely on the whole to ob- serve strictly the traditional Japanese standards of hygiene. In regard to drink exchange, while in the towns, as a rule, the drinking cup is rinsed off in a bowl of water between exchanges, no such refinement is observed in the village. The hair of young girls and even of adult women is often infested with lice. Most of the farmhouse tatami contain a peculiarly aggressive form of flea (nomz). Within the Mura there is a fairly wide range of knowledge and practice in regard to matters of sanitation and health accord- ing to social and occupational status. One or two of the more well-to-do individuals who have been away to college, the midwife, and a few others have a much better com- prehension of the cause and prevention of disease than does the average villager. Similarly, shopkeepers and schoolteachers, with their wider knowledge of the modern world than the person who rarely travels, are not so likely to follow traditional folk- Ways. PLUMBING There is no plumbing of any sort in the village, water being obtained from wells and streams. Night soil and manure are care- fully preserved to be used as fertilizer in the fields, and there is practically no garbage to be disposed of. There are, for instance, no meat bones in the village, because the people eat no meat. The carcasses of dead animals, such as horses, are bought up by certain people in the towns for the use of the hides and the bones. Bean-curd (tofu) VOL. 34, No. 4 waste is fed to the pigs: kept by the tdfu makers. The pigs in turn are sold to city dealers. The bath and toilet of the village farm- houses are not a part of the main building but are usually in the form of outhouses somewhere in the house yard. There is usually a bucket set in the ground to serve as a urinal somewhere in the front yard near the structure housing toilet and bath. — It is used by the men much as in the Occi- dent, while women stand over it facing the yard, bending forward and hiking the garments to the knees in such a way that they may urinate without either soiling their garments or exposing themselves. The urinal is only partially protected by a door- less wooden covering; sometimes it stands quite in the open. A branch of evergreen may be placed across the top to serve as a deodorant. The outhouse toilet is enclosed and has a door. It is used in such a way that one squats over an opening rather than sitting, thus avoiding any spread of disease by means of toilet seats. There is no plumb- ing attached to either the bath or the toilet. The bath requires filling with water and heating by a fire built underneath it every afternoon. The same bath water is used, as a rule, by the whole family or even by several neighborhood families in order to save the work of filling several tubs and laying several fires. However, the general practice is to wash one’s self off first and then get into the tub for a hot soak. The water is supplied from wells in yards and ditches or from nearby fresh-water streams and springs. As a rule, most water is taken in the form of soup or tea and so has been sterilized through boiling. Dishes and trays, however, are washed in cold water. REFRIGERATION There is no refrigeration in the village, although it does exist in the small towns of the area. A man, such as the fishmonger or the ice-cake’ maker, maintains refrigeration from natural ice or from refrigeration ap- paratus. However, even in the towns, re- frigeration is restricted to such special occupations and is not a characteristic of 5 A kind of ‘‘popsicle.” Ripe 15,1944 the average household. Cases of illness re- sulting from eating contaminated ice cakes are occasionally reported in the towns. HOUSE-CLEANING Daily house-cleaning includes the rub- bing off of the en or wooden runway by one side of the house and the sweeping out of the front yard or the dirt road in front of the house. In fact, the day usually begins with a brisk sweeping of the dirt’ yard or road to be followed later by a hasty dusting of the interior. Dishes are washed in cold water, the same dishrag being used for both washing and wiping. Since there is no greasy material in the local diet, this cold-water washing is sufficient to keep the dishes pre- sentable. Trays and other eating utensils, which are only used from time to time for special banquets, are usually washed just before using rather than when being put away. On dusty days, the roadway in front of the house is sprinkled with water. In Japan it is the rule that houses must be cleaned two or three times a year, and in Suye the dates come in April and July. The lack of a house-cleaning period in January or February may be due to the cold weather. House-cleaning, which is woman’s work, consists in removing the paper sliding screens (sho77) and removing the tatamz and other movable parts of the house and taking them outdoors where the shéji are washed off and the tatamz beaten. The floor boards under the tatami are wiped and fresh bamboo branches are used to brush off the walls and ceilings. Movable objects and bric-a-brac are simply moved about while the surfaces on which they stand are cleaned, but the dust of the ages on the bric-a-brac itself goes undisturbed. On the appointed day, the village sanitary inspec- tor and a policeman come around to inspect each house to see that it has been properly cleaned. A house must be pretty dirty not to pass. Hach housewife is given some car- bolic-acid disinfectant at this time to be put by the toilet, around on the dirt floor of the kitchen, and in the dirt areaway by the entrance, areas subject to wetness; the carbolic acid is intended to be used as a protection against epidemics as well as to kill insects. EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 99 Household bedding is laid out on the floor in the evening and rolled up and put away in a closet during the day. It is not unusual for a man to go to sleep with his regular clothing on, and school children often sleep in their school uniforms. VACCINATION The Japanese Government has for some years maintained a thorough program of smallpox vaccination, one that reaches out to include every village and hamlet of the nation. In Suye Mura, for instance, once a year, all the one-year-olds and all the ten- year-olds are gathered together at the school for this purpose. There is a check-up of those vaccinated a week later. The doctor employed by the village office performs the actual vaccinations. There have been no epidemics of smallpox in Suye Mura for over 30 years. HOSPITALS There is no hospital in the Mura, and as a rule villages are without such medical service. On the other hand, there is a small hospital in a nearby town run on a some- what cooperative basis. Two of its council- lors or trustees are people of Suye, one of whom happens to be the village headman. The rooms in this hospital, like those of many Japanese hospitals, are very much like rooms at home with tatamz floors, and the bed is made up directly on the floor. It is the custom for relatives to visit a patient at frequent intervals and for long periods, even eating with him and helping to nurse him. As a rule, people from Suye Mura go to a hospital only when seriously ill, and many people who would be hospital cases by American standards never see the inside of a hospital room. Also, as might be ex- pected, it is only the more well-to-do who go to the hospital, because of the expense involved. There is a small isolation building in the village for the purpose of taking care of any person who should be taken down with a seriously contagious disease. It has not been used for that purpose, however, for 20 years. DOCTORS AND MIDWIVES There are very few doctors in these rural 100 areas, and there is no doctor at all in Suye Mura, though there are some in the towns and one in the neighboring village. One of these doctors may hold a weekly clinic in the Mura if he thinks it will be profitable. Doctors must certify to deaths for village office records, and such death certificates usually cost 25 to 50 sen. In regard to health matters, doctors are regarded as rather ex- pensive by village standards since they charge 1 to 2 yen per visit. Furthermore, some of the older rural doctors are not es- pecially well trained as medical practi- tioners. There is no dentist in the village, and people with serious tooth trouble must go to a town or city dentist. A typical country doctor in this area is Dr. K, of Fukada Mura, a couple of miles from Suye. His degree of training is some- what doubtful, but his success financially is beyond any doubt. His residence is an im- posing one, and he makes his calls in a little Ford roadster, one of the very few motor vehicles privately owned by anyone in this area. He has a rather superior attitude in regard to the local farmers and by his own testimony does not like living in the coun- try. He says that he buys 10,000 worth of medicine a year but only receives ¥2,000 for it. He makes his money rather as a landowner. These statements can best be understood by realizing that by Japanese standards it is more important to be from an old landowning family than to make one’s money through trade. Nonetheless, the statement should be taken with con- siderable skepticism. Dr. K, like some other doctors, occasionally complains about the faith healers or kztéshi of the area, claiming that people go to them until the sickness becomes very serious before calling in the medical doctor. There are two midwives in the village, women who have been trained in special schools and who are licensed to practice midwifery. They attend births and look after the mother. A favorite doctor’s remedy for pains of various kinds from boils to female diseases is the use of injections or chisha. The vil- lagers attach considerable value to these injections, and it is possible that they serve as a psychological substitute for such folk JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 practices aS mogusa and acupuncture de- scribed below. When ill, most people simply stay at home and go to bed. A young wife may go to the home of her parents if she becomes sick. Only in extreme cases does one go to a hospital, and such extreme cases do not include childbirth. The family is likely to visit a faith healer or administer some home ~ remedy as a first means of regaining health. The doctor is called, as a rule, only as a last resort, often when a man is on his deathbed. FAITH HEALERS Faith healers or kitdshi are men or women who, by means of prayer and incantations, cure illnesses, drive out evil spirits, and in general bring a sick body back to health. They may effect their cures with the aid of either Buddhist or Shinto deities. An Inarié kitdshi is especially popular in Suye as well as one old, blind healer who maintains a small, run-down Tendai’ temple. The kzto- — shi, on the whole, do not belittle the use of doctors and medicines, and there are in- stances of their actually recommending that their clients go to a doctor for treat- ment. They have no set fees, people giving them gifts of rice, eggs, etc. Most kitdshi (and Shinto shrines) have for sale special charms and medicines for everything from horses’ health to fertility in women. Yakushi, a special Buddhist deity of medicine, is occasionally enshrined in local priestless hamlet temples (d6). While most ills are regarded as of natural origin, some > sickness is attributed to witchery by means of an inugami (dog spirit) or nekogami (cat spirit) instigated by the malevolence or envy of some unpleasant neighbor. Such sickness, of course, would call for the im- mediate attention of the kitdshi. Some people patronize the faith healers regularly as a kind of health insurance. MEDICINES AND PILLS Medicines are much used in the Mura. 6 A popular Shinto deity of good fortune, patron deity of farmers and of gezsha. His mes- senger is the fox. 7 A Buddhist sect formerly strong in Japan but today less important than such sects as Shinshu, Zen, and Nichiren. Apr. 15, 1944 Families may spend as much as a yen a month for medicine, and a single household may have on hand as many as seven to eight different medicines. There are very few, if any, legal restrictions as to what the label of a medicine bottle or box may say. Most of them claim the contents to be general cure-alls, and most of the purchasers believe what the label says. The medicines are obtained from a num- ber of sources. A few people purchase cer- tain medicines from the agricultural as- sociation, and doctors frequently give medi- cines in connection with other services. There are also many druggists in the nearby towns who sell all sorts of medicines as well as a number of itinerant medicine sellers who go through the village from time to time. Home remedies of various sorts are also common. Sometimes people visit hotsprings as a means of restoring their health. There are some small springs at Yunoharu, not far from Suye, a somewhat better one at Hito- yoshi, the old county capital 12 miles away, EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 101 and occasionally someone from the village may go as far as the famous springs of Beppu, a day’s journey by train. ITINERANT MEDICINE SELLERS A Korean peddler of ginseng or Kanton no ninjin.—This man comes through the village from time to time selling his wares and gossiping with the housewives. He says that if you are sick ginseng will make you feel better, and even a little bit will cure a fever. He also claims ginseng to be good for headache, cold, female troubles, gonorrhea, and syphilis and a cure for sterility. This wonderful medicine does not come for nothing, and the seller charges ¥7.50 and up per root. However, a little goes a long way, a bit of it being scraped off and boiled into an infusion, which is then taken in- ternally. Ginseng, incidentally, is a Japa- nese Government monopoly in Korea. Patent-medicine sellers—There are a number of different patent-medicine sellers who pass through the village from time to time selling their wares. The practice is for Fig. 1. Benz seller being given a cup of tea by a farmer’s wife. The chart he holds shows how bent may be applied. 102 them to leave with a given housewife a number of pills and powders without charge, then to come back in six months or so, at which time the customer pays only for what she has used. Beni seller.—Benz is a red liquid looking somewhat like mercurochrome, and there is a particular man who comes through the Mura from time to time peddling it from house to house. According to the benz seller, his product is good for many ills. If you have a fever, put it upon the soles of your feet; if you have stomach trouble, put some on the lower chest; if you have troubles of the womb, place some on the belly; if you have gonorrhea, put some on just above the sex organs; if you have arm or shoulder trouble, put some on the arm; if you suffer from headache or histert,8 put some on the temples and the crown of the head. Beni stings on application and leaves a bright red spot for a few days after application and so has a good psychological effect. Many people in the village use it, especially for headache. COMMON TRADITIONAL TREATMENTS Three common traditional treatments used in Japan are acupuncture, moxa, and massage. All three go back at least to early Tokugawa days, and in one form or another they are also practiced in the rural areas of Korea and parts of China. Most of these three treatments are performed by older women of the village who are regarded as experts. Acupuncture—This is a treatment in- volving the use of a needle in a bamboo sheath. A case description?: Mrs. K, wife of the Inari kitéshi, got a sore neck and shoulder. People suffer from stiff necks and shoulders and backs, very often—whether from overwork or rheumatism due to damp and cold winters I do not know. She came for a mas- sage to Mrs. Sawada [an old woman of a poor farm family living in the same hamlet as Mrs. K]. The old lady is famous for it. At first she massaged her sitting down, then made her stretch out and pressed her neck stressing the sore spots. Then she used the needle—a metal needle blunt at 8 See below. ® This and the other case descriptions given below are from the field notebooks of Ella Embree. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in sewing. VOL. 34, NO. 4 the end which is put into a bamboo tube about 14 inches long. She applied the tube to the sore spot, then by flipping her fingers got the needle, pro- truding on top at first, well into the flesh; then removing the case she twisted the needle. No blood appeared. The pain was said to be much re- lieved by the treatment. In her bag containing the massage material the old lady had a bottle of alcohol which she rubbed on her hands and the needle—she did not know why she did it but the old lady I—also present—said it was a disin- fectant. But after the alcohol wash she passed the needle through her hair to make it glide, as is done The old lady learned her trade herself, bought the needle at Taragi, gets a few sen for her services (‘‘kokoro kara’’—from the heart) from each patient. It is to be noted in this case that the func- tions of the acupuncture expert and the kitdshi do not conflict. In a case calling for acupuncture even the wife of the kitdshi visits the proper specialist. The case also brings out the varying degrees of knowledge of different persons in the village. Old Mrs. S, a rather unsophisticated woman, wife of a farmer, has learned her trade from a specialist in the town more or less by rote as one would learn a magical formula— hence the alcohol is used as instructed, but she is ignorant of its purpose as evidenced by her own statement and by her subse- quent action in running the needle she has sterilized in alcohol through her hair to make it smooth. Mrs. I, on the other hand, is the wife of a broker and business man and knows the purpose of the alcohol, though it is possible that even she did not see the inconsistency of running the sterilized needle through the hair. Moxa (mogusa).—This is a cure involv- ing the burning of bits of dried-up young leaves of the Chinese wormwood (Artemisia moxa) usually on the back and sometimes on thumbs held closely together or on the back of the hand. The burning of the skin is said to ‘‘take the pain away.”’ A case de- scription: In Nakashima I came across old Mrs. G hav- ing her back burnt. Her daughter-in-law was doing it. First she passed an iron rod through a pipe stem to get it stained, then, locating the sore spot by pressing her finger, she would make a small spot with the rod. After that she put a tiny bit of mogusa on all the marked spots and burnt it by applying a stick of incense (senko). Each spot was gone over and over again until one layer Apr. 15, 1944 of skin was burnt off. The burnt moxa was scraped off with a finger before applying more stuff. Through all this the old lady never uttered a sound. Yet when a bit of burning stuff was dropped by mistake on the wrong spot, she shuddered. They do not do it regularly, but say that if done twice a month the back would not ache at all. Massage.— Massage is done both by hand and with special sticks. A case description: Mrs. I of Imamura when [I stopped there this afternoon was just having her last bit of massage. It was being done by a specialist from Menda who calls his massage himeri—moving of muscles to restore circulation, as against the common variety of amma (‘‘as done by untrained people in the country’) or massage done outside of Japan. He thinks his massage can cure many troubles— bruises, stomach diseases, skin eruption due to bad circulation. He knew something of anatomy and a few English terms he picked up somewhere (one of his brothers is in America now). He is also the representative of a medical manufacturer and sells just one brand of medicine and warns you against counterfeits. He has pills for internal troubles, karumin being the most popular and good for settling stomachs, counteracting con- stipation, overcoming diarrhea, preventing dizzi- ness and curing headaches. He also has ointments. As premiums and ads he distributes two flags—a large national flag and a triangular navy flag both with company’s trade mark on it. This trade mark is also represented in a gold-braided medal on his - cap—which makes him look like a railway official. Took up this business because he has very poor eyes and could not do any studying. He comes to the village regularly at certain intervals and has been coming more often now to give Mrs. I her treatment. She did not see me when I came and lay there moaning with pain, covering her eyes up with her arms. She was quite naked and had a kimono thrown over her. After the operation she looked all done in. But her skin is much better. The pills he left with her said (in English) ‘‘For gonorrhea, catarrh of the biadder and testicles.” In Japanese there was a long de- scription which mentioned gonococcus. To me she said nothing is the matter with her internally and the medicine is merely to clear the system out now that the eruptions on the skin are over and her blood circulates properly. She complained about the price of the stuff—one yen a bottle and the dose is thirty pills a day. COMMON ILLS There are a number of common ills that afflict the people of the village and that are for the most part accepted as a part of this world’s inevitable misfortunes: Skin diseases, rashes, etc., are very com- mon, especially in children. One child’s EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 103 skin disease is known as mizu b6sd. Common remedies are ointments and _ powders. Rashes are especially common in _ hot weather, and more faith seems to be put into powders and ointments than in wash- ing as a preventive or cure. Colds and chest troubles.—These occur in both adults and children. Children go to an unheated school, which is regarded as good self-discipline for them. Infants are fre- quently subjected to exposure of various sorts in cold weather. When an infant wants to relieve himself, for instance, his mother lifts his kimono, opens the sh6jz, and holds him outdoors till he is finished. What Dr. K calls influenza is also a com- mon ailment in the village and a serious one. One home remedy for a.cold is garlic in soup or mixed with brown sugar. ‘‘Garlic is good for the health” is a common saying just like ‘‘wheat is good for the health.” (The peasants do not like wheat in their rice, but when eating it as an economy measure console themselves with this phrase.) Cerebral hemorrhage and stroke (Néikketsu, noshukketsu).—This is frequent among the old and is often fatal. The doctor is usually called in to diagnose an attack, but most of the care is by the family and at home. One doctor lays its high incidence to overdrink- ing. He also cites liver ailments as due to the same cause. Chibu, a kind of paralysis, is also com- mon among the old people. (Hepburn trans- lates chibu as hemiplegia.). Venereal disease—Syphilis (baidoku) and gonorrhea (rinbyd) both occur in the village but do not seem to be especially common, judging by the fact that no cases were found by the army doctor among the conscripts in Suye in one year. However, these diseases are much talked about and form a favorite topic of malicious gossip. A specific case: One baby died of congenital syphilis after a period of illness. According to the father: he read of some medicine in a magazine and sent for it; the baby recovered rapidly, too rapidly, for all the poison was not yet out of the body; this caused an explosion of the veins in the head and, hence, the baby died. One remedy said to be good is a mixture of snakeskin and shéchi (a distilled rice 104 liquor). Some women say that shdchi is good for female genital diseases. Stomach troubles and intestinal diseases.— These are especially common in children who eat irregularly and frequently overeat of starchy foods, such as the heavy rice cakes made on the occasion of various holi- days. In fall, stomach trouble from eating green persimmons is common. Hkirt, a form of dysentery, is also common with children. In the event of vomiting, due to indiges- tion or too much liquor, cold water is ad- ministered and the vomit is covered with ashes by one of the women of the household. Backache, pains, stiff necks, stiff shoulders, and backs (rheumatism and_ arthritis).— These chronic ailments are especially com- mon among older women. The chief reme- dies are massage, moxa, and acupuncture. (See above. ) Women’s diseases, pains, and uterus troubles (fujinby6).—Diseases and pains of the uterus (shikya or sh’kyi) are especially bad and seem to be due to a lack of proper postnatal care. The midwife says that the women get up too soon after childbirth and do not take proper care of themselves. Local custom in this regard is described below. Accidents.—Burns and cuts are common. Burns may occur from a, child’s falling into the zrorz, or fire pit. Such burns may be treated by a doctor or by some home remedy such as kaki no shibu (an astringent made from persimmons). Patent medicines may also be used. The bacteriologist No- guchi had one hand seriously damaged by such a burn. Cuts may be treated by a doctor as, for instance, in the case of a boy falling from a tree and cutting himself. Cuts in the fingers and legs are especially common. One home remedy is salt and hot oil applied externally, as in the case of a young woman who had a cut from bamboo on her leg that had become swollen. Cancer.—Cases diagnosed as cancer are rare, though the Zen priest died of cancer of the throat. With the relatively high death rate and low age expectancy, it is possible that cancer actually is less common in Japan than in, say, the United States. (The JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 national statistics for Japan tend to bear out this statement.) Leprosy.—Leprosy is rare in this area. There were no cases in Suye itself. Leprosy is regarded by the people as a disgrace to the family. It is very difficult for relatives of a leper to get married. Villagers regard leprosy as being due to bad blood and hence inheritable. According to one of the doctors in the region, mild cases are registered with the police and given an injection of some sort of oil (chaulmoogra?). More serious cases are sent to an isolation hospital in Kuroishibaru, Kumamoto. Tuberculosis.—The incidence of this is uncertain though the national tuberculosis rate is high. Like leprosy, it is regarded as a disgrace to the family and so cases of it are likely to be hushed up. Malaria.—According to a local doctor, there is no malaria in Kuma County. There were quite definitely no cases in Suye in 1935-36. Typhoid.—This occurs in epidemic form in Kuma, according to a local doctor. How- ever, there has been no incidence of it in Suye recently. Insanity.—Insanity, like leprosy, is re- garded as a family disgrace, and it is not mentioned if possible. People will simply say that so and so is ill or has a cold, ete. If a person becomes violently insane, he may be locked in a special room with the permission of the police, or he may be sent to a hospital at the medical college in Kumamoto. Mild cases are not treated in any special way. In- sane persons do not get married. Feeblemindedness.—This is usually taken care of at home. The feebleminded person is given simple chores to do around the house. Feebleminded persons rarely get married, though this is no guarantee that they will not have children. Nervous breakdown.—Something resem- bling nervous breakdown occurs. It is due to worry and anxiety and occurs especially among women when marital relations are bad, work in the home difficult, ete. A vari- ation of this, known as histerz, or hysteria, also occurs. A characteristic of a woman with histeri is that she develops a sort of nymphomania characterized by uninhibited Apr. 15, 1944 ageressive sexual remarks and behavior toward men. Childbirth—Childbirth always takes place at home and in private. Even the midwife may not be present until after the child has been born unless it is a difficult delivery. In mountain hamlets, most of the women have their children quite alone. It is the custom that a woman should not cry out at child- birth ‘‘or people will laugh.”’ As one woman put it, they would say ‘“‘you were quiet when the nice things happened, but cry now.’’!0 The old local posture for childbirth seems to have been sitting or squatting, holding on to something for support. The midwife today, however, recommends that mothers lie down. | It is always a midwife, not a doctor, who is called in at the time of a birth. She puts drops: of silver nitrate in the eyes of the baby at birth and gives the mother advice on caring for the new-born infant. While infant mortality during the first year is less than in former years, it is still fairly high. Deaths in childbirth and stillbirths also occur occasionally. A stillbirth is as likely as not to go unrecorded in the village office records. The afterbirth is buried somewhere in the house yard, and the father then steps over it. There is a belief that the father should do this because the child will fear the person who first steps over the afterbirth, and it would, of course, be very undesirable for a dog or some other animal to do this. The umbilical cord is usually saved and tucked away in the rafters—according to some, so that the baby will learn well; according to others, as a means of protecting its health. Ultimately it seems to be consumed by mice. The mother is usually up on the third day, when there is a special naming cere- mony for the infant. She is not supposed to do heavy farm work until about a month after the birth, when there is another special ceremony. However, she is up and around 10 This taboo on crying out at childbirth is characteristic of a number of tribes in northeast Asia, such as the Chukchee, and perhaps dates back to a very early period of Japanese history. EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 105 the house and yard, frequently doing rather heavy work, thus contributing to the heavy strain to her system. Such practices may be a cause of much of the older (35 and over) women’s illnesses in the village. If she did not do her share of housework after the thirtieth day, she would be subject to the criticism of other women for being lazy and self-indulgent. When the 30-day period is over, even though she may not be well enough for field work, local custom and public opinion exert such strong sanctions that she must do her share of farm labor. It is a peculiar fact that there appears to be no menstruation for about a year or more after a birth among the village women, although there may be a rather long flow immediately following childbirth. This phe- nomenon appears to be characteristic es- pecially of the farm women and may be as- sociated with the fact that they are up and working in the fields before their system has regained its normal postnatal functioning. Abortions are rare, and there was only one case in Suye by a woman of a non- village family who was regarded by the people of Suye as crazy. Circumcision occurs frequently but is by no means general. The operation is per- formed around the age of 17 or 18. MISCELLANEOUS MINOR AILMENTS AND HOME REMEDIES Minor ailments of various sorts are legion, as are also the remedies therefor. Fish poisoning occurs. For toothache and headache, which are common, benz is fre- quently applied. There is a J7zd-san" stone regarded as good for toothache and another one regarded as good for earache in the Mura. Boils are common and may be cut by a doctor or treated with some special medicine. Sore throat occurs occasionally. Two cases of bad eyes were treated by doctors in Menda and Hitoyoshi, but the exact troubles were not ascertained. I once saw an old woman with something in her eye and a younger woman naked from the waist up (it was in July) rubbing the af- fected eye with a damp towel after which 11 A popular protective and beneficent deity of Buddhist origin. 106 she squeezed some milk into it from her breast. There was one mention of neck-gland trouble. The patient first tried a doctor then tried a remedy called burz and moxa, and finally he went to a hotspring. There are some plant allergies, one case of rash being attributed to contact with the haze plant (wax tree). There was one case of a large head cyst (?), which was cut out three separate times. The last operation was per- formed at Taragi Hospital and cost ¥8.50. One man had a kind of sleeping illness. He would work a few days and then sink into a sort of coma for a period of days. He was said to have fallen when at work five years before. There was one case of a man with swollen testicles. There was one case of a woman with a violent headache and swell- ing of the head, neck, ears, and face. She also had fever. She had a pain in the heart as the head throbbed and ‘“‘blood rose.’’ No doctor was called; instead she went to see a kitdsht. There was one case of a woman (teacher of the flower arrangement class) who was taking special shots during meno- pause. They were supposed to renew men- struation and rejuvenate. The woman said these were made of horse urine (hormones?). Warts may be removed by surgery. There is a belief that a wart at the corner of the eye of a woman means that she will lose her husband early. If it is under the left eye, one will lose a girl child; if under the right eye, a boy child. Some home remedies include the follow- ing: Various herbal remedies are common. The herbs may be purchased from dealers in towns or from itinerants and are usually boiled up into some infusion which is taken internally. Téfu liquid is said to be good for the heart and is drunk by some. Fresh-water snails (benna) from paddies are said to be good for swellings and muscle strains. Yamagobé is a root boiled in water said to be good for the cure of kidney diseases. It induces urine and is also used to cure syphilis. Pumpkin taken in January is a preventive against paralysis and sickness for the coming year. Juice in which plums are pickled is good for the stomach. The JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 4 white of egg mixed with mugi!? is said to be good for boils. Mugi relieves the fever and the egg takes out the pus. (One man makes this and gives it to friends.) Milk is regarded as a medicine and is taken (boiled) on doctor’s prescription. The people do not like it—‘‘It smells.”’ One man with a blister on his leg took a — needle with a heavy thread and dipped it in a pool of water, then rubbed it against some soot on a pot, stuck the needle through the blister, thus letting out the water and leay- | ing a black smudge. There is perhaps a sort of logic to his actions. Antiseptic is liquid— water is liquid and used for washing, hence dipping the needle in water. A flame is used to purify a needle, leaving soot on the needle, hence the application of the needle to the soot of the pot. MEDICINE AND DOCTORS VERSUS HEALING PRIESTS Faith is put in home remedies and healing priests partly because doctors are expensive and difficult to get and often are supercilious in their treatment of rural patients. A good example of an individual farmer’s appeal to both doctor and kitéshi is seen in the follow- © Ing case: The other day Muchan (farmer T’s small girl child, aged 3) got very sick. She must have eaten something. In the morning the mother gave her an enema, later they sent for a doctor. Dr. K of Fukada was too busy (someone saw his car here, but the story is he had to go somewhere else). Dr. F from Taragi was called and arrived at six as against three, as promised. He had to attend a soldier’s going away party. Dirty and sloppy when he arrived. Wore military boots and cape. Talked in an arrogant tone to farmers, ‘‘Who is coming with me to fetch medicine?” “‘Oh, you are —then take this’’ handing over his brief case. He decided the baby was all right—poured down her throat a bottle of castor oil then told them to fill the bottle with water and made her drink that (boiling the water he never mentioned). Everyone around marvelled ‘what, taking oil without sugar!”’ Prescribed two medicines—a powder and a mixture and left. He did take her temperature. Did not wash hands-before seeing the patient, but demanded water after. While he was there, Mr. M came with a pain in his rump and asked for an injection. The doctor picked out a likely needle 12, A generic term for barley, wheat, oats, and rye. aes A eee apes eee. ee eee ee ee ee oer Apr. 15, 1944 and dipped it in ether, but to open the glass cap- sule he used his dirty scarf. The man stretched out and got the injection. By nine Muchan’s temperature went to 104. Ice packs were on her head. The baby drank water constantly. Mrs. K (a neighbor) came and told the people they should go ‘‘kamisama mairi’’ and I think referred to Kannon sama, but Kyoko san (the mother) went upstairs. (Later Mrs. K who loves to make fun was relating the story to some neighbors—how they urged each other to go and pray and had not thought of it at first. “People never think of doing it until the person is dead’’.) When the child started having convulsions, they sent their nit-wit assistant to Yunoharu to call the ‘‘Yonoharu ojisan’’ who came later. He is deaf and toothless. He has an ofuda which he has used for the last 40 years. He mutters incantations and puts the ofuda on the patient’s chest—then “something leaves the body”’ and the patient is relieved. The man came at ten and administered a prayer, was to give another one three hours later, but the baby had more convulsions at twelve, so he was urged to pray. T had great faith in him, and each time the baby shuddered in her sleep he would say “Jisan what is it?” and the old man would say ‘“‘that is all right.”? They felt the child was better after the treatment. They were afraid because their first child had died. After the second fit at twelve the child quieted down and toward morning was better. When I came at seven they were having rice and beans for break- fast. The Yunoharu man and the old man from Tontokoro stayed all night. S was there until late. Mrs. K and Mrs. S were the only women who called. No one seems to know what sort of a sect the old man belongs to. ‘‘Donna kami sama desho?” they say. By next day the child was all right. ; Sickness is a constant hazard in a vil- lager’s life. It is something that is unpredict- able and dangerous in addition to the pain and suffering involved. There is also an economic loss suffered. People the world over, when faced with something they do not understand and something that can affect their lives seriously, turn to super- natural means in an effort to gain some con- trol over it. Hence, the appeal of T to a healing priest in an effort to gain some con- trol over the illness of his daughter. MEDICINE AND MAGIC Many of the medicines and home reme- dies used in the village are, by modern 13 To visit and pray to deities. M4 Paper talisman. EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 107 medical standards, simply so much magic. However, there is a logic behind them, much the same logic we use in taking vita- min pills and other medicine on the recom- mendation of the doctor. We have no way of telling whether what we are being told to take is good for us but must depend upon the word of the doctor or druggist, just as the Japanese peasant depends upon the word of the doctor or druggist or kztdshz. Many of the home remedies and other cures are perfectly logical attempts to cure the sickness, the error being in the false premises as to the cause of the disease. If one believes that a sickness is due to black magic or witchcraft, then it is perfectly logical to visit a kztésht and ask for some countermagic to overcome the illness. If it is believed that a certain illness is due to bad blood, then a medicine said to purify the blood or clean out the system is a per- fectly logical remedy. The general idea of bacteria as a cause of disease is pretty well lacking in the villagers’ concept of disease, just as it was lacking in Europe in the high- est medical circles prior to the birth of bacteriology. The beliefs in regard to sickness and health can, however, be shifted from the traditional folkways to those of modern medicine as evidenced by the naive faith in doctors, ‘‘injections,” and in the general acceptance of such governmental health regulations as smallpox vaccination and house-cleaning inspections. ATTITUDES TOWARD ILLNESS The proper attitude for a Japanese to take regarding illness in talking with a stranger is to belittle it so as not to burden a guest with his personal worries and anxie- ties. However, within the family and among friends, grief may be shown. Among rural people the inhibitions are fewer in this re- gard, and relatives may show their anxiety more freely than among the more inhibited upper classes. Sometimes in an effort to console them- selves, people will resort to asort of fatalism, laying their misfortunes to decisions made in heaven or by the gods (kamisama). 108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 TABLE 1.—List OF DEATHS OVER ONE YEAR PERIOD (1935) (Population of Mura 1,663 persons) Sex Age Cause of Death Day of Death Minlere. sib ane Cold (kambo6) January 15 Female..... 1 day Unnatural death (henshi) (actually this was a case February 5 of infanticide) Males screiece UE Uremia (Nyédokusho) March 16 Female..... 69 Cerebral hemorrhage (Ndshukketsu) March 21 Male.. 56 Apoplexy (Notkketsu) March 31 Female..... 23 Pulmonary tuberculosis (Hatkekkaku) April 1 Miners a8. 67 Apoplexy (N étkketsu) April 20 Malle $58.5 2. 60 Apoplexy (N dtkketsu) April 29 Female..... 11 days Pneumonia (Haien) May 31 Mialestin. on. Cerebral hemorrhage (Néshukketsu) June 4 Male 64 Incomplete closing of mitral valve (Sdbdbenfuzenhet) July 15 Female..... 5 days Premature birth July 17 Maley sie! 5 Apoplexy (Ndétkketsu) August 9 Female..... 49 days Heart convulsion (Shinzdkeiren) August 20 Female..... 22, Pneumonia (Haien) August 26 Wale co tee 66 Apoplexy (Ndtkketsu) August 29 Miale. ia is 62 Appendicitis (Méchéen) September 6 Female..... 6 Acute brain fever (Kytset ndmakuen) September 6 Mral@necete 65 Cerebral hemorrhage (Ndshukketsu) September 15 Female..... 2 Acute gastroenteritis (Kydsei ichékataru) September 16 Female..... 68 Asthma (Zensoku) September 17 Female..... 1 Pneumonia (Haien) October 10 Female..... 70 Cerebral hemorrhage (N éshukketsu) November 10 Male 2a. 4 mos Pneumonia (Hazen) November 13 Female..... 54 Apoplexy (N dikketsu) December 4 Female.....} 71 Chronic nephritis (Mansei jinzéen) December 27 Bemalesae.. 51 Apoplexy (Ndtkketsu) December 30 LINGUISTICS.—A new method of transliterating Russian.' TON, Bureau of American Ethnology. Systems of writing Russian in the letters of the Latin alphabet have been nonin- genious and without exception very much bound to earlier usage. There are several such systems, each one of them standard within a certain horizon, all of them reach- ing to specials and to diacriticals. Almost every book for learning Russian has a dif- ferent method of transcription. The usual systems go beyond the mere turning of the letters of the Russian alphabet into equiva- lents; they write the variants that charac- terize the pronunciation of Russian and that more practically remain unwritten with a coverage of general pronunciational rules. The fundamental fault with the average system of transliterating Russian is that it follows the Polish manner of writing, evaluating y as a vowel and thus 1 Received February 19, 1944. JoHN P. HarRRInG- losing it as a consonant. English, French, Spanish, and Hungarian employ y as a consonant. The system about to be presented hinges upon the employment of y as a consonant, and with this employment all other equiva- lences are made to fall into line. The system has in it vast possibilities, not only for the practical transliterating of proper names, but for the romanization of the Russian language and the doing away with the present Greek-based alphabet, thus follow- ing the course already taken by Maltese Arabic, Rumanian, Turkish, and Kurdish. The new method is so simple that it can be set in any printing office or punched out on any typewriter, for it uses no special char- acters of diacritical marks whatsoever yet is adequate to the sharpest scrutiny of the expert phonetician. The system was long and thoroughly actually used in writing Apr. 15, 1944 field notes in Russian and was found to be quicker and simpler than the use of the Russian alphabet for one accustomed to the Latin alphabetic character of western Europe. That in the eventual future a Greek-based would supplant the actually scientifically superior Latin-based alphabet of western Europe is unthinkable. It is also unthinkable that in the eventual future there would be two different and rival alphabets. The method is based on the three funda- mental principles: 1. Any system to be practical must be based on the so-called Cyrillic alphabet in which the Russian language is at present standardly written; in other words, the system must be a transliteration. 2. Any system to be practical in an ordi- narily equipped printing office and on an ordinary typewriter must be without spe- cials and diacriticals. 3. Any system to be practical must be anchored to the conservative values of letters and must possess rigid conformity within itself. Carrying out of the first principle means that the well-known inconsistencies in Rus- sian orthography have to be followed in transliteration. Thus we have shity, to sew, despite the actual pronunciation shjty; zhity, to live, despite the actual pronuncia- tion zhjty. Both i and j occur after ts, though the pronunciation is always j. Thus tsirk, circus, though pronounced tsjrk. The new system is better than the Rus- sian, alias Cyrillic, system, in that it has fewer strokes, it is easier to read, and does not require the learning of, or special equip- ment for, an alphabet which is not Latin. The Russian alphabet in its printed and typewritten form is noted for the lack of ascenders and descenders, the letters having compact, rectangular shape, optically dis- advantageous according to tests of psychol- ogy. For instance, the Russian form of | is disadvantageous in not shooting above the body line, as it is called in the printing trade. The Russian letters, most of them, resemble monotonous blocks which demand scrutiny, having the form of Latin small capitals, whereas Latin type has ascending HARRINGTON: TRANSLITERATING RUSSIAN 109 and descending offshoots which serve as eye-catching signals of identification, being in this feature psychologically superior to a larger face of type. Native newspapers and vast literature in languages of South Africa, which have no unusual letters or marks, gave the hint that Russian also can be thus written and printed in Latin letters, it being necessary only to clear the ground by boldly doing away with the Polish value of y, a value that has long lurked to prevent advancement. It would seem that the system for Rus- sian here suggested cannot be opposed on just grounds, since it consists merely of a making more scientific, simple, regular, and legible the present Greek-based system. It is hoped that it can be used not only for the romanized appearing of Russian geographi- cal names, and the like, but also for the endemic writing of Russian. THE NEW SYSTEM Vowels aouellj The vowels are short only, but an ac- cented vowel can be pronounced long. There are no true diphthongs, all diphthongs being of the sort exemplified by aw ay. Consonants Dorsal: k g ¢ Retromedial: y Frontal: t dshch zhstszrln Labial: p bf v m Consonants are iotized before e or i of the same word, and this iotization is a blanket rule and is therefore not written in the sys- tem. Otherwise iotization is written by post- placed y. Etymofinal voiced consonants are unvoiced in pause, just as in German, not being voiced as they are in modern Scandi- navian or in English. For illustrating the new system one can- not do better than to give lines of poetry, since the iambic beat in the following shows the fall of the unwritten accent. Prosaic accent in the following poem is violated only by the word mirj, universes, which in prose would have the accent on the first syllable: 110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 4 Ya v etot mir prishol ~ chtob videty sontse I into this world came in order to see the sun I singy krugozor, And the blue horizon, Ya v etot mir prishol chtob videty sontse I into this world came in order to see the sun I VISE gor. And the heights of mountains. Ya v etot mir prishol chtob videty more I into this world came in order to see the sea wilius slavnjy tsvet dolin— And the glorious color of the valleys— Ya zaklyuchil mirj v yedinom vzore. iL embraced the universes in one glance. Ya vlastelin. I the master. VA ae pobedil colodnoye zabveniye i conquered cold oblivion Sozdav mechtu moyu, Having created fancy my, if kazhdjy mnig byl polen otkrjtenrya. And every moment was full of revelation. V segda poyu. Continually I sing. GEOCHEMISTRY.—The formation of colloid from halloysite in dilute acid solu- tions. Intensive soil research of the past few decades has’ clearly shown the presence in most soils of complex mineral aggregates of siliceous colloids. These aggregates may be either massive, in a filterable clear solution, or coatings on microscopic grains; they may be sol, hydrosol, gel, or solid. They form definite associations with the ions of a solu- tion as reported by Sante Mattson and others in numerous papers in Soil Science. The writer?*.4.5 has reported a number of studies of relations between dilute acids and 1 Received January 11, 1944. 2 The action of some aqueous solutions on clays of the montmorillonite group. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 197-F. 19438. 3 Time and temperature effects in the formation of colloidal dispersions. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31: 41-45. Feb. 15, 1941. _ 4A study of the association of magnesia with sil- wca in @ pure magnesium clay. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 233-237. June 15, 1940. _ 5 A study of bleach clay solubility. Journ. Frank- lin Inst. 224: 339-362. Sept. 1937. P. G. Nurtine, U.S. Geological Survey. clays of the montmorillonite type. Abun- dant evidence was found for the formation of considerable quantities of stable colloidal hydrosols as well as of salts in dilute acid solutions. To obtain exact quantitative relations between the amount of sol formed and the amounts of acid, clay, and water present, work was continued with the sim- pler clay minerals kaolinite, halloysite, and allophane under carefully controlled condi- tions. The allophane available (from Hills- boro, Ohio) reached equilibrium in a few hours but contained 3.5 percent CaO and some iron. The kaolinite, from Bishop, Calif., was very pure but required five days at 96° C. to approach equilibrium. The halloysite used, from Anamosa, Iowa, contained no detectable Ca, Fe, or Mg. It was room dried and ground to pass a 150- mesh sieve (0.1 mm). As used it contained SiO, 42.45, Al.O3 36.02, H.O 21.53, or Sal einai eS ee a ee ed ee, ee ee Apr. 15, 1944 Al.03:2S8i02:3.4H.2O. The alumina was completely soluble in a few hours in 20 per- cent acid. Special tests showed that 72 hours at 96° in 0.1 percent acid gave a close ap- proach to equilibrium, while at 30° six months would have been required® for each run. The relations between the amount of sol and the amounts of clay, acid, and water are, of course, very different at the two tem- peratures, but apparently only the con- stants of the reaction equation are affected. Preliminary runs showed that the center of interest is sufficient acid to dissolve the alumina (0.75 gram HCl per gram of hal- loysite) in sufficient water to dissolve the silica (1 liter per gram of clay), or a gram of clay in a liter.of 0.075 percent HCl. Prepara- tions were made with 4, 1, and 2 times these amounts of clay, acid, and water, 27 in all (or 19 excluding simple multiples) which were analyzed. i | After 72 hours at 96°+1°, the last 16 hours without stirring, the clear liquor was decanted with an aspirator flask and the undissolved clay filtered, washed, ignited and weighed. A few ml of the decanted liquor was cooled for pH determinations. Each solution was evaporated and the resi- due, heated to 160° for an hour to remove free acid and moisture without disturbing OH, and then weighed. Each residue was then boiled 10 minutes in 150 ml of dis- tilled water to remove possible chlorides, again dried at 160° and weighed. Silica and alumina were then separated by a ten min- ute digestion in about 20 ml of hot 20 per- cent HCl. Repeated runs gave results dupli- cating within 2 percent. Undissolved clay residues varied between 22.9 percent for clay: acid: water =4:1:4 to 91.7 percent for 2:$:2. In composition, they differed but little from the original hal- loysite. The pH of the solutions varied chiefly with the clay:acid ratio, 2.5 for original clay:acid=2:1 to pH 1.5 for clay:acid=1:2. It varies little with the water present, by about 0.02 for half or double the amount of water; hence both the dissociation and hydrolysis of reaction products are but little affected by the amount of water present in this range. Residues from evaporation of solutions 6 Op. cit., footnote 33 NUTTING: FORMATION OF COLLOID FROM HALLOYSITE 111 varied from 0.125 to 0.709 gram per gram of clay, the chief factor being the ratio of acid to clay. In each of the nine sets of observa- tions in which the clay:acid ratio was con- stant, the amount of residue decreased by one-third as the water alone varied from 3 to 2 liters. The hot-water extract of the solution residue (150 ml) always caused a loss in weight averaging 20 percent, both weigh- ings following thorough drying at 160°. This extract was neutral to litmus and added ammonia gave no precipitate except in two cases of high acid: clay ratio, hence was free from acid and aluminum chloride. Analysis showed it to be an alumino-silicate hydrosol with an alumina:silica ratio of about 1:1.5 (molar). The solution residue not dissolved by 150 ml of hot water varied from 0.056 to 0.734 gram per gram of original clay as acid varied from } to 4 normal (‘“‘normal”’ is 0.75 gram HCl). With clay:acid 1:1, it decreased from 0.3875 with water 4 to 0.151 gram for water=4 liters per gram. An average of the 19 analyses (27 combinations) gave $102: Al,.03;=0.88, close to that for 2A1,03:38102 (0.884). This ratio varies slightly with the ratio of acid to clay; ex- tremes were 1.1 for acid: clay =4 and 0.7 for acid:clay=1:4. The average composition of the washed residue at 160° is SiO, 34.8, Al,0O3 40.0, H2O 25.2 percent or very close to 2A1.03-38i02:7H2O, an allophane. Simi- lar runs but less extensive and less exact, made with kaolinite, mica, and allophane instead of halloysite, gave the same allo- phane hydrosol. The amount of sol (S) produced, time 72 hours and temperature 96° being constant, depends upon the three independent vari- ables clay (C), acid (A), and water (W). Mere inspection of the 19 analyses yields only the qualitative summary given above. To obtain exact reaction equations between sol, clay, acid, and water, the 27 analyses were plotted in various sets of graphs. In each set, one factor (say clay=1 gram) is constant throughout, another (say water) is the parameter, constant in each group while the third is the chief variable, the object being to discover linear relationships, if any, between these variables. Three such relations were found: 112 Sol: Acid, clay, and water constant, acid varia- e. Log (S: A) linear in log C, water constant. Log (S:A) linear in log W, clay constant. These three relations may be combined in Log S=log A+a log C+b log W +const. With this as a guide the 27 analyses were written as 27 equations which were solved by least square methods to obtain values of the constants. Using natural logarithms the final relation is Log S=log A+0.322 log C—0.318 log W —1.421 for grams of sol formed where pure hal- loysite is brought to equilibrum with dilute hydrochloric acid solutions at 96°. This rela- tion holds for acid:clay ratios below 1:4 (by weight) up to about 4:1 above which free chlorides are formed. All constants de- pend upon temperature. The clay is in grams, the water in liters, and the acid in multiples of 0.75 gram. For C=1=W, S=0.24 A, or 75 S=A in molar proportions, if the molecular weight of the sol is 510, indicating that the acid is used many times over. Water and clay are evidently in com- petition for the acid. The chemical processes involved appear to be very simple. After the clay has ad- sorbed sufficient anions it is attacked by them. Free silica and chlorides go into solu- tion and the chlorides are hydrolyzed, alumina combining with the silica to form a sol while the free acid returns to the clay to form more chloride. This process con- tinues until the potential of the accumu- lated sol is balanced by that of the clay. This balance is at somewhat less than half the clay because the halloysite has some JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 structural energy while the sol has little or none. SUMMARY Halloysite in warm dilute acid forms a sol having the composition of allophane 2Al,03-38102:7H.O after drying at 160° C., over an intermediate range of clay and acid concentrations. A quantitative relation between sol formed and the acid, clay, and water used is obtained from experimental data covering the range from just sufficient acid to dis- solve the alumina and water to dissolve the silica, to half and double these amounts. At equilibrium, the clay solution contains free acid (pH 1.5 to 2.5) but no salt other than the sol in this range. With clay and water as parameters, the amount of sol formed is in a fixed ratio to the acid present. - With acid and water as parameters, the sol varies with about the cube root of the clay present, indicating a reversible reac- tion. The amount of sol varies inversely with the water present, clay and water competing for the acid present. After oven drying at 160°, the sol (then gel) is soluble in hot water to the extent of about 0.3 gram per liter, slightiy less than than silica gel, 0.4 gram per liter. A general characteristic relation is de- duced between amount of colloid formed and the amount of acid, clay, and water present. In reference 3, p. 45, it was shown that silica, alumina, acid, fluorides, and other salts added to the sol solution were without effect on the colloid formed. Varia- tions with temperature and the nature of the acid remain to be investigated. ECOLOGY .—An analysis of the flora of the Bull Run Mountain region of Virginia using Raunkiaer’s “life-form’’ method.* H. A. ALLARD, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. INTRODUCTION Kcologists have long been aware of the intimate relations between plant life and climate and, rightly regarding vegetation as an expression of the climatic complex, have 1 Received November 6, 1943. attempted to devise methods to express this concretely and statistically in terms of plant life itself. Long ago Humboldt (Physiog- nomk der Gewdchse, 1806) attempted to classify vegetation on something of an ecological basis. Griesbach (1872) and oth- ers building upon these concepts recognized Apr. 15, 1944 the intimate relation between the forms of plants and climate. Among these were Ker- ner (1863), Warming (1909), and Drude (1913). Such classifications as were recom- mended ignored taxonomic relationships since it is obvious that the ecological rela- tions of plant life do not depend upon taxonomic concepts. Finally in 1908, a Dane, C. Raunkiaer, published a funda- mental paper on life-forms and statistical methods. Raunkiaer’s method was unique in that it considered the plant to be a concrete, liv- ing expression not of one factor alone, but of the entire climatic complex, including temperature, humidity, and the water rela- tions of the soil. The basis of his method, naturally, was the final adaptation of the plant, and the special feature selected by him related to the critical or unfavorable season, as indicted by the degree and kind of protection which enabled the plants to survive this in a particular region. This, it is obvious, was concerned mainly with the perennating buds, formed above or below ground in the case of perennials. While this concept does not afford a perfect measure of climate it has appealed to many plant ecolo- gists as one of the best systems yet devised, since the plant itself has been chosen to rep- resent its own success and survival in a given region. LIFE-FORM SYSTEM OF RAUNKIAER Raunkiaer in 1908 finally carefully se- lected and classified 400 representative plants from the world’s flora, and used these to establish a provisional biological spec- trum for the world, which he considered to be a standard for comparison. In 1916 he extended his studies to include the remain- ing 600 species, which he had originally chosen to represent his normal world spec- trum. While there were only minor differ- ences in the calculations for the two groups, Raunkiaer’s spectrum based upon his final figures for 1,000 selected plants has been used in the present discussion. His method requires a classification of all the Spermatophyta of a regional flora into five main groups, some of which are sub- divided into smaller groups. These are listed as follows, with abbreviations: ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 113 PHANEROPHYTES— Ph.—Branching woody plants, with their dormant buds wholly exposed to the air. These are further classified according to size into the following subgroups: (1) mega- phanerophytes—Mg.—having a stature over 30 meters (98 feet); (2) mesophanerophytes— Ms.—with a stature of 8-30 meters (26 to 98 feet); (3) microphanerophytes—M.—2-8 me- ters tall (6-26 feet) ; nanerophytes—N.—under 2 meters tall (64 feet). CHAMAEPHYTES—Ch.—Plants with their dor- mant buds on the surface of the ground or just above it, not more than 25 cm. (10 inches). These are protected by snows in winter in colder regions, or by the plant remains in dry or warmer regions. HEMICRYPTOPHYTES—H.—Plants with their buds in the upper layer of the soil, near the surface, the aerial portions dying away in the unfavorable season further protecting these subterranean buds. CRYPTOPHYTES.—Plants with their dormant structures entirely buried more or less deeply below the soil surface. This class has been sub- divided as follows: Geophytes—G.—with bulbs tubers, rhizomes deep below the soil surface; Helophytes—H1|.—certain marsh plants grow- ing chiefly in saturated soil or in water, from which the flower-bearing shoots emerge. Their buds are buried at the bottom of the water or in the muddy soil. HypropHytes—Hy.—Water plants with their perennating structures beneath the water. THEROPHYTES—Th.—Annuals living only for the season. Classification of plants into these various groups requires a little care, for certain plants may seem to fall rather doubtfully into a given class. As a rule, however, it is not difficult to attain this objective, and a few doubtful cases change the final per- centages very little. Some of the Hemi- eryptophytes and Cryptophytes have been less readily distinguished for this reason. Plants were considered to belong to the former class when their dormant buds were not deeper than 1 inch in the soil. RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF WOODY AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS In temperate, humid regions the relative proportion of woody plants and herbs tends to be rather constant, as indicated by the following figures, which have been deter- 114 mined by Sinnott and Bailey (1914). Un- fortunately these figures apply to the Dicot- yledoneae alone, however. Inclusion of the Monocotyledoneae would decrease the pro- portion of woody plants and increase the proportion of herbs materially. In the northern United States (Britton and Brown) woody plants constitute 22 per- cent of the Dicotyledoneae, and herbaceous 78 percent; northeastern United States (Gray), woody plants 23 percent, herba- ceous 77 percent (Dicotyledoneae); includ- ing all Angiosperms in Gray’s Manual (4,079 species), the figures become 14 per- cent woody, 85.9 percent herbaceous; Great Britain (Hooker), woody 11 percent, herba- ceous 89 percent; Russian Empire (Lede- bour), woody 14 percent, herbaceous 86 per- cent; France (Cusin and Ansberque), woody 11 percent, herbaceous 89 percent; Norway (Blytt), woody 14 percent, herbaceous 86 percent; Flora Orientalis (Boissier), woody 17 percent, herbaceous 83 percent; Spain (Lazaro é Ibiza) woody 21 percent, herba- ceous 79 percent. All the above figures, un- less otherwise stated, refer to the Dicotyle- doneae alone. Within the United States Deam (includ- ing all Spermatophyta) lists 2,568 species for Indiana, 14.4 percent being woody, 85.5 percent herbaceous. Ennis (1928) for Con- necticut lists 1,453 native species, of which 15.06 percent are woody and 84.9 percent herbaceous. In the relatively very small Bull Run area (including all Spermato- phyta) 18.2 percent are woody, 81.8 percent herbaceous. It is well known that the percentage of woody plants, trees and shrubs in humid re- gions increases as one approaches the warmer tropical latitudes. These relations are clearly shown in the following figures based upon the Dicotyledoneae alone: Florida Keys (Small), 46 percent are woody plants, 54 percent herbaceous; Japan (Mat- sumura), 43 percent woody, 57 percent herbaceous; Brazil (Mueller), 74 percent woody, 26 percent herbaceous; Amazon Valley only, 88 percent woody, 12 percent herbaceous; Malay Peninsula (King), 83 percent woody, 17 percent herbaceous; Philippines (Merrill), 68 percent woody, 32 percent herbaceous; Dutch East Indies JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 (Koorders), 75 percent woody, 25 percent herbaceous. Comparisons of these figures especially for the humid, temperate regions favorable to forest indicate the common pattern of the vegetation in its ecological aspects. This is true whether one considers the relatively small Bull Run area, the State of Indiana, large portions of the United States (Gray, etc.), Great Britain, or Italy. If the floristies of the primeval vegetation which formerly existed in all these regions could be known it is probable that even greater uniformity of ecological structure would be established. These uniformities appear to represent fundamental floristic and structural rela- tions of the vegetation for the countries in question. However, if plant life, as it now exists, and as Raunkiaer has assumed, is a dependable, concrete measure of the cli- matic complex, such fundamental relations should obtain. There are probably greater differences existent in the species composi- - tion of the vegetation of the several regional floras mentioned than in the life-forms that make up ecological structure of these. BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM OF THE FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN A comparison of the biological spectrum of the Bull Run area with Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum is presented in Table 1. The data for the Bull Run area are based mainly upon the list of plants recently re- ported upon by Allard and Leonard (1943). In this paper 1,010 different plants were recognized, 8 other plants (not yet added in print) being found in 1943, bringing the total to 1,018 plants. The data of Table 1, all of which refer to the Bull Run area aside from Raunkiaer’s spectrum, are of some interest. Some workers have been careful to make use of only the native Spermatophyta in the calcu- lation of a biological spectrum for their region. A comparison of the spectra for all the native and introduced Spermatophyta and for the native Spermatophyta alone reveals striking agreement, however. The data for the native Dicotyledoneae alone also show only slight departure from these values. : Apr. 15, 1944 ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 115 ‘TaBLE 1.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF LIFE-FORMS IN THE NORMAL SPECTRUM OF RAUNKIAER AND THE VEGETATION OF THE BULL RuN REGION Spectrum here Th aunkiaer smormals iif. )s 02). obo tls bo 1000 13 All Spermatophyta, native and introduced. . 980 17.0 All native Spermatophyta................ 847 15.1 All native Dicotyledoneae................ 616 15.9 All native Monocotyledoneae............. 224 13.4 Allintroduced Dicotyledoneae............ 108 32.4 All introduced Monocotyledoneae......... 25 16.0 All native Spermatophyta in primitive RUNGE EATeAS hts cise ee. hd ties of. kie.acs he 446 3358! All native Spermatophyta in fields, pas- tures, or cleared or cultivated areas...... 402 28.1 1Mg + Ms. abt Hy. Comparison with Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum reveals certain departures for some classes. Considering all native and in- troduced Spermatophyta, the greatest de- parture is shown for the Hemicryptophytes (H), which in the Bull Run flora have been determined to be 51.7 percent as compared with the normal spectrum of 26 percent. Since depth of the dormant buds serves to distinguish the Hemicryptophytes from the terrestrial Cryptophytes (G), one may ex- pect some degree of error to appear here in deciding into which class a certain plant should fall. If, however, a summation of the Hemicryptophytes (H) and Cryptophytes (G) is made (the number of Helophytes (Hl) and Hydrophytes (Hy) is too small to af- fect the results materially), one obtains 30 percent for the normal spectrum and 60.8 percent for the Bull Run spectrum. These striking differences indicate a climate in the Bull Run area highly favorable to Hemi- cryptophytes and Cryptophytes, plants that are adapted to withstand a cold, dor- mant season of considerable severity such as the higher temperate latitudes experi- ence. The biological spectrum for all intro- duced Dicotyledoneae of Bull Run Moun- tain agrees closely with that shown for all the Spermatophyta of the area, except in the proportion of Therophytes (T) repre- senting the annuals. This has increased from 17 percent for the latter to 32.4 percent for the former. Since field conditions offer a more favorable habitat for this class, as most introduced plants cannot compete Occurrence (percent) Chy | / G | Mg |Ms|™M N | Hi | Hy 9 | 26 4 8 118 | 15 22 14, alk. Miele Oatlands | Godel BEG | AADC dad 8 1:6 50°4'| 9.8 |) 846.31 5.5 | 407 | 1.6 8 2.2) tags |! 7 BOs el lar! | hora | GA HAA Sg = mel G2RON AGED asp jete yl SleSao= ol} 4.871), 2.3 — | 50.9 On| a Uacnn See |Legal dot & Sy je BO 8 | EL Cnt ce wa eee | Gee ges ye Sp ge 1.3 1-529 | 12.1 |). 480441044} oSiGyl! 4.94) o9t7 8 159F PGOUON eal se One ee Sides ded | ibe ob with the vegetation of forest areas, this re- lationship is the natural one. | The spectra of all native Spermatophyta found in wooded, primitive areas, and also in fields, pastures, or cleared and cultivated areas has also been presented. The differ- ences shown in some of these groups are of significance. It will be noted that the an- nuals or Therophytes (T) in the more primi- tive woodland areas represent only 3 per- cent of the plants, while in cleared and cultivated areas the figure has become 28.1 percent. Hemicryptophytes (H) and Cryp- tophytes (G) in the more stabilized wood- land make up 65 percent of the flora, and only 57.2 percent in the cleared areas. Since there is a progression from annual to peren- nial types in the early successional stages, and the climate favors an abundant hemi- eryptophytic and cryptophytic element, an increase in this class of plants is a natural condition as woodland prevails. The herba- ceous element in the woodland areas is 72.1 percent, and 89.4 percent in the cleared areas. This too is a correct reflection of actual differences in the vegetation in the two habitats, since the herbaceous element is predominant in the early stages of succes- sion where the forest has been entirely de- stroyed. The woody element of the cleared areas is only 10.2 percent, compared with 27.3 percent in the more natural woodland areas. Immediately following abandonment from cultivation, the woody element may be almost entirely lacking, but various weedy trees and a variety of shrubs make their appearance in older fields and pastures 116 until a closed overstory of trees has cap- tured the area. The statistical differences in the life-forms of the two areas plainly em- phasize the pioneer successional nature of the old field assemblage in its trend toward woodland. If the field and pasture areas were selected on the basis of age from time of abandonment, the woody element would be found to increase with corresponding de- crease in the herbaceous element until the stability of climax conditions between trees and herbs had been attained. SIMILARITY IN THE SPECTRUM OF THE FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN AND THAT OF SOME OTHER EASTERN AREAS Summarizing the woody elements as represented by Mg, Ms, M, and N, we have 41 percent for the normal spectrum, 18.2 percent for all Bull Run Spermatophyta, and 15.1 percent for all native Spermato- phyta of the Bull Run area. If one considers the average for the Dicotyledoneae as listed in the floras of Gray, and Britton and Brown, for the northern and northeastern United States, Small’s southeastern flora, Chkapman’s southern flora, Coulter for the Rocky Mountains, together with the floras of Great Britain, France, Germany, Switzer- land, the Russian Empire, Norway, Spain, Syria and the Orient, the woody element amounts to 17.4 percent, and the herba- ceous element 82.6 percent. For the Bull Run region the woody element becomes 18.2 percent and the herbaceous becomes 81.9 percent for all native and introduced JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 4 Spermatophyta. The woody and herbaceous elements, of the native and introduced Dicotyledoneae of the Bull Run Mountain area amount of 24.3 percent and 75.7 per- cent, respectively. The latter figure for the herbaceous element occurring in the Bull Run Mountain area is much higher than 54 percent which has been taken to represent the herbaceous element for the normal spec- trum of the world flora. This figure for the herbaceous element falls below that of any temperate region of North America, Europe, or Asia. It very closely approaches the dicotyledonous herbaceous element of floras found in warm areas; namely, 54 percent for the Florida Keys (Small), 57 percent for Japan (Matsumura), and 54 percent for the Upper Gangetic Plain (Duthie), where the phanerophytic or woody com- ponent is bigh. The high herbaceous ele- ment occurring in the Bull Run Mountain area indicates a regime of north temperate climate considerably removed from that of warm, humid latitudes. Taylor (1915) (1918) determined the growth forms for the vegetation of New York City and vicinity, and the total flora of Long Island, N. Y., on the basis of Raunkiaer’s concepts. Ennis (1928) did a similar and very excellent piece of work for Connecticut. This work is of particular in- terest when compared with the percentage composition of the growth forms of all Spermatophyta of the Bull Run area, owing to the close agreement in the two areas as shown by the data in Table 2. TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF LiIFE-FORMS IN THE SPERMATOPHYTA FLORA OF THE VICINITY OF NEw YorRK City; oF Lone Isuanp, N. Y.; CoNNECTICUT; THE BuLL Run AREA; INDIANA; AND THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN UNITED STATES (Gray) ® Total Occurrence (percent) Spectrum aac Th Ch H G Mg Ms M N |HIl-+Hy Vicinity of New York City (native flora) .| 1907 13.0 5.29 | 33.29 | 20.23 .52 4.03 7.18 3.51 | 11.74 Joong Islands 2 io 3 Sho es Geeta 719 13.94 5.89 | 33.15 | 20.1 .89 4.37 6.34 2.77 | 10.9 Connecticut (mative).................. 1453 11.7 1.9 49.4 13.2 1.5 3.9 5.8 33,7 8.5 TB OUNL TRG EAC oosooeasebocongoucnboe 980 17.0 1.4 51.7 9.1 1.8 6.4 5.6 4.4 De W Indiana: (Deam)ls 5 aster tae cl Bie ee 2420 11.2 1.4 50.9 11.6 1.5 5.08 4.5 3.1 5.7 Gray’s Manual (N. & E. U.S.).......... 4283 15.2 1.4 52.4 10.4 9 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.6 Total Hemicryptophytes and Cryptophytes (H, G, Hl, Hy). New York City 65.36 percent; Long Island 64.5 percent; Con- necticut 71.1 percent; Bull Run 62.0 percent; Indiana 68.4 percent; northern and eastern U.S. (Gray) 68.5 percent. Woody plants (Mg, Ms, M, N). New York City 15.24 percent; Long Island 14.37 percent; Connecticut 14.9 percent; Bull Run 18.2 percent; Indiana 14.7 percent; northern and eastern U. S. (Gray) 14.7 percent. Herbaceous plants (Th, Ch, H, G, Hl, Hy). New York City 83.55 percent; Long Island 85.63 percent; Connecticut 84.7 percent; Bull Run 81.8 percent; Indiana 85.3 percent; northern and eastern U. S. (Gray )85.3 percent. Apr. 15, 1944 The greatest discrepancies are shown for the Hemicryptophytes (H) and the Crypto- phytes (G, Hl, Hy). However, these classes are most readily confused, since little more distinguishes the plants of each than the depth of the dormant buds. It will be noted that the summations, however, give re- markably close total percentages. The sum- mations of all the Phanerophytes or woody plants (Mg, Ms, M, N), and the herbaceous plants (T, Ch, H, G, Hl, Hy) also give very close values. These results indicate that the ecological structure of the vegetation in these four areas is strikingly similar. PHYSIOGNOMY OF VEGETATION NOT REVEALED BY THE BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM Raunkiaer’s biological spectrum was de- vised to serve as a concrete expression of climate in terms of living plants. This has required a reduction of all the climates of the world to an average expression in terms of growth forms, in order that the spectrum would represent a mean concrete expression of the plant life of temperate, cold, and tropical climates. Since very cold and very warm climates have helped to make up this normal spectrum, it must represent some intermediate condition of climatic plant expression so that it can be neither strictly tropical, temperate, nor frigid. It would be exceptional, then, to find a section of our north temperate flora, a frigid or a tropical flora showing exact agreement with this standard spectrum in all respects. While the Raunkiaer method of analyzing vegetation on the basis of its ecological life- forms may afford a statistical means of evaluating the structure of vegetation of a climatic zone, it does not reveal the physi- ognomy or visual aspect of such vegetation. It does not indicate whether the dominant vegetation of the climax forest is deciduous, evergreen, coniferous, or broad-leaved ever- green. As Ennis has shown in her discussion of Connecticut spectra, the Coastal Plain areas of the South have the physiognomy, visually, of a coniferous forest due to an overstory of these, but the region is one of deciduous forest in its fundamental trends. In other words, the coniferous aspect is due to other influences than climate, such as de- ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 117 termines the great natural coniferous forests of the North, and the higher mountain lands | of the Appalachians. These forests at all levels are coniferous in their structure. In the Bull Run area, the deeper, richer soils of the slopes and valleys are given to de- ciduous forest naturally. The sharp, dry, barren ridge crests carry aspermanent thin mantle of several species of pines, which, in some areas noticeably affect the physiog- nomy of the area. There is but one broad-leaved evergreen species in the Bull Run area which has any physiognomic significance, and this is con- fined to the understory entirely. This shrub, Kalmia latifolia, completely dominates the understory of extensive areas of the wood- land slopes to such an extent that little else can compete with its dense vegetation. In reality this evergreen shrub is the only species normal to the flora of the Bull Run highlands, for Ilex opaca and Phoradendron flavescens are practically out of their normal range here. Only 10 species of woody ever- green plants occur in this area. The minor importance of this group in this area compared with the flora of various other areas is shown in Table 3. TABLE 3.—PERCENT OF WooDY EVERGREEN SPECIES, BROAD- LEAVED EVERGREEN SPECIES, AND EVERGREEN CONIFERS IN THE FLoRA. (Data in part from Ennis, 1928.) Broad- Evergreen Evergreen Species ; leaved : species conifers of evergreens Flora woody plants Per- Per- Per- cent °- | cent °- | cent Mloriday.e 4. 357 {111 | 31 98 | 27.4 | 13 3.6 District of Columbia....| 187 20 | 10.5 | 12 6.3 8 4.2 Connecticut...| 219 21 | 10 8 4 13 6 Penobscot Bay. 97 16 | 16.4 4 Aba A PA || 174683 Bull Run region| 188 10 1 3 1.5 7 Bat The data of Table 3 indicate the increased importance of the broad-leaved evergreen plants in Florida, and the minor importance of the evergreen conifers here. This relation is reversed for the Penobscot Bay region where the evergreen conifers become a dominant element of the flora and the broad-leaved evergreens reduced. Although the woody plants of the District of Colum- 118 bia and the Bull Run area are almost identi- eal in number, with a similar evergreen coniferous content, the broad-leaved ever- greens are much more important in the former area. ADAPTATION OF LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS IN RELATION TO THE UNFAVORABLE ~ SEASON While Raunkiaer’s classification takes into consideration the adaptation of the various plants to the season most unfavor- able to growth, this being the severe winter season in the colder northern latitudes, the relationship is not one of direct cause and effect. As a matter of fact in the case of most of the woody and herbaceous perennials the perennating buds are laid down near mid- summer in response to factors of the climate seasonally far removed from the actual cold of wintertime. Whatever these factors may be it is obvious that the plants have been ecologically preconditioned in one way or another to meet the oncoming severe winter conditions at the end of the warm growing season, even though this may have been merely an incidental and not a causal rela- tionship in the life of the plant. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 While the factors of humidity, tempera- ture, wind velocity, rainfall, and percentage of sunshine are seasonally extremely vari- able, one factor, length of day, is an astro- nomical event recurring with great con- stancy from year to year. The work of Garner and Allard in 1920 demonstrated that the life-form and life-duration of plants could be profoundly modified by this regu- lar recurring seasonal factor of climate. At the present time the great desideratum in our knowledge of climate in relation to the life-forms of plants is the lack of specific information as to how the climatic complex selectively or adaptively determines the character of the spectrum that will prevail in a particular zone. That there is a funda- mental reason why Hemicryptophytes and Cryptophytes are dominant in the flora of the cooler middle latitudes, such as in our humid north temperate zone, cannot be doubted. It cannot be denied that a given flora is adaptively related to a particular climate as Raunkiaer’s life-form studies have postulated. Unfortunately, there is little evidence at hand at the present time to explain the mechanism of this seeming adaptiveness. Raunkiaer, as the result of ee 7 . 5 ii Oo = oO & So gu so oO x =.a)= = mo] of ege Be) 5-= o £§a = 356 * ane 6 Dec. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Feb. Mar. Apr. | Mczths Fig. 1.—Climatic regime for the Bull Run Mountain region, typical of the Hemicryptophyte climate of the Eastern Atlantic States. The normal temperature, humidity, sunshine percentage, wind velocity, and rainfall curves are shown for each month of the year. Rainfall is for nearby Manassas, Va., interpo- lated for 35 years from about 20 years of records. The temperature curve is the mean of records for Washington, D. C., and Culpeper, Va., which is the nearest weather station recording temperatures. The curves for humidity, wind velocity and sunshine were taken from Washington records. The humidity curve is based upon the mean of the normal minimum and maximum values computed from records of the U. S. Weather Bureau station for 7:30 a. Mm. and midday, respectively. The figures for temperature also correctly represent the percentages of sunshine and relative humidity. Apr. 15, 1944 his fundamental investigations of the life- forms of plants showed that some species can change their characteristic life-form to a greater or less degree. One of these, J'us- silago farfara, in Denmark is a Cryptophyte, but in milder or more southern latitudes be- comes a Hemicryptophyte. This observa- tion has fundamental implications in an interpretation of the dependence and occur- rence of life-forms in relation to a particular climate. CONCLUSIONS _ It is obvious that the Bull Run region, like all the eastern portions of the United States, is dominated by a Hemicryptophyte climate. Fig. 1 shows the dominant features of such a climatic regime with respect to normal temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind velocity over a long period. Temperature and available moisture are very largely responsible for the general character of the climax forest vegetation of a region. It appears from Fig. 1 that every factor of the climatic complex in our eastern forested region favors the conservation of moisture during the growing season so far as plant life is concerned. As the duration and percentage of sunshine and tempera- ture increase the relative humidity of the air and the rainfall increase, and the mean wind velocity decreases, serving as an ad- ditional check upon evaporation at a time when the temperatures are highest. It is thus seen that when the plants are forced into their maximum activity by one set of factors, others operate to counteract any unfavorable tendencies, thus constituting one of the most ideal climates for many types of mesophytic vegetation. This favor- able and supplementing interplay of all factors, then, is particularly favorable to a very luxuriant summer vegetation domi- nated by deciduous forest as the overstory, with a rich Hemicryptophyte flora beneath this forest cover capable of surviving severe conditions, with its enforced dormancy of vegetative activity. Whatever the significance of Raunkiaer’s normal world spectrum, his studies indicate convincingly that the life-forms of plants are so definitely related to a particular cli- ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 119 mate that the constancy of relationship must be determined or conditioned by the operation of definite climatic laws prevailing under every climatic regime. It must be admitted, also, that his life-form classifica- tion, with its statistical aspects, may have genuine ecological meaning in the interpre- tation of some features of the striking rela- tionships of vegetation everywhere. LITERATURE CITED ALLARD, H. A., and Lronarp, E. C. The vegetation and floristics of Bull Run Moun- tain, Virginia. Castanea 8: 1-64, illus. 1943. DrupvE,O. Die Okologie der Pflanzen. Bruns- wick, 1913. Ennis, Beutan. The life forms of Connecticut plants and their significance in relation to climate. Connecticut State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. no. 48. 1928. GriseBacH, A. Die Vegetation der Erde nach threr klimatischen Anordnung. Leipzig, 1872. KERNER VON Mariuaun, A. Das Pflanzen- leben der Donauldnder. Innsbruck, 1863. Puituirs, Auice. Life-forms and biological spectra of the flora of Bacon’s Swamp, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 1(4): 41-53. 1929. RAUNKIAER, C. Types biologiques pour la géographie botanique. 1905. . Linsformernes Statistik som Grundlag for Biologisk Plantegeographt. Bot. Tids- skr. 29: 42-83. 1908. (Rev. by Smith, W. G.: Journ. Ecol. 1: 16-32, 1913) (Rev. by Fuller, George D., and Bakke, AY See: Raunkiaer’s “Life Forms, Leaf-size Classes and Statistical Methods.” Plant World 21: 25-37. 1918). . Ueber das biologische Normalspektrum. Danske Vid. Selsk. Biol. Medel. 1(4). 1918. The life forms of plants and plant geography: 632 pp. 1934. (An excellent English translation of all Raunkiaer’s papers.) Sinnott, E. W.,and Baitey,I.W. The origin and dispersal of herbaceous angiosperms. Ann. Bot. 28: 566-567. 1914. Taytor, Norman. The growth forms of the flora of New York and vicinity. Ann. Journ. Bot. 2: 23-31. 1915, . A quantitative study of Raunkiaer’s growth-forms as illustrated by the 400 com- monest species of Long Island, N. Y. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. Mem. 1: ‘486-491. 1918. WarMinG, E. Ecology Oxford, -1909. of plants. 120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 ENTOMOLOGY.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C.J. DRAKE and EK. J. HAMBLETON, Iowa State College. This paper contains the descriptions of 2 new genera, 15 new species, and 1 new variety and notes on a number of other species of lace bugs from Neotropical re- gions. The specimens were collected largely by the junior author. The type are in the Drake collection. Subfamily CANTACADERINAE Phatnoma amazonica, n. sp. Closely allied to P. marmorata Champion but readily distinguishable by the nonannulate fe- mora, nearly uniform brownish color, shorter and more ovate form, the apical portion of foliaceous nervure separating discoidal and subcostal areas without a blackened area; cos- tal area also one row of areolae wider; oblique, adventitious nervures of discoidal and subcostal areas much less prominent and not differently colored; head slender. Other characters very similar to P. marmorata. Length, 3.30 mm; width, 1.25 mm. Type (female), Pard, Brazil. In P. marmorata, the veinlets dividing the areolae of the foliaceous nervures delimiting the discoidal area are infuscate. The entire insect is quite marmorate in general appearance, whereas amazonica is almost uniform in color. Phatnoma marmorata Champion Known from Panama, Honduras, and Brazil and recorded from the cocoa bean. One speci- men from Trinidad, B. W. I., was taken on cul- tivated pineapple, May 25, 1934, by Dr. A. M. Adamson. Stenocader, n. gen. Obovate, more convex above in long- than short-winged form. Head very long, rather broad, tumid above, with two pairs of spines in front of eyes; bucculae long, reticulated, meet- ing a little before apex of head. Antennae long, slender, smooth; segments I and II short, to- gether not reaching apex of head, the former slightly longer and stouter; III very long, very slender, often longer in male than female; IV rather short, moderately thickened. Rostrum extremely long, extending considerably on base 1 Received December 23, 1943. of abdomen; rostral channel distinct, the lami- nae raised and subparallel, the venter strongly impressed along median line of basal half so as to form a distinct groove for the reception of rostrum. Eyes set close to pronotum. Pronotum narrowed anteriorly, subtruncate in front, pitted, with five carinae, the outer or lateral pair short, the middle pair interrupted at base of collar, hind margin of pronotum not strongly produced, subtruncate or slightly con- vex; scutellum small, exposed. Paranota nar- row, only slightly reflexed, the outer margin serrate, somewhat toothed. Elytra divided into the usual areas, the discoidal and subcostal areas with raised transverse hervures, the cla- vus distinct, within meeting in a straight line; elytra more strongly overlapping apically in long- than short-winged form when in repose, much more convex above in short-winged form, the outer margin of costal area granu- lated or toothed; wings much longer than ab- domen in long-winged specimens. Type of genus, Piesma tingidoides Spinola from Chile. The discoidal area is very long, extending more than three-fourths of the total length of elytra. The males are distinctly slenderer than the females and also have a little longer anten- nae. Stenocader differs from Nectocader Drake in not having the elytra very much more widely and abruptly expanded at the base, and the cos- tal area is without a row of large marginal areo- lae distinctly set off within by a thickened nervure so as to form practically another area. The rostrum is longer in Nectocader, and there is no median furrow on base of venter for the rostrum in repose. In the genus Cantacader Amyot and Serville, the scutellum is con- cealed, being covered completely by the hind margin of pronotum. Stenocader tingidoides (Spinola) Piesma tingidoides Spinola, in Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool. 7: 200. 1852; Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1863: 575. Cantacader tingidoides Reed, Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 4: 179. 1902 (reprint, p. 86). Cantacader? germaini Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1863: 586; Reed, Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 4: 179. 1902 (reprint, p. 86). Nectocader tingidoides Drake, Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 3: 42. 1928; Rev. Ent. 10: 322. Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON 1939; Drake and Poor, Iowa State Journ. Sci. 10: 383. 1936. Nectocader germaini Drake, Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 3: 41. 1928. : Many examples from’ Chile. The longer an- tennae of male, and the marked difference be- tween long- and short-winged forms, together with color variations account for the above synonymy. Genus Eocader Drake and Hambleton, 1934 Moniea Bruner, 1940. Haplotype, Hocader vegrandis Drake and Hambleton. In this genus the paranota are uni- or tri- seriate, the lateral carinae sometimes being distinct or more or less obsolete in specimens of the same species. Only two species are known. The genus Montea Bruner is identical with Eocader. Long- and short-winged specimens of both species have been examined. Eocader vegrandis Drake and Hambleton Eocader vegrandis Drake and Hambleton, Rev. Ent. 4: 436, fig. 1. 1934. Originally described from a brachypterous female, Vicosa, Minas Geraes, on the fruit of Bombax monguba Mart. Zucc., an imported tree; allotype (male) and several other exam- ples taken on mongubeira, Jardin Botanico, Rio de Janeiro, A. A. Silva. The lateral carinae are often wanting or only faintly indicated in apterous individuals. In a macropterous specimen the lateral carinae are sharply raised, very distinct and scarcely bent inward in front. The elytra are long, extending considerably beyond apex of abdomen, and overlap at apex; the costal area is triseriate in widest part near base and uni- seriate distally. The color of the elytra is testaceous, with the nervures bounding dis- coidal and the oblique adventitious nervelets of subcostal and discoidal areas dark fuscous. The wings are nearly as long as the elytra. The length is 2.55 mm, the width, 1.20 mm. Subfamily TINGITINAE Monanthia berryi Drake Through an error and misunderstanding of locality label, this insect was wrongly described from Uruguay. The locality label should read, Chanchaqui, Pert, August 21, 1942, P. A. : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE - 121 Berry. Since the original description was pub- lished, 10 additional specimens have been re- ceived from Perti. Not recorded elsewhere. Teleonemia lanceolata (Walker) Monanthia lanceolata Walker, Cat. Hemiptera Brit. Mus. 6: 194. 1873. Teleonemia albomarginata Champion, Biol. Centr.- Amer. Rhynch. 2: 43. pl. 3, figs. 18, 18a. 1898. Teleonemia spectabilis Drake, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 8: 226. 1931. Teleonemia dispersa Drake, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 8: 227. figs. 1, la. 1931. Teleonemia albomarginata Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 11: 298. 1940; Rev. Bras. Biol. 3: 107. 1943. Teleonemia lanceolata Drake and Hambleton, Arq. Inst. Biol. 9: 52. 1938; Drake and Poor, An. Mus. Cien. Nat. 40: 299. 1942. As the original descriptions of Monanthia lanceolata Walker (1873) and Teleonemia albo- marginata Champion (1897) agree and the two names apply equally well to the same species, Drake and Hambleton (1938) and Drake and Poor (1942) correctly placed the latter name in synonymy. According to W. E. China, the Walker type of lanceolata seems to have been lost and can not be located in the British Mu- seum. The writers have carefully studied very long series of lanceolata (Walker) from Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Peri, Venezuela, Colom- bia, several Central American countries, and the West Indies. Specimens vary somewhat in size, color, lateral expansions of paranota and elytra, and the height of median carina. The original description and figure of albomarginata by Champion are excellent. The statements of Monte (1941, 1943) are entirely inept and based upon his opinion rather than a careful study of specimens and original descriptions. His conclusions are entirely er- roneous, and the name albomarginata Cham- pion will have to be suppressed asa synonym of lanceolata (Walker). Teleonemia quechua Monte Nine specimens, Satipo, April 12, 1941; 1 specimen, Challanga; 1 specimen, Vilcanoto; 2 examples, Coroico; and 12 specimens, Cafiete, Pert, Edson J. Hambleton. One specimen, Villa Vicenzio, Colombia, 1898, O. Burger. In this species there is some variation in color and length of antennae. The antennae are long, moderately stout, and rather densely clothed with very short recumbent hairs; proportions 422 1:10, I1:8, I1I1:115, IV:40. The male tends to be a little smaller than the female. The carinae are sharply raised, thick, foliaceous, the lateral pair being slightly concave within in front. Teleonemia absimilis, n. sp. Elongate, broad, fuscous-brown, the para- nota, costal and most of subcostal areas, collar, and raised anterior portion of median carina whitish testaceous. Appendages ferrugineous. Hind spines of head adpressed, not reaching anterior margins of eyes, the median and frontal spines short. Rostrum extending to middle of metasternum; rostral channel widening pos- teriorly, open behind at the middle the laminae testaceous, concave within on metasternum. Body beneath dark ferrugineous, the hind mar- gins of abdominal segments darkened. Pronotum moderately convex, coarsely pit- ted, with foliaceous carinae, each uniseriate, the lateral more widely separated and concave within in front, the median elevated in front so as to form a small rooflike hood, subtruncate in front; paranota rather narrow, uniseriate, strongly reflexed slightly wider in front. Elytra slightly widening posteriorly, very slightly con- stricted beyond middle, together rounded be- hind when in repose; costal area moderately wide, slightly reflexed along basal portion, the areolae moderately large, hyaline; subcostal area narrow, uniseriate, somewhat testaceous; discoidal area large, narrowed at base and apex, widest a little in front of middle, there six areolae deep, the inner boundary more raised; sutural area large, the veinlets (also of discoi- dal) only slightly raised, the areolae and vein- lets embrowned. Length, 5.60 mm; width, 1.80 mm. Type (female), Villa Vicenzio, Colombia, January 1, 1898, Prof. O. Burger, collector. This species is smooth, somewhat reddish brown, with very pale testaceous margins. The whitish testaceous color of costal area extends to the apex of elytra and is not interrupted be- hind as in lanceolata (Walker). Teleonemia altilis, n. sp. Very similar in general appearance and color to T. molina Drake but easily distinguished by its smaller size, shorter rostrum, wider costal area and thinner carinae. Rostrum extending a little beyond middle of mesosternum; rostral laminae brownish, thinner and not as widely JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 separated as in molina. Head with five rather short, yellowish-brown spines, the three fron- tal shorter. Carinae uniseriate, the lateral pair slightly concave within in front. Costal area whitish testaceous, uniseriate, the areolae clear, widest opposite apex of discoidal area, there on one side with two extra areolae; subcostal area narrow, uniseriate. Paranota, hood and median carina testaceous. Appendages black-ferrugine- ous. Length, 4.70 mm; width, 2.40 mm. Type (female), Las Juntas, Bolivia. Col- lected by Steinbach. Separated from 7. prolixa Stal and varieties by the wider costal area. Teleonemia inops, n. sp. Brownish, with some areas infuscate. Head with five spines, the hind pair longer, adpressed, the median and fore pair shorter, directed for- ward. Antennae ferrugineous-brown, mod- erately long, shortly pilose; segment III ap- proximately two and one-half times the length of IV; I and II short, the latter smaller. Ros- trum reaching near the base of mesosternum; laminae very low, widely separated on meta- sternum, open behind. Legs fuscous-brown, rather slender. Body beneath dark ferrugineous. Pronotum dark brown, sharply tricarinate, each carinae uniseriate and with veinlets divid- ing cells fuscous, the lateral carinae more widely separated, slightly convex within in front; median carina moderately raised in front so as to form a small, rooflike hood, slightly projecting in front; paranota narrow, reflexed, uniseriate, the areolae small. Elytra consid- erably infuscated, mostly dark brown, the cos- tal area (also paranota, carinae, and collar lighter in color) mostly testaceous; costal area narrow, uniseriate, slightly reflexed along basal portion, the areolae small and clear; subcostal area narrow, uniseriate; disccidal area large, widest near middle, there five areolae deep; su- tural and discoidal areas rather widely areo- lated, the areolae opaque, brown to fuscous, the veinlets not prominent. Length, 4.55 mm; width, 1.35 mm. Type (male), La Ceiba, Honduras. Separated from 7’. notata Champion by the longer antennae, less convex pronotum and wider costal area. It is a little larger than T. scrupulosa Stal and the discoidal area is gla- brous. | Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON Teleonemia sandersi, n. sp. Moderately large, mostly dark fuscous, the paranota and costal areas testaceous, some of the transverse veinlets infuscate, the head and pronotum often covered with whitish exuda- tion. Head black, with five stout, moderately long, testaceous spines, the hind pair ad- pressed, the median directed forward, the front pair curved inward. Rostrum extending to meso- and metasternal suture; laminae thick, testaceous, concave within on meso- and meta- sternum, more widely separated on metaster- num, open behind. Body beneath blackish fer- rugineous. Appendages dark ferrugineous, the last antennal segment black. Antennae mod- erately long, rather densely clothed with short, decumbent hairs; segment I thicker and a little longer than II; III slightly bent, slightly more than twice as long as IV. Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, sharply tricarinate, each carinae uniseriate, the lateral carinae distinctly diverging anteriorly. Median carina in front and collar raised so as to form a rooflike hood, the anterior margin slightly produced. Paranota narrow, strongly reflexed, testaceous, uniseriate, the areolae moderately large; subcostal area narrow, uni- seriate; discoidal area impressed, widest near middle, there five aerolae deep, the areolae rather large; sutural area rather widely reticu- lated, the areolae becoming larger posteriorly. Length, 4.78 mm; width, 1.25 mm. Type (male), Canal Zone, Panama, Febru- ary 10, 1935, C. H. Richardson; allotype (fe- male), Olhajuela, Canal Zone, February 11, 1921, J. G. Sanders; paratype, Canal Zone, Panama, taken with type. Named in honor of Prof. J. G. Sanders, who kindly presented us the first example of the species. The sharply raised carinae, raised boundary of discoidal area and raised veinlets of elytra give this insect a striking appearance. The rostral laminae are higher and not so widely separated on metasternum as in 7’. alti- lis; the pronotum is also more convex and the veinlets of areas of elytra more raised and prominent. Teleonemia vulsa, n. sp. Resembling 7. leitei Drake and Hambleton but with longer antennae, wider costal area, narrower subcostal area and differently colored : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 123 appendages. Head brown, with five blunt, testaceous spines, the hind pair longer and ad- pressed. Eyes black. Antennae moderately long, brownish ferrugineous, indistinctly pilose; seg- ment I stouter and longer than II; III long, slightly bent, a little more than three times as long as IV; IV longer than the first two con- joined, blackish. Pronotum moderately convex, distinctly pit- ted, brown; paranota narrow, distinct, slightly wider in front, the areolae indistinct; carinae sharply elevated, the areolae distinct; lateral carinae distinctly more widely separated in front, there concave within; median carina and collar raised in front so as to form a rather long, small, rooflike hood, slightly produced in front. Elytra widest near middle, slightly constricted beyond middle, brown, paler along margins; costal area rather narrow, uniseriate, the areo- lae hyaline and moderately large; subcostal area scarcely wider, biseriate; discoidal area large, narrowed at base and apex, widest a little be- fore middle, there five areolae deep, the areolae rather large; sutural area more widely reticu- lated, considerably infuscated. Legs dark brown. Rostrum not quite extending to base of mesosternum; laminae testaceous, parallel, more widely separated on metasternum, en- tirely open behind. Length, 4.90 mm; width, 1.25 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and two paratypes, Chapada, Brazil. Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal This species is widely distributed in Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and South America. It has not been recorded from Chile. A number of years ago the species was intro- duced into the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji, and Australia for the purpose of controlling the weed Lantana. The insect has flourished in these countries. Drake and Frick (Proc. Haw. Ent. Soc. 10: 201. 1939) treat 7. haytiensis Drake as a va- riety of scrupulosa. This conclusion was based on a study of the type of haytiensis, cotype and an extremely long series of specimens of scrupulosa from South and Central America, West Indies, Mexico, United States, and islands of the Pacific. The antennal characters seem to warrant the varietal name haytiensis. Certain specimens from Texas, which have been ten- 124 tatively identified as scrupulosa, need further study and may perhaps represent another va- riety or even a distinct species. Monte (Papeis Avulsos Dept. Zool. Sao Paulo 2: 103. 1942) erroneously treated haytiensis as a synonym of scrupulosa. His conclusions are not based on an examination of the type or material from the type locality; scrupulosa has been much con- fused in the literature. Pachycysta diaphana Champion One example, Surukun, Venezuela, Novem- ber, 1940, collected by P. Anduzee. Two other examples are at hand from the Amazon region of Brazil. The type locality is ‘‘Amazona.”’ Amblystira pallipes (Stal) A series of examples, Surukun, Venezuela, November, 1940, taken by P. Anduzee. Many specimens have been studied from Brazil and Colombia. Taken in numbers on Sapindaceae, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1934, by Edson J. Hamble- ton. Corycera comptula Drake Five specimens, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Bra- zil, April 18, 1937, Edson J. Hambleton. The type locality is Chapada, Matto Grosso. Corycera juncta, n. sp. Very much like C. separata Drake and Ham- bleton but separated from it by the longer first antennal segment, testaceous paranota, rostral laminae not so widely separated on metaster- num, lateral carinae of pronotum slightly less raised on disc and all carinae are thicker and more elevated on hind triangular process. Head with hind pair of spines brownish, stout, blunt, adpressed, extending as far forward as front margins of eyes; median spine wanting; front pair short, brownish, turned inward. Rostrum extending on base of mesosternum. Costal area moderately broad, whitish testaceous, biseriate in widest part, the areolae clear and moderately large. Legs pale testaceous, the tarsi a little darker. Antennae long, slender, indistincty hairy; segment I very stout, moderately long, black-fuscous; II short, slender, testaceous; III very long, testaceous; IV slightly thickened, mostly blackish, pale at base. Length, 2.60 mm; width, 1.05 mm. Type (female), Sao Paulo, Brazil, May 22, 1935, E. J. Hambleton. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 Amblystira scita, n. sp. Similar in appearance to A. socia Drake but easily separated from it by the slightly more raised lateral carinae and the somewhat rounded and not sharply raised apex of dis- coidal area. Pronotum black, somewhat shiny, pitted, the lateral carinae slightly divaricating anteriorly. Elytra blackish, the widest or bi- seriate portion of costal area testaceous, the areolae of sutural area somewhat whitish. An- tennae testaceous, most of terminal segment black. Other characters very similar to A. so- cud. Type (female), and paratype, Mercedes, Costa Rica, August 5, 1928. In A. socia, the apical angle of the discoidal ‘area is sharply raised, acutely angulate, and the hind margin straight; the subcostal area is also wider. Otherwise, except for the lateral carinae, the two species are very similar in appearance. Atheas placentis Drake and Poor Five specimens, Sao Paulo, February 2, 1935, collected by E. J. Hambleton. Reported by Monte as occurring on Celtis brasiliensis Gardn. Atheas laetantis, n. sp. Head black, without spines. Bucculae tes- taceous, closed in front. Rostrum brownish, black at apex, extending on mesosternum. Body beneath black. Antennae moderately long, slender; segment I black, slightly stouter and nearly three times as long as II; II short, blackish; III testaceous, slenderest, slightly more than three times as long as IV, indis- tinctly hairy; IV rather long, almost wholly black, slightly thickened, with longer, pale hairs. Antenniferous tubercles rather long, conelike, nearly straight, becoming testaceous apically. Eyes black. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi darkened. Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, brown- ish black, sharply tricarinate, each carinae with a row of tiny areolae, the lateral pair parallel; collar distinct, dark brown, testaceous in front. Paranota rather narrow, wider in front, uni- seriate opposite humeral angles, biseriate in front, the outer margin nearly straight, the areolae hyaline and moderately large. Elytra with all discoidal and subcostal areas and basal portion of sutural areas fuscous-black, the rest pale testaceous, the areolae hyaline; costal area Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON rather broad, mostly biseriate, triseriate in wid- est part, the areolae large, arranged in some- what irregular rows; subcostal area narrow, mostly biseriate; discoidal area reaching a little beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at base and apex; sutural area mostly widely reticulated. Length, 2.55 mm; width, 1.10 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 32 para- types, Vicosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, April 29, 1934, on Machaerium angustifolium Vog. and Machaerium sp., by Edson J. Hambleton. This species may be separated from A. jflav- pes Champion by the more rounded outer mar- gins of elytra, the wider costal area, and the shorter first and testaceous third antennal seg- ments. Tigava lonchocarpa, n. sp. Allied to 7. cassiae Drake and Hambleton but distinguished by the thinner and less ele- vated carinae and the narrower paranota and elytra. Head brownish, the spines testaceous; hind pair of spines long, adpressed, extending beyond front margin of eyes; median spine stout, blunt, directed forward, the anterior pair atrophied. Antennae long, indistinctly pilose; segment I long, stout, constricted before apex, slightly more than three times the length of II, blackish fuscous; II short, concolorous with I; III testaceous, two and a half times as long as IV; IV slightly thickened, clothed with pale hairs, black, the basal portion testaceous. Ros- trum extending to middle of mesosternum, brownish, dark at apex; laminae testaceous, constricted on mesosternum, very broad and cordate on metasternum, closed behind. Legs slender, yellowish brown. Body beneath black. - Pronotum grayish brown, moderately con- vex, finely pitted, tricarinate, all carinae indis- tinctly areolate; paranota rather narrow, uni- seriate behind, biseriate in front, testaceous, the areolae rather small and clear; calli im- pressed, black; collar raised, narrow, testa- ceous, areolate; triangular process areolate, lighter in color. Elytra brownish, becoming fuscous within, the marginal area testaceous with clear areolae; costal area moderately wide, biseriate, the outer row a little smaller, sub- costal area narrower, biseriate; discoidal area narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, there four or five areolae deep; sutural area be- coming more widely reticulated posteriorly. Length, 3.85 mm; width, 1.05 mm. : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 125 Type (female) and allotype (male) and three paratypes, Vigosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, May 6, 19384, taken on Lonchocarpus sp. by E. J. Hambleton. T. sesorts Drake and Hambleton is a smaller species with shorter basal segment of antennae. Campylotingis snipesi, n. sp. Elongate, slender, brownish, the costal area testaceous, with some of the transverse veinlets fuscous. Head brown, with five moderately long spines, the median arising from a slightly raised area, porrect and dark fuscous, the hind pair adpressed. Rostrum extending between fore legs, the channel strongly constricted on mesosternum, rather wide and closed behind. Body beneath black. Legs long, slender, tes- taceous. Antennae long, slender; segment I long, stout, constricted before apex, about four times as long as II; II stout, slenderer, testa- ceous; III very long, slenderest, testaceous, four times the length of IV; IV black, moderately long, scarcely thickened, clothed with whitish hairs. Pronotum moderately convex, closely pitted, tricarinate, the lateral carinae subparallel, dis- tinct but not prominent, the median a little more raised; calli impressed, brownish, collar raised, areolate; paranota indistinct opposite humeral angles, in front expanded so as to form a distinct carinalike ridge. Elytra narrow, widely constricted beyond middle, the sutural area infuscate, costal area narrow, yellowish brown, the areolae elongate; subcostal wider, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part; dis- coidal area rather narrow, narrowed at base and apex, widest beyond middle, there three or four areolae deep; sutural area becoming more widely reticulated distally. Length, 3.50 mm; width, 0.07 mm. Type (male), Vicosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, collected by Dr. B. T. Snipes. The very narrow paranota opposite calli (there wider and ridge- like) and collar separate this species from its congeners. Leptodictya paulana, n. sp. Akin to L. austrina Drake and Hambleton in general appearance and color, but separated from it by the smaller areolae of elytra, nar- rower form and broader paranota. Head tumid, with extremely long, slender testaceous spines. 126 Antennae yellowish brown to dark fuscous, long, very slender, segment III two and one- half times as long as IV. Paranota completely overlapping, biseriate above, the upper fold broadly rounded in front and not sharply nar- rowed posteriorly as in austrina. Collar at mid- dle jointly raised in front so as to form a tecti- form hood, which is slightly more produced in front than in austrina. Rostrum extending on metasternum. Elytra with costal area less iri- descent, narrower and more closely reticulated than austrina. Male narrower than female. Other characters very similar to austrina. Length, 3.00 mm; width, 1.35 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), Taquare- tinga, Sao Paulo, Brazil, March, 1939, E. J. Hambleton. Paratypes, two specimens taken with type and one specimen, Campinas, Sao Paulo, June, 1937, Edson J. Hambleton. Leptobyrsa steini Stal This species has been very much confounded in the literature by Monte (Papeis Avulsos Dept. Zool. Sao Paulo 1: 203-208. 1941). The writers’ determinations of steini have always been based on one of Stal’s cotypes kindly sent to us by the Stockholm Museum more than a decade ago. This confusion has been constant since Monte first attempted to identify species in the genus. The same statement applies equally to L. baccharidis Drake and Hamble- ton. Specimens of Leptobyrsa before us deter- mined at various times by Monte as his L. ni- gricornis are typical examples of L. steini. Perhaps some of Monte’s confusion may be due to the errors in his illustrations of stetni and baccharidis published in the above mentioned volume. His remarks and criticisms seem to be based to some extent on the illustrations rather than a careful study of his specimens. To illus- trate, the hood of steini in his illustration is dis- tinctly larger than in Stal’s cotype and numer- ous other specimens of this species at hand from Brazil. The hood in steini is much smaller and does not cover the entire head (except eyes) or extend beyond its apex. The length and number of spines on the margins of the paranota and elytra in his illustrations agree with our mate- rial. It is impossible to know what Monte has de- termined as L. baccharidis. In the type, type series, and other specimens we do not have a single specimen of baccharidis that agrees with JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 Monte’s figure. The hood is not so large, the frontal spines are not so long or nearly so long as the first antennal segment, and the lateral carinae are not composed of two very elongate cells. In our series of specimens of steini, bac- charidis, and other members of Leptobyrsa Stal, the individuals of a long series of a species ex- hibit about the same amount of variation as in a number of other species of lace bugs. Itis dif-_ Fig. 1.—Pleseobyrsa atratarsis, n. sp. ficult to understand Monte’s statement ‘‘Por- quano tendo coligido para mais de 300 exem- plares do que Drake diz ser steini, todos eles, sem excecéo de um so, apresentam o mesmo rectio que se ve no desenho.”’ It will be neces- sary to examine specimens of what Monte has called L. baccharidis, L. steint, and L. nigritarsis before these errors can be rectified. According to the cotype of steini Stal and © type of baccharidis Drake and Hambleton, the hood of the former is distinctly smaller, and does not entirely cover the head in either form. The margins of the paranota and elytra are clothed with long hairs in baccharidis and with Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON shorter spines in stezni. The tumid elevations of elytra are also a little higher in baccharidis. Pleseobyrsa atratarsis, n. sp. Fig. 1 Very similar to P. plicata (Champion) but differs from it in having black-fuscous tarsi, smaller hood. The lateral carinae are distinct, but present only on the disk. Head with five long, slender, pale, testaceous spines, the hind pair adpressed, extending as far forward as base of front pair of spines. Subcostal and dis- coidal areas subequal in width, each with five rows of areolae in widest part, the discoidal area considerably elevated. Paranota mostly finely serrate, with a few spines on the anterior margins. Head moderately convex above, brownish; front pair of spines straight, not quite reaching apex of first antennal segment median a little shorter, all three frontal spines directed forward and sjightly upward. Other color and other characters very similar to pli- cata. Length, 3.60 mm; width, 2.70 mm. Type (female), Pocas de Caldas, Minas Ge- raes, Brazil, Col. O. W. Guilherme, July 1, 1939. Gargaphia munda Stal The determinations of munda Stal of the writers are based upon a cotype kindly sent us a number of years ago by the Stockholm Mu- seum. Many other specimens are also at hand from the states of Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro, collected by Edson J. Hambleton. Several years ago, Monte kindly sent the senior author specimens under the names of G. munda Stal and G. trichoptera Stal of what he later described as brunfelsiae. This probably accounts for Monte’s erroneous state- ment relative to munda in Arq. Inst. Biol. 2: 295. 1940. Later Monte changed his determina- tion and then distributed what he had wrongly identified as munda and trichoptera under the label brunfelsiae. The latter is a valid name for a good species. Gargaphia lanei Monte Gargaphia lanei Monte, Arq. Zool. Estado Sao Paulo 1: 376. 1940. Gargaphia limata Drake and Poor, Rey. Ent. 2: _ 228. 1940. Gargaphia limitata Monte, Arq. Zool. Estado Sao Paulo 2: 18. 1940. According to the dates indicated in the origi- nal description, Janet Monte appeared on June : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 127 27, 1940, and lumata Drake and Poor on June 28, 1940. If these journals were mailed as indi- cated, Janet Monte has date priority of one day and is the valid name of the species. A study of type material shows that the two names apply to the same species and the name limata Drake and Poor must be suppressed. Gargaphia implicata Drake and Hambleton Gargaphia concursa implicata Drake and Hamble- ton, Rev. Ent. 1: 535. 1940. After studying a large number of specimens, the authors believe that the narrower, bi- or tri- seriate, subangulate paranota opposite humeri and the almost uniformly rounded (not: dis- tinctly arched) median carina represent specific differences. The hood is also larger and much more inflated than in concursa Drake. The sub- costal area is either bi- or triseriate. The type is a female and allotype, male. There are 21 para- types. Other specimens are also before us from Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. Gargaphia nigrinervis impedita, n. var. Separated from typical G. nigrinervis Stal by the distinctly narrower, subrounded angles of paranota opposite humeri. Paranota triseriate in widest part, the areolae large, hyaline. Me- dian carina foliaceous, uniseriate, not dis- tinctly arched, slightly more elevated behind. Color and other characters very much like nigrinervis. Length, 4.20 mm; width, 2.25 mm. Type (male), Rio Frio, Colombia, April 2, 1926. In G. nigrinervis Stal the paranota opposite humeral angles are wider and produced into acute points, there four or five areolae deep. In G. deceptiva (Drake) the paranota angles are very similar to G. nigrinervis Stal but the me- dian carina is very strongly elevated, strongly arched behind hood, and very much higher than in impedita or nigrinervis. Dyspharsa, n. gen. Head very short, with five spines. Antennae very slender, long, indistinctly pilose; segment I short and a little stouter and longer than II; III very long, slenderest; IV slightly thicker than III. Rostral channel widening posteriorly, the rostrum moderately long. Bucculae closed in front, areolate. Orifice present. Eyes placed close to pronotum. Pronotum strongly convex, 128 pitted, unicarinate. Hood rooflike, covering base of head. Paranota narrow, linear. Legs slender. Elytra distinctly lacy, expanded near the base, divided into usual areas; discoidal area short, not reaching middle of elytra. Type of genus, Leptopharsa myersi Drake. This genus resembles in general appearance very closely Acysta Champion but it has a dis- tinct hood. The pronotum is sharply convex and highest at center of disk, unicarinate. The discoidal area is short. These characters will also separate it from Leptopharsa Stal. In the latter, the pronotum is more or less trans- versely convex. Leptopharsa perbona Drake Leptopharsa perbona Drake, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 398: 2. 1930. Leptopharsa spectabilis Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 11: 290, fig. 7. 1940. As it is impossible to separate perbona Drake and spectabilis Monte, the latter name should be placed in synonymy. The species is not very closely related to G. munda Stal, either in ap- pearance or structure. . Leptopharsa distinconis Drake Leptopharsa distinconis Drake, Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 3: 54. 1928. Leptopharsa iridis Drake, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 398: 2. 1930. Numerous specimens of this insect were col- lected at Pirassununga, Sao Paulo, March 30, 1936, and Belém, Pard, October 9, 1938. The variations in these series and other examples make it impossible to distinguish distinconis and wridis and the latter name is here placed in synonymy. Leptopharsa satipona, n. sp. Small, whitish testaceous, the head black, the pronotum darkened. Head with five long, slender, testaceous spines, the hind pair curved downward. Antennae very long, slender, smooth; segment I very long, black, slightly more than three times as long as II; segment II short, black-fuscous; III testaceous, very long, slightly more than twice as long as IV; IV very long, slightly thickened, blackish, with short, pale hairs. Legs testaceous, slender. Rostrum extending slightly beyond mesosternum. Body beneath black. Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, pitted, tricarinate; collar raised, the marginal row of areolae whitish testaceous; paranota JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 rather narrow, reflexed, oblique, projecting up- ward, whitish testaceous, biseriate, the outer margin nearly straight, the areolae hyaline; lateral carinae very low; median carina more elevated, not areolate; posterior triangular pro- jection reticulate, pale testaceous. Elytra con- stricted beyond middle, some of the veinlets fuscous; costal area moderately wide, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae rather small; subcostal area very narrow, bi- seriate, the areolae tiny; discoidal area short, narrower in front than behind, widest a little beyond middle, there five areolae deep; sutural area with distal areolae larger and some of the veinlets brownish. Length, 2.70 mm; width, 1.00 mm. Type (male), Satipo, Peri, August 9, 1941, P. Paprzycki. This is one of the very smallest members of the genus. The broad costal area and very long antennae separate it from the other smaller species of the genus. Stephanitis parana, n. sp. Moderately large, strongly widening pos- teriorly, the nervures brownish testaceous, the — areolae hyaline and somewhat iridescent. Head, save eyes, concealed by the hood, brownish. Antennae very long, slender, shortly pilose, testaceous, the last segment dark fuscous; seg- mént I moderately stout, long, broadly con- stricted before apex; II short, one-fourth the length of I; III long, slenderest; IV extremely long, scarcely thicker and three-fourths the length of III. Rostrum long, yellowish, black at tip, practically as long as channel. Legs very long, slender, testaceous. Orifice distinct. Pronotum slightly convex, pitted, black, the triangular portion areolate and testaceous: la- teral carinae present on disk, testaceous, rounded above, with three or four hyaline areolae; median carina very high, practically as high as hood, with top margin rounded, mostly biseriate, with areolae large and hyaline, the marginal nervure and some of transverse veinlets fuscous. Hood moderately large, in- flated, extending a little before apex of head, slightly compressed laterally, the areolae hyal- ine. Paranota very wide, reflexed obliquely up- ward, the outer margin rounded, the areolae moderately large and hyaline. Elytra divaricat- ing posteriorly, their apices widely separated when at rest the costal margin broadly Apr. 15, 1944 rounded; costal area very wide with large areolae, five deep in widest part; subcostal area biseriate adjacent to discoidal; discoidal area short, extending about one-fourth of its length beyond apex of triangular process of pronotum, obovate in shape, three areolae deep in widest part, areolae of sutural area subequal in size to those of costa. Length, 3.60 mm; width, 2.00 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and two paratypes, Pard, Brazil, October 9, 1938, taken by E. J. Hambleton and H. F. G. Sauer. This species is not easily confused with other members of the genus. The lateral margins of elytra are not clothed with hairs, the antennae indistinctly pilose, the discoidal area less raised or inflated, and the general color of nervures darker than in other Brazilian species. Corythucha globigera Breddin Corythucha globigera Breddin, Soc. Ent. 16: 81. 1901. HULL: SOME GENERA OF SYRPHID FLIES 129 Type (male), Santa Inez, Ecuador, R. Haensch, Breddin collection, which was kindly sent us by the late Dr. Walter Horn, of the Berlin Museum. Numerous specimens, Lima, Pert, April 25, 1936. Hood large, strongly inflated behind, abruptly constricted near the middle and ~ sharply narrowed anteriorly. Elytra with moderately large, tumid elevation, the costal area triseriate. Two spots on each paranotum, one or two spots on tumid elevation, a trans- verse band near base and another near apex of elytra, dark fuscous; apical band of elytra sometimes more or less obsolete. Hood some- what infuscated. Median carina about one- third as high as hood, slightly arched in front, mostly uniseriate, usually with two or three areolae divided at highest part; lateral carinae distinct. Margins of paranota, elytra, and some of veinlets of hood, elytra, and median carina beset with short spines. ENTOMOLOGY.—Some genera of flies of the family Syrphidae.' Frank M. Huu, University of Mississippi. Recent studies of syrphid flies have dis- closed several forms that do not appear to belong properly in any present genera. These are based upon undescribed species. In addition, I now find that the fly Mero- macrus vittata Hull described several years ago should be assigned to a new genus for reasons given below. Lycopale, n. gen. Medium-sized flies of the subfamily Erista- linae with bright-yellow, flattened tomentum upon the thorax, bare eyes, and open marginal cell. Antennae short, the third joint oval, with dorsal arista. Front tomentose. Face with abundant pubescence and some pile, obscuring the ground color. Thorax black, pollinose, with thick, rather long, and dense tufts of yellow tomentum along the suture and edge of hu- merus. Scutellum simple. Abdomen oval, rather convex, the color metallic black, the pile rather appressed and short. Wings with helo- philine venation and a prominent dip in the third vein. Anterior margin brown; marginal cell widely open. Legs simple, the hind femora 1 Received September 15, 1948, (Communicated by ALAN STONE.) a little thickened and having a patch of spinules at its base. Genotype: Meromacrus vittata Hull. This genus is related either to Meromacrus Rondani through its tomentose pile or to Helophilus Meigen through its open marginal cell and vittate thorax. The latter relationship seems more probable. The genus differs con- siderably in its facies from Helophilus; the ab- domen is much more convex than in our north- ern broad and flattened species of that genus, and has besides the same peculiar pile which characterizes Meromacrus. Kryptopyga, n. gen. Eyes of male very widely separated, the up- per half of occiput extraordinarily tumid and swollen but not rounded posteriorly. The rounded, swollen, anterior part ends in a rim that marks the edge of a deep, concave cup. Face practically vertical, a little vertical below. Antennae unusual, very elongate and slender. The first joint is long; the second joint is so short as to be almost overlooked; the third is very long, at least three times as long as the first and densely long, erect pilose on one side; the dorsal arista is practically eliminated, a 130 minute spurlike remnant being all that re- mains. Thorax not unusual. Scutellum broad and narrow without spur, spine, or indentation. Abdomen elongate, a little attenuated basally. The third and fourth segments are greatly di- lated into a subquadrate club; the fourth seg- -~ ment takes the form of a vertical, downward directed, expanded hypopygium; this pseudo- hypopygium is hidden between the overlapping sides of the third segment; the true hypopyg- ium can be barely seen from a ventral aspect. Legs small and weak, the hind femora spindle- like and microdontine. Venation typically mi- crodontine. Genotype: Kryptopyga pendulosa n. sp. This genus is closely related to the odd Afri- can Ptilobactrum Bezzi. It is distinguished from it chiefly by the subpetiolate abdomen and the elongated pseudohypopygium. Kryptopyga pendulosa, n. sp. Male.—Length 12 mm excluding antennae; antennae 5.3 mm. Head: the occiput and vertex exceedingly bloated and tumid; the eyes broadly separated, the posterior margin of occiput sharp and shelving instead of rounded. Face bulbous on the lower portion, in ground color light brown becoming brownish yellow ventrally and along the sides, leaving the middle broadly darker brown. Pile of face pale, shining brassy and ap- pressed. The vertex and upper part of front are dark shining brown with short pale pile; the area immediately above the antennae and on its sides is shining chestnut-brown and bare. Antennae extremely long and pendulous. The first joint is slightly curved, flattened upon the inner surface, barely over one-fourth as long as the third joint; the second joint is minute and buttonlike and about one-eighteenth as long as the third joint; third joint slender, enlarged just before the blunt apex, 4 mm long, and upon the outer half thickly clothed with long, erect, delicate, dark-brown pile. The arista is a mere spur, located a short distance from the base of third joint. Eyes bare. Thorax: dark, dull brownish black, with faint trace of the darker brown, pair of slender, widely separated, medial vittae that are con- fluent a short distance before the scutellum. Outside of this pair of vittae on each side there is a wide, longitudinal stripe of appressed, golden pile, reaching almost to the scutellum JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 and crossing a slender transverse band of simi- lar pile running along the transverse suture, which, however, extends only a short distance inward medial to the longitudinal stripe. Pos- terior margin of humeri banded with similar pile. Scutellar margin almost evenly rounded but actually very bluntly protuberant in the middle; its color yellowish brown. | Abdomen: elongate, club-shaped, scarcely narrowed basally, the third segment slightly wider than the basal half of the abdomen. First segment elongate, pale brown, subtranslucent, strongly transverse striate, darker brown upon its anterior corners and concolorous posteriorly with the basal half of the rather long second segment. Second segment darker brown pos- teriorly. Third segment barely longer than the first two segments, dark brownish black, pro- duced downward into an enormous, thickened club, the fourth segment actually vertical and thrust downward, simulating a false hypopyg- ium. The false hypopygium is actually con- cealed by the third segment which is so curved around that only a small opening is visible ven- trally by turning the fly upside down. The third segment of the venter is produced into a curious shield-shaped overlapping flap, which serves still further to close off the genitalia. Legs: dark reddish brown, blackish upon the basal half of the hind femora, extensively upon the middle femora. Anterior femora more red- dish brown. Anterior tibiae basally and almost the whole posterior tibiae reddish brown; else- where these and the middle tibiae are blackish; there is silvery pollen upon the tibiae in several places. Hind femora moderately thickened, spindly upon the basal half. Wings: strongly tinged with brown, with heavy stigmal cross vein, well developed vena spuria and a strong brown patch, diffuse-edged, occupying part of the apex of the wing. Holotype—One male. Soekaboemi, Java, May 1926, purchased from E. Le Moult, 1933-189. In the British Museum of Natural History. Remarks.—This fly is related to the African Ptilobactrum Bezzi, in which, however, the an- tennae are not solong nor is the abdomen elon- — gate nor does it terminate in such a peculiar fourth segment. In the females of Ptilobactrum | the antennae are without the plushlike pile. Kryptopyga differs from Paramixogaster Bru- netti in the presence of the long pile upon the Apr. 15, 1944 antennae of the male. The antennae of that genus are bare in the male and lack the curious development of the abdomen, although the ab- domen is pedunculate. There are several Aus- tralian species with elongate but nonhairy an- tennae and with normal abdomen. Genus Spheginobaccha de Meijere DEXIOSYRPHUS, n. subgen. Elongate flies of medium size or larger. The head is subglobular, the occiput tumid, swollen, and rounded. Eyes narrowly separated, ap- proximated about halfway between ocelli and antennae in the male. Antennae short, the third joint oval with dorsal arista. Face retreating with a barely suggested tubercle. Occiput deeply incised at a point on either side near the top. Thorax almost bare, the pile microsetate. Transverse suture produced as a complete deep crease across the whole of the mesonotum. Ab- domen elongate, subcylindrical, and slightly at- tenuated. The legs have the hind femora slender, their base tapered and spindle-formed, their apex without trace of spines. Wings heav- ily villose. Marginal cell widely open; apical cross vein spurred below. There is no upward spur from the last section of the fourth longi- tudinal vein below the end of vena spuria. Type of subgenus: Spheginobaccha (Dezxio- syrphus) funeralis, n. sp. This subgenus is related to Spheginobaccha de Meijere. It differs in the presence of the deep crease across the mesonotum and the virtual absence of the upward spur from the fourth vein. Spheginobaccha (Dexiosyrphus) funeralis, Nn. sp. Male.—Length 14 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: subglobular, the occiput tumid and strongly developed posteriorly adding to the globular shape of the head. There is a strong, submarginal crease in the occiput a short dis- tance down on each side of the eye margins which from above appears as a V-shaped fissure on the back of the occiput. Occiput and vertex and face and front black in color, the occiput grayish white pollinose. Ocelli set well forward close to the point of approximation of the eyes; the eyes fail to meet by a distance equal tothe width of the posterior ocelli. There is a low fa- cial tubercle near the middle of the face and the cheeks are almost absent. Antennae short, the HULL: SOME GENERA OF SYRPHID FLIES 131 third joint large, oval, about one-half again as long as wide, the arista short, slender except at the extreme base; first antennal joint dark brown, second and third light brownish orange. Pile of face, front, and vertex black, of the pos- terior occiput above and below whitish in color. Thorax: dark black, dully shining with on each side a rugose stripe which at the level of the posterior humeri broadly diverges and is hence continued as two stripes almost to the end of the thorax. Pile of thorax very short, al- most microscopic. Scutellum and pleura black, the former with a few rugae, the posterior mar- gin of the mesopleura and the whole ventral part of the pteropleura with thick silvery pollen. Abdomen: very long, somewhat slender, nar- rower than the thorax, slightly club-shaped on the third and fourth segments, subcylindrical in shape; the first, whole of the second, and base of the third segment with numerous very fine transverse linear grooves or furrows. On the sides of the second segment just before the middle, submarginal in position, is a pair of small, oval, diagonal, silvery pollinose spots, pointed at each end. Abdomen black and chiefly shining; the sides of the long second and third segment, which are together practically as long as the remainder of the abdomen, are quite parallel; sides of second segment emarginate; on the sides of the third and fourth segment. widely separated in the middle is a pair of slender diagonal pilose and_pollinose-mar- gined hair-bands. Legs: almost wholly light reddish brown, the base of the hind femora, the basal third or half of all of the tibiae pale yellow, the hind femora slightly thickened, the pile everywhere very fine and exceedingly sharp-bristly and flat-ap- pressed. Wings: pale brown. There is no spur from the third longitudinal vein, no stigmal cross vein, the vena spuria is well developed, the wings are uniformly villose, the terminal sections of the subapical and postical cross veins are almost straight and slightly wavy in the latter. Holotype-—One male. South Africa, R. E. Turner 1933-69; East Cape Province, Katberg, 4,000 feet, XII, 1932. In the British Museum. Spheginobaccha dexioides, n. sp. Distinguished from S. macropoda Bigot by the replacement of the yellowish, translucent, subtriangular spots of the abdomen with slen- 132 der, diagonal, gray-pollinose bands, most con- spicuous upon the fourth segment. Male.—Length 14 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: occiput tumid, silvery gray pollinose, the crease very conspicuous. Vertex shining brown, somewhat convex, becoming light chestnut-brown on a wedge behind the ocelli. Eyes approximate, failing to touch by a dis- tance equal that between the posterior ocelli. The front is shining brown. Face dark brown, shining. There is a narrow, transverse band of yellow pubescence across the face at the epis- toma and up narrowly along the eye margins. Antennae short, wholly reddish brown, the third joint about twice as long as wide, dully pointed. Eyes bare. . Thorax: black, feebly shining; microscopi- cally pilose, mixed black hairs among brownish yellow hairs. There is a rugose area on each light-brown humerus, and on each medial edge of the humerus there is a similar area that im- mediately divides to-form slender stripes run- ning the greater part of the thorax. Scutellum broad, very convex, dark brown. The pleura are black with a narrow, vertical, silvery stripe. There is a tuft of long, golden-yellow hair on the anterior margin of the propleura. Squamae rather short, pale in color. Abdomen: rather elongate, basally petiolate, the first and second segments and the basal third of the third segment with almost parallel sides. Actually the first segment is a little wider than the second and the club-shaped fourth ZOOLOGY .—Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun.' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 4 segment and terminal part of the third segment are three times as wide as the second segment. Abdomen subcylindrical, the fourth seg- ment considerably longer than the third segment, the third segment barely shorter than the second segment. Abdomen shining black, chiefly dark brownish black on the fourth seg- ment, with a diagonal, grayish-silvery pollinose stripe on the sides of the second segment before the middle, widely interrupted. There is a simi- lar diagonal stripe in the opposite direction on the third segment and on the fourth segment a diagonal, subbasal, silvery-gray stripe prac- tically continuous across the middle. Pile of ab- domen flat, bristly, black except on the light pollinose area where it is pale yellowish. Sides of third and fourth segments strongly curved over. Legs: chiefly dark brown, the base of all the femora, the basal third of all the tibiae yellow- ish. The apical half of the anterior femora be- yond the strong basal bulge and bend are light reddish brown. Hind femora slightly thickened basally. Wings: nearly hyaline, clear brownish along the anterior marginal edge to the end of the costa. Third longitudinal vein straight without spur into the first posterior cell. There is a spur from the fourth longitudinal vein into the first posterior cell near the end of the vena spuria. Holotype-—One male. Port St. John, Pondo- land, November 1923, South Africa, R. E. Turner, 1924-6. In the British Museum. MILDRED SaNnpoz, Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, and SeweLit H. Hopxrns, Texas A. and M. College. In 1942 eggs of the blue crab were hatched in the laboratory under favorable and un- favorable environmental conditions. Con- trolled experiments showed that under favorable conditions blue-crab eggs hatch into normal first crab zoeae. Eggs heavily infected with fungi or bacteria and those kept under unfavorable salinity and tem- perature conditions either failed to hatch or hatched into prezoeae that usually died soon. The optimum salinity range for hatch- 1 Received January 19, 1944. (Communicated by Watpo L. ScHMITT.) ing was found to be about 23 to 30 parts per thousand. Eggs failed to hatch outside the temperature range of 19°-29° C. Churchill (1942) concludes that there is a prezoeal stage in the blue crab. Our data clearly show that occurrence of prezoeae after hatching is not a normal one, but a result of development under unfavor- — able environmental conditions. Williamson (1910), working on Portunis puber, also of the family Portunidae, states that the larvae were obtained in the first zoeal stage. Apr. 15, 1944 In studies on development the first three zoeal stages were reared in the laboratory. The first and second zoeae were found to correspond with the descriptions and draw- ings of these larvae by Hopkins (1943) and in most respects with the characteristics presented by Churchill (1942). The third zoeae, however, showed marked differences from the third zoeae described by Churchill (1942). The three significant morphological differences are: (1) There are eight swim- ming setae on the exopodites of the first and second maxillipeds; (2) the exopodite of each antenna is still short as in the second zoea, not prominent as in Churchill’s third stage; and (3) there are no strong dorsal spines on the fifth abdominal segment. Churchill states that (1) the exopodite of the first maxilliped has six setae and the second maxilliped has seven; (2) each an- tenna bears a prominent exopodite; and (3) there appears for the first time a pair of large strong spines on the dorsal side of the fifth segment. He figures a prominent chro- matophore in the basipodite of the first maxilliped of the third stage, but his fourth and fifth stages lack a corresponding chromatophore. This phenomenon, if true, is most unexpected, since carcinologists ap- pear to agree on the constancy of pigment PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 133 characters for purposes of larval identifica- tion (Williamson, 1910, and Behre, 1941). Churchill’s description of the third stage is based on zoeae collected in plankton tows and not on larvae reared under observation. It represents a zoeal stage of another crab. Also, his fourth and fifth stages do not seem to be larvae of the blue crab. As pointed out by Hopkins (1942), the fact that other portunid crabs are known to occur in the lower part of the Chesapeake Bay and in the ocean just outside of the bay makes it seem dangerous to draw too definite conclusions as to the identity of the zoeal stages on a basis of plankton tows alone. REFERENCES BEHRE, Evuinor. The recognition of crusta- cean larvae by their pigment patterns. Anat. Rec. 81 (4): 1160. 1941. CHURCHILL, E. P. The zoeal stages of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Chesa- peake Biol. Lab. Publ. 49. Apr. 1942. Hopkins, 8. H. The external morphology of the first and second zoeal stages of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 62 (1). Jan., 1943. WiuutamMson, H. C. Report on the larval and later stages of Portunis puber L., P. decu- rator Leach, P. holsatus Fabr. Fish. Scot. Sci. Invest. No. 1 (1909): 1-20. 1910. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held on January 18, 1944, elected the following officers: President, T. Date STEwaRrT; Vice President, REGINA FLANNERY; Secretary, Witu1am N. FENTon; Treasurer, WALDO R. WEpDEL; Members of the Board of Managers, W. M. Coss, Wm. H. Git- BERT, H. W. Kriecer, ALFRED ME&TRAUX, JULIAN H. STEWARD. A report of the membership and activities u the Society since the last annual meeting fol- Ows: Life members, 1; active members, 53; associ- ate members, 13; total, 67. This represents an increase of 13 over last year. The members elected during the year were: Dr. Gorpon T. Bowes, Mrs. Marion Hate Britten, Dr. Epwin G. Burrows, Miss ELIZABETH PEARSON CLARK, JoHN HADLEY Cox, Dr. James A. Forp, Puinip Epwarp Fowuer, Mme. Napya Grorces-Picot, Dr. KATHERINE LuomMata, Dr. A. Mérravux, Dr. Maurice A. Moox, Miss RutH E. PArpEE, Ropert L. Ranps, Dr. Demitri B. SHIMKIN, Dr. Gorpon R. WILLEY, active members; Mrs. Marsorig LisMer Bripces, Capt. WENDELL P. Roop, U.S.N.R., Dr. Arir I. Tannovus, Lt. Col. GEoRGE WILLIAMS, associate members. Two members, Dr. AursS HroriécKa, life member, and Dr. SopHiz NORDHOFF-JUNG, as- sociate member, were lost by death. The So- ciety voted to record its deep sense of loss at the death of these members and to extend its sin- cere condolences to their relatives. The Treasurer’s report is as follows: Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (withinterest to date) $1,762.92 21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- provement Co. No. 505 (par value STO per share Oe ey Mes eS 210.00 2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous- ing Co., No. 222 (par value $100 DCTESHOre) ate ed che onecisueie. oii 200.00 134 U. 8S. Saving Bond, Series G., No. DOG GGGE SY ii feie thee o caneienee © 500 .00 Casha bam in.) Soni. os. nace ne 399.52 $3 ,072 .44 Bills outstanding: To American Anthropological As- sociation (subscriptions to American Anthropologist for 18 members at $5 each).......... 90.00 ToiCosmos: Club Mes. «se aes 23 .40 $2 ,959 .04 Total as of January 18, 1944.... 2,836.50 NIMeCreaSe ieee! Ale ye Rea $122.54 Division of annual surplus: Previous 1944 T otal Publicationfund.. $102.22 40.84 1438.06 Speakers’ fund.... 102.23 40.85 148.08 Investment fund. . 102.24 40.85 1438.09 The Society acted as host to the American Anthropological Association at the annual business meeting of the latter on December 7, 1943, at the Cosmos Club. All regular meetings were held at the U. 8. National Museum. Continuing the practice adopted in 1942, the mailing list has been kept current so as to include all anthropologists in Washington; 160 notices were sent out for reg- ular meetings. The Society has been the gainer by the influx of scientific workers to Washington. No diffi- culty has been encountered in enlisting inter- esting speakers, and offerings have reflected a policy of keeping our science abreast of world problems at home and abroad. Areas repre- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 sented were Latin America (2 papers), Oceania (1), India (1), and North America (2); and problems ranged from the Japanese in America to castein far-off India; from Shoshonean chil- dren to music in Polynesia. We have en- deavored to keep anthropology alive for those - whose careers are momentarily diverted. Two of the papers presented have been published. The papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were as follows: January 19, 1943, 711th meeting, Dr. RaLpu Brats, Acculturation in Mexico. February 16, 1943, 712th meeting, Dr. Davip G. MAnDELBAUM, Some aspects of social organi- — zation in India. March 16, 1943, 713th meeting, Dr. JoHn F. EmMBREE, The Japanese in America. (Published in this JOURNAL 33 (8): 238-242. Aug. 1943, under the title The relocation of persons of Japa- nese ancestry in the United States: Some causes and effects.) April 20, 1948, 714th meeting, Dr. DEMITRI 18}, SHIMKIN, Personalities and social interac- tions among Wind River Shoshone children. October 19, 1948, 715th meeting, Dr. Witi1AM DuNcAN SrrRonG, Cross sections of New World prehistory—A brief report on the work of the Institute of Andean Research Pro- gram, 1941-1942. (Published in full in Smith- sonian Mise. Coll. 104 (2): 46 pp., 33 pls. 19438.) November 16, 1948, 716th meeting, Dr. Epwin G. Burrows, Music in Polynesian cul- ture. The regular December meeting was omitted in favor of meeting with the American Anthro- pological Association at its annual business meeting. ; WiuuraM N. Fenton, Secretary. @bituartes CHARLES FREDERICK Marvin, long-time chief of the U. 8S. Weather Bureau, passed away on June 5, 1943, in Washington, D. C., at the age of 84, after 50 years of government service followed by almost 10 years in retire- ment with well-earned time for his personal pursuits. Death followed a brief illness subse- quent to a minor operation. Dr. Marvin was born in Ohio, in the city now called Zanesville, on October 7, 1858, son of Charles F. and Sarah A. (Speck) Marvin. His education was acquired almost entirely in Columbus, Ohio, first in the public schools of the city and finally in the Ohio State University, where he received his degree in mechanical engineering in 1882 and later the honorary doctor of science (1932). During the four years just preceding his gradu- ation, he served as instructor in the mechanical and physical laboratories of the university. Dr. Marvin enjoyed an unusually well- ordered and consummate life. He entered the employ of the Federal Government soon after his graduation when he was appointed a junior professor in the Signal Service of the Army in 1884. When the meteorological work of that organization was transferred to the Weather Bureau in 1891, Dr. Marvin went with it. His early work with the Bureau as professor of meteorology was related primarily to design — and maintenance of meteorological instru- ments, an interest that he retained through- out his active career. For several years preceding his selection to head the Weather Bureau, he was the head of its instrument division. In Apr. 15, 1944 1913, on recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences, he was appointed chief. With 21 years to his credit in the highest posi- tion in the Bureau, he retired in 1934 to pass several happy years with his family in private life, free from the problems of public adminis- tration and the complexities of meteorological questions. Dr. Marvin’s span of service encompassed a most interesting and important period in the evolution of meteorological science and the Weather Bureau. He entered the work in an hour of opportunity, during one of the recurring phases in meteorology when the public interest in vital weather information creates the de- mand that something be done about it. Apropos is a reference from the account by Prof. T. C. Mendenhall, published by Dr. W. J. Hum- phreys in his Biographical memoir of Cleveland Abbe. In referring to the importance of a theo- retical investigation of the general principles of meteorology with a view to improvements in weather forecasting it is stated that: ‘“‘The vitalization of the service through these im- portant changes resulted, happily, in the acqui- sition of such young men as Marvin, Fassig, MeAdie, Morrill, McRae, Russell and a number of others, some of whom are still in the service (1919) and from several of whom have come in later years contributions to the science of meteorology of very great value.” During his early years in meteorology, Dr. Marvin contributed greatly to improvements in design of meteorological instruments and in- crease in exactness of measurements. He pio- neered in instruments to measure upper air conditions by means of kites, as witness the Marvin meteorograph and the Marvin treatise on kite design. These constituted an early ap- proach to the research in aeronautical meteor- ology that has become a primary responsibility of the Weather Bureau since modern aviation came into its own toward the close of Dr. Marvin’s career. He worked on many other in- struments—the Robinson cup anemometer for wind velocity, the barometer and barograph for recording atmospheric pressure, and in- struments for measuring evaporation, rainfall, snowfall, sunshine, cloudiness, air temperature, and humidity. His humidity equations and tables based thereon are still in common use to determine moisture content of the air. His OBITUARIES 135 work included design of a seismograph long used in the Weather Bureau. Dr. Marvin’s scientific interest and his posi- tion in the Bureau led him into many other activities and relationships. Among the scien- tific organizations in which he took an active part at one time or another and held leading office were the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Washington Academy of Sciences, the Philosophical Society of Wash- ington (president 1903), and the American Meteorological Society (president 1926). He was also a member of the Cosmos Club. He represented the United States in important in- ternational scientific meetings. In 1928 he was knighted by the King of Norway in recognition of aid given by the Weather Bureau in Amund- sen’s Arctic explorations, and in 1934 he was a delegate to the League of Nations, Genoa. He was actively interested in calendar reform and devoted much time and study to the logical presentation of his views. Surviving are a son, Charles F. Marvin, Jr., two daughters, Mrs. Claude Livingston and Mrs. Park Norwood, and a host of friends acquired during his many kindly and consider- ate-associations in the more than half century of his eventful life. F. W. ReIcHELDERFER After a brief illness Epwarp Hau Bowiz passed away on July 29, 1943, at his home in Berkeley, Calif., following more than 50 years of service dedicated to his chosen science of metereology. He was born at Annapolis Junction (near Bowie), Md., on March 29, 1874, and attended St. John’s College, Annapo- lis, Md., later receiving the degree of master of science from that institution. In December, 1891, he entered the Weather Bureau shortly after it had been transferred from the Signal Corps of the Army to the Department of Agri- culture. He served at Memphis, Tenn., Mont- gomery, Ala., Dubuque, Iowa, Galveston, Tex. St. Louis, Mo., Washington, D. C., and San Francisco, Calif. While at St. Louis his ability ‘in forecasting first attracted attention, and as a result he was assigned to the Washington, D. C., office, where he served as forecaster from 1909 to 1924. He was then selected to adminis- ter the important forecast district comprising the Pacific States. 136 His service at Washington included the period of World War I, during which he was commissioned a major in the Signal Corps, U.S.R., serving overseas with that organization in developing and inaugurating a meteorologi- cal service for the A.E.F. In this work he took an active part in furnishing advices for avia- tion, shipping, submarine patrols, gas and flame service, and general operations, including the making of extended forecasts. His interest in meteorology and especially in weather forecasting induced him to accomplish a prodigious amount of reading in these fields. Few have studied the daily weather charts with greater assiduity and understanding. As a re- sult he made many contributions to forecasting knowledge, to be found chiefly in the Monthly Weather Review and other publications of the Weather Bureau. Among these were “Methods for Predicting the Movements of Cyclones, etc.,” “Types of Storms in the United States, etc.,” “Types of Anticyclones of the United States, etc.,” and “‘The Formation and Move- ment of West Indian Hurricanes.” In addition he was a member of the board of editors of a book entitled Weather forecasting in the United States, a pioneer publication of its kind. His contributions to the technique of making ex- tended forecasts from synoptic Northern Hem- isphere charts attracted favorable comment. In 1936 he visited most of the organized weather services of the Far East for the pur- pose of increasing the number of weather ob- servations available for the benefit of ocean navigation. Following this survey he was desig- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 nated as representative to the Southwest Pacific Meteorological Commission held at Wellington, New Zealand. A voyage on board the French ~ Merchant Marine Training Ship, the Jacques — Cartier, at the request of the French Govern- ment, made it possible for him to suggest im- provements looking to increased availability of radio weather reports from ships at sea in the North Atlantic. For some years, especially during the early period of its development, he took an active part in the deliberations of the Meteorological Section of the American Geophysical Union and served as president of the section of me- teorology and later as a member of the Special Committee on Meteorology and Hydrology. At the time of his death he was president of the American Meteorological Society. He was also a member of the Washington Academy of Sci-— ences, the Philosophical Society of Washington, and the Royal Meteorological Society (Lon- don). Major Bowie put his whole heart into any project he undertook and pursued it with en- — ergy and vigor to its conclusion. Progressive and quick to make decisions, his alert mind and broad vision, bulwarked by an unusual back- ground of meteorological experience, caused his advice and counsel to be much sought. The impress of his influence will be felt for many years to come. He was admired and respected by all with whom he came in contact. He is survived by his widow and three married daughters. R. H. WeicHTMan ee: - Zoovoay. —Zoeal eS of fhe ia ( _Minprep cake and Suweut ] Ne "May 15, 1944 = Weick fh ees Lewis V. Jupson- _ - NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS \ \ M i | : :E. fees James I. Horrman CHEMICAL SOCIETY : aie PUBLISHED MONTHLY is BY THE 450 AHNAIP Aue ar Menasza, Wiscbnais ard "Authorised January a, ig X BOARD OF EDITORS — “ASSOCIATE asta neice | Haraup A. ReapDER U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM ® ALAN STONE | BNTOMOLOGIOAL SOCIETY Rawpex W. Imuay GHOLOGICAL SOCIBTY Wiii1am N. Fenton. 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Rappueye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- te ington Eachanges.—The Academy does ae exchange, its publications for those of other t . . societies. “e Oueonee OF THE aepaue. President: CLummnt L. Garner, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Secretary: FprpINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, National Bureau of Standards “y a Treasurer: Howarp S. Rapp.ere, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. hee Archivist: NatHan R. Surra, Bureau of Plant Industr Sn Custodian of Publications: Franx M. Smrzumr, U. 8. National Museum. \ a { JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 LINGUISTICS.—Origin of clock-dial V and of zero.! Bureau of American Ethnology. In the writing of the entire world there are to be found only six types or systems of figures. Since this fact has never before been brought out, and since the two types of writing figures employed by us are deriva- tive, it will be well first of all to list these types. ' 1. Bar.—Enregistering each unit as a mark, by the placing of something, or by some other signaling of a tally, is the indica- tion of figures most natural to human beings and is well exemplified by the figure system of the Maya, an American Indian popula- tion, called the “simple system” to distin- guish it from the combinatory system used by the same people. In the Maya system a unit is written as a dot rather than as a bar, while the bar is reserved for the writing of 5. For those figures in the writing of which both dot and bar occur, the dot or dots are placed above a horizontal bar or bars but to the left of a vertical bar or bars, it being immaterial whether the bar be placed hori- zontal or vertical. The bar system is so simple and self-explanatory that it appears mixed into other systems, as, for instance, into the Chinese, the Roman, and the Arabic systems, as we shall mention below at the close of this listing; it is conspicuously adapted to the writing of 1, 2, and 3 and sometimes of the superquintal derivatives of these, but becomes cumbersome with the writing of 4. 2. Ideographic.—This system is well ex- emplified by the number symbols of Chinese starting with 4, each of the symbols being in origin a picture of a numeral. The Chinese number system is decimal, and for 10 there is written a cross, reminding one of the 1 Received December 18, 1943. May 15, 1944 No. 5 JOHN P. HARRINGTON, cross or X by which 10 is expressed in some other systems. Also in ancient Egyptian are to be found ideographic figures. It is very likely that both in Chinese and Egyptian, as in ancient India, certain numerals were identified with certain nouns. For instance, in Egyptian the sickle has in some way be- come identified with the numeral for 9 and conventionalized as the ideograph for 9. 3. Alphabetic.—A language having an alphabet has the letters of this alphabet, whether phonetic or syllabic, for practical purpose in a certain order, known as alpha- betic order. As one learns to say an alphabet it becomes natural to assign to each letter a number, and although these numbers would, strictly considered, be ordinal, it is practical to make them cardinal. The common method of writing figures in Greek, for example, was by writing letters. Alpha stood for 1, beta for 2, etc. Many other alphabets had, or have, the same system in practice. Ancient Hebrew used letters of its alphabet as figures, and as such they appear in the numbering of the Psalms. Hebrew had this lettering system as early as the second century B. C. and probably much earlier. This attribution is doubtless as old as the alphabet itself; compare the parallelism of the days of the week being spoken of from the very start also as first day, second day, and so forth. 4. Alphabetic-decade—In the Karosthi figure system of ancient India, a, the first letter of the alphabet, stood for 10, not for 1. This is apparently the only evaluate of this sort known to have occurred in the alphabetic world. This strange evaluation of a shows that 10 is felt to be a main or round number. That 10 is felt to be the 137 sun 1 138 A-number-one grouping is evidenced by several other decimal-system languages, being indicated, for instance, by the dd, 20, of the Attic system, the XX, 20, of the Roman system, and in fact by the choice of X for 10 in this latter system versus the standing of X in the Attic system for Greek xfilioi, 1,000. 5. Initcal.—In the writing of numerals we find that it has been largely the practice in the earlier world to base a system of figures on abbreviated initials—just as indeed the alphabet itself consisted in origin of pictures, each picture symbolizing an initial sound, a conventionalized drawing of a house, baitu in primitive Semitic, standing for }, and so forth. We find this numeral-initial- equals-figure system in swing in the Attic figures of ancient Greece and the Roman figures of Latin, which are still in use as our Roman numerals. The Arabic world exhibits both Arabic alphabet figures and the India- derived figures that we call Arabic, in northern Africa the European forms of these figures being in use. 6. Hiymal.—Persian (now more properly called Iranian) grammars tell of the ‘‘Siyaq”’ figures in use by some merchants in the bazaars in Iran for keeping accounts. A. B. ° Antar tells me that this writing is also very occasionally employed in . Mesopotamia, now called Iraq. Siyaaq, with its second vowel long, is merely the Arabic noun mean- ing system. The country name with vowel length indicated is liraan, but Iraaq. The siyaaq figures are the same as the Arabic alphabetic ones, alif equaling 1, etc., except that for 10 a corrupted contour of the written-out Arabic word for 10 is employed, instead of the Arabic letter ye, or its cor- ruption, which is the ordinary Arabic alpha- betic writing for 10. Mixed systems.—Type 1 usually over- rides types 2 and 5 in the denotation of the figures 1 to 3, inclusive, and sometimes in derivatives of these immediately above 5. Standard Chinese writes 1 to 3 by hori- zontal bars, merchants in China sometimes using vertical bars; Roman has vertical; Arabic has vertical for 1, yet 2 and 3 are corruptions of horizontal. English inherits two systems of figures. These are the so-called Arabic, really merely JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 5 transmitted by the Arabs to the western world from India, and the so-called Roman. The Arabic system has general application, the Roman, special and limited, functioning in the pagination of prefaces, on the clock or watch dial, or where inheritance or dis- tinction renders its use desirable. ORIGIN OF CLOCK-DIAL V V wis for pi, initial letter of Greek pénte, 5.—Just as the Estruscan and Latin alpha- bets are nothing but forms of the Greek, so the Roman figure system is merely a form of the Attic, the way of writing numerals that appears on all Athenian inscriptions. My discovery, which so far as I know has never been pointed out by anyone else, is that the V of the clock dial, meaning 5, which figure also occurs with apex. up in Etruscan, is in origin an inverted Greek letter pi, standing for the Greek numeral pénte, 5. ORIGIN OF ZERO Zero arose through conforming, not through invention.—The second discovery an- nounced in this paper is not to be under- stood without first surveying the linguistic stocks and the linguistic numeral status of India: There are six stocks in India: 1, Dravid- ian; 2, Kolarian; 3, Burushaskian; 4, Aryan; 5, Tibetosinan; 6, Andamanian. Stocks 5 and 6 are too largely extraneous to warrant consideration here. Stocks 1 and 2 are upon study probably genetically related. Aryan, though it has been introduced into India from the northwest, is included be- cause Sanskrit Aryan figures are a transmis- sion link between Dravidian and Arab. Aryan is properly with long initial a, and is also and more largely called Indo-European or Indo-Germanic. Burushaskian is at pres- ent at least a small stock on the Tibetan border of northwestern India but has to be included for completeness. It will be noticed that stocks 1 and 2 carry cardinal classifiers as retrobases. This cardinal classifier in Dravidian has a u-sound, in Kolarian an i-sound. In, for instance, Tamil muu-v-ar, the 3, the u is seen to have turned into v. All the stocks of India happen to have deci- mal system, derived, of course, from the May 15, 1944 human hands together having 10 fingers, and so does the Semitic stock, from the north Mesopotamian writing of which, through the Karosthi and Brahmi alphabets of ancient India, the writing of all the stocks of modern India (barring, of course, Arabic and Latin alphabet writing) is descended. The Encylopedia Britannica, 14th edi- tion, quotes F. Cajori in his history of mathematics as stating that zero, and the accompanying principle of position in the writing of figures, were what gave superior- ity to the Indic system. One finds in litera- ture on the history of mathematics a wide- spread exultation over the invention of zero. A study merely of the modern Tamil Dravidian writing of figures is enough to MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 139 convince one that zero was never invented at all, but was the figure for 10. Twenty is in Tamil naturally enough written as 2-10, 30 as 3-10, etc. But 10 is never written as 1-10, since the 1 would here be considered as superfluous. When the writing of 10 became conformed by dint of simple analogy to re- semble that of 20 and other zero-terminal decade numbers, by placing the symbol for 1 before the symbol for 10, the so-called invention of zero was attained. It was not an invention but a conformity, an accident. RESUME V on the clock dial is discovered to be an inverted Greek letter pi, zero the result of a conformatory squeezing. Tue Unit NUMERALS Tamil Mundari oul kite Burushaski (Dravidian (Kolarian i% a St k (Burushaskian Stock) Stock) zyemStock) Stock) onYd¥u, 1 mid’, 1 éeka, 1 hik, 1 irandu, 2 baria, 2 dvd, 2 aalto, 2 muun’d¥u, 3 apia, 3 tri, 3 iiski, 3 naanygu, 4 upunia, 4 catur, 4 waalti, 4 aindu, 5 monréa, 5 panvea, 5 tsindi, 5 aarvu, 6 turtia, 6 sds, 6 mishiindi, 6 eju, 7 eea, 7 sapta, 7 tale, 7 ettu, 8 frilia, 8 astda, 8 aaltambi, 8 onybadu, 9 aaréa, 9 nava, 9 hunti, 9 THE NUMERALS 10, 11, 20, AND 21 pattu, 10 gelea, 10 désa, 10 toorimi, 10 padiny-onYd¥u, 11 gel miad’, 11 éekaa-dasa, 11 turma hik, 11 iru-badu, 20 hisi, also mid’ hisi, 20 vimSati, 20 aalter, 20 irubatt-ond¥u, 21 mid’ hisi miad’, 21 BOTANY.—Genera of the plant viruses. Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. STEVENSON.) The number of virus entities known to infect plants is well over 200. In comparison with the thousands of bacteria and fungi, this number is very small, and some workers 1 Received January 18, 1944. 2 The author wishes to acknowledge the helpful advice given by John A. Stevenson, Sidney F. Blake, Charles Drechsler, and others and the as- sistance given by Charles Drechsler and Edith K. Cash in the choice and orthography of technical names. éeka-vimSati,21 aalter hik, 21 H. H. McKinney,? Bureau of Plant (Communicated by JouN A. have accordingly taken the view that there is no pressing need for a formal nomencla- ture and classification of the viruses at this time. Some take the view that classification should await the results of the chemists, whereas others think unnecessary confusion will prevail, even with so small a number as 200 entities, if such a policy is pursued. It is reasoned that a system can be evolved that will meet the requirements of the patholo- 140 gists even after the chemists may have devised a satisfactory system. A full account of the events leading up to James Johnson’s system for designating the plant viruses would require a discussion of many contributions in greater detail than seems necessary in the present paper. In- vestigators had been gathering evidence indicating that plants are attacked by many different viruses, but the most important stimulus probably came from the investi- gations of the so-called degeneration dis- eases of the potato, conducted by Schultz and Folsom in the United States and by Quanjer and others abroad. Schultz and Folsom’s paper (1923) was greeted with much skepticism, but when subsequent studies failed to alter their conclusion that many distinct viruses may attack a given plant species it became evident that more than cursory attention should be given to the problem of virus nomenclature and classification. James Johnson (1927) was the first to emphasize that definite steps should be taken to keep the plant viruses in order. In his scheme the major groups were erected on the basis of the hosts in which the viruses were discovered, and within each of these groups designation was by number. Quanjer (1931) gave a critical but con- structive analysis of some of the problems involved in classification, and although he concluded ‘‘that our present knowledge is insufficient for classification of plant vi- ruses,” he did divide the viruses of the potato into six categories based on the re- actions they induce in selected varieties of potato. These reactions included mosaic and five types of necrosis. Johnson and Hoggan (1935) proposed a classification based on the means of virus transmission and on the simple properties of the viruses. Later Johnson prepared his extensive lists of virus numbers in mimeo- graphed form. One of these lists (Jllustra- tions of proposed system of nomenclature of plant viruses) was prepared by Johnson (1935) as chairman of the International Committee on Descriptions and Nomen- clature of Plant Viruses, for use by that JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 5 committee in its deliberations at the Sixth International Botanical Congress in Am- sterdam, 1935. This congress adopted John- son’s proposal in principle, and the Inter- national Committee was empowered to continue its considerations and establish an acceptable system of virus nomenclature. Following this, Kenneth M. Smith in 1937 virtually adopted Johnson’s proposal with the exception that he used the Latin generic names rather than the common names of the host plants, and he altered some of Johnson’s numerical designations. In both proposals preference was given to the host in which the virus was first dis- covered, the several viruses assigned to a given host were differentiated by Arabic numerals, and strains were designated by letters of the alphabet. Smith made no attempt to classify within the host groups, but he did compile much valuable informa- tion on a large number of viruses and insect vectors. With these concrete proposals came a general interest in the problem. The slight differences in the approaches by Johnson and by Smith raised several important questions in the minds of virologists, and at the meetings held in Indianapolis (De- cember, 1937), the Council of the American Phytopathological Society appointed a committee to arrange for a discussion of the classification and nomenclature of the plant viruses at the Richmond meeting of the Society in December, 1938. At this meeting these problems were discussed from many angles, and the Society expressed its ap- preciation to the International Committee on Plant Viruses for the work it had done and recommended that said committee con- tinue its efforts to establish an acceptable system of virus nomenclature (Phytopath. 29: 388). The discussions at Richmond made it clear that opinion was divided with regard to the procedure to be followed in the naming and classifying of the viruses. It was clear that several investigators wished to explore the possibilities of tech- nical names and of making more use of plant reactions in virus classification. It was evident also that most investigators wished to publish without restraint. May 15, 1944 A system advanced by Holmes (1939) is particularly noteworthy in that it repre- sents the first comprehensive attempt to make use of induced plant reactions and other virus characteristics in the framing of Latin binomials and trinomials. Holmes erected a kingdom, one division, two classes, and 11 monogeneric families. One of these families in Class I embraces the bacterio- phages, whereas the 10 families in Class II embrace the virusesinfecting seed plants. No orders are provided in the scheme, and none of the genera is described. Most of thespecies are described, but someareset up onthe basis of varietal descriptions. Five of these varietal descriptions serve as types for genera. At the meetings of the Society held in Columbus (December, 1939), the council’s recommendation, “that the temporary com- mittee on virus nomenclature be made a standing committee,’ was confirmed and a committee was appointed. Later, how- ever, this committee was designated as a special committee. During 1940 the efforts ‘of the committee were directed largely towards the orientation of the views of its members. Owing to the international situa- tion it became apparent that there would be delay and uncertainty with respect to the efforts of the International Virus Com- mittee, and several American workers pub- lished proposals. Valleau (1940) classified a limited number of viruses infecting Nicotiana tabacum L. He set up a genus Musivuwm based on Holmes’s Marmor tabaci var. vulgare as the type species, and he designated this type Muswum tabaci. In addition, he set up three other genera to avoid some of the heterogeneity that is evident in Holmes’s genus Marmor and redefined the genus Annulus. However, he did not assign his genera to families, nor did he take a posi- tion with respect to the higher groups pro- posed by Holmes (1939). Valleau took the view that trinomials should not be applied to mutant strains, that there should be a “catch all’? genus for viruses about which little is known, and that most of the viruses in the genus Marmor should be placed in it. He suggested that Marmor might be re- tained as the ‘‘catch all’’ genus. MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 141 Soon after Valleau’s paper appeared, Fawcett (1940) proposed an ingenious plan. In his own words, “It is virtually a simpli- fied Smith’s system without the confusion of numbers and Holmes’ system without the generic difficulties.”’ Fawcett took the position that ‘‘we are not ready for genera in the ordinary concept.’’ He proposed that the stem ‘‘vir”’ be added to. the Latin geni- tive of the generic term of the host in which the virus was first discovered and recog- nized, dropping any final consonants that occur in this genitive. These names serve as virus genera and are identified as such by the suffix. Fawcett took the position that “‘these derived ‘genera pro tem’ should not be considered in the ordinary taxonomic sense.” The specific and varietal Latin epithets are formed in accord with the established rules of botanical procedure. By this system the peach-rosette virus be- comes Prunivir rosettae (Holmes) Fawcett. Thornberry (1941) proposed that all viruses, bacteriophages, and the Rickettsia be placed in one order (Biovirales) in ad- junct to the bacteria (class Schizomycetes, phylum Thallophyta of the Plant King- dom). He proposed that all viruses infecting the seed plants be assigned to a single genus Phytovirus in a family Phytoviraceae. Other families and genera were proposed for the viruses infecting zoological species, for the Rickettsia and for the bacteriophages. Specific epithets in Latin would be formed in accordance with the established botanical procedure. Although the Special Committee on Nomenclature and Classification of Plant Viruses was not given a specific assignment by the Society, it did proceed to study the problem with the idea of making certain recommendations. From the beginning the members seemed to be in full accord on the desirability of a formal system, and after studying the several proposals already on record a majority of the committee came to favor a Latin system of nomenclature (Bennett, et al., 1943). It was believed that a numerical system would lead to consider- able difficulty on account of the chances for duplicating numbers, because slight typo- graphical errors are more troublesome in 142 numbers than in names, and numbers would be more difficult to manage than names when it becomes necessary to clear up the many problems of synonymy that always arise in any field. It was fully recognized that naming and grouping by hosts is‘’a simple and almost fool-proof procedure and that Fawcett’s (1940) proposal represents a very satis- factory and commendable way of applying Latin binomials and grouping viruses by host affinities. However, after a free dis- cussion of the difficulties inherent in other methods of naming and grouping, a ma- jority of the committee took the view that an understanding of virus relationships may evolve more freely if such characteristics as host reactions and modes of transmission serve as the criteria for the genera. As the committee proceeded in its efforts to draft a proposal, it became evident that there are many details on which it is diffi- cult to obtain agreement at this stage and that many of these details can be decided only after individual workers have had an opportunity to record their views. GENERAL PROCEDURE In virus classification the species, genera, families, and higher categories may not be regarded in exactly the same way as they are in the classification of higher plants and animals, but there seems to be no apparent reason why they can not serve the same purpose. The lower categories (species, genus, and family) were conceived by the early philosophers, and they have been and still are used in many departments of knowledge for classifying not only objects but also ideas and languages in various in- formal ways. The genus has long been re- garded as a class more extensive than the species, and the family more extensive than the genus. It seems very clear that these terms denote relative levels in classification and that they may be employed in any branch of knowledge. Linnaeus and others (see Maton, 1805) made use of part or all of these categories in the classifications of minerals and also the human ailments. The Latin binomial system was also applied in these fields. Even today we have such JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 terms as herpes zoster, herpes circinatus, herpes labiales, and molluscum contagiosum to denote certain viruses in man. With the discovery of bacteria, fungi, and Protozoa as etiological agents in disease, it is natural that classification should shift to these ~ agents. However, there can be little doubt that Linnaeus’s approach to the problem of disease nomenclature and classification could have served adequately had these etiological agents not been discovered. In classifying the bacteria it has not been practicable to make use of morphological characteristics throughout; in fact many genera and species are determined by the reactions they induce on suitable substrates. In the fungi the differentiation of strains frequently depends on reactions induced in nutrient media or in suitable host plants, and some genera and many species have been erected on the grounds of preference for some host organ or for some host species. Bawden (1939) and others have em- _phasized the high degree of variability of the induced host reactions, and they have taken the view that these reactions are of little value for purposes of virus classifica- tion. This high degree of variability is a real problem, but this fact does not neces- sarily mean that nothing can be done toward reducing variability to a point where host reactions can serve as adequate criteria. The use of host reactions and/or modes of transmission as criteria for virus genera or other categories seems to be a very natural step, because host reactions have long served for the common names, and something is known about means of transmission in all plant viruses. Other virus characteristics have value also, but it appears that such criteria as host range, thermal-death-point, longevity in dry tissue and in vitro, reactions to ordinary chemicals, serological reactions, and interference or antagonism between viruses may be of greatest value in the differentiation of species and, in some cases, strains. With the advance of knowledge concerning the histo- logical, cytological, and physiological host reactions induced by viruses, these criteria should assume roles of increasing impor- tance. May 15, 1944 Johnson and Hoggan (1935) stressed the classification value of the several modes of transmission and the insect vectors, and they gave these criteria first consideration in their scheme. It is probably too early to generalize on the true value of these cri- teria, but it does appear that they should be given a thorough trial because certain correlations are suggested. Transmission by inoculation with expressed juice and/or by aphids is rather general among the viruses inducing mosaics, ringspots, and/or ne- crosis of parenchyma in annual hosts. Whereas, among the woody perennials, similar viruses can be transmitted experi- mentally for the most part, only through tissue unions or prolonged contact of tis- sues. It appears that transmission by the hoppers (leafhoppers and planthoppers) ob- tains in viruses that for the most part are not transmitted by other families of insects (Storey, 1939). Several compilers have indi- cated that certain viruses are transmitted by both hoppers and aphids, but all claims that have been noted have been checked by the present author in the original papers, and in each instance the claim lacks positive support. In the scheme here proposed the ten families of Holmes are consolidated into two, Marmoraceae and Rugaceae. All mosaic-inducing viruses and most of those inducing necrosis in parenchyma tissue fall in the Marmoraceae and all viruses charac- terized by their marked tendency to induce malformations but not mosaic mottling, all those inducing the yellows type of chlorosis, and nearly all those known to induce phloem necrosis fall in the Rugaceae. The genus Ruga is taken as the type for the second family in preference to the genus Chlorogenus, because induced malforma- tions seem to be commoner than chlorosis among the viruses that do not fall in Marmoraceae. The two families here pro- posed essentially provide the two major groups proposed by Bennett (1939). With very few exceptions the viruses transmitted by expressed juice fall in the Marmoraceae, and with the exception of certain grass-infecting viruses that induce mosaic and/or chlorotic streaking, the MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 143 hopper-transmitted viruses fall in the Rugaceae. Not all viruses transmitted by white flies are placed in the Rugaceae. The chlorotic reactions induced by the cassava- mosaic virus are typical mosaics according to the writer’s observations in West Africa (McKinney, 1929). Furthermore, several mosaic-inducing viruses not transmitted by white flies also tend to induce leaf mal- formations. At this stage, it seems advisable to place all viruses that induce mosaic mottling in the Marmoraceae. In the Marmoraceae the means of virus transmission serve as the generic criteria, whereas in the Rugaceae certain host re- actions and also the means of transmission serve to differentiate the genera. This pro- cedure is followed at the generic level be- cause it appears that the use of such cri- teria as thermal-death-point, interference, resistance to aging, and serological reactions would cause difficulties at the species and strain levels. Eighteen genera are described from the information in Holmes’s descrip- tions of the species and the varieties and from information gathered from other sources. Owing to the large volume of literature, however, many original papers are not cited, but reference is made to papers and compilations having extensive literature lists. Insect vectors with chewing mouth parts are disregarded in the scheme of classifica- tion. Vectors with sucking, lapping, or rasp- ing mouth parts, with a few exceptions noted later, are segregated on the basis of insect families. This method of segregation does increase the number of virus genera, but it appears to be one of the surest ways to obtain an objective evaluation of the criteria. In the genus Fractilinea transmission by the two families of hoppers (leafhoppers and planthoppers) is combined, and in the genus Savoia transmission by the two families of true bugs is combined. This is done for convenience. When it is considered that members of very closely related insect families are subject to taxonomic rearrange- ment, it is impracticable at this stage to place a true value on some of these families as criteria for erecting separate virus genera. 144 It is suspected, however, that some of these insect families may serve as criteria for new virus genera later. On the other hand, it is quite possible that some of the genera may be combined later—Ruga and Savoia, for example—as certain aphids and true bugs are known definitely to transmit the virus of potato spindle-tuber and also the virus of potato unmottled curly-dwarf in the genus Acrogenus. Transmission by inoculation with ex- pressed juice is rare among the viruses transmitted by hoppers. With the curly- top virus of beet and the yellow-dwarf virus of potato, juice transmission is difficult and dependent on special hosts. In the classifi- cation of these viruses emphasis is placed on the vectors. Viruses within a given host-reaction group that are transmitted by aphids and/or by expressed juice are placed to- gether, and those viruses with which known transmission is limited to tissue union (grafting, budding, dodder unions) or to prolonged contact of tissues without union, are segregated in each host-reaction group in which they occur. Viruses that have been transmitted only by tissue union or by pro- longed contact of tissues may be trans- ferred to appropriate genera, or new genera may be established as the vectors are dis- covered or as transmission by expressed juice is effected. The 6 genera erected for these viruses fulfill the purposes of a single temporary group that was suggested by Valleau (1940). Since it is likely that a large number of viruses would be assigned to a single such group, it seems more practicable to arrange for their classification in the several host-reaction categories, as is done in the proposed scheme, because it is en- tirely possible that transmission by inocu- lation with expressed juice may not be effected. Furthermore, the vectors may not be discovered for some of these viruses for many years. The superstructure of the scheme seems to be of relatively little importance at this time. However, the higher categories are arranged to permit the inclusion of the bacteriophages and the viruses infecting zoological species, as was planned in the scheme devised by Holmes (1939). In JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, NO. 5 Holmes’s scheme there are no orders, and Vira is given the rank of kingdom. Thorn- berry (1941) proposed that an order Bio- virales be set up in the class Schizomycetes to embrace the viruses and the bacterio- phages. It appears that there is some justi- fication for assigning the viruses to the Plant Kingdom, but it seems unnecessary and unwise to contemplate redefining the Thallophytes, Fungi, and Schizomycetes to — accommodate the proposed order Bio- virales. In the present scheme the viruses are regarded as exceedingly low forms of life. The study of virus mutants (Holmes, 1936; McKinney, 1937 and 1941) indicates that fixed strains behave essentially as simple genic systems, and, although mu- tation has not been demonstrated in all viruses, it appears clear that the phenome- non occurs in several that are known to be high-molecular-weight nucleoproteins (Jen- sen, 1933; McKinney, 1935; Price, 1934). Furthermore, the slight differences inter se manifested by some of the wheat-mosaic viruses (McKinney, 1937a), the sugarcane viruses (Summers, 1934), the curly-top vi- ruses (Giddings, 1938), and by several other viruses strongly suggest common ancestries within certain limited groups. Since the lowest forms of life are usually included with the plants, it is proposed that the viruses be accorded the rank of dzviszon in the Plant Kingdom, and that this divi- sion be designated Viriphyta. It is further proposed that the procedure in virus no- menclature be governed by the Inter- national Rules of Botanical Nomenclature (Briquet, 1935) in so far as seems prac- ticable. Subfamilial and tribal designations are purposely omitted in the present scheme. Although certain viruses manifest natural affinities, it is believed that the plant viruses, like the fungi and other lower forms, do not represent a natural group throughout. Because of the very small number of characters available at any given group level, some of the generic descriptions are very similar with respect to the host reactions. This weakness should gradually disappear with the advance of knowledge concerning the direct characters of the © viruses and the induced host reactions. Of May 15, 1944 the latter, it appears that the cytological and microchemical reactions should become of increasing objective importance as the studies of Bennett (1940), Esau (1935), Hutchins (1933), Kassinis and Sheffield (1941), McWhorter (1941), Rawlins and Thomas (1941), Simonds and _ Bodine (1943), and many others are extended to additional viruses and hosts. Because of the nature of viruses, the accumulation of many coordinating and contrasting cri- teria at the generic level will require time. DEFINITIONS The term virus is used just as the terms bacterium, fungus, or organism are used to indicate infectious entities. The term strain refers to any virus of intraspecific rank, regardless of its rank in the species. A species is regarded as a group of strains, actually or potentially. DETAILED METHODS OF PROCEDURE AND SUGGESTIONS The International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature (Briquet, 1935) serve as the basis of procedure in the present paper, except that descriptions are not in Latin and Articles 41,42, and 44 are not rigidly applied. Descriptions of varieties without de- scriptions of the species or of the genera (Holmes, 1939 and 1941) are without prece- dent and create difficulties. Also, a system comprised of families, all of which are mono- generic, is without precedent. Technically all these genera and all the binomials that are based only on varietal descriptions may be regarded as nomina nuda. However, it appears that the best interests of virus nomenclature will not be served by a rigid application of Articles 41, 42, and 44 at this time. Kight of Holmes’s (1939 and 1941) gener- ic names are retained and supported by de- scriptions based on. information obtained from. original sources and from Holmes’s handbooks. Four of these genera, Marmor, Lethum, Chlorogenus, and Acrogenus, were founded. on viruses that Holmes designated by trinomials. Although Holmes used the varietal epithets vulgaris and typicus, the procedure he followed in setting up his de- MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 145 scriptions is not in conformity with the con- cept of typzcus in relation to the specific de- scriptions (Ley, 1943; Croizat, 1943), and it is concluded that these four genera were founded on varieties and not on species. The writer’s descriptions of these four genera are for the present regarded as emendations, and authorities are so indicated. Valleau’s (1940) description of Musivum tabaci is regarded as the first valid publica- tion of the specific epithet tabaci, which as Marmor tabaci becomes a new combination and the type species of the genus Marmor in the present proposal. The descriptions of the type species Lethum australiense, Frac- tilinea mardis, Chlorogenus callistephi, and Acrogenus solani in this proposal are re- garded as first valid publications. In these four species, authority for the specific epi- thet and authority for the description of the epithet is divided, as provided in Article 48 of the International Rules, i.e., name of the author who supplied the description being appended to the citation with the connect- ing word ex. The following suggestions are offered: " 1. The type-species concept can be .ap- plied only in a limited way to the plant viruses. As there are but few of these causal agents that can be maintained indefinitely without great expense, the burden rests on suitable descriptions and photographic rec- ords. In this proposal, no genus has been retyped. Even though some of the type spe- cies are little known, it appears that the best interests of virus nomenclature will be served if these nomenclatural types are pre- served in accordance with Article 18. 2. The technical descriptions for pur- . poses of classification should be confined to those characteristics that seem essential to proper classification. Other sources should be relied upon for the complete information on most of the viruses. 3. In the binomial system, the specific and the generic descriptions are more im- portant than the descriptions of any of the higher categories, and even though a genus may be monotypic its characterizing fea- tures can and should be clearly set forth apart from the descriptions of the species, and the family. Each species should be des- ignated as a binomial and be described. 146 4. In those genera in which transmission by tissue union is the criterion, the species should be transferred to other genera as transmission by expressed juice is effected or as insect vectors are discovered. To avoid needless changes in nomenclature it is sug- gested that these generic names be retained even if the type species are transferred. 5. A given virus may induce a wide range of reactions in its several suscepts, there- fore, it is necessary to select the host or hosts that best characterize it. 6. The host reactions employed in the scheme are induced by viruses that are es- tablished in nature, and which may be re- garded essentially as wild types. The scheme is adequate for many mutants iso- lated in the laboratory, but with some of these that induce indefinite reactions, the generic allocations will be determined on the basis of other suitable criteria that indicate relationship to a wild type. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 7. Since so many viruses induce general dwarfing of the plant, this characteristic should be emphasized in classification only when the virus induces few other diagnostic reactions. . 8. The phenomenon of compatibility and incompatibility (interference, antagonism, cross protection) between viruses may be expressed in varying degrees, depending on the viruses that are being tested, on the host, and on the environment (McKinney, - 1941a). It seems unwise to assume that the phenomenon should serve as a single means for “proving” or “‘disproving” natural re- lationship between little-known viruses, but like any other character, when properly used, it may serve as a criterion for differ- entiating virus groups. Throughout botany and zoology there is ample evidence that the concept of relationship evolves from a knowledge of many characters at each of the levels in a particular scheme. GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES Kingdom PHYTA Division VIRIPHYTA Syn.: Kingdom Vira Holmes (1939). Causal agents of infectious diseases, ultra- microscopic in size, propagating only in as- sociation with living cells; in some cases capable of mutation and originating fixed strains that behave as simple genic systems and exceedingly low forms of life. Class PHYTOPHAGI 6 Syn.: Division Phytophagi Holmes (1939). Viruses pathogenic in plants. Order SPERMATOPHYTOPHAGALES Syn.: Class Spermatophytophagi Holmes (1939). Viruses pathogenic in the seed plants. Family 1. MarmMoracEAE Holmes emend. Annulaceae Holmes (1939); Lethaceae Holmes (1939); Rugaceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanaceae Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid pigments causing mosaic mottling, veinband- ing, discrete chlorotic spotting or streaking in the foliage; local necrotic spotting and/or systemic necrosis. Bud proliferation and mal- formations of the foliage are attendant re- actions in some instances, but these reactions do not typify the family. All mosaic-inducing viruses fall into this family. Transmission of many species by expressed juice and/or by aphids, a few species by leafhoppers, planthop- pers, or other insects, and many species by tis- sue union. Type genus, Marmor Holmes (1939) emend. KEY TO THE GENERA A. Transmission by expressed juice. 1. Insect vectors aphids or unknown......... blotter cae hals *s toiee Bate eke eae Genus 1. Marmor 2. Insect vectors thrips...... Genus 2. Lethum B. Transmission limited to insect vectors and/or to tissue union.’ 1. Transmission by aphids. ..Genus 3. Poecztle 2. Transmission by leafhoppers or planthoppers waeg oops ga tatin: pala: tke Genus 4. Fractilinea 3. Transmission by white flies.............. «Gok SHENAE ROR ane iat ee Genus 5. Ochrosticta 4. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors unknown.......... Genus 6. Flavimacula 3 Throughout the keys, transmission .by tissue union includes grafting, budding and dodder unions, and prolonged contact of cut tissues with- out organic union. May 15, 1944 Genus 1. Marmor Holmes emend. Marmor Holmes (1939), p.p.; Annulus Holmes (1939); Musivum Valleau (1940); Murialba Valleau (1940); Foliopellis Valleau (1940); Tractus Valleau (1940). Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid pigments and/or necrosis, especially in the parenchyma tissues, causing chlorotic mosaic mottling or spotting, oak-leaf patterns, ring spotting, local necrotic lesions, and sometimes systemic necrosis; malformations and/or bud proliferations sometimes accompanying the chlorotic reactions; sometimes disturbances in the glucoside pigments, especially in certain graminaceous hosts, causing purple and red colorations. Transmission by expressed juice in all members; insect vectors aphids (Aphididae) or unknown. Type species, Marmor tabaci. Marmor embraces most of the species in- ducing the typical mosaics and the ringspots, nearly all the species that can be studied out- side the plant, and all species known to be nucleoproteins. Most of the suscepts are herbaceous annuals. Marmor tabaci (Holmes ex Valleau), comb. nov. Tobacco virus 1 Johnson (1927); Nicotiana virus 1 Smith (1937); Marmor tabaci var. vulgare Holmes (1939); Musivum tabaci (Holmes ex Valleau) Valleau (1940). Common name.—Tobacco-mosaic virus. Host reactions—In Nicotiana tabacum L. var. Samsun (Turkish) and most other com- mercial varieties of tobacco, N. sylvestris Spegaz. and Comes, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. var. Bonny Best, and other commercial varieties of tomato, virus increase is very great and induces conspicuous light-green mosaic mottling at all the usual culture temperatures; in the tobaccos the reactions manifest acute and chronic types (McKinney and Clayton, 1943), especially under field culture when acute burning occurs in var. Maryland Medium Broadleaf and certain other varieties; virus content of leaves with acute chlorosis higher than in leaves with chronic mosaic. In N. glutunosa L. and N. rustica L., induces local necrotic lesions, systemic necrosis or mosaic mottling when cultured at 24°, 31°, or 37°C., respectively. In Plantago major L. secondary symptoms are feeble or null. In certain col- MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 147 lections of N. tabacum from Colombia (deriva- tives from Ambalema tobacco and T.I. 448 tobacco, McKinney, 1943), and in N. glauca R. Grah., virus increase is very low, inducing only occasional chlorotic spots or no visible reac- tions. Cucumis sativus L. is immune. This species has a very wide host range. Transmission.—Readily by inoculation with expressed juice in the suscepts listed, by the following aphids (Aphididae): Macrosiphum get Koch, Myzus pseudosolani Theob., and M. ctr- cumflecus (Buckt.), after feeding on infected Lycopersicon esculentum; by tissue union (graft- ing and dodder). Mutation.—All field collections of the species (wild types) are very similar but not identical in all hosts; all collections that have been studied have given rise to aberrant types. Interference or antagonism (protection) has occurred in all tests thus far in which wild types were in combination with their known mutants, and the wild types have always dominated and supplanted the mutants in the new tissues. Combinations of these mutants, also combina- tions of Marmor tabaci and certain other virus species, have shown that interference is de- finitely a quantitative phenomenon that is in- fluenced by the viruses in combination, by the host and by the external environment (Mc- Kinney, 1941a). Physical and chemical properties —The type virus and the strongly invasive strains tested thus far are inactivated at 88° to 938° C. in 10 minutes in plant juices; activity not lost com- pletely after storage for many years in dry tis- sue or plant extract at room temperature; dilution end-point in fresh plant extract from mosaic tobacco 1,000,000 x or beyond; ultimate particle (micelle or molecule) rod shaped with a minimal diameter of particles about 11.5my; paracrystals at py 4.5, length 3.2 to 4.2n, width 0.4 to 0.5u; high molecular-weight nu- cleoproteins; possessing antigenetic properties that distinguish it from other virus species, and that serve to distinguish between some but not all its strains. Distribution—World wide with tobacco culture. Type virus.—James Johnson, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Rockefeller Insti- tute for Medical Research, Department of Animal and Plant Pathology, Princeton, N. J.; 148 H. H. McKinney, U. S. Bureau of Plant In- dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Beltsville, Md. Genus 2. Lethum Holmes emend. Viruses inducing disturbances causing bronz- ing, chlorotic and necrotic spotting, and ring- spotting in foliage; in some hosts typical mosaic mottling; severe necrosis and death in certain hosts; distortion and curling of leaves some- times as attendant reactions. Transmission by expressed juice; all species transmitted by thrips (Thripidae). Type species, Lethum australtense. Lethum australiense Holmes? Tomato virus 1 Johnson (1935); Lycopersi- con virus 3 Smith (1937); Lethum australiense var. typicum Holmes (19389). Common name.—Tomato spotted-wilt virus. Host reactions.—In Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. var. Bonny Best and other commercial varieties of tomato, induces a bronze coloration necrosis, and sometimes mottling; bronzing in- volving entire surface of leaflet or occurring as rings, which become necrotic; necrosis first involving the upper epidermal cells, then the spongy parenchyma; systemic necrosis some- times killing plants when infected as seedlings; pale red, yellow, or white blotching on ripe fruit, sometimes involving most of surface. In Nicotiana tabacum L. var Samsun (Turkish), and var. White Burley, induces local necrotic lesions or plaques on the inoculated -(wiped) leaves; necrosis sometimes systemic and fatal to the plant or to all leaves except those in the growing tip; sometimes systemic mottling. In Petunia sp. (garden varieties) local reddish- brown lesions with pale centers; rarely systemic. In Nicotiana glutinosa L. local necrotic lesions that become larger than those induced by Marmor tabaci; systemic necrosis and death of plant in some cases. In Datura stramonium L. concentric-ring spotting, necrotic oak-leaf pat- terns; typical mosaic mottling, especially dur- ing summer season. In Pisum sativum L. (garden varieties) systemic necrotic streaks in stem and veins of leaflets; sometimes local necrotic spots on wiped leaflets; necrosis in- volving parenchyma tissue and phloem; some- times a mottled pattern on leaves infected 4 For citation of authority see p. 145, col. 2, par. 1. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 5 when young. In Ananas sativus L. induces the yellow-spot disease (Hawaii); in Nicotiana tabacum the ‘‘vira-cabeca”’ (Brazil); in N. taba- cum and Lycopersicon esculentum the “krom- neck”’ disease (So. Africa); in N. tabacum the “corcova”’ disease (Argentina), and in L. escu- lentum the tip-blight disease (Oregon and W. Virginia)—the causal agents, if not identical with Lethuwm australiense, appear to be strains. Collections of this virus or its strains that have been observed in tobacco by the author, in- duced reactions that were strikingly similar to those induced by the tobacco ringspot virus. L. australiense has a very wide host range. Transmission.—By inoculation with ex- pressed juice wiped on leaves dusted with fine carborundum dust, grain 600 or equal; by the following thrips (Thripidae): Thrips tabaci Lind., Frankliniella paucispinosa Moult., F. moultont Hood, F. lycopersict Andr., and F. occidentalis Perg. Physical and chemical properties.—Inacti- vated at temperatures near 42° C. in 10 minutes in plant juices; in a few hours at room tempera- tures in plant juices or in drying itssue. Dilu- tion end-point between 10,000 and 100,000 x. Passes Gradocol membrane with pore diameter of 450 mu. Distribution.— Australasia, United States, Great Britain, probably Hawaii, South Africa, and South America. Genus 3. Poecile, gen. nov. Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid pigments causing mosaics, marginal yellowing, of yellow patching in foliage; in some cases bud proliferation and leaf malformations are at- tendant reactions. Transmission by expressed juice not typical, null or exceedingly difficult; all species transmitted by aphids (Aphididae). Name from Latin meaning variegation (fem.). Type species, Poecile rubt. Poecile rubi (Holmes), comb. nov. Raspberry virus 2 Johnson (1935); Rubus virus 1 Smith (1937); Marmor rubi Holmes (1939). Common name.—Raspberry-mosaic virus. Genus 4. Fractilinea, gen. nov. Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid May 15, 1944 pigments causing pale green to yellow or almost white opaque or translucent streaks (con- tinuous or broken), spotting or speckling; bud proliferation (rosetting) and marked general dwarfing in some cases. Transmission by ex- pressed juice not typical, null or exceedingly difficult; all species transmitted by leafhoppers or planthoppers (Cicadellidae or Fulgoridae). Name from two Latin words signifying inter- rupted and line (fem.), referring to the broken chlorotic lines and streaks induced in the leaves. Type species, Marmor maidis. Fractilinea maidis (Holmes),*° comb. nov. Corn virus 2 Johnson (1935); Zea virus 2 Smith (1937); Marmor maidis var. typicum Holmes (1939). Common name.—Maize (corn)-streak virus. Host reactions.—In Zea mays L. and Sac- charum officinarum L. var. Uba. induces light- green spots, broken and continuous chlorotic streaks. On the latter host the reactions are milder and the virus does not persist in the new foliage. Transmission.—By the following leafhoppers (Cicadellidae): Cicadulina (Balclutha) mbila (Naudé), C. storeyz China, and C. zeae China; not by inoculation with expressed juice. Cicadu- lina mbila is heterozygous for the virus-trans- mission character, and this character is sex linked. No morphological characters have been found that distinguish the race that transmits from the one that cannot transmit virus. Pre- sumably the difference is in the permeability of the intestinal wall. Mutation—Not demonstrated. Marmor maidis var. sacchari Holmes (1939) and M. maidis var. mite Holmes (1939) are similar to Fractilinea maidis, but it is largely a matter of opinion as to their rank. They may represent strains of F. maidis or they may be closely related species. Physical properties.—Virus passes a Cham- berland L; filter but is retained by the Seitz K. K. filter disk when the pq is near 6. Distribution —Africa. Genus 5. Ochrosticta, gen. nov. Ruga Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing mosaic mottling. Leaf de- formations and bud proliferations sometimes attendant reactions, but these do not charac- 5 See footnote 4. MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 149 terize the genus. Transmission by. expressed juice null; all species transmitted by white flies (Aleyrodidae). Name from two Greek words meaning yellow and dapple (fem.), re- ferring to the chlorotic mottling reaction. Type species, Ochrosticta bemisiae. Ochrosticta bemisiae (Holmes), comb. nov. Manihot virus 1 Smith (1937); Ruga bemisiae Holmes (1939). Common name.—Cassava-mosaic virus. Genus 6. Flavimacula, gen. nov. Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid pigments causing chlorotic and/or necrotic spotting and sometimes mosaics with attendant rosetting of leaves; a few species inducing dis- turbances of the glucoside pigments, but no striking bud proliferation; malformations such as leaf curling, etc., sometimes are attendant reactions. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union; insect vectors not known. Name from two Latin words meaning yellow and spot or smear (fem.), referring to the chlorotic spotting or mottling reaction. Type species, Flavimacula persicae. Flavimacula persicae (Holmes), comb. nov. Peach virus 6 Johnson (1935); Prunus virus 5 Smith (19387); Marmor persicae Holmes (1939). | Common name.—Peach-mosaic virus. Many members of this genus have rosaceous hosts, relatively few typical mosaic patterns are induced and little is known concerning properties other than host reactions and the mode of transmission. Family 2. RucacEkaE Holmes emend. Nanaceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; Coriaceae Holmes (1939); Savoiaceae Holmes (19389); Marmoraceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; Chloro- genaceae Holmes (1939); Acrogenaceae Holmes (1939) and Gallaceae Holmes (1939). Viruses inducing cellular disturbances caus- ing various malformations such as bud pro- liferation (rosetting or brooming), thickening of tissues, enation, leaf curl, galls, cortical lesions (cankers), vascular proliferation and/or dwarf- ing. Phloem necrosis induced by some members 150 (necrosis sometimes extending well into the parenchyma). Many members not inducing striking attendant disturbances of the plastid or glucoside pigments; pigment disturbances when evident usually involving entire leaves or diffuse patches causing the yellows type of chlorosis, and not mosaic; some species tending to induce intensification of green coloration. Transmission frequently limited to tissue union and/or to insect vectors; few species trans- mitted by inoculation with expressed juice. Type genus, Ruga Holmes (1939) emend. KEY TO THE GENERA A. Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing brooming or rosetting; sometimes dwarfing reactions. 1. Viruses inducing pigment disturbances in foliage a. Transmission by leafhoppers........... Hat OR SE Genus 1. Chlorogenus b. Transmission by tissue union, insect vec- tors not known.Genus 2. Chlorophthora 2. Induced pigment reactions null, inconspicu- ous or inconstant. a. Transmission by aphids................ See Genus 3. Blastogenus b. Transmission by tissue union, insect vec- tors not known....Genus 4. Polycladus B. Viruses inducing chiefly malformations of foliage as curling, crumpling, rolling, per- foration, laceration, enations, galls, dwarf- ing; maldevelopment and/or malformation of fruit; general dwarfing of plant usually an attendant reaction. Virus-induced pro- liferation null or inconstant; general chlorosis and/or accentuation of glucoside pigments induced by a few members, but not a characteristic of the group. . Transmission by aphids...Genus 5. Corium . Transmission by true bugs. Genus 6. Savoia . Transmission by leafhoppers or planthoppers Ma) Pree came tenogs Stee vege Gee Genus 7. Galla . Transmission by white flies.. Genus 8. Ruga . Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors NOt KHOWM. ecleae Genus 9. Carpophthora C. Viruses characterized by their reactions in and near cortex of the trunk and branches; reactions in other parts null or of low diagnostic value. 1. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors not known........ Genus 10. Rimocoriius D. Viruses inducing general dwarfing of host or its parts; green coloration of foliage fre- quently intensified; other reactions null or of low diagnostic value. 1. Transmission by expressed juice, vectors aphids and/or true bugs or not known LEE EE cheba Ma oth AIRE c Genus 11. Acrogenus 2. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors not known........... Genus 12. Minuor SSIES re SS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 Genus 1. Chlorogenus Holmes emend. Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing brooming or rosetting of shoots or leaves; malformation and dwarfing of leaves; pigment disturbances causing general yellowing or dif- fuse yellowish patching of foliage; disturbances of glucoside pigments sometimes causing red- dening and purpling of foliage. No typical mosaic mottling. Transmission by expressed juice null or too difficult for purposes of classifi- cation; all species transmitted by leafhoppers (Cicadellidae). Type species, Chlorogenus cal- listephi. Chlorogenus callistephi Holmes® Callistephus virus 1 Smith (1937); Chloro- genus callistephi var. vulgaris Holmes (1989). Common name.—Aster-yellows virus. Host reactions —In Callistephus chinensis Nees. stimulates lateral bud and side-shoot development; shoots slender, wiry and upright, tending to have long internodes; shortening of main-stem internodes; leaves narrow, deformed and upright; induces general chlorosis, es- pecially in young tissues (leaves, petioles, stem, and branches); sectorial chlorosis occurring in some leaves, but never mosaic mottling; floral straps becoming virescent, and their trichomes frequently developing into leaflike structures; mild necrosis usually appearing just below apex of the stem, flowers usually sterile. The stimu- lation of buds with the development of side shoots is somewhat more constant than the chlorotic reaction among the many susceptible host species. Transmission.—By the leafhopper (Cicadel- lidae) Macrosteles divisus (Uhl.); by grafting; not by inoculation with expressed juice. Physical properties.—Inactivated in the in- sect vector in 12 days at 31° C. Distribution.— United States; Canada, Ber- muda, Hungary, and Japan. Genus 2. Chlorophthora, gen. nov. Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing brooming of twigs or rosetting of leaves, chlorosis or bronzing, malformation and dwarf- ing of foliage, malformation and sometimes in- 6 See footnote 4. May 15, 1944 tensification of color in fruit. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union; insect vectors not known. Name from two Greek words meaning green and destruction (fem.) re- ferring to the destruction of chlorophyll in- duced in the foliage. Type species, Chloroph- thora solani. Chlorophthora solani (Holmes), comb. nov. ~ Potato virus 11 Johnson (1935); Solanum virus 15 Smith (1937); Chlorogenus solani Holmes (1939). Common name.—Potato virus. witches’-broom Genus 3. Blastogenus, gen. nov. Nanus Holmes (1939), p.p. Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing brooming or rosetting of twigs or leaves with- out striking chlorosis. Transmission by ex- pressed juice null or too difficult for purposes of classification; all species transmitted by aphids (Aphididae). Name from two Greek words signifying bud and producing (masc.), referring to the large number of buds activated. Type species, Blastogenus fragariae. Blastogenus fragariae (Holmes), comb. nov. Strawberry virus 2 Johnson (1935); Fragaria virus 3 Smith (1937); Nanus fragariae Holmes (1939). Common name.—Strawberry witches-broom virus. Genus 4. Polycladus, gen. nov. Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p.; Galla Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing bud proliferations causing brooming or rosetting of twigs, leaves or floral parts; no striking chlorosis; malforma- tions and/or dwarfing of leaves. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union; insect vectors not known. Name from two Greek words signifying many shoots or branches (masc.), referring to the excessive number of shoots induced. Type species, Polycladus robi- niae Holmes (1939). Polycladus robiniae (Holmes), comb. nov. Robinia virus 1 Smith (1937); Chlorogenus robiniae Holmes (1939). Common name.—Locust witches’-broom virus. MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 151 Genus 5. Corium Holmes (1939) Corium Holmes (1939); Nanus Holmes p.p. (1939). Viruses inducing foliar malformations as rolling, puckering, wrinkling, dwarfing etc.; some species inducing mild general chlorosis in the leaves; no consistently striking bud pro- liferation. Transmission by expressed juice null or too difficult for purposes of classification; all species transmitted by aphids (Aphididae). Type species, Coriwm solani. Corium solani Holmes (1939) Potato virus 1 Johnson (1935), Solanum virus 14 Smith (1937). Common name.—Potato leaf-roll virus. Genus 6. Savoia Holmes (1939) Viruses inducing foliar malformations as wrinkling, twisting, curling, dwarfing, etc.; phloem necrosis in roots and premature death of host in some-cases; chlorosis when evident is diffuse, not typical mosaic. Transmission by expressed juice in some cases, but with diffi- culty; all species transmitted by true bugs (Tingitidae or Miridae). Type species, Savoia betae. Savoia betae Holmes (1939) Sugar-beet virus 3 Johnson (1935); Beta virus 3 Smith (1937). Common name.—Beet leaf-curl virus. Genus 7. Galla Holmes (1939) Marmor Holmes (1939), p.p.; Chlorogenus Holmes (1939), p.p.; Galla Holmes (1939), p.p. Viruses inducing malformations of foliage as curling, rolling, cupping, crumpling, galls; de- generation or necrosis of the phloem sometimes extending well into the parenchyma tissues; chlorosis (not mosaic mottling) and/or bud proliferation in some hosts but chlorosis and proliferation do not characterize the genus. Transmission by expressed juice null or too difficult for purposes of classification; all species transmitted by planthoppers (Fulgoridae) or by leafhoppers (Cicadellidae). Type species Galla fijiensis. Galla fijiensis Holmes (1939) Sugar-cane virus 2 Johnson (1935); Sac- charum virus 2 Smith (1937). Common name.—Sugarcane Fiji-disease virus. 152 Genus 8. Ruga Holmes (1939) Ruga Holmes (1939), p.p. Viruses inducing foliar malformations as roll- ing, puckering, wrinkling, dwarfing, etc.; thickening of veins; mild chlorosis (not mosaic mottling) in some cases but this reaction is too inconstant for purposes of classification. Trans- mission by expressed juice null or too difficult for use in classification; all species transmitted by white flies (Aleyrodidae). Type species Ruga tabact. Ruga tabaci Holmes (1939) Tobacco virus 16 Johnson (1935); Nicotiana virus 10 Smith (1937). Common name.—Tobacco leaf-curl virus. Genus 9. Carpophthora, gen. nov. Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. Viruses inducing foliar malformations as twisting, enations, warts, rolling, folding, puckering, tattering, perforation; early drop of leaves and fruit in some hosts; maldevelopment and malformations in fruit in some cases with- out reactions in foliage; some members in- ducing yellowing and reddening or purpling of foliage, bark cankers, phloem necrosis, twig die-back and sometimes death of tree; bud proliferation null or not a striking characteris- tic, and not typifying the genus. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union; insect vectors not known. Name from two Greek words signifying fruit and ruin or destruction (fem.). Type species, Carpophthora lacerans. Carpophthora lacerans (Holmes), comb. nov. Marmor lacerans Holmes (1939). Common name.—Peach X or yellow-red- disease virus (Hildebrand et al. 1942). If this virus, sweet-cherry buckskin-disease virus (Rawlins and Thomas, 1941), and peach- leaf-casting-yellows virus (Thomas, Rawlins, and Parker, 1940) are identical, consideration should be given to the common name “‘buck- skin disease,’’ which antedates the other names. (See the literature lists in Hildebrand et al., 1942.) Genus 10. Rimocortius Milbrath and Zeller (1942) Viruses inducing reactions chiefly in the cortical region of woody stems and branches JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 causing swelling, scaling, cracking, checking, splitting, cankering, and/or gumming; splitting and crosscracking of the midribs of leaves, caus- ing leaf curling in some instances. Chlorosis absent or not striking, sometimes vein clearing or stippling, but not typical mosaic mottling. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union or possibly to prolonged contact of tissue without organic union; insect vectors not known. Type species, Rimocortius kwanzani. Rimocortius kwanzani Milbrath and Zeller (1942) Common name.—Flowering-cherry bark virus. Host reactions —In Prunus serrulata Lindl. var. Kwanzan, induces longitudinal and trans- verse splitting, and deep brown coloration of the bark; shortening of stem internodes and clustering of leaves; downward arching or eurl- ing of leaves, with frequent longitudinal and transverse cracking of the underside of the midribs; general dwarfing of the tree and re- duced number of lateral branches. No definite chlorotic reactions in foliage. Wild P. avium L. (Mazzard) is a symptomless carrier of the virus. Other varieties of P. serrulata apparently are immune. Transmission —By budding and grafting; . organic union need not be sufficient for bud development (possibly a prolonged contact of tissues without organic union is sufficient to effect transmission). No insect vectors have been found. Distribution.—Oregon. rough- Genus 11. Acrogenus Holmes emend. Viruses inducing a general dwarfing of plants and/or foliage; chlorosis; rolling and wrinkling of foliage null or slight, intensification of green coloration of foliage a common reaction. Trans- mission by expressed juice in all species; insect vectors aphids (Aphididae) and/or true bugs — or not known. Type species, Acrogenus solant. Acrogenus solani Holmes’ Potato virus 8 Johnson (1935); Solanum virus 12 Smith (1937); Acrogenus solani var. vulgaris Holmes (1939). Common name.—Potato spindle-tuber virus. Host reactions —In Solanum tuberosum L., induces delayed emergence; stiff, spindly, erect 7 See footnote 4. May 15, 1944 stems; small, erect, dark-green leaves with slender brittle petioles; twisted terminal leaves; elongated, cylindrical, tapered tubers with ir- regular contour, smooth tender skin and promi- nent eyes, flesh of tubers brittle at harvest, but softer than normal after storage. : Transmission.—By inoculation with ex- pressed juice, by aphids (Aphididae), Myzus persicae (Sulz.) and Macrosiphum get Koch; tarnished plant bug (Miridae), Lygus pratensis L., also by certain chewing insects, grass- hoppers (Locustidae), Melanoplus spp.; flea beetles (Chrysomelidae), Epitrix cucumeris Harris and Sysiena taeniata (Say); leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), Disonycha triangularis (Say), and Colorado potato-beetle larvae (Chryso- melidae) Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. Geographic distribution —United States and Canada. Genus 12. Minuor Zeller and Braun (1943) Nanus Holmes p.p. Viruses inducing general dwarfing or stunting of the plant as a whole or its parts; some species inducing intensification of green coloration of the foliage. Malformation and chlorosis absent or of littke diagnostic value. Experimental transmission limited to tissue union; insect vectors not known. Type species: Minuor ruborum. Minuor ruborum Zeller and Braun (1943) Common name.—Raspberry decline-disease virus. Host reactions —In Rubus idaeus L. var. Cuthbert, when infection occurs late in the season, virus retards growth of new shoots and intensifies their reddish color the following spring. In the field the leaves on these canes show no symptoms until growth slows down in the autumn, when they roll downward and be- come fluted along the veins; leaves toward the cane tips show very slight chlorosis between the veins and a slight bronzing along the mar- gins and crests between the veins; the cane internodes toward the tip are shortened. In greenhouse culture the downward rolling of the leaves is evident throughout the growing season. In the field, infected canes are small and weakened as evidenced by winter killing or failure of lateral buds; the feeder rootlets be- MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 153 come reduced and the whole plant deteriorates progressively until death, which occurs at a maximum of about 3 years after infection. The berries are globose and the druplets separate readily, rendering the fruit worthless. Infection spreads from a diseased-plant center causing spotted areas that may be over 200 feet in diameter. Other varieties of R. idaeus and other species of Rubus have shown reactions resem- bling those induced by the decline-disease virus in the Cuthbert variety. All attempts to isolate and culture a parasite have failed. Transmission.—By grafting; insect vectors not known. Distribution.— Willamette Valley, Oreg.; pos- sibly British Columbia. LITERATURE CITED BawpeENn, F. C. Plant viruses and virus dis- eases: 272 pp., 37 figs. Leiden, 1939. BENNETT, C. W. The nomenclature of plant viruses. Phytopath. 29: 422-430. 1939. . The relation of viruses to plant tissues. Bot. Rev. 6: 427-473. 1940. ——eetal. Report of the committee on nomen- clature and classification of plant viruses. Phytopath. 33: 424. 1948. BrIQuET, JoHN. International rules of botana- cal nomenclature. Jena, 1935. CroizaT, Lron. The trinomial typicus?—l. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 70: 310. 1948. Esau, KatTuerine. Initial localization and subsequent spread of curly-top symptoms in the sugar beet. Hilgardia 9: 397-436. 1935. Fawcett, Howarp S. Suggestions on plant virus nomenclature as exemplified by names for citrus viruses. Science 92: 559-561. 1940. Gippines, N. J. Studies of selected strains of curly-top virus. Journ. Agr. Res. 56: 883— 894. 1938. HILDEBRAND, E. M., Berxnuey, G. H., and Cation, D. Handbook of virus diseases of stone fruits in North America: 76 pp. Michigan Agr. Exp. Stat. 1942. Hoimes, Francis O. Comparison of derwa- tives from distinctive strains of tobacco- mosaic virus. Phytopath. 26: 896-904. 1936. . Handbook of phytopathogenic viruses: 221 pp. Minneapolis, 1939. . Handbook of phytopathogenic viruses. (Second printing with minor revisions.) Minneapolis, 1941. Hurcuins, L. M. Identification and control of the phony disease of the peach. Georgia State Ent. Bull. 78. 1933. JENSEN, JAMES H. Isolation of yellow-mosaic, viruses from plants infected with tobacco mosaic. Phytopath. 23: 964-974. 1933. ; 154 JOHNSON, JAMES. The classification of plant viruses. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Stat. Res. Bull. 76: 16 pp., illus. 1927. and Hoaean, Isme A. A descriptive key for plant viruses. Phytopath. 25: 328- 343. 1935. . Illustration of proposed system of nomen- clature for plant viruses. Mimeographed. Not dated, but presented at the Sixth International Bot. Congr. Amsterdam, 1935. Kassanis, B., and SHEFFIELD, F. M.L. Vari- ations in the cytoplasmic inclusions induced by three strains of tobacco mosaic virus. Ann. Applied Biol. 28: 360-367. 1941. Ley, ARLINE. A taxonomic revision of the genus Holodiscus (Rosaceae). Bull. Tor- rey Bot. Club 70: 275-288. 1943. McKinney, H. H. Mosaic diseases in the Canary Islands, West Africa, and Gibraltar. Journ. Agr. Res. 39: 557-578. 1929. . Evidence of virus mutation in the com- mon mosaic of tobacco. Journ. Agr. Res. 51: 951-981. 1935. . Virus mutation and the gene concept. Journ. Hered. 28: 51-57. 1937 . Mosaic diseases of wheat and related cereals. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 442: 22 pp. illus. 1937a. . Virus genes. Proc. 7th International Genetical Congr. (1939): 200-203. Cam- bridge, England, 1941. . Virus antagonism tests and their lumita- tions for establishing relationship between mutants, and nonrelationship between dis- tinct viruses. Amer. Journ. Bot. 28: 770- 778. 1941a. . Studies on genotypes of tobacco resistant ig, the common-mosaic virus. Phytopath. : 300-313. 1948. higod CuayTon, E. E. Acute and chronic symptoms in tobacco mosaics. Phytopath. 33: 1045-1054. 19438. McWuorter, Frank P. Plant-virus differen- tiation by trypan-blue reactions within in- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 5 fected tissue. 149. 1941. Maton, WILLIAM GEorGE. A general view of the writings of Linnaeus. London, 1805. Miusratu, J. A., and ZELLER, S. M. Rough bark, a virus disease of the flowering cherry. Phytopath. 32: 428-430. 1942. Price, W. C. Isolation and study of some yellow strains of cucumber mosaic. Phyto- path. 24: 748-761. 1934. QuanuyER, H. M. The methods of classification of plant viruses, and an attempt to classify and name the potato viruses. Phytopath. 21: 577-613. 1981. Rawuins, T. E., and THomas, H. Earu. The buckskin disease of cherry and other stone fruits. Phytopath. 31: 916-925. 1941. ScHULTZ, E.S.,and Fotsom, DonaLp. Trans- — mission, variation, and control of certain degeneration diseases of Irish potatoes. Journ. Agr. Res. 25: 43-117. 1928. Simonps, Austin O., and Bopinz, E. W. A macrochemical reaction for the detection of peach mosaic. Science97: 587-588. 1943. SmiTH, Kennetu M.A text book of plant virus ee) 615 pp., 101 figs. Philadelphia, 1937. Storgy, H. H. Transmission of plant viruses by insects. Bot. Rev. 5: 240-272. 1939. SumMMERS, Eaton M. Types of mosaic on sugar cane in Lousiana. Phytopath. 24: 1040- 1042, illus. 1984. Tuomas, H. Earu, Rawuins, T. E., and Parker, K. G. A transmissible leaf-cast- ung yellows of peach. Phytopath. 30: 322- 328. 1940. THORNBERRY, H. H. A proposed system of virus nomenclature and _ classification. Phytopath. 31: 23 (abstr.). 1941. VALLEAU, W. D. Classification and nomen- clature of tobacco viruses. Phytopath. 30: 820-830. 1940. ZELLER, 8. M., and Braun, A. J. Decline dis- ease of raspberry. Phytopath. 33: 156- 161. 1948. Stain Technology 16: 143- ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on a small collection of reptiles and amphibians from Tabasco, México... Hopart M. SmItu. Walter A. Weber, of the U. 8. National Museum, naturalist to the Fifth National Geographic Society—Smithsonian Institu- tion Expedition to southern México, under the leadership of Matthew W. Stirling, col- lected a small series of reptiles and amphib- lans near the base camp at La Venta, 1 Received January 11, 1944. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) Tabasco. The material, now a part of the collections of the U. 8. National Museum, was obtained in March and April, 1948. It was made available to me for study through the courtesy of Dr. Alexander Wetmore. It contains 12 specimens of nine species, five of which have not previously been recorded from the state of Tabasco, while one has not been collected for more than 50 years May 15, 1944 and is among the great rarities of the Mexican herpetofauna. La Venta is a heavily forested island about 4 miles across by 14 miles wide lo- cated in the coastal swamps near the mouth of the Tonalé River, in the angle formed by the junction of that stream with the Rio Blasillo. This point is about 15 miles inland to the southeast of the town of Tonala on the Gulf coast. Eleutherodactylus rhodopis (Cope) A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117556) was obtained on April 7. It is half grown and measures 25.3 mm from snout to vent. The markings and pattern of ridges are typical of the Atlantic coast specimens of the species. This species has not previously been re- corded from the state of Tabasco, although its existence there has been indicated by records from adjacent areas. Agalychnis callidryas (Cope) Two specimens (U.S.N.M. 117557-117558) were collected on March 24. They are imma- ture, measuring 24 mm from snout to vent. The diagonal lateral cream lines are clearly evident in each. One is bright purple above, while the other has a strong gray suffusion nearly obliterating the purple color. There are no records of this species in the literature for the state of Tabasco. Anolis bourgaei Bocourt A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117348) is re- ferred to this species, following the nomen- clature proposed by Schmidt (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser., 22: 491. 1941). It is a subadult male, with lateral light stripes. The species has not previously been recorded from Tabasco. Laemanctus deborrei Boulenger One of the most valuable items secured is a specimen (U.S.N.M. 117349), collected on April 12, that proves to be the second known from México (the type is from “‘Tabasco’’) and perhaps the only one of the species in any American museum. It is a fine adult female carrying five eggs that average 26 by 15 mm in size. The snout-vent length is 120 mm, the SMITH: REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM TABASCO 155 tail 458 mm, the snout-occiput length (meas- ured along the flat dorsal surface of the head) 41 mm. The scales on the snout are not, or scarcely, larger than those in the occipital region; no prominently projecting scales on posterior edge of occiput; dorsal head scales strongly rugose, lateral head scales weakly rugose; about six canthals, the anterior in contact with first supralabial; one prenasal between first canthal and nasal; latter in contact with canthal series above and with supralabials (second and third) below; numerous loreal scales, a maximum of four in a vertical row from loreals to supra- labials; five or six small suboculars, three or four in contact with supralabials; lores sloping inward slightly, as viewed from above; 11-12 supralabials; 11-11 infralabials; mental half as wide as rostral; gular scales weakly polycari- nate, 21 in a row from mental to gular fold. Scales around middle of body 48; nape scales (sides and back) smooth; middorsal scales rather strongly keeled, especially just back of nape; paravertebral scales feebly polycarinate, becoming smooth in dorsolateral region; lateral scales feebly uni-, bi-, or tricarinate; belly scales rather strongly unicarinate. Dorsal scales on forelimb bi- or tricarinate, those on hindlimb (except foot) unicarinate; ventral limb scales unicarinate. Tail scales unicarinate, feebly above, strongly below. One of the most curious features in the scutellation of the spe- cies is the absence of keels on the subdigital lamellae—a character common to practically all iguanids. In their stead is a very curious, swollen, yellow or dark-brown knob in the middle of each lamella at its distal (free) edge. I know of no similar feature in other genera of iguanids, although it may occur in the related Corythophanes. The coloration in life may well be much different from that seen in preserved specimens. Where the scales have been lost, the color is of various shades of purple; nine rather poorly defined, subrectangular, dark yellow spots about four scale rows wide form a vertebral series on the body, continuing dimly on the tail; the rest of the dorsal surfaces are of a dark wine color, the ventral surface a curious, strik- ing, bright yellowish purple. The head is yel- lowish brown above and on the sides has scattered, purplish, greenish and yellowish 156 areas blending into one another. The posterior edges of the occipital shelf are black. Ameiva undulata stuarti Smith A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117350) is apparently typical of this subspecies. The median gulars are in a single row, the largest larger than any mesoptychial or preanal; the preanals are in two rows; the femoral pores are 21-21, and the subdigital lamellae of the fourth toe are 30-32. Apparently there is no previous record of the occurrence of this widely distributed spe- cies in Tabasco. Ninia sebae sebae (Duméril and Bibron) Three specimens (U.S.N.M. 117352-117354) were collected April 3 to 7. Respectively these have 1388(%), 183( 9), 1384(@) ventrals; 53, 44, 50 caudals; 6-6, 7-7, 7-7 infralabials; and 1-1, 2-2, 2-2 postoculars. The supralabials are 7-7 in all, temporals 1-2-3. The number of caudals in all three is less than is typical of s. sebae, with a total range of caudals from 51 to 71 in males and 40 to 60 in females; most males have over 54, most females over 45. In this character the specimens approach s. mor- leyi, in which the males usually have less than 54 (range 44 to 54), the females usually less than 45 (38 to 46). The three can not be re- ferred to s. morleyi, however, for the known minimum ventral count for that race is 143 in females, 137 in males. It is not unreasonable to assume that the Tabasco specimens repre- sent an intergrading population that still re- tains greater affinities to s. sebae. Pliocercus elapoides elapoides Cope A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117351) of this subspecies, collected on April 17, is of con- siderable interest, since it represents an area from which the species is otherwise unknown. It is a female measuring 234 mm in total length, the tail 89 mm. The ventrals number 130, the caudals 97; supralabials 8-8; infralabials 9-9; preoculars and postoculars 2-2; temporals 1-1. The outer rings of each triad of black rings are JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 much broader than the yellow rings; 12 pri- mary black rings are on the body, 10 on the tail; and five of the anterior six black rings are incomplete ventrally. The broad, secondary black rings, 9-9 infra- labials, and 130 ventrals are characters that ~ conclusively allocate this specimen with the typical race, although all other known speci- mens from Tabasco are clearly referable to e. laticollaris. The incomplete black rings, how- ever, demonstrate an approach toward e. lati- collaris. The Tabasco localities for the latter race (Macuspana, Teapa, Tenosique) are in the central and western part of the state and, moreover, are in or very near the foothills of the Atlantic escarpment. Intergradation ‘be- tween these two races is indicated for the area between La Venta, in extreme western Tabasco near the coast, and Teapa, located near the foothills of central southern Tabasco. Fairly typical e. elapoides may occur much farther eastward, however, near the coast. As implied above, this specimen affords the first record of the occurrence of e. elapoide in Tabasco. Coniophanes fissidens fissidens (Giinther) A male (U.S.N.M. 117555), collected on April 2, has 21-17 scale rows, 117 ventrals, in- complete tail, and 8-8 supralabials. The median border of the dorsolateral light stripes is in- distinct in front of the anus, and the light stripes are visible on the neck. A dark spot near the end of each ventral is somewhat larger than other, scattered, black flecks. Though showing an approach toward f. proterops, es- pecially in ventral markings, the specimen is clearly most like f. fissidens. It is noteworthy that La Venta specimens of this species show southern (eastern) affinities, while those of Pliocercus show northern (western) affinities. Bothrops atrox (Linnaeus) A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117355) was collected on April 7. It is a half-grown female with 210 ventrals, 61 caudals, and 25-27-21 scale rows. : May 15, 1944 CUSHMAN: NOTES ON FORAMINIFERA 157 ZOOLOGY.—Additional notes on Foraminifera in the collection of Ehrenberg. J. A. CUSHMAN, Sharon, Mass. In the summer of 1927 a visit was made to study the Foraminifera in the Ehrenberg collection in Berlin to determine if possible the characters and relationships of the numerous genera erected by Ehrenberg be- tween 1838 and 1872. Notes on some of these have already been published in this JOURNAL 17: 487-491, 1927. As noted previ- ously, there are many excellent original drawings that were never published which, . with the specimens themselves, serve to give the characters needed to determine the systematic position of these genera. Notes are here given on a number of these genera and their probable relationships. Asterodiscus Ehrenberg, 1838 (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1838: 130). The genoholotype is A. forskdlii Ehrenberg but is not figured. The type is from Santo Domingo and is the common species of that region. It should be placed as a synonym of Planorbulina d’Orbigny, 1826, and the species a synonym of P. mediterranensis d’Orbigny. Omphalophacus Ehrenberg, 1838 (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1838: 132). The first species is O. hemprichit Ehrenberg (Il. c., p. 1382). There are two lots of specimens in the Ehrenberg col- lection labeled ‘“‘Tor’” and “‘Erraia,”’ respec- tively, but nothing more as to locality. They represent an unequally bilateral species of Amphistegina. The later species, O.? tenellus Ehrenberg (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 32, pt. 2, fig. 34), was not found in the collection and is very difficult to determine from the figure. Its relationship was questioned by Ehrenberg him- self. Therefore the genus Omphalophacus may. be placed as a synonym of Amphistegina d’Or- bigny, 1826. Geoponus Ehrenberg, 1839 (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1839: 132). The genoholotype is G. stella-borealis Ehrenberg (l. c., p. 132, pl. 1, figs. a-g). The type specimens are from living material from off Cuxhaven. In the Ehrenberg collection are excellent original figures in color showing pseudopodia. The large figures are in good detail with 8 to 10 retral processes to the 1 Received February 5, 1944. chamber and 12 chambers to a coil. The retral processes are in pairs. This is definitely a syno- nym of Elphidium Montfort, 1808. Entrochus Ehrenberg, 1841 (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1841: 408). The genoholotype is E. septatus Ehrenberg (I. c., p. 426). The type specimen was examined. It is from Recent ma- terial off Veracruz and is evidently a small Cassidulina and should be placed as a syno- nym under that genus. Megathyra Ehrenberg, 1841 (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1841: 409). Ehrenberg named two species, M. dilatata and M. planularia. The type specimens of these were examined. Both are from Recent material off Veracruz. The first species is very difficult to make out as to its full characters, but the second is very defi- nite and indicates that the genus should be placed as a synonym of Planularia Defrance, 1824. Porospira Ehrenberg, 1844 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1844: 75). Two species were named by Ehrenberg in 1844, P. princeps and P. comes. Both are from Oran and were later figured (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 21, figs. 92, 93). In the book of drawings in the Ehren- berg collection the second species was later labeled ‘‘Rotalia Reuss, 1861” after the genus. A study of the type specimens shows them to be somewhat trochoid and probably representing a single species. They should be placed as synonyms under Anomalina d’Orbigny, 1826. Spirobotrys Ehrenberg, 1844 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1844: 247). The genoholo- type is S. aegaea Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 248), from the Aegean Sea. The type is very evidently, as was later marked in ink on the original draw- ing, ‘‘Planorbulina mediterranea.’ There are two excellent unpublished figures in the Ehren- berg collection and the genus is definitely a synonym of Planorbulina d’Orbigny, 1826. Rhynchospira Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 358). The genoholo- type is R. indica Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 376). The locality given is ‘‘Pulo Pinang.’’ The type speci- men definitely shows that it is a synonym of Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826. Clidostomum Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 358). The genoholo- 158 type is C’. polystigma Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 368). The type specimen was examined. It is from Loandra, South Africa. The internal siphon is well shown and the genus should be placed as a synonym of Bolivina d’Orbigny, 1839. Grammobotrys Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 368). The genoholo- type is G. africana Ehrenberg from Loandra, South Africa. The types were examined and the genus should be placed as a synonym of Vir- gulina d’Orbigny, 1826. Spiropleurites Ehrenberg, 1854 (Ber. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1854: 248). Of the two spe- cies named, only S. nebulosus Ehrenberg was figured (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 35, pt. B, iv, fig. 7). The specimen from the Atlantic may possibly be a young form of Globorotalia menardit (d’Orbigny) although Sherborn’s In- dex refers it to ‘‘Pulvinulina repanda,”’ which is an Hponides. Its position must therefore remain doubtful. Pleurites Ehrenberg, 1854. There are several species figured under this genus in 1854, the first of which is P. cretae Ehrenberg (Mikro- geologie, 1854: pl. 27, fig. 32). It is from the Cretaceous of Meudon, near Paris. Ehrenberg had written later under the original figure “Globigerina cretacea,’ but it is not this. A study of the type specimen shows it to have a smooth surface with the aperture and triserial arrangement of the chambers of Bulimina. It should therefore be placed as a synonym of Bultmina d’Orbigny, 1826. Synspira Ehrenberg, 1854. The genoholo- type, S. triquetra Ehrenberg, was figured (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 29, fig. 47) from the Island of Moén. The single specimen at first appearance seems to be allied to Nubecularia, but it is apparently perforate and perhaps allied to Spirillina. From this single specimen the genus must remain doubtful. Ceratospirulina Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 11). The genoholotype is C. sprattit Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 19). The type specimen is from 500 fathoms, in the Mediterranean between Malta and Crete. The species was originally called mediterranea in Ehrenberg’s notes but later was crossed out and sprattit added above. On the original notes it was called Ceratoloculina. The later record as Ceratospyris sprattit (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Ber- lin, 1872 (1873): pl. 11, fig. 7) is the same. The JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 5 early portion is definitely 5-chambered, and the generic names should be placed as synonyms of Articulina d’Orbigny, 1826. Encorycum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 11, 19). The genoholotype is H. nodosaria Ehrenberg (l.c. p. 19) afterward figured by Ehrenberg (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872 (1873): pl. 11, fig. 13). The specimen is well figured but evidently incomplete. Each chamber has a short internal neck, and the test as examined is clear, thin, and smooth. On the sheet of original drawings there are numerous notes later referring it to various genera, Nodosaria, Frondicularia, and Glandulina. From the evidence of the specimen it may questionably be referred to Ellipsonodo- saria A. Silvestri, 1900, as a synonym. Selenostomum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 12). Two spe- cies were named by Ehrenberg, S. aegaewm and S. fimbriatum. Both are Recent forms from the Aegean Sea. A study of the type specimens showed that the genus is a synonym of Cassi- dulina d’Orbigny, 1826. Dexiopora Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 309). The specimen figured as D. triarchaea Ehrenberg (l.c., pp. 309, 337, pl. 1, fig. 10) is marked ‘“‘untersilur- ischer Griinsand, Petersburg.’’ Parker and Jones noted that it might be a Globigerina, but from an examination of the specimen it seems more like a concretionary form and so far as could be made out is without structure and the name should be allowed to lapse. Spiroceritum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 310). The genoholotype is S. priscum Ehrenberg (l.c., pp. 310, 337, pl. 1, fig. 14). An examination of the type specimen shows it to be a globular mass of glauconite with no definite structure, and the name should be allowed to lapse. _ Aspidodexia Ehrenberg, 1872 (Monatsb. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872: 280). The genoholotype, A. lineolata Ehrenberg, was fig- ured (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872 (1873): pl. 3, fig. 4) from Recent Atlantic material. The original specimen was not found in the Ehren- berg collection, but the original figure was seen and the name had later been changed to Aspido- spira. The latter is a synonym of Anomalina d’Orbigny, 1826. Aspidodexia is probably a synonym of Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826. May 15, 1944 MAMMALOGY.—The type locality of Tadarida mexicana Saussure.} Benson, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California. BENSON: TYPE LOCALITY OF TADARIDA MEXICANA 159 SETH B. (Com- municated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) In checking a list of type localities of Mexican mammals I encountered an ap- parent error in designating the type locality of the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida mexicana). Shamel (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 78(art. 19): 5. 1931) gave the type locality as Ameca, Jalisco, Mexico, and stated: “The describer selects no specimen as type, but gives as the habitat the plateau of Mexico. Specimens are mentioned from Ameca, Jalisco, and from Cofre de Perote, - Vera Cruz. In the United States National Museum collection are three specimens from San Pedro, Jalisco, which is in the immediate vicinity of Ameca, and 23 others from various places in Jalisco. I have there- fore chosen Ameca, Jalisco, as the type locality. A specimen labeled, ‘Mexico’ (Saussure) and marked type of Mollossus mexicanus was examined in the Berlin Mu- seum in 1904 by Mr. Miller who thinks it is probably a cotype.”’ This is not the first recorded designation of Ameca, Jalisco, as the type locality of this bat. The first known to me is by Miller (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 79: 70. 1912), who gave no comment as to the reason. This ascription has been commonly followed in the literature. Also, there is an even earlier designation of the type locality. Elliot (Field Columbian Mus. Publ., zool. ser., 4: 629. 1904) gave the type locality as ‘‘Cofre de Perote, state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 13,000 feet elevation,” but gave no explana- tion. Saussure’s original description (Rev. et Mag. Zool., ser. 2, 12: 283-285. July, 1860) contains the follewing statement (p. 285) concerning distribution: ‘‘Habite le pla- teau du Mexique et les hautes montagnes. J’en ai tué un individu sur le Coffre de Perote, 4 13,000 pieds d’altitude; d’autres individus ont été pris 4 Ameca, au pied du 1 Received January 31, 1944. -Popocatepetl, 4 un altitude de 8,500 pieds.”’ There is no mention of Jalisco in this statement, and the only way to infer that Ameca, Jalisco, is the locality intended is to assume that the phrases “au pied du Popocatepetl, 4 un altitude de 8,500 pieds”’ refer to a third locality. Actually, the punc- tuation indicates that only two localities are intended and that the phrases referred to merely describe the location of Ameca more exactly. Ameca really means Ameca- meca, a town situated on the western base of Popocatepetl at the approximate eleva- tion given by Saussure. Perhaps an error in transcription is involved, easy to make with a word like Amecameca, or perhaps Saus- sure used the abbreviated form that is sometimes used by the present inhabitants of Amecameca and that appears on some maps. A further indication that Amecameca is the locality in question is furnished in Saussure’s description of Molossus aztecus (op. cit.) where he gave its distribution (p. 286) as follows: ‘‘Habite le plateau du Mexique. Tué 4&4 Amecameca, au pied du Popocatepetl.”’ The localities recorded by Saussure are therefore Cofre de Perote, 13,000 feet, state of Veracruz, and Amecameca, 8,500 feet, state of Mexico. Because Saussure definitely stated that he collected a specimen on the Cofre de Perote himself, giving this locality first, and because Elliot first definitely fixed it as the type locality, Cofre de Perote, 13,000 feet, state of Veracruz, Mexico, should be considered the type locality of Tadarida mexicana. If it can be definitely established in the future that the specimen whose measurements are given by Saussure came from ‘“‘Ameca,” then Amecameca, state of Mexico, might be considered as the type locality, but there is no valid reason for ascribing the type locality to the state of Jalisco. 160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 5 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1204TH MEETING The 1204th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, October 10, 1942, President BROMBACHER presiding. The President announced that the Joseph Henry lecture could not be given, as the lec- turer had received orders from the Navy De- partment calling him out of town. He acknowl- edged the Society’s indebtedness to Mr. Curts- LER for volunteering to speak on very short notice. Program: V. L. CHRISsLER, National Bureau of Standards: Field measurements of air-raid warning devices.—Total war has created the necessity of warning the civilian population of impending air attacks. As acoustic signaling has proved to be an effective method of warn- ing, the Office of Civilian Defense asked the National Bureau of Standards to make a study of various devices available for this purpose. Most of the measurements have been made in a large open space with the device mounted 20 feet above ground. Frequency analyses of the signals were made at a distance of 100 feet from each device and the intensity levels measured at distances of 100, 700, 1,400, and 2,800 feet. Varying atmospheric conditions, such as wind, temperature, and humidity, had considerable effect upon the attenuation of sound with dis- tance; in fact, for the devices tested, the effect of atmospheric conditions is more important than the distribution of energy in the different frequency components. (Author’s abstract.) This illustrated paper was discussed by Messrs. W. G. BrompacHuser, A. G. McNisu, W..J. Humpureys, PP: S. Roiimr, A. M: O’Bryan, C. E. Bennett, H. L. Curtis, F. J. Barus, and P. A. Smrru. 1205tH MEETING The 1205th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, October 24, 1942, President BROMBACHER presiding. Program: ALBERT May, Catholic University of America: The latent image in the photo- graphic plate-—The present theories of the latent photographic image were discussed, in- cluding the work of Gurney and Mott and the attempts to explain the solarization region. This was followed by a description of original research. Experiments in hypersensitization of X-ray emulsions with mercury vapor showed that no appreciable increase of speed of these emulsions was obtained for X-ray exposures, nor for films hypersensitized after exposure to visible light. The results were shown to be consistent with existing theories. Blackening curves of exposures extended into the solarization region showed broader first maximum peaks for visible light than for X-ray exposures. Calculated curves based on a simple model give a satisfactory agreement with the X-ray curve, and an average of about 60 X-ray quanta is found necessary to produce solariza- tion in a photographic grain. (A.uthor’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. J. HumpuHreys, W. G. BrompBacuer, L. B. _TucKERMAN, and F. L. Mouter. 1206TH MEETING The 1206th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, November 7, 1942, President BRoMBACHER presiding. Program: FREDERICK SeEItTz, University of Pennsylvania: The photoelasticity of crystals.— Experimental investigations of the mechanism of plastic flow in crystals show that blocks of the material become displaced relative to one another along definite crystallographic planes. This mechanism is commonly known as slip. The linear dimensions of the blocks that play a role in the process of slip are of the order of 1 micron. Straightforward estimates of the shear- ing stresses that would be required to produce a slip in an ideal crystal lead to values of the order of magnitude of 10!! dynes per cm?, whereas the values actually observed in well annealed single crystals of pure metals and salts are of the order of 107 dynes per cm’. As a result of this fact it is necessary to assume that crystal imperfections play a very important role in de- termining the actual mechanism of flow. The present viewpoint of the nature of the lattice imperfections that have bearing on the prob- lem was discussed. It was pointed out that a particular type of imperfection known as a dis- locatton would explain both the actual mecha- nism of slip and the observed values of the May 15, 1944 shearing stress. There is evidence to show that a few dislocations are always present in well- annealed crystals; however, it is necessary to assume that many more are generated during plastic flow. The change in number of these alters the properties of the material in many respects. There is also evidence to show that fissures and cracks which play an important role in reducing the rupture strength of crystals aid in the generation of dislocations. (AUTHOR’S abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. G. BrRoMBACHER, L. B. Tuckerman, K. F. HeERZFELD, A. BLAKE, and W. J. HUMPHREYS. In an informal communication Mr. L. B. TUCKERMAN presented an illustration showing that it is not necessary for the derivative of a function to be zero at the maximum or mini- mum values. It was discussed by Messrs. A. Buake and W. J. HUMPHREYs. | 1207TH MEETING The 1207th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences. It is re- ported in this JoUKNAL 33: 32. 1943. 1208tH MEETING The 1208th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, November 21, 1942, President BROMBACHER presiding. Program: D. R. Ineuts, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity: The moments of atomic nuclei.—Like the earth, the atomic nucleus has in many cases an angular momentum and a magnetic moment. The electric quadrupole moment of several nuclei indicates an elongation of form somewhat analogous to the flattening of the earth. The magnetic moments are measured by means of the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra aris- ing from different orientations of the nucleus in the magnetic field of the atomic electrons, and more accurately by inducing transitions of orientation at resonance of a radio frequency and a frequency of Larmor precession. The observed magnetic moments of odd proton nuclei with a given angular momentum tend to be divided into two groups as though to cor- respond to the two orientations of the odd pro- ton spin relative to its orbital angular momen- tum. This must depend on a tendency of spin to pair off as far as possible. This and the dis- tribution of quadrupole moments in the periodic table may in part be a consequence of a partial PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 161 grouping of protons and neutrons into alpha particles in the nuclei. (A uthor’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. G. BRoMBACHER, P. A. Smitu, F. L. Mouuer, and F. C. BRICKWEDDE. 1209TH MEETING The 1209th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 5, 1942, President BROMBACHER presiding. The minutes of the 71st annual meeting were read and ap- proved. The Treasurer’s report was read by the Treasurer, Mr. W. RamBerc. The income from dues and investments during the past year was $1,215.16, and the expenditures were $1,014.55, leaving a surplus of $200.61. The average expenditure per member was $3.50. During the year the sum of $2,000 from the Trust account was invested in U. 8. Saving Bonds. The report of the Auditing Committee, A. Buake, R. P. TEELE, and EK. H. VEsSTINE, was presented by the chairman, Mr. Brake. It was discussed by Messrs. W. J. HUMPHREYS and H. F. Stimson. It was moved, seconded, and carried that the reports of the Auditing Committee and Treasurer be accepted as read. The joint report of the Secretaries was pre- sented by the Recording Secretary, Mr. F. L. Mouter. There were 15 regular meetings dur- ing the year, with an average attendance of 55. At these meetings 16 papers were presented. The membership losses were 12, and there were 16 new members, giving 319 active members on December 1, 1942. There were 36 on the absent list. It was moved, seconded, and carried that the report be accepted as read. The report of the Committee on Elections, F: Wenner, A. K. Lupy, and J. 8. BuRLEW, was presented by the Chairman, Mr. WENNER. He reported that those elected had received a majority of the votes with respect to the other candidates for the same office. It was discussed by Messrs. A. Buake and W. J. HUMPHREYS. It was moved, seconded, and carried that the report be accepted, and the President declared the following officers duly elected: President: R. J. SEEGER Vice Presidents: H. F. Stimson, F. L. MoHLER Recording Secretary: ARCHIE BLAKE Treasurer: WALTER RAMBERG Members-at-large of the General Committee: K. L. SHerman, W. A. WILDHACK. 162 The President opened the meeting for discus- sion of Society policies and recommendations to the General Committee. He remarked on the difficulty of securing papers and requested that members submit papers. The Secretary read a rough draft of the minutes, and it was approved as read. A paper on Stellar explosions was presented by Mr. Grorcse Gamow, of George Washington University. It was discussed by Messrs. A. J. SHNEIDER, A. Buake, and W. A. WILDHACK. The President requested Past Presidents BRICKWEDDE and McComs to escort President SEEGER to the platform. President SEEGER introduced the newly elected officers to the Society and thanked the retiring officers for their services. 1210TH MEETING The 1210th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 19, 1942, President SFEGER presiding. The twelfth Joseph Henry lecture, The scientific significance of ferromagnetism, was de- livered by Dr. Francis Birrer. It was pub- lished in this JOURNAL 33: 235-238. 1943. 1211TH MEETING The 1211th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, January 16, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. The retiring President’s address, Altitude by measurement of air pressure, was delivered by Dr. WiLi1AM GroRGE BromMBACHER. (This paper will appear in this JouRNAL.) The address was followed by some remarks concerning recent data on the same subject by Prof. Puturp Kissam, of Princeton University. 1212TH MEETING The 1212th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, January 30, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. An invited paper, Spectra of simple molecules, was presented by Mr. G. H. Diexg, of Johns Hopkins University. It was discussed by Messrs. F. G. BRIcKWEDDE and A. BLAKE. An informal communication on a graphical solution of certain problems in rate of work was made by Mr. W. Epwarps Demine. It was discussed by Mr. A. BLAKE. The President announced the resignation of Mr. K. L. SHerman from the Committee on JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 Communications and the appointment of Mr. A. G. McNisu to fill the vacancy. 1213TH MEETING The 1213th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, February 13, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. Program: EL1zaABETH Rona, Trinity College: Radioactivity of the ocean.—It has been shown! that the ocean sediments, especially those lying below very deep water and far from the conti- nent, have radium content 4 to 10 times greater than that of rocks, even of granite. In order to learn whether the origin of this high radium content can be explained by a chemical or bio- logical precipitation from sea water, samples from different locations and different depths were investigated by H. Pettersson and the author,? and C. S. Piggott and Wm. D. Urry and the author.? In both sets of samples the amount of radium was found to be very low, in disagreement with the results found by former scientists, but in good agreement with R. D. Evans and collaborators. The uranium content in the waters around the west coast of Sweden and in the northern Atlantic was found higher, as is necessary to uphold the equilibrium for radium found in the same samples, whereas in the sea bottom sediments the relation radium to uranium was just the opposite. No possible explanation can be offered yet, until further investigations have been made. (Author’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Mr. K. F. Hrrz- FELD. An informal communication on a queer but friendly function was presented by Mr. A. BuakE. It was discussed by Messrs. A. G. McNisu and L. B. TucKkEerRMAN. 1214TH MEETING The 1214th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club. Auditorium, Saturday, February 27, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. Program: Dr. Ricuarp C. Toitman, National Defense Research Committee: Physical science and philosophy.—This paper presented certain philosophical reflections as to the nature of 1Precor, C. S., and Urry, Wm. D. Amer. Journ. Sci. 239:91. 1941. 2 Géteborg’s Kungl. Vet. Vitt.-Samhallas 6(12). 1939 3 Not yet published. 4 Amer. Journ. Sci. 36; 241. 1938. May 15, 1944 science, with illustrations drawn particularly from physics. The relative scopes of science and philosophy were first defined. In accord- ance with the limited scope of science, it was pointed out that the methods and results of science may all be characterized as objective and abstract. The objective and abstract char- acters of science were then discussed. The test of objectivity was taken as that of ~ common agreement and acceptance. Difficulties in applying this test were mentioned and two factors that help to control these difficulties were noted. Justification was presented for the circumstance that philosophy must make use of methods and results that are not objective. It was emphasized that the limitation of science to methods and results that are objective does not limit the fields of human interest to which scientific studies may be profitably applied. The abstract character of science was taken, in the first place, as arising from the necessity of abstracting out that which is objective from the general consideration that men give to their experience. This led to a discussion of the relation between the subjective origins and ob- jective outcome of scientific work. The abstract character of science was taken, in the second place, as arising from the circum- stance that each particular science abstracts a particular kind of phenomena for considera- tion. This led to a discussion of the Comte principle for the organization of the sciences into a hierarchy in accordance with the dif- ferent levels of abstraction which they employ. With the help of this principle, the relations between different sciences were discussed. This discussion was illustrated by the relations of physics and chemistry—statistical mechanics and thermodynamics—kinematics, dynamics, and electrodynamics—physics and biology— and physics and psychology. The view was expressed that phenomena at one level of ab- straction can not be completely treated at a deeper level of abstraction. (Author’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. T. Dantzic, P. 8. Rotier, A. G. McNisu, H. E. McComs, W. P. Wuitst, H. C. Dickinson, K. F. HERZFELD, and R. J. SEEGER. 1215TH MEETING The 1215th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, March 13, 1948, President SEEGER presiding. PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 163 Program: FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards: Modern thermochemistry. —There was described the work of the Na- tional Bureau of Standards in thermochemis- try, including a description of the method and apparatus, presentation of some of the ex- perimental results, and application of the data in calculating chemical equilibria among hydrocarbons. The following topics were covered: The substitution method for compar- ing electrical energy with chemical energy, ap- paratus for reactions in a flame at constant pressure, apparatus for reactions in a bomb at constant volume, determination of the purity and amount of reaction, heats of formation and of isomerization of the paraffin and olefin hydrocarbons, and free energies of formation and equilibria of isomerization of the paraffin hydrocarbons. Some practical applications were briefly mentioned. (Author’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Mressrs. H. L. Curtis, L. B. TuckerRMAN, A. Buakg, H. C. DickKINson, and W. J. HUMPHREYS. L. B. TuckerRMAN, National Bureau of Standards: Early use of meteoric iron in weapons (informal communication).—A paper in Pog- gendorff Annalen 26: 350-352, 1832, Accouni of an aerolith which fell some time ago in the Orvent, reported by the Chief Librarian of the Leipzig Royal Library, Prof. Dr. WILKEN was cited. The Persian manuscript from which the following accounts are taken is to be found in the Leipzig Royal Library (Ms. Orient in 8vo No. 97). It was written in the sixth year of the reign of the Indian Padischah Mohammed- schah (1723 A.D.). It has no title but contains the history of the Indian kings up to the time of the Padischah Mohammed Ewrengzeb, that is, up to the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. It is preceded by an introduction in the manner of an encyclopedia in which many facts of physics, in particular meteorological appearances such as hail, rain, and snow, are discussed. In the discussion of storms the following accounts are given: “Tt was reported by the Sheik Erreis, that a piece of iron weighing 150 men! fell one day in the neighborhood of Dschordschan, and the inhabitants of the region heard a remarkable 5 The weight of the men is very differently re- ported, so much so that the values range between 40 pounds and 2 pounds. 164 noise. The parts of the piece of iron were ar- ranged in the manner of grains of millet.® The piece of iron was brought to the Mayor of Georgia, whereupon the Sultan Mohammed of Gasnevide (reigned from 999 to 1030 A.D.) requested a part of it, which was brought to him. The Sultan commanded that a sword should be made of it, which however was not found possible.”’ “It is reported that in the sixteenth year of the reign of Padischah Dschehangir (1621 A.D.) a very loud noise from the East was heard one morning in the neighborhood of Dschalinder (a northern district of India) and at the same time a bright light like lightning was seen to fall down and vanish. Mohammed Said, the Mayor of this region, ordered that the place where it fell should be dug up. A piece of hot iron was found, which was brought under seal to the court and the Padischah Dschehangir ordered Master Smith David to make him a sword and dagger from it. The smith, however, stated that this iron would not hold together under the hammer, but could only be forged if it was mixed with another iron. Accordingly, such a mixture was made. Three parts of the lightning iron and one part of another iron were mixed together. From the mixture two swords, a dagger, and a knife were made, which, in cutting and wounding, were equal to the finest swords. Their design was excellent, although they bore no resemblance to the design of our swords.” (Author’s ab- stract.) 1216TH MEETING The 1216th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, March 27, 1943, Vice-President STIMSON presiding. Program: Paut R. Hy, National Bureau of Standards (retired): The genealogical tree of modern science.—Published in this JouRNAL 33: 8327-334. 1943. 6 T am not sure whether the word “‘gawirs’’ ap- pearing in the Persian text is rightly translated by millet. The Sultan Von Aude in his book on the ‘Seven Seas” makes the following statement con- cerning this word (which was lacking in previous Persian dictionaries): ‘‘Gawirs is used to mean mullet, but according to others it means grain, God knows.”’ In the latest edition of Richardson’s Persian dictionary the word is explained as mean- ing a kind of vetch. In any case the comparison with ‘‘gawirs” appears to be used to represent the kernellike appearance of the meteor stone. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 5 This paper was discussed by Messrs. SHNEI- DER, F. L. Mouzurer, A. G. McNisu, and KNAPP. An informal communication on the invention of the magnetic compass in Europe was made by Mr. P. R. Heyu. 1217TH MEETING The 1217th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, April 10, 1943, President Seeger presiding. Program: Rev. Paut A. McNauty, S8.J., Georgetown University: The universe in which we dwell—The purpose of this lecture was to give a popular survey of the growth of man’s knowledge in the field of astronomy, using as a unifying element the notion of distance. Starting with a universe—Egocentric, since man was concerned, then, for the most part with himself and his immediate surroundings— whose limits were, probably, thought to be only a few hundreds of miles distant, the steps of man’s progress in this field of knowledge may well be described under the captions or epochs —Geocentric, Heliocentric, Astracentric, Neb- ulacentric. During these epochs the size of the known universe grew—from the time when the boundaries of the universe were thought to be only a few thousands of miles away, until the present, when we know that the most distant objects in the skies—so far revealed by our largest telescopes—are hundreds of millions of light years distant. Since the present year marks the four- hundredth anniversary of the death of Coper- nicus, special emphasis was given to the size and shape of the known universe of 1543 and the consequent revolution of thought occa- sioned by the introduction of the heliocentric theory. A summary of the most recent scientific speculations on the nature of the “red shift” found in the spectra of the most distant ob- jects in the sky was introduced to bring out the element of uncertainty in our present knowl- edge of the size of the known universe. (Au- thor’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. A. BuakeE, K. F. Herzretp, A. G. McNisu, and C. L. GARNER. May 15, 1944 1218TH MEETING The 1218th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, April 24, 1943, President SHEGER presiding. Program: G. Rupert Gause, War Depart- ment: Statistical control of quality 1n manu- facturing and inspection.—Variations in the quality of any material produced by mass pro- duction processes are of two types: natural variations inherent in the production process itself, and extraneous variations not inherent in the process itself, but for which assignable causes exist. Statistical quality control dis- tinguishes between these two types of varia- tions, and indicates when and where extraneous variations occur so that their cause can be eliminated. The control chart is a device for making this distinction in a routine fashion. It is a graphic record of inspection results, with limit lines to indicate when corrective action should be taken on the production process. Consumer acceptance inspections exert a strong influence on the quality level which a manufacturer maintains, and they must be sound if proper levels are to be enforced. Since no one sampling procedure will accept every lot of satisfactory quality and reject every lot of unsatisfactory quality, inspection results obtained on successive lots must be summarized to obtain a precise measure of overall quality. If this quality is unsatisfactory, very strict acceptance procedures must be used; if con- sistently satisfactory, the amount of inspection can be reduced and major attention focused on unsatisfactory sources. (Author’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs. TuTTLE, M. GoupBerG, F. B. StnsBpEE, BELLISON, PAUL Norton, Caruton, T. C. Lyons, and Horace NorRTON. 1219TH MEETING The 1219th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, May 8, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. Program: RicHarpD Courant, New York University: Stability and instability as demon- strated by soap films.—Mathematical and physi- cal methods often supplement each other in a manner whereby each throws light on the other’s problems. This fact is well illustrated in the problem of Plateau, the problem of pass- ing a surface of minimal area through a given closed space curve. PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 165 Interesting results on this problem, derived at length by the methods of the calculus of variations, may be illustrated by means of soap films made by dipping wires in the prescribed forms into a solution of soap and glycerine. The soap film assumes the shape of minimal potential energy, which is the same as the shape of minimal area, and accordingly solves the problem of Plateau. The wires may be distorted or otherwise moved in such a way as to cause the soap film to pass from a configuration which is stable for one shape of wire to a topologically different configuration stable for another shape. (Secre- tary’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Mr. A. G. Mc- NIsH. The meeting was adjourned early (9:35 P.M.) for the social hour to enable the members to experiment with the soap solution and wire apparatus, which the speaker had brought to demonstrate the manner in which soap films solve the problem of Plateau. 1220TH MEETING The 1220th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, May 22, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. Program: J. J. Horrietp, National Bureau of Standards: The Raman effect in chemical compounds.—If a molecule has a permanent dipole moment, it will absorb infrared light. and the frequencies of vibration of the mole- cule are the frequencies of the absorbed light. Raman spectra, on the other hand, are ob- served in the light scattered by molecules. This process of scattering is very inefficient so that weak lines are generally obtained. In this process of scattering the electric vector of the incident light induces a dipole moment in the molecule, and the frequency differences between the incident light and the Raman scattered light are the frequencies characteristic of the molecule. A strong spectrum of a few lines (Hg) and a fast spectrograph are necessary for easily observing these Raman spectra. Since Raman spectra are characteristic of the observed molecules, their ions, or valence groups, one can use them as tools for identify- ing compounds, for quantitative analysis, for detecting the presence of various types of ions, for identifying various types of bonds or link- 166 ages, for the isotope effect, and in connection with the theory of molecular structure. A unique use of Raman spectra is in the study of materials in aqueous solution in a low frequency range corresponding to one in the infrared in which water is too opaque for use. (A uthor’s abstract.) This paper was discussed by Messrs F. G. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 BRICKWEDDE, F. L. Mounier, A. BLAKE, and MaAnov. Mr. L. B. TuckrerMan presented three in- formal communications, on Dr. Raman, on dishonesty in advertising, and on Professor Persy’s formula. ARCHIE BuaKke, Recording Secretary. @bituaries NATHAN SANFORD OSBORNE, principal physi- cist at the National Bureau of Standards, died at his home in Washington, D. C., on Septem- ber 18, 1948, after a long illness. Born at Southampton, N. Y., on February 10, 1875, he attended the public schools in Southampton and the Michigan College of Mines, where he received the degree of mining engineer and membership in Tau Beta Pi in 1899. The next few years were spent partly in the practice of mining engineering and partly as instructor in mathematics and physics at the Michigan College of Mines. His real bent, however, was for precise physical measurements, and his op- portunity came when he joined the staff of the National Bureau of Standards in 1903. He served, until his death, as a member of the staff of the Bureau for a total of 38 years, continu- ously except for a period from 1910 to 1912, during which he was an instructor at the Michi- gan College of Mines. He was married in 1910 to Lura M. Krebs, and is survived by her, by a daughter, Mrs. Douglas Robertson, and a son, Robert. His first major scientific investigation was of the density and thermal expansion of ethyl alcohol and its mixtures with water. The tables based on the data obtained are still the stand- ard of the United States Treasury and other departments of the Federal Government and are widely used in industry. He returned to the Bureau in 1912 to partici- pate in and later to take the leading part in the determination of the physical constants of in- terest to the refrigerating industry. After a series of determinations of the specific heat and heat of fusion of ice, the work on properties of ammonia was begun. This investigation cov- ered the entire range of temperature and pres- sure likely to be useful in refrigeration and included determination of the properties of saturated liquid and saturated and super- heated vapor. The work was extensive enough to provide a basis for complete tables of the thermodynamic properties of ammonia, pub- lished in 1923. These tables were accepted both here and abroad as authoritative and are still considered so by the engineering profession. The work on ammonia served as a model for later investigations, and its completion doubt- less was influential in leading the steam power industries to initiate a similar program on the properties of water and steam. The ammonia program had, however, consisted of a series of separate investigations which were brought together and correlated after completion. Os- borne was not satisfied with this rather un- systematic procedure, and before beginning the researches on water and steam he worked out a much more systematic method of dealing with the problem, published under the title Calorimetry of a fluid. In this paper he outlined and described a procedure for determining the principal thermodynamic properties of a liquid and its vapor, using a suitably designed calo- rimeter for a series of correlated measurements. This method was the basis for the later work on properties of steam. He also planned an exten- sion of the method to include some of the prop- erties of the superheated vapor, but this part of the method has not yet been used. Although educated as an engineer, Dr. Os- borne attained eminence in the engineering world, not through the practice of his profession but by contributing for its use some of the fun- damental physical data which are the founda- tion of engineering. His work has received wide recognition, as in the International Steam Ta- bles, a large part of which is based on his work. He was a delegate to the three International Conferences on the Properties of Steam, held in England, Germany, and the United States in 1929, 1930, and 1934, respectively, and con- tributed much to their success. He was hon- May 15, 1944 ored with the degree of doctor of science by Stevens Institute of Technology and the de- gree of doctor of engineering by the Michigan College of Mines. He was a member of the Philosophical Society of Washington and of the Washington Academy of Sciences. It is fortunate that Dr. Osborne’s work was done at a time when the equipment for meas- urements of temperature and pressure, and other factors required, had been perfected to such an extent that in combination with his own developments in calorimetry the accuracy attainable and actually attained was ample for engineering purposes, and adequate for pres- ent-day scientific requirements. It seems possi- ble that the results of his work will be consid- ered as definitive, and there is at present no prospect that the work will need to be re- peated for many years to come. In the design and construction of the appara- tus required for his work, Dr. Osborne was reluctant to follow conventional practice until he had convinced himself that it was better than any new and original methods that he could devise. He became a skilled instrument maker and himself constructed some of the more delicate and difficult parts of his appara- tus and produced some examples that could bear comparison with the product of the most skilled mechanics. He was always ready to give the benefit of his ideas and experience to any- one who asked for it, and in this way he made many valuable contributions to the work of others. E. F. MuEewuer. EpWaRD BENNETT MaTHEWs, emeritus pro- fessor of mineralogy and petrography at Johns Hopkins University, died on February 4, 1944. Dr. Mathews was born in Portland, Maine, on August 16, 1869. He received the bachelor’s degree at Colby College in 1891 and was awarded the honorary doctor of science degree in 1928 as one of its most distinguished alumni. He received his training in mineralogy and petrography at Johns Hopkins University un- der Dr. George Huntington Williams. He was awarded the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1894 and was then appointed instructor in mineralogy and petrography upon the untimely death of his eminent teacher. From 1891 to 1894 he was a field assistant on the United OBITUARIES 167 States Geological Survey. In 1904 Dr. Math- ews was promoted to the professorship in mineralogy and petrography and in 1917, upon the death of William Bullock Clark, succeeded him as chairman of the Department of Geol- ogy, which position he held until his retirement from active university duties at the age of 70 in 1939. Soon after the Maryland Geological Survey was established in 1896, Dr. Mathews became assistant state geologist and in 1917 succeeded William Bullock Clark as state geologist, a position he held until compelled to retire on account of ill health in 1943. He was an impor- tant contributor to most of the volumes pub- lished by that Survey from his Bibliography and cartography of Maryland in volume 1, published in 1897, to the Gazetteer of Maryland, published as volume 14 in 1941. His contributions covered such fields as the petrography and structure of the piedmont, the building and ornamental stones, the limestones, the coals, the clays, the surface and ground waters, the mineral indus- tries, and the physical features. Interest in his- tory, bibliography, and cartography is reflected in such works as the Bibliography and cartogra- phy of Maryland, the Catalog of published bibliographies in geology, The counties of Mary- land and their origin, Maps and map makers of Maryland, the report on the Resurvey of the Mason and Dixon Line, the report on the Lo- cation of the boundary line along the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia. It was these same interests that impelled him through- out the years of his teaching to accumulate analyses of igneous rocks from all over the world, which culminated in the last years of his career as a Geological Society of America proj- ect under which he completed a search of geologic literature to assemble all extant igne- ous-rock analyses and arrange them geo- graphically by latitude and longitude. Dr. Mathews also served his adopted State in many other capacities, the range of which likewise testifies to the diversity of his knowl- edge and interests. He was director of the Maryland Weather Service from 1917 to 1933, executive officer of the State Board of Forestry from 1917 to 1925, member of the Maryland Development Commission, and member of the Water Resources Commission from its estab- lishment in 1933 until it was merged in 1941 with the Maryland Geological Survey into the 168 Department of Geology, Mines, and Water Resources of which he became director. Outside of Maryland, he served as chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research Council from 1922 to 1925, as chairman of the Advisory Council of the United States Board of Surveys and Maps, as vice president and treasurer of the Sixteenth International Geological Congress, and as treasurer, member of the finance committee, and councillor of the Geological Society of America from 1917 until his death. The diversity of his interests made him a great traveler and student of the classical geo- logic areas of Europe and other parts of the world, experiences that greatly enriched his knowledge of geologic history, places, and per- sons. This store of knowledge and experience he was ever ready to share with friends, col- leagues, and students, who found him an un- ending and never-failing source of information. The impelling motives that led Dr. Mathews into this wide range of activities were an innate intellectual curiosity and an unselfish desire to be of service and usefulness to others, and never an urge to display unusual wisdom or to bring himself into the limelight. He adroitly avoided public and formal exhibition of the versatility and range of his knowledge and experience but was always ready and willing to share them unobtrusively and informally in friendly con- versation. JosEPH T. SINGEWALD, JR. Epwarp Oscar ULRicH, geologist and pale- ontologist, died on February 22, 1944, at the age of 87. He was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on February 1, 1857, of parents who had come to the United States from Alsace in 1840. His father had been a soldier in the French Army, serving at one time as the commandant of a fortress in Algeria. His early education was received in the public schools of Cincinnati and of Covington, Ky. He later attended German Wallace and Baldwin Colleges, at Berea, Ohio, receiving the A.M. degree in 1886 and the Ph.D. degree in 1892. In deference to his father’s wishes, he attended Pulte and Ohio Medical Colleges from 1876 to 1878, but did not complete the work for a medical degree. Dr. Ulrich’s early career was rather varied. He worked at his father’s trade of carpenter JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 5 and as a rodman for the waterworks depart- ment of Cincinnati, receiving his first impetus toward geology in connection with excavations for a city reservoir. In 1877 he became curator for the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. From 1880 to 1883 he was superintendent of the Little Caribou Silver Mines in Boulder County, Colo. For some years he worked inter- mittently as draughtsman, lithographer, and carpenter to provide a livelihood while he car- ried out his paleontologic investigations. From 1885 to 1889 and from 1891 to 1897 he was paleontologist for the Geological Surveys of Illinois, Minnesota, and Ohio; in 1890 and 1891 he was assistant geologist for the Kentucky Geological Survey. He joined the U. 8S. Geo- logical Survey in 1897, remaining with it until his retirement in 1932. In 1914 he became an Associate of the U. S. National Museum and continued to hold that place until his death. He had been a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences since 1903. Dr. Ulrich was an original fellow of the Geological Society of America, and had served as president of the Paleontological Society and the Geological Society of Washington. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a corresponding member of the Geological Society of London and the Geological Society of Stockholm. He received in 1930 the Mary Clark Thompson medal of the National Academy and in 1932 the Penrose medal of the Geological | Society of America. He pioneered in many paleontologic fields. He was one of the first students of the stony Bryozoa, and his work there is fundamental. He was one of the earlier students of the conodonts, and his work on Paleozoic ostracods led to a classification that has been widely adopted. He participated in the preparation of numerous areal and stratigraphic reports and at times took a hand in purely economic papers, such as those dealing with copper deposits in Missouri and lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits in Kentucky. He proposed radical changes in parts of the generally accepted stratigraphic classification, particularly in a major work entitled Revision of the Paleozoic systems. Dr. Ulrich married Albertine Zuest in Cin- cinnati in 1886 and in 1933 in London Lydia Sennhauser, who survives him. There were no children. JoHN B. REESIDE, JR. - Toowsy. iL Giganal ee on. ‘Foraminifera in Ehrenberg. | J. A. CusiMs - Mammatoey. sothe) ty type . on ‘Tadarida ‘Sera B, BENSON... nhia Journal is Indexed in the nternatio 1 Indi Vou, 34 JUNE 15, 1944 No. 6 JOURNAL (© > OF THE ize WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS G. Arruur Coorer Lewis V. Jupson Harautp A, REHDER Uv. & NATIONAL MUSBOM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS Frank C. Kracex ALAN STONE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Ira B. HANSEN Rauew W. ImMiay BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY ALBERT EF, LonaLtey Wiurtiam N. Fenton BOTANICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOOCIBTY JaAMus I. HorrMAN man CHEMICAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Annarpe Sr. AT’ MmNASHA, WISCONSIN r Entered as second class maiter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized January 21, 1933. 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Rappuieys, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NaTHAN R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Indust Custodian of Publications: FRanx M. Sprzuer, U.S. - ational Museum, ~ Mere pe eS eins ES JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 MEDICINE.—Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis.' George Washington University. Despite the difficulty the American Pub- lic Health Association had a short time ago in settling upon a definition of an epidemiol- ogist, I believe it is not impossible to say what epidemiology is. Epidemiology is the ecology of disease. It is the life history and environmental relationships of disease. It places less emphasis on how disease acts on the individual and more on its mass mani- festations; little on symptoms, much on how it spreads and is influenced by all possible variant factors. The study of tuberculosis is tremendously complex, and the results that have been obtained are confusing. This is not because the organism causing the disease is diffi- cult to obtain and’ study. True Mycobac- terium tuberculosis grows slowly, but we have long had satisfactory culture mediums and suitable experimental animals are readi- ly available. There is, however, no disease concerning which there are more disputed concepts and theories. Shortly after the tubercle bacillus invades the body success- fully the tissues take on a new and specific capacity to react. If into the skin of such a person a tiny bit of the soluble protein of the tubercle bacillus is injected, there is a decisive response. The area becomes in- flamed, slightly raised, unusually firm, and somewhat painful. It is, in fact, a typical area of response in inflammation. This re- action reaches its height on the second and third day and thereafter slowly fades away. This is a positive tuberculin test. By con- trast, a person who has not been success- fully invaded by the tubercle bacillus will 1 Address of the Retiring President of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at the 324th meeting of the Academy on February 17, 1944. Received March 15, 1944. Jung 15, 1944 No. 6 LELAND W. Parr, The give no reaction to a similar injection or in- deed to one many times stronger in its tuberculin content. The condition of the individual that causes him to react to the injection of tuberculin is the “tuberculin type of hyper- sensitivity.’’ It would seem simple to de- termine whether it is better to be tuberculin positive or tuberculin negative, but it is not. Is this tuberculin type of hypersensi- tivity the same thing as immunity? It is not easy to decide, and any answer given will be disputed. Woodruff and Kelly (1942) ob- served: “‘Before tuberculosis can be con- trolled successfully fundamental concepts concerning reactions of the host to the in- fectious agent must be clarified. Perhaps the most important of these concepts is the relation between the hypersensitive or al- lergic response and immunity.” Shall we immunize our children against tuberculo- sis? We immunize them against diphtheria; why not against tuberculosis? In 1940, 60,428 persons died of tuberculosis in the United States and only 1,457 of diphtheria. It may be objected that tuberculosis is not a childhood disease. It is not, and it is much less so now than it was in 1900, but in 1940 a total of 2,787 children under 15 years of age died of tuberculosis, almost twice the total number dying of diphtheria. When we have clinical tuberculosis where do we get it? Is it from within—the lighting up of an old arrested focus—or is it from without by contact, often repeated, with open cases of tuberculosis? We now favor the latter view, exogenous infection, but it has not been many years since the former view, endogenous infection, was our gospel. Years ago we used to speak of the childhood type of tuberculosis. Now we call 169 JUN AT 9 170 it ‘first infection phase.” In this form of infection the tubercle bacillus localizes in the outer parenchyma of the lower- or mid- lung field, and there is developed an area which, when it later becomes encapsulated, calcified, or perhaps even ossified, is known as a Ghon tubercle. Before this happens, however, the little colony of tubercle bacilli, often too small to be seen with the naked eye, establishes connection with function- ally adjacent lymph nodes and there sets up a focus of tuberculous infection that in time usually becomes calcified and, if large enough, visible in X-ray plates. The tubercle and its involved lymph node form the Com- plex of Ranke. As a usual thing an indi- vidual harboring this pathology suffers, particularly if he is not a very young or a weakly person, few if any clinical symptoms. Some years ago it was believed that almost every child had such a “‘primary infection.”’ Now it is known that most children escape any form of tuberculous infection and that “first infection phase” tuberculosis comes in both adults and children. Is it the same usually benign disease in adults that it used to be in children, or is it much more serious? We have a debatable proposition. Years ago we used to speak also of the “adult” form of tuberculosis. Now we call it “reinfection phase”’ tuberculosis. This is tu- berculosis developing in an individual who has had “‘first infection phase” tuberculosis and is thereby a different host from the indi- vidual never contacted successfully by the tubercle bacillus. In this form of disease the lesion usually appears in the upper third of the lung and does not involve the function- ally connected lymph nodes. When such lesions heal they show less of calcification and more of resorption and fibrosis. Spread of this type of disease, which frequently oc- curs, is by caseation, liquefaction, and exca- vation. This ‘‘adult”’ type of disease can, of course, occur in a child provided it is an in- dividual who has had “‘first infection phase”’ tuberculosis. It was formerly thought that such disease arose chiefly from one’s own reservoir of tubercle bacilli held over from an arrested ‘‘first infection phase’’ attack. The fact that overwork, worry, under- nourishment, and other untoward socio- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 6 economic factors predispose to tuberculosis fitted in very well with the idea that each man carried about his own potential tuber- culosis and might light it up as an adult by lowering his personal resistance. The following quotation from the Ameri- can Review of Tuberculosis (1920) is not the point of view held today: In adults the problem of preventing infection requires very little attention. The great majority — of adults have already been infected before reach- ing adult life. What adults have to fear most is not further infection from without, but an exten- sion of the infection which they already have, leading to the development of a group of symp- toms which we are pleased to call the disease tuberculosis. All adults should of course avoid prolonged and intimate contact with the grossly careless tuberculous person; but there is little to be feared through ordinary contact. It has been said that the careful consumptive is not a danger to anyone. This might be modified to read the consumptive is a grave menace to infants, less dangerous to children, and no danger at all to adults if reasonable care be exercised. Let me emphasize again. We should not be afraid of the tubercle bacillus. For ourselves, as adults, as a rule we need fear no attack except from those that are now in our bodies. For the children, since we cannot permanently protect them from invasion, let us wisely choose the time when the bacilli are first to be met. If this be done, the tubercle bacilli may be transformed from a menacing enemy into a protecting friend. This is what should be taught to every adult, as com- prising the knowledge in accordance with which he should live and act as an individual. Today we favor the view that tubercu- losis may be contracted from continued contact with open cases and that its inci- dence may be reduced by eliminating sources of infection from milk or meat; by minimizing contact with open cases through early and accurate diagnosis and isolation; and by proper care of those having tubercu- losis including full attention to proper nu- trition and conditions of living. What a change of point of view within a generation! Some areas are even working on the hypoth- esis'that all tuberculosis can be prevented. Certainly one can not develop tuberculosis without first becoming tuberculin positive. Hence, in certain parts of the country where conditions are favorable an effort is being made to place tuberculosis on the county accreditation basis. In 1940 the death rate JUNE 15, 1944 for tuberculosis in the continental United States was 45.9 per 100,000, one of the finest rates anywhere in the world. It is a reasonable estimate that in that year about 50 percent of our total population were tuberculin positive. Minnesota has estab- lished county accreditation for tuberculosis. This “new idea in human tuberculosis con- trol” provides that a county shall be ac- credited in which there is an average annual death rate of 10 or less per 100,000 and a tuberculosis infection rate, as evidenced by a positive tuberculin test, of less than 15 percent among high-school seniors. At least seven of Minnesota’s 97 counties have al- ready qualified for this honor. Infiltration resulting in a positive X-ray diagnosis Sensitization. Entrance of bacilli into bodye In the sieeeee nayetge of cases no clinical symptoms appear and indeed in man such it is impossible to Failure of find any visible X-ray bacilli to evidence of tuberculous establish infection;i.e.,the themselves sensitizing lesion is in the obscure e bodye D1aGcraM I|.—The result of the invasion of the body by tubercle bacilli. Casual reference to tuberculous infection as something quite time extensive has prob- ably been confusing to the reader. Reference to Diagram I should assist in the under- standing of the early stages in the host- parasite Sana of the tubercle bacillus and man. Some diseases are short lived and de- cisive. The patient is sick two or three days and then is about his work. Such a disease is a mild attack of influenza. In typhoid fever, on the other hand, the patient may be ill six weeks or more, and there is a further period of convalescence to add to the six weeks’ loss of time from work. In tuberculosis there may be a very gradual PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 171 onset involving two or three years before the patient has any symptoms at all. Prob- ably every person in the United States has swallowed or inhaled at least one living tubercle bacillus even in this day of al- legedly fine progress in the elimination of tuberculosis. In half, or more than half of us, the microbe did not successfully invade the body. (Some of the points involved in the host-parasite relationship bearing on this point are fascinating to contemplate but difficult to set in order, and they are graphically suggested in Diagram II.) Shortly (two to seven weeks) after the tubercle bacillus has invaded the body the tissues become sensitized and the host is altered profoundly, just how profoundly we do not yet know. The elicitation of a posi- tive tuberculin test from such a person is only one aspect of the matter. The sensi- tized individual possesses a new reaction pattern, which he will keep as long as viable tubercle bacilli remain in his body. Fortunately, the great majority of sensi- tized individuals do not progress further toward clinical tuberculosis. Such indi- viduals are harmless to others in their en- vironment, for the tubercle bacilli causing the sensitization are locked within their bodies. Indeed, as Long has so well pointed out, the tuberculous individual does not enter into the epidemiological picture until his pathology is well advanced. Large le- sions caseate, liquefy, and erode into bronchi where bacilli are spread farther within the lung of the hapless patient or expectorated to the outside world. Interestingly enough, the number of tubercle bacilli becomes very great in an area of just this type, whereas they might have been rather few in the same area’ a month earlier. Only a few of those who become sciberere lin positive for the first time will progress to the point where roentgenological evidence can be obtained that they are ill, and of these by no means all will advance farther to the point where clinical symptoms can be noted. Furthermore, if taken at the stage of minimal tuberculosis, the disease is easy to arrest. Even if arrested the individual will still, for a long time, likely for life, harbor some of the tubercle bacilli that 172 multiplied within his body. It may seem odd that one can be in good health and play host to pathogenic organisms. Such a healthy arrested case should not be a source of danger to others, but it is important to point out that every extensive survey of adults reveals some of these individuals who are not satisfactorily arrested cases and who continue to work or even attempt to enlist in the Army or Navy while really suffering from moderately advanced or even far advanced tuberculosis. Ironically, many of them are not even aware of the serious- ness of their condition. The tubercle bacillus is not a vicious pathogen despite the fact that it causes the most important single disease from which man has ever suffered. It is therefore all the more important that the facts about tuberculosis be known, so that medical practice and science can con- tinue adequately in the effort to solve the tuberculosis problem. What is the present status of tuberculosis as a medical problem? First of all, it is worthy of note that there has been a very marked decrease in this . country in the number of deaths from tuberculosis. In 1900 the rate was 194.4 per 100,000; in 1940 it was 45.9; in 1942 it was 43.1. There was only 1 death in 1940 where Resistant JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quiiobies Stee Correlation of Avenue of VoL. 34, No. 6 there were 4.2 deaths in 1900. Not only has the number of deaths decreased but the distribution of those deaths has changed both within the total mortality picture and within the mosaic of tuberculosis itself. Table 1 will make some of these changes clear. It will be noted that in 1900 tuberculosis accounted for 11.3 percent of all deaths. By 1940 this figure had fallen 2.6 times, to 4.2 percent. Another significant point net shown in the table is that the disease is becoming pulmonary in type. In 1940, of the 60,428 deaths from tuberculosis, 55,576 deaths were pulmonary tuberculosis. Just over 8 percent were tuberculosis of the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, the bony structures, the skin, the lymphatics, the genitourinary system, generalized tuber- culosis, and infection of other organs. Forty years ago this figure would have been much higher. Other changes we may note are a great decrease in the proportion of deaths from tuberculosis in infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and even in early married life. There has been a relative increase in tuberculosis deaths in the middle and later years of life, and there is no longer for whites a peak in the curve representing deaths from tuberculosis. It is rather a plateau extending Invasiveness Aggressive weapons of the microbe Virulence Approach with Tropism | Frequenoy of Attack Magnitude of Assault Rapidity of Progress of Actio THE PARASITE Sus ceptible Diagram II.—Some of the factors entering into the host-parasite relationship which have much to do in determining the outcome of an infection. JUNE 15, 1944 over three or four of the most important decades of life. Tuberculosis mortality is much higher among males than among females. In the States Relations Division of the United States Public Health Service there is now a Tuberculosis Control Section headed by. Dr. H. E. Hilleboe. Tuberculosis mortality in the United States, 1939-1941, was re- viewed by three Public Health Service workers in Public Health Reports for Oc- tober 1, 1943. They point out that for these three years, 1939-1941, the male death rate (53.6) was 41 percent higher than the female rate (38.1). This excess in mortality among males is higher for tuberculosis than that from deaths from all causes. For these three years tuberculosis was seventh in numerical importance among the leading causes of death. There are very large racial differences in tuberculosis mortality, the rate for Ne- groes in 1940 (123.5) was nearly three and one-half times that for whites (36.6). The rate for Indians, Chinese, and other races was about double that for Negroes. Among non-whites tuberculosis was third in numeri- cal importance as a leading cause of death. Another point, hotly disputed in the epi- demiology of tuberculosis, is whether the Negro tuberculosis experience is the result PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 173 of the less favorable socio-economic condi- tions under which they live or is due to in- herent biological racial differences between whites and Negroes. Tuberculosis is still among the three lead- ing causes of death for a relatively large portion of the life span (15—49 years of age). It holds first place at ages 15 to 34, second at 35 to 39, and third at 40 to 49. For males tuberculosis is among the first three leading causes of death at ages 15 to 54, and for females at ages 10 to 44. For whites only, it is among the first three leading causes of death at ages 15 to 49 for both sexes, ages 20 to 54 for males, and 15 to 44 for females. Table 1 reveals the fact that though we have made worthwhile progress in the fight against tuberculosis this progress compares unfavorably with advances made in the control of such diseases as typhoid and diphtheria, and indeed for the whole group listed together in the table, viz., typhoid, malaria, measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough, and diphtheria. In 1900 tuberculosis caused only 1.7 times as many deaths as this arbitrarily selected group. In 1940 this figure became 7.1 by virtue of the more perfect control of the selected group of dis- eases. Significant, too, is the more marked diminution in the deaths that occur in chil- TABLE 1.—CHANGE IN DEatTH RaTEs (PER 100,000) From 1900 To 1940 ror TUBERCULOSIS AND SOME OTHER DISEASES Ratio Disease 1900 / 1900 1905 1910 1940 PANINDE OLAS ia ats eis ahs 0 1.59} 1,719.1 | 1,588.9 | 1,468.0 Tuberculosis.......... 4.2 194.4 179.9 153.8 ercentiop Gly. - sas. 2.6 6S} Lies 10.4 4 Ro) a0) (0 bt A ee Biles Slee 22.4 225 Malaria.............. 5.6 6.2 2d iL sik Measles’ !:si2...4..2- 26.6 118} 583 7.4 12.4 Scarlet fever.......... 19.2 9.6 6.8 11.4 Whooping cough...... bas 122 8.9 11.6 TONGA ESTIA ere. ccs.sisveie, = ye 36 .6 40.3 7433-19) Po aA MOAI re sp elels ewes LL7.6 112.9 (ies 80.1 Diarrhea in babies (—2)| 15.2 115.9 98.4 98.4 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1,317.6 | 1,298.9 | 1,168.1 | 1,132.1 | 1,094.5 | 1,076.4 140.1 113.1 84.8 yaa 55.1 45.9 10.6 8.7 7.2 6.2 5.0 4.2 11.8 7.6 Fake 4.7 2.7 1.0 1.6 3.4 2.0 2.9 3.5 staal 5.2 8.8 2.3 3.2 ean 0.5 3.6 4.6 2.7 1.9 2.1 0.5 8.2 12.5 6.7 4.8 aoa 2.2 15.2 15.3 7.8 4.9 Pail i 45.6 52.2 29.3 22.4 18.2 6.4 55.7 43.4 30.8 19.4 10.4 7.6 Data from the Bureau of the Census, based on the expanding Registration Area. Since 1933 this area includes all continental United States. The rate for tuberculosis was 4.2 times as high in 1900 as it was in 1940. This is for all ages. The change has not been the’same for all age groups: Wmd ert veanrcc. erase cs 6 12.6 25-34 years....... ond 65-74 years....... Belk l— 4 years........ eas 8.2 35-44 years....... 4.2 75-84 years....... 3.4 SHL4 Wears: jsf e. + ale 6.5 45-54 years....... 3.2 85 years and up... 3.2 15-24 years.......... 5.3 55-64 years....... 2.9 174 dren under two years of age from diarrhea and enteritis. That improvement in the tuberculosis picture has occurred is, of course, true. Our chances of dying of tuber- culosis are now computed at quite a more favorable level. It is also of interest to note that the percentage of persons tuberculin positive has been falling. For instance, one of the earliest reports on the results of tuberculin testing of a student group was based on a study conducted at the Univer- sity of Minnesota in 1928. Thirty-one per- cent of 2,000 students were found to be tuberculin positive. In1941—1942 only 17 per- cent of 5,481 students were positive. Thus in 13 years there was a reduction of 45 per- cent in the number of tuberculin reactors. Similar information gathered from school surveys all over the country is much more significant than may on first thought occur to one. We are fast becoming a nation of un- sensitized individuals with respect to tuber- culosis. There has long been a considerable school that has maintained that sensitiza- tion in the sense of tubercularization with- out progression is protection. What, they ask, will be the outcome as more and more tuberculin negative children become adults and first meet the tubercle bacillus under war-time and reconstruction conditions? It is possible that the medical-school tubercu- losis problem may cast light upon this matter, but before that point can be pre- sented it is logical to consider the effect of war on tuberculosis morbidity and mor- tality. What was the effect on the tuberculosis rate of World War I? Dr. Long describes the situation in Europe by observing: “‘After years of continuous drop, the rate began rising in 1915 and by 1918 had reached a figure in all countries about 25 percent higher than at the beginning of the war.” Wolff has described the privations of the period as ‘‘an involuntary mass experiment ... Of more epidemiological importance than endless theorizing on the pathology of tuberculosis.”’? These statements may be amplified in the words of an August, 1941, article in the Statistical Bulletin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., in part as follows: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 6 The experience of the World War of 1914-1918 affords an indication of what is likely to occur. None of the belligerent countries escaped an in- crease in tuberculosis then, and practically all of the neutral countries of Europe suffered either an increase in tuberculosis or a slowing up of the pre- war rate of decline. The most reliable data for the period relate to the trends among women and children in England and Germany. Among Eng-. lish women the mortality from pulmonary tuber- culosis rose steadily during the war to a peak in 1918, when it was over 25 percent higher than in 1913. Among German women the pulmonary tuberculosis death rate rose slowly at first, but after 1916 the increase was very rapid, so that by 1918 the rate was nearly 75 percent above that of 1913. Indeed, in Germany the death rate from tuberculosis among women did not return to the prewar level until 1921; and this improvement was - not maintained for a few years following. The rate of increase among German females was greatest at ages under 20 years. Among children the rate in 1919 was even higher than during the war. Far worse was the situation among the other belligerent countries of the Continent, but only fragmentary statistical data are available to show the frightful increases in some of these areas. The statistics of tuberculosis mortality in France dur- ing the war are defective because of the absence of facts for the invaded regions, where the situa- tion was at its worst. The data for the uninvaded portion show a sharp increase, particularly in 1917 and 1918. In the latter year the recorded rate was about 20 percent higher than in 1914. The accuracy of these statistics is doubtful, and the actual increase was probably larger. To some extent the same observation probably holds for_. Italy, but in that country even the recorded deaths from tuberculosis in 1918 were over 40 percent in excess of the 1914 rate. A few examples will show the extremely bad conditions in Belgium and in eastern and south- eastern Europe. In Brussels the death rate from tuberculosis doubled during the war, from 177 per 100,000 in 1914 to 390 in 1918. In Vienna the rate in the period 1915-1918 was 20 percent higher than in 1911-1914, and in the early postwar years it increased to 50 percent above the prewar rate. In Budapest the number of deaths’ from the dis- ease in 1917 was nearly double that of 1913, and it was but little less in 1918. In Warsaw the rate in 1917 was 840 per 100,000, as compared with 306 in 1913; in Cracow during the same period the rate increased from 487 to 908 per 100,000. In Belgrade the tuberculosis death rate in 1918 reached the almost incredible figure of 1,400 per 100,000. Typical of the trend of tuberculosis in the neutral countries of Europe during the World War are the experiences of the Netherlands and Switzerland. In the former, the death rate from the disease rose steadily, until in 1918 it was nearly 50 percent above the 1914 figure. In JUNE 15, 1944 Switzerland, where the trend was sharply down- ward before the war, the rate continued to fall at first, but rose in the latter part of the war to a peak of 207 per 100,000 in 1917, or 6 percent above the rate in 1914. In our own country the mortality from tubercu- losis showed little change during the World War _ period as a whole, but even here there was a slight increase in the death rate during the period of our active participation in the war. Thus the death rate in the original Registration States de- clined from 148.6 per 100,000 in 1914 to 143.8 in 1916, but then rose to 147.1 in 1917 and further to 151.0 in 1918.” These increases come about through breakdown in resistance to disease on the part of the host, to increase in opportunities for infection, and to a decrease in or, indeed, collapse of facilities available for proper recognition, isolation and treatment of dis- ease. Specifically some of the factors for tuberculosis are: 1. The entrance of women into heavy and fatiguing industry. 2. The return of the older age groups to active employment. 3. The return to work of persons of either sex or any age physically unfit to work. 4. Long hours of work often emotionally compensated for by long hours of strenuous or injudicious relaxation—“‘burning the candle at both ends.” 5. Relocation in areas of intense war indus- try activity resulting in congested living condi- tions without adequate sanitary facilities. 6. Relocation in areas of intense war industry activity where tuberculosis rates may be high by persons coming from areas where tubercu- losis rates are low. 7. Congestion in concentration camps, war prisoners’ camps, evacuation depots or camps, and air-raid shelters. 8. Use of hospital beds formerly allocated to the tuberculous for more urgent war needs or actual destruction of hospital facilities by the bombings or bombardments of “‘total’’ warfare. 9. Loss of trained personnel’to the war need —physicians, nurses, attendants, laboratory workers, and social workers—all needed to care for an increasing load of tuberculosis patients. 10. Food shortages, both qualitative and quantitative. 11. Impossibility for perfect rest conditions PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 175 so necessary for the tuberculous and the pre- tuberculous. 12. Worry and anxiety over the fate of one’s relatives or even of one’s country. One of these points deserves particular emphasis as far as this country is concerned. As pointed out in an editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine for January 27, 1944, “it is estimated that 25,000 had been diagnosed (at induction) to have a dis- ease that neither they nor their friends would have suspected under prewar condi- tions. And how are these patients, many of whom need sanatorium treatment, going to be accommodated by the currently re- stricted personnel of the sanatoriums?” Early in 1942 the number of beds for tuber- culosis patients in this country totaled 97,726, or 1.62 per annual death, which is at best well below the minimum standard set at 2 beds per annual death and far below the more ideal standard of 3. In 1942 only seven states and the District of Columbia had met the minimum standard. It is quite possible that under present conditions of personnel shortage the paper figure of 97,726 beds available for tuberculosis patients must be considerably discounted. Where fighting is actually going on the condition is, of course,-much worse. Just what has happened thus far in the present war? Hilleboe states that by the last half of 1942 in the United States the Bureau of the Census, by a sampling process, had sensed an increase in tubercu- losis in the “critical areas,’ although the total figure for 1942 represents an all-time low rate of 48.1 per 100,000. In England he notes a 13 percent increase in deaths from all forms of tuberculosis in 1941 as against 1938. This represents more than 3,000 additional deaths each year from a preventable disease. Recently in the British Medical Journal (January 8, 1944) it is stated that in Belgium the registered cases of tuberculosis increased from 69,079 in December, 1941, to 109,511 in February, 1943, an increase in rate from the high figure of 830 per 100,000 to the startling figure of 1,330 per 100,000. If there are 10 clinical cases of tuberculosis for every annual death 176 we have in the United States less than 600,000 cases at the present time or only six times as many as now exist in little Belgium, which has perhaps only one-twentieth of our population. Many of our people are in, or shortly will be in, these unfortunate Euro- pean countries. It would seem a safe prophecy to venture that the tuberculosis rate in this country may be slightly in- creased for a short period, but it should within a very few years again resume its downward trend. In view of the very low rate now obtain- ing (43.1 in 1942) it would be reasonable to expect a greater setback relatively than we experienced at the end of World War I. The magnitude of this setback may not be so much one of significantly increased rate as of slowness to get under way again on the downward trend. For a disease as widely seeded in our population as tuberculosis and for a population more completely in- volved in abnormal war activity than was the case in World War I, it would not be surprising if this were to be so and the very favorable rates now attained would seem to be advanced posts we may have to abandon for some time. One factor in this slightly pessimistic prediction is our closeness to and commerce with the rest of the world in many parts of which tuberculosis is ram- pant. At one time the hope was expressed that we might be able to eradicate tuberculosis by a given date—say 1960. It should be understood that any such statement was merely a slogan, a cry behind which to rally the forces fighting the great white plague. As Frost ably pointed out in one of his last papers, entitled ‘““How Much Control of Tuberculosis?” it “is not necessary that transmission be immediately and com- pletely prevented. It is necessary only that the rate of transmission be held permanently below the level at which a given number of infection spreading (i.e., open) cases succeed in establishing an equivalent number to carry on the succession. If, in successive periods of time, the number of infectious hosts is continuously reduced, the end re- sult of this diminishing ratio, if continued long enough, must be the extermination of the tubercle bacillus.”’ I am not aware that JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 6 Frost ever set any date for this millennium. As a very humble student of epidemiology Iam sure I can not. I doubt though if under present war conditions we have any reason to anticipate any lowering of the death rate for the entire country from 43.1 to even 10 per 100,000 for several decades. Many mil- lions of Americans are already tuberculin positive; thousands of unrecognized ad- vanced cases of tuberculosis exist today; Europe and indeed most of the rest of the world is heavily tubercularized. It is too much to expect tuberculosis death rates to continue to drop as rapidly as they have in the past. To reduce 194.4 by 10 percent is not so difficult as to reduce 43.1 by 10 per- cent. One other point that Frost makes de- serves our attention. He states: “It is highly probable that the cyclic changes in preva- lence which are observed in some diseases are brought about chiefly by evolutionary changes in the characteristics of the specific microorganisms, the causes of which are to be found in uncontrolled natural forces.’ Frost mentions scarlet fever and diphtheria, as two of the diseases that within the past 100 years have greatly changed, although in the case of diphtheria the change re- versed itself and diphtheria is again a prob- lem of some significance in parts of the world. Smallpox, since the Spanish Ameri- can War, has been relatively mild when it has occurred in this country and in 1942 caused but two deaths. It could be possible that cyclic changes may be taking place in the nature of the tubercle bacillus making it less invasive, but whether this is so, how long it will continue, or whether it will re- verse are propositions very difficult of proof. Again, case-finding among medical students and physicians yields results with suggestive implications for this point. Case-finding means looking for cases of a given disease. It is done to discover unrecog- nized cases that should be brought under treatment for their own good and isolated or educated so that the public health may be protected by removing active sources of infection. Although useful for several dis- eases such as malaria and hookworm, even syphilis, case-finding is particularly adapted to tuberculosis. It is possible through tuber- June 15, 1944 culin testing to discover those belonging to the tuberculin positive group of persons who can have tuberculosis and, by X-ray exami- nation, to detect which of these have physi- cal signs almost certain before long to pro- duce clinical symptoms. Such individuals may be satisfactorily arrested with a mini- mum of treatment and loss of time whereas if the minimal case is not discovered in its incipiency a moderately advanced or even a far advanced case may result which is dif- ficult or impossible to arrest. The great ad- vantage to the careful examination of the would-be soldier or sailor is that tubercu- losis is discovered, as never before, in the stage in which it is possible to do something about the matter. From the first approxi- mately 400,000 men appearing for the Canadian Army, 1 percent were rejected for tuberculosis. Of 3,530 of these rejectees, there were 1,970 minimal tuberculosis, 1,298 moderately advanced cases, and 262 far advanced cases. This ratio of the differ- ent clinical types (and the same is true for all other large scale screenings) is the exact reverse of what occurs when we let nature take its course. In the past, minimal cases have been a minority in the treatment pro- gram with moderately advanced and far advanced cases constituting the great majority of cases coming to the attention of the physician and the care of his sanatorium. It is to be hoped that although we are at war care will be taken that the young men and women found to have tuberculosis will be adequately cared for. Tuberculin testing is time consuming and costly and, I regret to say, is sometimes omitted from the case-finding set up. Cel- luloid films, 14 by 17 inches, are also very expensive, and several substitutes have been worked out making it possible to examine the lungs of all members of a group (a good case-finding team can do 500 per- sons a day) at a reasonable cost. While this expedient works and is therefore justified, from the epidemiological point of view it is distinctly faulty because the tuberculin test gives information we must have for the proper understanding of the disease, and the large plate provides a permanent record unequaled by most of the less costly substi- tutes. At George Washington University PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS rer Medical School, through the interest and cooperation of the dean, a proper and com- plete case-finding program has been in progress almost five years. The organization and operation of this program are graphical- ly indicated in Diagram ITI. It will be seen from Diagram III that five different agencies must be integrated in the program. These are the tuberculin-testing group, the X-ray group, the chest physician group, the laboratory group, and the sana- torlum group. Coordination is best effected by that agency having most student con- tact, which in our institution is the tubercu- lin-testing agency represented by the writer. When there is sufficient interest in the pro- gram on the part of the coordinator the cooperation of the other agencies is easily obtained and cheerfully given. In addition to the value of such a program to the health of the student body the tuberculosis case- finding program is an admirable laboratory experiment in preventive medicine. When it was realized that exposure to open cases of tuberculosis had to be con- sidered as an important factor in the etiology of the disease it was only natural that thought turned to medical personnel— physicians, nurses, hospital attendants, and students of medicine and nursing—as per- sons having an industrial hazard with re- spect to tuberculosis. Three examples will illustrate the validity of this assumption. Diehl and Myers reported in 1940 that at Minnesota it had been possible to check effectively on the careers of 1,673 of 1,894 medical students graduating from 1919 to 1936. Among these there were 107 cases of tuberculosis, 5 occurring before college, and 47 after college. It was found that 46 deaths had occurred among the 1,673, of which 11 had been from tuberculosis. Again it is well known that inmates of our mental hospitals form a group among whom tuberculosis is especially important. A re- cent study of such individuals in New York revealed that on the average tuberculosis deaths in such groups in this state were rela- tively 12 times more numerous than for the state as a whole. In certain such institutions in this country where careful case-finding programs have been carried out on the at- tendants rates of infection and actual evi- 178 dence of disease, much higher than occurs for other individuals in the same area have been found. Thirdly, the early experience at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania revealed the sig- nificance in that institution of tuberculosis for medical students. Less than 10 years ago among 514 Pennsylvania students 5.8 per- cent of significant tuberculosis was found. Happily, results in most other schools are much better, and in fairness to Pennsyl- vania it should be pointed out that subse- quent studies there have revealed a very much lower rate. Nevertheless, there seemed to be much logic to the statement made in 1930 by Stiedl of Trudeau when he said: ‘“Tuberculosis might be called an industrial hazard for the medical profession. It is the most important chronic disabling disease for the medical student, the young physi- cian and the nurse.”’ All new students Intradermal Tuberculin Test, using P.P.De (a) 0.00002 mg (b) 0.005 mg ‘No lung pathology Full 14 x 17 in? > antero-posterior viow,celluloid plate ,with expert interpretation. Suggestive Findings in sanitorium tained, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Major focus of attention. retest each semestoere sent to X-ray at once and each term thereafter for at least two years, advice by Speciale Significant # indings at home or better until satisfacto arrest is at- VOL. 34, NO. 6 In 1939 a case-finding program at George Washington University School of Medicine was instituted. For many years prior to this, as I shall show presently, we had been making tuberculin surveys of all students, but a complete case-finding program had not, prior to 1939, been in existence in our institution. It is greatly to the credit of my former colleague, Dr. John H. Hanks, now in the Philippines, and Dr. David James, then president of the Junior Class, that they furnished much of the initial enthusiasm needed to get the program under way. The interest from: the first of Dean Walter A. Bloedorn and the whole-hearted coopera- tion of the roentgenological and chest physician group insured the success of the project. We have already indicated in a dia- gram how tuberculosis case-finding works. It remains merely to give some of the re- sults and to make a few observations. Minor focus of attention as long as healthy. course and at graduation* X-ray half way through Tuberculin Positives If found “not significant” follow closely with X-rays ,otc eas ordered o Full and careful study, diagnosis and ized Chest Physician, laboratory aid in making diag- nosis ,-sputum search,blood counts ,sedimen= tation tests. * In practice every student is tuberculin tested ,wwhether + or =, each semester the first three semesters but thereafter only if negative or weakly positive. Diacram JII.—Tuberculosis case-finding program at the School of Medicine, George Washington University. June 15, 1944 The percentage of tuberculin positive re- actors among fourteen consecutive classes totaling 1,007 students at George Washing- ton University School of Medicine is shown in Table 2. With so many tuberculin nega- tive students in school, a situation true in most other schools also, it was only natural TABLE 2.—TUBERCULIN TESTS on 14 ConsEcUTIVE MEDICAL CLASSES AT THE GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Percent Class Status Number panties 1936 Sophomore 62 82.2 1936 Freshman 71 98.5 1937 Freshman 69 78.2 1938 Freshman 74 54.0 1939 Freshman 65 55.3 1940 Freshman 64 60.9 1941 Freshman 69 69.5 “1942”* Freshman 71 42.2 “1943” Freshman 74 44.6 “1944” Freshman 65 46.1 “1945” Freshman 78 34.6 Peo OAG:? Freshman 77 40.2 “1947”" Freshman 83 53.0 “1948” Freshman 85 43.5 * This school has been on the accelerated plan since before Pearl Harbor; the entering classes no longer require 4 years for graduation. TABLE 3.—TRACING MEDICAL STUDENTS, ORIGINALLY TUBERCULIN NEGATIVE Total Peano Of Nume Number | Of these, students | of these who number Class tuberculin| who eats graduat- Per- agicines left pleted ing tu- | cent as Fresh- | school all 4 ber culin en years negative Graduating 35 5 30 22 US Nov. 1943 Graduating 42 6 36 21 58 Feb. 1943 Graduating 40 3 37 23 62 1942 Graduating 21 5 16 7 44 1941 3 Graduating 24 6 18 13 72 1940 Graduating 30 6 24 11 46 1939 Totals 192 31 161 97 60 Of the 64 students, originally tuberculin negative, who be- came tuberculin positive, fowr developed clinical tuberculosis— one man losing two years, one losing one year, and two no time loss. All four at present are in fine physical condition. PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 179 to expect that many of them would become tuberculin positive. A good many of these tuberculin negative students did become tuberculin positive but not nearly so many of them as one might expect. Washington is in an area of high tuberculosis mortality (1940 figures, entire U.S.A., 45.9 per 100,000 population, District of Columbia, 64.4; Maryland 79.1; Virginia, 58.1), and our students certainly come into contact with tubercle bacilli. We were particularly im- pressed by the large number of those who were originally tuberculin negative and who remained negative through a complete medical education in Washington, D. C. Data on this point are presented in Table 3. We were further impressed by the fact that a considerable number of medical students who gave weakly positive tubercu- lin tests later became negative. Students were not followed prior to 1939 through all semesters; hence the figures on this point do not include all our approximately 1,000 students. Of those followed (666), however, 134 have reacted only to the strong dose of Purified Protein Derivative. This represents a low grade of sensitivity due perhaps to an almost negligible original sensitizing le- sion or to a lesion almost completely steri- lized or possibly, in an occasional case, to a nonspecific reaction. Nine classes are in- cluded in this aspect of the study, four of which are still in school, on whom obviously the data are not yet complete. In the five classes concerned that have graduated 56 showed weakly positive reactions as Fresh- men. Of these, 18 showed stronger reactions as they progressed through school, indicat- ing some sort of sensitizing or immunizing process at work. Six became entirely nega- tive and one became weaker in tuberculin reactivity, 22 remained the same, and a few of the original Freshmen did not graduate. Among the 666 students of these nine classes 319 were positive to some strength of tuber- culin as Freshmen (47.9 percent). Of these, 134 (42.0 percent) were weak reactors. Among the 323 students of the last four classes there were 139 reacting to tuberculin (43.0 per cent), of whom 78 were only weak- ly positive (56.1 percent). Among the 343 students in this series who have graduated there were 180 tuberculin reactors (52.4 180 percent), but of these only 56 were weak reactors (31.1 percent). Several points may be made regarding these data. An environment containing tubercle bacilli does not prevent a certain number of weakly positive tuberculin re- actors from becoming negative. These in- dividuals may be thought of as resistant strains of the human race. Our newer stu- dents are showing not only a lower total tubercularization rate but also a tubercu- larization of less intensity. Tubercle bacilli in the environment are doing less to medical students than formerly. This is susceptible to three interpretations. The tubercle bacilli in the environment are becoming fewer; they are losing invasiveness and virulence; or, thirdly, the resistance of the young white American to tuberculosis is increas- ing. The first point is obvious but can hardly be the whole explanation. I believe we miss the full significance of the data if we do not also allocate some importance to each of the other two explanations. Weight is added to this suggestion when we consider that the total number of tuber- culin negative students in the school, all presumably susceptible to successful in- vasion by the tubercle bacillus, is increasing. This number is the census made up each semester after the tests are done. In Novem- ber, 1941, there were 147 -tuberculin- negative students in the school. In June, 1942, this number was 157. In November, 1943, it was 166 among 313 students, or a student body only 46.9 percent tuberculin positive. There has been a slight increase in the total number of students in the school, but this has-been balanced off by the fact that our last two classes, though the initial tuberculin positive rate was low, had higher percentages than the average of the pre- ceding four classes (48.3 as against 41.3 per- cent). Furthermore, since this program was started in 1939, only nine students have been found with minimal tuberculosis, al- though three others were detected shortly following graduation. At the present time, with 313 students in attendance, not one has minimal tuberculosis. This fine record surpasses that revealed in almost any mass | survey of adults. Among 28,098 U. 8. Gov- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 6 ernment employees fecently surveyed, 1.1 — percent had recognizable tuberculosis (60.7 percent minimal; 35.3 percent moderately advanced; 4.0 percent far advanced). It has been our purpose in presenting these observations to emphasize that al- though remarkable progress has been made in combating tuberculosis that progress has not equaled advance achieved in controlling other well-known diseases. We must believe that tuberculosis is still a major problem. Its eradication may be set back by the war but not irrevocably. Tuberculosis morbidity and mortality can be reduced to a satis- factorily low level, but I do not expect to see in my lifetime the absolute elimination of the disease. Our evidence suggests that the tuberculosis problem is not at present unduly significant for medical students and that there is some ground for considering either that the young white adult has more resistance to the tubercle bacillus than his father possessed or that the Mycobacterrwm tuberculosis is losing some of its virulence. Possibly a little of both is true. REFERENCES ALTSHULER, S. S., and Battey, L. J. Control of tuberculosis in an institution for the men- tally ill. Amer. Rev. Tubere. 44: 335- 345. 1941. BUREAU OF THE CrENsus. Vital statistics rates in the United States, 1900-1940. 16th Census of the United States, 1940. 1943. Dieut, H.S., and Myrsrs, J. A. Tuberculosis prevention, immunization and periodic health examinations among medical stu- dents. Journ. Assoc. Amer. Med. Colleges 15: 104-114. 1940. DosBiE, W. J. The prevention of tuberculosis: What we should teach today. Amer. Rev. Tubere. 4: 23-31. 1920. Frost, W. H. How much control of tubercu- — losis? Amer. Journ. Public Health 27: 759-766. 1937. Hittesor, H. E. Opportunities in the newer methods of tuberculosis case finding. Public Health Reports 58: 1094-1101. 1943. Lone, E. R. From pathology to epidemrology in tuberculosis. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 104: 18838-1888. 1935. . Constitution and related factors in re- sistance to tuberculosis. Arch. Path. 32: 122-162, 286-310. 1941. Parr, L. W. Factors in resistance to tubercu- losis as revealed by a case finding program. Southern Med. Journ. 36: 806-312. 1943. JUNE 15, 1944 Sorer, W. B., and Amperson, J. B. Pul- monary tuberculosis in young adults, par- ticularly among medical students and nurses. Amer. Rev. Tuberc. 39: 9-32. 1939. Wourr, G. Tuberculosis mortality as an index of hygienic control. Amer. Rev. Tuberc. 34: 734-748. 1936. Wooprurr, C. E., and Keuiy, R. G. The ETHNOLOGY.—Algonkian ethnohistory of the Carolina Sound.’ MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 181 correlation between anatomical changes and the allergic state in tuberculous guinea pigs. Journ. Immunology 45: 79-85. 1942. YERUSHALMY, J., HiuuEBor, H. E., and PaumMeR, C. E. Tuberculosis mortality in the United States, 1939-41. Health Public Reports 58: 1457-1482. 1943. Maurice A. Mook, American University. (Communicated by Wruuiam N. Fenton.) SOURCES During the period of first white contacts the Indian tribes inhabiting the area of the present State of North Carolina were of three linguistic stocks—the Iroquoian, Siouan, and Algonkian. The first two groups have been made the objects of investigation by both historians and anthropologists, but the Algonkian have been neglected and are still commonly called, as for example by Kroeber, the “‘little known” inhabitants of the Carolina Sound. Even the names and identities of some of the tribes are still in doubt—a situation due partly to the lack of primary historical sources relating to the groups in question and partly to students’ failure to exploit thoroughly such sources as are readily available. The sources are few enough, and they are not particularly re- warding ethnologically. It seems time, how- ever, to attempt an ethnohistorical picture of the area such as we already have for the neighboring native areas of the state (1).? The Algonkian-speaking tribes of eastern North Carolina represent the southernmost extension of the groups of this linguistic relation which inhabited the Eastern States. All the tribes of New England were Algon- kian in speech, those of the eastern portions of the Middle Atlantic states were of the same linguistic family, and the inhabitants of the tidewater area from the Potomac to the Neuse River were similarly affiliated (2). The classification is entirely linguistic, rather than racial or cultural, and is the only one available in the light of present informa- tion. The English were not so interested in 1 Received February 28, 1944. 2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the “‘Notes” at the end of the paper. native peoples as were the French or even the Spanish, and the historic ethnology of areas of English colonization is proportion- ately inferior. However, scattered native words in the relations of the Roanoke ad- ‘venturers, modern place names of Indian derivation in the area, and the short Pam- lico vocabulary given by Lawson in his History (3) are sufficient to justify the clas- sification of the eastern native Carolinians as indisputably Algonkian. The delimitation of the area of aboriginal Algonkian occupancy in Carolina is com- plicated by the fact that it was not coter- minous with natural geographical lines of division, as was the case in Virginia. The Algonkian tribes of the Powhatan Con- federacy in Virginia inhabited the tidewater area, with the fall line of the tidal rivers marking the western limit of Algonkian tribal distribution. In Carolina, however, tribes of Iroquoian and of Siouan speech also occupied the coastal plain. These latter groups were the western and southern neighbors of the Algonkian, with the latter inhabiting the region east of a line drawn from Bogue Inlet due north to the inter- section of Meherrin River and the Virginia-— Carolina line. Algonkian peoples thus oc- cupied the greater portion of the area now contained in the 17 easternmost counties of the State, including most of the offshore islands. Algonkian occupancy covered some 6,000 square miles, approximately one- sixth of the land area of the modern State. The limits of distribution are tentative, however, for the western Algonkian bound- ary is merely suggested by contemporary accounts. Our knowledge of the Carolina Algonkian of the late sixteenth century is derived 182 entirely from the documents of Raleigh’s Roanoke enterprise. Historical research has added little of ethnological significance to the relations published by Hakluyt in 1590. It is now possible, however, to interpret these with less ethnohistorical naiveté than was characteristic of the days of Hawks, Hale, and Tarbox (4). Also for the problem of reconstructing tribal geography at the time of contact students now have access to facsimiles.of John White’s original maps of the Carolina coast (5). Until the publication of these facsimiles it was generally assumed that the engravings published by De Bry were faithful reproductions of the John White drawings. The De Bry engravings however, are now shown to be embellish- ments of White’s original maps and other ethnological pictures (6). It has been said that ‘‘De Bry’s engravings were copied, plagiarized, redrawn and re-interpreted for generations after his time’’ and that ‘“‘De Bry is the man who immortalized the pictures (and maps) of the Roanoke colony” (7). This is historically correct, but it is also true that De Bry himself ‘‘copied, redrew, and re-interpreted”’ and that his pictures “‘immortalized”’ elaborations of the John White originals, rather than the origi- nals themselves. Students of history and ethnology will prefer the originals in ac- curate facsimile (8). These are particularly valuable, for they are the first pictorial record of Algonkian environment and cul- ture in the New World. Other than by the use of archeological methods it is impossible to come nearer to the aboriginal situation of precontact times in this area than by study of White’s drawings and the written records of 1585-1590. The written materials of the Roanoke colony are exceedingly uneven as sources of aboriginal history. Hariot’s Report (9) is usually considered the classic in this respect, but it is disappointing as a document for ethnological and historical reconstruction. Unfortunately, Hariot’s ‘Chronicle, ac- cording to the course of times,”’ which in his Briefe Report he stated he had written and was holding for a ‘‘convenient’”’ time for publication, apparently never was printed, or, if it was, it is now among the missing documents of the history of Roanoke settle- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 6 ment. From the point of view of historical anthropology this is a particular misfortune, for Hariot tells us that the Chronicle was a “large discourse... of the naturall in- habitants” (10). | Whereas Hariot’s Report is quite silent on matters of tribal identity, location, his- tory, and intertribal relationships, its sec- tion on ‘‘the nature and maners of the people” is historical in the sense that it describes aspects of the native culture at the time of contact. It is a gross exaggera- tion, however, to speak of it as ‘‘a statistical survey on a large scale” (11). Both his- torically and ethnologically it is less inform- ing than Barlow’s The first voyage made to the coasts of America (12). The value of the Barlow relation, on the other hand, is some- what reduced by the fact that the first voyage was one merely of preliminary ex- ploration, by an expedition too small in size and too short in duration to make more than superficial surveys of a small portion of the coast. Relationships with the natives were friendly, and Barlow was successful in obtaining considerable information during the few weeks he was in the Algonkian area. His tract was a report to Raleigh that pre- sented a more hopeful picture of colonizing prospects than the resources of the region deserved, but there is little to indicate that his descriptions of native life are charac- terized by mistakes other than those that were the natural result of misunderstanding due to hasty and untrained observation. White’s relations of the fourth and fifth voyages made to Roanoke in 1587 and 1590 (13) are journals of the voyages, rather than accounts of experiences in the Carolina area. As such they are of little value as sources for the study of native history. Their almost complete lack of ethnological consciousness is sufficient, in fact, to suggest that John White the governor and the author of the relations may have been a dif- ferent person than John White the artist of Lane’s colony and the author of the map of 1585 (14). The map, with its long list of native locations, and the drawings of Indian scenes and subjects reveal an awareness of the native inhabitants that seems entirely foreign to the relations of the last two voyages. JUNE 15, 1944 MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 183 ROANOKE Dasamonquepeuc = pee PB Moratocs S (R ANOAK) Pa |X 3 hey AON x= TREMOLITE - i WW 25 Mg3Si40\g.0H > Ww TALC x 7) 25 ow ‘ : ©] 233 RSi07 | BeCOHNaSi,07 a. EPIDIDYMITE | 225 RSigQq KaSigQg 2 $i05 ie Fig. 1.—A hypothetical diagram Shoaie the types of compounds appearing in a system, RO-SiO;2. Typical minerals corresponding to. vari- ous stages of silicate polymerization are listed, Ava. 15, 1944 phosphate, Al(POs3)s. The (Si03)s~!? meta- silicate group, which one might refer to as the hexametasilicate group, is present in the minerals beryl and cordierite. Six mem- bered groups that are elements of sheet and space polymers have two other configura- tions, one of which is shown in Fig. 2. Metasilicate compositions can _ also be given by infinite linear polymers, or (SiO3)n7-2% chains, which are analogous to the polyisoprene chains of rubber. Solids containing this group have the expected property of forming fibrous massés or masses with lathlike cleavages. Separation of these groups from melts which contain a mixture of less extended forms is a slow process of polymerization in which the catalyst, equivalent to a peroxide for a diene, is the crystal growing from a nu- cleus. More elaborate silicate polymers are il- lustrated by Fig. 3. The upper chain of SiO, groups is the chain metasilicate (SiO3)n2, which can be doubled as above the dotted line on the left to form (Sis011)n~*®™ chains of the type that are present in the amphi- boles. The (S8isO11)n-®% chain or double chain, however, could equally well be con- sidered as a polymer in which the pattern element is the 6-silicon ring (SiQ3),~? group. Repetition of this group or of the metasilicate chain, as above the line on the right, would lead first to an (Sis03)n74% in- ow ho CD) oho 96 ey Sa) Saal poe GAG THORTVEITITE HEMIMORPHITE no) bee CSi0sd (sid f ) pot, BaTiCSi 023 AIC PO2)z HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 243 finite polymer in which one-third of the silicon ions share four oxygen ions with their neighbors and the remaining three oxygen ions. While a polymer of this com- position is known, it has an entirely dif- ferent configuration as will be shown in the later discussion of BaeSizO. The limit of repetition of a polymerizing pattern of the type shown in Fig. 3 would be a sheet polymer with the composition (Sis010)n74N. This polymer is observed in some of the micas and clay minerals and it imparts the platy character to these sub- stances. If two such sheets are superim- posed into a double sheet then the resulting polymer will be one in which all oxygen ions are shared between silicon ions and the composition will be SiOz. While none of the known forms of silica has this configuration, it is thought to occur as plates in one of the minerals related to kaolinite (4). An alternative arrangement of the 6- silicon ring (SiO3)s—” group or of the meta- silicate chain can be considered as the structural element in the tridymite form of silica. Repetition of the polymerizing element leads to complete space filling and we thus see the prototype for cross linking in organic polymers. Space filling is accom- plished in other ways in the two other crystalline modifications of silica which will not be discussed here. The known (Si30s)n7*% polymer which -0.9!2 BERYL BezAl(Si 02 6 -0_y72N ENSTATITE MgSi03 Fig. 2.—Configurations of some silicate groups. The tetrahedral (SiO.)~4 group is shown in the several different ways that will be followed in the various figures. 244 might have been formed with (S103), as a structural element really is built up in a different way as shown in Fig. 4 (4). The pattern element might be looked upon either as an (Si03)4-® group or a new con- figuration of the (SiO3)n~2% infinite chain. Continuation of this type of pattern leads to a sheetlike structure of the composition SiO2. Such a form of silica, however, has not been observed. A continuation of the (Si303)n-*% poly- mer in which the infinite (SisOs3)y~4% mul- tiple chain can be considered as the pattern element is present in the mineral epididy- mite. This polymer is formed by sharing of the oxygen ions on the upper edge of one (Sis03)n*% chain with those on a lower edge of another chain as shown in Fig. 4, a. The final composition is (Sis07)n72%. wee eee ee eee INCREASING POLYMERIZATION——>» a SON! cei aN ee CSLODPN (SIZ DYN CSIZO.GKY CSI, 0550 PYROXENES §$AMPHIBOLES MICAS ANAUXITE Fig. 3.—Polymerization pattern with a ring of six silica tetrahedra as the pattern element. | (Si,07),7N Epipipymite CBeOH)NaSi,0, LIMIT OF (Si,0g),N CONTINUATION= (sid, J9 a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 34, No. 8 One of the distinctive properties of sili- cate systems is the general absence of solid solutions between compounds having dif- ferent polymerization indices. Eskola, how- ever, in his study of the system BaO-SiOz (6), found an exception to this rule in the formation of a complete series of solid solutions between BaeSis0s3 and BaSisOip. These solid solutions apparently result from the union of (Siz30s)n~4N chains through the addition of SiOz as shown in Fig. 4, b (C). In a sense this is copolymerization of (Sis0s)n4N chains and SiO, leading to a sheet polymer having the composition (Si,Oi0)n~*N ~which can alternatively be reached after the pattern of Fig. 3 and in several other ways by (P20s5)n°® and (V20s5)n°. The mineral gillespite, BaFe 8isO19, which might be expected to have a structural re- semblance to Ba2Si,O1, contains an en- tirely different type of polymer (7). It is formed by repetition of an (SiO3)4~® ele- ment, but one having a different configura- tion from that present in Fig. 4. The element and the structural pattern of the (Sis010)n74% polymer is similar to that of apophyllite. In the end it seems that silicate polymers have a preference for four and six SiO, membered rings as polymer elements. Since this is general, it would appear in part to be determined by factors other than the surroundings in a specific solid and might be due to the considerable concentration of the pattern elements in the melt. It is not much better than a guess to point out that the more condensed polysilicates are formed SOLID SOLUTIONS Ba,S1209"Ba 514019 b _ Fig. 4.—(a) The polymerization pattern of (Si;07)x-?N in which (Sis0g)n~74% chains can be con- sidered as the pattern element; (b) A diagram illustrating the probable way in which SiO; is added to the (Si;03) n-4% chains of Ba2Si30¢ to give the sheet polymer (Si,Q10) n~*N of BasSigOr0. Ave. 15, 1944 through the intermediary of preformed metasilicate rings or ring fragments. The polymer pattern in a particular case is surely dependent upon the entire structure of the crystal, a factor that will not be con- sidered here. Let us now contrast the polymerization patterns of borates and silicates. Borate patterns are necessarily modified by the planar structure of the (BO3)-* ion which is illustrated in Fig. 5. The B-O distance, 1.35A, is about 0.30A smaller than fhe Si-O distance and this changes the manner in which oxygen ions of neighboring groups pack sufficiently to modify extended pat- terns. This effect is well illustrated by the (BO.)n—% chain which is contrasted with the corresponding (SiO3)n-2N chain in Fig. 5 Ortho-, pyro-, and tri-metaborate groups, shown in Fig. 5, are closely similar to the corresponding silicate groups. The hexa- metaborate ion (BO2)s~* would be expected to have the configuration of the polymer element of the hypothetical (B.Q11)n~* chain of Fig. 5. This should be contrasted with the corresponding (Si03).—” groups of Fig. 2. The (BOz2),-* ion shown in Fig. 5 might at first sight appear closely similar to a possible (Si03)4-® metasilicate group, but it is particularly affected by repulsion of oxygen ions across the center of the group. HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 245 Polyborate polymers more condensed than the metaborate might be expected to make use of some of these ring metaborate groups as pattern elements. Thus the (BO2)6* metaborate group could be con- densed rather strictly after the pattern of the (SiO3).~ group as shown in Fig. 3, giv- ing rise to (B407)n~2N and (B;0;)n—% chains, and, in the limit, to (B203)n° sheets. The first of these might be expected to appear in borax, the so-called sodium tetraborate decahydrate, and the last could be a modi- fication of boric oxide. Intermediate mem- bers could be represented among the poly- borates that are present in the Alkali Oxide-B,O3 systems. The tetraborate group (BOs2).* group illustrated in Fig. 5 could not be a simple pattern element as any linoleum designer could readily see. Thus whatever might be the nature of polyborates, they cannot make any great use of a four (BO3) mem- bered element of pattern in contrast to polysilicates in which the four membered element is commonly used. While the structure of none of the poly- borates is known, their properties can serve as a guide for further discussion. Many of the anhydrous ones form relatively quickly from melts, lack distinctive cleav- ages, and readily dissolve in water. These are definitely properties of limited groups rather than of sheet and chain polymers. e 4 (B0,y> (BoOeF BefOHXBO» (BO, Nageo, ° CHAIN (B,0,)y"N (SiO 3}GN : ae CBe0j9) g (SiOz) 5 K5 (Bid GROUP (B,0,0;N ieee Fig. 5.—Possible pattern elements of some ortho-, pyro-, meta-, and poly-borates. These are to be compared with the silicate groups in Fig. 2. 246 What might be the structures of such poly- borate groups, and why are they not ex- hibited by polysilicates? The (BgO11)n~*% polymer which is repre- sented by compounds such as Cd,BsgO11 and which, of all the polyborates, approaches most closely to the metaborate composition might be considered first. It could be an infinite chain as shown in Fig. 5. However, it could be more simply formed from two (BO:)3-% groups as also shown in this figure. Sharing of the other two oxygen ions of one (BO:)3-% group by (BO:2)373 groups would give a (ByOo1)-* group or more simply the tetraborate, (B07). It is seen that a structural element of these con- densed groups is the tri-metaborate group, (BO2)3%. Addition of a third tri-meta- borate group to the (BeOu)n*% group shown in Fig. 5 to form a 6-B membered ring would give a group having the com- position (ByO;;)~* or (B30;)~!. Other possi- bilities are shown in Table 1. The matter is not pressed further since it is easy to fall into artificiality and thus obscure the es- sentially correct features. Most naturally occurring borates formed from aqueous solutions and are often hy- drates (8). Their behavior is illustrated by the sodium salts borax, tincalconite and kernite, the first and last of which are the most important ores of boron. Borax and tincaleonite are readily soluble in water. The monoclinic unit of structure of borax has been measured and shown to contain 16 boron atoms (9). If condensed groups are present in borax, they must contain 4 boron ions and for this reason are acid meta- borates instead of polyborates as the formulas might suggest. The group in borax is thus (BsO.(OH)2)-2. Most of the early attempts to prepare kernite rather gave the pentahydrate, tincalconite (8a). Easy formation of tincalconite apparently is due to its containing a simple acid metaborate group having either four or six boron atoms. Kernite, on the other hand, is quite insolu- ble in water and has the perfect lathlike cleavage required by a linear polymer. However, it is doubtful that it is a poly- borate chain polymer of the composition (B.07)n—2N but rather is an acid metaborate chain (B.0.6(OH)2)n~2N. (D) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 The tendency for condensed borates in aqueous systems to be limited to the meta- borate stage of polymerization is shown by the system H,O-B,O3 in which metaboric acid is the most condensed polymer (10). Metaboric acid, as shown by Morey, Kracek, and Merwin, of the Geophysical Laboratory, exists in three forms the properties of which suggest that they con- tain group rather than chain polymers. One of these modifications holds an interesting key for us. Boron trioxide is of particular interest in that it was one of the most difficult inor- ganic compounds to crystallize. Crystalliza- tion was first independently accomplished about seven years ago by McCulloch(//) and by Morey, Kracek, and Merwin (10). At first consideration it would appear that B.O3 would have to be a sheet type polymer since there is no very apparent way to obtain cross linking in space with (BO3) as the simplest element. Morey, Kracek, and Merwin showed that B.O3 crystallizes only in the presence of the most stable form of metaboric acid. This form is cubic and the unit of structure con- tains 24, HBO, (10). From these few facts alone it is possible to obtain the essential details of the HBO,-I structure and some suggestions about the polymerization pat- tern of B.O3. The metaborate groups in HBO.-I must contain 3, 4, or 6 boron atoms and must be associated through hydrogen bonding. A structure of the required type is shown in Fig. 6,a. (HBOs2)3° groups are — present, and these have their planes per- pendicular to three fold axes. Three (HBO2)3° groups are joined by hydrogen bonding around three fold axes. The three hydrogen bonds can be replaced by boron ions on the three fold axes. The resulting B.O3 can be considered as made up of tri- metaborate groups copolymerized in space through (BO3)— groups (£). Finally it should be recalled that boron sometimes is surrounded at the corners of tetrahedron by four oxygen ions in a man- ner similar to silicon. This is shown by the pentaborate ion (BO2);> illustrated in Fig. 5. It is best exhibited by BPO, and the silicate mineral danburite, CaB,Si,0s. The former has a structure similar to the high Ava. 15, 1944 temperature cristobalite modification of SiO. and the latter is also a space type polymer. We now turn briefly to consider the polymer chemistry of sulphates and phos- phates. The first holds little of interest since it is restricted to the neutral meta- stage, which, however, is represented both by group and linear polymers of SO3. Phos- phates might be expected to parallel sili- cates closely in their ways of condensation. They fail in this respect for several reasons, chief among which is the different require- ment of the electrostatic valence principle due to the increased charge of phosphorus and the increased tendency to form co- valent bonds (Ff). For these reasons poly- phosphates are not expected to form from aqueous systems at low temperatures with- out some source of energy, silica can crys- tallize as quartz in the presence of water with which P.O; reacts violently. Phosphorus pentoxide is equivalent to (Siz06)n 2X, which was found to polymerize in sheets according to three different pat- terns. If (P20;5)y° and (V20;)n® are con- sidered they are found to represent group, sheet, and space polymers. (12) These are illustrated in Fig. 6,b. A main structural principle in these polymers is the necessity for the unshared oxygen ion to approach a 3 RELATED To HBOS | BPO,- Sid, <) B30 8(HBO.)31N UNIT 24B + 8Banpd 48,0 a. HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES CaCB,Sin0) > * 247 P or V ion to satisfy the electrostatic va- lence principle. This requirement operates to destroy possible highly symmetrical polymer patterns similar to these discussed for polysilicates. Very little structural information is avail- able on polyphosphates, and this is equally true for equilibrium data. In fact, the only binary system on which reasonably com- plete data are available is the system CaO-P.0; on which Mr. Hill and Mr. Reynolds of the Fertilizer Division and Dr. Faust formerly of that Division have been working (13). Some of the compounds ob- served are shown in Table 3. The polyphos- phates CasP.Oi7 and CaPsOu might be ex- pected to have structures similar to the hypothetical (BeOu)n-*N chain polymer and the (Si,0u)n—®% chain polymer of the amphiboles. The very little information available on the crystals, chiefly absence of lathlike cleavages, however, indicates a group polymerization. Polyphosphate group polymers could, as a matter of fact, follow analogous patterns to some of the polyborate group polymers previously discussed. Thus (P,.Q:7)~* could be formed by sharing of one oxygen ion be- tween two (PO3)3~* trimetaphosphate groups equivalent to the (B.O.11)~* group polymer of Fig. 5, and the (P.0O11)n-2N group poly- Fig. 6.—(a) A’schematic illustration of the possible structural relationship of crystalline B.O; and cubic metaboric acid. The tetrahedral grouping of oxygen ions around boron as observed in a few com- pounds is also shown; (b) The polymerization patterns of the orthorhomic and cubic modifications of P20;. Distances in A units from the plane of the projection are indicated on the drawing. 248 mer could be formed from four (PQO3)3-3 groups. However, these group polymers can also be obtained in another manner which was not possible for polyborates. This would make use of the (PO ),* element, (P,O17)—* combining two of these elements and (P40) nN three of them. Phosphates exhibit one property to an apparently greater extent than do silicates, namely the formation of compounds inter- mediate between the pyro- and meta-degree of polymerization. These must be open or branch chains, and the best example is af- forded by the silicate zunyite which Pauling found to contain $i;0;,- groups. The cen- tral SiO, group shares each of its oxygen ions with neighboring groups. An analogous compound is probably present in the CaO- P.O; system, the formula being (P;Oj.)-’. The greatly decreased charge relative to (Si;Oig)—!? apparently operates to stabilize the polymer in the crystal. Similarly the group (P30;.)—> polymer is present in the Na,O-—P.O; system (14). These groups intermediate between pyro- and metaphosphates, the di- and tri- PO, group polymers, have immense biological importance for it is through their formation in conjugation with the purine bases that energy is stored or released in small steps in carbohydrate utilization (75). Thus while polysilicates will form from dilute aqueous systems, polyphosphates will liberate of the order of 20,000 calories of energy upon hydrolysis for each PO, ion formed. Finally it is worth while to consider liquid immiscibility in silicate and borate systems (/6) from the view point of poly- merization. Four essentially distinct types of systems occur. Liquid immiscibility has been observed only for SiO. or B2O3 rich mixtures with Mg, Ca, Sr, Fe, Zn, Ni, or Co oxides. The two liquids appear with increas- ing silica content near the composition re- quired for sheet polymers (SigO5)y-?N. In the B,O;-RO systems they appear where group borates have attained about the com- plexity of (B305)y—N. Liquid immiscibility is not observed in three distinct types of systems, namely: (1) When the components copolymerize, e.g., SiO.-B,O3, SiO.—Al.03; (2) where a compound of very high melting point can remove small groups from the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 8 melt, e.g., ZrO.-Si02, SnO.-B.03; (3) where the liquidus temperature is sufficiently re- duced to permit crystallization of sheet and other complex polymers, e.g., K,O-—SiOz, Li,O—B.Os. Liquid immiscibility then in silicate sys- tems appears to result from mutual insolu- bility of space and sheet polymers arising from their greatly different configurations (G). The space polymer, high cristobalite, however, crystallizes best. from the liquid of lower silica content possibly due to a continuous supply of small groups to the nucleated points. Viscosity is correlated with the type of polymerization but prob- ably is not determinative for crystallization as is so often implied; it is a symptom, not a disease. The form of B.QO; in the limit of BxO;,-RO melts is probably not similar to the erystal- line B,O; related to HBO,(1), but rather is a more random spatial array. Two liquids appear upon increasing B,O; contents of the systems when groups become sufficiently complicated to have serious entropy factors operating against their elaboration com- pared with their copolymerization. In other words it is easier for groups to combine with each other than to build up gradually in more and more complicated ways. It would have been difficult to follow in TABLE 1.—PossIBLE ELEMENTS IN POLYMERIZATION PaTTERNS OF POLYBORATES Boron Composi- Boron- atoms Multiplicity tion oxygen in chain and group sharing : element (B10) nN | 2-2 1 1X3; 1X4; 1X6; 2X3 B:06; BiOs; BeOr2; BsOs0 (BOn) xT 4-2 6 2X3;3X4;4X6 2-1.5 B.Ou; BuO22; BisOss CEO || 6;4 | 4X3; (1X2)+(2X3) 2-1.5 BruOn BsOu (BeOw) yo ED 3X3 4-1.5 6;3 B,O1s (B:Ou)y | 2-2 6 (1X4) +(4 X3) 6-1.5 BicOze (BioO1s) week ; 2-2 8-1.5 (B20;) n° 2-1.5 Ava. 15, 1944 HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 249 TABLE 2.—POLYMERIZATION IN SOME POLYBORATE MINERALS Compound Mineral Na:0:2B:20;:10H:2O Borax Na:0°2B:20;:5H:O Tincalconite Na20:2B:0;-4H:O Kernite (NH,):0 id 5B.0;5H:O Larderellite such a short time the details of the many patterns, the fine points of the various arguments, and the unelaborated implica- tions. Interest and incentive of those who played prominent parts in the development of this subject when it was hot have passed to other fields or have been subdued by pragmatism. Since the many unanswered questions have no immediate hope of atten- tion it seemed best to attempt some synthe- sis of answers. The final truth of the mat- ter, however, is that the unrequited labor of many workers will be required to clarify the chemistry of phosphates and borates. TABLE 3.—POLYMERIZATION OF PHOSPHATES AND SULPHATES ~ Known com- : Possible pounds in Group Oxygen Com- Ca0-P.0, | Polymer composition | sharing | pound system type Cas(POs) 2*CaO (PO,)-3 Casz(PO,)2 Group (PO,)-3 4.0 CaSO, Caz (P207) (P20 1) 4 3.50 CaS:07 Ca(POs)2 (PO;), * 3.0 (SOs), (| (POs) x 3.0 (SOs) Caz(P60i7) Chain (P.Oir)_ AN 2.833 Ca(P.0On) (P.Ouwyw 2N 2.75 P20; Space (P20s) n® 2.50 SUMMARY Patterns after which silicate groups com- bine to form polymerized polysilicates are illustrated. Influences of polymerization patterns on phase equilibria are discussed. Structural features of polyborates, phos- phates, and sulphates are contrasted with those of silicates. An explanation is advanced for the for- mation of solid solutions between Ba2Si,Oio and BarSi,0y. Probable types of group structures in some hydrous polyborates are indicated and a possible structural relation- ship of HBO.-I and crystalline B,O; is Acid metaborate Probable value structural element of N (B.Os(OH):) y-% Group 1 (B.0<(OH)2) yn" Group 1or1.5 (B.Oc(OH)2) y—™ Chain (B.O;(OH):)y-“% Group pointed out. An explanation is given for the observed liquid immiscibility in silicate and borate systems. APPENDIX A. References Discussions and references to the original literature for the many structures upon which this work is based will be found in: (1) W. L. Braae, Atomic structure of miner- als, Ithaca, 1937. (2) Zeit. Krist. “Strukturbericht, ” Leipzig, 1931 et seq. Pertinent phase equilibrium diagrams are summarized by: (3) F. P. Haw and H. INSLEY, Compilation of phase rule diagrams of interest to the ceramist and silicate technologist, Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. 16: 459, 1933; 21: 113, 1938. Other references and the subjects concerned, not the titles of the papers, are: (4) Possible structure of anauxite, S. B. HeEnpRricks, Journ. Geol. 50: 276, 1942. (5) Crystal structure of epididymite, T. ITo, | Zeit. Krist. 88: 142, 1934. (6) Phase equilibrium data for the system BaO-SiOz, P. Eskouta, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)4: 331, 1922. (7) Crystal structure of gillespite, A. Passt, Amer. Min. 28: 372, 1943. (8) Discussions of the mineralogy of borates by W. T. Scuauuer: (a) U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 158-I, 1929; (6) Amer. Min. 27: 467, 1942. (9) Space group determinations for hydrates of sodium tetraborate: (a) W. Minper, Zeit. Krist. (A) 92, 301, 1935; (6) J. Garripo, Anal. Espafi. Fis. y Quim. 30: 91, 1932; Zeit. Krist. 82: 468, 1932. (10) Phase equilibrium data for the system H.0-B.03, F. C. Kracex, G. W. Morey, and H. E. Merwin, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)35-A: 143, 1938. (1 1) Crystallization of B.Os3, (10) above and L. McCuutocu, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe. 59: 2650, 1937. (12) Crystal structure of the various modi- fications of P.O;, H. C. J. pz Drcxrer and H. MacGituavry, Rec. Trav. Chim. 60: 153, 1941; 60: 413, 1941. (1 3) Phase equilibrium data for the system 250 CaO-P.0;, W. L. Hitt, G. T. Faust, D. S. ReEyYNOoLDs, Amer. Journ. Sci. (in press). (14) Phase equilibrium data for the system Na,.O-P.0;, E. P. ParTripce, V. Hicks, and G. W. Smiru, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 63: 454, 1941. (15) References to biological formation of di- and tri- phosphates, K. Lonmann, Ann. Rev. Biochem. 27: 125, 1938. (16) Liquid immiscibility in silicate and borate melts: (a) J. W. Grete, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)13: 1, 183, 1927; (6) W. GuERTLER, Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 40: 225, 1904. (B). Solid Solutions: Rapidity of Polymorphic Transitions Formation of solid solutions between com- pounds having the same degree of group poly- merization is common among silicates and is an important factor in mineralogy. Mg.SiO, and Fe.SiO., for instance, form a complete series of solid solutions (the forsterite-fayalite series) and MgsiO3; forms limited solid solutions with FeSi03, but the metasilicate and orthosilicates are mutually insoluble (N. L. Bowen and J. F. ScHalRER, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)29: 151, 1935.) Solid solutions of this type are thought to be limited by the relative sizes of the varying ions (Mg*? and Fet?) and by possible appearance of new phases due to the changing temperature of the liquidus. Solid solutions reported to occur about CaSi03 in the system CaO-SiO2 and between alkali silicates having different degrees of poly- merization have not been found upon further work. Excellent examples of the varying rates of polymorphic transitions dependent upon the degree of polymerization are afforded by the system NaPO;3-Na,P.07 (E. P. PArtTripGE, V. Hicks, and G. W. SmirH, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 63: 454, 1941. Four rapid transi- tions were observed between five crystalline forms of the simple group pyrophosphate. Transitions between the three forms of the metaphosphate, which probably vary in their polymer patterns, were all sufficiently slow to allow ready quenching. Transitions taking place without change in polymerization might be slow since the re- straints of the solid need not readily permit re- arrangement of groups in the absence of a liquid phase. (C). Structural Considerations for Solid Solutions between BarSiz3Os and BazSisO10 The mineral sanbornite has been described by A. F. Rogers (Amer. Min. 17: 161, 1932). It is possibly triclinic and closely approximates Ba2SiuOio0 in composition. The one perfect cleavage gives it micaceous characteristics. Eskola (6) gave the following properties for BazSiz30g and BazSi4Oio prepared from melts: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 8 BazSisO sN pa =1.597 BazSisO1N pa =1.620 B=1.612 B =1.625 y =1.621 y =1.645 Density =3.73 Density =3 .93 The almost perfect cleavage is parallel to the plane a8. Two other poorly developed pina- coidal cleavages are present in BaeSi;03 crys- tals. Pabst (7) noted that the X-ray powder diffraction pattern of natural sanbornite is un- related to that of gillespite, BaFeSisOi0, which is somewhat similar to apophyllite in its poly- merization pattern (7). The molecular volume of BazSi,O1 is only about 9 percent greater than that of Ba2Si;Os which would correspond to an average increase of 2 percent in lattice dimensions. This is a very small change and shows that SiO2 added to Ba2Siz0s goes into an essentially vacant posi- tion. Calculated and observed molecular re- fractivities are in agreement as required; Molecular Refractivity Compound Observed Calculated BazSisOs 44.1 43 .2 BazSiO10 50.9 51.5 Observed values were obtained from the aver- age refractive index and calculated values by use of the following ionic refractivities Ba++ =5.30, O-- =3.85, and Sit*=0.60. The suggested structure is in harmony with the above observations. It can most readily be checked by determining the lattice periodicities in the cleavage plane, one of which should be that required by an (Siz;0s) n7*% chain pattern ‘element. (D). Structural Information on Hydrates of Sodium Tetraborate Borax.—Na B.07:10H20, monoclinic holo- hedral space group C2,° ~C2/e (9). Unit of structure, contains 4[Na2B,07: 10H,0] a=11.82A b=10.61A c=12.30A 8B =106°35’ Perfect cleavage parallel to (100), poor paral- lel to (110), and (010). Quickly dissolves to limit of solubility. Loses approximately 1H.O between 150° and 500°C. These observations require the presence of [B.0.(OH).]—? groups with the minimum sym- metry of C;—1. Tincalconite—NazB,07: 5H.0, dral space group C3;2?—R3 (9). Unit of structure, contains 3[Na2B.07:5H20] a=9.56 a =71°42’ rhombohe- No pronounced cleavage. Quickly dissolves to limit of solubility. Loses 16 percent of total water above 200° 8a). These observations require the presence of (B,0g(OH)2)~2 or (BsO09(OH)s)—= groups. Since Ave. 15, 1944 the compound can apparently form by dehy- dration of borax without the appearance of a liquid phase the (BsOs,(OH)2)-*? group is prob- ably present. Kernite-—Na2B.07:4H20, monoclinic holo- hedral. Space group C,,4—P2/c (9) Unit of structure contains 4[Na.B.07-4H.O] a=15.65 c=7.01A b= 9.07 B =108°52’ Perfect cleavages parallel to (100) and (001) and other less developed cleavages parallel to the b axis (8a). Very slowly attacked by water. Loses approximately 1H2O above 200°C. (8a). These observations require the presence of chain polymers parallel to the b axis. The polymers are probably metaborates having the composition (Bs0O,(OH)2) n-?%. The b periodic- ity (9.07A) is 5 percent greater than the c¢ periodicity of the orthorhombic Ca(BOz)s, 8.56A, which is the distance required in that compound for 4 elements of the metaborate chain. (W. H. ZacHRiasen, G. E. ZInGuER, Zeit. Krist. 83: 354, 1932.) (F). Structural Information on HBO,.-I and 203 Metaboric acid, HBO.-I, was observed by Kracek, Morey, and Merwin (10) (KMM) to crystallize as rhombic dodecahedra with np =1.619 and density =2.486. Zachariasen (10) found that the cubic unit of structure has a =8.88A and contains 24, HBO». B2O3 crystals have been formed only in the presence of (HBO2)t and KMM noted marked parallelism between edges and possibly faces of the two growing together. “Crushing either induces a minute lamellar twinning, or possibly reveals a twinning caused by an inversion” (10). X-ray powder diffraction patterns of crystal- line B,O; can be indexed on a hexagonal lattice having a=4.33A and c=8.392A (Mr. H. F. McMurdie, personal communication). If the density is 2.53 (measured value 2.460 (10) ) this unit contains 3, B.O3. Refractive indices are w (or 6 and y) =1.648 and e(or a) =1.615, the mean refractive index being 1.634 which is somewhat greater than that of HBO,(I). (F). Valence Factors Involved in Polymerization of Silicates, Borates, and Phosphates A thorough discussion of electronic configura- tions in these groups is given by Linus Pauling in the Nature of the chemical bond, Ithaca, 1939. Specific references are: Borates, pp. 196- 197, 219; Sulphates, silicates, phosphates, pp. 221-231, 375. An adequate summary, stated by Pauling is: “Although the metasilicates, disilicates, and other silicates in which tetrahedron corners are shared are very stable, the corresponding com- pounds of phosphorus and sulfur are unstable. The explanation of this is the following: an HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 251 oxygen ion shared by two silicon tetrahedra satisfies the electrostatic valence rule, whereas there is an infraction by 1/2 for the common corner of two phosphorus tetrahedra and by 1 for two sulfur tetrahedra. In consequence the pyrophosphates and metaphosphates are un- stable—they do not occur at all as minerals and in solution they hydrolyze easily to orthophos- phates—and the pyrosulfates are exceedingly unstable. It is for the same reason that silicon dioxide is stable but phosphorus pentoxide and sulfur trioxide combine with water with great avidity.” Oxygen ions shared by borate groups satisfy the electrostatic valence principle, and for this reason polyborates might be expected to have as great stability as polysilicates in aqueous systems. Contribution of double bond con- figurations to the borate structure, however, operate against equal sharing of all oxygen atoms as required for some of the elements of polyborates. Since half of the oxygen ions are unshared in metaborates these compounds would be expected to have the hydrolytic stability of polysilicates. (G). Information on Liquid Immiscibility in Binary Silicate and Borate Systems Liquid immiscibility in silicate systems has been studied by J. W. Greia (16a), and his publications should be consulted for additional information. Compositions at the lower limit of immiscibility and the temperature above which two liquids appear in a number of sys- tems are indicated in the following table: Mole per cent System Temper- | ‘gio, at Reference ature lower limit MnO-Si0: 1640°C 0.66 Waite, Howat, Hay, and Roy, Journ. Roy. Tech. Coll. Glasgow 3: 239, 1933-36. CaO-SiO2 1698 0.71 Grete, loc. cit. (10) MgO-Si0: 1695 0.60 Ibid. SrO-SiO2 1693 0.80 Ibid. FeO-Si0; 1695 0.61 BowEN and SCHAIRER, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 24: 177, 1932. ZnO-SiO: 1695 0.66 Buntine, Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 4: 131, 1930. Ca0O-B:20; 960 0.72 Caruson, Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 9: 825, 1932. Mole per cent of SiO; required for RSi20; 0.667 R;3Su0u 0.578 Mole per cent of B:Os required for CazB10017 0.724 CaBcO1e 0.750 ETHNOLOGY.—“Tapirage,”’ a biological discovery of South American Indians.! ALFRED Mrrravux, Bureau of American Ethnology. A striking feature of the Indian cultures of South America is the extensive use of feathers both for body ornaments and for decorations on weapons and other artifacts. Nowhere have feathers been worked more lavishly or with greater skill than there. Among the first treasures wrested from Bra- zil were the brilliant feather cloaks worn by Tupinamba chiefs. Today the National Museum of Copenhagen exhibits these masterpieces of the ars plumaria, as it has been called, among its most prized jewels. The birds of the Tropics provided the most splendid materials for these fragile fabrics. The various representatives of the parrot family, with their bright wings and many with long tails, were in special de- mand, and large numbers of them were kept in every Indian village or encamp- ment, both as pets and as reserve supply of feathers for new headdresses or arm bands. Despite the variety of feathers already at their disposal many Indian tribes found means of improving on nature. Two chroniclers of the sixteenth century, Soares de Souza (1) and Magalhdes de Gan- davo (2), reported that the ancient Tupi- namba Indians of the Brazilian coast knew how to change the color of the feathers on living birds. They took young common parrots, plucked their feathers, and smeared the bald spots with frog blood to which “certain other substances were added.” The new feathers grew in yellow. The Portuguese immediately assumed that the Indians altered the plumage of common birds in or- der to cheat the White traders who might mistake them for specimens of some rare species. That this technique was known to South American Indians long before Columbus may be surmised from its wide distribution throughout the continent. The Indian proc- ess was so familiar to the French colonists of the Guiana that they had a noun, tapirage, to designate the operation and a verb, tapirer, to express the action of changing the color of a bird’s plumage. In Brazil, parrots that have been subjected to the process are called “contrafeitos.”’ 1 Received April 20, 1944. Father Juan Rivero (8) has a good de- scription of tapirage as it was practiced among the Achagua Indians of the Upper Meta River. ‘‘The Indians,” he writes, “know how to make their parrots grow feathers of various colors, in order to in- crease their value, either for trade purposes or for their own use in their feasts. They ob- tain this result in the following way: They catch a live toad which they prick repeat- edly with a thorn until the blood oozes. Then they place the animal in a pot and sprinkle its wounds with ground red pepper. The toad, enraged by the treatment, slowly exudes its active humors mingled with the poison and the blood. To this they add a certain red powder called ‘chica’ (Biza orel- lana), and by blending these ingredients they make a pigment. They pluck the feathers of a parrot and smear it with this ointment which they insert with a stick into the holes left in the bird’s skin. The parrot suffers and for several days remains sad as a sick chicken. Sometime later, the | parrot’s feathers grow again so splendid and so beautiful that everyone admires the beauty and elegance of the new plumage. Red spots stand out with remarkable vari- ety on a yellow background among green feathers.’”’ The Guayupe and Sae were also experienced in the art of changing the color of the feathers by rubbing the birds with a “‘naste and poison.’ Humboldt (4) makes only a bare refer- ence to the process but gives us the name of the frog used in preparing the ointment. The latter is the Rana tinctoria or a closely related species. The naturalist Wallace has an interesting statement on this subject. “The Indians,” he says, “pluck the birds which they wish to paint, and in the fresh wound inoculate the milky secretion from the skin of a small frog or toad. When the feathers grow again they are of brilliant yellow or orange color, without any mix- | ture of blue or green, as in the natural state of the bird; and on the new plumage being again plucked out, it is said always to come of the same color, without any fresh opera- tion. The feathers are renewed but slowly, and it requires a great number of them to make a coronet.”’ 252 Ava. 15, 1944 Tapirage is still practiced by the Indians of the Rio Negro and Uaupes areas. Koch- Griinberg (6) noticed that the Indians of the Aiary River region ‘‘pull from the tame red macaws the green feathers at the base of the wings and smear the wounds with the fat of the pirarara fish or of a certain toad. The new feathers become beautifully or- ange-yellow and retain this color, even if several times changed, as they are pulled out from time to time, for purpose of dance decorations.” The French naturalist La Condamine (7) mentions the process of tapirage and states that it was practiced by the Indians of the Oyapock River. This scientist expresses some doubts as to the virtues of the frog blood and believes that the change in the color of the feathers is the result of the use of some acrid substance or of some natural accident which may occur every time a liv- ing bird is plucked without the addition of any particular substance. In French Guiana tapirage was a specialty of the Carib tribes, of the Galibi, in particular, through whom the colonists learn about it. South of the Amazon, tapirage occurs sporadically. It is reported for the eight- eenth-century Mojo. “They pluck the tail and wing feathers of the blue parrots and in the wounds put the exudations of a toad and they stop them with wax to keep the liquid inside. Thus they cause the new feathers to grow reddish, a color that they never lose’ (8). In the collections of the Goteborg Museum in Sweden there is a headdress of the Huanyam, an Indian tribe of the same region, which contains “‘tapiré” feathers. The Mundurucu (9) of the Tapajoz River smeared the plucked parrots with frog blood, the Bororo (10) of the Matto Grosso with the “sap of a certain tree.’’ The process was so common among the Paressi Indians that it is mentioned in the eight- eenth century by Pires de Campos (11) in his short account of this tribe. The southernmost limit of tapirage is the Gran Chaco, where it has been described in great detail by Father José Sanchez Labra- dor (12). ‘“The color which most appeals to the Mbayd men and women is yellow. But _ there are not sufficient birds in the country with feathers to satisfy their needs. Despite their simple minds, they have discovered METRAUX: TAPIRAGE, A DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS 253 the art of turning yellow the natural color of the plumes. They pluck them at certain times to get the colors which suit their taste. They pluck on a living parrot all the green feathers which they want to grow yellow, removing the large feathers, the down and the small barbs found under the feathers. On the bare surface they apply a pigment extracted from the roots of the logoguigo plant or of the nzbadenzgo tree (rucu, Bizra orellana). Both produce a saffron color. They rub these pigments with their fingers against the skin as if they wanted the blood to ooze. Only then do they put an end to the bird’s martyrdom. When the new feathers grow, they look to see whether they are yellow or green. Generally they are of the former color, but if they see green ones among the yellow ones, they remove them and repeat the operation on the same spot. We never observed that they applied this procedure to any birds but parrots or that they used other pigments than the ones mentioned. Once the feathers have been plucked, the new ones are always yellow and never green.” Tapirage was also known to the Mocovi, who were closely related to the Mbay4 (13). Very likely both tribes learned the process from the Arawakan Guana, who had mi- grated from the Amazonian Basin. Today tapirage is still widely practiced by the mestizos of the States of Sao Paulo and Para. They subject to the operation not only parrots but also birds of other species. The German anthropologist Karl von den Steinen (14) supposes that tapirage was ac- cidentally discovered by some Indian who rubbed a parrot with a medicinal substance after having plucked its feathers. The ornithologist Marshall (15) expresses some doubts as to the effects of the ointment on the change of colors, and he supposes that the transformation is the result of a special diet to which the plucked bird is subjected. He mentions the fact that goldfinches that have been fed oily seeds, such as colza or hemp, turn dark, and that canaries fed on Cayenne pepper become orange. The Indians were aware of the effects of certain foods on birds’ plumage and also seem to have used this method. Im Thurn (16) writes that the Macushi pulled out the feathers of birds, and smeared the wounds with rucu but that they also made the bird 254 drink “water in which more foroah (rucu) has been steeped, after which it is left for some months at the end of which time new yellow feathers have grown in the place of the abstracted ones.’ For the same purpose the Puinave give their parrots grease of the cajaro fish, a fish common in the Guaviare River (17). The plumage of a parrot put on such a diet first gets yellow spots and finally turns entirely yellow. Father Constant Tastevin, a French missionary in the Upper Amazon region, sent me the following communication: ‘‘The Caboclos—the civilized Indians of the Soli- moes—the Cocama, Cambeua, and others, feed their parrots the grease of the pirarara, a big fish called after the ara because of the red and yellow scales of its tail. Its grease has a lively yellow color and birds which eat it get a spotted red and yellow plumage which is considered very beautiful. The Caboclos change the color of their pet birds only to improve their appearance, not to increase their commercial value. People do not eat pirarara fish for several reasons— first, because it feeds on corpses, and, sec- ondly, because it causes an unbearable itch- ing to those who are afflicted with the skin disease called titinga or purupuru. This un- pleasant disease is also ascribed to the con- sumption of this fish.”’ Koch-Griinberg found the same inter- pretation for the origin of the skin disease purupuru among the Indians of the Aiary region, and it is probable that these na- tives have also observed the effects of a diet of pirarara grease on the birds. Do these facts indicate that in the change of color the diet alone is important or is it possible that the diet and the smearing of the plucked spots are equally effective, in- dependently of each other? The distinguished ornithologist Dr. Alex- ander Wetmore, of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, kindly informed me that our data on tapirage are essentially correct and that the methods used by the Indians to change the color of the plumes were all equally efficient. In the case of frogs, it was not the blood, but the acrid secretion of the glands that provoked the change in color. When rucu is rubbed in the wounds left by the plucked feathers, the tissues absorb certain pig- ments that modify the color of the feathers. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 34, No. 8 The influence of certain foods on the birds’ - plumage is well known; not only do canaries turn orange after eating red pepper, but in the zoos flamingos and scarlet ibises are fed crushed shrimps so as to keep their pink or red color, which they might otherwise lose. The color change occurs whenever the tis- sues absorb the pigment, irrespective of the. method of application (19). REFERENCES (1) Soares DE Souza, GaBRIEL. Tratado de- scriptivo do Brazil em 1587. Rev. Inst. Hist. e Geogr. Brazileiro 14: 320. 1851. (2) MAGALHAES DE GaNpDAvVOo, PERO. I. Tra- tado da terra do Brasil. II. Historia da Provincia Santa Cruz, p. 113. Rio de Janeiro, 1924. (3) Rivero, Juan. Historia de las misiones de los llanos de Casanare y los rios Orinoco y Meta, p. 9. Bogota, 1883. (4) HumBpoutpt, ALEXANDER VON, and Bon- PLANDT, A. Reise in die Aequinoctial- Gegenden des neuen Continents in den Jahren 1799-1804, 5: 32. Stuttgart, 1862. (5) WALLACE, ALFRED RussEL. A narrative of travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, with an account of the native tribes, p. 202. London, 1892. (6) Kocu-GruNBERG, THEODOR. unter den Indianern 1: 84. 1910. (7) CoNDAMINE, M. bE ua. Relation abrégée d’un voyage fait dans l’intérieur de l Amér- ique méridionale, p. 173. Maestrich, 1788. (8) Eper, Franc. Xav. Descriptio provinciae Moxitarum in regno Peruano, p. 152. Budae, 1791. (9) Martius, Cart FRIEDRICH PHIL. VON. Beitrdge zur Ethnographie und Sprachen- kunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens. 1. Zur Ethnographie, p. 389. Leipzig, 1867. (10) SreinEN, KaRL VON DEN. Unter den Natur- volkern ZLentral-Brasiliens, p. 491. Berlin, 1895. (11) Pires pE Campos, ANTONIO. Breve noticia que da o capitdo. Rev. Inst. Hist. e Geogr. Brazileiro 25: 444. 1862. (12) SANcHEz Lasprapor, Jost. El Paraguay catélico 2: 258, 292. Buenos Aires, 1910. (13) BauckE, Ftorian. Hin Jesuit in Paraguay, ed. A. Kobler, S. J. Regensburg, 1870. (14) STEINEN, vide supra, p. 491. (15) MarscHaut, W. Der Bau der Vogel, p. 232. Leipzig, 1895. (16) Roru, WaLTER. An introductory study of the arts, crafts and customs of the Guiana Indians. 38th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, p. 126: Washington, 1915. See also Im THurRN, EvERARD. Among fe ee of Guiana, p. 305. London, Zwet Jahre Berlin, 1909- 1883. (17) Crevaux, J. Voyages dans l Amérique du Sud, p. 532. Paris, 1883. (18) Kocu-GrunBeEra, vide supra, vol. 1, p. 84. (19) Mérraux, AutFrep. La décoloration arti- ficielle des plumes sur les oiseaux vivants. Journ. Soc. Amér. Paris, n. s., 20: 181- 192. 1928. ah LINGUISTICS.—The origin of our State names. of American Ethnology. The correspondence of the Bureau of American Ethnology has indicated for many years past that there is a widespread popu- lar interest in the names of the States and Territories that compose the United States of America and that there has been con- stant demand for the probing into the origin and provenience of these names. During a period of years I have been collecting or assemblying truly vast materials on the subject of State and Territory names, and I early discovered that such collecting had never been done before by a person with a linguistic background and with government facilities. The names were found to dip deeply into both ethnology and history and many of them to be American Indian in origin. - Since the publication of all this material would be too bulky and expensive at the present time, the publishing of a prelimi- nary, curtailed version is alone practical. The unraveling of a few of the names has been on the verge of the impossible, but every case nevertheless was attended with some success. Only in the instance of the name Oregon are further investigations still planned and in progress; the word is patently the same as the word hurricane, field work among French speakers in Canada having convinced me of this. The two names Carolina and Dakota ap- pear as State names only as oppositionally modified into pairs by the preplacing of North and South. New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, and New York have the preplacement of New, the first two by dint of contrast with British place names, the last two because of basin on Dutch and Spanish predecessor names. West Virginia alone has the setting of West. Rhode Island has the setting after it of Island, Virgin Islands of Islands. The two names Arkansas and Kansas are of one and the same origin, though derived through different channels. The District of Columbia is not termed a State. Only Alaska and Hawaii are still 1 Received February 15, 1944. JOHN P. Harrineton, Bureau Territories. The Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands are designated as Possessions. ALABAMA. In origin the Muskhogean tribe name Alibamu. For a tribe name becoming used as a State name compare Arkansas, Dakota, Kansas, etc. AuAsKA. In origin the Aleutian name of the Alaska Peninsula. ARIZONA. Papago Indian language for spring- let. ARKANSAS. In origin the name of a tribe or division, another form of the name Kansas. CaLiIFornia. The early Spanish novel Amadis de Gaula consisted of four ‘books’ written originally in Portuguese, probably by an author named Lobeira. These were translated into Spanish by Montalvo, who later independently wrote a fifth book entitled Las Sergas de Esplandian, first printed about 1511. The whole novel enjoyed unusually wide reading. In the fifth book is the first occurrence of the word California, as the name of an imaginary island, the queen for which was Calafia, and which island was infested with griffins. The entire setting of the section is the region of Con- stantinople, which was a city nearly as famous as Rome during the Middle Ages and with which city the caliphate was connected in every mind. Montalvo was undoubtedly think- ing of the caliphate when he wrote California, and like a handwriting flourish at the end of the word his mention of the griffins led him to imi- tate Greek érnis, bird, or Latin ornaare, to adorn, wedged in as a third syllable, since to call the island Calafia would have made the name of the island and its queen identical. Montalvo claimed that he got the entire story from a Greek. Or Montalvo may actually have seen the famous old French Song of Roland, dating from about the year 1000, which has as its line 2924 ‘‘Califerne”’ used of the caliphate —even with the -r- of Montalvo’s ‘‘California.”’ Modern Spanish orthography happens to have also Esplandian, without any accent on the vowel of the last syllable, thus coinciding in this word with the orthography of 400 years ago. 255 256 CaNAL ZONE. Latin canaalis, canal, may be a remnant of an old submerged bunch of words having the stem of Sanskrit khan-, to dig; or it may be connected with Latin canna, reed— Spanish cafia, cafién surely come from Latin canna. The second word of the name is in origin Greek zéonee, a woman’s girdle. Cotorapo. The river. that empties into the Gulf of California very early became known in a variety of languages as the red river because of the chocolate color of its water. It has not generally been known that even in Latin colooraatus occurs meaning red, whence Span- ish colorado, the ordinary and only vernacular ‘word for red. Colorado was first applied as a description to the Little Colorado River, hap- pening to agree with a description of the Colorado and of the Little Colorado which had since immemorial times been in vogue in several adjacent and near-lying American Indian languages. Connecticut. In origin native Algonquian for long river, referring, of course, to the Con- necticut River. DELAWARE. Named for Thomas West, Lord De La Warr (1577-1618), a British soldier and colonial governor of Virginia, De La Warr being an English barony dating from the 13th cen- tury. As a landname, La Warre appears as the name of an estate in Gloucestershire, England. Gloucestershire is the country of the upper part of the mouth of the Severn River. The original- Baron De La Warr, however, was from Sussex. District oF CotumsiA. The first word is from Latin districtus, masc., second declension, past-perfect participle of Latin distringere. The last word is from the artificial Latinized form, Columbus, of Colombo, surname of the Genoese who discovered America for the Spanish King- dom. There is no proof whatever that Italian Colombo is connected with Latin columba, pigeon, Latin columbus, male pigeon. Latin forms country names in -ia, just as Greek does in -fa. One can actually find in old Spanish books the transitional spelling Colomb, which shows how Colombo was changed into modern Spanish Colén. The form Colombia is neither frying pan nor fire, but consists of taking Italian Colombo and changing its -o into -ia, while the straight artificial Latin form would be Columbia. FioripA. Ponce de Leén on Easter Sunday, 1512, caught sight of Florida, and named it JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 8 from the day, just as children were accustomed to being named. Easter is called in the Spanish calendar of the saints la pascua florida, the springtime (literally flowery) passover. English misaccents the word, throwing the second syl- lable accent to the first syllable. Grorcia. Named from King George I of England. The name is, of course, in honor of St. George, whose name is in origin the Greek word for farmer, literally earth-worker. Today, for instance, Russian uses a word for farmer meaning earth-worker. Hawai. Long have I labored in vain teyang to get the analysis or original etymology of the name Hawaii, pronounced in the Hawaiian Polynesian language hawdy’i. Professor Judd, of the University of Hawaii, writes me that all we can say is that this is the ancient Hawaiian name of the island on which Honolulu is ‘situated. Ipano. It was William Otogary Be first in- formed me of the true origin of this name. Idaho was the name of the Salmon River In- dians and one of the words best known to the early Whites. Adepts in the Shoshoni language state that this name means riverite, if there is such a word in English, or river-dweller, re- ferring to the Salmon River. Inurnotis. This is a French formation from the native Algonquian word for man, warrior, with addition of the French -ois as in Iroq-ois. INDIANA. Indiana was an early Indian refuge, much as Indian Territory was later an Indian refuge. Indiana is the Latin country name formation from Latin Indiaanus, better Indicus, a Hindoo. It was Columbus’s own party that started applying the name India to the West Indies, thinking that the East Indies had been discovered. The name India is a Latin country formation in -ia derived from Latin Indus, the name of the great river of western India. This river is called in Sanskrit Sindhus, which is also applied to the region about the River Indus, and also the stream in general and even to the ocean. The word is imagined to be connected with the theme sidh-, and the river name there- fore to mean something like goaler. In Greek, transmitted through Persian, and therefore with conversion of the s- into h- or nothing, the river name is Indés. Spanish indio, an Indian, is a-corruption of indigo, and this for Latin Indicus. Greek has three forms for a Hindoo or Indian: 1, Indikés; 2, Indés; 3, Ave. 15, 1944 Indéoos; also a feminine Indfs, a Hindoo woman. The Greek country name is India, but a corresponding form does not occur in Sanskrit. Iowa. In origin a Siouan tribe name, ap- parently meaning putter to sleep. Kansas. The final -s is to be accounted for as French spelling of Kansa, Siouan tribe name. Arkansas is another version of this name. Kentucky. Wyandotte Iroquoian for at the prairie. _ Lovistana. Derivative of Louis, the earliest recorded spelling of which is Chlodowech. The Gothic of this name would have been *Hludaweiks, versal to *hludaweik, neuter, famous fight. There is evidence that the u of this name is short, hluda- and not hluuda-. Marneg. The names Arcadie and Maine were both started by the very early French and ap- plied to portions of what is now the State of Maine. Maine was a prominent province of older France, guessed to be the same as the second member of the Gallic tribe name from the time of Caesar which occupied the vicinity: Ceno-manni. Maine coast fishermen and others speak of the mainland as the main, but to con- nect this is a later popular etymology. Maryann. Named for Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of King Charles I of England, who was daughter of King Henry IV of France. Mary is the Greek corruption of Hebrew Miryaam, and land is an old Germanic word for which Welsh and Polish cognates have been pointed out. Massacuusetts. Native Algonquian for flint hill. Micuicgan. Native Algonquian for large clearing. Minnesota. From the name of a river. One can not do better than quote from Stephen R. Riggs’s Dakota-English Dictionary (Contr. North Amer. Ethnol. 7: 316. 1890): ‘“‘Mi’-ni- so-ta, n. the Minnesota or Saint Peters River. It means whitish water and is the name also of the lake called by the white people Clear Lake.” The Dakota Sioux name of what is now called officially the Minnesota River first ap- pears in Jonathan Carver’s Travels through the anterior parts of North America (London, 1778) in the form ‘“Menesoter,” and the accom- panying map has ‘“‘Minesoter.”’ It was Gen. H. H. Sibley who, in 1848, first launched the spelling Minnesota, which in 1849 became officialized in the designation of Minnesota HARRINGTON: THE ORIGIN OF OUR STATE NAMES 257 Territory, while at the same time the Sioux name for Riviére de Saint Pierre, St. Peters River, was restored to Minnesota River. Mississippi. Native Algonquian for big river, a mere description. Missouri. Neighboring Algonquian for big canoe haver, a name applied to a Siouan tribe. Montana. The common Latin adjective for mountainous is montaanus, from Latin mons, masc., mountain. Judging from other State names, one would naturally take Montana tobe - feminine singular, but it can also be taken as neuter plural, for instance like English errata. Nesraska. According to what Francis La Flesche told me, this name occurs in almost the same form in Omaha Siouan and in closely re- lated languages and means flat water. Accord- ing to La Flesche, this was the Omaha term concomitant to the French Riviére Platte; both were descriptive in origin. Nevapa. This State is named from the famous Sierra Nevada, Spanish for snowy range, which used to be in view of the Spanish ships very early sailing along the upper Cali- fornia coast. Spanish nevado literally means besnowed, but is used as the adjective for snowy. It is connected with Spanish nieve, fem., snow. New Hampsuire. In the second member of this name we have a short-cut with whole middle syllable left out for Anglo-Saxon Haamtuunsciir, fem., literally the county of Haamtuun, which literally translated means village-ville. We fortunately have absolute proof in Old English that the syllable -tuun- simply got left out. New Jersey. Jersey, with corrupt j- for ch-, is what the popular pronunciation of centuries has turned Caesaarea into. The Island of Jersey was a federal post, and termed in Latin (Insula) Caesareea. A more widely known Caesareea (Green loanword form Kaiséreia), literally federal-one, was a city in Palestine. The name is in origin the feminine of one of the adjectives derived from the name Caesar, which is related to Latin caesaries, fifth declen- sion, hairiness. New Mexico. The second member is for Meshi’ko, Aztec place name. The vague north- ernmost province of Mexico was early termed Nuevo México in Spanish, and when the region was annexed to the United States, part of it 258 became the Territory, later the State, of New Mexico. New York. After Professor Geary, excellent knower and speaker of Irish, has researched for years on the derivation of the word York, he still favors its meaning yew grove. I also have followed him, weighing all sources of informa- tion. York is actually recorded in Latinized form before the Anglo-Saxon invasion as Eboraacum. The form in ancient British, alias ancient Welsh, formerly spoken throughout England, must have been Eboraakon. NortH Carouina. Carolina is the feminine, referring to country, in this instance to a colony, first bestowed in honor of Charles IX of France, subsequently of Charles I and Charles II of England. The artificial Latinized form of the name Charles is Carolus; for the explanation of the insertion of a middle vowel in which one need only point to Dutch Karel, Charles, which also has an easing vowel. Karl is an old Germanic name, the Gothic form of the name would have been *Karls. A form identical with the name also appears as one of the several words meaning man in Old Ice- landic. That karl means man also in the sense of a male as opposed to the sense of female, is brought out in Old Icelandic, in which we have karla-foolk, males. In modern Icelandic slang karl means old-man. The personal name Karl is presumed to have had the same origin as the noun of general meaning. NortH Daxota. The second member is a Siouan tribe name occurring in dialects with 1- instead of d-, and said to mean originally friend; with this meaning compare the original meaning of Texas. Ouro. Native Iroquoian meaning pretty, ap- plied to the Alleghany Reservation, the Al- legheny River, and to what is viewed as the - down country extension of the Allegheny River: the Ohio River. OxtAHoMa. A name started by the Rev. Wright, translating red person into Choctaw. The red man did not call himself red man in purely aboriginal times anywhere that I know. OreGon. The name Oregon can be followed back to Rogers, who in 1765 wrote Ourigan. There is evidence, both as regards the life of Rogers and of his friend Carver and as regards _the spelling used by Rogers, that the name is French Canadian in provenience, and field work in Canada and on the Pacific coast has JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 convinced me of this. The word means in. French Canadian squall or storm and is the same in ultimate origin as the English word hurricane. | PENNSYLVANIA. William Penn in his own handwriting makes several references to the naming of Pennsylvania. Although not a Welshman, and born in the English-speaking border of Wales, Penn wanted the colony called New Wales, but King Charles II of England, who had the granting of the charter and the naming of the colony in his power, de- vised, or had suggested to him, the name Sylvania, which is English woodland trans- lated into Latin, and the King then prefixed the name Penn to this in honor of the King’s old acquaintance, William Penn’s father, Admiral William Penn. Sylva, or silva, is the Latin for forest, and Greek hylee, wood, earlier stilee, must be in some way connected with this, but records are inadequate for proving just how. Puerto Rico. This is Spanish for rich har- bor. Spanish puerto is from Latin portus, masce., fourth declension, harbor, this being the same word as Norwegian fjord and English ford. Rico is Spanish for an earlier ricco; Italian still has ricco. This adjective is taken over from Germanic, where we find Gothic reiks being the adjective of Gothic reiks, chief, and evidently meaning chieftainly, regal, powerful, rich. Spanish still uses rico meaning fortunate, for example in the sentence: You are very fortunate in still have a father. RuopeE Isuanp. Although the very early Ver- ranzano Relation compares Rhode Island in ° size with the Isle of Rhodes in the Mediter- ranean, the actual use of the name Rhode Island starts with the Dutch explorer Block, who calls Rhode Island in Dutch Roodt Hylandt, meaning red island, called from its red appearance; the writer remembers striking- ly the red appearance of the neighboring Martha’s Vineyard island when viewed from a boat. SoutH Carouina. The second member has been treated above. Sour Daxota. The second member has been treated above. TrennesseE. A Cherokee village name, ex- tended to become a river name and a region name, and finally a State name. Texas. Caddo téysha, in earlier pronuncia- Ava. 15, 1944 STEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR tion téysha (just as Icelandic steinr, stone, is in the earlier Gothic stains), is used as a saluta- tion meaning friend, and was widely known and used as a Caddo word and as a designation for Caddo and friendly Indians; compare the meaning of Dakota, which # said to have meant friend and was used as a regular tribe name. Uran. Named from Spanish Yuta, Ute Indian, and the Spanish from Athopascan Indian meaning higher. VeRMonT. Intended to be French for the Green Mountains, the correct standard French for which would be: les Montagnes Vertes. VircGiIn IsLanps. In origin a religious name. Latin virgoo, a virgin, has been ingeniously connected by Brugmann with Greek parthendés virgin, but perhaps an easier etymology is to connect it with Latin virga, sprout. Virernia. A colony name in artificial Latin in honor of Queen Elizabeth of England, who was fond of being known as the Virgin Queen. WASHINGTON. Study of early spellings makes it absolutely certain that the name is Wassing- ton, that the sh is a corruption, and that BOTANY.—A preliminary account of the plant diseases of El Salvador. 259 the Anglo-Saxon would have been Wassinga Tuun, the villa or stockade of the Wassings. There are two, and were formerly probably three, places in England by this name. Wassing is patently a patronymic derived from Wassa, an old weak-declension personal name not ex- tant in Anglo-Saxon writings. The genitive of this would have been, of course, Wassan, but - in Anglo-Saxon weak declension nouns were already taking -ing with loss of the -n-. Such an English adjective as Platonic, Plutonic, taken from Greek, retains the -n-, but Anglo-Saxon already formed Wass-ing from Wassa, with loss of the weak -n-. The meaning of the per- sonal name Wassa is not known. West Vireinia. The second member has been treated above. WISCONSIN. In origin the native Algonquian name meaning grassy. Wyromina. Native Delaware Algonquian for large prairie-place, corroborated by the Iro- quoian equivalent being extant. Not an ancient name, but a descriptive one, given by Indians to the site of the present Wilkes-Barre, Pa. JOHN A. STEVENSON, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, and FREDERICK L. WELLMAN,’ Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations. In the development of a national agri- cultural research program for the Republic of El Salvador it was deemed needful to make a study of the diseases affecting the economic plants of the country. Mycolo- gists and plant-disease students have visited the Republic, but no one has hitherto made detailed collections of disease material. A knowledge of the naturally occurring plant diseases of a country is considered one of the essentials of an agricultural research program, and it has been one of the junior author’s problems to obtain this informa- - tion in El Salvador. The collections here reported were all made in 1943 during the months of May, June, July, and the first half of August. The six months’ wet season had just begun when this work was started. 1 Received February 5, 1944. 2 The work of the junior author is in coopera- tion with the Centro Nacional de Agronomfa of El Salvador. El Salvador has an area of 13,176 square miles, somewhat less for example than that of Switzerland. It has a number of vol- canoes, with one or more that are still quite active, and elevations where crops are grown vary from sea level on the coastal plain bordering the Pacific Ocean to around 9,000 feet. Its climate is affected by the cordillera that marks its boundaries with Guatemala and Honduras, and on its higher tablelands and mountain slopes where culti- vation of crops is most intensive, it is almost temperate in character. In the lowlands along the Pacific and in the lower river valleys, such as that of the Rfo Lempa, the temperatures are typical of the deep tropics. It 1s a thickly populated country with a backbone of stable agriculture; large hold- ings maintained by wealthy landowners, a few moderate-sized farms handled by those of lesser means, and, most numerous, small plots that are worked on a subsistence basis 260 by the shifting type of cultivation indig- enous to the country. Certain crops have been grown in El Salvador since prehistoric times (e.g., maize, beans, squash), and others have been introduced within more recent times (e.g., sugarcane, coffee), while such plants as abac4 and fiber roselle have - been grown in the country but a few years. Published accounts of the plant diseases of El Salvador have been comparatively few. Dr. David J. Guzm4n (5) published in 1919 a work entitled Fitopatologia, estudio de las enfermedades que afectan a las plantas agricolas de El Salvador. It contains a general discussion of plant diseases and in- sect pests and their control, but very few concrete references to plant diseases occur- ring in El Salvador. Furthermore, a number of the diseases he recorded for the country are not present, for example, sugarcane smut. His reports have not been incorpo- rated here. Standley and Calderén (6) included in their Lista preluminar de las plantas de El Salvador fungi from the excellent collections of Standley, a number of which were eco- nomic forms and have been recorded here under the several hosts involved. Two of the rust fungi collected by Standley were named by Dr. J. C. Arthur (2) as new to science. : In more recent years studies of coffee dis- eases have been made at the Coffee Experi-. ment Station at Santa Tecla and records of these published in reports by S. Calderén, J. A. Alvarado, and F. Choussy (1, 3, 4). In the following account the material is presented on a host basis, and in alpha- betical order of the technical names of the plants involved. Disease-producing fungi are also listed alphabetically under the hosts. Localities are given and the col- lector’s numbers where available. The col- lector in all cases is the junior author unless otherwise specified. The specimens have been divided and a set deposited in the mycological collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry and a representative set’has been taken by the junior author for deposit in El Salvador. AGAVE spp. Sisal, henequen. Colletotrichum agaves Cav. This anthracnose JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 8 fungus produces oval leaf spots up to 1 cm in diameter with raised margins. On Agave ameri- cana L., Lake Ilopango Road, no. 300; on A. fourcroydes Lem., San Miguel, no. 240. Diplodia theobromae (Pat.) Nowell causes a black rot of the leaves of A. fourcroydes Lem. (henequen), which brings about serious losses of fiber often reaching 25 percent of the crop in a given area. The fungus, which has been listed under a variety of names (D. natalensis P. Evans, D. cacaoicola P. Henn., etc.), attacks a wide range of tropical and subtropical eco- nomic plants causing fruit rot, twig and branch die-back, and leaf spots and rot. Noted par- ticularly at San Miguel, nos. 239, 241, 243, 244, 414; La Libertad, no. 400. An earlier specimen from El] Salvador on A. stsalana Perr., collector and exact locality unknown, is also in the herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry. ALLIUM spp. Alternaria porri (Ell.) Saw. Black mold and purplish lesions on leaves of Alliwm cepa L. (onion). La Ceiba, no. 19 and Allium porrum L. (leek), Cuscutlan, no. 310. ALTHAEA ROSEA Cav. Hollyhock. Virus. An undetermined virus characterized by yellow chlorotic leaf lesions mixed with light and dark green islands. La Ceiba, no. 22. ANDIRA JAMAICENSIS (W. Wright) Urb. Gloeosporium sp. Anthracnose on leaves Plaza, San Miguel, no. 215. Polystigma pusillum Syd. Forming angular brown leaf spots. Previously known from Guatemala and the Dominican Republic. Under the name Physalospora andirae F. L. Stevens, the fungus has been collected in Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Panama. San Miguel, no. 215; San Salvador, no. 309. BAUHINIA spp. Uromyces guatemalensis Vest. Rust on leaves of B. ungulata L. Tonacatepeque, Dept. San Salvador, Standley, no. 19471; Santa Ana, Dept. Santa Ana, Standley, no. 20357. Uromyces jamaicensis Vest. Rust on leaves of B. pauletia Pers. San Vicente, Dept. San Vi- cente, Standley, no. 21286. Bera VULGARIS L. var. cicLA L. Swiss Chard. Cercospora beticola Sacc. A leaf spot produc- Ava. 15, 1944 STEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR ing fungus which is common throughout the range of the host. La Ceiba, no. 77; Cuscutlan, no. 313. BoEHMERIA NIVEA (L.) Gaud. Ramie. Virus. An undetermined virus was noted causing a severe stunting and mild leaf mottling of infected plants. Santa Tecla, no. 283. BRASSICA OLERACEA L. Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. Black leaf spots on leaves of cabbage, La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 78; Volcano San Salvador, no. 350; on leaves of cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis L.), La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 27. ~ BROMELIA KARATAS L. Perisporium bromeliae F. L. Stevens. Black ‘sooty patches on leaves. San Miguel, no. 245. CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS L. Pepper. | Cercospora capsict Heald & Wolf. Leaf spot of common occurrence. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 74; Cuscutlan, no. 316. Cercospora diffusa Ell. & Ev. Diffuse, brown fungus patches on lower leaf surfaces. Cuscut- lan, nos. 315, 316. Virus. An undetermined virus with symp- toms resembling those of common tobacco mosaic. La Ceiba, no. 75. } CARICA PAPAYA L. Papaya. Oidium caricae Noack. This typical powdery mildew, in common with most other tropical forms of the family Erysiphaceae, does not produce the perfect or ascus stage. Originally described from Brazil but occurs sparingly in — other papaya growing countries. La Ceiba Garden, no. 82. Pucciniopsis caricae (Speg.) Earle. This fungus, producing small, circular, black, rust- like spots on papaya leaves, occurs wherever the host is grown and is economically important in producing premature death of infected leaves. It is also known as Asperisporium cari- cae (Speg.) Maub., and a perfect stage (Myco- sphaerella) has been described, but not veri- fied. La Ceiba, no. 82; Los Chorros, no. 301. The latter specimen is overgrown in part by an apparently undescribed white mold. Virus. A definite virus disease characterized by severe malformation of older leaves and a stunting and mottling of young growth was 261 noted at the La Ceiba Experiment Station, nos. 63, 64. The disease would appear to be similar if not identical with that reported for Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Cassia sp. Senna. Rhizoctonia sp. A damping off of seedlings at La Ceiba, no. 330. CENTROSEMA PUBESCENS Benth. Uromyces neurocarpt Diet. Rust on leaves, Ahuachap4n, Dept. de Ahuachapdn, Standley, no. 19845. CITRULLUS VULGARIS Schrad. Watermelon. Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. & Curt.) Rostew. Downy mildew. A common and often serious disease of this and other cucurbits. Shore | of Lake Ilopango, no. 386; Valle San Juan, no. 430. CITRUS AURANTIFOLIA (Christm.) Swingle. Lime. Cephaleuros virescens Kunze. The algal leaf spot is common but never serious. Zapotitan, no. 365; Tejutla, no. 441. Elsinoé fawcetti Bitanc. & Jenkins. The citrus scab fungus attacks the leaves and fruit, dis- figuring the latter or even causing much prema- ture dropping. Cuscutlan, nos. 318, 319. Mycosphaerella sp. (?). A leaf spot charac- terized by brown, circular to irregular spots with much darker definite borders, showing on both surfaces of the leaves. The fungus is im- mature. Cuscutlan, no. 320. Cocos NucIFERA L. Coconut. Diplodia cococarpa Sacc. Common on husks. Port of La Libertad, no. 399. Exosporium palmivorum Sacc. Leaf spots on dead leaves. La Ceiba no. 393. Leptosphaerta sp. On dead and dying leaf tips associated with the following. Pestalotia (Pestalozzia) palmarum Cke. As- sociated with large, irregular, gray to deep brown leaf spots. La Cabana, no. 227; La Ceiba no. 292. CoDIAEUM VARIEGATUM (L.) Blume. Orna- mental croton. Gloeosporium sorauerianum Allesch. Anthrac- nose on leaves, marked by large, irregular, brown, diseased areas and often with premature defoliation. La Ceiba, no. 130. 262 CoFFEA ARABICA L. Coffee. Capnodium coffeae Pat. The sooty mold of coffee following the presence of aphids, mealy- bugs, or other insects is common in most cof- fee-growing areas. It is doubtless a mixture of several species, but for the most part conidial and pycnidial stages only are present. The name applied here is one of convenience only. Santa Tecla, nos. 101, 111; Santiago de Maria, S. Calderon, no. 2232. Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Cke. The brown eyespot is one of the common coffee leaf spots, but one which causes relatively little damage. Voleano San Salvador, nos. 11, 342; La Ceiba Exp. Station, no. 88; near Santa Ana no. 417. Also reported by Calderén (3) and Alvarado (1). — Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack. The an- thracnose fungus produces large, irregular, brown blotches on leaves. Santa Tecla, no. 110. Probably merely another strain of Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk. Heterodera marioni (Cornu) Goodey. The root-knot nematode was found producing heavy infections of roots of seedlings at Santa Tecla, no. 278. Determination verified by G. Steiner. Micropeltis applanata Mont. Fly-speck fun- gus on leaves. Santa Tecla, S. Calderén, no. 223%. Mycosphaerella coffeicola (Cke.). Leaf spot. Volcano Quetzaltepeque (San Salvador), no. 342; Santa Ana, S. Calderén, collector. Omphalia flavida Maubl. & Rangel. The American leaf or eyespot disease, which is caused by this fungus, is widespread in the American tropics on coffee and various other economic woody plants and is doubtless wide- spread in El Salvador but is reported to date only from Santa Tecla from the collections of S. Calderén (3). In the past the fungus has been classified erroneously as Stilbum flavidum Cke. and Stilbella flavida (Cke.) Lindau. Rhizoctonia sp. Coffee seedlings killed by a “damping off”’ fungus of the genus Rhizoctonia, and probably a strain of R. solani Kuehn, were noted at Santa Ana, no. 21, and at Santa Tecla, nos. 105, 106. Nonparasitic leaf abnormalities. Several types of bronzing, chlorosis, and similar disturbances were noted on coffee leaves at Santa Tecla, due JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 possibly to lack of shade, soil deficiencies, and other environmental or cultural difficulties. CucumIs sativus L. Cucumber. Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Powdery mil- dew occurs commonly on this host, but in the conidial (Oidium) stage only. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 29. : Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. & Curt.) Rostew. Downy mildew is a common disease on this host and often destructive. La Ceiba Exp. Stat. nos. 28, 72. Virus. An undetermined virus disease was noted which was not typical of that due to Marmor cucumeris var. vulgare Holmes, but was characterized by the harsh, corrugated ap- pearance of the leaves with vein clearing. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 30. CucurBiTa spp. Pumpkin, squash. Cercospora cucurbitae Ell. & Ev. Leaf spot on C. maxima Duchesne. Zapotitan, no. 425; Valle de San Juan, no. 431. Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Powdery mil- dew in the Oidium stage is common on all types of Cucurbita. Shores of Lake Ilopango, no. 385; Volcano de San Salvador, no. 261; San Andres, no. 362. The fungus on the first specimen cited is overgrown by Cicinnobolus cesatit D By. Virus. An undetermined virus disease of the Marmor type characterized by severe mottling of leaves and stunting of plants of Cucurbita pepo L. occurred near Sacocayo, no. 146; shores of Lake Ilopango, no. 389; near Aguafria, no. 427. . CYMBOPOGON NARDUS (L.) Rendle. Citronella grass. Virus. A leaf mottling typical of Marmor sacchart Holmes, which occurred on sugarcane in adjoining fields, was noted at Santa Tecla, no. 275. ; CYNODON DACTYLON (L.) Pers. Bermuda grass. Helminthosporium gigantewm Heald and Wolf. The fungus causes yellow or straw-col- ored spots with narrow brown borders on leaves. Previously reported from Texas. Cafetelera Station, Santa Tecla, no. 276. Puccinia cynodontis Delacr. The rust on this host is a widespread fungus, often injurious. Zacatecoluca, no. 434. DaTURA STRAMONIUM L. Alternaria crassa (Sacc.) Rands. On leaves. Los Planos, no. 4. Aue. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR Virus. An undetermined virus causing chlo- rosis and stunting of infected plants was seen at Los Planos, no. 5. Daucus caRora L. Carrot. Alternaria carotae (Ell. & Langl.). Leaf blight occurred at La Ceiba, no. 33; Volcano San Salvador, no. 341. DESMODIUM spp. Alternaria sp. Associated with a leaf-spot- ting, on Desmodium sp. Santa Tecla, no. 281. Cercospora desmodii Ell. & Kell. Leaf spot on Desmodium sp. La Cabana, no. 225. Isariopsis caespitosa Petr. & Cif. Angular leaf spot on Desmodium sp. Near Herradura, no. 390; Lagarto, no. 428. Doubtfully distinct from I. griseola Sace., occurring on Phaseolus and other legumes. Parodiella perisporioides (Berk. & Curt.) Speg. On leaves of Desmodium nicaraguense Benth. & Oerst. Santa Tecla, no. 280. Uromyces hedysari-paniculati (Schw.) Farl. Rust on leaves of Desmodium barclay: Benth., Ahuachap4n, Dept. de Ahuachap4n, Standley, no. 19846; Desmodium nicaraguense Benth. & Oerst., Santa Tecla, no. 280; Desmodium scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv., near San Salvador, Standley, nos. 19651, 22743. Virus. An undetermined virus marked by mottling of leaves of D. rensoni Painter, Santa Tecla, no. 282. EPIDENDRUM DIFFORME Jacq. Uredo guacae Mayor. A rust disfiguring the leaves of Epidendrum spp. and related orchids in Central America and the West Indies. The record of its occurrence in El Salvador is based on a specimen found by Plant Quarantine in- spectors on a plant offered for entry at San Francisco. KUPHORBIA PULCHERRIMA (Klotzsch) Graham. Poinsettia. Oidium sp. This appears to be the first report of a powdery mildew on this host. As is so com- monly the case with tropical material, the per- fect stage of the fungus is not present. It is pos- sible that Sphaerotheca euphorbiae (Cast.) Sal- mon is the species involved. The fungus pro- duces circular to irregular yellow to brown spots up to 1 cm in diameter, disfiguring the leaves and greatly lowering their ornamental value. La Ceiba, no. 96. 263 Ficus carica L. Fig. Physopella fict (Cast.) Arth. The common fig rust brings about premature leaf fall. Finca Santa Ana, San Miguel, no. 210 (Uredo stage only). FRAGARIA CHILOENSIS Duchesne. Strawberry. Mycosphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Lindau. This fungus, producing a typical and at times damag- ing leaf spot, has followed the cultivated straw- berry around the world. The conidial stage (Ramularia tulasnei Sacc.) was collected near the top of Volcano San Salvador, no. 351. FURCRAEA SD. Colletotrichum agaves Cav. Anthracnose on leaves. San Miguel, S. Calderén, collector, no. 2549; near San Jacinto, no. 2556. Dothidella parryi (Farl.) Th. & Syd. On leaves, near San Salvador, S. Calderén, collec- tor. Trichocladium olivaceum Mass. On leaves. San Miguel, S. Calderén, collector, no. 2549. GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM H. B. K. Madre de cacao. Cyphella villosa Pers. ex Karst. Associated with a die-back condition of branches and twigs. Santa Tecla, no. 59a. Fusarium decemcellulare Brick. Associated with cankers on stem and branches. Collected by S. Calderén, Santa Tecla. Isariopsis sp. Causes definite, dark brown spots, 2-4 mm in diameter, fruiting on the lower surface. San Andres, no. 359. Phomopsis sp. Associated with a die-back of twigs. Does not appear to differ from Ph. gliricidiae Syd., nor from Ph. citri Fawe., which latter form Wehmeyer considers the imperfect stage of Diaporthe medusaea Nitsch. Rosellinia pepo Pat. Black root rot on rotting roots. Santa Tecla, collected by S. Calderén. Hipiscus sp. Fiber roselle. Oidium sp. A powdery mildew on leaves which showed only the imperfect stage and hence was not further determinable, occurred at La Molina, Santa Ana, no. 305. Vermicularia dematium Fr. Associated with cankered areas at base of plants. Santa Tecla, no. 122. Many plants at the Station have shown abnormal leaf fall and other abnormalities, but parasitic fungi do not appear to be involved and the trouble is more evidently the result of unfavorable environment. Various secondary fungi occur on dead and dying leaves and stalks. 264 INGA spp. Perisporium truncatum F. L. Stevens. Black mildew on living leaves of Inga preusit Harms, vicinity of San Salvador, P. C. Standley. Ravenelia ingae (P. Henn.) Arth. A rust on leaves and twigs of Inga preusii Harms, often causing malformations. La Ceiba, no. 368, on Inga sp. La Ceiba, no. 338; near San Salvador, P. C. Standley, no. 22461. The latter specimen was originally named as R. whetzelia Arth., now considered synonymous with R. ingae. Virus. A possible virus disease producing a mottling of leaves of [nga sp. was observed at the La Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 334, 335, 336. Lactuca SATIVA L. Lettuce. Septoria lactucae Pk. Leaf spot causing de- foliation. La Ceiba, nos. 15, 194. LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM Mill. Tomato. Cladosporium fuluum Cke. This common and often destructive leaf mold occurred on both native and introduced types. La Ceiba Exp. Stat. no. 81; Herredura, no. 391; Izalco, no. 421. Septoria lycopersict Speg. Leaf spot was very severe on certain varieties, particularly the small fruited native type, near Volcan de Izalco, no. 175. MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango. Colletotrichum gloeosporiotdes Penz. Mango anthracnose 1s common wherever the tree is grown, causing a blackening of the fruit. Young leaves are distorted and large, irregular deep brown blotches are produced on more mature ones. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., on fruit and leaves, no. 32; near Panchamalco, no. 397. Phyllosticta mortont Fairman. This fungus causes a leaf spot characterized by numerous, small, angular gray spots with definite dark- brown margins. Previously reported from Flor- ida, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guatemala, and Mex- ico. Sonsonate, no. 187; Finca Santa Ana, San Miguel, no. 211. MANIHOT ESCULENTA Crantz. Manihot, yucea, cassava. Cercospora henningsii Allesch. This fungus causes brown circular to irregular spots and blotches on the leaves, 5 mm or more in diame- ter in contrast to the small (2-3 mm) definite spots with white centers due to C. caribaea Cif. Near Mercedes, Umajia, no. 411; near Izalco, nos. 422, 423. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 Odium manthotis P. Henn. The powdery mildew of this host is in the Oidiwm stage only, producing irregular light brown blotches on the leaves with a white powdery layer showing be- neath. Also known from Central Africa, Brazil, and Peru. La Ceiba, no. 291. Phyllosticta sp. Associated with small (1-2 mm) leaf spots, silvery white above, reddish brown beneath. Along shores of Lake Ilopango, no. 381. Virus. Typical mottling, stunting and mal- formation of the Marmor type, associated with aphids. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 290; near Mercedes, Umaiia, nos. 412, 413. Menpicaco saTiva L.? Alfalfa. Bacterium alfalfae Riker, F. R. Jones & Davis (?). Bacterial leaf spot has been known heretofore only from the United States. Speci- mens from Santa Tecla, nos. 117, 118, 119, are doubtfully referred to this species. — Cercospora sp. (probably C. zebrina Pass.) Leaf spot. Santa Tecla, no. 117. Rhizoctonia sp. Associated with bleached spots on stems. Santa Tecla, no. 120. Uromyces striatus Schroet. The rust is com- mon and widespread on this host in El Salvador but not serious. Santa Tecla, nos. 116, 118. MEticocca BIJUGA L. Spanish lime. Virus. An undetermined virus causing severe mottling of leaves. La Ceiba, no. 90. Musa PARADISIACA L. Banana. Cercospora musae Zimm. The “‘sigatoka’”’ dis- ease of bananas, which has caused heavy losses in many banana-growing countries was col- lected at La Ceiba, no. 79, and at Tomato- peque, no. 438. Cordana musae (Zimm.) Hoehn. Cordana leaf spot attacking the ‘‘Cavendish”’ variety, Los Planos, no. 2. PACHYRHIZUS sp. Jicama. Isariopsis griseola Sacc. This species, causing an angular leaf spot, is usually confined to Phaseolus and its reference to Pachyrhizus, a new host genus is somewhat doubtful. However it does not appear to differ morphologically from the form on Phaseolus. La Ceiba, nos. 99, 100, 455. 3 All determinations of organisms on Medicago are by C. Lefebvre. Ava. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR PANICUM spp. Panicum grasses. Cercospora fusimaculans Atk. A leaf-spot disease characterized by linear brown spots on Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.). San Andres, no. 357; Zacatecoluca, no. 433. Previ- ously known from Colombia, Panama Canal Zone, and Brazil as well as the southern United States. Uromyces leptodermus Syd. Rust on leaves of Pamcum purpurascens Raddi (Panicum bar- binode Trin.) Pard grass. Near San Salvador, Standley, no. 19677. PASPALUM spp. Claviceps paspali F. L. Stevens & J. G. Hall. This common Paspalum ergot fungus, which is poisonous to livestock, was collected at Mont- serrate, no. 485, on Paspalum sp. PASSIFLORA QUADRANGULARIS L. Granadilla. Cercospora regalis Tharp. Leaf spots. La Ceiba, no. 34. PERSEA spp. Avocado and relatives. Cercospora purpurea Cke. (?). The common leaf-spot-producing fungus of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is tentatively assigned to this species, pending more detailed study. It produces numerous, small, angular, dull brown spots and has been previously known from the state of Florida. A _ possible perfect stage (Mycosphaerella) has been reported by H. E. Stevens from that State. La Ceiba, no. 462. Cephaleuros virescens Kunze. The algal leaf spot was common and abundant on Persea schiedeana Nees, an avocado relative, inter- mingled with Sérigula complanata Fee, a leaf inhabiting lichen. Santa Tecla, nos. 115, 116. PETROSELINUM CRISPUM (Mill.) Nym. Parsley. Cercospora apit Fres. Leaf spot. Slopes of Voleano de San Salvador, no. 340. PHASEOLUS LUNATUS L. Lima bean. Elsinoé phaseolt Jenkins. Lima bean scab was found on the leaves and pods of a specimen collected by S. Calderon, San Salvador, and deposited at the Gray Herbarium, Cambridge, Mass. (Phytopathology 23: 602. 1933). PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. Bean. Chaetoseptoria sp. See discussion of this fun- gus under Vigna (cowpea). La Ceiba, nos. 126a, 126b, 128. | Isarvopsis griseola Sacc. Angular leaf spot is common on beans in all localities and does some damage. La Molina, nos. 306, 307; Cuscutlan, 265 no. 312, slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 343; near Izalco, no. 419. Myrmaecium roridum Tode. On matured pods near Paraiso, no. 449. Periconia pycnospora Fres. On matured pods, near Paraiso, no. 449a. Determined by E. K. Cash. Uromyces phaseoli typica Arth. The univer- sally distributed bean rust contributes directly to crop reduction by destruction of leaves. La Ceiba, no. 128; near Sacocoyo, nos. 136, 137; La Molina, Santa .Ana, nos. 306, 307; near Izalco, no. 420; near Paraiso, no. 448; vicinity of San Salvador, collector Standley, nos. 19600, 23303. (Reported by Standley and Calderén (6) as U. appendiculatus [Pers.] Fr.) Vermicularia polytricha Cke. On matured pods. Near Paraiso no. 449. PHOENIX sp. Palm. Graphiola phoenicis (Moug.) Poit. The false smut of Phoenix and related palms is omnipres- ent and always disfiguring. La Ceiba, no. 16. PITHECELLOBIUM DULCE (Roxb.) Benth. Microstroma pithecolobti Lamkey. This fun- gus, causing a leaf mold disease, has been known previously only from Puerto Rico on Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. La Ceiba, no. 86. Virus. Causing a yellow mottling of leaves. _ La Ceiba, no. 87. PRuUNUs PERSICA (L.) Batsch. Peach. Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae (Pers.) Diet. The peach leaf rust occurs co-extensively with its host and is often a serious defoliator. Los Planos near San Salvador, no. 6; slopes of Vol- cano San Salvador, ‘no. 344. The latter speci- men is parasitized by Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast., which possibly helps to keep the rust in check. PsipIuM GuaJAVA L. Guava, Guayaba. Meliola psidii Wint. Black mildew on leaves, common, but not serious. San Salvador, P. C. Standley, collector. PUNICA GRANATUM L. Pomegranate. Cercospora punicae Syd. Leaf spot, not seri- ous. C. lythracearum Heald & Wolf is synony- mous. La Ceiba, no. 492. RAPHANUS SATIVUS L. Radish. Albugo candida Pers. ex Kuntze. The white rust is common and widespread, but seldom destructive, wherever the host is grown. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 73. -_ 266 RICINUS COMMUNIS L. Castor bean. Cercospora ricinella Sacc. & Berl. This com- mon leaf spot producing fungus characterized by numerous, small circular to angular, white centered spots causes severe defoliation at times. San Andres, nos. 198, 199, 200; San Miguel, no. 216. Rosa spp. Rose (cultivated varieties). Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr. This common and widespread disfiguring leaf spot disease known as “black spot’’ was collected at the La Ceiba rose garden, no. 23 and at Cuscutlan, no. 314. The fungus also has a perfect stage (Diplocarpon rosae Wolf) not yet found in Salvador. Cercospora puderi B. H. Davis. This fungus causes small spots (up to 4 mm in diameter) with gray centers. La Ceiba rose garden, nos 24, 25. This species has been previously known from the southern United States and Mexico, but is much less common than the ubiquitous C. rosicola Pass., which is characterized by larger spots and with sporulation on both sur- faces. Diplodia sp. Associated with dieback. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 66, 67. Stilbella cionnabarina (Mont.) Wr. Fruiting on dead and dying stems of Rosa odorata Sweet. La Ceiba rose garden, no. 69. RUBUS spp. Elsinoé veneta (Burk.) Jenkins. Anthracnose on stems and leaves of a blackberry (Rubus sp.) near the top of Volcano San Salvador, no. 347. The imperfect stage only (Sphaceloma) of the fungus was present. Determination by Anna K. Jenkins. Spirechina rubt (Diet. & Holw.) Holw. Rust on leaves of Rubus adenotrichos Schlecht. Vol- can de San Salvador, collector P. C. Standley. SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L. Sugarcane. Leptosphaerta sacchari V. B. de Haan. The “ring spot” disease due to this fungus is com- mon on older leaves, as in all other cane grow- ing countries. La Cabana, nos. 221, 231. Virus. Mosaic (Marmor sacchari Holmes) is prevalent and severe throughout the country on susceptible varieties. SaLIx CHILENSIS Mol. Willow. Melampsora abieti-capraearum Tub. (Me- lampsora humboldtiana Speg.) Rust on leaves. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 Ahuachapdn, Dept. de Ahuachap4n, Standley, 20255. SECHIUM EDULE Sw. Chayote, huisquil. Rhagadolobtum cucurbitacearum (Rehm) Th. & Syd. Tar spot disease of the leaves, disfigur- ing, but seldom serious. La Ceiba, no. 70. SOLANUM spp. Cercospora diffusa Ell. & Ev. Black leaf spot on S. nigrum L. Shores of Lake Jlopango, no. 384. Cercospora solani-torvi Frag. & Cif. Leaf spot on Solanum sp. (probably S. torvum Sw.), near Zaragoza, no. 402. SORGHUM HALEPENSE (L.) Pers. (Holcus hale- pensis L.) Johnson grass. Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. @ansine a leaf spot near Herradura, no. 395. Gloeocercospora sorghit Bain & Edgerton. Leaf blotch, a disease heretofore known only from the southern United States. La Laguna, no. 322. Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. La Laguna, no. 322. Puccinia purpurea Cke. The rust was col- lected by S. Calderén, no. 41a. | SORGHUM VULGARE (L.) Pers. (Holcus sorghum L.) Sorghum. Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. Leaf spots, com- mon at La Ceiba, no. 132. Colletotrichum graminicolum (Ces.) G. W. Wils. Anthracnose. West of San Vicente, no. 208; near San Jose del Sacario, no. 448. World wide on most species of grasses. Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. Leaf spot and blotch. La Ceiba, no. 132. Puccinia purpurea Cke. Very common every- where on this host, producing large irregular, deep red blotches on leaves. La Ceiba, Puerta, no. 375. Virus. Near sugarcane fields, ieee sugar- cane mosaic (Marmor sacchari Holmes) was present, and hence the same virus is probably involved here. Santa Tecla, no. 269. SORGHUM VULGARE var. SUDANENSE (Piper) Hitche. (Holcus sudanensis Piper). Sudan grass. | Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. Leaf spot. La Ceiba, nos. 131, 133, and 135. Trcoma stans (L.) H. B. K. Prospodium appendiculatum (Wint.) Arth. Rust common on the leaves of this ornamental Ava. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR tree. Ahuachapdn, Dept. de Ahuachapdn, Standley 19905; near San Martin, Dept. de San Salvador, 22590. TETRAGONIA EXPANSA Thunb. New Zealand spinach. Cercosporina tetragoniae Speg. Leaf spot. Slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 348. TRITICUM AESTIVUM L. Wheat. Puccinia rubigo-vera tritici (Erikss. & P. Henn.) Carleton. Both stages (uredial and telial) of this common leaf rust of wheat were found. Slopes of Volcano San Salvador, nos. 247, 248, 249, and 353. Septoria tritict Rob. A scanty collection of this common wheat parasite was made on the slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 353. VIGNA SINENSIS (Torner) Savi. Cowpea. Cercospora canescens Ell. & Martin. Leaf spot near Sacocoyo, nos. 140, 1438. Chaetoseptoria sp. This fungus was associated with large, circular leaf spots. Tehon described (Mycologia 29: 444-445. 1937) the genus as new and established the species C. vignae on Vigna sinensis. The Salvador fungus has conid- ia up to 150u long in contrast to 18—50p re- ported by Tehon for those of C. vignae. The pycnidia are also much larger than those of the Illinois fungus. Near Sacocoyo, no. 140; Zapi- totan, no. 424. Erysiphe polygont DC. This powdery mil- dew, in the Oidium stage only, as is usual in tropical collections, was collected at Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 3. VITIS VINIFERA L. Grape. Alternaria vitis Cav. Associated with leaf spots. Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 8. Mycosphaerella sp., in circular light-brown leaf spots, with dark brown definite borders. La Laguna, no. 325. Physopella vitis (Thuem.) Arth. The grape rust, also known as Phakopsora vitis (Thuem.) Syd., occurs commonly on vinifera grapes, _ causing some defoliation; the fungus also is present in the southern United States, the West Indies, Guatemala, and northern South America. Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 7; Santa Ana, no. 308; San Salvador, no. 463. YUCCA ELEPHANTIPES Regel. Izote. Didymosphaerta sp. A species, distinct be- cause of its larger spores from D. yuccogena 4 267 © (Cke.) Sace. and D. clementsii Sacc. & D. Sace., causing leaf spots was found on the lower slopes of Volean de San Salvador, no. 267. Gloeosporium sp. (GI. yuccigenuwm Ell. & Ev.?) Anthracnose of leaves, forming large concen- trically zoned diseased areas. Lower slopes, Volcan de San Salvador, nos. 266, 267. Leptosphaerta obtusispora Speg. The fungus produces large, irregular, dull brown blotches on the leaves. It differs from the more common L. filamentosa Ell. & Ev. in its 5-septate spores as contrasted to the 3-septate spores of the lat- ter species. La Ceiba, no. 332. Sphaerodothis pringlei (Pk.) Th. & Syd. Tar spot fungus on leaves. On lower slopes, Volcan de San Salvador, no. 267; slopes of Volcan San Salvador, no. 354. ZEA MAYS L. Corn, maize. Angiopsora zeae Mains. This is one of the rarer rust fungi occurring on Zea, heretofore reported as found sparingly in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Trini- dad. For a discussion of this and certain of the other corn rusts see article by G. B. Cummins (Phytopath. 31: 856-857. 1941). Zapotitan, nos. 360, 361 (both uredial and telial stages.) Cercospora sorght Ell. & Ev. A common leaf spot producing fungus. La Ceiba, nos. 378, 379; near Herradura, no. 394. Distinct from C. zeae- maydis Tehon and Daniels, which is described with conidia 5—9y wide, in contrast to 3y as de- scribed for the former. Cladosporium herbarum Lk. Associated with large irregular, dead areas on leaves, near San Kstabdén, nos. 409, 429. Other fungi present were Alternaria sp., Fusarium sp., Periconia sp., and Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch all possibly secondary. Curvularia geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boed. Associated with elongated brown lesions on leaves. La Cabana, no. 237. Diplodia zeae (Schw.) Lév. Ear rot. La Ceiba, NOs De Fusarium sp. Associated with ear rot and oc- curring also with other molds on leaves and husks. La Ceiba, no. 372. Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. A very common and widespread fungus on maize in Salvador and one that apparently causes much damage by destroying leaves. Secondary fungi quite commonly are present also on diseased material. Near Sonsonate, nos. 151, 152; near 268 Izalco, no. 177; Zapotitan, nos. 188, 189; San Andrés, nos. 159, 164, 198, 194, 195; La Ca- bana, nos. 235, 238; La Ceiba, no. 377; near San José del Sacario, no. 444. Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch. As- sociated with leaf spots, and cob rot, La Union, no. 429. Physoderma zeae-maydis Shaw. This fungus causes the disease known as brown spot. It isan important and widespread disease of corn in tropical and subtropical countries, there being reports of its occurrence in China, India, Cen- tral Africa, Brazil, and Guatemala. Although described originally from India, it is doubtless of American origin and Tisdale (Journ. Agr. Res. 16: 137-154. 1919) saysof it, ‘‘It is possi- ble that the disease was introduced into the United States from Mexico or Central America with Huchlaena mexicanum.” Physoderma may- dis Miy. described from Japan does not appear to differ. The Salvador material is typical both in the disease symptoms and in the morphology of the fungus except that the sporangia are somewhat smaller (15-18 by 15-21y) than those described by Tisdale. Near Sonsonate, no. 176; near Izalco, no. 177; La Ceiba, nos. 123, 125; San Andrés, nos. 160, 161, 164, 194; Zapo- titan, no. 367. Puccinia pallescens Arth. A second species of rust found sparingly in the uredial stage only at Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 1. Puccinia polysora Underw. The third species of corn rust prevalent in the country. Found in both uredial and telial stages, near Talcha- laya, no. 446; and near Paraiso, no. 447. Puccinia sorghi Schw. The most common and widespread of the four species of rust attacking Zea. Collected around the edge of the crater of Volcano de San Salvador, nos. 253-258. The rust on several of the specimens is overgrown ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of Anopheles from the Solomon Islands." JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 by the ubiquitous rust parasite, Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast. Ustilago maydis (DC.) Cda. (U. zeae[Beckm.] Unger.). The common corn smut occurs abundantly as in all corn growing countries. La Ceiba, no. 370; near Izalco, no. 436; near Paraiso, no. 451. Virus. An undetermined virus disease caus- ing a mottling of leaves was noted near Son- sonate, no. 174. ZINNIA ELEGANS Jacq. (Crassina eae [Jacq.] Kuntze). Zinnia. Cercospora zinniae Ell. & Martin. This leaf spot fungus causes serious defoliation of the zinnia in El Salvador. C. atricincta Heald & Wolf, named from Texas, does not appear dis- tinct. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 62, 76; Son- sonate, no. 180. LITERATURE CITED (1) Atvarapbo, J. A. Informe de los trabajos de la Estacion Experimental de Santa Tecla del 15 Abril al 31 de Diciembre de 1939. El Café de El Salvador, Rev. Assoc. Cafet. El Salvador 10: 147-186. 1940. (2) ArTuur, J. C. New species of Uredineae XV. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 51: 51-59. 1924. (3) CaLpERON, 8. El ojo de gallo del café. Café de El Salvador, Rev. Assoc. Guat. El Salvador 3: 1-5. 1933. (4) Cuoussy, F. ‘Mal de heridas’’ o “Mal de poda’’ del Cafeto. El Café de El Salva- dor, Rev. Assoc. Cafet. El Salvador 10: 312-315. 1940. (5) Guzman, Davin J. Fitopatologia, estudio de las enfermedades que afectan a las plantas agricolas de El Salvador: 142 pp. San Salvador, 1919. (6) STANDLEY, Pav C., and CaLpERON, Satvapor. Lista ‘preliminar de las plantas de El Salvador: 274 pp. [Fungi, pp. 12-17]. 1925. JOHN N. Be.kin and Ratpx J. ScHLOSSER, SUS: Corps, U. 8. Army. (Com- municated by ALAN STONE.) In the Lunga district of Guadalcanal Is- land, British Solomon Islands Protectorate, a survey of the anophelines was made. Four distinct forms of anophelines were encoun- tered, a species of Bironella (walchi?), two forms of A. punctulatus Doénitz, and a spe- cies of Anopheles, which is described here- 1 Received June 29, 1944. with. In reports from this area in the past few months this species has been called A. p. punctulatus Sw. & Sw. Investigations of the role of A. p. punctulatus in the transmission of disease on this island were actually car- ried out with this new species and not with A. p. punctulatus as reported. A summary of these investigations is given at the end of the paper. The senior author was very for- Ava. 15, 1944 tunate in enlisting the assistance of the junior author in the preparation of the il- lustrations. Anopheles (Myzomyia) lungae, n. sp. Adult female—A medium-sized yellowish, speckled anopheline with the apical third of the labium yellow. Length of wing 4 mm. Heap (Fig. 2): Conspicuous white frontal tuft; vertical setae white, followed by one or two rows of white narrow hair-like scales; white scales on top of vertex forming a wide spot narrowed in the center; the rest of vertical scales and the occipital scales dark. Antenna with a few minute white scales on torus and dense white scaling on the first flagellar seg- ment. Palpi ornamented as shown in Fig. 2; ornamentation very constant, the light scales yellowish on the last segment and white on the rest. Labium densely covered with yellow scales on apical third, yellow coloration broken by narrow dark ring just proximad of apex. Labella dull yellow. Tuorax (Fig. 3): White scales on anterior promontory rather short and scarce, central scales elongate, lateral broader. A few dark scales below. Rest of mesonotum devoid of scales, except for very narrow whitish scales in ' front of wing root; vestiture consisting of numerous golden hairs of varying length. Mesonotal integument light brown with gray pollinose longitudinal lines; dark brown eye spots in front of and behind scutal angle; pre- scutellar space dark brown. Mesonotal bristles light in color. Pleura darker with a broad black- ish longitudinal line dorsally. Spiracular bristles absent, propleurals 6, lower sternopleurals 3, upper sternopleural 6-8, prealars 4—6, subalars 5-6, lower mesepimerals absent. Wine (Fig. 1): As in figure; pale areas light yellow, dark spots often more conspicuous than shown in figure, scales rather broad. Median dark spot includes base of vein 2; a dark spot on costa between basal and median dark spots; subcosta and vein 1 without dark spots in this area; small black spots, shown in figure, be- tween median and preapical black spots some- times absent. Leas (Fig. 4): Front femora swollen in basal half, speckled; middle and hind femora and all tibiae with rather evenly spaced pale spots externally. First segment of front tarsus with several light spots and light apex; second, third and fourth segments with basal and apical light BELKIN & SCHLOSSER: A NEW ANOPHELES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 269 bands; fifth segment dark basally, remainder light. First segment of middle tarsus similar to corresponding segment of front tarsus; second, third and fourth segments with basal light - bands only; fifth segment all dark. First seg- ment of hind tarsus with numerous light spots and light apex, second segment with light apical band and usually one to three light spots in the center; third segment with light apical band and occasionally a few light scales in center; fourth segment with light apical band; fifth segment all dark. Light scales on legs yellowish. Dark scales on middle tarsus much lighter than on other tarsi. ABDOMEN: Devoid of scales on tergites and sternites; instead, a vestiture of narrow golden hairs similar to those found on mesonotum. Hairs more numerous on posterior segments. Cerci with rather narrow yellow scales. Adult male——In the main as the female. First flagellar segment with a tuft of long nar- row white scales resembling frontal tuft. Pal- pal ornamentation essentially as in female; segment with 2 yellow scales dorsally in mid- dle; third segment with narrow apical yel- low ring and a few yellow scales dorsally in middle; fourth and fifth segments yellow with narrow basal dark rings. Labium all dark ex- cept for a few yellow scales at apex, labella dull yellow. Abdomen as in female except for nu- merous yellow scales on eighth tergite. Side pieces densely covered with yellow scales; black scales present laterally. Mate GENITALIA (Figs. 5-7): Side pieces broad. Parabasal spines 5, spine 4 separated from 1-3. Claspettes (Fig. 6) with elongate club composed of four fused spines; apical hair almost twice length of club; inner accessory hair as long as club; two small hairs arising near base of apical ‘hair. Phallosome (Fig. 7) elongate with parallel sides; leaflets 7-8; quite broad, the longest about one-fourth length of phallosome, serrations absent (?). Larva.—HeE ap (Fig. 8): Inner clypeals widely spaced, quite heavy, but short; outer clypeals extremely short; posterior clypeals similar to outer clypeals. Frontal hairs with branching as shown in figure. Occipitals and orbitals short, bifurcate. Antenna with fairly conspicu- ous spines on inner surface; antennal hair mi- nute arising one third from base; terminal hair with about five branches arising from base, slightly longer than sabers; basal hair normal; subbasal short, three branched. 270 Tuorax (Fig. 9): Prothoraciec hair 1 with heavy basal tubercle, heavy shaft and radia- tion branching, approximately half as long as hair 2; hair 2 not quite so long as hair 4, with heavy basal tubercle, heavy shaft, and five to six branches on each side; hair 3 small, simple; hair 5 with very thick shaft, minute lateral JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S - =e, 7 : — Shep ee = ROCCE Sgn Rea sggert eee BAABES vou. 34, No. 8 branches except near apex where branches are long; hair 6 simple, longer than 5. Prothoracic pleural hairs 9 and 10 long and simple; hair 11 long with three to five branches; hair 12 simple or bifid, about one-third length of long hairs. Mesothoracic pleural hairs 9 and 10 long and simple; hair 11 short, with two or three Mieccg oF Sa S. 1 : ) 9 \" a cabs SSDS en > AS SEZ Z IL Oe", EEN uN et a ONES a ee ee rea et Se eee ERS MorpHouoay or ApULT ANOPHELES LUNGAE Fig. 1.—Wing of female. Hind tarsus of female. Fig. 2.— Mouthparts of female. Fig. 5.—Male genitalia. .Fig. 6.—Claspettes. Fig. 4.— Fig. 7.—Phallosome. Fig. 3.— Mesonotum of female. Ava. 15, 1944 branches, hair 12 minute. Hair 1 on mesothorax with thickened shaft. Hair 1 on metathorax forming a palmate hair with approximately 8 leaflets, leaflets not pigmented. ABDOMEN (Fig. 9): Palmate hairs very large and heavily pigmented on segments IIJ—VII, somewhat smaller on VII; poorly developed on I; fairly well developed (12 or more leaflets) but lightly pigmented on II. Leaflets (Fig. 11) numbering 16 to 26 on segment III and IV, well-pigmented; filaments short, indentations not numerous. Lateral hair on segment III with approximately six branches on each side, arising well away from base; lateral hairs on segments IV and V usually double; lateral hairs on VI with five to six branches. Anterior tergal plates rather small; posterior tergal plates very small, present on segment IV—VII. Median plate of scoop well developed. Pecten (Fig. 10) with 3—4 long and 6-8 short spines, the serrations at their bases very fine and inconspicuous; the pecten hair with 4-5 branches. Caudal hooks 6-8. Anal gills much longer than anal segment. Types.—Holotype @, allotype <7, paratypes 202, 200% collected resting on tree trunks, Tassafaronga Swamp, Guadalcanal Island, January 28, 1944 (Belkin); paratypes 59,42 reared from larvae collected in Wright’s Creek, Guadalcanal Island, November 11, 1943 (Bel- kin); paratypes 102, 15 collected on tree trunks, Burns Creek, Lunga, Guadalcanal Is- land, March 10, 1944 (Belkin). Holotype and allotype to be deposited in U. S. National Museum. Identification—This species can be sepa- rated easily from the forms of A. p. punctulatus in both the male and female by the very large median dark spot on the wing, the yellowish scales on the wings and palpi, the absence of white scales on most of the mesonotum and the presence in their place of yellow hairs. The larvae are easily distinguished by the very short outer clypeals, simple inner clypeals, the very characteristic prothoracic hairs 1 and 2, the palmate hairs, and the pecten. On pleural hairs this species does not quite agree with other members of the group Myzomyia to which it apparently belongs. The combination of characters exhibited by this species is not found in any previously described form. Sev- enty individual rearings of larvae established the identity of this form. BELKIN & SCHLOSSER: A NEW ANOPHELES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 271 Distribution.—Anopheles lungae is generally distributed along the northwest coast of Gua- dalcanal Island. It may be present also on some of the other Solomon Islands. Biology.—The larvae of this species are nor- mally found in the jungle in seepage areas, along the margins of streams, pot holes in stream beds, rock holes, dense jungle swamps, and temporary pools. The species has a de- cided preference for shade in its breeding places. During the rainy season the larvae are flushed out into the coconut groves on the coastal strip where the species then breeds. The diurnal adult resting places were first discovered by Capt. F. B. Whittington. Adults are usually found resting in partial shade on tree trunks in the jungle. Males, unfed, blooded, and gravid females are all found together. Other resting places have been found under logs, inside crates, boxes, oil drums, foxholes, and nail kegs. As this species becomes very abundant early in the rainy season on the northwest coast of Guadalcanal, preliminary investigations were conducted on its feeding habits and its relation to disease transmission in this area. On several occasions areas with a high adult density of this species were visited at night and biting records made. Males and females were observed leayv- ing their daytime resting places between 6:30 and 7:00 p.m.; after 7:30 none could be found resting. Although the biting records were made among the trees where the anophilines were resting, less than two percent of the total anopheline catch was A. lungae. In rou- tine night catches for anophelines in the Lunga district of Guadalcanal the percentage of A. lungae of the total anophelines collected is a little less than two. Blooded females collected in the jungle near troop areas were dissected. Seventy percent of these showed nucleated red blood cells; the blood found in the remain- der was of mammalian origin. Precipitin tests are being made on a small number of blooded females of these species collected by Capt. F. B. Whittington. It appears from these sketchy observations that in the area in question A. lungae is not strongly androphilic and probably is not of primary importance in disease transmission. Nevertheless, during the rainy season when this species is flushed out by the rains and extends its breeding range into the coastal coconut 212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 groves it may become a problem locally. The series of individual rearings connected the normal blood supply is believed to be birds and larvae with the adults. possibly bats. With the great disturbance caused by an influx of humans a change in blood feeding habits may take place. Females 1. Palpi very short, wing scales all dark........ sre hah vogue ahaa Raine tb, Bironella(watchi?) Palpi as long as labium, wing scales light and PROVISIONAL KEYS TO ANOPHELINES OF dark GUADALCANAL ISLAND 2. Mesonotum with a vestiture of golden yellow The following provisional keys are included hairs only, except for panite and black seales on anterior promontory; median dark wing aS it is hoped that they may be of assistance spot including subcosta, vein 1, and base of in other parts of the South Pacific Area. Large vein 2; apical third of proboscis with yellow \\ 8& iN KX N ir NY — a Morpuouoey or LARVA OF ANOPHELES LUNGAE Fig. 8.—Head. Fig. 9.—Thorax and abdomen. Fig. 10.—Pecten. Fig. 11.—Leaflet of palmate hair. Ava. 15, 1944 scales, interrupted by narrow dark ring EBay eh PEE OD. RD eae ere! A. lungae Mesonotum with a vestiture of white scales throughout; median dark wing spot not extending to veins land2.............-. 3 3. Labium all dark except for a few white or yel- lowish scales at extreme apex. ..A. p. farautt Labium with a vestiture of white or creamy scales on apical third, interrupted by a nar- row ring of dark scales just before apex.... Sh ae ne Nate ee Ae, DUNELULALUS Males The males of the three forms of Anopheles in this area have the labium all dark with a few light scales on apex; the labella are dull yellow. The males of A. lungae can be distinguished on mesonotal vestiture and wing spotting which are similar to the female. The males of A. p. punctu- latus and A. p. farauti have not as yet been suc- cessfully separated. Larvae 1. Inner clypeals close together. Bironella(walchi?) Inner clypeals widely separated............ 2 STONE: SOME RELATIONSHIPS OF ANOPHELES LUNGAE 273 2. Outer clypeals extremely short, usually less than one quarter the length of inner clyp- eals; pecten with two distinct series of spines, spines 10-12 in number; palmate hair on II not pigmented......... A. lungae Outer clypeals at least half as long as inner clypeals; pecten with 14-17 subequal spines pias Maret eos. he )..ce akyo a. She AROSE cdtol yb 3 3. Clypeal hairs slender, without branches; pro- thoracic hairs 1 and 2 with rather slender shafts, hair 5 with long lateral branches; palmate hair on II less developed than on III; lateral hairs on IV and V with three to four branches......... A. p. punctulatus Clypeal hairs thickened, with a few fine lateral branches; prothoracic hairs 1 and 2 with thickened shafts, hair 5 with very short lateral branches; palmate hair on II de- veloped as strongly as on III; lateral hairs on IV and V simple or double. .A. p. farautz Remarks.—The larvae of A. p. punctulatus from Guadacanal agree in every respect with the chaetotaxy represented for this form in Ross and Roberts’ “Mosquito Atlas,’’ Part 2, p. 12, 1943. Adults of A. p. punctulatus have never been col- lected attempting to bite humans on this island. ENTOMOLOGY.—Some relationships of Anopheles lungae Belkin and Schlosser (Diptera: Culicidae)." ALAN Stone, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. The foregoing excellent description of Anopheles lungae is sufficient to distinguish it from all other described species, but it seems advisable to compare it with certain closely related species that were not availa- ble to its describers. This is particularly true since it might be confused with Anopheles tessellatus Theobald or A. longirostris Brug. These three species have the following characters in common which distinguish them from the related species, punctulatus Dé6nitz, annulipes Walker, farauti Laveran, and amictus Edwards: (1) Scales of the halteres entirely pale, creamy white; (2) scutum with scales on the anterior margin only; (8) outer clypeal hairs of the larva very short, much less than half as long as the inner clypeal hairs. The females of the two close relatives of lungae are distinguished from it by the fol- lowing characters: A. longtrostris: At least apical half of proboscis pale; proboscis about one-fifth Received June 29, 1944. longer than the palpi, strongly decurved; third palpal segment (antepenultimate) with apical half pale. A. tessellatus: Third palpal segment with apical half pale. The larva of lungae closely resembles that of tessellatus, but prothoracic hair 1 of tes- sellatus has a slender shaft with 2-6 branches. The larva of longirostris, as de- scribed, shows no differences from lungae, but it is quite probable that a direct com- parison of the two species will reveal some. The distribution of these three species is of some interest in view of their close rela- tionship. A. tessellatus has a wide Oriental distribution from India to Hong Kong, the Netherlands Indies, the Philippines, with a few records from: the Moluccas, and one questionable one from western New Guinea. A. longirostris has been collected from sev- eral places in New Guinea and from Kavi- eng, New Ireland. A. lungae is confined to the Solomon Islands. The distribution of the three species has not yet been found to overlap. 274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 8 ICHTHYOLOGY.—Sphyrna bigelowi, a new hammerhead shark from off the Atlantic coast of South America, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from New South Wales.! Stewart SPRINGER, Homestead, Fla. (Communicated by LEONARD P. SCHULTZ.) During a study of sharks in the collec- tions of the Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy, Dr. Henry B. Bigelow and William C. Schroeder found a single specimen of a ham- merhead shark that they recognized as be- longing to an undescribed species. Subse- quently, when I found two specimens of this species in the United States National Museum collections, descriptive data and drawings of the M.C.Z. specimen were gen- .erously furnished by the discoverers. It gives me great pleasure to name this new hammerhead in honor of Dr. Bigelow in recognition of his part in the preparation of the important work on sharks in the forth- coming volume, ‘Fishes of the Western Atlantic.” Sphyrna bigelowi, n. sp. Holotype.—Young male, about 385 mm in to- tal length, collected by Dr. W. L. Schmitt on the coast of Uruguay, U.S.N.M. No. 87682. Paratypes——Young male about 395 mm,. from the coast of Uruguay, U.S.N.M. No. 120751; female about 900 mm in total length, from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, M.C.Z. No. 463. Description.—Moderate size at birth (smaller at birth than Sphyrna tudes (Cuvier), S. zygaena (Linnaeus), or S. diplana Springer, but larger than S. tibwro (Linnaeus); body com- pressed, proportionately shorter bodied than other hammerheads; head flattened and ex- panded to form the hammer characteristic of genus; anterior margin of head divided by slight indentations into four lobes between the nostrils; deep groove (not visible from directly above or below) running from each nasal notch toward midpoint in forward margin of head for length of lobe adjacent to nostril; greatest width of head in smaller (newborn) individuals about 16 per cent and about 23 per cent of to- tal length in largest (900 mm) specimen; an- terior margin of head of smaller specimens rounded, that of large specimen less rounded; length of snout (distance from front of mouth 1 Received June 22, 1944. to midpoint in front margin of the head) about 10 per cent of total length in smaller individuals and about 7.3 per cent in largest specimen; greatest length of expanded portion of head of smaller individuals about 50 per cent of its greatest width and in largest one about 40 per cent; posterior edge of hammer of young with relatively long trailing flap without cartilagi- nous support, this structure reduced in larger specimen; mouth broadly rounded and well back in head, a transverse line through front of mouth passing posterior to the eyes, a line through corners of mouth passing posterior to hinder edge of hammer in largest specimen but not posterior to trailing edge of hammer in young; eye small, its diameter about 1.5 per cent of total length in smaller specimens and proportionately smaller in the largest specimen; eye separated from nasal notch by a distance little greater than diameter of eye; gill openings of moderate length, first three nearly equal, last two a little shorter; last gill opening over insertion of pectoral; fins large, their distal (trailing) margins slightly concave except in pelvic fins which are rounded; caudal region heavy and compressed, caudal pits well devel- oped; first dorsal fin high, roughly triangular, its origin behind axil of pectoral but in advance of free inner angle of pectoral; posterior lobe of first dorsal extending to a point over insertion of pelvics; no skin ridge along back between dorsal fins; second dorsal fin relatively high, its area about half that of anal fin; origin of second dorsal over middle of base of anal, and posterior lobe reaching a point about opposite posterior tip of anal but posterior tip of second dorsal when lifted upward not reaching a point much higher than apex of fin; base of anal fin long, with distal margin (free edge) not deeply incised, and apex a rounded point not greatly projecting; teeth in }$-¢-+¢ rows in types; all teeth without serrations; teeth of upper jaw narrowly triangular mostly directed toward corners of mouth and deeply notched on outer margins; teeth of lower jaw with narrower and more erect cusps, the latter only slightly point- ing toward corners of mouth even in young; Ave. 15, 1944 base of lower symphyseal tooth and next four rows of lower jaw teeth with sharp shoulders in young; the sharp shoulders present only on symphyseal and first adjacent row of teeth in larger individual; fifteenth and sixteenth rows of teeth of lower jaw in the three type speci- mens without cusps. Color.—In alcohol, grayish above and lighter below, no prominent contrasting markings ex- - cept narrow yellowish border along anterior edge of hammer and yellowish cast to trailing edge of hammer in young (coloration possibly owing to preservation). Comparison with other species.—If the diag- nosis of the type material of bigelowz? is correct, striking change in the shape of the head with growth is shown. All hammerheads, as judged by the material available for study show a tendency toward widening and shortening of the head with increase in size, and old adults of bigelowt may have the forward margin of the head nearly straight. The young of S. tudes .£.N FISCHER, Del. SPRINGER: A NEW HAMMERHEAD SHARK 275 have longer heads with more rounded anterior margins, but heads of the adults are nearly transverse. S. bigelowi and S. tudes are similar in regard to their small eyes, high second dorsal fins, and large mouths placed well back in head. S. bigelowi differs from S. tudes in having smooth instead of serrate teeth, a deep groove instead of a very shallow one in front edge of head, in the young having a long trailing edge of unsupported skin posteriorly along hammer. S. bigelowi has the smallest eye among all the species of the genus. The combination of a deep groove along front margin of head and a relatively high second dorsal fin is not known in any other hammerhead shark. S. bigelowi differs from S. zygaena and S. diplana in having a higher second dorsal fin with a shorter posterior lobe instead of a lower fin with a longer posterior point. S. bigelowi has a low, long anal fin with its apex moderately projecting, whereas S. tudes, S. zygaena, and S. diplana have the anal _ Fie. 1.—Sphyrna bigelowi, n. sp.: A, Lower side of the head of the holotype, U.S.N.M. No. 87682, a male, 385 mm in total length (the dotted lines mark the area of the trailing flap of the hammer); B, Lower side of the head of the 900-mm female; C, Lateral view of the holotype; D, Teeth of the 900-mm female; the lower symphyseal tooth, the first upper tooth of the right side of the jaw, and the upper and lower teeth of the left side of the jaw in the (1), (2), (4), (6), (11) and (15) rows are represented. Drawings by E. N. Fischer. 276 fin deeply incised distally, with the apex of the fin forming a distinct hook. Sphyrna lewini (Griffith), S. oceanica (Gar- man), and S. zygaena are names that have been used for Pacific hammerheads. Regardless of the validity of these names the species repre- sented all have small, low second dorsal fins with long posterior points, and thus differ from S. bigelowi. The Pacific species, S. blocha (Cu- vier), S. media Springer, S. corona Springer, and S. vespertina Springer, and the Atlantic S. tiburo may be distinguished from S. bigelowt by the shape of the head. Sphyrna mokarran (Riippell) of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and the southwest Pacific Ocean is rare in collections and is not adequately de- scribed in the literature so it seems advisable to make a few notes here. Measurements of a fe- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 “ U.S.N.M. No. 40026, from Richmond River, New South Wales, February 7, 1889, are given in Table 1. Another specimen, 290 mm long, in poor state of preservation, U.S.N.M. No. 12622 from Madras, is tentatively identified as S. me- karran. S. mokarran is similar to S. tudes and S. bigelowi in having—a high second dorsal fin with a short posterior lobe, and a relatively large mouth placed well back in the head. The anterior margin of the hammer of the embryo of S. mokarran is nearly straight across and the groove in the front edge is a fine line quite un- like the prominent deep groove of S. bigelowt or the shallow indistinct groove of S. tudes. The eyes of the embryo of S. mokarran are large, about 2.6 per cent of the total length. The anal fin is hooked at its apex and its origin is only slightly in advance of the origin of the second dorsal. ; male embryo of this species in fair condition, TaBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF SPHYRNA BIGELOWI, N. SP. AND S. MOKARRAN (RUPPELL) S. bigelowt S. bigelowt S. mokarran Characters Young male, Young male, Embryo female, U.S.N.M. No. 87682 | U.S.N.M. No. 120751 | U.S.N.M. No. 40026 otaluength. (inemm) 26.8 so csedie dv wae a se ee ee een ews 385 — 395 415 Weneth wpper caudal lobe. 2.0.56 cee. ces oes oe ea tees 115 118 130 HGreatest, width Hamme. «7... sc6c0bee, seleneverwinre sve bs eh aes 122 125 102 Greatest length hammer..............00 0c ecu eceeceee 61 64 43 Horizontal diameter orbit. 2.2... 0.0... ccc cece nee 6 6 10 Werticalidiameter Orbites bys 0c. eres 2) dc.c.e le ele cetesere svelte ame icles 6 6 10 RVG IMO UG ys Sons, 3 ose pac, sosscste nova wee SUE siete dicts sla abe s 26 26 31 Internasaludistaneeys sisccis-csce costs obec els See gins eee 89 91 73 Hengthenasal aperture) jic-. icc Steseias a chee sels 0 8 « aia eae ole 10 11 rf Tip of snout to: Front of mouth (length snout).................... 39 40 32 Birst, gillvopening sch o cekus shrews eee a eer 75 80 78 BASEIDECLORAD a isid cisucishin aviaradeiane Maes a ee es 97 97 90 PASTING NY Set ers ce Coca oe RI Ma IEG oR a aT ac a ee 172 180 200 Oripiniarst: dorsal yaks eatin. Neto where aac ceo aereciue 124 128 126 First dorsal fin: IAT CERIOLSIMAN ETM caycer ho sla he eae ie pe 64 63 70 POSteEMlOr INArein. ..-'3-oi 6s seek eis oe ee 16 17 14 JEG Sten i) tee CA Heel RI DOR Teal io PRLS ree OURO cay 37 37 40 Interdorsal distance a. cr hdl koyscs age: swans holes Sseuo a eunle oh eve Oe 82 79 86 Second dorsal fin: PANCETIOFMATEING jase Ae cit a Na tec stele ato 18 19 24 OsteriorsmMargini oa. osulel os Gis Oak os EE 17 18 21 TBNSTD oy egiabctad Ore aeeh EMER OPERATE es vo Gar Oman aera Aa 16 17 20 Pectoral fin: ANCETIOT MATLIN Ns \s.ceca iets cians ototee e Wale satiate 50 52 48 PITIO EMA OU beg in eon teytan aie area tee eae ore ake 20. 21 17 1 BEND (5: cs CRORE Se REMC RENE ER ort e en Sr Coie ALN 1 trees 20 19 20 Anal fin MTILCTION MATER sc )escis oso e coe ree iete eee, s Shade A ee, 21 20 22 ROSLEVIOT MAT GT assoc so seve eins Gheuais eae eee 12 14 17 oa Ne } - Cummisrry.—Polymer chemistry of s silicate STERLING B, He DRICKS - Sea viabsoany: —“Tapirage,” ‘ a biological discover "y Indians. 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However, all the ad- ditional factors entering into a determi- nation, such as air temperature, humidity, and gravity, were not completely under- stood until the French mathematician La- place published the complete formula which bears his name, at least in France. Until the invention of the aneroid barom- eter by Vidi in 1847 it was necessary to make the pressure measurements by means of the mercury barometer, which is incon- venient to transport from place to place. The early aneroid instruments were in gen- eral unreliable, and progress was slow in eliminating or reducing to reasonable values their many sources of error. However, the elements of the aneroid barometer remain unchanged, although design and workman- ship have improved greatly. The advent of the aneroid barometer made convenient the use of this method of measuring altitude. It should be stressed at the start that the altimeter or aneroid barometer can be used only to measure differences in altitude or elevation. Some base pressure or reference level is assumed either explicitly or im- plicitly. When the auxiliary altitude scale of the aneroid barometer or the scale of the altimeter is set to zero, it is implied that the subsequent altitude reading of the instru- ment is above or below the pressure corre- sponding to the zero reading. The terms “altimeter” and ‘aneroid’’ 1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, delivered at the 1211th meeting of the Society, January 16, 1943. Received April 11, 1944. barometer are often used interchangeably. Both are instruments which measure abso- lute air pressure. When the pressure scale is graduated in evenly divided pressure units, the instrument will be called an aneroid barometer. It may have an auxil- lary altitude scale, but this will be neces- sarily unevenly divided. On the other hand, when called an altimeter the instrument will have an altitude scale that is graduated in evenly divided units in accordance with the pressure-altitude relation of a selected standard atmosphere. It also may have an auxiliary pressure scale and means for ad- justing the zero reading. There is no other fundamental difference in the two instru- ments. Almost by necessity a choice must be made between two distinct procedures in measuring altitude by the barometric method. In the first, the air pressures, air temperatures, and other required quan- tities are measured and the basic formula used to compute the altitude. This proced- ure usually is followed in cases where the pressure observations are recorded and is customarily used in the computation of atmospheric soundings by meteorologists who have developed short cuts in the com- putation, which will not be discussed here. It is relatively laborious and time consum- ing. In the other procedure, altitude is meas- ured with an altimeter, calibrated to the altitude-pressure relation of a standard at- mosphere. In accurate work, additional quantities are observed for use in applying the corrections for deviations in air tem- perature, humidity, etc., from the assumed standard conditions. The altimeter is used 277 SEP 23 4 278 both in aircraft during flights and in surveys on land. when surveys by transit are not feasible. We proceed now to a brief discussion of the fundamental formula. THEORY Altitude is determined by the following formula (see references 1, 2): dP e —=KT.| 1+0.376(— ) | gp Bw, Ys —QJm Py -| 1+ log — (1) Qs P, ~ Fs i log P,—log P2 . n The constant K =221.152 for H in feet and 67.4073 for H in meters. H =altitude above the pres- sure level Pi. P,=pressure at ground level. P=pressure at intermediate levels. P,=pressure at upper level; all in the same units of H= Eh Taog P) (2) pressure; p =air density; T,»=mean temperature in °K(=273+42°C) of the air column between pres- sure levels P; and Py». T, =the air temperature at equally spaced intervals of log P or K log (Pi/P2) between P, and P». nm =number of selected equal intervals between P, and Po. €=water vapor pressure in same units as P. (e/P)m =mean value for air column between P; and Pz. gs =standard value of gravity. gm =value of gravity at the midpoint of the air col- umn between P; and P». The altitude above sea level equals H +h where h is the elevation above sea level of the lower pressure level, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 The formula as given involves the fol- lowing assumptions: | (a) Air obeys the gas law, pv =mRT. (b) The composition of ite atmosphere is the same at all altitudes. (c) The air is in vertical camila i.e., NO vertical currents. The following values of the constants were used in evaluating K: (a) Air density at 0°C and 760 mm of mer- cury, 1.2930 kg/m. (6) Standard value of gravity, 980.665 cm /sec?. » (c) Density of mercury at 0°G, 13.5951 g/cm’. (d) The air is assumed dry. Formula (1), or its equivalent forms, is used in making precise determinations of the altitude. The necessary observations are: . (a) The air pressures at the lower and upper levels, measured simultaneously and on the same vertical line, or corrected to obtain simul- taneity and verticality. (b) The air temperature and corresponding air pressure at intervals from the lower to the upper level, also measured or corrected to ob- tain simultaneity. The intervals must be suf- ficiently close to obtain an accurate picture of the temperature distribution. (c) The humidity, and the corresponding air temperature and air pressure, measured at in- tervals from the lower to the upper level. (d) The values of gravity at the lower and upper level obtained usually by computation from available data. Since the atmosphere is not generally in equilibrium, the air pressure, temperature, and humidity vary with time and place, and since observations of these elements in gen- eral can not be made simultaneously in the same vertical line, consideration must be given to methods of correcting the observed data. First, observations should be made, when possible, when atmospheric conditions are reasonably stable; observations during line squalls, wind shifts, and thunderstorms should be avoided. Continuous measurements of the air pres- Sept. 15, 1944 sure and air temperature at the lower level may be made in a net around the point at which the pressure at the upper level is measured, in which case the proper pressure and temperature at the lower level are ob- tained by interpolation in time and location. Since the above procedure is often imprac- ticable, the air pressure and temperature are usually measured continuously at one point only, in which case the observations available are used as circumstances permit, to bring the pressures and temperatures at the two levels into simultaneity and verti- eality. Field conditions under which ob- servations are made, either in surveying or in aircraft flights, are far from ideal, so that some data are often lacking; in this case the computer can usually fill the gap from rou- tine observations by the Weather Bureau office serving the locality. The required temperature observations offer more difficulty than those of pres- sures; first, because the temperature changes more rapidly with time, especially near the ground; and second, because, particularly in surveying, the air column is often fictitious, that is, the lower or reference level verti- cally below the point of observations at the upper level is underground. There is further the fact that local thermal gradients exist near the ground, particularly in broken country, which introduce inaccuracy into the determination of mean temperature. It may be stated here that air currents along the ground which arise from thermal gradients have a vertical component on mountain sides, and therefore introduce er- rors into the altitude determination, found by Rithlman (/)? to be of the order of 2 per- cent. It is obvious from the foregoing that the time interval between the initial observa- tions at the lower level and the final obser- vations at the upper level should be as short as possible. The observations to obtain the humidity term in formula (1) require only that of humidity in addition to those of tempera- ture and pressure already discussed. For- tunately, the humidity term is of minor 2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to litera- ture cited at end of paper. BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 279 importance, rarely exceeding 1.0 percent in amount, at summer temperature, and rapidly reducing in amount with reduc- duction in air temperature. In surveying, its measurement to sufficient accuracy offers no difficulty and may often be made only at the lower level station without loss in ac- curacy. Approximate altitude formula.—In many cases pressure and temperature data are sufficient for the accuracy required or are all that are available. The altitude is then given. by Pi Fake ialog-— 5 (3) 2 where the notation is as given for formula (1) and the observations needed are those listed under (a) and (b) above. Alternate form of formula.—Meteorolo- gists commonly use formulas (1) and (2) in somewhat different form, so that the com- putations can be made in steps up to the highest altitude. This is, neglecting gravity and humidity correction terms, which are the same as given in formula (1), n n ee KS Pe ioge Ba) 1 1 Pe where n equals the number of intervals in the air column between P,; and P:, usually divided at points where the rate of change of temperature with respect to log P, or lapse rate, changes in value. T,+T; Son T, and T, are the temperatures in °K at the lower and upper levels of each alti- tude interval respectively. P, and P,; are the air pressures corre- sponding to 7, and 7’. Discussion in this paper will be limited to formulas (1) and (8). Computation of mean temperature.—To compute the mean temperature from ade- quate observations, when the altitude to be determined is large, say above 500 to 1,000 feet, plot the observed temperature at pres- sure P against log P or K log (P:/P), which- ever is more convenient (2). It is evident from formula (2) that the mean tempera- ture is the area included in the curve and ™m 280 the ordinate 7’ =0, divided by log P; —log Py». The area can be determined by a planimeter or by graphical integration. The computa- tion is made more conveniently by other methods. If the curve is linear, the mean temperature is the temperature at the mid- point of the log P ordinate. Otherwise, di- vide the curve into a number of equal intervals of log P. The decision as to the number of intervals n is a matter of judg- ment based upon the degree of irregularity of the temperature curve and a balance of the accuracy of the data against the ac- curacy of the determination. The more intervals, the greater the possible precision. For each interval of log P the mean tem- perature is obtained by inspection, and usually is the temperature at the midpoint. The average of the mean temperatures 7’, of the intervals is the mean temperature Tm of the air column. When the altitude difference is small, it is often sufficiently accurate to take as the mean temperature the air temperature measured at the place and time of meas- urement of the pressure Pz. As a further refinement the average of the temperatures measured simultaneously with P; and Pz» at the two points of observation can be taken as the mean temperature. Methods of computing approximately the mean air temperatures for large altitude dif- ferences have been proposed and are in use mainly because of difficulty, or possibly negligence, in obtaining the data necessary for an accurate computation. All these methods give mean temperatures which are more or less inaccurate when a temperature inversion exists in the air column between pressure levels P; and Pe, or in general if the temperature lapse rate is not constant between P,; and Py». A commonly used approximation is T,+T. Tm = (4) 2 where 7; and T2 are the temperatures meas- ured at levels P; and Pe» respectively. Another approximation is aZ aZ Tn =T, — — =T,+— (5) yy 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 where a is an assumed temperature lapse rate, commonly 2°C. per 1,000 feet, and Z, the altitude i in the Staion? aimaaphere to which the altimeter is graduated. It will be seen that formula (4) involves making only two observations of tempera- ture, and formula (5) one observation, either at level Pi or Pe, usually most con- veniently at Pe. There is also another approxinelinn which may be of value in aircraft because of relative ease in computation. This is Ice iy eedlg oo 8 T= a6) n where 7’, and J, are the air temperatures at the lower and upper levels respectively, and Js, T3, etc. are temperatures at inter- mediate levels, equally spaced in altitude, as measured by an altimeter. Humidity correction.—The additive cor- rection C; for humidity is given by the rela- tion € c=0.376(— ) A. (7) ea ae . and the altitude H determined by pressure, temperature and humidity is Hee: where (e/P) 1s the mean value of the ratio of the water vapor pressure to the corre- sponding air pressure and H, is the altitude determined by the pressure and tempera- ture data. The magnitude of the humidity correc- tion given by formula (7) for the case when the relative humidity is 100 percent and for five ground level temperatures is given in Fig. 1. The temperature lapse rate is as- sumed the same as for the U. 8. standard atmosphere, that is, 1.98°C. per 1,000 feet. Lines showing a correction of 0.5 and 1 per- cent of the altitude H, are also shown on the chart. It is seen that the amount of humidity correction rises rapidly with air tempera- ture and that the error tends to become constant in amount at high altitudes and low ground level temperatures. The actual humidity corrections are less than those shown in Fig. 1, since 100 percent relative retiring president, Philosophical Society of Washington, 1942. Sept. 15, 1944 humidity at all altitudes is not common. Actually the vapor pressure of water in the atmosphere tends to remain constant for a considerable altitude, but the relative humidity increases up to the altitude at which condensation takes place, indicated by the presence of a cloud. This fact makes it possible to calculate with some accuracy from one value of the relative humidity the humidity corrections for moderate altitudes, not exceeding as a maximum the height of the underside of the cloud layer. Ground level temperature oec§8=—._:158c 30°C 35°C : koee Altitude - Thougand Feet Correction = feet Fig. 1—Humidity correction C, =0.376(e/p) mH for saturated air. The air temperature t=fo — .00198h, where fo is the air temperature at the ground level marked on the particular curve and h is the altitude. The straight lines give the humidity correction as a designated percentage of the altitude. Gravity correction.—The correction for de- viation from standard gravity, gs, 980.665 cm/sec? is as follows: ( Js —GJm oL= He (8) Jm where g» is the mean value of gravity for the air column and H, is the altitude de- termined by pressure, temperature, and humidity measurements. The altitude H corrected for temperature, humidity, and gravity is Se. BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 281 The mean value of gravity equals K(H +2h) a (9) 2 where g7 is the gravity at sea level, obtained from observed or computed data published in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (3) or by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey; fA is the elevation above sea level of pressure level P,; (H +A) is the elevation above sea level of pressure level Pe, prac- tically H.+h; and K is a constant which equals 0.000094 (3) when H and h are in feet. The corrections at the Equator, at lati- tude 45°, and at the poles are as follows for the case where h is zero: — Gravity CorREcTION, Cy Altitude Equator Latitude 45° Pole Feet Feet %H Feet %H Feet %H 1,000..;+ 2.7/+0.27 |+ 0.1 |+0.009 |— 2.5 | —0.25 20,000..)/+ 74 |+0.37 |+20 +0.098 | —32 —0.16 30,000..}+123 |+0.41 |+48 +0.145 | —36 —0.12 Accuracy of barometric formula.—The question arises naturally as to the accuracy of the barometric formula. This question has been considered by a number of investi- gators, notably Rithlman (1), who checked the formula for two years in the Swiss Alps. In 1935 a balloon flight to 72,395 feet was made by Maj. A. W. Stevens and Capt. O. A. Anderson under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and the Army Corps. During the latter flight accurate and complete barometric data were obtained, and photographs made vertically downward from the balloon, from both of which the altitudes were determined. The balloon al- titudes were also measured by triangulation from the ground. A comparison of the data given by Brombacher and Houseman (4) is shown in Fig. 2. About 60 photogrammetric and 11 triangulation altitudes are shown in the figure against a curve of balloon altitude against time determined from the baromet- ric data. The agreement in the altitudes by the three independent methods is quite good and leads to confidence in the barometric 282 method up to at least 72,000 feet. Compar- ing the photogrammetric and the baromet- ric altitudes, the average difference is 0.36 percent; on the average the barometric alti- tude is 93 feet lower. Standard atmospheres.—Since aneroid ba- rometers and altimeters are primarily pres- sure measuring instruments, it is essential to choose some altitude-pressure-tempera- ture relation to which they can be cali- brated in units of altitude. A large number of these relations, based on a selected condi- tion of the atmosphere, known as a standard atmosphere, have been and are being used. For aviation altimeters, the standard at- mospheres now in use are national or inter- national standards; for aneroid barometers and surveying altimeters the standard at- mosphere has been selected by the manu- facturer or the buyer and, in one case, Germany, it is the national standard. In general, aneroid barometers equipped with an altitude scale which are commer- cially available in this country and Great Britain are calibrated to Airy’s pressure altitude relation; some are calibrated to the obsolete United States altimeter calibration standard; and others bought under Govern- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES eee ernie VOL. 34, No. 9 ment specifications are calibrated to the altitude-pressure relation for English units given in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. The latter instruments are, strictly speaking, altimeters, but are used only on the ground. In addition to the above eali- bration standards, there is also another, found on Paulin aneroid barometers made in Sweden, of which there are a number in this country. However, some Paulin instru- ments in use in this country are calibrated to one of the other above-mentioned rela- tions. The German calibration standard was adopted as the national standard on October 1, 1929. It should be stated that the altitude-pressure relations considered here do not by any means exhaust the list of those used; others are in use in France and Italy. It may thus be necessary to determine the altitude-pressure relation to which an aneroid barometer or altimeter has been calibrated, particularly if corrections for air temperature deviation from the value as- sumed in the standard are to be applied, or, in fact, if accurate altitudes are desired. This can be done quite conveniently if the aneroid barometer, or altimeter, has both 72000 70000 68000 --— BAROMETRIC 66000 64000 62000 leared 58000 Used abe saa 1000 10:30 ALTITUGOE ABOVE SEA LEVEL PEE Ts Fig. 2.—A comparison of altitudes ° PHOTOGRAPHIC « VERTICAL ANGLE 11:00 11:30 12:00 MOUNTAIN STANDARD TIME - 12:30 1:00 of stratosphere balloon Explorer II determined by the barometric formula, by vertical camera photographs, and by theodolite observations. Sept. 15, 1944 an altitude and pressure scale. In this case, values of the altitude from the barometer can be checked against values at the same pressure in available tables. The situation for aviation altimeters is comparatively quite simple. The standard atmosphere adopted by the International Commission for Aerial Navigation (ICAN) in 1924 is used with some modifications, usually minor, by the United States, British Empire, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and perhaps other nations. The formulas and constants defining these various standard atmospheres are given below, together with equivalent for- mulas to facilitate easy comparison. The standard value of gravity given for each atmosphere enters into the evaluation of the. constant term or exponent of the altitude formula. Notation.—In the formulas for the stand- ard atmosphere the symbols have the fol- lowing definitions: Z =altitude in the standard atmosphere; if measured above standard ground level pressure Py it is called pressure altitude. P =air pressure at altitude Z. P, =air pressure at ground level of standard atmosphere. g, =standard value of gravity. Q po =density at ground level of standard. Tms = mean temperature of air column be- tween P and P, in standard. T, =temperature of air at altitude Z. a =standard rate of decrease of tempera- ture with altitude Z, or the lapse rate. Smithsonian.—Altitude-pressure tables in English units given in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (3) are computed from the following formulas and constants: T we % Po Z =62583.6 — log — feet (10) 283 P Misael ee _ Po) =29.90 inches of mercury =759.46 mm of mercury = 1012.53 millibars (mb) gs = 980.665 cm/sec? po =1.293 kg/m? at 0°C. and 760 mm of mercury BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 283 Note that T'n-/283=1. This term is re- tained in the formula in order to facilitate comparison with other standard atmos- pheres. If Tm:18 in °R (459.4+2°F.), the tempera- ture term 283 in formula (10) becomes 509.4 °R. To obtain Z in meters, change the constant 62583.6 to 19075.5. Dry air has been assumed. Altitude pressure tables are also given based on P)»=760 mm of mercury and T ms = 273°K (0°C.), but no case of surveying altimeters calibrated to these tables is known. Airy.—The altitude-pressure relation pro- posed by Sir George Airy (5) in 1867 is unique in that a high value of the pressure was taken at zero altitude in order to avoid minus altitudes under ordinary conditions of use. Das Po Z =62759 —— log —— feet (TP) 283 P Ts Se °K P) =31.00 inches of mercury. The constant 62759 is about 0.3 percent higher than that now accepted for formulas based on dry air; therefore altitudes indi- cated on instruments calibrated to it should be reduced by 0.3 percent, if accurate values are desired, as would be the case if tempera- ture and other corrections are applied. Obsolete U. 8S. Aeronautic.—This altitude- pressure relation, used before 1926 (2) in calibrating aviation altimeters, has been and perhaps still is used for calibrating alti- meters and aneroid barometers used in alti- tude measurement in surveying. It is defined below: Diss Po Z =62900 —— log — feet (12) | 283 iP Te — 23 auras Py) =29.90 inches of mercury. The relation is the same as that given in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables ex- cept that the constant 62583.6 was in- creased 0.5 percent to include a correction for “average” humidity. At winter tempera- tures this correction is too high; at summer temperatures, too low. Therefore, if read- ings from instruments so calibrated are to 284 be corrected for all errors, it is best to start by deducting 0.5 percent from the indicated altitude. Paulin (Swedish).—This calibration may be defined as follows: Dina Po Z =62796 —— log — feet (13) 283 P 2 So tke P,)=762 mm of mercury It will be seen that the constant 62796 is 0.383 percent higher than the value given for formula (10). The remarks made under formula (12) apply. German (surveying instruments).—This standard was officially adopted (6) for cali- brating aneroid barometers and altimeters for surveying on October 1, 1929, but is limited to 5,000 meters. This standard was also used to calibrate aviation altimeters with an altitude limit of 10,000 meters (32,808 feet), but has been superseded for this purpose by the ICAN. The definition follows: , 0.005Z ie IP = G2 ( 2 _ (Zin meters) (14) or T ms Po Z =62603 —— log — feet (15) 283 P *T., =283 —0.005Z °K P,)=762 mm of mercury gs =980.6 cm/sec? The value of the constant 62603 differs from the accurate value given in formula (10) by 0.03 percent, which is negligible for most purposes. ICAN standard. — This standard (7) adopted by the International Committee for Aerial Navigation is the basis of the standards now generally used for calibrat- ing altimeters. Most countries have made only minor modifications, so that for most practical purposes the same standard can be said to be used by all. It is defined here for reference. Up to 11,000 meters (36,089 feet): P Tr, 75-256 Pa | a T, = (288 —aZ) °K (16) (16a) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _ VoL. 34, No. 9 a =6.5°C/km =0.0019812 °C/foot (16b) P,=760 mm of mercury (16c) Above 11,000 meters: Jere Z =11000+14600 log —— meters (al) P T, = —56.5°C. Py, = 169.595 mm of mercury (at 11,000 m). For all altitudes: g =980.62 cm/sec? U. S. Aeronautic.—This standard atmos- phere (8) (9), used since 1926 in calibrating aviation altimeters, and also adopted as the standard atmosphere for all aeronautic pur- poses in the United States, is a slight modification of the ICAN. The air tem- perature is assumed to vary uniformly with altitude (6.5°C. per km) until a tempera- ture of —55°C. (instead of —56.5°C.) is reached. Above this level the temperature is assumed constant at —55°C. Its defini- tion follows: Up to 35,332 feet: shee Po Z =63691.8 —— log — feet (18) 288 Ie or Hey. 5.2553 IP JP | — | (19) 288 T, =288 —aZ °K (18a) a =0.0019812 °C/foot =6.5 °C./km (18b) aZ oe = (18c) 288 In —— P)=760 mm of mercury =29.921 inches of mercury =1013.25+ mb. 09 = 1.2255 kg/m? Above 35,332 feet: P55 7, —35332 =48211.1 log — feet (20) P Tm: =218 °K Ps; =175.898 mm of mercury For all altitudes: Je = 980.665 cm/sec? To compare with the SMT formula (10), formula (18) can be written: iia Po Z =62586.0 — log — - 283 ie Qn = Sepr. 15, 1944 The values of the constants for the two standard atmospheres, 62583.6 and 62586, are in practical agreement, so that altitudes obtained from readings on instruments cali- brated to either formula, after applying correction for deviation of actual mean temperature from that of the respective standard, will be in agreement. The constant K given in formula (1), when multiplied by 283 to obtain the for- mula in the same form as in formula (21), is also 62586.0. The altitude in the standard atmosphere defined by formulas (18) and (20), when P,=760 mm of mercury, is called the pres- sure altitude. British Aeronautic.—This standard at- mosphere (10) is also a slightly modified version of the ICAN. The air temperature is assumed to vary 1.98°C. per 1,000 feet of altitude, which is not exactly 6.5°C. per km, the ICAN value. Its definition follows. Up to 36,090 feet: P die 5.256 ie | — | (22) Po 288 or gee Po Z =63721 — log — (23) 288 2 T, =288 —aZ °K (22a) a =0.00198 °C/foot =6.496 °C./km (22b) aZ = (23a) 288 In — IR Py) =1013.2 mb =760 mm of mercury Above 36,090 feet: Z =36090 +47900 log — (24) POAC aa Ke (24a) P55.5 =226.3 mb =169.7 mm of mercury For all altitudes: gs = 980.62 cm/sec? French Aeronautic—This standard (1/1) was first proposed by Toussaint and adopted; in France in 1920. Later the ICAN adopted it, since when it has been known as the ICAN standard. It differs from the ICAN given above only in that the exponent .of equation (16) is 5.255, instead of 5.256. For all practical purposes the pressure-altitude BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 285 tables are identical with those of the ICAN. German Aeronautic.—This standard at- mosphere (12) differs from ICAN standard as given in formulas (16) and (17) in that the exponent used is 5.26 instead of 5.256. The air is assumed dry with a specific weight of 1.225 kg/m? at sea level. For all altitudes, g = 980.62 cm/sec”. At 35,000 feet the pressure is 178.5 mm of mercury; this is 0.2 mm of mercury less than in the ICAN standard, equivalent to 24 feet difference at 178.7 mm of mercury. This altitude difference for a given pressure, German compared to ICAN standard, be- comes less at lower altitudes but will be constant at 24 feet at altitudes above 35,000 feet. Japanese Aeronautic.—This standard at- mosphere (13) is basically the ICAN. Up to 11,000 meters: 288 —6.5Z \ 5-758 p=700(——— ) 288 Above 11,000 meters: Py Z =11000 +14600 log —— P Py, =169.74 mm of mercury T, =216.5°K( —56.5°C.) At all altitudes: g = 980.00 cm /sec?, in the altitude formula; g =980.665 cm/sec?, for other purposes. At a pressure of 175.898 mm of mercury, the U.S. altitude is 35,332 feet, the Japa- nese, 35,346 feet; at 169.74 mm of mercury the U. 8. altitude is 36,079 feet, the Japa- nese, 36,089 feet (11,000 m). The above differences are less at lower, and constant at about 10 feet at greater, altitudes. Altitude-pressure tables —Altitude-pres- sure data for the various altimeter calibra- tion standards are given in Tables 1 and 2. The calibration standards covered in Table 1 are commonly used for aneroid barometers and surveying altimeters; in Table 2 are given the United States, British, and the ICAN calibration standards for aviation al- timeters. Comparison of standard atmospheres.—It will be seen that the standard atmospheres differ mainly (a) in the altitude-tempera- ture assumption, and to a minor extent (b) in the standard value of the acceleration 286 TABLE 1.—ALTITUDE-PRESSURE TABLES USED IN CALIBRATING ANEROID BAROMETERS Pressure in inches of mercury US. Altitude | airyts | 5-M-T. | aitimeter | Paulin Seale | Table | pefore | (Swedish)| Ge7™22 51 1926 Feet 10°C 10°C. 10°C 10°C T =f(2) —1,000 sey) 34-0211 > 3.02 ee ea =? 500 =: | 30/455 | 30.45 ee = 0 | 31.000 | 29.900 | 29.90 | 30.00 | 30.00 500 =| 99/355 25 ew fia 1,000 | 29.883 | 28.820 | 28.83 | 28.92 | 28.91 1,500 Ce) og oe% Bo ae a 2,000 | 28.807 | 27.820 | 27.79 | 27.88 | 27.86 2,500 2 a a2 ue sis 3,000 | 27.769 | 26.775 | 26.79 | 26.88 | 26.84 3,500 — | 26.287 as oe ee 4,000 | 26.769 | 25.808 | 25.83 | 25.91 | 25.85 4,500 ee 251338 = a 5,000 | 25.804 | 24.875 | 24.90 | 24.97 | 24.90 25 ,000 — a 11.98 = as 30,000 = = 9.97 == == 35,000 — = 8.30 =e = 40 ,000 == = 6.91 = = of gravity, and (c) in the physical constants entering into the constant term of the alti- tude equation even when reduction is made to a common basis of ground level pressure and temperature. In most cases the values of altitude obtained will not differ signifi- cantly if the appropriate values of the tem- perature, gravity, and humidity corrections are applied. The values of the physical constants embodied in the constant term in the Smithsonian, U. 8. Aeronautic, and ICAN JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 standard atmospheres are equivalent and are believed accurate. It will be noted that the values of stand- ard gravity differ somewhat for the various standard atmospheres. In particular, the International Standard (980.665 cm/sec?) is used in the United States, while European countries use the above value adjusted to give the value assumed to be that at lati- tude 45° (980.62 cm/sec?). The value of gravity used affects the constant term (or exponent of ICAN) of the formula; the dif- ference is 1:22000 in the altitudes corre- TABLE 2.—STANDARD ALTITUDE-PRESSURE TABLES UsED IN CALIBRATING AVIATION ALTIMETERS United States British ICAN Pressure altitude | y1m of | Inches Mm of Mm of 1,000 mer- | of mer- mb mer- mb mer- feet cury cury cury cury —1 787.9 | 31.02 |1050.4 — a es 0 760.0 | 29.921 |1013.3 | 760.0 |1013.2 | 760.0 1 732.9 | 28.86 977.1 | 732.9 | 977.1 — 2 706.6 | 27.82 942.1 | 706.6 | 942.1 — 3 681.1 |'26.81 908.1 | 681.1.| 908.1 — 4 656.3 | 25.84 875.0 | 656.4 | 875.1 — 5 632.3 | 24.89 843.0 | 682.3 | 348.0 | 632.3 6 609.0 | 23.98 811.9 | 609.1 | 812.0 — 7 586.4 | 23.09 781.8 | 586.4 | 731.8 — 8 564.4 | 22.22 752.5 | 564.5 | 752.6 — 9 543.2 | 21.38 724.2 | 5438.3 | 724.3 — 10 522.6 | 20.58 696.7 | 522.6 | 696.8 | 522.6 11 502.6 | 19.79 670.1 | 502.7 | 670.2 — 12 483.3 | 19.03 644.3 | 483.3 | 644.4 — 13 464.5 | 18.29 619.3 | 464.6 | 619.4 — 14 446.4 | 17.57 595.1 | 446.4 | 595.2 — 15 428.8 | 16.88 571.7 | 428.9 | 571.8 | 428.8 16 411.8 | 16.21 549.0 | 411.9 549 1 — 17 395.3 | 15.56 527.0 | 395.4 | 527.2 — 18 379.4 | 14.94 505.8 | 379.9 | 506.0 — 19 364.0 | 14.33 485.3 | 364.2 | 485.5 — 20 349.1 | 13.75 465.4 | 349.2 | 465.6 | 349.1 Pail 334.7 | 13.18 446.2 | 334.8 | 446.4 — 22 320.8 | 12.63 427.7 | 321.0 | 427.9 — 23 307.4 | 12.10 409.8 | 307.5 | 410.0 — 24 294.4 | 11.59 392.5 | 294.5 | 392.7 — 25 281.9 | 11.10 875.8 | 282.0 | 376.0 | 281.9 26 269.8 | 10.62 359.7 | 269.9 | 359.9 — 27 258.1 | 10.16 344.1 | 258.2 | 344.3 — 28 246.9 9.720 | 329.2 | 247.0 | 329.3 — 29 236.0 9.293 | 314.6 | 236.2 | 314.9 — 30 225.6 8.880 | 300.8 | 225.7 | 300.9 ; 225.6 35 178.7 7.036 | 238.2 | 178.8 | 238.4 | 178.7 40 140.7 5.541 | 187.6 | 140.7 | 187.6 | 140.5 45 110.8 4.364 | 147.7 | 110.6 | 147.5 | 110.5 50 87.30] 3.436 | 116.4 87.00] 116.0 86.9 SHpT. 15, 1944 sponding to a given pressure, ordinarily negligible. In these countries also the respective values of standard gravity are used to define the inch or millimeter of mercury. Thus the values of pressure in the United States are for millimeters or inches of mercury at a gravity of 980.665 cm/sec”, and for the other countries at 980.62 cm/sec”; to con- vert to pressures based on 980.665 cm/sec? the pressures based on 980.62 cm/sec? must all be reduced in the ratio 1:22000, equiva- lent to an altitude difference of about 1.3 feet, independent of altitude. This differ- ence is usually negligible. In comparing altimeters calibrated to the ICAN standard atmosphere, or modified ICAN, this difference in standard gravity must be considered in its effect both on the standard atmosphere and on the standard. of pressure. The difference in the gravity used in the United States and European standard atmosphere causes a difference in the indicated altitude of one part in 22,000, as has been said. The difference in the stand- ard of pressure causes a constant difference in indication of about 1.3 feet; when the pressure scales of a U. S. and a British al- timeter are both set to read 760 mm of mercury or its equivalent, the British al- timeter will read 1.3 feet lower. Other differ- ences in the standard atmospheres and the variation of altimeter readings at a given pressure make the differences in this respect insignificant. : 7 The pressure in millibars given for the British Aeronautic standard in Table 2 is taken from a British publication (10); the conversion to millimeters of mercury is made based on a gravity of 980.665 cm/sec? in order to obtain a direct comparison with U.S. Aeronautic standard. Determining altitude with altumeters.—As has been stated, when pressure observa- tions, not altitude, are made, the altitude is determined by computation, using baromet- ric formula (1) or (8). When.an altimeter is used, thus securing readings in altitude units, the general rela- tion to be used in computing altitudes is obtained by substituting for log P,;—log Ps in formula (1) its value obtained from the BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 287 formula defining the standard atmosphere, as for example formula (10) or (18). There is obtained: lp € Ys —Jm ha | 140.370(—) } [a4 | (25) fhe Pp m Js where H is the altitude between any two pressure levels P; and P.; Z is the corre- sponding altitude in the standard atmos- phere; 7’, is the mean temperature of the air column; and 7'n, is the mean tempera- ture of the air column in the standard at- mosphere used to calibrate the altimeter. Formula (25) is of general application. If the humidity and gravity terms are neg- lected, formula (25) becomes Ts an =e (26) The use of formula (25) or (26) carries the implication that Z is measured with refer- ence to the lower pressure level P,; the al- timeter reading must be corrected to obtain this value of Z or the altimeter adjusted so that it reads zero at pressure P,. (a) Isothermal standard atmosphere.—lIt is evident that computation of altitude is simplified for standard atmospheres in which 7',, 1s a constant. For this reason most standard atmospheres used in cali- brating surveying altimeters are isothermal ; in most such atmospheres the mean tem- perature is 10°C. = 50°F. = 283 °K. For ease in computation, formula (26) can be written fis aay Gave jel a (: +) (27) where hes Frat ie ee Ais is defined as the temperature correction. Tables of the temperature correction, 7’ against Z, such as given in the SMT, can be easily computed and used; nomograms are available for use in calculating H when Z and Tms are known. (b) Aeronautic standard atmosphere.—lIf the mean temperature 7',,, of the standard atmosphere to which the altimeter is cali- brated varies, the computation of the tem- perature correction is more complicated. In the case of the aeronautic standard atmos- 288 pheres the temperature is assumed to fall linearly with pressure altitude in order to obtain indicated altitudes more nearly in agreement with average atmospheric condi- tions.-Consider only the aviation altimeter calibration standard used in this country; all that will be said will apply equally well to the ICAN standard, or its modifications. Formula (18c), modified to determine Tms between P,; and P2, becomes aZ on = (28) 288 — aZy In ————____ 288 —aZi —aZ aZ = 288 —aZ,-——— approx. (28a) OG Further, define 288—aZ/2=T»m-:, where- upon formula (28a) becomes en SL BOA BO OOD< (29) where Z,=pressure altitude of lower level Z =altitude between pressure levels P, and P, a =temperature lapse rate, 0.0019812°C. /foot Tims =Standard mean temperature of air column P, to P» Standard Atmosphere Observed Oata Upper Level Biles 2) fe 4 C, Ground Level by ia 7) C, Pt Stonderd Atmosphere Base oy, “os ode Vath a Wine he ee ae ee ee a2 For [SOTHERMAL STANDARDS. Ins = A CONSTANT = 283° FOR AIRY,SMT, PAULIN ATMOS. for US. oR BRITISH ALTIMETER CALIBRATION STANDARD: ns FOR Fas) tio nO Zinsot ti EN 288-4 Z, /Je 288-AZ-a Z Fig. 3.—Illustrates definitions of terms used in an altitude determination by altimeter. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 Tz =standard mean temperature cor- responding to a pressure altitude equal to Z, easily obtained from available tables. These definitions are illustrated in Fig. 3. Formula (28a) or (29) is an approxima- tion with negligible error for values of Z, up to 5,000 feet. The error can be found in any individual case by comparing values of Tms computed by formulas (28) and a Thus for aviation altimeters, te IE f Sie eae Piss sce = aly Examples of altitude determination in sur- veying.—In the following discussion it is as- sumed that the instruments used are free from error. (A) Accurate elevations of a number of stations in rolling country are to be ob- tained. It is assumed that there is at least one base in the area or that two bases flank the area, the elevations of which are known; and further, that the time between observa- tions is reasonably short, say, of the order of thirty minutes. The observations required are as follows: (a) A record must be obtained of air pres- sure against time at the base or bases. This can be secured most conveniently by a barograph, preferably a microbarograph in order to secure adequate sensitivity. (b) An altimeter, preferably graduated to the altitude-pressure relation of an isother- mal atmosphere, is read at the base and at the various selected stations, and recorded, together with the time of observation. It is an advantage from the viewpoint of cor- recting for drift of the altimeter to repeat the readings in reverse order at each of the points. More consistent results are obtained if the reading is made about 5 to 10 minutes after arriving at the station, particularly if the change in elevation between two sta- tions is relatively great. (c) The air temperature at the base or bases and at each station should be meas- ured at the time of making the pressure observation at each station. A continuous record of the air temperature against time is a desirable means for obtaining the re- quired temperatures at the bases. The ex- (30) Supt. 15, 1944 posure of the thermometers must be such as to avoid the direct rays of the sun. The thermometer should be at least 3 or 4 feet above the ground in an effort to measure the true free air temperature. The time of exposure at the station must be sufficient to eliminate the time lag of the particular thermometer used. (d) If the humidity correction is to be ap- plied, the humidity must in general be -measured simultaneously with the air pres- sure under (6). If the weather does not change, the water vapor pressure, which is the quantity required, may remain nearly constant from station to station, although the relative humidity will change with tem- perature. - (e) The data for making the gravity cor- rection, if desired, are obtained from pub- lished data as previously discussed. The data in (a) are used to secure the value of the base pressure P, or its equiva- lent the altitude in the standard atmos- phere, at the time of making each station observation. This insures simultaneity, but still leaves open the question of verticality of the observations. If observations at two or more bases are available, the base pres- sure or altitude directly below (or above) the station is secured by interpolation. If there is only one base station, the effect of change in barometric pressure with dis- tance from the base can be determined from a weather map, or pressure data from a nearby Weather Bureau station, or failing these, some estimate can be made from the barograph record at the base. From data (a) and (6) the altitude in the standard atmosphere at each station is ob- tained by simple computation, that is Z=2Z,—Z,), where Z) and Z, are the alti- tudes of the base and station respectively. The mean temperature 7’, of the air col- umn may be taken as the mean of the two air temperatures at the base and the station if Z is small, say under 500 feet. In some cases T’,, can be taken as the air temperature at the station with little loss in accuracy. With these data the altitude above the reference base is calculated by formula (26). Further refinement would include humidity measurements to determine the humidity BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 289 correction (formula 7 or 25) and evaluation of the gravity correction (formula 8 or 25). Then the elevation of the station above sea level is H-+-h, where h is the elevation of the base. With ordinary care an accuracy of 1 percent or about 20 feet, whichever is greater, can be secured. (B) The second example concerns the case where a mountain climb is made and the height of the mountain to the best ac- curacy is desired. It differs from case (A) in that the climb usually requires a rela- tively long time, extending over one or more days, and in that the base or the point of known elevation is often far from the moun- tain peak. As in case (A), a pressure and tempera- ture record against time is desirably ob- tained at a point of known elevation or base. An altimeter or aneroid barometer, a thermometer, and perhaps a psychrometer should be read at various points during the climb and, of course, at the peak. The chief difficulty in the computation of the altitude is the adjustment of the tem- perature data to obtain simultaneity, since the readings at the various elevations dur- ing the climb are taken with considerable time interval between them; no hard and fast rules can be laid down, and some un- certainty is inevitable. No serious error due to failure to obtain simultaneity in the pressure observations made during the climb for use in computing mean temperature will be present if a pres- sure record is obtained at a base. However, the variation due to distance between the base and the mountain stations or vertical- ity of observations, often requires consider- ation. In the absence of line squalls and thunder storms, and if the distances be- tween climber and base are not too great, errors due to neglect of verticality correc- tions in the intermediate pressures used to compute the mean temperature will not in- troduce serious errors. However, the pres- sure or altitude reading at the point at which the altitude is to be determined should be corrected for the space factor, if possible, or the correction at least be proved negligible. Calculations of the humidity and gravity 290 corrections offer no difficulty since the ob- served or derived data are not needed to high accuracy and therefore the refinements ~ of applying corrections to obtain simul- taneity and verticality can be omitted. The chief difficulty is in making the humidity measurements and, in some cases, in obtain- ing gravity data. (C) Many exploration trips in unsettled mountainous country are made in which observations of an aneroid barometer or altimeter are the sole reliance for deter- mining altitude. In the extreme case there is no base of known elevation which can be visited except perhaps at the start and finish of the trip. Errors in altitude determination are likely to be quite large owing to varia- tions in the base pressure, which must be implicitly or explicitly assumed, and to a lesser degree owing to the lack of knowledge of the mean temperature. It is best in these cases to use an aneroid barometer which measures the atmospheric pressure, or an altimeter set to read pressure altitude, that is, altitude above the base pressure assumed in the altimeter calibration standard. Errors due to lack of a base pressure can be reduced somewhat when it is possible to spend a long time at the station. In this case the altimeter or aneroid barometer is read three or four times daily at the same hours as widely spaced as possible. The altitude is then the average of the altitude readings or the average of the pressures converted to altitude in the standard atmosphere, pref- erably isothermal. This procedure still leaves uncertainty since it assumes a sea level pressure of 760 mm of mercury, while the average sea level pressure at a given station may differ considerably from this value. In general, altitudes determined by the above procedure give altitudes in winter which are much too low; in summer also too low, but much less so than in winter. Detailed meteorological studies of a given region are required to determine empirical methods of making corrections. (D) A case of general interest is that where altitude observations are made only with an altimeter or aneroid barometer, but readings are secured occasionally at points of known elevation. Here the altitudes of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 subsequent points of interest are obtained — from readings of the instrument, corrected either by adjustment of the instrument to read the altitude of the bases as encountered or by computation to tie in with the points of known elevation. The error due to time from the base will usually not exceed about _ 50 feet per hour and that. due to distance, usually not more than about 50 feet per 10 miles of distance. The failure to correct for mean tempera- ture of the air column introduces much less error than the above uncertainties, espe- cially when the elevation of the base is a good fraction of the elevation of the point of interest, since the correction is applied only to the observed altitude above or be- low the base. In general, failure to correct for air temperature error introduces ap- proximately a 1 percent error in the alti- tude above the base, forevery 3°C. deviation in actual mean temperature from the value in the standard atmosphere. Altitude of atrcraft.——When it is remem- bered that the aneroid altimeter indicates only the altitude between two pressure levels, it is obvious that the altitude of an aircraft above ground level can be deter- mined only in special cases. The changing elevation of the ground below and inability in general to obtain ground level pressure preclude obtaining precise altitude data at all times during flight. Other means than the aneroid altimeter must be used. However, on airways the ground level pressures at the nearest airport are fur- nished at close time intervals and knowl- edge of the airway topography makes it unnecessary in most cases to have more than the altimeter indication For landing, precise indications of altitude above the field can be obtained as discussed later. The altimeter is particularly useful in flying at a desired pressure level as indicated in terms of pressure altitude, or as is more general, in standard altitude above sea level, approximately. In the latter case the pressure scale of the altimeter is set to the pressure corresponding to the pressure alti- tude of a nearby airport minus the elevation of the airport above sea level. There are four cases of particular interest which will be discussed in some detail be- Sepr. 15, 1944 * low. As before, the instrumental corrections will be assumed applied. A. Airplane flights for an altitude record are made within a few hours usually with take-off and landing from the same airport. Balloon flights take longer and the landing point is usually distant from the take-off point. These flights are all made under the regulations of the Fédération Aéronautique International (14). The data obtained are (a) pressure and air temperature at the ground level during the flight, (b) free air pressure continuously recorded in the air- craft, and (c) free air temperature with the corresponding air pressure recorded in the aircraft at short time intervals. From these data the mean temperature can be computed by the first method de- scribed in the section on ‘‘Computation of Mean Temperature.’”’ It may be necessary to correct the observed values of tempera- ture at the lower levels to obtain observa- tions synchronized with those obtained at the highest altitude. : The altitude is determined officially by a step method, formula 3a, or alternatively by the relation (US Po H =18400 —— L log —+A +h, (31) 273 P. H =the altitude above sea level in meters. T., =the mean temperature in °K Po, P =simultaneous values of the pres- sure at the ground and at the highest altitude, respectively L =factor, correcting in terms of lati- tude for deviation from stand- ard gravity, here 980.62 cm /sec?. A =correction term for variation of gravity with altitude and to ad- just for the assumption of a relative humidity of 60 percent. It varies with altitude. h=altitude above sea level of air- port, in meters. where B. The second case, on determining alti- tude just before landing, is important in ordinary aircraft operation. The problem is to obtain altitude indications sufficiently reliable for use in making a landing. Since BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 291 the temperature error is zero at zero alti- tude and indicated altitudes above the airport are sufficiently accurate to clear obstacles at most airports, correction for air temperature error is unnecessary. Thus the problem resolves itself only to that of properly resetting the zero of the altimeter. Two methods of resetting just before landing are used. In the method usually preferred on airlines, approximate altitude above sea level is indicated because of its advantages in flying over mountainous country. The pressure scale of the altim- eter is reset in flight, so that the altimeter will read upon landing the elevation above sea level of the airport. This pressure is offi- cially called the ‘‘altimeter setting”’ and in the early days of its use “the Kollsman Number.’ This pressure can be obtained at the airport by reading the pressure scale of an altimeter when it is set so that the pointers indicate its elevation above sea level. If only the air pressure is measured at the airport, the ‘‘altimeter setting”’ is de- termined as follows: Convert the air pres- sure to pressure altitude, subtract the elevation above sea level of the barometer from the pressure altitude, and finally con- vert the last obtained altitude to pressure in the standard atmosphere. The ‘‘altimeter setting’ can also be obtained directly from an aneroid instrument called an altimeter _ setting indicator, to be described later. The second method of setting the altim- eter in flight is such that the altimeter reads zero upon landing. In this case the pressure scale is reset simply to the ground level pressure received by radio from the airport. This is the reading of the pressure scale of an altimeter set to read zero alti- tude at the runway level of the airport. C. For some purposes it is desired to de- termine the aircraft altitude when above a point of known elevation. The uncertainties in a determination are ordinarily such that consideration of correction factors other than ground level pressure or air tempera- ture error is of no significance. If there is communication with the ground, the altimeter can be set to ground level pressure as indicated in the second method of section B just above; if there is no such contact, the pressure to which to 292 set the altimeter offers difficulties. It may be preset using a prediction based on a weather map obtained before flight, or by flying low just before the altitude is needed, estimating the altitude, and resetting the altimeter to indicate this altitude. The lat- ter procedure is, of course, not practical if there is ground fog. In practice, it is not always possible to obtain sufficient data to compute accurately the mean temperature; in fact, only one reading is often available, the free air tem- perature at the flight level. In the latter case formula (5) is used to compute the mean temperature. The altitude is then computed using formula (26). Computers (15) (16) are available for computing the altitude based on formula (26) entering either with the mean temperature or with the flight level air temperature. D. In the last case to be considered flight is to be maintained for some time at a fixed and constant altitude above a base. In this case it is preferable to use an altimeter rather than an aneroid barometer, and one calibrated to an isothermal atmosphere, if there is any choice. The indication of the altimeter to be maintained in flight corre- sponding to the desired altitude is to be de- termined. First, the pressure scale of the altimeter must be kept continuously set to the ground level pressure at the base. Altitudes in the standard atmosphere above the base are then indicated. The altimeter reading Z corrected for air temperature for the desired altitude A is Tee je mage Ee Z=—H= (1 a? Hi (26) Dm m The value of Z can be obtained from a curve or a table based on formula (26). If the mean temperature 7’,,; in the stand- ard atmosphere is a constant, the computa- tion is quite simple. For example, if T ms = 283°K, the readings to maintain 10,000 feet true are given in Table 3. If Tms 18 not constant, the table becomes more complicated, since 7'n; varies with the ground level air pressure. For example, if an altimeter calibrated to the U. S. stand- ard atmosphere is used, it can be shown that JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 TABLE 3.—ALTIMETER READING TO Maintain 10,000 Frer Mean Temperature Altimeter Reading, Z Whe 2Ch Feet 20 9,659 10 10,000 0 10,366 —10 10,760 —20 11,186 T ms 18 to a close approximation: CC.) al 2 Pits = Tmat —aZo (32) where 7',,2=mean temperature in °K obtained by entering tables of mean tem- perature against pressure alti- tude with the altitude H a =temperature lapse rate, 1.98°C per 1,000 feet Zo =pressure altitude at ground level. The standard mean temperatures for a true altitude of 10,000 feet for various ac- tual mean temperatures, computed by for- mula (32), are given as an example in Table 4. TABLE 4.—MEan TEMPERATURES IN U.S. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE aT 10,000 FrErr Mean Mean temperatures in U.S. standard atmos- Tempera- phere at 10,000 feet true altitude ture, Tm Ground level pressure, inches of mercury XCF 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 20 +3.9 | +4.8 | +5.7 | +6.7 | 47.6 10 +3.5 +4.4 +5.3 +6.3 +7 .2 0 +3.1 +4.0 +4.9 +5.9 +6.8 —10 +2.7 +3 .6 +4.5 +5.5 +6.4 —20 +2.3 +3 .2 +4.1 1 +6.0 The altimeter readings to maintain 10,000 feet, using the standard mean temperatures in Table 4 and formula (26) are given in Table 5. TABLE 5.—ALTIMETER READING TO MaInTaIn 10,000 Frrr Mean Altimeter reading, feet Tempera- Ground level pressure, inches of mercury Tn oC: 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 20 9 ,450 9,481 9,513 9,546 9,577 10 9,779 9,802 9,834 9,869 9,901 0 10,113 | 10,141 | 10,179 | 10,216 | 10,249 —10 10,483 | 10,517 | 10,551 | 10,590 | 10,624 —20 10,890 | 10,919 | 10,954 | 11,000 | 11,028 Supt. 1944 Similar tables, or curves, can be prepared for other desired altitudes. If gravity or humidity corrections are to be applied, use formulas 7, 8, and 9 and ap- ply the corrections with the opposite sign to the readings of Z given in Table 5 or similar tables. ANEROID BAROMETERS AND ALTIMETERS This section will be limited to a brief de- scription and a discussion of the perform- ance of aneroid instruments. Thermometers will not be discussed, since data on the com- mon mercury type ordinarily used in sur- veying are readily available. See references (4) and (17) for data on electrical types suitable for aircraft use. Aneroid barometers and altimeters for convenience may be divided into groups ac- cording to function: (a) Aneroid barometers for measuring at- mospheric pressure. (b) Surveying altimeters and barometers for determining the elevation of terrestrial points. (c) Aviation altimeters. (d) Altimeter setting indicators. (e) Barographs for recording ambient atmos- pheric pressure. (f) Aviation barographs. The development of the aneroid barome- ter for measuring atmospheric pressure and for use in surveying into an instrument of high precision and reliability has been greatly retarded by the small market for such instruments. Competitive develop- ment that accelerates progress has not been stimulated by the available market. How- ever, since the aviation altimeter and the aneroid barometer in their essentials differ very little, the greater emphasis placed on research and development of aviation al- timeters has been of immediate benefit in improving aneroid barometers. The chief aims in development have been (a) to increase the sensitivity of indication and coupled with this, (6) to make the re- liability and accuracy commensurate with the sensitivity. The necessity of portability, since that is the chief virtue of the aneroid barometer in comparison with the mer- curial barometer, has focused attention BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 293 upon methods of protecting the mechanism from shocks normal to transportation. (a) Aneroid barometers—A variety of aneroid barometer mechanisms have been designed and constructed in recent years in efforts to improve over-all performance in the ranges required for measuring atmos- pheric pressure at weather stations. Among these may be mentioned the Paulin, Friez, Kollsman, and the Wallace and Tiernan. The dial diameter of these instruments Fig. 4.—Aneroid barometer, range 610 to 1,085 millibars. Pointer makes two revolutions; scale 1 inches in diameter. The humidity and correc- tion factor is obtained from the nomogram at the top of the cover; the conversion of pressure to altitude in the SMT standard atmosphere is given in the chart in the middle; and data on the tem- perature error of the barometer can be plotted on the graph at the bottom. varies from 5 to 9 inches. The pointer may rotate from 270° to several revolutions in the various designs. In the most open scale of these instru- ments, the scale length is about 7 inches for each inch of mercury, so that readings to the nearest 0.1 mb or millimeter are easily made. The reliability over a period of 294 months when in the laboratory appears to be about equal to the sensitivity above given. (b) Surveying altimeters and barometers.— Except for an extension in range, and in some cases calibration to a standard atmos- phere, usually isothermal, the instruments commercially available are the same as the aneroid barometers discussed under (a). At present precision instruments of this type appear to be produced in this country only See Fig. 5.—Surveying altimeter, —1,000 to 6,000 feet, calibrated to SMT standard atmosphere. Secale, 7} inches in diameter. Note the chart for determining the temperature correction. by Wallace and Tiernan (18), although the precision Short and Mason and the Paulin instruments also available in this country should be mentioned. Fig. 4 shows an aneroid barometer for use in surveying in which the chart is used for converting the pressure to standard altitude and for obtaining a factor based on observed air temperatures and relative humidity for use in making a correction for deviation of these quantities from the standard values. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 A surveying altimeter is shown in Fig. 5 together with a nomogram for computing the temperature correction when the needed air temperature data are available. The scale, 73 inches in diameter, covers a range of 7,000 feet in nearly one revolution. It can be read to about the nearest two feet. Surveying barometers are often equipped with an altitude scale, rotatable with refer- ence to the fixed dial graduated in pressure units. This enables altitude readings to be made in terms of approximate standard alti- tude above the pressure level of the base. It should be mentioned that the standard size aviation sensitive altimeter can be read to the nearest one or two feet, but owing to the friction in its mechanism, the reading can not be relied upon closer than about 10 to 20 feet. It is, therefore, not used if more accurate data are required. However, sensitive altimeters in the 6- inch dial size have been built in which the friction is but slightly greater than that of the. surveying instruments above men- tioned. These have been used in surveying, although not ideally suited for the work, since none are available calibrated to an isothermal standard atmosphere. | (c) Aviation altimeters—A dial view is shown in Fig. 6 of the standard aircraft sensitive altimeter. The major divisions on the dial, 1, 2, etc., have three values: 100 feet for the largest pointer, 1,000 feet for the intermediate pointer, and 10,000 feet for the smallest pointer. The zero ad- justment, which has been previously dis- cussed but not described, is made by the thumb knob at the lower left of the instru- ment. Operation of this knob rotates the inset pressure dial, graduated in inches of mercury, to any desired value in its range; at the same time the pointers are also reset by a corresponding amount. For example, if the pressure setting is reset to 30.00, the pointers are at the same time reset from the reading shown, 411 feet to 484 feet. If the altimeter is now subjected to a pressure of 30.00 inches of mercury, it will read 0 feet. As shown in the figure, the altimeter will read 0 feet at 29.92 inches of mercury, and — 73 feet at 30.00 inches of mercury. On the other hand, if the altimeter is reset to read zero, the pressure indication should Sept. 15, 1944 be the ambient atmospheric pressure, or 29.48 inches of mercury, corresponding to the pressure altitude of 411 feet. For additional details on design and op- eration see reference (19). (d) Altimeter setteng indicators.—These instruments, described by Colvin (20), are essentially altimeters, that is, with a pointer motion directly proportional to altitude, - but with a scale graduated in terms of “altimeter setting’? commonly 31 to 28 inches of mercury. Their function is to in- dicate the altimeter setting directly, with- out the necessity of making the computa- tions necessary when pressure readings are made. The accuracy required is better than can be secured with an aircraft altimeter of the standard sensitive type. Colvin as a re- © sult of preliminary tests, shows that the over-all errors should not exceed about 0.01 inch of mercury. (e) Barographs for measuring atmos- pheric pressure will not be discussed except to point out that seasoned microbarographs may be preferable to an aneroid barometer for measuring air pressures at a base, if an over-all accuracy and sensitivity of reading of 0.01 inch of mercury or less is required. Microbarographs commonly available (Friez or Taylor) have a pen motion of 2.5 inches per inch of mercury. (f) Aviation barographs commonly used are of the “double traverse”’ type, that is, the pen makes two traverses of the chart for the range. This instrument is described by Peterson (21). Performance of aneroid barometers and aliimeters.—The factors affecting the per- formance of aneroid intruments are (a) hysteresis, (b) drift, (c) scale errors, (d) temperature errors, (e) zero shift, (f) vibra- tion and friction, and (g) shock resistance. In the discussion that follows, a ‘“‘rested”’ instruments is one which has for all practi- cal purposes been subjected to no pressure change in the previous 24 or more hours. An instrument is put into the ‘‘cyclic”’ state by seasoning or subjecting it to a number (not less than about 5) of cycles of pressure change, the range of which defines the pres- sures for which the cyclic state exists. All aneroid pressure measuring instru- - ments aresubject to errors due to the depar- BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 295 ture from perfect elastic behavior which is common to all stressed metals. These errors depend on the entire past history of the instrument in a complicated fashion but may be divided roughly as follows: hyster- esis, which depends on the direction and magnitude of the last significant stress change, but shows little or no time de- pendence; recoverable drift, which depends on the stress change and time; and zero shift or irrecoverable drift, which may con- tinue over a long period of time. In general ig Operating the thumb knob at the lower left resets the pressure scale and correspondingly the pointers. Dial size, 23 inches. Fig. 6.—Aviation altimeter. the pressure sensitive element contributes by far the most to these elastic phenomena, but all stressed parts are involved to some extent. The friction and other imperfections of the mechanism may contribute to the hysteresis and in many designs may mask it by the uncertainty produced in the read- ings. Hysteresis is the difference in reading at a given pressure for pressures decreasing and increasing when the instrument is sub- ject to a pressure cycle. In general the change in reading in each half of the cycle tends to lag behind the pressure. Thus an altimeter reads higher at a given pressure in the altitude-decreasing (pressure-increas- 296 ing) than in the altitude-increasing part of the cycle. The hysteresis is in general a-maximum at approximately the middle of the pressure range of the cycle. The hysteresis at ambient atmospheric pressure, that is, at zero altitude at which the pressure cycle usually is started, is sometimes referred to as the after effect. The recovery or the return to the initial reading obtaining before the pressure cycle requires 24 hours or more. If the instrument is 1n the cyclic state in subsequent cycles made within an hour or so afterwards, the hysteresis is reduced to about 50 per cent in amount and the after effect to about 25 per cent or less. The hysteresis for the cyclic state is largely the component independent of time. The other component, which is a time phenomena, is recoverable drift, as discussed later. The hysteresis is affected somewhat by the speed of making the pressure cycle, but in most circumstances not significantly.. In the best altimeters and aneroid barom- eters now available the hysteresis of a rested instrument, when subjected to a pressure cycle in which the pressure altitude is changed approximately uniformly at a rate between 200 to 500 feet per minute, is about as follows: Altitude and pressure range of cycle 0-2,000 0-10,000 0-15,000 0-35 ,000 feet 760-700 760-500 760-400 760-200 mm Hg Maximum hysteresis: in feet.... 5-10 10-20 20-35 40-70 in per cent pressure ; change.. — 0.10—.20 .15—.25 .15—.25 Initial after effect, feet. 2-5 7-15 — 40-60 In cycles of small pressure range, the un- certainty in reading is more likely to be of greater magnitude than the hysteresis. Drift is the slow and usually small change in reading with time subsequent to any and every pressure change. To illustrate, if an aneroid barometer or altimeter be suddenly subjected to a pressure change, the reading will change an amount approximating the pressure change within a few seconds and then will continue to increase slowly for hours in the direction of the pressure change. The rate of drift is greatest initially JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 and decreases quite rapidly with time. If the sensitivity of the instrument is suf- ficient the increases in reading may be de- tectable for a time interval after the pres- sure change up to 24 hours or more. Drift occurs in all instruments, the sensi- tive element of which is an elastic system, as for example, a spring or a diaphragm capsule. | The observed drift is the resultant of the effect of all pressure changes that have been imposed upon the instrument up to at least 24 hours previously; the magnitude of the contribution is greatest for larger pressure changes and for pressure changes imposed most recently. In other words, the reading of the instrument depends upon the history of the pressure changes to which it has been subjected. It is therefore impractical to apply corrections for drift except perhaps for the simplest conditions of use. The relatively small amount of depend- able data available indicates that in good quality aneroid instruments originally in the rested state, the drift in one hour, ob- served after a sudden change in pressure with the initial reading obtained in about one minute after completing the pressure change, is of the order of 0.15 percent of the © pressure change; if the rate of pressure change is equivalent to about 1,000 feet per minute the drift reduces to about 0.10 per- cent. The rate of drift is most rapid ini- tially; about one-half of the drift occurs in the first 30 minutes. For examples of drift curves see reference (19). The initial after effect, after completing a pressure cycle made as rapidly as possible except for a 2-hour drift period at the lowest pressure, for good quality altimeters orig- inally in the rested state, varies from about 0.2 to 0.38 percent of the pressure change. The amount is somewhat less if there is no drift period; for values see the section on hysteresis. The initial after effect in general is somewhat less, if the pressure cycle is made relatively slowly, particularly in the part of the cycle near the initial pressure. In this case some of the recovery has had time to take place before reaching the initial pressure. : Drift is of particular importance in deter- mining the altitude of aircraft in landing. Supr. 15, 1944 Subsequent to the landing the drift con- tinues for a time interval up to 24 hours or more, independent of the length of time at altitude. This drift at the end of a pressure cycle is often called ‘‘recovery”’;.the amount by which the altimeter fails to indicate upon landing the reading before the flight at the same pressure is called the “after effect.” The altimeter reading upon landing is al- ways higher than the reading at take-off, making due allowance for the difference in the take-off and landing pressures. The re- covery becomes larger with time, the after effect, smaller. If the instrument is in the cyclic state for a given pressure range, the observed after effect just at the completion of the pressure cycle will be much reduced. In this case readings are being compared which are both unstable with time; recovery to the “‘rested”’ condition is taking place with time when the instrument is in the cyclic state. ‘Scale error, sometimes called calibration error, is the error in the indication of the instrument, usually determined when ‘the instrument is at a specified temperature in the range 20 to 25°C. It is a measure of the accuracy to which the correspondence of dial to mechanism performance has been achieved. In most designs adjustments are provided in the mechanism to obtain this correspondence within close limits. The scale error, EH, is related to the reading R and true value 7 by the relation R=T+E; thus a plus error means that the instrument reads too high, a minus error, too low. It is often more convenient to have the corrections to be applied to the readings. In this case the correction C is defined as follows: T=R+C. In many cases the scale error is the only error for which it is practical to apply cor- rection to instrument readings. This is par- ticularly true of aneroid barometers and al- timeters. If corrections will be applied, the - amount of the scale error is not important, although it is distinctly advantageous that it be as small as possible. The scale errors of an altimeter, unless otherwise specified, are for the case when the pressure scale is set to the value at zero feet, so that the al- timeter should indicate pressure altitude in the particular standard atmosphere to BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 297 which it is calibrated. For other pressure settings the scale error at a given indication may be expected to differ. Because of drift, the scale error of preci- sion instruments is affected significantly by the average rate at which the pressure is changed during the course of a test. The practice in testing is to change the pressure to which instruments are subjected by steps; at each step the instrument and the standard are read. The average rate of pres- sure change is governed largely by the time at each pressure step. For altimeters the reading is made in from about 2 to 10 minutes after the pressure change has been made without obtaining significant differ- ences in scale error. For barometers and altimeters not used in aircraft it is usually desirable that the reading be made as long a time as possible after completing a pres- sure change in order to obtain corrections under conditions most closely simulating service conditions; twenty minutes between test points seems a practical limit in routine testing. For general use, where the direction and rate of the pressure changes can not be defi- nitely specified, it is best to take as the scale error at a given reading, the average of the error for pressures decreasing and in- creasing obtained in a pressure cycle. When- ever the conditions of use can be simply specified as in case of readings made during steady continuous ascent of an airplane, the corrections for the errors under these con- ditions should. be applied. However, even the slightest reversal of pressure change will make the error uncertain to some degree. Altimeters used as secondary standards will have much less spread in their errors at a given reading due to drift and hysteresis if they are originally tested and only used when in the cyclic state. This state is ob- tained by subjecting them to about five pressure cycles covering their range. Since the altimeter gradually returns to the rested state, the procedure should be repeated if the time between the above procedure and use is much longer than about an hour. - It has not up to the present been practical to apply corrections to aneroid instruments for drift and hysteresis under the varied conditions of service use. In simple cases, 298 such as an aircraft flight up to an altitude, in which a pressure-time record is obtained on a barograph or otherwise, the instrument can be calibrated under the same flight conditions of temperature, pressure and time reproduced in the laboratory. This is known as a flight history test. (d) Temperature errors are the effect of variation in instrument temperature upon the scale errors. The drift and hysteresis are not affected by instrument temperature in any practical amount. In uncompensated instruments the effect of temperature is a maximum at the highest pressure of the range, because the deflection of the pressure element is then greatest. Commonly, in short-range instruments the temperature compensation is such that it is perfect at one pressure only, but in view of the short range, the compensation is sufficiently per- fect at other pressures. In long-range in- struments, as aviation altimeters, compen- sation for all readings over the entire range of pressure is desired, which is not as easily accomplished. The latter is often called “range compensation.” The compensation can be made practi- cally perfect but at considerable extra ex- pense because each instrument requires ad- justments and tests to achieve it. In prac- tice, tolerances for the temperature error. are allowed. Corrections for the error deter- mined by appropriate tests can be applied, although special precautions must be taken in measuring the instrument temperature because of its time lag in following ambient air temperature. (e) Zero shift, sometimes called secular error or zero drift, is a change in the whole scale error curve which occurs slowly with _ time at atmospheric pressure and tempera- ture, but may be accelerated by pressure and temperature cycles. There is no re- covery. It usually manifests itself as a pointer motion in the direction of increasing pressure. Its irreversibility, or failure to recover, distinguishes it from the drift previously considered It appears to be caused primarily by the release of trapped fiber stresses in pressure elements which are in the cold-worked condition. The pressure element can be stabilized in this respect by artificial aging or seasoning, which is ac- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 9 complished by subjecting it or the complete instrument to a combination of pressure and temperature cycles. Particularly effec- tive is an exposure for a short time to a temperature just short of that which will remove the hardening effect of cold work. Unless accelerated, the zero shift may continue for several years, but at a dimin- ishing rate. A zero shift, but with an opposite direc- tion of pointer travel, will occur if the dia- phragm capsule leaks. Obviously the instru- ment is unusable in this case. Wear in the bearings of the mechanism, often as a result of rough handling of the instrument, may also cause a zero shift. (f) Vibration and friction are especially important in the sensitive aviation altime- ter now available. The friction is of the order of 100 feet, but is removed, with a residual uncertainty of about 10 feet by a vibration with an amplitude of about 0.001 inch. Since vibration of considerable ampli- tude may damage the altimeter, inevitably so if at the natural frequency of the mech- anism, the vibration to which it is sub- jected is controlled by installing the instru- ment board upon which it is mounted in vibration-absorbing mounts. Other aneroid instruments are available which are remarkably free from friction. However, it is on the safe side to tap all aneroid instruments slightly to insure a friction-free reading. Instead of tapping, operation of a small bell buzzer attached to the instrument may be preferable in the case of instruments with much friction, in view of the uniformity and relatively high frequency of the vibration thus obtained. In general, installations in which the an- eroid instruments are subjected to severe vibration should be avoided, especially so if there results-any sensible pointer vibration. (g) Shocks to aneroid instruments lead to damage to the delicate pivots and bear- ings of high quality instruments. Breakage of the parts may occur. On this account the instruments require protection during ship- ment. In the field use of surveying aneroid the practice seems to be growing of requir- ing that shock protection be incorporated inside of the instrument case. The require- ment that surveying instruments be rugged Sept. 15, 1944 appears to be essential in view of conditions of use in the field. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The cooperation of Dr. D. P. Johnson, National Bureau of Standards; Warrant Officer J. H. Bakewell, U.S.A.; A. H. Mears, U. S. Weather Bureau; and Ralph M. Berry, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in the preparation of certain parts of the paper is gratefully acknowledged. LITERATURE CITED (1) Riuitman, Ricuarp. Die barometrischen Héhenmessung und thre Bedeutung fiir die Physik der Atmosphdre. Leipzig, 1870. (2) BrompacuEr, W. G. The determination of the altitude of aircraft. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. and Rev. Sci. Inst. 7: 719-774. 1923. (3) Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, ed. 5. Washington, D. C., 1939. (4) BRomBACHER, W. Ge and HOovuUSsEMAN, M. R. Balloon altitude, barometric and photogrammetric. Nat. Geog. Soc. Con- tributed technical papers, stratosphere series No. 2: 220-233, 1936. Also, Journ. Aeron. Sci. 5: 355-359. 1938. (5) Arry, Grorce B. On the determination of heights from barometer readings. Proc. British Meteorol. Soc. 3: 406. 1867. (6) Esert, H. Zeitschr. fiir Instrumenten- kunde 49: 407-414. 1929. (7) International Commission for Aerial Nav- igation. International standard atmos- phere. Official Bull. No. 7: 34, Dec. 1924; and No. 26: 92, Dec. 1938. (8) DizHt, WattTeR 8. Standard atmosphere —tables and data. Nat. Adv. Comm. Aeron. Tech. Rep. No. 218. 1927. GRIFFIN: DE LUNA EXPEDITION AND ‘“‘BUZZARD CULT”’ 299 (9) BRomBacHEeR, W. G. Altitude-pressure tables based on the United States atmos- phere. Nat. Adv. Comm. Aeron. Techn. Rep. No. 538. 1935. (10) Panxuurst, R. C., and Conn, J. F. C. British Aero Research Comm. Reports and Memoranda No. 1891. 1941. (11) L’atmosphére standard du_ section tech- nique. Bull. Technique, Service Tech- nique de l’Aéronautique No. 11. Feb. 1923. (12) BGrxuE, Hetmut. Instrumentenkunde. Luftfahrt-Lehrbiicherei. 17, Berlin, 1940. (18) Tamaru, T. The standard atmosphere. Aeron. Inst. Tokyo Imp. Univ. 1: 321- 346. 1925. (14) Fed. Aéron. Internationale. Altitude regu- lations. Bull. FAI No. 60: 61. Jan. 1935. BRoMBACHER, W.G. Measurement of al- titude under new FAI rules. Journ. Aeron. Sci. 4: 1-7. 1936. . Lucky altitude temperature correction com- puter. Instruments 2: 469-470. 1929. Datton, Puitip. Formulae for altimeter corrections. Journ. Aeron. Sci. 4: 154— LEG. USB. PETERSON, JOHN B., and Womack, S. H. J. Electrical thermometers for aircraft. NACA Technical Report No. 606. 1937. Barometer, altumeter. Instruments 16: 786. 1943 BroMBACHER, W.G. Measurement of al- titude in bland flying. Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero. Techn. Note No. 503. 1934. CoLvIn, CHARLES H. Altimeter setting indicator. Journ. Aeron. Sci. 10: 250- 252. 1948. PETERSON, J. B., and Rounps, EK. W. Flight test instruments. Journ. 8.A.E. 26: 313-317. 1930. (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) ANTHROPOLOGY.—The De Luna Expedition and the ‘buzzard cult’’ in the Southeast. JOHN R. SWANTON.) For a great many years American arche- ologists have been puzzled by a series of re- semblances between the Southeastern United States Middle Mississippi cultures and those of the Mexican area, and a con- siderable amount of time and speculation has been devoted to either explaining the relationship or explaining it away. (Holmes, 1883, was one of the best early studies.) Prominent among these connections has 1 Read before Society for American Archeology, Washington, May 13, 1944. Received May 20, 1944. JAMES B. Grirrin, University of Michigan. (Communicated by been a series of drawings of dancing figures and other anthropomorphic concepts, placed on shell and pottery, and figures cut out and impressed in copper. By some stu- dents these were interpreted as direct Mexi- can influence that came into the Southeast as the result of a migration (Radin, 1927, pp. 192-202; Nuttall, 1932, pp. 137-144) and produced the Middle Mississippi cul- ture. Others considered these art styles to be the result of some inherent quality in the Indian mind which at a given cultural level would produce similar ‘“‘Indian art” styles 300 (Thruston, 1890, chap. 9). Others inter- preted the Mexicanlike artifacts as objects fabricated in the Southeast by a small group of Mexican exiles. No one suggested that the items were made in Mexico. Willoughby (1932, p. 45) maintained that the designs and craftsmanship, particularly on the cop- per plates, is Muskhogean and not Mexican, and Phillips reiterated the opinion that the plates did not resemble any known con- temporary Mexican work.? With regard to the general Mexican resemblances, and par- ticularly the shell gorgets, Phillips said, “To account for this tendency without some sort of contact involves a terrific strain on the theory of ‘psychic unity.’’’’ Phillips also recognized, as have others, that the Mexi- canlike material was spread like a thin wash in the Southeast and was certainly not part of the ‘original’? Middle Mississippi, what- ever and whenever that might have been. Some students have viewed these art styles as the expression of a religious revival brought about during a fanciful period of decline and decay of southeastern culture (Ford and Willey, 1941, pp. 357-359). In the writer’s opinion the art styles resem- bling Mexican forms are a part of the cul- ture at the highest aboriginal level of ac- complishment and represent not a stage of retrogression but the Southeast at its apogee. The recent archeological activity in the Southeast has demonstrated rather clearly that this particular cultural manifestation is almost certainly post-De Soto (1540) and belongs to a period only shortly before the coming of the French and English traders into the Southeast. During the Third Round Table Conference in Mexico City in 1943, I discussed this art style with Mexi- can anthropologists, who recognized it as having close relationship to the art forms of the Mixteca-Puebla Culture, which were contemporary with the Conquistadores (Vaillant, 1940, pp. 209-305; comments by Dr. Caso in Mexico City, September, 1943; Ekholm, 1944). In other words, we are deal- ing with approximately contemporary art manifestations. 2 This opinion is largely negated in Moore, 1905, pp. 225-227. 3 Phillips, 1940, p. 356. This is essentially ae position and was seconded by Starr, 189 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 Some individuals had suggested that De Soto might have taken mercenaries or camp followers from Mexico to the Southeast, but there is no record or suggestion that he did so. However, we do have record of an- other expedition into the Southeast, which may contain an explanation for this inter- areal connection. In 1559 Tristan de Luna led an expedition to the Gulf coast which was organized in Mexico City for the purpose of establishing a Spanish base on the Gulf coast and on the southeast Atlantic coast to forestall the encroachment into the area of other European powers.? The armed force or striking power of the expedition was furnished by Spaniards from Mexico City, Oaxaca, Los Zacatecas, and Puebla. It is possible that the Spanish soldiers and officers from these areas had local Indians as their servants and camp followers. The expedition left Mexico City in mid-April and moved to Tlaxcala where it remained until May 12. At this point the Viceroy wrote to de Luna regarding the composition of the expedition: They tell me that the canaille of halfbreeds, mulattoes, and Indians who are being taken by the people (soldiers) are very numerous; you will find that the great part of these will only serve to set the camp in confusion and eat up the supplies. I think it will be enough to send only as many servants as there are soldiers to go, and only those who are to embark should go down from Halapa. (Priestley, 1928, vol. 1, p. 54.) The sailing date from San Juan de Ulua was June 11, 1559. The party was composed of 500 soldiers, 1,000 servants and colonists (including women, children, Negroes), a large number of Mexican Indians, and 240 horses. They embarked in 13 ships. Advane2 knowledge and international considerations had set their goal as the port of Ochuse or Polonza (Pensacola Bay), but they sailed past it to the Bahia Filipina (Mobile Bay). A frigate was dispatched east to locate Ochuse, and after this was accomplished the whole fleet arrived at Ochuse on August 14. Exploring parties were sent out, one of which evidently followed the course of the Escambia River. The area about Pensacola 4The account of the expedition in this paper has been extracted and condensed from the fol- lowing publications: Swanton, 1922, pp. 159, 230-239, 240, 254-256; 1939, pp. 909-218: Lowery, 1901, pp. 351— 377; Priestley, 1928, 1936. Snpt. 15, 1944 was not densely populated nor was the Escambia drainage. While these scouting parties were gone, a hurricane blew for 24 hours on August 19 and wrecked all but three small boats and destroyed most of the supplies. When the exploring parties re- turned and reported that the land was poor and there were few Indians to support them the expedition was faced with an unpleasant future. Another exploring party of 200 Spaniards and ‘‘canaille’”’ was sent to pene- trate farther into the interior, and some 40 leagues north they found a temporarily abandoned Indian town of 80 houses, called Nanipacana or Nanipacna, on a great river which is probably the Alabama. It was lo- cated close to the site of Mabila or perhaps may have been Mabila itself, since the story told by its inhabitants checks with the his- tory of Mabila, and the distance from Mo- bile Bay to both towns is very close. Hal- bert thought that Nanipacana was in Wil- cox County, while Lowery and Swanton favor a location in Monroe County. Cer- tainly, no very exact information is given in the accounts of the expedition. The name of this town is said to be a Choctaw word meaning “high mountain or hilltop.” In this village the scouting party found maize, beans, and other food that had been left by the Indians, who had fled as this new party of Spaniards approached. In the meantime, two vessels with provisions arrived from New Spain, so that de Luna did not move the majority of his party to Nanipacana un- til early April, 1560. He left a small party at Ochuse to guard the port. This meant that a motley group of 1,500 persons were at- tempting to live in an Indian village of 80 houses. On April 15 de Luna sent out a party of about 300 under Mateo de Sauz to visit Coosa. They went toward the northeast and, not finding much food, were reduced to dire straits. The first part of June they found provisions and sent back to de Luna 40 bushels of corn from a town called Caxiti (Casiste, a day’s march west of Talisi, located at Durand’s Bend). Pro- ceeding up the Alabama they stopped at Onachiqui, one of the first Coosa towns which was near the Olibahali River. They did not stay long but journeyed north to Coosa, which turned out to be a community GRIFFIN: DE LUNA EXPEDITION AND ‘“‘BUZZARD CULT’”’ 301 of 30 houses and 7 suburban centers. This town was located on the east side of the Coosa River in Talladega County, between the mouths of Talladega and Tallaseehatchee Creeks. The majority of the party remained at Coosa for at least three months, and one of their most notable exploits was to aid their hosts in a conflict against the Napo- chies, who have commonly been identified as living to the west, because of the association of their name with Napissa, an Indian group mentioned as being associated with the Chickasaw by Iberville 140 years later and because of the mistaken idea that the Na- pochies lived near the Mississippi. How- ever, it was only a few days’ march from Coosa to the first Napochie town whose in- habitants had fled to the second Napochie town, which was near a river called Oque- chiton. This has been identified as the Mis- sissippi, the Yazoo, the Black Warrior, and the Tennessee. As the name given means “the great water,” as Padilla states, some historians have concluded that the party reached the Mississippi. The location of the towns is not known. Meanwhile, the main group at Nanipa- cana was slowly starving to death, and dur- ing June and Wuly serious differences of opinion arose as to the best course to follow. Of particular interest is the June 23 peti- tion, drawn up by the principal Indians and Indian craftsmen from Mexico, urging de Luna to allow them to return. The petition was ignored. De Luna wanted to march north to join Sauz in Coosa, but the major- ity of the expedition wanted to go back to Mobile Bay. The move south was effected about June 24, 1560, and a message was placed in an urn which was buried beneath a tree with a message placed on the tree for the returning Coosa party to “dig below.” Shortly after the main party arrived in Mobile Bay two ships arrived with addi- tional but insufficient supplies so that women, children, and the sick were allowed to embark for Havana and New Spain. At the command of King Philip of Spain, two boats were dispatched to set up a base near Beaufort, 8. C., in order to forestall the French from settling along the southeast coast. The main party moved back to Ochuse, where, in August, they received the 302 messengers from Sauz who reported that the scouting force was getting along fairly well at Coosa. De Luna wished to take the bulk of the able bodied and set up a base at Coosa,~but his men refused to follow him, and from September, 1560, to April, 1561, the remainder of the expedition struggled along in Pensacola Bay while the majority of the group sent to Coosa evidently re- mained there. De Luna’s successor, Villa- fane, had been ordered to establish the base on the southeast Atlantic coast, and in April 1561, he took with him such members of the De Luna Expedition as still had stom- ach for pioneering. The official records do not pay much attention to the fate of the Indians taken on the expedition or say how many were left in Alabama, returned to Mexico, or perished in the Southeast. The Indians had been taken along as “C. B.” battalions or engineers to build settlements, repair broken equipment, and to undertake all the disagreeable but fun- damental tasks that the Spanish were too busy to do for themselves. De Soto had taken Indian women from Coosa and they spent almost 20 years in Mexico. They re- turned to Coosa with Sauz’s party. Thus, for almost two years there was a large group of Mexican Indians from the specific areas where the most profound resemblances to the southeastern late art styles are located, and they were in an area that is quite close to a heavy concentration of objects at- tributed to Mexican influence.® First of these sites is Moundville located on the Black Warrior River, a short distance south of Tuscaloosa, Ala., and which is fairly close to the probable location of the Na- pochie towns. The other prominent center of Mexicanlike material is at Etowah in Barlow County, Ga., in the headwaters of the Coosa. Both Moundville and Etowah are believed to belong to the later prehis- toric archeological period and have been tentatively dated by archeologists at about 1550-1650. On the basis of the archeological 5 Hkholm, 1944, pp. 443-444. The reference to “Htowah” should read Moundville. The re- semblances between the skull, heart, and long bones on Moundville vases and those in the Mexican Codices is reported in Moore, 1905. This was not mentioned by Phillips, nor was I aware of it at the Round Table Conference. This re- semblance was noted by Caso. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES *® VoL. 34, No. 9 data there is little doubt that they were oc- cupied contemporaneously during at least part of their existence, for some of the pot- tery from Etowah was almost certainly in- spired by or directly derived from Mound- ville, and pipes of the distinctive late North Georgia style have been found at Mound- ville. Another center where shell objects, suggesting Mexican origin, have been found is around Montgomery. Another major cen- ter for the shell disks is in eastern Ternes- see. There have been some theories about the passage along the gulf coast of migratory groups, either by land or by boat, who then moved up the Mississippi and established ~a center of Middle Mississippi culture. Some such explanation may later be demon- strated for earlier elements of either Middle Mississippi or Hopewellian, but the distri- butional features of the buzzard-cult arti- facts indicates that there was no significant use of such concepts in Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, or southern Mississippi. There is one famous site that has a considerable amount of material of this nature, namely, Spiro in the Arkansas Valley of eastern Oklahoma, and that question will be dealt with in another paper. Unfortunately, European-manufactured objects, or items brought into the Southeast from Mexico, have been rarely identified as of this 1560 period. The sole exception known to me so far is a coin and other non- Indian material found by Moore with a burial under a pottery vessel in a mound at Bear Point in Perdido Bay. This was a Mexican silver coin of the 1525-1550 period (Moore, 1901, pp. 423-432). Since the ves- sel belongs in the Fort Walton period, some of our ideas about cultural chronology in the lower Southeast may be in for a change, depending upon the date at which the coin was deposited. It would seem reasonable that either at Nanipacana or at Coosa some item of Spanish origin would be associated with Indian artifacts so that cross dating might be effected. Many items of European origin have been recovered in the Montgom- ery area, but the majority of these are evi- dently of the 1680-1750 period, and the same holds true for the trade goods in com- parable sites on the Tennessee. Spt. 15, 1944 It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper to suggest that the De Luna Expedition might well have furnished the impetus that resulted in the adoption in the southeast of various Mexican art styles and concepts. An intensive and considerable amount of re- search, however, is needed to analyze and compare the various representations in the Southeast and to examine the Mexican records to see the degree of resemblance to the culture of the area from which the De Luna Expedition in 1559 obtained their In- dians. BIBLIOGRAPHY ExuHoim, Gorpon F. The Third Round Table Conference. Amer. Antiquity 9: 440-444. 1944. Forp, JAMES ALFRED, and WILLEY, GORDON. An interpretation of the prehistory of the Eastern United States. Amer. Anthrop. 43: 325-363. 1941. Hoitmes, Witiiam H. Art in shell of the ancient Americans. 2d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 179-305. 1883. Lowery, Woopsury. The Spanish settle- ments within the present limits of the United States, 1513-1561. New York, 1901. Moore, CLARENCE B. Certain aboriginal re- mains of the northwest Florida coast. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10 (4): 421— 499, 1901. . Certain aboriginal mounds of the Black CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 303 Warrior River. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 13 (2): 127-247. 1905. NUTTALL, ZELIA. Comparison between Etowan, Mexican and Mayan designs. In “Etowah Papers,” pp. 137-144. Andover, Mass., 1932. PuiIuuips, Paruip. Middle American influences on the archaeology of the Southeastern United States..In ‘““The Maya and Their Neigh- bors,’”’ pp. 349-367. New York, 1940. PRIESTLEY, HERBERT INGRAM. (Edited by H. I. Priestley.) The Luna papers. Publ. Florida State Hist. Soc. No. 8, 2 vols. Deland, Fla., 1928. . Tristan De Luna—Conquistador of the Old South. Glendale, Calif., 1936. Rapin, Pauu. The story of the American In- dian. New York, 1927. STARR, FREDERICK. A shell gorget from Mex- tco. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci. 6: 173- 1782 U897- SWANTON, JOHN R. Early history of the Creek Indians and their neighbors. Bur. Amer. Bthnol. Bulle 73: . 1922: . Final report of the United States De Soto Expedition Commission. 76th Con- gress, Ist Session, House Document No. TV 2939: Turuston, Gates P. The antiquities of Ten- nessee. Cincinnati, 1890. VAILLANT, GEORGE. Patterns in Middle Amer- ican archaeology. In ‘“‘The Maya and Their Neighbors,” pp. 295-305. New ~ York, 1940. WILLOUGHBY, CHARLES C. AHistory and sym- bolism of the Muskhogeans. In ‘‘Etowah Papers,”’ pp. 7-68. Andover, Mass., 1932. PALEONTOLOGY .—A new fossil comatulid from the Cretaceous of Cundinamar- ca, Colombia. Dr. José Royo y Gémez, geologist of the Ministerio de Minas y Petroleos, Bogot4, Colombia, with the consent of the Ministry and of Brother Apolinar Marfa, director of the Museo del Instituto La Salle, has kindly submitted to me for study two unusually interesting specimens of a fossil comatulid from the Cretaceous of Colombia. These are the first comatulids to be reported from the Cretaceous in any area outside of Europe. The specimens are unusually complete, with cirri, division series, arms, and frag- mentary pinnules; but they do not show the centrodorsal clearly, and the articular faces of the radials are not visible at all. They represent a remarkable new species quite different from any heretofore known, neces- 1 Received April 3, 1944. Austin H. Ciarx, U. 8. National Museum. sitating the creation of a new genus. This new genus finds its closest association with the family Palaeantedonidae, known from the Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary in England, France, Belgium, Holland, Den- mark, southern Sweden, northern Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Algeria, and pos- sibly Sinai, Java, and South Carolina. Some of the species belonging to certain genera of the family Palaeantedonidae might equally well be referred to the recent family Antedonidae, as for instance certain species of Palaeantedon. The specimens under consideration, however, although showing many features which would permit their reference to this family, present others, es- pecially the uniformly short pinnule seg- ments and the strong beaded ornamentation 304 of the distal edges of the brachials, that suggest a rather remote relationship to this group. I am deeply appreciative of the courtesy and generosity of Dr. Royo and of Brother Apolinar Maria in affording me the oppor- tunity of studying and reporting upon these most interesting specimens. In honor of Dr. Royo I take pleasure in designating the new genus represented by the name of— Roiometra, n. gen. Diagnosis.—A genus cf the family Palaean- tedonidae including large species (with the centrodorsal 12 mm in diameter) with very numerous (over 100 [C]) very slender cirri com- posed of elongate proximal and short smooth distal segments; 10 arms composed of short oblong, or nearly oblong, brachials, which have the distal edges ornamented with a row of con- spicuous beadlike tubercles; the IBr series 2; and flexible pinnules composed of segments which are not longer than broad. Genotype.—Roiometra columbiana, n. sp. Occurrence.—Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Roiometra columbiana, n. sp. Description.—The surface of the centrodorsal is nowhere visible, but from the pattern of the basal segments of the cirri still adhering the centrodorsal appears to be hemispherical or subconical, about 12 mm broad at the base and about 10 mm high. The pattern of the basal cirrus segments indicates that the cirrus sockets are arranged in very numerous closely crowded alternating rows which, from the rim to the dorsal pole, are probably between 12 and 15, or possibly more, in number. From the small size of the basal cirrus segments it is apparent that the cirrus sockets are very small. The indica- tions are that the bare dorsal pole is very small. The cirri are exceedingly numerous and very slender, appearing somewhat like a tuft of coarse hair. They are probably well over 100 (C) in number. Most of them appear to be about 27 mm in length, with the longest periph- eral cirri about 34 mm and the cirri near the dorsal pole much shorter; the width is from 0.5 to 0.7 mm. They are composed of probably 25-30 segments. In the longest cirri the longest earlier segments are between 3 and 4 times as long as broad, slightly constricted centrally and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 slightly flaring distally, and the outer segments are from about as long as broad to half again as long as broad with slightly broadened distal ends. The terminal portion of the cirri appears to taper to a point. There are no indications of dorsal or of opposing spines. The division series and a considerable por- tion of the arm bases are concealed by the dense mass of cirri. The arms seem to have been 10 in number. They are about 5 mm in diameter, and as far as they are preserved, in one case for 80 mm beyond the cirri, they do not taper. The brachials appear to be between 3 and 4 times as broad as long; the earlier have the ends somewhat oblique, the later have them parallel or nearly so. The distal ends of the earlier brachials are somewhat produced, and from their appearance were either tubercular or spiny. There is no definite evidence of syzygies. There are many scattered pinnule segments in the matrix between the arms, but most of them are indefinite. They are mostly grouped in short series. From the way in which most of these series are curved it is evident that the pinnules were flexible. Some series of pinnule segments lie across the arms where they simu- late a beadlike ornamentation of the brachials. The pinnule segments are all short, none of them being longer than broad. On what appear to be the earlier segments the outer end is pro- duced on the distal side into a high spine. The outer pinnule segments taper proximally to a narrow base. On the reverse side of the slab, beneath the specimen on the right, a IBr series is visible. The IBr, is about 2.5 mm long, and about half again as broad as long; the proximal and distal edges are rather strongly everted and thick- ened. The IBr. (axillary) is about 3.5 mm in length, broader than long, pentagonal, with the lateral borders about two-thirds as long as those of the IBr; and making a broadly obtuse angle with them, and the distal edges almost straight and ornamented with a row of 6 or 7 prominent rounded tubercles; the anterior angle measures about 90°. The first brachial is wedge-shaped, about half again as long exteriorly as interiorly, and about as broad as long in the median line. The distal edge is bordered with a row of tubercles. resembling those on the distal edges of the axillaries.. The second brachial is less obliquely wedge-shaped, almost oblong though slightly ROIOMETRA COLUMBIANA, N. Sp. Upper: Two specimens, natural size. Lower: Portion of reverse side of slab, beneath the right hand specimen shown above, X2. Ax=IBr axillary; Ps =pinnule segments; Syn =synarthry; Syz =syzygy. Objects referred to are to the right of the letters, except the synarthry, which is below. - Sept, 15, 1944 longer exteriorly than interiorly, slightly larger than the first brachial, with the surface slightly concave and the distal border everted and ornamented with a row of about 10 tuber- cles. As is shown on another arm, the first two brachials are united by synarthry. The third and fourth brachials are united by syzygy, forming a syzygial pair which is somewhat longer than broad; the fourth brachial (epi- zygal) has the distal edge everted and bor- dered with a row of tubercles; the distal edge of the third brachial (hypozygal) is unmodified. The right arm is broken off at the distal end of the first syzygial pair. On the left arm the fifth brachial is wedge-shaped, about twice as long exteriorly as interiorly, and short, about three times as broad as the median length. The sixth brachial is similar, but the long and short sides are reversed. The underside of the slab is almost entirely covered with brachials, mostly in more or less long series, but many as individuals or in small groups. Nearly all these are much worn and so the details can not be made out, though a few are in fairly good condition. Most of the bra- chials are from 4 to 4.6 mm in diameter, and the outline of the dorsal half is a regular semi- circle. The distal edge is everted and somewhat produced, and in the best preserved brachials is tubercular. From the ends of the transverse ridge through which the central canal passes the sides of the brachials converge ventrally in two straight lines making with each other an angle of about 70° to a rather sharply rounded apex; these two converging straight lines are the outer edges of the muscular fossae. Some of the brachials show syzygial faces. These are perfectly developed, with apparently 16-18 ra- diating ridges. Together with the brachials there are many pinnule segments, mostly in short series of vari- ous lengths, though many are isolated. Some few of these are still in close proximity to the brachials to which ‘originally they were at- tached. All these pinnule segments are so worn that little can be said about them further than that they are somewhat broader than long, or at least not longer than broad, with more or less constricted proximal ends. A first pinnule segment still attached to a brachial is subtri- angular with the apex, adjacent to the brachial, very broadly rounded, slightly broader than long, with a straight distal edge. The pinnule CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 305 segments are evenly rounded dorsally, and the distal border is usually more or less strongly produced. Type.—From Naranjillo, Municipio de La Vega, Departamento de- Cundinamarca, Co- lombia; in the Museo del Instituto de La Salle, Bogota, Reptiblica de Colombia. From the Middle Villeta formation of the middle Albian, or about middle Cretaceous. Remarks.—A considerable number of fossil comatulids have been recorded from the Cre- taceous of England, Europe, and north Africa. Quite unidentifiable are: Comatula sp. Etallon, 1857 (France) ; Antedon sp. Downes, 1880, 1882 (England); Antedon sp. Stolley, 1891 (Schles- wig Holstein); Anéedon sp. Jahn, 1895 (Bo- hemia); Antedon sp. Hennig, 1899 (Sweden); and Eudiocrinus sp. Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark). Species known only from brachials are: Antedon granulata Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark); and Antedon stevens, Briinnich- Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark). A species of which the arms are known but the calyx ossicles are only imperfectly described is: Pachyantedon beyrichi Jaekel, 1891 (north Germany). Species in which only the centrodorsal is known are all referred to the genus Gleno- tremites Goldfuss, since their true systematic position cannot be determined. These are: Glenotremites adregularis Gislén, 1925 (Eng- land); G. alternata Gislén, 1925 (England); G. angelint Gislén, 1924 (south Sweden); G. ar- naudi de Loriol, 1894 (south France); @. bathert Gislén, 1924 (England); G. concavus Schliiter, 1878 (Holland); G. discoidalis Gislén, 1925 (Bohemia; Belgium); G. essenensis Schli- ter, 1878 (west Germany); G. e. var. tubercu- latus Gislén, 1925 (England); G. excavatus Gis- lén, 1925 (England); G. exilis de Loriol, 1869 (Switzerland); G. faxensis Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark); G. intermedius Gislén, 1925 (England); G. janett Valette 1917 (France); G. laticirrus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. lettensis Schliiter, 1878 (west Germany); G. lundgreni P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. minutissimus Valette, 1917 (France); G. para- doxus Goldfuss, 1831 (north and west Ger- many; Belgium, England); G. parvicavus Gis- lén, 1924 (Denmark); G. parvistellatus Gislén, 1925 (England); G. parvus Gislén, 1925 (Eng- land); G. perforatus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. pusillus Fritsch, 1910 (Bo- hemia); G. pyropa Zahalka, 1892 (Bohemia); 306 G. rosaceus Geinitz, 1871 (Bohemia; ?Saxony); G. rotundus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. rogosus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. schluetertanus Geinitz, 1871 (Saxony); G. scutatus Gislén, 1925 (north Germany); G. semiglobularis Briimnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Den- mark); G. strvatus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (Eng- land); G. sulcatus Schliiter, 1878 (south Swe- den); G. fourtiae Schliiter, 1878 (west Ger- many); and G. valetts Gislén, 1924 (France; England). Specimens in which at least the centrodorsal and the basal and radial rings are preserved are capable of more exact systematic allocation. As determined by Prof. Torsten Gislén these fall in the following families and genera: Family CoOMASTERIDAE: Palaeocomaster lovént P.H. Carpenter, 1880 (England). Family Souano- CRINIDAE: Solanocrinus almerart de Loriol, 1900 (Spain); S. campichei de Loriol, 1879 (Switzerland); S. gevreyi de Loriol, 1902 (France); S. gillieroni de Loriol, 1879 (Switzer- land); S. hiselyi de Loriol, 1869 (Switzerland) ; S. humilis Gislén, 1924 (France); S. infracre- taceus Ooster, 1871 (Switzerland); S. leenhardti de Loriol, 1908 (France); S. pictets de Loriol, 1879 (Switzerland); S. ricordeanus d’Orbigny, 1850 (France); S. vagnacensis de Loriol, 1888 (France); and S. valdensis de Loriol, 1868 (Switzerland). Family CoNOMETRIDAE: Am- phorometra alta Gislén, 1925 (England); A. brydonet Gislén, 1924 (England); A. conoidea Goldfuss, 1839 (north Germany; Holland); A. c. var. laevis Gislén, 1924; A. c. var. granu- lata Gislén, 1924; Placometra mortenseni Gis- lén, 1924 (England); Jaekelometra belgica Jaekel, 1901 (Holland); J. columnaris Gislén, 1924 (Holland); and Conometra rugiana Gislén, 1924 (north Germany). Family NorocrinIDAz: Loriolometra retzit Lundgren, 1874 (Sweden); Sphaerometra aequimarginata P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); S. carentonensis de Loriol, 1894 (France); S.incurva P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); S. semiglobosa Schliiter, 1878 (Ger- many); S. senonica Gislén, 1925 (England); and S. tetent Wegner, 1911 (Germany). Family PALAEANTEDONIDAE: Semiometra bohemica Gis- lén, 1925 (Bohemia); S. courvillensis Valette, 1917 (France); S. ampressa P. H. Carpenter 1881 (Sweden); S. lenticularis Schliiter 1878 (Holland); S. minuta Gislén (England); S. plana Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (north Germany; Denmark); S. plana var. stellata Gislén, 1925 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 (England); S. pommerania Gislén, 1924 (north Germany); S. rowei Gislén, 1924 (England); S. scania Gislén, 1924 (Sweden); Hertha cava Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark); H. mystica Hagenow, 1840 (north Germany; Belgium); H. pygmea Gislén, 1924 (north Germany); H. suecica Gislén, 1924 (Sweden); and Palaeante- don danica Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark). Four additional species have not as yet been assigned to the genera now used; these are: Actinometra batallert Astre, 1925 (Spain); An- ~ tedon astellatus Lehner, 1937 (Germany); A. bellilensis Valette, 1935 (north Africa); and A. chatelett Valette, 1933 (France). In determining the systematic relationships of this new species the unidentifiable fragments and the species based upon brachials or arms may be disregarded. It is necessary, however, to consider the numerous species represented only by centrodorsals—assembled under the generic term Glenotremites. These species. are divisible into two groups. In the first group the centrodorsal is columnar to conical, more rarely discoidal, and the cirrus sockets are large and prominent and arranged in columns, or if they are in a single row they show a distinct transverse ridge. Evidently this new species can not belong here. In the second group the centrodorsal is discoidal to hemispherical and the cirrus sockets are in crowded alternating rows, or if they are in a single row they are without sculpture. The new species is not closely related to any of the described species in this group. The species in which at least the centrodorsal and the basal and radial circlets are preserved are distributed among the families Comasteri- dae, Solanocrinidae, Conometridae, Notocrin- idae, and Palaeantedonidae. The new species can not belong to the family Comasteridae, in which the centrodorsal is much flattened with the sides never divided into radial areas, and the cirrus sockets are large or absent. It can not belong to the family Solanocrinidae, in which the centrodorsal is discoidal to columnar with the sides never divided into radial areas, and the cirrus sockets are large and arranged in columns or in a single row. It can not belong to the family Notoerinidae, in which the centrodorsal is conical to hemispherical with the sides not divided into radial areas, and the cirrus sockets are large. Finally, it can not belong to the family Conometridae, in the known species of Sept. 15, 1944 which the centrodorsal is conical or discoidal with the sides usually divided into definite ra- dial areas by bare stripes or low ridges, each radial area having two columns of rather large cirrus sockets. This leaves for consideration the family Pal- aeantedonidae. Gislén defines this family as including species with the centrodorsal varying from sharply flattened to hemispherical, the cirrus sockets small and arranged in closely crowded alternating rows, and the cirri com- posed of long segments. He says that the species are slender with 10 arms composed of moder- ately oblique brachials, and that synarthries and syzygies are well developed. The present species agrees with this defini- tion in haying numerous small cirrus sockets; in having the cirri composed, at least in the basal portion, of long segments; in having 10 _ arms composed of moderately oblique bra- chials; and in having well developed synarthries and syzygies. The other details can not be de- termined. It would seem, therefore, that this species falls within the family Palaeantedonidae, which includes the genera Semiometra Gislén (Upper Cretaceous to Eocene), Hertha Hagenow (Up- per Cretaceous to Miocene), Discometra Gislén (Miocene), and Palaeantedon Gislén (Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary). These genera are unfortunately differentiated by characters in the centrodorsal and articular faces of the radials that can not be made out in the present specimens. Semiometra appears to be ruled out, as in that genus the centrodorsal is low or flattened, the cirrus sockets are rela- tively large, and the size is much less. Hertha is composed of small species with the centro- dorsal not exceeding 5 mm in diameter which have relatively larger cirrus sockets and much fewer cirri. In Discometra the centrodorsal is very much flattened, thick discoidal with a large bare dorsal pole. Palaeantedon, with a hemispherical centrodorsal, a small bare dorsal pole, and numerous closely set cirrus sockets arranged in alternating rows seems to offer characters nearest to those of the present spec- imens. Palaeantedon is known from the Upper Cre- taceous of Denmark (danica Briinnich-Niel- sen) ; the Eocene of South Carolina (caroliniana Gislén); the Miocene of Algeria (ambigua Pomel, cartenniensis Pomel, globosa Pomel, CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 307 lineata Pomel, and soluta Pomel); the Miocene of Italy (minima Noélli); the Miocene of Hun- gary (depressa Gislén and pannonica Vad4sz); the Pliocene of Java (weberi Sieverts); and the Quaternary of Algeria (rosacea Pomel). . These specimens cannot be referred to Pa- laeantedon because of their very much more numerous cirri, the maximum number in that genus being about 50 (L) (in P. pannonica). It is probable that if other characters could be determined other differences would be found. In 1925 Prof. Torsten Gislén created the genus Gasterometra based upon a much worn centrodorsal and radial pentagon from the Upper Cretaceous (probably Senonian) of Devon, England to which he gave the name of Gasterometra polycirra. He referred the genus Gasterometra to the family Palaeantedonidae. The various characters used in the diagnosis of the genus Gasterometra can not be made out in the present specimens. But Gasterometra poly- cirra is of large size with the hemispherical cen- trodorsal 9.2 mm in diameter and 4.2 mm high, and with its whole surface closely studded with a very great number—at least 300 (CCC)— very small cirrus sockets which are distributed in about 10 alternating rows. In its large size and in the very large number of cirrus sockets Gasterometra polycirra is in general agreement with the present specimens, although in these the outline of the centrodorsal can not be traced and none of the cirrus sockets are visible. As Gasterometra polycirra and the species represented by the present specimens agree in the very large number of very slender cirri, and in this feature are quite unique among both fossil and recent comatulids, it is probable that they are related, though it is un- likely that they belong to the same genus. Gislén noted that Palaeantedon rosacea Pomel is possibly, as suggested by Pomel himself, identical with Antedon mediterranea. In the present specimens the distal segments of the lower pinnules, a few short series of which are preserved in curved rows lying on the dorsal surface of the brachials, are exceedingly short, not longer than broad, with the proximal end constricted. They thus resemble, at least super- ficially, the lower pinnules found in the sub- family Heliometrinae of the family Antedoni- dae. In fact, the best general idea of the ap- pearance of these specimens would be conveyed by comparing them to very large individuals of 308 a species of Florometra with exceedingly nu- merous and slender cirri, brachials with, only slightly oblique ends, and short-segmented flexible distal as well as proximal pinnules. But it should be remembered that in the comatulids BOTANY.—A new species of Orcuttia from Baja California.! JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 superficial similarity does not always indicate close relationship. For the photographs reproduced on the plate I am indebted to Dr. Ray S. Bassler, head cura- tor of geology, United States National Museum. JASON R. SwAL- LEN, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. The genus Orcuttia Vasey was described in 1886 with a single species, O. californica, from Baja California. A second species was described by Vasey in 1891, from Chico, Calif. The genus was known only from these two rare species until recent years when both were collected in California and two new species in addition. A second species from Baja California was discovered in 1942 by Howard Scott Gentry. Orcuttia fragilis Swallen, sp. nov. Annua; culmi 15-40 em longi, multinodosi, erecti vel decumbentes, geniculati, papillosi vel papilloso-pilosi, purpurascentes, e nodis superi- oribus breviter ramosis; folia 3.5—6.5 cm longa, 6-12 mm lata, plana, acuta, papillosa vel papilloso-pilosa; ligula obsoleta; paniculae densae, breves 5-10 mm latae, parte inferiori inclusa; spiculae 3—8-florae, 6-12 mm longae; glumae aequales, 7 mm longae, acuminatae, marginibus tenuibus hyalinis; lemma infimum 6-7 mm longum, acutum vel subacuminatum, mucronatum, pubescens et pilosum, minute dentatum; palea lemmate paulo brevior, den- tata, carinis minute scabris, marginibus tenu- ibus, hyalinis; antherae 3 mm longae. Annual; culms 15-40 cm long, many-noded, erect or usually ascending or decumbent at the base, incurved above, geniculate at the lower and middle nodes, the internodes rather short, 1 Received May 20, 1944. of nearly equal length, prominently papillose or papillose-pilose, purple, in striking contrast to the pale green leaves, bearing short, appressed, flowering branches from the upper nodes; leaves 3.5-6.5 cm long, 6-12 mm wide, flat, acute, papillose or papillose-pilose, the division into sheath and blade not evident except for a slight constriction at the ligular area, the blade finally breaking off at this line; panicles dense, spikelike, all or partly enclosed in the upper leaves, the exserted portion 1-3 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, or those on the lower branches smaller; spikelets 3—8-flowered, 6-12 mm long; glumes equal, 7 mm long, acuminate, the margins thin, hyaline; lemmas pubescent, especially toward the base, and also sparsely pilose, the lowest 6-7 mm long, acute or sub- acuminate, the others successively smaller, minutely toothed, the midnerve excurrent as a short mucro; palea a little shorter than the lemma, dentate, minutely scabrous on the keels, the margins broad, thin, hyaline; anthers 3 mm long. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1865489, collected on playa, sandy clay; at Llano Dirai, Magdalena Plain, within the limits of the Sonoran Desert in southern Baja California by H. 8. Gentry (no. 4192). “‘An abundant forage grass over the great flood-plain following rain storage. Reported excellent for cattle.” Sept. 15, 1944 MAXON: A NEW SPECIES OF HEMITELIA 309 BOTANY.—A new species of Hemitelia from Peru. Wivtutam R. Maxon, U.S. National Museum. The ferns collected in Peru by Mrs. Ynes Mexia in 1931 include the following strongly characterized new species of Hemitelza. Among American members of Cyatheaceae it appears unique in indusium characters, notwithstanding the great diversity shown by members of the family in this respect, and I know of none with similar venation. Hemitelia nervosa Maxon, sp. nov. §Cnemidaria. Rhizomatis vel caudicis frag- mentum solum adest, parte apicali dense palea- cea, paleis lanceolato-subulatis, longe attenu- atis, usque ad 2 cm longis, basi 3-4 mm latis, medio brunneis, scleroticis, lucidis, margine late albido-scariosis, subtiliter fimbriatis. Frons saltem 2-metralis; stipes ca. 70 cm longus, validus, basi curvata brunnea modice verruco- sus, sursum antice profunde trisulcatus; lamina ubique nuda et glaberrima, oblonga, 1.3 m longa, ca. 60 cm lata, apice acuta, basin versus non angustata, imparipinnata, rhachi sulcata; pinnae remotae, latere utroque 11, basales oppositae, ceterae suboppositae vel superiores alternae, omnes subaequales, ca. 30 cm longae, 6.5-7.5 cm latae, anguste oblongo-lanceolatae, apice acuminatae, basi subrotundae vel latis- sime cuneatae, pleraeque petiolulatae (3-8 mm), acumine excepto crasse serratis, serra- turis 5-9 mm longis, 1.5-3 (4) mm altis, con- vexo-curvatis, antice apiculatis; venae usque ad acuminem ca. 40 jugae, utrinque elevatae, venula basali transverse conjunctae, arcu costali 3 vel 4 radiis longe exeuntibus, his varie inter se acute conjunctis; venulae laterales 6—-10-jugae, obliquae, apicales breves, liberae, ceterae plerumque cum venulis oppositis et arcuum radiis irregulariter angulo acutissimo anastomosantes, venulis consociatis pellucidis 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received May 20, 1944, a°* saepe geminis; sori ca. 1.5 mm diam., 6—-10- jugi, In zonam latam’a costa remotam positi; indusia rotunda, plana, parva, tenere mem- branacea, primum subintegra et sporangiis numerossimis omnino operta, demum leviter lobata; receptacula magna, globosa, sessilia. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1615531—533, collected in a gully at mouth of Rio Santiago, above Pongo de Manseriche, Departamento de Loreto, Peru, altitude 300 meters, December 18, 1931, by Mrs. Ynes Mexia (no. 6291). Presumably the trunk was decumbent or weakly ascending, attaining a length of less than one meter. Hemitelia nervosa differs widely from all previously known members of the subgenus or section Cnemidaria, especially in venation. The lateral veinlets are elongate, very oblique, and almost without exception unbranched. Of these, the three,to five apical pairs are free and run to the curved margin of the serrature. The four or five lower pairs are variously joined to opposed veinlets from the next vein or to the branches running up from the costal are. The common or combined veins running to the sinuses are variable in width, color, position, and structure, being sometimes single and simple, often single and very acutely once- forked, or not infrequently even distinctly paired. In addition to its curious venation H. nervosa is at once distinguished among Cnemi- daria species by its sharply curvate-serrate margins. In its flat, circular, delicately membranous indusium H. nervosa is unique within the genus, at least as represented in America. A few members of EKuhemitelia, it is true, have indusia that are rounded in general outline, instead of semicircular, but. these are species of distant relationship and the indusia are large, coarse, and divided into several spreading sac- cate lobes, thus widely different from 4H. nervosa. 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 HEMITELIA NERVOSA Maxon Sept. 15, 1944 ORNITHOLOGY .—The subspecies of the gnatcatcher Polioptila albiloris.? BropkorB, University of Michigan. MANN.) Study of the black-capped gnatcatchers of Mexico and Central America is complicated by marked sexual dimorphism and in most cases by equally marked seasonal plumage changes. Until recently seasonal changes were not known to occur or were misunder- stood. As a result, the several species and subspecies were hopelessly confused, some authors even going so far as to reduce them to a single wide-ranging species. As clearly demonstrated by van Rossem,? however, the black-capped gnatcatchers are divisible into three major groups which may be sum- marized as follows: A. Cap of male black only in summer; winter male gray-capped like the female at all seasons. Polioptila nigriceps (northwestern Mexico) AA. Cap of male black at all seasons. B. Loral and superciliary regions of male black in summer, partially white only in winter Polioptila albiloris (southern Mexico and northern Central America) BB. No season change; loral and superciliary regions always entirely white. Polioptila plumbea (Central and South America) Van Rossem recognized the nigriceps forms as constituting a specific unit, but he reluctantly combined the albzloris forms in the same specific unit with bilineata, be- cause the two groups were said by others to intergrade. Zimmer? placed albilorzs in a sep- arate specific unit from bilineata, which lat- ter he considered a subspecies of Polioptila plumbea. He stated that albzloris and Poliop- tila plumbea superciliaris occur together without intergradation in parts of Nicara- gua and Costa Rica. In view of the confu- sion that existed previous to van Rossem’s work, I am inclined to follow Zimmer in disregarding the earlier claims of intergra- dation between these two forms, especially since I find no evidence of intergradation among the specimens examined by me. The species here understood as Polzoptila 1 Received March 25, 1944. 2 Concerning some Polioptilae of the west coast of Middle America, Auk 48, 33-39. 1931. 3 Studies of Peruvian birds: No. XLII, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 1-6. 1942. BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBIx IS 4 rats 311 PIERCE (Communicated by HmRBERT FRIED- albiloris inhabits parts of Mexico and Cen- tral America below 1,000 meters altitude, from the state of Nayarit to Costa Rica. It is a bird of arid regions and is thus largely confined to the Pacific side of the continent. It occurs also in arid localities on the Atlan- tic side in northwestern Oaxaca, in the Grand Valley of Chiapas, on the tip of the Yucatan Peninsula, in the Motagua Valley of Guatemala, and in the interior of Hon- duras. Within the area outlined above the known distribution of the species is spotty. Several of the apparent gaps in its range are undoubtedly due to lack of exploration. Others are real and divide the range of the species into at least three isolated regions. One such area is the tip of the Yucatan Pen- insula. A second is the remainder of the Mexican range of the species outlined above. The third is the Central American part of the range. The last area consists of two sec- tions, on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America, respectively. It is as yet unknown whether these two colonies meet. Some order may be made of the spotty nature of the range of Polioptila albiloris when the distribution of other species of the genus is considered. On the Pacific side the northern limits of albzloris are practically coterminous with the southern limits of Polioptila nigriceps nigriceps. The southern boundaries of the range of albzloris overlap slightly the northern boundaries of the range of Polioptila plumbea superciliaris. On the Atlantic side the range of albzloris ceases approximately at the beginning of the ranges of Polioptila caerulea deppet, Polioptila caerulea nelsoni, and Polioptila plumbea superciliaris, from north to south, respec- tively. In a few places Polioptila albiloris has been recorded as occurring together with other resident gnatcatchers. It has been recorded with Polioptila caerulea depper at Tehuantepec and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca, and at Gualdn, Guatemala. Poloptila caerulea caerulea is not an uncommon winter visitant in these regions, and since the dif- ferences between depper and caerulea are 312 not very pronounced, it is possible that the ‘above records of deppet may have been based on migrants of caerulea. All authentic specimens of deppez which I have examined are from the Gulf lowlands of Mexico. Polioptila albiloris albiventris has been recorded from Cozumel Island, where P. caerulea cozumelae breeds: This record, based upon two Gaumer-taken specimens, is perhaps open to doubt, since no subsequent collector has found the black-capped spe- cies on Cozumel. Nelson and Goldman collected both Polioptila albiloris and P. caerulea nelsoni at San Vicente, Chiapas, on the edge of the range of both species. In parts of Nicaragua and in northwest- ern Costa Rica P. albiloris and P. plumbea superciliaris occur together. In spite of the isolation of several of the populations of Polzoptila albiloris, subspe- cific differentiation has not progressed far. This fact possibly argues for the compara- tively recent expansion of the species into suitable areas which were at the time un- occupied by other members of the genus. Acknowledgments.—For the use of mate- rial Iam indebted to Merriam L. Miles and to the authorities of the Academy of Natu- ral Sciences of Philadelphia, the Donald R. Dickey collection at the University of Cali- fornia at Los Angeles, the Chicago Natural History Museum, the U. S. Fish and Wild- life Service, the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and the United States National Museum. This study was aided by a grant from the Faculty Research Fund by the board of governors of the Horace H. Rack- ham School of Graduate Studies in the Uni- versity of Michigan. Polioptila albiloris vanrossemi, n. subsp. Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Lawrence, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 4: 12. 1876 (Quiotepec, Ta- pana [=Tapanatepec], and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca).—Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, part. 1879 (Quiotepec, Tapana, and Santa Efigenia).—Sumichrast, Naturaleza 5: 241. 1882 (Quiotepec, Tapana- tepec, and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca; Tonala, Chiapas).—Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Oaxaca and Tehuantepec). —Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (Quiotepec, Tapana, and Santa Efigenia).— Ridgway, U. S. Nat: Mus. Bull..50, pt. 3: 729, part. 1904 (Cuicatlan, Quiotepec, Puerto JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 9 Angel, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, Tapana, and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca).—Bangs and Peters, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 68: 398. 1928 (Chivela and Tapanatepec, Oaxaca). Polioptila nigriceps nigriceps Hellmayr, Tier- reich, pt. 18: 25, part. 1903 (Oaxaca and Tehuantepec).—Hellmayr, in Wytsman, Genera avium, pt. 17: 17, part. 1911 (Oaxaca). Polioptila bilineata nigriceps Griscom, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 75: 398, part. 1934 (Coyuca, Guerrero).* Polioptila albiloris [nec Sclater and Salvin] Lawrence, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 4: 12. 1876 (Santa Efigenia and Tehuantepec City, Oaxaca).—Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 538, part. 1879 (Tehuantepec | and Santa Efigenia).—Sumichrast, Naturaleza 5: 241. 1882 (Tehuantepec, Cacoprieto, and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca).—Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Tehuan- tepec, Santa Efigenia, and Tapana, Oaxaca).— Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, part. 1885 (Tehuantepec).—Ridgway, Man. North Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 (Tehuantepec). —Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (Tehuantepec and Santa Efigenia).— SHarPg, Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (west Mexico).—Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, part. 1903 (Isthmus of Tehuantepec).—Ridg- way, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 725, part. 1904 (Cuicatlin, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, Santa Efigenia, and Tapana, Oaxaca; descrip- tion; measurements; bibliography). Polioptila albiloris albileris Hellmayr, in Wytsman, Genera avium, pt. 17: 16, part. 1911 (Oaxaca).—Zimmer, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 1, 2, 6, part. 1942 (Tapana and Santa Efigenia; ments). Polioptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 414: 7, part. 1930 (Tehuantepec and Chivela; criticism).— van Rossem, Auk 48: 34, part. 1931 (At- lantic drainage of southern Mexico).— Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, part. 1938 (Atlantic drainage of Chiapas). Polioptila plumbea albiloris Hellmayr, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool ser., 13, pt. 7: 504, part. 1934 (southern Mexico). Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (Mexico). Polioptila bilineata bairdi [nec Ridgway] van Ros- sem, Auk 48: 35, part. 1931 (San Blas, Nay- arit).—Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field | Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, part. 1938 (San Blas). Polioptila plumbea bairdi Hellmayr, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 13, Pt. 7 505, part. 1934 (Santiago and San Blas, Nayarit; Iguala and Tierra Colorada, Sharpe, 4 The specimens from Chilpancingo prove upon examination to be Polzoptila caerulea nelsoni. criticism; measure- . Spr. 15, 1944 Guerrero; Sierra Santo Domingo, Te- huantepec, and Salina Cruz, Oaxaca).— Blake and Hanson, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser. 22: 542. 1942 (Apatzing4dn, Michoacan). Type.—U.S.N.M. 54441; adult male; Quio- tepec, District of Cuicatlan, Oaxaca; August 8, 1868; Francis Sumichrast, original number 12. Characters.—Agrees with other races of Poli- optila albiloris in having the cap of the male constantly black after the postjuvenal molt; loral and superciliary regions of male entirely black in breeding plumage; loral and super- ciliary regions of both sexes largely white in winter but with a dark spot (black in male, dusky in female) at anterior corner of eye and with a broad dark postocular stripe. Differs from other subspecies of Poloptila albtloris in having the wing and especially the tail longer; the tail always longer than the wing. Differs further from P. albiloris albiventris in darker dorsal and ventral coloration. Range.—Southern Mexico in the interior and in the Pacific lowlands, from Nayarit (Santiago and San Blas), Michoacdn, (Apatzingdn), Guerrero (Coyuca, Acapulco, Tierra Colorada, and Iguala), Oaxaca (Quiotepec, Cuicatldn, Puerto Angel, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, Salina Cruz, Chivela, Sierra Santo Domingo, Santa Efigenia, and Tapanatepec), to Chiapas (Ar- riaga, Tonalé, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Barto- lomé, San Vicente, and Chicomuselo). Remarks.—The characters of this form are best developed in the District of Cuicatlan, northwestern Oaxaca. Whether its range is con- tinuous from that district across to the Pacific coast is at present unknown. Specimens from the coast, from Acapulco to Puerto Angel, are slightly atypical. Those from the Grand Valley of Chiapas, while still less typical, are yet closer to the Oaxaca birds than they are to Central American specimens. Birds from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Pacific coast of west- ern Chiapas, on the other hand, resemble bairdi at least as much as they do vanrossemi. Never- theless, in view of the hiatus in the range of the species along the Pacific coast between the isthmus and El Salvador, I have thought it ex- pedient to refer the whole Mexican colony to vanrossemt. Zimmer suspected the existence of a long- tailed Mexican subspecies, although the only specimens which he was able to examine were BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 313 from the intergrading population of the Isth- mus of Tehuantepec. Specimens examined.—Guerrero (Acapulco, 3). Oaxaca (Quiotepec, 1, type; Cuicatlan, 3; Puerto Angel, 1; Chivela, 3; Tehuantepec, 4; Huilotepec, 2; Santa Efigenia, 2; Tapanatepec, 1). Chiapas (Arriaga, 4; Tonalé, 9; Tuxtla Gutiérrez and vicinity, 11; San Bartolomé, 2; San Vicente, 1; Chicomuselo, 2). Total, 49. Polioptila albiloris albiventris Lawrence Polioptila albiventris Lawrence, Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 3: 273. 1885 (Temax, Yucatan; original description).—Ridgway, Man. North Amer. Birds, p. 569. 1887 (Yucatdn; charac- ters).—Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- phia, 1890: 211 (Progreso, Yucatdén).—Hell- mayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 24, 1903 (Yucatan).— Ridgway, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 729. 1904 (Temax and Progreso; characters; meas- urements; bibliography). Polioptila nigriceps albiventris Hellmayr, in Wytsman, Genera avium, pt. 17: 16. 1911 (Yucatan). Polioptila bilineata albiventris Griscom, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7. 1930 (outer third of Yucatdn Peninsula; criticism). Polioptila plumbea albiventris Hellmayr, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 13, pt. 7: 503. 1934 (Temax, Mérida, Pro- ~greso, and Cozumel Island; criticism; characters). Polioptila albiloris albiveniris Zimmer, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 2, 6. 1942 (Temax; criticism; type in American Museum). Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Boucard, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883: 4389 (Progreso). —Salvin, Ibis, ser. 5, 6: 246. 1888 (Cozumel Island). Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 447, part. 1885 (Mérida, Yuca- tan). Characters.—Paler on dorsal and ventral sur- faces than any of the other subspecies of Polioptila albiloris. Agrees with vanrossemt in always having the tail longer than the wing, but differs in having the wing and especially the tail of lesser dimensions. Range.—Northern Yucatén (Progreso, Te- max, and Mérida). Cozumel Island?. Specimens examined.—Yueatén (Progreso, 12). Polioptila albiloris albiloris Sclater and Salvin Polioptila albiloris Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1860: 298 (original description; Motagua Valley, Guatemala).—Salvin and Sclater, Ibis 2: 397. 1860 (Choacus [ = Chuacts], Guatemala; type locality).—Owen, Ibis 3: 61. 314 pl. 2, fig. 3. 1861 (Choacus; description of nest and eggs).—Gray, Hand-list 1: 237. 1869 (Guatemala).—Sclater and Salvin, Nomencla- tor Avium Neotrop., p. 4. 1873.—Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 53, pl. 5, figs. 1, 2. 1879 (Chuactis).—Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Guate- mala).—Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, part. 1885 (Chuactis; types in British Museum; description; bibliography).—Ridgway, Man. North Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 (Guate- mala).—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (Guatemala).—Hellmayr, Nov. Zool. 7: 536, in text. 1900 (criticism).—Sharpe, Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (Guatemala).— Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, part. 1903 (Guatemala).—Ridgway, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 725, part. 1904 (Chuacts; bibliography).—Dearborn, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., orn. ser., 1: 186. 1907 (E. Rancho and Gualan, Guatemala). Polioptila albiloris albiloris Hellmayr, in Wytsman, Genera Avium, pt. 17: 16, part. 1911 (Chuacts).—Zimmer, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 1, 2, 6, part. 1942 (Pro- greso, Guatemala; criticism; measure- ments). ; Poltoptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7, part. 1930 (Mota- gua Valley, from Progreso to QGualdn, Guatemala; criticism; reduces nigriceps, restrica, and bairdi to synonymy).—van Rossem, Auk 48: 34, part. 1931 (interior Guatemala; criticism; measurements; sea- sonal changes).—Griscom, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 64: 288. 1932 (Progreso, DISTRIBUTION OF POLIOPTILA IN MIDDLE AMERICA Pp. ALBILORIS P. NIGRICEPS P. CAERULEA P. PLUMBEA son, (000 METER CONTOUR (00 50 0O 100 200 400 EEE SS ES KILOMETERS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 Guatemala).—Carriker and de Schauensee, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 87: 439. 1935 (Gualdn, [San Pablo near] Zacapa, El Rancho, and Marajuma, Guatemala).— Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, part. 1938 (Atlantic drainage of northern Cen- tral America; criticism). Polioptila plumbea albiloris Hellmayr, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 13, pt. 7: 504, part. 1934 (Chuacts, El Rancho, and Gualdn; bibliography). Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 84: 331. 1932 (Cantarranas, Honduras). Polioptila bilineata bairdi [nec Ridgway] Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 23: 461, part. 1938 (Lake Guija and San José del Sacare, El Salvador). Characters.—Differs from Polioptila albiloris albwentris in darker dorsal and ventral colora- tion and in having the tail but little if any longer than wing (tail usually shorter than wing). Differs from Polioptila albiloris vanros- semi in having a shorter wing and much shorter tail. Range.—Motagua Valley of Guatemala (Chuactis, Marajuma, Progreso, Ei Rancho, San Pablo, and Gualdn), the interior of El Salvador (Laguna Guija and San José del Sacare), and the interior of Honduras (Monte Redondo, Comayaguela, Cerro Cantoral, San Sept. 15, 1944 Lorenzo, Montafia Vasquez, Hatillo, Canta- rranas, and La Flor Archaga). Specimens examined.—Guatemala (Gualan, 5: San Pablo, 1; El Rancho, 9; Progreso, 4; Marajuma, 1). El Salvador (Lake Guija, 3; San José del Sacare, 1). Honduras (Monte Redondo, 8; Comayaguela, 2; La Flor Archaga, 5; San Lorenzo, 3; Hatillo, 2; Montafia Vas- quez, 1; Cerro Cantoral, 1). Total 46. Polioptila albiloris bairdi Ridgway Polioptila bairdi Ridgway, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington 16: 110. Sept. 30, 1903 (original de- scription; San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, type in U. S. National Museum; Costa Rica); U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 726. 1904 (Realejo, Grenada, Sucuy4, and San Juan del Sur, Nic- aragua; Liberia, Voledn de Miravalles, and Cartago [?], Costa Rica; description; measure- ments; bibliography).—Carriker, Ann. Car- negie Mus. 6: 751. 1910 (Bagaces, Miravalles, Bebedero, and Ciruelas, Costa Rica). Polioptila bilineata bairdi van Rossem, Auk 48: 35, part. 1931 (Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and El Salvador; criticism; characters; measurements; seasonal changes).—Dick- ey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 23: 461, part. 1938 (Lake Olomega, Rio San Miguel, Voledn de San Miguel, La Unién, Volcdn de Conchagua, Rio Goascorén, Divisadero, Puerto del Triunfo, Zapotitdn [?], Barra de Santiago ~ [?], and Colima [?], El Salvador; northwest- ern Costa Rica; criticism; plumages; color of soft. parts; habits; food). Polioptila plumbea bairdi Hellmayr, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 13, pt. 7: 505, part. 1934 (La Unién, El Salvador; Nicaragua; Bebedero, Bagaces, Las Cajias, and Miravalles, Costa Rica; criticism; bibliography). Polioptila albiloris [nec Sclater and Salvin] Baird, Review Amer. Birds, p. 70. 1864 (Grenada and Realejo, Nicaragua; west coast of Central America).—Ridgway, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Realejo, Nicaragua; criti- cism).—Nutting, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 6: 373. 1883 (San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua).— Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, part. 1885 (La Unién, El Salvador).—Ridgway, Man. North Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 (Salvador; Nicaragua).—Zeledén, Anal. Mus. Nac. Costa Rica 1: 105. 1887 (Liberia and Cartago [?], Costa Rica).—Herrera, Natura- leza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (Nicaragua).— Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, part. 1903 (Nicaragua; Miravalles, Costa Rica). Polioptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7, part. 1980 (north- west Costa Rica; western Nicaragua; criti- cism). Polioptila albiloris albiloris Zimmer, Amer. BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 315 Mus. Nov., No. 1168::1, 2, 6, part. 1942 (Matagalpa, Leén, Calabasas, Volcdn de Chinandega, 4 miles north of Chinandega, San Rafael del Norte, Corinto, and Savana Grande, Nicaragua; Bebedero, Las Cafias, and Bagaces, Costa Rica; criticism; meas- urements). Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, part. 1879 (La Uni6én, E. Salvador).—Nutting, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 6: 380, part. 1883 (Sucuyd, Nicaragua).—Sharpe, Handlist 3: 242, part. 1901 (Central America). Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Salvin and God- man, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, part. 1879 (La Unién, El Salvador).—Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 447, part. 1885 (La Unién).—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (San Salvador).—Sharpe, Hand-list 3: 241, part. 1901 (Salvador).—Ridgway, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 729, part. 1904 (Pa- cific coast of Central America). Polioptila nigriceps mnigriceps Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 25, part. 1903 (San Salva- dor; Bebedero, Costa Rica); in Wytsman, Genera Avium, pt. 17: 17, part. 1911 (Salvador). Polioptila leucogastra [nec Wied] Ridgway, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, 388, part. 1882 (Gre- nada, Nicaragua). Poltoptila nigriceps restricta [nec Brewster] Hell- mayr, Nov. Zool. 7: 536-538. 1900 ([Bebedero,] Costa Rica). Polioptila restrica Sharpe, Hand-list 3: 241, part. 1901 (Costa Rica?). . Taterior Salvador Coast Hicare, Guatemala Bondures : EL Salvador Costa Rica l2¢ u¢é l2¢ 3¢ Fig. 2.—Wing length plus tail length (mm.) in Polioptila albiloris albiloris and P. a. bairdi. Hach Square represents one specimen. 316 Polioptila superciliaris superciliaris [nec Law- rence] Ridgway, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 727, part. 1904 (La Unidn, El Salvador). - Polioptila (2?) Underwood, Ibis, ser. 7, 2: 432. 1895 (Miravalles, Bebedero, and Bagaces, Costa Rica). Characters.—Differs from Polroptila albiloris albiloris only in slightly longer wing and tail. Range.—Pacific lowlands of eastern El Sal- vador (west to the Rio Lempa), Nicaragua, and northwestern Costa Rica (east to the Rfo Tenorio). Remarks.—Zimmer synonymized bairdi with albiloris, since he was unable to find any stable character by which to separate it. Coastal birds tend to have both the wing and the tail longer than those albiloris from the interior, but only slightly more than half of my specimens can be determined by using the measurements of the wing and tail separately. By adding the indi- vidual wing and tail measurements, however, a clear division results. All the males from the coast of El Salvador have a wing-plus-tail measurement of 98.5 mm. or more, whereas JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 that measurement in albiloris from the Mo- tagua Valley of Guatemala is 98.5 mm. or less. Birds from interior El Salvador and interior Honduras are somewhat intermediate, but are closer to albiloris than to the coastal race. The single Nicaraguan specimen examined (the type of baird:) and the few skins from Costa Rica seem to agree fairly well with those from the coast of El Salvador, but the series is not ample enough to demonstrate this conclu- sively. Examination of larger series from south- ern Nicaragua and from Costa Rica, is desir- able, since the possibility exists that Polioptila albiloris albiloris may cross over to the Pacific side in that region, as several other Caribbean forms do. In that event the name bairdi would become a synonym of albiloris, and the coastal birds of El Salvador would need another name. Specimens examined.—El Salvador (Puerto del Triunfo, 1; Voleén de San Miguel, 1; Rio San Migual, 5; Divisadero, 9; Laguna Olomega, 6; Voleén de Conchagua, 2; Rio Goascordén, 1). Nicaragua (San Juan del Sur, 1, type). Costa Rica (Punta Piedra, 5). Total, 31. TasBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MM.) OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS Number Locality Wing Tail Culmen Wing plus tail 30 District Cuicatl4n, Oaxaca...| 48.5-52 (50.0) | 52.5-57.5 (54.7) | 12.5-13 (12.8) | 101 -109.5 (104.7) 39° | Acapulco to Puerto Angel....| 46 -50 (48.5) | 47.5-53.5 (50.5) | 18.5-14 (13.8) 93 .5-103 (99.0) 10¢ Grand Valley, Chiapas...... 48 -52 (50.0) | 48.5-53 (51.4) 18 -14 (13.5) 96.5-105 (101.4) 6c Isthmus of Tehuantepec..... 47 .5-50.5 (49.4) | 47 -50.5 (48.6) | 13 -14 (18.4) 95.5-101 (98.0) 90 District Tonal4, Chiapas....| 47 -51 (49.1) | 48 -51.5 (49.8) | 13.5-15 (14.4) 97 -101 (98.6) 120 Motagua Valley, Guatemala.| 47.5-49.5 (48.6) | 44.5-49.5 (47.5) | 13.5-14 (13.8) 92.5- 98.5 (96.1) 18¢ Interior Salvador, Honduras.| 48 —51 (49.3) | 44.5-50 (48.0) 12.8-15 (13.5) 93 -100.5 (97.3) 1440 Coast of El Salvador........ 49 -51 (50.1) | 48.5~-51 (49.7) | 12.5-14.5 (13.9) 98 ~-102 (99.8) 4c Nicaragua, Costa Rica...... 49.5-52.5 (50.7) | 46.5-48.5 (47.6) | 14 -14.5 (14.2) 97 .5-101 (98.7) 8c Vicatamy secu nrye ee rnc 44.5-48 (46.8) | 45.5-50.5 (48.6) | 12 -14 (13.1) 90 -98 (95.4) 19 District Cuicatl4n, Oaxaca... 49 51.5 2 100.5 19 Acapulco, Guerrero......... 46 48.5 12.5 94.5 6 2 Grand Valley, Chiapas...... 46 -49.5 (47.8) | 47.5-50.5 (49.3) | 13 -14 (138.5) 93 .5-— 99 (97.1) 62 Isthmus of Tehuantepec..... 45.5-49 (47.6) | 47 -50 (48.2) | 12.5-13.5 (13.1) 93 - 98.5 (95.6) 49 District Tonal4, Chiapas....| 46 -49 (47.3) | 47 -51.5 (48.4) | 18.5-14.5 (14.1) 93.5-100.5 (95.6) Fe) Motagua Valley, Guatemala.| 45.5-49 (47.1) | 45.5-48 (46.6) | 13.5-14 (13.6) 91.5- 95 (93 .6) 7@ Interior Hondunask. a. 4.6 45.5-51 (47.7) | 45 -48.5 (46.3) | 12 -14.5 (13.3) 91-97 (94.0) 10 9 Coast of El Salvador........ 47 -—52.5 (48.2) | 44.5-50 (47.7) | 18 -14 (13.4) 91.5-102.5 (95.9) 22 Costashicar mer ess ee 47 -48.5 (47.8) | 46.5-47.5 (47.0) | 18 -14.5 (13.8) 94 .5-95 (94.8) 49 WAICAPAM: cc Wit. chickens ore prcne 45.5-47.5 (46.3) | 48.5-49 (48.8) | 12.8-13.5 (13.2) 94 —- 96 (95.0) TABLE 2.—PROPORTIONS (PERCENT) IN POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS Number Locality Wing /Tail Culmen/Tail 49°9 District) Curcatlany Oaxacan ici tonierete rs 90.4— 95.1 (92.4) 22.6-24.8 (23.7) 43°99 Acapuleo toebuerto, Angel... rc. eee ee 92.5- 99.0 (95.8) - 25.8-28.4 (27.0) 160° 2 GrandsVialleya Chiapassseein eee aie ilercir rele 92.1-100.0 (97.1) 25.0-28.3 (26.7) 120° 9 Isthmus of Tehuantepec. .....--..25..---+4--- 95.8-106.4 (100.2) 26.7-28.1 (27.3) 130° Q Districh:honala Chiapas. suens eee aeons 93 .2-103.1 (98.0) 27 .0-33.3 (29.3) 200° 9 Motagua Valley, Guatemala................... 97.0-107.9 (101.9) 27.3-31.5 (29.3) 250 2 Interior Salvador, Honduras. w................-. 96.0-110.9 (102.9) 26.1-32.3 (28.3) 240° 9 Coastiof Mi salvadors. 24 oe co nete erator erin 96.0-105.6 (100.9) 25.0-30.3 (28.0) 60°92 INicaracua Costa ican 6. io eke ene bt or 98.9-108.2 (104.0) 27.4-31.2 (29.7) 120° 9 PYALCATAM § screw hiss Ree Se ete = Cee ES secre errr tear 92.9- 98.9 (97.5) 24.0-28.6 (26.9) Awrnnorotocy.—The De De Lana Bsoeiion nd ee Re ee —A new a comatulid from arma ae ee BOARD OF EDITORS ss Lzwis V. 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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. a OFFICERS OF THB ACADEMY President: CLEMENT L. Garner, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Secretary: FERDINAND G. BrRICKWEDDB, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappuiere, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NaTHAN R. Smiru, Bureau of Plant Industry. : Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Surzuur, U.S. National Museum. - JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 ANTHROPOLOGY.—Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. OcTOBER 15, 1944 No. 10 T. D. Stewart, U. S. National Museum, and P. F. Tirrerineton, St. Louis, Mo. Evidence that tooth mutilation was prac- ticed by the American Indians has been found mainly in parts of Middle America and in Ecuador in South America. Inlay was practiced in both of these areas, but filing seems to have been restricted chiefly to Middle America (Linné, 1940). With the importation of Negroes in historic times the African custom of chipping the teeth was superimposed to some extent upon the native practice and certainly was intro- duced into parts of Middle and South America formerly free from any form of dental mutilation (Stewart, 1942). North of Mexico there has been hereto- fore no very certain evidence for, and much negative evidence against, the existence of the custom. Although thousands of skulls * from North America have been the subject of general study, only one, so far as we can discover, has been described in print as having filed teeth. This exceptional speci- men is from the Pueblo region of Arizona. The description of it is contained in a foot- note in which Saville (1913, p. 378) defends a statement attributed to him by Lasch (1901) to the effect that the custom could be traced from the Pueblo region to south- ern Central America: ‘‘Regarding the Pueblo region, I made the statement after having photographed a skull found by Dr. Fewkes at Sikyatki, Arizona, a study of which seems to me clearly to indicate single serrations in at least three of the upper incisors and in the lower right lateral in- cisor.”’ Unfortunately, Saville did not re- produce the photograph of these teeth, and 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of ae onan Institution. Received June 9, it cannot now be located. The skull, cata- logued in the U. S. National Museum as no. 156319,? in the meantime has been sent in exchange to the Museum of South Aus- tralia. For the present, therefore, all that can be said is that Saville’s description of the mutilation pattern in this specimen is too vague to permit identification with any of those from Middle America with which we are familiar. In spite of this seeming rarity of dental mutilation in North America, many anthro- pologists probably will not be surprised to learn that undoubted examples now have been found in the Mississippi Valley, be- cause they have become increasingly aware of indications of late prehistoric contact be- tween our Southeast and Mexico (cf. Phil- lips, 1940). The new specimens are four in number and come from a small area within a radius of 40 miles of St. Louis, Mo. These specimens will be described not in the order of their recovery but in the order in which the mutilation was recognized. DESCRIPTION Jersey County bluff skeleton —The first specimen wasexcavatedbyoneofus(P.F.T.) in 1935 in a Jersey County bluff mound located 18 miles above the mouth of the Illinois River and designated as number 12 (Titterington, 1935; fig. on p. 11 and pl. 1, fig. 1). The skeleton, being the fifth en- countered in this mound,’ was designated Jy°12-5. It was discovered extended on the back at a depth of 2 feet, and 43 feet from 2 The identification of the skull is based on a note made by Hrdlitka years ago when he meas- ured it. ‘Filing of ail incisors.” 3 A disturbed area contained fragmentary bones of at least three additional individuals. 317 318 the north end of the mound. No artifacts accompanied this burial, but mussel shell spoons, bone awls (split tibia of deer, leg bone of turkey), and a corner notched white flint knife were found with the other burials. From the time of excavation until the den- tal mutilation was recognized recently by one of us (IT. D. 8.) there seemed to be nothing, except perhaps burial position and light bone color, to distinguish this individ- ual from others of the same and adjacent mounds. Extended burials are rather un- common in these mounds, having been ob- served in only 5 per cent of 852 burials (Titterington, 1943). Curiously, all but one of the five burials in mound 12 were found lying on the back or side, either fully ex- tended or with the knees slightly flexed. The lighter color and perhaps softer texture of skeleton no. 5 are of doubtful significance and under ordinary circumstances would not have merited attention; they are such as are sometimes seen resulting from pecu- liarities in soil and drainage. This individual is a male and about 25 years of age. The age can be fixed fairly closely by the fact that the epiphyses of the iliac crest and ischial tuberosity are united, whereas the proximal epiphysis of the clavicle is still ununited. Also, the symphy- sis Shows the characteristic billowing of this age. 7 The tooth mutilation exhibited by this young male (Fig. 1, A) consists of six A- shaped grooves or notches: two in the oc- clusal edge of each upper median incisor and one in each upper lateral incisor. The remaining upper teeth and all the lower teeth are not involved. The notches are not very deep but originally may have been deeper because about a millimeter of the occlusal edge has disappeared through at- trition. In most skull measurements no. 5 is above the average of the Jersey County bluff group, and yet well within the group range (57 males). The group as a whole, in- cluding this specimen, is rather low in. variability. The ratios between the skull measurements, likewise within the group range, are reasonably close to the group averages, aS Shown by the following figures: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 10 Index No. & Male Average Range Cranial Wot 75.5 (57) 69.6- 81.6 Mean height 89.9 88.5 (55) 82.0- 95.5 Upper facial 52.8 54.2 (55) 46.4— 61.9 Orbital 94.9 87.7 (57) 72.5-— 98.6 Nasal 47.2 49.1 (57) 42.4— 56.9 External alv. 130.2 122.5 (46) 110.2-134.0 The fact that no. 5 has a rounder orbit and shorter palate is probably not significant in the sense of a true group difference. Cahokia isolated tooth.The single median incisor next to be described (Fig. 1, F, G) was picked up either by P. F. Titterington or by the late M. A. Wurtheimer in October, 1925, on the surface of a village site three- fourths of a mile west of Monk’s Mound (Cahokia) in East St. Louis, Ill. When we examined this tooth together in 1943, but before the mutilation in the foregoing speci- men was recognized, we did not appreciate its full significance. It was difficult at that time to make the correct interpretation owing to several factors that will be de- scribed. Much of the enamel had been lost postmortem, and in addition there had been extensive antemortem wear of the occlusal edge. These alterations in the enamel so changed the appearance of the tooth that we were uncertain whether it was an incisor or canine, human or animal. Moreover, the nature of the markings on the remaining enamel surface also influenced our opinion. . These consisted of a transverse groove on the labial surface and four A-shaped notches in the occlusal edge (the outermost notches being incomplete now due to loss of enamel). As far as we know, a transverse groove has not been described heretofore in the West- ern Hemisphere.* Thus we were inclined earlier, upon cursory examination, to regard the markings on this tooth as an example of postextractional decoration. This inter- pretation was dispelled upon subsequent study when we decided that the tooth is really a human upper median incisor and that the markings show a polishing that could have been acquired only during life. Cahokia compound burial—In January, 1944, one of us (P. F. T.) acquired some 4 Dr. Gordon Willey tells us that a skull with a transverse groove on the labial surface of each median incisor was found in a Lamar culture site near Macon, Ga. Efforts to secure this skull for examination have been unsuccessful thus far. Oct. 15, 1944 loose human teeth from two men, Joe Walta and Gregory Perino, who in the fall of 1943 had found a compound burial, at a depth of 3 feet, several hundred yards east of Monk’s Mound. The skeletal material is said to have been in poor condition and only the better preserved teeth from a few of the skulls were saved. Upon cleaning these teeth notches were observed in three, but no sig- nificance was attached thereto by the dis- coverers. The only recovered cultural ob- ject associated with this burial is a small, rough, 3-notched arrowhead. The three filed teeth—upper median in- cisors and upper right lateral incisor—were found upon close examination to have large facets of wear resulting from the rubbing together of the teeth at the points of their proximal contact. From the appearance of these facets it was possible to reestablish the original relationships of all three teeth (Fig. 1, D, E), and to demonstrate that they belonged to one individual. In the same way an unfiled right upper canine was found to articulate with the lateral incisor. No other teeth belonging to this individual could be definitely identified. As thus revealed, the mutilation pattern consists of three A-shaped notches in the occlusal edge of each upper median incisor _ and two in each (probably) lateral incisor. The notches are very shallow and involve only the enamel of the labial surface. Wear of the occlusal edge has reached the point of dentin exposure and is irregular owing to a slight malocclusion (rotation of median in- cisors). These facts suggest that the filing was done after attrition was well under way. Grindell skull.—The last example of filed teeth, which has come to our attention since the first of the year, was obtained by one of us (P. F. T.) from the collection of J. C. Grindell. In this case the whole skull was recovered and is known to be part of an extended burial, one of some 16, exposed in 1937 by Gregory Perino at the base of a bluff 8 miles south of the Cahokia Mound group. The scanty cultural material found in association with these burials (barrel- shaped shell beads, cord-impressed grit- tempered sherd) are not diagnostic as to period. : STEWART AND TITTERINGTON: FILED INDIAN TEETH 319 The sex of this individual can not be de- termined with certainty from the skull alone. Supraorbital ridges are almost com- pletely absent, the orbital margins are sharp, and the occiput lacks muscle ridges— all female characters. On the other hand, the lower jaw is well developed and has a Square chin, as in a male. The sutures of the vault are still open and the teeth are only moderately worn. This indicates an early adult age period. The dental mutilation consists of three small A-shaped notches in the occlusal edge of each upper medial incisor (Fig. 1, B, C). The other teeth are not involved. Of the three notches on each of the two mutilated teeth, the one farthest to the right 1s largest and most distinct. As in the preceding cases only the labial surface of the enamel is involved. An indication of the physical type of this skull may be gained from the following in- dices derived from the cranial measure- ments and compared with the Jersey County bluff females: Grindeil Female OEE skull average wonge Cranial 79.9 75.9 (52) 69.9-— 84.3 Mean height 84.3 88.7 (49) 83.2-— 94.7 Upper facial 56.1 55.5 (47) 48 .5- 61.4 Orbital 92.1 89.1 (51) 80.0-— 98.6 Nasal 46.9 51.0 (53) 43 .1-— 60.9 External alv. 118.2 118.7 (36) 105 .6-132.6 DISCUSSION The four examples of tooth filing from Illinois here reported, together with the two other cases about which we have indirect knowledge—from Arizona and Georgia— have one thing in common: a late prehis- toric age. The specimens from near St. Louis most probably relate to the Middle Mississippi cultural period, “‘the last phase of the pre-Columbian history of the Mis- sissippi Valley, say roughly the interval between 1400 and 1700 A.D.” (Phillips, 1940, p. 365). In general the Cahokia mound site belongs to this period, whereas the Jersey County bluff focus exhibits about equal numbers of Woodland and Middle Mississippi cultural traits (see McKern’s allocation in Titterington, 1943). The speci- men reported to have been found near 320 Macon, Ga., is attributed to the Lamar period of which Ford and Willey (1941, p. 351) say: “This was probably well formed and had taken over the southeastern area, submerging the earlier Middle Mississippi culture, by 1600.” Similarly, Sikyatki in northern Arizona, while not yet accurately dated, is generally regarded as belonging to the Pueblo IV period, which extended from about 1250 to 1700 (Roberts, 1937). As already indicated, evidence has been accumulating that certain cultural traits attributed to the Middle Mississippi period seem to have been derived more or less directly from Mexico (Phillips, 1940). Since tooth mutilation is a good Middle American trait, the finding in Illinois of the first specimen described above suggested to one of us (T. D. 8.) that here was an actual bearer of this culture. How other- wise than by visiting a place where tooth mutilation was practiced could an Indian in these early times have learned about and had his own teeth filed? From this assump- tion it seemed logical to conclude that, since this individual was of the same physical type as the Jersey County bluff people among whom he was buried, he must have been a local Indian who had traveled as far south at least as Mexico. -The subsequent finding of three more ex- amples of tooth mutilation nearby changes this picture and indicates the danger in generalizing from insufficient information. It now seems possible that the custom was even more common and perhaps widespread in our country than we have detected. This being the case, we can not say that any one of these individuals bore the custom in his own teeth from Middle America, and it is more unlikely that all had made the trip. That there can be little doubt as to Mexico or Central America being the source from which our Indians derived the custom is Shown by the details of the mutilation. The same pattern of notches as exhibited by the Jersey County bluff specimen (1-2-2-1; or according to Rubin de la Borbolla’s classification: A-C-C-A) has been illustrated by Rubin de la Borbolla (1940, pl. 1c), Strebel (1885, pl. 8, no. 18), and Stewart (1941, pl. 1, D) with specimens JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10° from Mexico (States of Michoac4n and Veracruz) and Honduras, respectively. Quite likely a thorough search of the litera- ture would reveal still other such illustra- ticns, for, judged from descriptions of iso- lated teeth, this pattern seems to have been used quite frequently. Teeth with three notches are also well known from Middle America (Rubin de la Borbolla, 1940) but their arrangement in patterns, such as that exhibited by the second Cahokia specimen (2-3-3-2, or C-D-D-C), does not seem to have been de- scribed. The first Cahokia specimen, which is an isolated tooth, and also the reported Lamar specimen (see footnote 4), exhibit pattern elements that appear to be new. In Bor- bolla’s summary of dental mutilations neither four notches in a single tooth nor a transverse groove is mentioned. This may indicate that the custom had already been present in this country long enough to have acquired variations. On the other hand it may mean merely that distance and a new setting had released the original custom from its habitual limitations. It is hoped that this report will stimulate others in possession of cranial collections from Middle Mississippi sites to look for further examples of this trait. LITERATURE CITED Forp, J. A., and WiLLEY, Gordon R. An in- terpretation of the prehistory of the eastern United States. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 43: 325-363. 1941. Lascu, Ricuarp. Die Verstiimmlung der ZLahne in Amerika und Bemerkungen zur Zahndeformierung im Allgemeinen. Mitth. anthrop. Ges. Wien 31: 18-22. 1901. Linnt, 8. Dental decoration in aboriginal America. Ethnos5 (1-2): 1-28. 1940. PuILuips, Pottip. Middle American influences on the archaeology of the southeastern United States. Chap. 26: 349-367, in “The Maya and Their Neighbors.’’ New York, 1940. RoBErtTs, FRANK H.H. Jr. Archaeology in the Southwest. Amer. Antiq. 3: 3-33. 1937. RUBIN DE LA Borspouua, D. F. Types of tooth mutilation found in Mexico. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop. 26: 349-365. 1940. SAVILLE, MarsHatt H. Precolumbian deco- ration of the teeth in Ecuador with some ac- count of the occurrence of the custom in other Fig. 1.—Four cases of filed Indian teeth from Illinois: A, Jersey County bluff skull; B and C, Grindell skull; D and E, Cahokia compound burial; F and G, Cahokia isolated tooth. Except for the first specimen, both labial and lingual views are given. Slightly enlarged. | mie Ba ee vas h re Ocr. 15, 1944 parts of North and South America. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 15: 377-394. 1913. STewarT, T. D. New examples of tooth mutila- tion from Middle America. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop. 28: 117-124. 1941. —.. Persistence of the African type of tooth pointing in Panama. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 44: 328-330. 1942. CAMPBELL: A SKULL FROM ARIZONA 321 STREBEL, Hermann. Alt-Mexiko. Archdo- logische Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte seiner Bewohner. WUamburg and Leipzig, 1885. TITTERINGTON, P. F. Certain bluff mounds of western Jersey County, Illinois. Amer. Antiq. 1: 6-46. 1935. —. The Jersey County, Illinois, bluff fo- cus. Amer. Antiq. 9: 240-245. 1943. ANTHROPOLOGY .—The dental condition of a skull from the Sikyatki site, Ari- zona.) T. D. STEWART.) The deformed male skull, the teeth of which here are being described, is unique, inasmuch as it is the only known example of artificial tooth mutilation from the south- western part of the United States. This specimen, from the Pueblo region of Arizona (Sikyatki site), reached the South Aus- tralian Museum through exchange with the U.S. National Museum in 1931, and bears the latter’s no. 156319. -General.—Upper jaw and mandible intact. 87654321/1234567. 87654321/1234567. The upper left third molar appears either to have been lost for some time or never to Teeth present: 1 Received August 1, 1944. T. D. CAMPBELL, South Australian Museum. (Communicated by have erupted (no X-ray confirmation made of this). The lower left third molar has been lost postmortem, the socket being quite apparent. Many of the teeth in both arches have lost a portion of their crown énamel, which has chipped off postmortem. In the upper first and second molars on both sides, this condition is fairly marked. The three lower right molars also have lost appreciable amounts of their enamel. Upper and lower incisors have been similarly affected. Caries.—The only teeth present showing | 6 any indication of dental caries are ale, which present very small (pinhead) cavities on the cervical region of their distal enamel surface. Fig. 1.—Anterior view of mandible showing obvious filing on 21]; slight filing on |2 ; not apparent on |1. 322 Attrition.—Practically all the teeth pres- ent, except the third molars, show definite wear of the occlusal surface. Most of them approximate stage II (Broca), that is, show suficient wear of enamel to expose the cuspal eminences of the dentine. This con- dition of wear also definitely includes the incisors and cuspids, both upper and lower. Alveolar process margins.—There appears to have been some minor degree of absorp- tion of the peridental alveolar crest during life; but in places further loss has taken place postmortem. Filing of teeth.—This artificially made condition involves both upper and lower four incisors. Without other specimens with this form of mutilation for comparison, it is suggested that the filing has not been car- ried out to any appreciable depth unless attrition has reduced the original effect. In the case of the upper incisors the filed condition is obliterated to some extent on zh + by postmortem loss of the labial surface enamel. It is considered so much so JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 10 that a photograph of these upper teeth would be useless. In general, it-may be said that the depth of filing in the form of a small narrow V-shaped notch (formed by labiolingual filing across the incisal edge) on all the incisors is, at the most, not more than 1 mm in depth. The file notches are evident only on the labial and lingual enamel, as the incisal edges have been worn to flat surfaces with exposed dentine show- ing inside the ring of enamel. This latter point suggests that possibly the filing was done well before adulthood, or before at- trition had obliterated the incisal edges of the teeth concerned. If this be so, the V notch was probably much deeper than seen on this specimen. Other examples should confirm this, or otherwise. The dental condition of this specimen does not present any other features of special interest requiring description for present purposes. Fig. 1 shows an anterior view of the man- dible. Filing is quite obvious on 21]; very slight on |2 ; on |1 not apparent. BOTAN Y.—Descriptions and revisions of several species of viruses in the genera Marmor, Fractilinea, and Galla.? H. H. McKinney, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Several species and varieties of viruses infecting cereal and forage grasses are herein described and named. The descrip- tion of the wheat mosaic-rosette virus is emended. The description of the tobacco ring-spot virus is emended, and the species is transferred to the genus Marmor Holmes emend. McKinney (14). The virus inducing mild dark-green mosaic in tobacco is de- scribed and named. The viruses infecting cereal grasses in Russia and Siberia are placed in the genus Fractilnea McKinney (14), because they induce chlorotic mottling and streaking re- actions that are almost identical with the reactions induced by the grass-mosaic viruses, and they are transmitted by leaf- hoppers or by planthoppers. It is not en- tirely clear that the necrosis referred to by some writers in the U.S.S.R. is associated chiefly with the phloem as some writers 1 Received April 4, 1944. state that there is necrosis in the paren- chyma. The grass mosaics occurring in the U.S.8.R. seem to be sufficiently distinct in their transmission and other characteristics to justify specific ranks in each case. The wheat-mosaic viruses reported from Japan seem to be very similar to the soil inhabiting wheat-mosaic viruses occurring east of the Mississippi River in the United States, and no attempt is made to separate them at present. The rosette expression has not been positively identified with the viruses occurring in Japan, but it is possible that none of the wheat varieties used in the Japanese tests carry genetic factors for the rosette expression. ; The virus inducing the wallaby-ear dis- ease of corn (maize) is placed in the genus Galla Holmes as redefined by McKinney (14). Each virus species is designated as a bi- nomial, and the description embraces only characteristics that are common to all the Ocr. 15, 1944 recognized forms included under it. In all cases in which subdivisions of a species are recognized, the name var. typicus is given to the form on which the species was orig- inally based or which is selected as the typi- cal form in case the species as originally described included more than one form. This procedure is in accord with that followed by several students of the flowering plants, in- cluding Croizat (1) and Ley (6). The de- scription of the species may require emen- dation from time to time as new strains and closely related species are described, as it is not possible to foretell what characters may differentiate undiscovered strains. All the strains described are accorded the rank of variety. All these have been isolated with comparative ease from diseased plants growing under field culture conditions. As further study may indicate that some of these strains, or possibly some of the spe- cies, should be placed at higher or at lower levels in the scheme, the changes may be made in accordance with the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature. Marmor tritici Holmes (2) emend. - Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L. (T. vulgare Vill.), T. compactum Host, T. turgidum L., T. durum Desf., T. spelta L., T. timo- pheevt Zhuk., T. dicoccum Schrank, T. poloni- cum L., T. monococcum L., Hordeum vulgare L., Secale cereale L., and in Bromus commutatus Schrad., induces chlorotic streaking and mot- tling in varying degrees from slight to severe. Optimum experimental conditions for expres- sion of disease reactions near 15.6° C. with a daily photoperiod near 8 hours. Induces vacuo- lar cell inclusions associated with cells of the epidermis, mesophyll and phloem parenchyma. Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Bromus inermis Leyss., Avena sativa L., A. byzantina C. Koch, Zea mays L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Lycopersi- con esculentum Mill., Cucumis sativus L., and Phaseolus vulgaris L. are immune or highly resistant. Transmission: By inoculation with expressed juice, using needle pricks in the bases of small seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- od, but with difficulty. In nature virus over- seasons in soil, more especially soils of heavy texture; natural infection in fall-grown winter MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 323 annuals and in certain fall-sown spring annuals that survive mild winters. Infection rare in spring-sown suscepts and in winter wheats that emerge in spring when sown very late in autumn. Insect vector not known, but some soil in- habiting vector is suspected, as no infection has occurred in plants grown in sterilized soil to which was added ample quantities of virus- infested plant tissue. Wheat plants grown in sterilized soil in containers located in infested areas during the entire natural growing season have never developed mosaic. Mutation: Mutation has not been proved, but it is suspected. However, it appears that interference (antagonism) between the type virus and its presumed strains is of a low order as the strains have been isolated by methods that would fail to isolate the mutants of other viruses that manifest a high degree of uni- lateral interference. Physical properties: Inactivated in 6 to 14 days at room temperatures in leaf tissue col- lected fresh, clipped in short pieces and al- lowed to dry. Heavily infested soil was ren- dered noninfectious when drenched with a solu- tion of 1 part formalin in 49 parts of water, also when heated in a moist condition for 10 min- utes at temperatures near 60° C. and above; when diluted with 31 parts of noninfectious soil, infection in wheat was reduced from 98 percent in the control to 5.3 percent. Marmor tritici var. typicum, var. nov. Wheat virus 1 McKinney (10); Triticum virus 1 Smith (20); Marmor tritict Holmes (2). Common name: Wheat mosaic-rosette virus. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen and a few other varieties of winter wheat, virus induces mild green mosaic, bud proliferation, rosetting, and dwarfing; in most varieties of 7’. aestivwm and in other sus- cepts, induces mosaic ranging from mild green to severe yellow types. It has not been possible to maintain this virus indefinitely in manually inoculated wheat plants cultured under apparently opti- mum conditions in chambers. The infection rate has gradually decreased until none ob- tained, and it became necessary to make new isolations from time to time from naturally infected plants in the field. 324 Distribution: Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina; possibly Japan. Marmor tritici var. fulvum, var. nov. Wheat virus 3 McKinney (10). Common name: Prairie wheat yellow-mosaic virus. Varietal name from L., fulvws, deep yellow. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. — Harvest Queen and in other suscepts, induces yellowish-green to yellow mosaic; severe stunt- ing, leaf rolling, and death in highly suscepti- ble hosts, but no systemic necrosis or rosette. It has not been possible to maintain this virus indefinitely in manually inoculated wheat plants cultured under apparently optimum conditions in chambers. The infection rate has gradually decreased until none obtained, and it became necessary to make new isolations from time to time from plants infected in the field. Distribution: Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina; possibly Japan. References to literature: (2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20528, 29; 30; 31/32). Marmor campestre, sp. nov. Specific name from Latin, campester, adj., dwelling on open plains. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L., T. spelta L., T. tumopheevt Zhuk., and in Hordeum vulgare L., induces chlorotic mottling and streaking; no proliferation or rosetting. Opti- mum conditions for expression of disease reac- tions near 15.6° C. with a daily photoperiod near 8 hours, induces vesicular cell inclusions. Avena sata L., Bromus inermis Leyss., Agro- pyron repens (L.) Beauv., Zea mays L., Nico- tiana tabacum L., Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., Cucumis sativus L., and Phaseolus vul- garis L., are immune or highly resistant. Transmission: By inoculation with expressed juice, using needle pricks in the bases of small seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- od, but with difficulty; overseasoning in soil not known; no insect vectors known. © Mutation: Mutation has not been proved, but it is suspected. However, it appears that interference (antagonism) between the type virus and its presumed strains is of a low order as the strains have been isolated by methods that would fail to isolate the mutants of other JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 10 viruses that manifest a high degree of inter- ference. Physical properties: Inactivated in about 7 months in leaf tissue at temperatures near —17° C. Marmor campestre var. typicum, var. nov. Wheat virus 4 McKinney (10). Common name: Plain’s wheat green-mosaic virus. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum vars. Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces light-green mosaic and stunting. It has not been possible to maintain this virus indefinitely in manually inoculated wheat plants cultured under apparently optimum con- ditions in chambers. The infection rate has gradually decreased until no infection occurred, and it became necessary to make new isolations from time to time from plants infected in the field. Distribution: Riley County, Kansas. Marmor campestre var. galbinum, var. nov. Wheat virus 5 McKinney (10). Common name: Plain’s wheat yellow-mosaic virus. Varietal name from Latin, galbinus, adj., yellowish green, yellowish. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum vars. Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces severe yel- low mosaic, sometimes yellow streaking, stunt- ing, and sometimes killing. This virus has been maintained in manually inoculated plants without difficulty under opti- mum conditions, but not under the high- temperature conditions obtaining during the summer period. Distribution: Riley County, Kansas. Reference to literature: (10). Marmor virgatum, sp. nov. Specific name from Latin, virgatus, adj., striped. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L., T. -timopheevi Zhuk., T. turgidum L., T. durum Desf., T. spelta L., T. dicoccwm Schrank, T. polonicum L., T. monococcum L., Hordeum vul- gare L., Avena byzantina C. Koch, A. sativa L., A. sativa var. orientalis (Schreb.) Alef., A. brevis Roth, A. strigosa Schreb., and Zea mays L., induces chlorotic mottling and streaking (con- Oct. 15, 1944 tinuous and broken); dwarfing of plant, but - not necrosis, proliferation, or rosetting; induces vesicular cell inclusions. Disease reactions ex- pressed over a relatively wide range of tempera- tures, from 15.6° C. to summer temperatures, apparently depending largely on the optimum requirements for the hosts. In Zea mays var. Golden Giant sugar, the incubation period ranges from 6 to 22 days; infection has not oc- curred in more than 50 percent of the seedlings when the best known methods were used, 1.e., young seedlings inoculated before the third leaf exceeds 2.5 cm in length, with fresh virus ob- tained from young infected wheat leaves. Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Poa pratensis L., P. compressa L., Bromus inermis Leyss., Secale cereale L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Cucumis sativus L., and Phaseolus vulgaris L., are either immune or very resistant. Transmission: By incoulation with expressed juice, readily in most hosts by wiping carbo- -rundum dusted leaves of young seedlings, but difficult in Zea mays; overseasoning in soil null; insect vectors not known: Physical properties: Inactivated in plant juice near 55° C. in 10 minutes; after about 7 months in tissue frozen near —17° C. in dry tissue after 34 to 40 days at room temperature; dilution-end-point near 5,000 x. Marmor virgatum var. typicum, var. nov. Wheat virus 7 McKinney (10). Common name: Wheat yellow streak-mosaic. Host reaction: In Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces yellow streaks, continuous or broken; especially severe in Victoria and White Tartar varieties of oats, and in Hard Federation and Kawvale varieties of wheat. Seems to be the predominat- ing type in wheatfields infested with this species. This virus has been maintained in manually inoculated wheat plants cultured over a wide range of conditions. Distribution: Saline and Riley Counties, Kansas. Marmor virgatum var. viride, var. nov. Wheat virus 6 McKinney (10). Common name: Wheat green streak-mosaic virus. Varietal name from Latin, viridis, green. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 325 Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces light-green streaks, continuous or broken, and wide longi- tudinal bands; in Kawvale wheat symptoms are similar to those induced by var. typicum, there- fore, this wheat is not a good differential host for the two viruses. In Zea mays var. Golden Giant sugar, the reactions are practically in- distinguishable from those induced by var. typicum. The virus has been maintained in manually inoculated wheat plants cultured over a wide range of conditions. Distribution: Saline and Riley Counties, Kansas. Reference to literature: (10). Marmor graminis, sp. nov. Common name: Brome-mosaic virus. Host reactions: In Bromus inermis Leyss., Triticum aestivum L., Hordeum vulgare I.., Secale cereale L., Avena sativa L., var. orventalis Schreb., A. byzantina C. Koch, Sorghum vulgare Pers., Euchlaena mexicana Schrad., E. perennis Hitche., Zea mays L., induces light- green to yellow mottling and streaking; no bud proliferation or rosetting. In Euchlaena mexi- cana, certain collections of HE. perennis, and in Zea mays, induces local and systemic necrosis and death. In Zea mays var. Golden Giant sugar, the incubation period is from 36 to 40 hours for local lesions, and from 52 to 70 hours for systemic symptoms at high summer tem- peratures in the greenhouse. All seedlings be- come infected and die within a few days when inoculation is done by the best known methods. Increase of natural resistance with the aging of the corn plants is very marked. Buchloé dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm., Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees., E. trichodes (Nutt.) Nash, and Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. and Schult.) Ricker, are “symptomless” carriers at tem- peratures near 21° C. during the winter. In Phaseolus vulgaris L., var. Scotia, virus induces small inconspicuous brown local lesions; in Cucumis sativus L., var. Early White Spine, and in Nicotiana tabacum L., var. Samsun(Turkish), induces local faintly chlorotic spots on the wiped cotyledons and leaves respectively, and there is a marked increase of virus in each host. This virus has a wide host range, especially among the grasses, and it is easily maintained in pure culture over a wide range of conditions. Saccharum officinarum L., var. Louisiana 326 Purple, Oryza sativa L., and Phaseolus lunatus L., vars. Henderson Bush lima and Jackson Wonder lima are either immune or highly re- sistant. Cellular pathology apparently unlike that induced by other viruses studied in cereal hosts. In unstained, living epidermal cells the inclu- sions are irregularly shaped, transparent, or translucent masses, usually located in the ends of the cells. Transmission: By inoculation with expressed juice from diseased plants, readily by wiping on carborundum-dusted leaves of small seedlings; difficult in older plants. Physical properties: Inactivated in 10 min- utes at temperatures between 79 and 80° C. in juice from infected corn seedlings, after 12 months in dry leaves of Bromus inermis at room temperature; after 14 months at temperatures near —17° C. in juice from B. inermis. Dilu- tion-end-point as high as 100,000 to 300,000 x, using juice from B. inermis and diluting with distilled water. Distribution: Manhattan, Kansas. Reference to literature: (13). Marmor agropyri, sp. nov. Host reactions: In Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. and in Triticum aestivum L., induces chlorotic mottling; no bud proliferation or rosetting. Optimum experimental conditions for expression of disease reactions near 15.6° C. with a daily photoperiod near 8 hours. Induces granular cell inclusions in epidermal cells occa- sionally. Transmission: By inoculation with expressed juice, using needle pricks in bases of small seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- od, but with difficulty. Virus overwinters in the rhizomes. Mutation: Suspected, but interference seems to be of a low order, if it occurs. Marmor agropyri var. typicum, var. nov. Wheat virus 2 McKinney (10). Common name: Agropyron green-mosaic virus. Host reactions: In Agropyron repens and Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen, induces mild-green mosaic that is masked during the summer. } Distribution: Arlington County, Virginia. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10 Marmor agropyri var. flavum, var. nov. Common name: Agropyron yellow-mosaic virus. | | Varietal name Latin, flavus, golden-yellow. Host reactions: In Agropyron repens and Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen, induces yellow mosaic that is very mild during the summer, but not masked. Distribution: Arlington County, Virginia. Coincident with var. typicum, but in separate colonies of the host. Reference to literature: (10). Marmor constans, sp. nov. Tobacco virus 12 Johnson (5); Nicotiana virus 6 Smith (20). | Common Name: Tobacco mild dark-green mosaic virus. Specific name from Latin, constans, adj., fixed, referring to the relatively stable nature of the virus with regard to mutation. Host reactions: In Nicotiana tabacum L., var. Turkish (Samsun) and other commercial vari- eties of tobacco, induces chlorotic-mosaic mot- tling that tends towards a very coarse pattern; in N. glauca R. Grah. (Canary Isl. Col.) pro- nounced chlorotic mosaic mottling. In WN. glutinosa L., N. rustica L., N. sylvestris Spegaz. Comes induces local necrotic lesions when cul- tured near 22° C. In Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Scotia, induces small inconspicuous local necrot- ic lesions when cultured near 33.3° C. In cer- tain collections of N. tabacum from Colombia (derivatives from Ambalema and T.I. 448A), induces only occasional chlorotic spots or no visible reactions, this resistance coinciding with that against Marmor tabaci (Holmes ex Valleau) McKinney. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., and Cucumis sativus L. are immune. In- terference (antagonism) between M. constans and M. tabaci ranges from very low or none to moderate, depending on the host and culture conditions. Transmission: Readily by inoculation with expressed juice; insect vectors not known. Mutation: No positive mutation has been observed in the hundreds of infected plants studied in the greenhouse, but isolates from N. glauca growing in the Canary Islands revealed what appears to be a closely related yellow type. Physical and chemical properties: Inactivated Oct. 15, 1944 near 86° C. in 10 minutes in plant juices; activ- ity not lost completely after 12 years’ storage of dry tissue at room temperatures; dilution end point near 100,000 x; the unit paracrystals of the virus protein at pH 4.5, measure 1.0 to 1.6u in length and 0.4 to 0.5u in width, being about one-fourth to one-half the length of those of Marmor tabaci in comparative tests. Distribution: Islands of Grand Canary and ‘Teneriffe. References to literature: (5, 7, 11, 17, 20, 27). Marmor anularium, nom. nov. Tobacco virus 10 Johnson (5); Nicotiana virus 12 Smith (20); Annulus tabaci var. Vir- giniensis Holmes (2). Common name: Tobacco ring-spot virus. Specific name from Latin, anularius, adj., ringlike, referring to the ring spots induced in certain hosts. Host reactions: In Nicotiana tabacum L., a moderately resistant host, induces acute and chronic reactions that are unusually distinct, especially when infection obtains in the young plants. In the acute phase, the virus induces primary and secondary necrotic lesions and chlorotic ring spots, and sometimes secondary chlorotic-line or oak-leaf patterns. In the chronic phase, the virus induces no striking re- actions at 20° C., and above, but when culture temperatures are near 16° C., certain tobacco varieties, especially Burley types and certain collections from Colombia, 1.e., Ambalema and T.I. 448, manifest mosaic patterns in the young leaves. In Cucumis sativus L., var. Early White Spine, a very susceptible host, the virus in- duces primary necrotic and chlorotic spots, secondary chlorotic spots, and typical mosaic mottling which usually persists throughout the summer growing season. In Phaseolus vulgaris L., especially at high temperatures (33.3° C.), induces local necrotic lesions, systemic necrosis and death. This species has a very wide host range including many legumes. - Transmission: By inoculation with expressed juice, readily by wiping carborundum-dusted leaves of thrifty plants with concentrated fresh virus; through a portion of the seeds from dis- eased tobacco and petunia plants. Insect vec- tors not known. Physical and chemical properties: Inactivated near 68° C. in 10 minutes in plant juice; after MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 327 3 to 4 days in plant juice at room temperatures; after several months near or below freezing. Does not withstand drying in leaves at room temperature. Dilution end point in plant juice between 1,000 and 10,000 X; minimal diameter of particles about 15 my, passes the fine (W) Berkefeld filter. Regarded as a high molecular- weight protein. Distribution: Commercial tobacco-growing areas in the United States, especially in the Eastern States. References to literature: (2, 5, 12, 20). Fractilinea tritici, sp. nov. Common name: Russian wheat-mosaic virus. Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L. (winter and spring varieties), Avena sativa L., A. byzantina C. Koch, A. fatua L., Hordeum vulgare L., Secale cereale L., induces light-green or yellow mottling or streaking in foliage, proliferation of stalks in some winter wheats (rosette), dwarfing of plants, little or no pro- liferation in the spring-grown species, great reduction in grain, death frequently in young plants, necrosis of phloem, vacuolar cell inclu- sions, needle-shaped protein “‘crystals”’ in cells when leaf sections are placed in an acid me- dium. Transmission: By the leafhopper Delto- cephalus striatus L. Attempts to transmit the virus by means of the planthopper Delphacodes striatella Fall. (Delphazx striatella), many other insects, and by inoculations with expressed juice met with failure. Attempts to obtain in- fection through the soil have met with failure. Distribution: Russia, east of the Ural Moun- tains, especially in the Voronezh district since about 1935; to some extent near Moscow and south to the Caucasus Mountains. References to literature: (18, 21, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37). Fractilinea avenae, sp. nov. Common name: Siberian oat-mosaic virus (zakooklivanie). Host reactions: In Avena sativa L., A. strigosa Schreb., A. byzantina C. Koch, A. fatua L., and A. sterilis L:, induces light-green to yellow mottling and streaking in foliage and leaf sheaths; in certain species and varieties of Avena induces dwarfing, excessive tillering (rosette), floral deformations, sterility, great 328 reduction in grain, vacuolar cell inclusions re- sembling those in Marmor tritici var. typicum, necrosis of phloem and parenchyma in cases of severe mosaic reaction, vacuolar cell inclusions, giant protein inclusions, ‘‘erystals’”’ and fibers. Infection occurs in Zea mays L., Hordeum vul- gare L., Secale cereale L., Panicum miliaceum L., Oryza sativa L., and is suspected in Triticum aestivum L., and Bromus sp. A few individuals of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth, found sus- ceptible, but the species seems to be very re- sistant. The virus was found to overwinter in Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Bromus inermis Leyss., Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. and Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv., but in the first three _ species there seems to be very high resistance, and a small virus reservoir. Setarza viridis is very susceptible, highly attractive to the vector and an important reservoir for the virus. Transmission: By the planthopper Delpha- codes striatella Fall. (Delphax striatella). At- tempts to transmit the virus by means of the leafhopper Deltocephalus striatus L. and by in- oculations with expressed juice have met with failure. Attempts to obtain infection through the soil have also met with failure, though early observers postulated the overseasoning of the virus in the soil. | Distribution: Over most of Siberia from the Ural Mountains, to the Pacific coast, but more especially in the vicinity of Omsk, since 1922. In Japan the virus of rice-stripe disease is also transmitted by Delphacodes striatella, thus sug- gesting that the two diseases may be caused by similar or identical viruses. References to literature: (16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26). Galla zeae, sp. nov. Common name: Wallaby-ear disease of corn (maize). Host reactions: In Zea mays L., induces, in young plants, small swellings on secondary veins on undersides of top leaves, suggesting the galls associated with the Fiji disease of sugarcane, veins swelling rapidly from the tip to base of the leaf blade; inward rolling of leaves as in drought; green color accentuated, dwarfing of plant and all of its organs. Older plants give mild reactions. Transmission: By the leafhopper Cicadula bimaculata Evans. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10 Distribution: Southeastern Queensland, Aus- tralia. Reference to literature: (19). LITERATURE CITED (1) CroizatT, Lron. The trinomial typicus? —I. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 70: 310. 1948. (2) Hotmss, Francis O. Handbook of phyto- pathogenic viruses, 221 pp. Minne- apolis, 1939. (3) Ixata, S., ahd Kawai, I. Some experi- ments concerning the development of yel- low mosaic disease (white streak) of wheat. Relation between the development of yellow mosaic disease of wheat and soil temperature. Journ. Plant Prot. 24: 491-501, 847-854. 19387. In Japanese. Abst. R.A.M.? 18: 98. 1939. (4) Jounson, Fouxn. Heat inactwation of wheat mosaic virus in soils. Science 95: 610. 1942. (5) Jounson, JAMES. Illustration of proposed system of nomenclature for plant viruses. Mimeographed. Not dated, but pre- sented at the 6th International Bo- tanical Congress, Amsterdam, 1935. (6) Ley, ARLINE. NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 367 freshly shed specimens. Closer examination, however, reveals that many scales have dark edges anteriorly and slate blue centers, whereas other scales, especially on the anterior part of the body, have the dark pigment extending over most of the scale. All scales have white fringes on the posterior V-shaped edges which produce the appearance of diamond shaped white markings around each scale, which is a conspicuous feature of the general pattern. Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-15. Supra- labials 9-9 except one which is 8-9. Infralabials 10-10 in 3 specimens, 9-10 in two and 9-9 in one. Preoculars 1-1 in 4 specimens and 2-2 in two. Postoculars 2-2. Abdominals 177, 178, 181, 181, 183, 184. Caudals in the same sequence 55+, 107, 118, 97+, 108, 111. Body lengths 591 ¢, 675%, 709%, 7409, 7650, 7802 mm; tail lengths 222+, 165+, 283, 306, 326, 314 mm; total length in same sequence 813+, 840+, 992, 1046, 1091, 1094 mm. Ratio of tail to total length, males 28.5 to 29.9 per cent; females 28.7 to 29.3 per cent. Drymarchon corais melanurus (Duméril and Bibron) Three specimens, two females and a male, which seem to be intergrades between melanu- rus and rubidus as described by Smith (1941, p. 476). Two of the snakes, Nos. 25830 and 2746 9, are nearer melanurus than rubidus. They are both distinctly lighter anteriorly than posteriorly. The preocular labials are partly edged with black, and the light areas of the labials are light brown, not white. Most of the posterolateral gular scales are tipped with black. Anteriorly, about one-third of the ven- tral plates are black on the posterolateral sur- face of one or both sides. Although not of regu- lar pattern, these black streaks become pro- gressively longer and more frequent until they cover the scales forming a solid black color posteriorly on body and tail for about one-third of its length. No. 2521 @ is nearer rubidus, be- ing much darker dorsally than the others, but there is much less contrast between the anterior and posterior portions of the body. The dorsal surface of the head is nearly black. All the supralabials are edged posteriorly with black, and the light areas are light brown. Nearly all of the gular scales are tipped with black. The ventral pattern, although similar to the others, has much more black pigment. 368 Scalation: Supralabials 8-8; infralabials 9-9. Dorsal scale row formula 19-17-15 or 14. Ab- dominals: one male 188, 2 females, 195 and 191. Subcaudals: male 78, females 72 and 71. Measurements. Body length: male 1,320 mm, females 1,215 and 840 mm. Tail length: male 321, females 281 and 201 mm. Ratio of tail to total length: male 19.6 per cent, females 18.8 and 19.3 per cent. Elaphe chlorosoma (Giinther) A young female showing distinctly the juve- nile pattern has a series of 59 dorsal blotches with light brown centers and dark brown edges on the body and 25 less distinct blotches on the tail. These body blotches, reaching to the four- teenth scale rows, run transversely diagonal across the dorsal surface through the light brown ground color. Anteriorly on the body there is a series of lateral blotches which alter- nate with the dorsal blotches for about one- fourth the length of the body. Posteriorly they become indistinct. The ventral surface is im- maculate. Sealation: Scale rows 31-37-23. Abdominals 274; subcaudals 111. Anal divided. Supralabi- als 8-8; infralabials 9-10. Preoculars 1-1; post- oculars 2-2. Length of body 585 mm;; of tail 149 mm; total 734 mm. Tail represents 20.3 per cent of total length. Leptophis diplotropis diplotropis (Giinther) Fourteen specimens, arboreal in habit, from banana groves and light forested areas. The basic color is blue, darker above than below. In alcohol, it varies dorsally from a light blue (384 F 6 near lotus) through varying stages of pigmentation to a very dark blue (40 A 6 near slate). Two phases of coloration seem to be ex- hibited, a dark and a light phase. The light phase has a black line running through the orbit, extending forward faintly to nostri] and involving the upper edge of labials. Posteriorly, it occupies the lower postocular, most of the first temporal, the lower post tem- poral, upper edges of last two labials and the lower edge of the upper posttemporal. The head above is light blue and below is mainly white, usually being suffused with blue on the upper labials and the lateral gulars. Behind the head the black line widens until it involves scale rows 3 to 6 and edge of row 7. Back about 5 or 6 centimeters this line begins JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 11 to break into obliquely transverse dark blotches, which gradually become less distinct and disappear about a third or half way along the body. Along the center of the back, the vertebral scales are much lighter in color, some nearly white, giving the appearance of a chain of light-colored diamonds. Behind the neck the paravertebral scales become keeled and the keels become colored black, thus forming a pair of narrow black paravertebral lines which ex- tend backward to the anus. The white of the throat gradually becomes suffused with blue posteriorly. The dark phase is similar but darker and has black covering the entire top of the head and neck, except the light vertebral diamonds. Scalation: Scale rows 15-15-11. Supralabials 8-8, except one 8-9; infralabials, 10 with 11-11, 3 with 11-10, and 1 with 10-10. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. LEPTOPHIS DIPLOTROPIS DIPLOTROPIS (GUNTHER) Length : Abdom- Ratio No. Sex are Caudals ; (%) Body|, Tail | Total 2 2567 ot 169 117+) 601 — _— — 2569 fof 173 152 610 334 944 35.4 2579 of 171 137 642 346 988 35.0 2713 of 171 127 636 339 975 | 34.8 2714 fot 174 138 691 345 1036 Sou0 2728 fou 172+1| 137 682 355 1037 34.2 2729 rofl 173 148 768 441- | 1209 36.5 2730 of 174 111+] 682 306+! 988-+-| — 2753 of 173 134+] 710 379-+| 1089-+-| — 2791 of 176 134 263 393 1156 34.0 2754 Q 177 99+] 750 302+] 1052+) — 2765 Q 175 116+] 632 291+] 9238+) — 2766 Q 172 125 630 312 942 Sit 2772 Q 174 134 595 311 906 34.3 Trimorphodon biscutatus biscutatus (Duméril and Bibron) Fourteen specimens, nocturnal in habits, from hillsides and lowlands, light forests, or open areas. Coloration: Gray above, yellowish below with dark brownish-gray blotches forming series along the back, along the sides and along the ends of the ventrals. The dorsal series shows a great deal of variation, ranging from plain transverse light-centered blotches (secondary), toward one extreme becoming narrower and less distinct until only a light brown area is left (tertiary blotches), and toward the other ex- treme becoming wider and more conspicuous Nov. 15, 1944 woopBuRY AND WOODBURY: NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES until some partially split to make pairs of light centered blotches (primary) joined at the lat- eral ends; but occasionally separated. According to our interpretation these varia- tions of blotches represent developments of some at the expense of others. In order to ex- plain the present pattern, we propose to assume a hypothetical primitive ancestral pattern de- rived from evidences still persisting on the specimens. This pattern consisted of light areas alternating with dark dorsal blotches which numbered about 65 to 72 on the body and a similar pattern extended on to the tail. A change in this pattern was produced by ex- pansion of alternate dark blotches, correlated with a suppression of the others both in size and color, leaving a pattern of about 32 to 36 dark blotches alternating with light tertiary blotches bordered by the primitive light interblotch areas, presumably like quadruplez. Some specimens show an additional or sec- ondary reduction, especially in the midbody region, in which some alternate dark blotches ~ (usually not all) expand in correlation with sup- pression of those secondary dark blotches be- tween them, leaving a pattern usually un- changed on neck and posterior body, but show- ing in midbody some expanded primary blotches alternating with narrower more or less suppressed secondary blotches which in turn are bordered by the plain remnants of the ter- tiary blotches which again are usually bordered by the light interblotch sections. In a few cases, these latter light areas are missing and the plain tertiary remnants are fused with the secondary 369 blotches to make one on the dorsum but lat- erally the three are often clearly indicated. The number of primary blotches left depends largely upon the number and amount of sec- ondary reductions. It is nearly impossible to set a precise limit between primary, secondary and tertiary blotches because they show all de- grees of gradation between them. Separated on the basis of judgment, the specimens show a range of 20 to 33 primary blotches. Scalation: In all specimens, both nasal and anal are divided; both pre- and postoculars are 3-3, except one specimen which has 4 postocu- lars on one side. Some variable characters are listed in the table below. A comparison of ventrals on our specimens with similar data taken from Smith (1941, p. 158; 1948, p. 492) for populations from nearby regions is given as follows: UU specimens: Abdominals 245 to 267 (259), subcaudals 83 to 96 (88), total ventrals 335 to 357 (346). T. b. semirutus: abdominals 260 to 275, subcaudals 85 to 102, total ventrals 358 to 376. T. b. bi- scutatus: abdominals 251 to 271, subcaudals 81 to 96, total ventrals 343 to 359. T. b. quadru- plex: abdominals 251 to 263, subcaudals 82 to 93, total ventrals 334 to 347. Imantodes splendidus oliveri Smith Two females from open forested areas and hillsides. Color patterns fit description given by Smith (1942, p. 388). Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-15. Anal divided. Supralabials 8-8. Infralabials 10-10. TRIMORPHODON Scale Abdom Hee tabials Body peneeh Ratio No. Sex inal Caudals| ven- Loreals Pipeaned (%) aoe ete trals | Supra Infra Body Tail Total o 2523 fof 25-25-20 255 96 351 9-9 13-13 3-3 21 771 184 955 19.3 2722 of 26-27-20 254 93 347 10-9 12-13 4-3 2G 860 202 1062 19.0 2744 fof 25-25-20 245 90 Oe) 9-9 12-12 3-3 20 452 96 548 17.5 2554 ce) 25-26-19 262 85 347 9-9 13-12 2-2 22 941 184 1125 16.4 2710 Q 25-26-19 264 | 86 350 9-9 13-13 3-3 23 490 99 589 16.8 Pat Q 25-27-19 266 83 349 9-9 12-12 2-3 PP) 951 183 1134 16.1 2721 9 25-25-20 247 91 338 9-9 12-12 2-3 22 767 189 956 19.8 2745 Q 25-27-20 261 83 344 9-9 12-13 2-3 22 467 88 555 15.9 2760 fe) 27-28-20 267 64+21| 352? 9-9 12-13 3-3 24 1074 177+} 1251+) — 2762 Q 26-26-19 253 84 337 9-8 12-13 3-3 24 724 171 895 19.1 2770 fe) 25-26-21 267 90 357 9-9 13-14 3-3 24 994 1385+} 1129+) — 2776 Q 23-26-19 262 86 348 9-9 12-12 3-3 23 559 105 664 15.8 2777 Q 25-27-20 264 88 352 9-9 14-14 3-3 22 881 189 1070 WP 2783 Q 25-28-22 256-+1| 69+17| 342? 9-9 13-13 3-3 33 930 160+} 1090+) — ? indicates estimated value. 370 Preoculars 1-1, postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal single. Abdominals 237 and 225; caudals 132 and 123, respectively. Length: Body 628, tail 252, total 880 mm; body 605, tail 239, total 844 mm. Tail 28.6 and 28.3 per cent respectively of total length. Ver- tebral scales only slightly larger than adjacent paravertebral scales. Leptodeira maculata (Hallowell) Three specimens found usually in brush. Dorsal ground color light brown. There are 26-29 dark brown blotches extending from the neck to the anus and 12 on the tail. Some of these blotches are confluent. The blotches ex- tend laterally to the first, second, or third scale rows. Ventrals immaculate. Scalation: Nasals divided. Loreal single. Both preoculars and postoculars 2-2. Supra- labials 8-8; infralabials 10-10. Anal divided. Seale rows 21-21-17, 21-23-17, 21-25-17. Ab- dominals 167, 171, 175. Subcaudals 74, 33 +31 estimated (broken), 67. Body lengths 380, 408, 494 mm, tail lengths 115, 56+, 121 mm. Ratio tail to total length: male 23.2 per cent, female 19.7 per cent. Body _ blotches: male 26, female 29. Tail blotches 12. Manolepis putnami (Jan) Three specimens collected toward evening on open roads around open brush under which they spend the night, according to the collec- tor. The color fits the description given by Cope (1898, p. 1092). Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-15. Anal divided. Upper labials 8-8. Lower labials 10-10. Preoculars 1-1. Postoculars 2-2. Loreal absent. Nasal divided. Abdominals: one male 169, 2 females 179 and 180. Subcaudals: male 73, fe- males 64 and 65. Body length: male 399 mm, females 315 and 500 mm. Tail length: male 121, females 77 and 130 mm. Ratio of tail to total length: male 23.3 per cent, females 19.6 and 20.6 per cent. Conophis vittatus viduus Cope Sixteen specimens taken from sparsely wooded or lightly forested areas, particularly around the edges of openings in the forests. Ground color creamy white with one dorsal and two lateral black or brown stripes, two or three scale rows wide, beginning at the rostral edge JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 34, No. 11 and running posteriorly to the tail where they become faint on the tip. The lateral stripes bor- der the upper edge of labials and pass through the orbit under the supraoculars. Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-17 in all but two specimens which show 19-19-15. Anal divided. Upper labials 7-7. Lower labials 8-8 in 4 specimens, 9-8 in one, 9-9 in eight, 9-10 in two and 10-10 in one. Preoculars 1-1 in twelve specimens, 1-2 in three and 2-2 in one. Post- oculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. Ab- dominals: 9 males 154 to 166 (159.6), 7 females 162 to 170 (167). Subcaudals: males 61 to 69 (65), females 57 to 67 (62.8). Total length: males 454 to 724 mm, females 222 to 752 mm. Tail length: males 111 to 156 mm, females 45 to 142 mm. Ratio of tail to to- tal length: males 20.8 to 24.9 per cent, females 17.4 to 20.8 per cent. Oxybelis acuminatus (Wied) Nine specimens taken in arboreal habitats in low second-growth timber. Ground color gen- erally ashen to brownish gray and brownish red, both below and above. Head above same as body. Supralabials creamy white separated from dorsal head color by a black line which extends from edge of rostral along upper border of labials to neck region. Lower labials, chin and neck are creamy white, the color gradually fading into ground color on first few abdomi- nals. | Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-13 in all but two specimens which show 17-17-15. Anal divided. Upper labials 9-9 in 6 specimens, and 9-10 in three. Lower labials 9-9 in 2 specimens, 10-10 in two, 10-11 in three, 10-12 in one, and 11-11 in one. Preoculars 1-1. Postoculars 1-1 in two specimens, and 2-2 in seven. Loreal absent. Nasal single. Abdominals: 5 males 186 to 194 (191), 4 females 188 to 199 (193.5). Subcau- dals: 5 males 167 to 181 (175), 3 females 163 to 168 (165). Total length: 5 males 1,276 to 1,468 mm, 3 females 1,313 to 1,895 mm. Tail length: 5 males 531 to 609 mm, 3 females 510 to 539 mm. Ratio of tail to total length: 5 males 40.4 to 42.1 per cent, 3 females 38.6 to 38.8 per cent. Tantilla rubra Cope Two specimens, female and juvenile, found under refuse and fallen timber, feeding prin- Nov. 15, 1944 WwoopBURY AND WOODBURY cipally on small insect life, according to the collector. Color as described by Smith (1942, p. 40), except that in addition part of the lower labials are black. Scalation: Scale rows 15-15-15. Abdominals 147 and 164; subcaudals 60 and 68. Labials all 7-7 except one with infralabials 6-6. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal missing; nasal di- vided; anal divided. Length: 260 +85 mm and 116+31 mm; to- tals 345 and 147 mm; ratio of tail to total, 24.6 and 21.1 per cent. Coniophanes imperialis copei Hartweg and Oliver Three specimens collected under refuse and fallen timber. Color as described by Hartweg and Oliver (1938, p. 4). In addition, the male is darker than the females and all three specimens show two short lines produced by rows of dark specks on the ends of the anterior ventrals. Sealation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-17. Upper labials 8-8. Lower labials 9-9. Preoculars 1-1. Postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. The male has 128 abdominals, 78 subcaudals, body length 234 mm, tail length 110 mm, total 344 mm, tail 31.9 per cent of total length. Two females have 131 and 135 abdominals, tails broken, body lengths 172 and 220 mm. Coniophanes piceivittis Cope A single specimen, a female, was collected. Dorsal ground color dark brown, with two dor- solateral white stripes running from the rostral above the orbit along the edge of the supraocu- lar, along the outer edge of the parietals and on to the neck 6 or 7 scales, where they are broken for 2 scales and thence extend poste- riorly to the tip of the tail. The white stripes oc- cupy scale row 8 and halves of 7 and 9. The ventrals and the first three scale rows are im- maculate, except on chin, lower and upper labials where the white is conspicuously stip- pled with dark brown. The yellow parietals and frontal are also stippled with brown. Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 23-25-19. Anal divided. Supralabials 8-8; infralabials 10-10. Preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2; loreal single; nasal divided. Abdominals 172. Part of the tail is missing. Body length 155 mm. Micrurus ephippifer (Cope) A single female was collected under rubbish. : NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 371 Tip of head back to posterior tip of frontal, tip of parietals on top and postoculars and half of third supralabial on sides is black; mental and first two infralabials are also black. Behind this black ring is a yellow ring (white in alcohol) which extends back nearly to the posterior edge of the parietals and laterally through the last infra and supralabials. Behind this is a black nuchal color which involves the posterior tip of the parietals and extends posteriorly eight scales in the dorsal surface and ends on the fourth abdominal ventrally. There are fifteen black rings (5 abdominals wide) on the body and three on the tail. These 15 complete black rings are bordered on both sides by yellow (white) rings about 24 scales wide which enclose 14 red rings that have the dorsal surfaces mostly replaced by black but some red edges persist. This dorsal black extends down the sides usually to the third, second or first scale rows producing some concave borders anterior- ly and a few black spots occur on the ventral surface. Scalation. Scale rows 15-15-15. Labials 7 and 7. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal ab- sent. Nasal divided. Abdominals 224; sub- caudals 36. Body length 400 mm, tail 41 mm, total 441 mm. Tail 9.3 per cent of total length. Stenorhina freminvillii lactea Cope Two females collected in underbrush. Color in alcohol light red above on head, body, and tail. This color becomes gradually lighter on sides and fades into pink on the ventral sur- face, being darker under the tail and progres- sively lighter anteriorly toward the chin. The upper and lower labials. are a very light pink. One specimen has a narrow black streak begin- ning on the upper edge of second supralabial which extends backward along the upper edge of the labials, through the eye, involving the preocular, lower postocular and ending on the seventh labial. On the other specimen, this line is nearly missing. Both specimens show suf- fusion of dark pigment on the parietals and indications of a faint middorsal line extending backwards. ~ Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-17. Anal divided. Labials all 7-7 except one has 7-8 infra- labials. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal 1-1 in one specimen, and 1-0 in the other. Nasal divided; temporals 1-2-3. Abdominals 167, 179; 312 caudals 39, 35. Body length 472, 510 mm; tail length 83, 73 mm; total length 555, 583 mm. Tail 15 and 12.5 per cent of total length. Bothrops dunni (Hartweg and O’iver) Eleven specimens, four adults, and seven juveniles from wooded and brushy areas around open fields, in nearly the same type habitat as the rattlesnake. Color as described by Hartweg and Oliver (1938, p. 6). The dorsal blotches vary from 13 to 20 in number. Adult males are darker than the females and some of the juveniles can be similarly separated, but others are indistinguishable. Sealation: Dorsal scale rows 23-23-19 in six specimens and 25-23-19 in three specimens. Anal entire. Supralabials 9-10 in two speci- mens, 10-10 in five, 10-11 in one, and 11-11 in one. Infralabials 9-11 in one specimen, 10-10 in four, 10-11 in three, and 11-11 in one. Pre- oculars 3-3. Postoculars 3-3 in seven; 3-4 in one, and 2-2 in one specimen. Nasal di- vided. Abdominals: 7 males 145 to 151 (147), 4 females 150 to 156 (152.5). Subcaudals: males 37 to 41 (40), females 32 to 38 (35). Body length: Males 159 to 348 mm, females 192 to 415 mm. Tail length: males 23 to 56 mm, fe- males 22 to 53 mm. Ratio of tail to total length: males 12.1 to 13.9 per cent, females 10.3 to 11.6 per cent. Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard A single female was collected. Dorsal scale rows 25-25-21. Anal entire. Supralabials 16-15; infralabials 16-16. Preoculars 3-3; postoculars 2-3. Loreal single. Abdominals 179; subcaudals 24. Length: body 294 mm, tail 20 mm, total 314 mm. Tail 6.4 per cent of total length. Body blotches 39; tail blotches 6. The snake con- tained a Cnemidophorus lizard. Crotalus durissus durissus Linnaeus A single female was collected. Dorsal scale rows 29-31-21. Anal entire. Supralabials 16-15; infralabials 15-17. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-3. Loreals 2-2. Abdominals 184. Subcaudals 26. Dorsal body blotches 27. Length: body 408 mm, tail 32 mm, total 440 mm. Tail 7.3 per cent of total length. BIBLIOGRAPHY BouLENGER, GEORGE ALBERT. Catalogue of the snakes in the British Museum, 3 vols. London, 1893-1896. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CABRERA, ANGEL. voL. 34, No. 11 La incompatibilidad eco- légica una ley bioldgica interesante. Amer. Soc. Cient. Argentina 114 (5/6). 1932. (Biol. Abstr. 9 (3): 509, 4488. Mar. 1935.) GUNTHER, ALBERT. Reptilia and Batrachia. Biologia Centrali-Americana, 190 pp. 1885-1902. Hartwec, NormMaAn, and OLiver, JAMzEs A.: A contribution to the herpetology of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, III: Three new snakes from the Pacific slope. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, No. 390: 1-9. 1938. . Idem, IV. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 47: 1-31. 1940. : KLAUBER, LAURENCE Monrog. The Cali- fornia king snake, a case of pattern dimorph- ism. Herpetologica 1: 18-27. 1936. _ A further study of pattern dimorphism in the California king snake. Zool. Soc. San Diego Bull. 15: 1-23. 1939. Martin DEL Campo, RapHAEL. Algunos an- fibios, reptiles y aves de la region de Huaju- apan de Leén, Oax. Sobretiro Anal. Inst. Biol. 13 (1). 1942. Ouiver, JAMES ARTHUR. Notes on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the State of Colima, Mexico. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, No. 360: 16-28. 1937. . A check list of the snakes of the genus Leptophis, with descriptions of new forms. Ibid., No. 462: 1-19. 1942. ScHMIDT, Karu PatTrerson. Preliminary ac- count of the coral snakes of Central America and Mexico. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 20: 29-40. 1933. . Notes on Central American and Mext- can coral snakes. Ibid. 20: 205-216. 1936. | SLEVIN, JoSEPH RicHAaRD. Notes on a collec- tion of reptiles and amphibians from Guate- mala. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 26: 393-414, pls. 37, 38. 1939. SmiTtH, Hopart Murr. Notes on the snakes of the genus Salvadora. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 25: 229-237. 1938. . A review of the subspecies of the indigo snake (Drymarchon corais). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci: 31: 466-481. 1941. . Notes on the Mexican snakes of the genus Masticophis. Ibid. 31: 388-398. 1941. . Notes on the snakes of the genus Con- ophis. Jbid. 31: 117-124. 1941. . Notes on Mexican snakes of the genus Elaphe. Copeia 1941 (3): 132-136. 1941. . Notes on Mexican snakes of the genus Trimeresurus. Zoologica 26: 61-64. 1941. . Notes on the snake genus Trimorpho- don. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 91: 149-168. 1941. . Mexican herpetological miscellany. Ibid. 92: 380-391. 1942. Nov. 15, 1944 .A résumé of Mexican snakes of the genus Tantilla. Zoologica 27: 33-42. 1942. | . The synonymy of the garter snakes _(Thamnophis), with notes on Mexican and Central American species. Ibid. 27: 97- 123. 1942. . Notes on Masticophis mentovarius. Copeia 1942 (2): 85-88. 1942. . Summary of the collections of snakes and crocodilians made in Mexico under thé Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholar- ship. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 93: 3938-504, pl. 32. 1943. Stuart, LAURENCE Cooprr. Studies on Neo- tropical Colubrinae, I: The taxonomic status of the genus Drymobius Fitzinger. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, No. 236: 1-16, pls. 1-5. 1932. . A contribution to a knowledge of the herpetology of a portion of the savanna region of central Petén, Guatemala. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan 29: 47-565. 1935. —. Studies of Neotropical Colubrinae, VIII: A revision of the genus Dryadophis Stuart, 1939. Ibid. 49: 1-106, pls. 1-4. _ 1941. | TAYLor, Epwarp Harrison. Notes on the herpetological fauna of the Mexican State of ELY: A NEW BRITTLE-STAR FROM CANTON ISLAND 373 Sonora. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 24: 475- 503. 1936. . Notes on the herpetological fauna of the Mexican State of Sinaloa. Ibid. 24: 505—- 5at. 1936: . Notes on the Mexican snakes of the genus Leptodeira, with a proposal of a new snake genus, Pseudoleptodeira. Ibid. 25: 315-355. 19388. . On North American snakes of the genus Leptotyphlops. Copeia 1939 (1): 1-7. 1939. . Some Mexican serpents. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 26: 445-487. 1940. . Herpetological miscellany No. I. Ibid. 26: 489-571. 1940. . Herpetological miscellany, No. II. Ibid. 27: 105-139. 1941. TayLor, EK. H., and Smiru, H. M. Miscel- laneous notes on Mexican snakes. Univ. Kansas Sei. Bull. 27: 239-258. 1941. TERRON, Cartos Cusrsta. Los crotalianos mexicanos. Anal. Inst. Biol. 1: 187-199. 1930. . Conopsis nasus_heliae, Ibid. 1: 175-176. 1930. subsp. nov. . Los crotalianos mexicanos. Ibid. 2: A(-42., © 1981. ——. Los coralillos mexicanos. Ibid. 3: 5- [42 £932) ZOOLOGY.—A new Obritile-star (Ophiocoma anaglyptica) from Canton Island.' CHARLES A. Ey, University of Wisconsin. CLARK.) H. L. Clark lists 19 species for the genus Ophiocoma Agassiz in his ‘“The Echinoderm Fauna of Torres Strait.’’? All these have been known for 25 years or, in many Cases, much longer. Since the publication of Dr. Clark’s paper, apparently only three new species have been assigned to the genus, and one has been removed to the new genus Ophiocomella established by A. H. Clark in 1938. In view of the fact that the genus is a conspicuous one and already well known, the addition of another species is rather remarkable, although perhaps not surpris- ing since the fauna of many isolated Pacific ‘islands is still incompletely known. Ophiocoma anaglyptica, n. sp. Named anaglyptica (embossed) in reference to raised interbrachial plates. 1 Received July 15, 1944. 2 Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 214 (Dept. Mar. Biol., vol. 10). 1921. (Communicated by Austin H. Description.—The disk is about 20 mm in di- ameter, with well-spaced granules that en- croach upon the interbrachial areas to a varia- ble extent. Among the normal scales thus ex- posed in each interbrachial area are a number of enlarged bare plates, usually between 25 and 30. The genital slits are bordered by eight to ten small granules. In length the arms are about five times the width of the disk. The up- per arm plates, which are thickened and raised above the general surface, are about two and one-half times as broad as long; of irregular out- line and extremely variable in shape. The ma- jority of these plates suggest an open low- arched fan from which one of the lateral angles has been sheared abruptly. The uppermost arm spine on the side of the missing angle is greatly swollen and enlarged, while a similar spine on the opposite side of the same segment is lack- ing. As a rule there is an alternation of this ar- rangement from segment to segment. Thus an upper plate with the right angle missing and a 3v4 swollen dorsal spine will be followed by one with a deficient left angle and a swollen left dorsal spine. Occasionally both upper plate angles are present, in which case the large spine is lacking on both sides. Conversely, both an- gles may be lacking and both upper spines present and enlarged. The first few segments frequently bear five spines; the next few four; and the remainder bear three on one side and four on the other alternately down the arm. The lowermost spine is the shortest and tends to taper to a flattened blunt tip. The second lowest is slightly longer and spatulate. The next spine above is about a third longer than the one below and tapers to a rounded tip. The highest spine, when present, is typically bottle- shaped, expanded in the middle but slightly compressed; as a rule, narrowing abruptly to form a short neck. It is about two and one-half to three segments long. There are two tentacle scales on all but the first two or three segments, each of which may bear three. The shape of the oral shields is typical of the genus. They are roughly obovate with the proxi- mal border nearly straight. The triangular adoral shields are equilateral and separated by the width of the oral shields. There are gen- erally eight distinct oral papillae, with two or three small granular ones at the apex which are indistinguishable from dental papillae. The first is rectangular and lies above the second which is round and scalelike; the remainder are toothlike. There are five or six dental papillae. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 34, No. 11 The lateral arm plates are barely visible above and below. The under arm plates are as broad as long, regular in size and shape, and overlap distally. They are pentagonal, with gently rounded angles and with slightly concave sides. The color of dry specimens is uniformly choc- olate-brown above except for white bands ex- tending the length of the lower three arm spines and, in some instances, spotted areas at the base of the uppermost spines. The lateral interseg- mental spaces are occasionally white with con- spicuous black stripes extending between the lateral arm plates. The oral surface is variously spotted and mottled with white, yellow, and light brown. The teeth and oral papillae are almost entirely white. The oral shields and proximal ventral arm plates are mottled with white and brown, but farther out on the arms the ventral plates are colored with barely visible dense dark spots on a slightly lighter background. The two low- ermost spines are nearly all white near the disk; farther out they are white at the tip and become dark brown near the base. In some cases they are spotted similarly to the lower arm plates. As seen from within the radial shields are small for the genus. Locality.—Canton Island, reef; near shore beneath loose coral blocks. Three specimens were collected November 18, 1941. Remarks.—The presence of 25 to 30 enlarged interbrachial plates serves to separate this new species from O. scolopendrina and 0. erinaceus, Fig. 1.—Ophiocoma anaglyptica, n. sp.: a, Oral view of disk and arm bases; b, aboral view of arm. Nov. 15, 1944 with which it seems most closely allied. Both of these species may show the general arrangement of arm spines and dorsal arm plates, but with less extreme and less regular development. In these species the fan-shaped or triangular dor- sal arm plates are sheared to a lesser degree at the lateral angles, and consequently the upper- most arm spines of each segment are less con- spicuously developed. However, three and four spines on opposite sides of the same segment occur in some specimens of these species. Often both species possess the flattened spatulate lower spine. In general, as shown by comparison of specimens from Canton Island, anaglyptica approaches scolopendrina more closely than GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 375 ertnaceus in these respects. However, consid- erable individual variation very likely occurs. In coloration, anaglyptica is somewhat inter- mediate. The uniform coloration suggests erinaceus, but it is not black. On the other hand, the lighter spotted and mottled oral surface and striped lateral intersegmental areas are more typical of scolopendrina. Further noteworthy differences may be seen in the disk granules which are more widely and evenly spaced in anaglyptica than in either erinaceus or scolopen- drina. Also the shape of the second innermost oral papilla is distinctive for anaglyptica. In this species it is round and scalelike, whereas in ertnaceus and scolopendrina it is rectangular. ICHTHYOLOGY .—A description of a new gobiid fish from Venezuela, with notes on the genus Garmannia.' Isaac GinsBurG, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (Communicated by Lzonarp P. Schultz.) The specimens forming the basis of this paper were collected by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes in the U. 8S. Na- tional Museum, on his recent expedition to Venezuela and turned over to me for study. These comprise one specimen of Evorthodus lyricus, 45 specimens of Bathygobius sopora- tor, and 158 specimens, in six samples, be- longing to populations of Garmannia, most nearly related to G. spes. The latter speci- mens illustrate a common course of specia- tion in fishes. Garmannia spes was described by me (JouRN. WASHINGTON Acap. Sci. 29: 62. 1939) from three small specimens, not in very good condition, which were brought back from the Canal Zone by Dr. Samuel F. Hildebrand in 1937. The samples collected by Dr. Schultz in Venezuela are evidently closely related to spes. Although these samples were taken in comparatively close proximity, within a range of about 50 miles, yet they show average morphological dif- ferences, but of varying degrees. The popu- lations represented by the samples examined are divisible into two primary groups, which may be treated as representing two species. The other differences, within the primary groups, are of lesser degree, racial, or sub- specific at the most. One of the species from Venezuela is evidently the same as the 1 Received July 25, 1944. Panamanian spes. The other species is here described as follows and named for Dr. Leonard P. Schultz: Garmannia schultzi, n. sp. Diagnosis.—Anterior part of body naked, scaled posteriorly. Transverse row of scales on caudal baseabsent. A lengthwise row of 3-6 non- imbricate, spaced scales behind pectoral base. Head depressed to subterete. First dorsal spine not prolonged. Dorsal rays usually 11, often 12. Anal rays usually 10, often 9, infrequently 8. Pectoral rays modally 17, often 18, sometimes 16, infrequently 19. Usually diffusely and ir- regularly cross-banded, alternating lighter and darker, irregular areas; often nearly uniformly colored, especially in the larger males; caudal uniformly pigmented or faintly cross-banded, band at base usually rather more prominent; ventral aspect usually more or less pigmented, moderately or not much ligher than side. Ex- tent of squamation differing markedly with sex, less extensive in male, as follows (also differs with population, see below). Male: scales ex- tending forward to a point under base of fifth to tenth dorsal ray; transverse rows of scales 7-12, longitudinal rows 3-5. End of maxillary reaching approximately to under posterior margin of eye. Female: scales extending for- ward to under base of third to eighth ray; trans- verse rows 9-14; longitudinal rows 3-7. Maxil- lary ending under posterior margin of pupil. 376 Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 121546, male, 22 mm, Lago de Maracaibo, 7 km south of Mara- caibo City; gravel and sand; March 6, 1942; Leonard P. Schultz. Paratypes.—U.8.N.M. no. 121547; 19 males, 12-21 mm, 14 females, 12-17 mm; obtained with the holotype. Other specimens examined.—Lago Maracaibo at Yacht Club, just north of Maracaibo City, hard bottom, rubble to gravel; 4 males, 17—28 mm, 2 females, 21-23 mm, 1 specimen, 13 mm, sex not determinable by external examination; these 7 specimens in two samples, collected March 5 and May 16, U.S.N.M. nos. 121549 and 121550, respectively. Salina Rica, coast of El Tablazo (the latter a bay between Lake Maracaibo and Gulf of Venezuela, partly con- tinuous with both), 5 km north of Maracaibo City; bottom thick vegetation in mud; 5 males, 21-28 mm, 2 females, 24 mm, all in one sample collected February 20, U.S.N.M. no. 121548. Ciénaga del Guanavana, on coast of Gulf of Venezuela, 12 km north of Sinamaica; swampy bottom; March 11, one male, 29 mm, with 16 pectoral rays, 2 specimens, partly dried, with 17 rays, U.S.N.M. no. 121552. All specimens collected by Dr. L. P. Schultz in 1942, in brackish water. (Dr. Schultz kindly furnished the ecological notes. A discussion of the itiner- ary during which the samples were taken is given by Dr. Schultz in a paper entitled ‘‘The Catfishes of Venezuela, with Descriptions of Thirty-eight New Forms,” Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 94: 173-338. 1944.) Squamation.—The extent of squamation, both vertically and horizontally, varies widely with the individual, and the norm differs with the population. There are several ways in which the variability of this character may be expressed: (1) by counting the number of trans- verse rows; (2) stating the position of the an- teriormost scales with reference to the second dorsal base; (3) counting the number of longi- tudinal rows; (4) noting whether the dorsal aspect of the caudal peduncle is scaled over or naked. The first two ways express the hori- zontal extent of squamation; the last two the vertical extent. All the four ways have been determined on the specimens examined. In counting the transverse rows, the first row usually consists of one or two scales; this row was included in the count. The number of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 11 transverse rows constitutes a fair numerical expression of the horizontal extent of squama- tion. It is more difficult to express adequately the variability in the vertical extent, as the number of longitudinal rows is much fewer and, what is more important, there is much greater variability in the number of individual scales in the different rows. The number of scales in the two outer longitudinal rows, one above and below, is very variable, often consisting of only one scale, and such a row was also included in the count. Therefore, it is evident that the num- ber of longitudinal rows represents only a very roughly approximate expression of the vertical extent of squamation. The spaced scales in the row behind the pec- toral base are often partly or wholly missing in preserved specimens, being more or less de- ciduous. However, when missing, the edge of the scale pocket may be readily raised with a dissecting needle, and the number of scales originally present in any given specimen may be thus ascertained. The distribution given in Tables 2 and 3 includes specimens so deter- mined. Sex differences—Males and females differ in the extent of squamation, and it is necessary to separate data for scale characters by sex, asis done in Tables 2 and 3. This is a sex difference that is out of the ordinary in fishes. Table 1 also shows some average sex differences in fin- ray counts; but these differences are slight and their reality may be doubted. They may be due to vicissitudes of sampling. Comparison.—Garmannia schulizi is very closely related to G. spes. The most divergent character separating them is the pectoral count. They overlap even in this character (Table 1) but the degree of divergence is high. Their index of divergence, using the measure proposed by me (Zoologica 13: 253-279. 1938), is 92, which is of the magnitude of full species. The popula- tion represented by the holotype also differs to some extent from spes in the extent of squamation, but the Salina Rica population of schultz nearly agrees with spes in this respect. As there is no other widely divergent char- acter to correlate with the pectoral count, single specimens usually can not be distinguished with certainty. If a specimen has 15 pectoral rays it almost certainly belongs to spes, and if it has 18 or 19 rays, it evidently belongs to schultzi; but Nov. 15, 1944 single specimens having 16 or 17 rays (these are the counts in which the majority of the speci- mens fall, 16 and 17 being the modal counts of spes and schultzi, respectively) can not be identified with assurance, and it is necessary to have a sample of 5 or 10 specimens for a satis- factory identification. For instance, in a sample of three specimens from the Ciénaga del Guana- vana (see above), one had 16 and the other two 17 pectoral rays, and it is consequently most likely that this small sample belongs to a population of schultzt. Populations —Though it is true that they are relatively near one another geographically, the populations of schultzi represented by the samples examined apparently differ to a con- siderable extent morphologically. The differ- ences in the extent of squamation, as expressed by the number of transverse and longitudinal rows and the number of spaced scales in the row behind the pectoral base, are shown in Tables 2 and 3. The small samples examined suggest that the population living 7 km below Maracaibo City diverges from the Salina Rica population, which is only 5 km above Mara- caibo City, to a degree that may prove to be of subspecific magnitude when adequately larger samples are examined. Another difference be- tween these two populations, which is also a result of the difference in the extent of squama- tion, is as follows: In the Salina Rica popula- tion the dorsal aspect of the caudal peduncle is partly or almost wholly scaled over, while in the population about 12 km farther south it is naked. The Salina Rica population also may possibly prove to average slightly fewer dorsal and anal rays (see Table 1), but such differ- ences, if real, are evidently of very low degree. The southernmost population of schultzi ex- amined averages the least extent of squamation, consisting in some extreme variants, usually males, of virtually nothing more than a moder- ate elongate patch on the caudal peduncle. The population at the Yacht Club is, in general, morphologically about intermediate between the two populations compared above; but only one specimen out of seven has the dorsal aspect of the caudal peduncle scaled, being in this re- spect nearest the southernmost population. The sample taken in a bayou near Sinamaica, which is referred to below to spes, is possibly just another closely related local population GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 3v7 which, however, has diverged from the others to such a degree that it may be treated as a dis- tinct species. This Venezuelan population is morphologically near enough to the Canal Zone population, originally described as spes, for the two to be treated taxonomically as belonging to one species. If this conjecture (that the Venezuelan sample of spes represents merely a highly divergent local population) is tenable, it follows that among these populations mor- phology is not always regularly correlated with geographic distribution. The population at the Yacht Club is geographically as well as morpho- logically intermediate between the populations north and south of it; but the population near Sinamaica, which is here referred to spes, is sandwiched in between populations that are sufficiently divergent from it to be properly placed in another species. It should be added that the samples ex- amined are not strictly comparable for size; the 34 specimens of schultzi from south of Mara- caibo City are considerably smaller than most specimens in the other samples of the same species. However, the full adult squamation appears to be developed in specimens as small as 14 mm, and the differences outlined above are evidently population differences. The ecological factors are not well enough known for one to discuss adequately, or specu- late about, influence of environment on morpho- logical diversification. The nature of the bottom does not seem to be decisive, as schultzt seems to inhabit both soft and hard bottoms (see above). All the populations referred to schultzi were taken in saline water, while the Venezue- lan sample of spes was taken in fresh or nearly fresh water. However, the original sample of spes from the Canal Zone was taken in saline water also; consequently, salinity likewise does not seem to play a decisive role. Garmannia spes Ginsburg Garmannia spes Ginsburg, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 62. 1939. Sample collected in a cafio [bayou] about 3 km west of Sinamaica (the latter about 55 km north of Maracaibo City), Gulf of Vene- zuela; in thick vegetation on mud; nearly fresh water; L. P. Schultz; March 11, 1942; 52 males, 18-41 mm, 55 females, 15-27 mm, U.S.N.M. no; 121551. 378 As shown in Tables 1-3, the Venezuelan population represented by the above sample is close enough to the one from the Canal Zone for the two to be grouped in one species. As there are only three Canal Zone specimens available for comparison, the differences be- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 11 tween the two populations can not be discussed at length. Very likely the Canal Zone popula- tion will prove to average a higher dorsal count, to what extent remains to be seen. Morphological relationship of the species of Garmannia.—Seven species of Garmannia, TABLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE FiIn-Ray Counts IN GARMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES Pectoral Dorsal Anal Population Sex 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 8 9 10 1l schultzi: Below Maracaibo City.... ve E: 1 = : : Re A : 1 : i tev" YachtiClubwass2h sate { s a a ‘ iy ae ak : i Re EF ‘ a Salina Ricans scm ae ee { Z he 1 5 - cy ee : ons ape : 5 a Phe et fo || 21 | 29 Ae Ss Ics Be fii | 9 | 42 1 fais nee ta a Le 12 | 39 4{/—]|— Pee Shee es) — | 10 | 44 1 lebhoe nage ie cece Cos 6 As holee x $ s. 2 pus om ye 2 ne ae z i Petes Ge PO) 1 ve eee) tom! | | ae eee eee abieelewe! ee vene (ese lever ee) 9) shis' \ Q are 1 10 pale 15 2 1 4 12 peta! Grand'totalon ; —_ 5 33 12 1 — 35 12 1 8 38 —_— spes: Grand totalaacs. .2 eee 33 71 6 — — %) 68 40 — 19 89 2 TABLE 2.—;FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCALE CouNtTSs IN MALES or GARMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES ree Number of scales Tranverse rows Longitudinal rows behind pectoral Population 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 schultzi: Below Maracaibo City.... 1 2 9 6 = ae 8 10 1 — 9 10 1 Waehti@lubs.cas: ssaases — — 4 — — — — 1 3 —- 2 2 —_ Salinaenicanan eee — — 1 1 2 — — — 5 —- 4 1 spes: Venezuela... 35 coeicca oe — 5 16 15 1 2 10 24 1 21 28 3 TABLE 3.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF SCALE CouNTS IN FEMALES OF GERMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES j SMU Number of scales Transverse rows Longitudinal rows behind pectoral Population 9 | 10] 11 | 12 | 18-] 14] 15 | 16 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 SCHULZ eae ac ee Below Maracaibo City....... 3 2 1 5 1)—>| =>] — 3 4 2 3{/—}|/—] 2 9 3) [== Yacht Club atin s core vie hee. oe —|—}]—]— 1 1}/—{]—]}—J]— 1 1/—}y—j— 1;— 1 SalinatRica jes so skies Gane —;—}]—jy —] — 2)/—);—y—]—]— 1 1{}—|]— 1 1 spes: Venezuela... oS Ss —|— 2 4 |) 13] 15 4 1 |} — | — | 23 | 20 1 || — 6 | 25 | 18 6 Panama oe baie eee —}—|]— 1 1|— 1}/—y—{|]— 1 1);— 1 1 1);—!-— Nov. 15, 1944 namely, hildebrandi, spilota, spes, homochroma, pallens, gemmata, and medvocricula, have been described by me at different times during the past four years. Two other species, Gobius chiquita Jenkins and Evermann and Gobiosoma macrodon Beebe and Tee-Van, generally placed in other genera by authors, should also be in- cluded in Garmannia. The above species to- gether with paradozxa, the genotype, and the one here described, schultzi, constitute a total of 11 species now known, which are comprised within the limits of Garmannia. Other species hitherto placed by authors in Garmannia ap- parently should be transferred to other genera. (Gobiosoma diguet: Pellegrin, inadequately de- scribed, the type of which is presumably in the Paris Museum and has not been examined by me, possibly also belongs to Garmannia.) It is, therefore, timely to give a short resume of the genus. The 11 species of Garmannia show differences of varying degrees, some of them diverging widely in their morphological characters as compared with others. In order to display prominently the divergences for taxonomic pur- poses the genus may be divided into a number of subgenera, as follows: Subgenus Tigrigobius Fowler Tigrigobius Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- _ delphia 83: 401. 1931. Genotype: Garmannia macrodon (Beebe and Tee-Van) =Gobiosoma macrodon Beebe and Tee-Van (Zoologica 10: 226. 1928). Besides the genotype, pallens is also refer- rable to Tigrigobius. This subgenus differs from all others in the dentition of the upper jaw. The outer row of teeth ends about midway between the symphysis and the angle of the mouth and the last tooth in the row.is caninoid, appreci- ably larger than the teeth anterior to it. The maxillary is rather long, attaining approxi- mately to the posterior margin of the eye. The head is strongly compressed. The squamation covers about the posterior third of the body in pallens and is reduced to a small patch on the caudal peduncle in macrodon. The color pattern is sharply cross-banded in macrodon, more moderately so in pallens. Gobicula, n. subg. Genotype: Garmannia gemmata Ginsburg (Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 98 (14): 3. 1939). GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 379 This monotypic subgenus is nearest to Tigrigobius, nearly agreeing with it in the back- ward extension of the maxillary and the head shape. It differs in the dentition of the upper jaw, which, as in the other subgenera, except Tigrigobius, has the teeth in the outer row extending nearly to the angle of the mouth and the posterior teeth are somewhat smaller than the anterior ones. The squamation is confined to the caudal peduncle. The cross-banded color pattern is obsolescent. Gobiolepis, n. subg. Genotype: Garmannia hildebrandi Ginsburg (JOURN. WASHINGTON ACAD. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). Besides the genotype, chiquita and spilota are also referable to Gobiolepis. This subgenus dif- fers, in general, from the others, except Gobicu- lina, in the greater extent of squamation, al- though the division is not sharp when all the species are considered. The squamation on the midline extends all the way forward nearly to the pectoral base. In hildebrandt the anterior squamation, in the area anterior to the second dorsal, is much reduced, consisting largely of a rather narrow band of scales on the midline; in chiquita nearly the entire body is scaled over; while in spilota the squamation is about inter- mediate between that of the preceding two species. The maxillary ends under the posterior margin of the pupil or middle of eye. The head is depressed or subterete. The color pattern is diffusely cross-banded or no cross-bands are evident. Subgenus Garmannia Jordan and Evermann Garmannia Jordan and Evermann, Proc. Cali- fornia Acad. Sci. (2) 5: 497. 1895. Genotype: Garmannia paradoxa (Ginther) = Gobius paradoxus Ginther (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1861: 372). Besides the genotype, medtocricula, which was described from two specimens in rather indifferent condition, probably also belongs to the subgenus Garmannia. This subgenus differs from all others, except Gobiohelpis, in having the fourth transverse row of cutaneous papillae on the cheek interrupted instead of continuous. The head and maxillary are about as in Gobio- lepis. The squamation closely approaches that of Gobiolepis, but it is not quite so extensive. The posterior half of the body is scaled over; the anterior half is either naked or a median 380 row of nonimbricate or overlapping scales is present, sometimes a second incomplete row. Gobiohelpis, n. subg. Genotype: Garmannia spes Ginsburg (JOURN. WasHINGTON Acap. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). This subgenus comprises spes and schultz. It differs from all other subgenera in lacking a transverse row of scales on the caudal base. In other characters it nearly agrees with the sub- genus Garmannia. Gobiculina, n. subg. Genotype: Garmannia homochroma Ginsburg (JOURN. WASHINGTON ACAD. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). This monotypic subgenus differs from all others in having a small barbel below the an- terior nostril, a very long maxillary which ex- tends somewhat behind the eye, at least in the male, and a markedly depressed head. The extent of squamation is about as in Gobiolepis. Remarks.—The above is a brief outline of some of the characters, which omits for the sake of brevity some other pertinent but less well marked characters. There are apt to be differ- GRANTS The WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES has been allotted certain moneys from the Academy Grants Fund of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for the purpose of making grants in aid to young and promising scientists who have worthwhile research projects but lack the funds to continue work on them. The funds may be applied to the purchase of necessary equipment or supplies, but they are not to be used toward publication costs. 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OFFICERS OF THB ACADEMY | President: CLument L. Garner, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Secretary: FERDINAND G. BrRICKWEDDB, National Bureau of Standards. — Treasurer: Howarp 8S. Rappipys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. _ Archivist: Navuan R. Smrru, Bureau of Plant Industry. | Raid is Neer Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Serzumr, U. 8. National Museum, Paine Og ee JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 ETHNOLOGY .—The Delaware Indians as women.) DECEMBER 15, 1944 No. 12 C. A. WrestaGcer, Archaeol- ogical Society of Delaware. (Communicated by Witiiam N. Fenton.) Among the strange concepts in the social symbolism of the American Indian tribes of the East was the treatment accorded a van- quished enemy group by the victors. We have heard much repeated, analyzed, and even contradicted accounts in a century and - a half of historical literature concerning the relationship between the Five Nations Iro- quois and the Delaware Nation, culminat- - Ing in the degradation of the latter. The ‘Five Nations relegated the Delaware to a position of ““women’’ by applying the sym- bolic attributes of the female to them as a nation of women, devoid of political or mili- tary power. This subjugation and lowering of status of the enemy were linked with sex- -ual connotations, real and symbolical, which are fraught with mystery and which placed the Delaware tribe in a subservient social position. As women they could not go to war or negotiate peace treaties. In fact, their entire political organization by this act of humiliation was deprived of masculine prerogatives. They were com- pelled to accept the chiefs of the Iroquois Confederacy, the League of Five Nations, as their spokesmen, agents and overlords in the political family of nations. . Loskiel, the Moravian historian, was among the first contemporary observers to eall attention in print to the Delaware in their status as women. The story related to him either directly by Delaware informants, or more probably to him through his fellow missionary Heckewelder, was that in the distant past the Five Nations met with the Delaware and convinced them that it was senseless for the Indians to war against each other as they had been doing. The Five 1 Received October 4, 1944. Nations proposed, therefore, that the Dela- ware tribe accept an honorable, noncom- batant position as peacemakers. In such a role they would not engage in combat and consequently as a neutral party could nego- tiate. peace between warring tribes. The right was one that belonged to the ‘‘tribal matrons’”’ as the position accorded women was regarded in their social policies, who could with impunity propose cessation of hostilities to their men fighters. Such sub- terfuge would permit their warriors to ‘save face,’’ since it would not be necessary for either of them to sue for peace. Yet both would be spared further bloodshed. The Delaware, so their story went, accepted this respected position as matrons. During a ceremony that marked the occasion, the Iroquois, according to the Delaware ver- sion, are supposed to have said: ‘‘We dress you in a woman’s long habit reaching down to your feet and adorn you with earrings,” meaning that they should not take up arms again. ‘‘We hang a calabash filled with oil and medicine on your arms,” meaning that they should use the oil to clean the ears of those who could not distinguish good from evil, and also use the medicine to heal those walking in evil. ‘‘We deliver unto your hands a plant of Indian corn and a hoe,” meaning that they should thereafter be as women.” Later the Delaware claimed that they had been duped, their independence for- feited, their autonomy humiliated. After ac- cepting the pact in good faith, they said that they found they had sacrificed their individual rights and the Five Nations were exploiting them and that they were helpless 2G. H. Losxret, History of the mission of the United Brethren, etc.: 126, London, 1794. 381 382 to retaliate, having obligated themselves by their sacred word of honor which could not be broken. The Five Nations told an entirely differ- ent story. They averred that the Delaware version was a complete fabrication to win sympathy. They maintained they had con- quered the Delaware fairly in open battle and as a penalty had reduced them to the disgraceful position of women. Thus the impartial observer has found himself faced with two opposing views and is at a loss to settle on the correct one. Zeisberger® pre- sents the two sides to the controversy as does Heckewelder,* although the latter’s conclusions are that the Delaware story was the authentic one. He deduced from in- formation given him that the Dutch had instigated the scheme to weaken the Dela- ware. Morgan claims that it is true that the Five Nations defeated the Delaware and that the latter acknowledged their depend- ence by sending tributary wampum but were not then reduced to womanhood. How- ever, Morgan says that while the Delaware were under the protection of the Five Na- tions they made inroads upon a western nation also under Five Nations dominance. To punish the Delaware for their unauthor- ized conduct a deputation of Iroquois chiefs went among them and degraded them from the rank of a tributary nation to that of women. Morgan unfortunately does not give us the source of his information. He makes an obvious error by stating that the Delaware ‘“‘never emancipated themselves after this act of denationalization,’’ as we shall shortly see.® Brinton devotes a chapter to the Dela- ware aS women but touches only superfi- cially upon the historical events from 1754 to 1758, when the relationship between the Delaware tribe and Five Nations reached its climax and when the details of the fem- 8’ David Zeisberger’s History of the Northern American Indians, ed. by A. M. Hulbert and W. N. Schwarze. Ohio State University, 1910. 4 JoHN HECKEWELDER, History, manners and customs of the Indian Nations. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1876. > Lewis H. Morean, League of the. quots; 328-329. New York, 1922. .. Lro- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 inization stand out in clearer perspective. Brinton says that the feminizing occurred around 1725 and that the Five Nations made the Delaware as women in conse- quence of their refusal to join in an attack on the English settlements. This explana- tion is based entirely on an interpretation given him by Shawnee informants but is not tenable, for the Five Nations were long known to be pro-English.® The writer has had the good fortune to uncover hitherto unrecognized sources in the Provincial Records of Pennsylvania re- garding the Delaware as women. The refer- ences at hand do not entirely explain but they add measurably to our understanding of this little known and much debated diplo- matic contention. Early in colonial history, the Five Na- tions (later known as the Six Nations) as- sumed a position of dominance over the Indians living in the Delaware and Susque- hanna River Valleys.’ After defeating the Susquehannock Indians, they seized con- trol of the Susquehanna Valley and ap- pointed their agent Shikellamy to supervise the affairs of the Susquehannock as well as the Shawnee, Conoy, Nanticoke, and others who had lately settled in the region by their invitation.® As aresult of white intrigue in land sales and the pressure exerted by the Five Na- tions, the Delaware Indians, who had formerly occupied eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the northern parts of Delaware as a solid nation, began to experi- ence political disintegration. By 1712 some remained in New Jersey; a larger body of 6D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their legends. Philadelphia, 1885. 7 For a summation of the Iroquois and their historical position, see WitLt1am N,. FENTON, Problems arising from the historic northeastern position of the Iroquois, Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 100: 159-251. May 1940. 8 The present author discusses the subjection of the Nanticoke in The Nanticoke Indians in early Pennsylvania history, Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. and Biogr., Oct. 1943: 345-355. Additional data are presented in an essay, The Nanticoke Indians, their emperors and estates, to be published soon by the Historical Society of Delaware. For a discussion of the absorption into the League of these subjected tribes see FRANK G. Speck, The Nanticoke and Conoy Indians. His- torical Society of Delaware, 1927. Dec. 15, 1944 Munsee affiliation was settled at the forks of the Delaware near present Easton; some were living on the Schuylkill River; and a few families remained on the upper Brandy- wine. Others had moved west and were liv- ing on the Susquehanna, and some had even straggled farther west to establish themselves in the Allegheny Valley at Kit- tanning. In May, 1712, Sassoonan, also called Al- lumapees, and Skalitchy, chiefs of the Unami Delawares, met with the Pennsy]l- vania governor and acquainted him that “many years ago being made tributary to the Mingoes or 5 Nations and being now about to visit them,” they deemed it proper to show the governor the tribute they were carrying to their overlords. It consisted of 32 belts of wampum. The chiefs also exhibited a pipe with a stone head, which had been given them by the Five Nations who, they frankly admitted, ‘had subdued them and obliged them to be their tributaries.’’® This is an important reference because it is the earliest admission appearing in the public documents, by the Delaware them- selves, that they had actually been sub- dued by the Iroquois. Two years later Sas- soonan said in another conference that the “Five Nations had often told them that they were as Women only and desired them to plant corn and mind their own private business for that they [the Five Nations] would take care of what related to war and peace.’’!° By 1742 the Delaware Indians remaining at the forks of the Delaware near Easton demanded that the English make restitu- tion for the lands which they had confis- cated, especially in the fraudulent “walking purchase” of 1737. The English produced ® Minutes of the Provincial Council 2: 546. This set of records on which most of this essay is based - will be referred to hereafter as ‘‘Minutes.”’ It was issued in 16 volumes, under the full title, Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, pub- lished by the State. Volumes 1, 2, and 3 were printed by Jo. Severns & Co., Philadelphia, 1852. Volumes 4 to 16, inclusive, were printed by Theo. Fenn & Co., Harrisburg, 1851-1852. 10 Minutes 3: 334. Sassoonan is believed by ne historians to be a son of the famous Tama- nend., WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 383 deeds to prove that they had paid for the lands. The controversy reached its climax at a meeting held on July 12, 1742, with the Pennsylvania authorities. Also present were Canassatego and Shikellamy representing the Five Nations; Sassoonan representing the Unami Delawares then living at Sham- okin; and Nutimus and other chiefs repre- senting the Delaware Munsi living at the forks whose lands were the point at issue. At this meeting Canassatego made a speech, now famous in Indian history. He upbraided these Delaware chiefs unmerci- fully for questioning the words of ‘‘their fathers,’’ the English, and then he said: “But how came you to sell land at all? We conquered you, we made Women of you, you know you are Women, and can no more sell land than women.... We therefore assign you to two places to go, either to Wyomon or Shamokin. You may go to either of these Places, and then we shall have you more under our Eye and shall see how you behave.”’!! He forthwith seized the Delaware speaker by the hair and forced him out of the coun- cil room. Canassatego, as we have reason to believe, may have conspired with the Eng- lish to rid the land of the Delaware, but the fact remains that his accusation of the Iroquois having made the Delaware as women through conquest stood without re- futation. Two bands of Delaware, humbly yet re- luctantly, settled at the two assigned vil- lages under the vigilant eye of Shikellamy, the Five Nation agent. In a short time, some of them moved farther west to join the growing bands of the Allegheny under the leadership of the two brothers, Chief Beaver and Chief Shingas.!? Sassoonan re- mained on the Susquehanna River with 11 Minutes 4: 578. As we know today, Wyomon, or Wyoming, was on the north branch of the Sus- quehanna River near present Wilkes Barre, Pa. Shamokin was near the present site of Sunbury, a. 122 C, Hae Sipe, Indian wars of Pennsylvania: 276, Harrisburg, 1929, points out that they were brothers. Beaver’s son Peter later became a rene- gade leader of some of the Delaware; see Minutes 7: 381. Shingas and Beaver are believed to have been nephews of Sassoonan, and thus descendants of the great chief Tamanend. Like Tamanend, they were members of the Turkey Clan. 384 others of his tribe until the time of his death about 1748.18 For a time following his death, the Delaware were without a national leader. Finally, from the village Wyoming, a new figure arose to lead them, a chief who was to become one of the greatest Dela- ware sachems of all time—Tedyuskung, or as he was called in English, Honest John." In 1755 he was acknowledged by the Five Nations as the Delaware “‘king.’’® | With the changes in Indian political life. there were also transitions taking place among the whites which must be given due attention for a full understanding of Indian relations. By 1754 the situation in colonial affairs was as follows: The French and English had crossed paths in the New World and were about to declare war on each other. The Five Nations allied themselves with the English, promis- ing the assistance of the tribes then under their domination, including Delaware, Nan- ticoke, Conoy, Shawnee, Twightwee, and Susquehannock (called Conestoga). The French, in turn, were doing their utmost to incite the Indians to arise and join them in an attack on the English. The French were especially determined to gain control of the Ohio Valley and its tributaries, and sent their emissaries to contact the Delaware and Shawnee living there and solicit their aid. They threatened the Indians with ex- tinction if they did not join them in warring against the English. Out of this crisis, well recorded by colonial scribes, we can see the Delaware breaking their feminine shackles. In 1754 one of the Delaware bands sensing they were in jeopardy sent 3 Minutes 5: 222 state that the Delawares in 1748 were looking for a proper person to succeed “Olomipas, the King of the Delawares lately de- ceased.” In Vol. 7, p. 726, it is brought out that he was of the Unami, the ‘‘sub-tribe’’ who claimed hereditary chieftainship over the other Dela- wares, according to Brinton, op. cit. 4 Sipe, op. cit., p. 262, says that Tedyuskung was the son of John Harris and was born in Tren- ton, circa 1705. This is corroborated in Minutes 7: 359, where it is stated that he had moved from New Jersey to Wyoming. Also in Vol. 7, p. 220, it is noted that Tedyuskung had three sons, Amos, Kesmitas, and John Jacob. Later we see that a chief named Captain Bull was termed a son of Tedyuskung. Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 302, says that Tedyuskung joined the Indian Christian congregation in 1749 and was baptized and given the name Gideon. 16 Minutes 7: 199. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 34, No. 12 the following message to the Five Nations; the italics are mine: “Uncles the United Nations. We expect to be killed by the French your fathers; we desire, therefore, that you will take off our petticoat that we may fight for ourselves, our Wives and Children; in the condition We are in you know we can do nothing.’’!® Their ‘condition’? as women meant that they were unable to protect themselves. The Delaware chief Beaver also addressed himself to the Five Nations as follows; the italics are mine: 7 “Uncles: I still remember the time when you first conquered us and made Women of us and told Us you took Us under your Pro- tection and that we must not meddle with Wars but stay in the House and mind Coun- cil affairs. We have hitherto followed your directions and lived very easy under your Protection, and no high Wind did blow to make us uneasy, but now things seem to take another turn and a high wind is rais- ing. We desire you, therefore, Uncles, to have your eyes open and watchful over us, your Cousins, as you have always been here- tofore.’’!7 _ Tedyuskung, speaking at a council meet- ing with the English in 1755, voiced a hope that the Delawares would eventually be emancipated from womanhood when he said: “Tho our Uncles have made Women of Us, yet in time to come We may have chil- dren, who when born, may look up and see the Sun and Sky clear and the Roof open between Us and You; and we will advise them to take and always continue to hold fast by the middle of that Chain as their ancestors have done before them.’’!8 After Braddock’s defeat by the French and Indians, there was terrible bloodshed on the Pennsylvania frontier. The Dela- ware, still angered at the confiscation of — their lands by the English and goaded on by the French, joined the Shawnee and de- serted the English interests. They allied with the French, detached themselves from their dependence on the Five Nations, and went on the warpath. They burned many 16 Minutes 6: 36. 17 Minutes 6: 155. 18 Minutes 6: 363. Dec. 15, 1944 homes, scalped settlers, and took scores of women and children prisoners. They re- vealed themselves as ruthless warriors and not the peaceful women they were reputed to be. The Five Nations sent an ultimatum to the Delaware to cease hostilities against the English with whom the Five Nations were then more closely allied than ever before. The Delaware refused flatly and replied as follows to the message from their overlords; the italics are mine: “We are men and are determined not to be ruled any longer by you as Women; And we are determined to cut off all the English except those that may make their escape from us in Ships. So say no more to us on that Head, lest we cut off your Private Parts and make Women of you as you have done of Si The English, with the endorsement of the Five Nations, subsequently declared war on the Delaware, offering bounties for their scalps. Here followed a period of conflict that does not now concern us. By 1756, however, the Delaware repented having attacked the English, and Tedyus- kung opened negotiations with the English for a permanent peace and a satisfactory settlement of the land disputes. The Five Nations then aware that the Delaware were no longer willing to remain in the in- ferior position of women felt it expedient to allow them more latitude. Tedyuskung ap- peared before the Pennsylvania Council in July of 1756 and exhibited a wampum belt. ‘““This belt,”’ he said, ‘‘denotes that the Six Nations by their chiefs have lately re- newed their covenant chains with us; for- merly we were Accounted Women, and employed only in Women’s business, but now they have made men of us and as such we now come to this Treaty having the au- thority as a Man to make peace.’’?® Tedyuskung exaggerated when he claimed that the Iroquois had made them completely men, for it was a masculinity with the specific reservation that the Dela- ware refrain from making war. In fact, the wampum belt sent to Tedyuskung by the Iroquois, which he exhibited, had been ac- 19 Minutes 7: 522. 20 Minutes 7: 213. WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 385 companied by the following significant mes- sage: “‘Cousins, the Delaware Indians: You will remember that you are our women; our forefathers made you so, and put a petticoat on you and charged you to be true to us and lie with no other man. But of late you have Suffered the string that tied your petticoat to be cut loose by the French and you lay with them and so became a common bawd, in which you did very wrong and deserve Chastisement, but notwithstanding this, we will still Esteem you, and as you have thrown off the Cover of your modesty and become Stark naked which is a shame for a woman, we now give you a little Prick and put it into your Private Parts, and so let it grow there till you shall be a compleat man. We advise you to act as a woman yet, But be first instructed by us, and do as we bid you and you will become a noted man.’’?! Thus did the Five Nations express themselves as willing to have the Delaware eventually rate full manhood provided they followed their bidding. They were re- luctant to relinquish a control they had exercised over the vanquished tribe for many years, but they realized they were now dealing with warriors who might sud- denly turn against them as they did against the English. The Pennsylvania governor, desirous of verifying Tedyuskung’s standing, sent an Iroquois messenger named New Castle to confer with the Five Nation chiefs to ap- praise the status of the Delaware. New Castle conferred with several sachems, in- cluding Canyase, a Mohawk chief and one of the principal counselors of the League. Canyase admitted having had a long dis- course with Tedyuskung, at which time he reminded him that the Delaware were women, and in attacking the English had behaved in a manner not becoming to their condition. ‘“‘But,’’ Canyase had said to Tedyuskung, ‘‘since you have been so fool- ish as to obey that voice, a Stranger’s voice and cut off your Pettycoats and taken the Tomahawk and now appear in the Char- acter of a Man. I join and help to cut off your Pettycoats, and so far make a Man of you, but I do not put the Tomahawk in 21 Minutes 7: 218. 386 your hand. I know what is for your good and therefore I will not allow you to carry a Tomahawk.’’” Having had his figurative skirts removed, Tedyuskung’s position was strengthened, and he embarked on a program to consoli- date the Indians. Within a short time he claimed to be not only the “king” of the Delaware but a “‘spokesman”’ empowered by ten nations, namely, “the Lenopi, Wenami, Munsey, Mahickon, Tiawaco or Nanticokes, Senecas, Onandogas, Cayugas, Oneidas and Mohawks.’’? Furthermore, his position was strengthened when he was ap- pointed by the English as one of their In- dian agents, and in his dealings he was assisted by Charles Thompson, a Philadel- phia Quaker and a champion of Indian rights, who served as the chief’s secretary in some of the conferences with the whites.” At a council meeting with the Pennsyl- vania authorities held at Easton, Tedyus- kung announced that he was now a man. He said (the italics are mine): ‘“‘Now you may remember I was stiled by my uncles the Six Nations a Woman in former years and had no hatchet in my hand, but a pestle or Hominy pounder. But now, Brethren, here are some of my Uncles, who are present to witness the truth of this; as I had no Tomahawk and my Uncles were always stiled Men and had Toma- 22 Minutes 7: 297. New Castle’s Indian name was Cashiowayah. He succeeded Scarroyady who succeeded Shikellamy as the Iroquois agent over the tributary tribes. 23 Minutes 7: 665. Tedyuskung’s genius is evi- denced in the adroit way he renewed friendship with the English after the frontier massacres, and at the same time outsmarted the Five Nations. That he exercised authority he did not rightfully possess must now be admitted, although it was then not known to the English. In 1758 he said that eight more nations had joined the ten he al- ready represented, namely, ‘‘Ottawas, Twight- wees, Chippewas, Toawaws, Caughnawagos, Ma- hoowa, Pietoatomaws, and Nalashawwna.”’ See Minutes 8: 33. 24 Minutes 7: 664. Tedyuskung was probably the first Indian chief to appear at a meeting with his own secretary to make a written record of the transaction. The whites usually were the only party of the contract who had a written record, and this obviously placed them in an advanta- geous position, because the Indians were forced to trust to memory. See also CHARLES THOMPSON, An inquiry into the causes of the alienation of the eae and Shawnee Indians. Philadelphia, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 hawks in their Hands, they gave me a Tomahawk. And as my Uncles have given me a Tomahawk and appointed and au- thorized me to make peace with a Toma- hawk in my Hand, I take that Tomahawk and turn the edge of it against your en- emies, the French.” Thus, by diplomatic negotiation, Tedy- uskung placed the Five Nations in the posi- tion of being forced to recognize the Dela- ware as men. If they refused to give them the tomahawk and prohibited them from fighting, it would displease the English and make it appear that the Five Nations were unwilling to support the English cause with all their resources. 3 Those of his ‘uncles’? whom Tedyuskung offered in witness to the statement that he was now a man were not members of the Great Council but young Iroquois braves who had no authority to speak for their elders, although the English seemingly were not fully aware of this. At a subsequent conference in 1758, a delegation of bona fide Five Nations chiefs, angered at Tedyuskung’s self-imposed au- thority, demanded to know who gave him the authority he claimed. For a moment, his fate hung in the balance, and the fate of the Delaware as a whole, but having won > the confidence of the English and of his own people, he managed to retain his position of importance. He was also shrewd enough when confronted by his Iroquois critics to answer that while he was a chief of the Delaware he was only a humble messenger of his ‘‘Uncles and Superiors.’’?6 Neverthe- less, he had effectively severed the bonds of womanhood, even though the Delaware continued to rely on the Five Nations for advice and to respect their wishes. The Five Nations, in turn, no longer commanded the Delaware, but on one occasion “‘asked”’ as their indulgent uncles that they return the English captives they had taken during the earlier frontier incidents.?” It is also significant that the Delaware’s emancipation from the Five Nations was known and accepted by other tribes, as evidenced in a note sent to Tedyuskung in - 2 Minutes 7: 710. 26 Minutes 8: 191-192. 27 Minutes 8: 194. Dec. 15, 1944 1758 by the Cherokee in which this excerpt appears. “Formerly, you used to Wear a petticoat and did not go to war, etc.’’8 Nevertheless, the reader must not gather the impression that all of the Delaware were immediately relieved of the pressure from the Five Nations. The tribe at that time was widely scattered, and some of the outlying Munsee bands continued to be dominated by the Seneca. In May, 1758, a Seneca chief reported in a conference with the whites that the ‘“Munseys are Women and can not hold treaties for themselves.’’2° The Munsee, as we know today, were affili- ates of the Unami, or Delaware proper, but like the Mahican were a separate political entity. Tedyuskung’s decease, a sudden and ir- reparable loss to the Delaware, was a tragic one. On April 16, 1763, he was burned to death in a fire which razed his cabin at Wyoming. It is said that the old chief was in a drunken stupor and that the Five Na- tions started the fire with the deliberate purpose of killing him.*° During the Revolution the Five Nations continued in their alliance with the English, whereas most of the Delaware went over to the American cause. In 1775, at a meeting in Pittsburgh, the Seneca made a final effort to win the Delawares over to their side, and reminded them that they had once been women. The Seneca had apparently never reconciled themselves to the fact that the Delaware had regained their manhood, nor publicly admitted it. The Delaware chief, Captain White Eyes (Koquethagechton of the Turtle Clan) replied as follows to the insinuation: ) “You say that you had conquered me, that you had cut off my legs—had put a petticoat on me, giving me a hoe and corn pounder in my hands saying: ‘Now woman! Your business henceforward shall be to plant and hoe corn and pound the same for bread for us men and warriors.’ Look at my legs! If as you say, you had cut them off, they have grown again to their 28 Minutes 8: 136. 29 Minutes 8: 158. 30 Gro. P. DonEHOO, in Hodge, F. W. (Ed.) Handbook of American Indians, Bur. per: Eth- nol., Bull. 30, 2: 714-717. 1910. WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 387 proper size!—the petticoat I have thrown away, and have put on my proper dress; the corn hoe and pounder I have exhanged for these firearms and I declare that I am a man.’’# In 1779 the Delaware under the leader- ship of Captain White Eyes joined Colonel Daniel Brodhead in an expedition against | the Seneca. Thus they showed their con- tempt even more eloquently than in words. After White Eyes’ death, some of the Dela- ware were persuaded by Captain Pipe, an- other Delaware chief, to go over to the British side, and once more they were allied with their former Iroquois overlords. In the upheaval in the Indians’ social and political organizations during the Revolution, it is exceedingly difficult to find either continu- ity or consistency in their behavior. In 1794, shortly before the treaty of Greenville, the Five Nations delegates came forward to declare officially that the Lenape (Delaware) were no longer women but men, and the famous chief Joseph Brant formally placed in their hands the war club. CONCLUSIONS Without presuming to add finality to the question of the Delaware as women, we can draw from our data, which contain specific admissions by Delaware speakers of their defeat, that the Five Nations feminized the Delaware prior to 1712 through conquest. Between then and 1756, the Five Nations treated the Delaware contemptuously, pro- hibiting them from going to war or making treaties. Following Braddock’s defeat the Delaware went on the warpath against the English, refusing to accede to the demands of the Five Nations that they lay down their arms. Under the leadership of Tedyuskung, the Delaware by 1756 declared that they were not women and forced the Five Na- tions to accept them on new and more lib- eral terms. However, the Five Nations did not then grant them complete manhood and withheld granting them permission to go to war. 31 JoHN HECKEWELDER, Narrative of the mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians: 140-141. Philadelphia, 1820. 32 HECKEWELDER, op. cit.: 70; SCHWEINITZ, Life of David Zeisberger: 430, 641. - 388 During the Revolution, the Delaware denied they were in any way under Five Nations’ domination and joined the colon- ists in fighting the English and their Five Nation allies. Finally, as an anticlimactic gesture, at the close of the Revolution, the Iroquois conceded that the Delaware were no longer women but men. In the sexual symbolism of the feminiz- ing, we recognize unfathomed depths in native philosophy. Whether the figurative deprivation of the Delaware of their male accoutrements, both physiological and cul- tural, had its origin in literal practices re- mains unknown. Brinton claims, quoting JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 12 Hammond, that young men of some of the western tribes were deprived of their viril- ity, clothed like women, and assigned to women’s work.*®® The institution of the berdache or transvestite was widespread among American tribes, which attests to its antiquity, and it is well known from the Plains. However, the feminizing of the Delaware, which follows similar lines of thought, is the outstanding recorded in- stance of its kind in the East. It is probably the only time that the rite was so institu- tionalized as to affect the status of an entire tribal group. 33 Brinton, op. cit.: 110. PALEONTOLOGY.—Thyridocrinus, a new wnadunate crinoid genus from the Stlurian. In 1908, Slocum described a crinoid from the Niagaran of Illinois as Achradocrinus patulus. This is the first recorded occurrence of a crinoid referable to the family Gaste- rocomidae in the Silurian. In 1926, Springer described a crinoid from the Middle Silurian of Tennessee, which he placed with doubt in the genus Lecythiocrinus. He specifically states that the form could not be referred to the Gasterocomidae. In the present paper both of these species are included in a new genus Thyridocrinus, which is placed in the Gasterocomidae. Thyridocrinus, n. gen. Genoty pe.—Lecythiocrinus? problematicus Springer. Only the theca is known, but this is in an ex- cellent state of preservation. Both species re- ferred to the genus are small. Dorsal cup. Low, broadly turbinate, composed of very heavy plates. IBB. Three elements. The unfused JB is right- posterior in position. BB. Small, except the posterior, which is con- siderably larger than the others in the type species. In the type species the distal face of post B forms the lower margin of the exposed lateral opening. In 7. patulus a plate is inter- posed between post B and the opening. 1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received August 30, 1944. Epwin Kirk, U.S. Geological Survey. RR. Large, with very large articulating faces. The arms must have been very heavy and directed nearly horizontally outward, closely simulating Arachnocrinus. The articulating face is pierced by a submedian axial canal. The distal portions of the radials form a broad shelf, leaving a relatively small area to be covered by the tegminal plates. The two posterior radials meet above the lateral open- ing. Post IR. As noted above, in the type species the lateral opening is bounded below by the post B. In T. patulus a plate rests on the truncated distal face of post B, and this in turn forms the lower margin of the lateral opening. The significance of this plate and the nature of the lateral opening will be dis- cussed later. Tegmen. The greater part of the tegmen con- - sists of a somewhat elevated rosette of ir- regularly disposed plates. At a lower level, between the rosette and the inner margins of the radials, are small groups of tegminal plates lying in the interambulacral areas. Each interambulacral area has from one to three of these plates. The rosette consists in the main of five orals. The posterior oral is large and is probably a madreporite, al- though pores cannot be made out with cer- tainty. Radiating from the periphery cf the rosette and covering the ventral groove of each radial is a double row of covering plates Dec. 15, 1944 having a biserial arrangement. These doubt- less extended outward, covering the ventral groove of the arm. Column. Lumen circular, as judged by the perforation of the JBB. Geological range.—Thyridocrinus is known at present only in the Middle Silurian of Illinois and Indiana. Species referred to the genus.— Thyridocrinus problematicus (Springer), n. comb. (?) Lecythiocrinus problematicus Springer, 1926, p. 1338, pl. 31, figs. 11, lla, 11b: ‘“‘Laurel lime- stone, Niagara, St. Paul, Indiana.”’ As photographed and described by Springer the type specimen of 7. problematicus had the infrabasals intact. When first seen by me the specimen was mounted, base down, on a bit of plasticine affixed to a strip of light cardboard. Upon detaching the specimen it was found that the BB were missing. The contact faces of the surrounding basals are perfectly clear and show that the arrangement of the BB was that de- scribed and figured by Springer. The one miss- ing structure is the lumen. Thyridocrinus patulus (Slocum), n. comb. ‘Achradocrinus patulus Slocum, 1908, p. 288, pl. 85, figs. 1-4: limestone at Romeo [Illinois].”’ Elsewhere, pages 273-275, Slocum explains that these silicified fossils found at Romeo came from postglacial clays filling erosion chan- nels in the Niagaran dolomite. The original : source of the crinoid and associated fossils was a limestone near Lemont, IIl., some 5 miles dis- tant. This limestone in place yielded a fauna that Slocum considered very much like that of the Silurian at St. Paul, Ind. (Laurel lime- stone). Slocum’s reference of his species to Achra- docrinus is quite understandable but can not be maintained. Shultze’s figures of Achradocrinus ventrorsus (1866, pl. 12, figs. 6, 6a) could be interpreted as showing the radial facets pierced by axial canals. His diagram, page 101 (213), fig. 19, and his description on the same page unequivocally indicate the presence of such canals. The actual type specimen (M.C.Z. 1238) shows that such is not the case, however. The specimen has been treated with acid, but the dark matrix filling the ventral grooves of KIRK: A NEW SILURIAN CRINOID “Clay pockets of the Niagara 389 the radials has not been removed in some cases. It is clearly shown that there is a deep, fairly narrow, open groove without a separate axial canal. Again, the articulating facets of the radials are small and quite unlike those of Gasterocoma or Thyridocrinus. Incidentally, the lumen of the column is pentagonal. T. patulus agrees well with T. problematicus except for the presence of the supplementary plate in the post IR. This will be discussed later. Slocum (p. 288) assumed anchylosis of the BB. In closely united circlets of plates the presence or absence of sutures is often a matter of per- sonal opinion, and in silicified specimens such as this usually no sound judgment can be formed. Relationships.—The most obvious difference between Thyridocrinus and Gasterocoma is the possession of three infrabasal elements in the former as against the anchylosed circlet in the latter. The well-defined rosette of apposed orals of Thyridocrinus is quite at variance with any known tegminal structure in species referred to Gasterocoma. The apparently circular columnar lumen of Thyridocrinus as judged by the per- foration of the IBB is quite unlike the quadri- partite perforation of Gasterocoma. As to the presence of peripheral canals in Thyridocrinus, no information is to be had. Remarks.—Springer (1926, p. 1383) recog- nized a ‘‘superficial resemblance”’ of his species to the Gasterocomidae but stated that “it is definitely excluded from them by its lack of un- divided infrabasal disk and peripheral axial canals.’’ On the contrary, the form seems to be linked closely to the Gasterocomidae and fur- nishes a logical Middle Silurian ancestral struc- ture for the Middle Devonian genera. The tri- partite infrabasal circlet is the customary inter- mediate stage between five 7BB and an anchy- losed ring. The central lumen of the column with peripheral canals occurs elsewhere among the Inadunata and, although interesting structur- ally, is of doubtful value in defining systematic units. In any event, we do not know the col- umn of Thyridocrinus, and the fact that no signs of peripheral canals are shown on the JBB is inconclusive, to say the least. In my opinion, the species has no relationship to Lecythio- crinus, with which it agrees only in the posses- sion of three infrabasal units and a lateral open- ing. Apart from the immediate consideration of structure as applied to Thyridocrinus the struc- 390 ture of the posterior interradius of the Gastero- comidae has far wider implications. We have in effect in these forms an incipient anal tube. We find one or more of the proximal tube plates enlarging and becoming incorporated in the cup. In the case where a single tube plate hypertrophies and becomes fixed in the cup one has a structure that is certainly analogous to that in Cyathocrinus and its near allies. Per- sonally, I believe the plates in the two cases to be homologous. An examination of Schultze’s (1866) figures of Gasterocoma or, of course even better, an examination of actual specimens will show a ‘great variation in the supplementary plates of the posterior interradius. In the type species, G. antiqua, almost any specimen will show one or more plates attached to the post B or to the RR at the margins of the Jateral opening. In better preserved specimens a complete ring of plates is shown, and in one specimen that I have examined the entire opening is covered. In this specimen there is a nipple-like protuber- ence composed of small plates. The tip is frac- tured, but evidently there is a small opening that is the anal opening proper. I suspect that a similar structure obtains in Schultze’s (1866) plate 12, figure 1C, where both in the figure and in the explanation of the plate the small anal opening is given as piercing the posterior basal. There is considerable variation in the size and arrangement of these covering plates. In G. antiqua the posterior basal seems most often to support two plates. Three plates are occasion- ally found, and in some specimens there is a single plate extending the full width of the dis- tal face of the basal. The simple plate structure is well shown by Schultze (1866) in pl. 12, fig. 2, 1n another species, G. miilleri. Such a plate is, I believe, comparable to the single plate shown in T. patulus, and such a structure does not militate against the inclusion of patulus within the genus Thyridocrinus. As a matter of fact, T. problematicus may have had a similar plate, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 not so well developed nor so thoroughly incor- porated in the cup. Some years ago (1934, p. 6), in the descrip- tion of the genus Corynecrinus and the estab- lishment of the family Lecythocrinidae, I sug- gested that the anal tube of Lecythocrinus and Corynecrinus might well be derived from an incipient anal tube such as is shown in Gastero- coma. In these two genera and in Cestocrinus from the Mississippian subsequently described (1940) two subequal tube plates rest on post B. Whether an anal tube be short or long is of little consequence. The fundamental structures are there in any event. Now I would go even fur- ther. In the case of many crinoids with a single plate in the posterior interradius, such as Cyathocrinus proper, I think the weight of evi- dence is strongly in favor of considering it as originally a proximal tube plate. In describing the genus Zygotocrinus (1948, p. 644) I stated my belief that the so-called RA and RT of Parisocrinus were originally tube plates. I shall now add the X of Parisocrinus as having a like origin. LITERATURE CITED Kirk, Epwin. Corynecrinus, a new Devonian crinoid genus. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 83: 1-7, pl. 1. Oct. 8, 1934. . Cestocrinus, a new fossil inadunate crinoid genus. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 88: 221-224, pl. 31. 1940. . Zygotocrinus, a new fossil inadunate crinoid genus. Amer. Journ. Sci. 241: 640-646, pl. 1. Oct. 1948. Scuuttze, Lupwic. Monographie der Echino- dermen des FEifler Kalkes. Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Kl. 26: 113-230. 1867. (Author’s edition pp. 1-118, pls. 1-13, text figs. 1866.) Stocom, A. W. New crinoids from the Chicago area. Publ. Field Columbian Mus. 123, geol. ser., 2: (10) 273-306, pls. 82-87, text figs. Jan. 3, 1908 (corrected date, date on title page Oct. 31, 1907). SPRINGER, Frank. American Silurian eri-— noids. Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 2871, pp. i-iv, 1-239, pls. 1-33. 1926. Dec. 15, 1944 DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 391 ENTOMOLOGY.—The genus Ollarianus (Homoptera: .Cicadellidae) in North America, including Mexico.' Dwieut M. DreLonea, Ohio State University. (Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.) The leafhopper genus Ollarranus was erected by Ball in 1936? to include several similar species from the Southwestern United States and Eutett:x ball: Van Duzee, a Jamaican species, which was designated as the genotype. The species of the genus are similar in color and general appearance. The vertex is short, broad, almost parallel- margined, and rounded to the front. Most species have four black spots in a row be- tween the anterior margins of the eyes. The outer and inner pairs may differ in size in different species or be entirely wanting as in strictus. There may be a pair of round black spots on the outer portion of the pronotum and in some species a pair on the scutellum. In order to identify the Mexican species, which resemble those from the southwestern United States in form and coloration, it was necessary to study the characters of the male genitalia. This study has revealed the fact that although the aedeagi may differ in form among the species of the genus, all have either one or two pairs of pygofer spines, the number, position, and type being definite for any species. Certain species ex- hibit decided affinities on the basis of gen- ital structures. For instance, strictus and bullatus can be separated only by the longer ventral spines in the latter species, while iripartitus has an aedeagus quite similar to those of strictus and bullatus. The aedeagi of ollus and vestigit are almost exactly alike, but the apical spines are entirely different. The aedeagi of lobatus, insignis, bidentatus, and armus are similar in type, and each of these species has one pair of ventral pygofer spines. The aedeagus of rudiculus, as well as that of muesebeckz, is unique in type as compared to all the other species. It is unfortunate that E. balls was made the genotype as that species was described from a single specimen from Jamaica that had lost the abdomen. The genital charac- ters for neither sex are therefore known. In spite of this fact, it has seemed advisable 1 Received September 29, 1944. | 2 Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 31: 59. 1936. to determine and illustrate the specific char- acters of the other known species and to describe those that have distinct genital characters but that have not been previ- ously treated. According to present records only one species, strzctus, is common to both the United States and Mexico. O. rubianus Ball is a member of the genus Eutettix, while Exitianus armus Ball is a member of OI- larvanus. After studying all the species which have been placed in or assigned to the genus, and examining the genitalia, it seems advisable to include in the genus the described species ballz, bullatus, strictus, rudiculus, ollus, and armus and to describe at this time six Mexican species, muese- beckt, tripartitus, insignis, bidentatus, lobatus, and vestegiz, which are new. SEPARATION OF SPECIES ON THE BASIS OF GENITAL STRUCTURES 1. Pygofer with one pair of spines............ 2 Pygofer with two pairs of spines........... 3 2. Spines basodorsal, especially long. ..bidentatus Spines more ventral, much shorter.......... PE: Sa A aye Re ae ee armus, insignis, lobatus 3. Ventral pair of spines especially short, incon- SPIGUIOUS 3 ete ake seks @etel SS, ota eae strictus Ventral spines longer, conspicuous......... - 4, Aedeagus erect, short, broadened toward apex, and appearing to have three apical processes eG ue Soe Ba Me ee eR bullatus, tripartitus Aedeagus longer, not broadened apically but usually with a pair of apical processes... .5 5. Aedeagus with a dorsally curved, hooked proc- ess at apex of elongate, slender ventral portion See IE WARS ABR ee Sat ASR Ae ea eae 6 Aedeagus not elongate and slender and without dorsally curved hooked apices........... i 6. Apical pygofer spines short, enlarged at apex, and set with pointed teeth........... ollus Apical pygofer spines long, slender, with a foot-shaped enlargement at apex... .vestigiz 7. Pygofer spines flat, broad at base, bladelike, aedeagus with a median dorsal projection. . Bee gree ep tases ot Irs TLE oo muesebeckt Pygofer spines not bladelike, broadened near apex to be spearlike, aedeagus elongate, broadened at middle, and constricted just before blunt apex............... rudiculus Ollarianus balli (Van Duzee) Eutettix ballt Van Duzee, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist. 8: 68. 1907. j 392 A small pale species with a transverse row of four black spots on anterior portion of vertex. Length 4 mm. Vertex broadly rounded scarcely longer at middle than next the eyes. Color pale testaceous-yellow, vertex with a transverse row of four black spots between the anterior margins of the eyes. The outer pair is on the ocelli, the median pair minute, the four are about equidistant in spacing. Pronotum with a round black spot behind each eye and a transverse spot on the disk. Scutellum with a pair of median brown spots. Face pale with a pair of minute spots on base. Elytra subhyaline marked with fuscous spots on clavus, disk, and apical areoles smoky. Genitalia: Nothing is known of either male or female structures. This species was described from a single specimen from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1907, the abdomen of which was missing. In order to determine the identity of this species, which has been made the genotype, it will be neces- sary to obtain a male from the same locality and determine the male structures by dissec- tion. There is no question about its generic rela- tionship to the other species included in the following pages. Ollarianus armus (Ball), n. comb. Exitianus armus Ball, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 28: 227. 1933. Vertex broadly rounded, about one-third wider between eyes at base than length at mid- dle. Length 3.7—4.5 mm. Color pale yellowish, a large round black spot next each eye just above margin, a pair of proximal small transverse spots on middle be- tween the larger spots. Pronotum with a large round black spot next each lateral margin be- hind eye, some smaller markings on disk. Scu- tellum pale with a black line along each side of apex. Elytra subhyaline, veins dark brown. Face pale with two minute spots on middle of face below margin. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment slightly excavated each side of a broad median slightly produced lobe, which is embrowned on margin. Male plates triangular, narrowing to slender apices. Styles broad at base rapidly tapered to a pointed, outwardly curved apex. Aedeagus rather short and thick with a pair of rather long pointed apical processes which are JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 directed ventrally. A dorsally produced portion arises at base. There is one pair of spines on pygofer and these arise ventrally at about the middle. . This species has been recorded for southern Arizona only, where it was taken from desert hackberry at Tucson and Superior by Dr. Ball. Ollarianus strictus (Ball), n. comb. Eutettix strictus Ball, Can. Ent. 32: 204. 1900. Chlorotetttix minor DeLong, Ohio State Univ. Bull. 23: 6. 1919. New synonym. A yellowish species usually without definite markings. Length 3.5-4 mm. Vertex broadly roundedly produced, almost twice as wide between eyes at base as median length. Color yellowish, often washed with gray and usually unmarked. Face pale yellow. Sometimes the vertex has the four characteristic small spots of other species of the genus in a trans- verse row before the eyes and a pair of small round spots on disc of scutellum. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin truncate, slightly produced at middle. Male plates broad at base, long, tri- angular with the acute apices produced and bright orange in color. The styles are rather broad to near apex where they are excavated on the outer margin to form rather pointed apices which are curved outwardly. Aedeagus short, broadened from base to form what ap- pears to be in lateral view three distinct apical portions. In ventral view these appear as lateral protrusions. There are two pairs of spines on the pygofer, a long pair that arises from the dorsal median portion and extends ventrally and caudally. A smaller pair is short and arises on the ventral basal portion of the pygofer. This species was described from specimens taken in Arizona and it has since been collected in Texas. Mexican specimens have been col- lected at Hermosillo, Sonora, November 29, | 1927 (M. F. 1220); Cajeme, Mexico, November 19, 1935 (M. B. 384); Yaqui Valley, Sonora; Montemorelos, Nuevo Leén, June 3, 1930 (M. F. 2023); Los Mochis, Sinaloa, May 17, 1930 (M. B. 301); and Eloxochitlan, Oaxaca, June 27, 1932 (M. F. 2638), collected by Dr. Dampf. Specimens were also collected at Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, October 13, 1941, by Caldwell, Good, Plummer, and DeLong. Dec. 15, 1944 Ollarianus rudiculus Ball Ollarianus rudiculus Ball, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 26: 434. 1936. A pale species with four round black dots in a row across anterior portion of vertex and a pair on scutellum. Length 5 mm. Vertex broad, rounded, more than twice as - wide between eyes at base as median length. Color pale yellow, a row of four round black spots about equidistant from one another across vertex between anterior margins of eyes. The middle pair is a little posterior to the outer pair. Pronotum with a round black spot on anterior margin, either side just posterior to middle of eye. Scutellum, with a pair of small round proximal spots on disk. Face pale with portions of brownish arcs. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment trun- cate, the median third roundedly produced. Male plates broad at base, narrowed, then pro- duced into rather broad apices which are diver- gent, sloping to outer margin at apex. Styles long and slender, broadened at base but rapidly narrowed and produced to slender produced portions which are sharply pointed at apex. The aedeagus is broadened at middle then con- stricted before an apical headlike tip. On the dorsoanterior margin a slight enlarged process is formed just beyond the enlarged portion. Two pairs of spines occur on the pygofer. A long pair arises on the dorsal apical portion and extends ventrally. In caudal view they are broad, bladelike and are pointed at apex. A second pair arises ventrally at about the middle of the pygofer and extends inwardly and dor- sally. The specimens from which this species was described were all taken in southern Arizona. It has been collected in Texas by Prof. J. N. and Mrs. Dorothy Knull. Ollarianus bullatus Ball Ollarianus bullatus Ball, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 26: 483. 1936. - A black-faced species with four spots across anterior portion of vertex or without vertex markings. Length 4 mm. Vertex broad, blunt, scarcely twice as broad between eyes at base as median length. Color, face black, appearing as a black, mar- _ ginal line from above. The vertex may not bear color markings. In well-marked speci- DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 393 mens with a row of four black spots across an- terior portion of vertex between anterior mar- gins of eyes. The central pair is larger so that in poorly marked specimens the central pair may persist when the outer pair is not visible. Elytra pale, veins inconspicuous. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin truncate, with a broad, roundedly triangular median projection. Male plates broad at base, roundedly narrowed to long acute tips. Style rather broad, excavated on outer margin just before outwardly bent and pointed apices. Aedeagus very similar to strictus with a broadened apex which appears divided into three apical portions. Pygofer with two pairs of long spines. One pair arises dorsally and basally, and the other arises on the ventral median portion. This species can be separated from strictus by the black face and the long ventral pygofer spines. All specimens in the type series were from southern Arizona. The collections made by Pro- fessor and Mrs. Knull have shown that it oc- curs in Wickenburg, Patagonia, and the Santa Rita Mountains in Arizona, and in the Davis Mountains and Val Verde County in Texas. Ollarianus ollus Ball Ollarianus ollus Ball, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 26: 433. 1936. Resembling rudiculus in form and general ap- pearance but with distinct male genitalia. Length 4—4.6 mm. Vertex broad, rounded, almost parallel-mar- gined. Color pale yellow, with four faint black spots jn a transverse row between the anterior mar- gins of the eyes. These are sometimes wanting. Elytra slightly smoky in the males with the cross nervures emphasized. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin nearly truncate, the median third roundedly produced. Male plates nar- rowed to elongate pointed apices. The concave portion of margins before the tips are heavily margined with black. Style rather broad to near apex where the outer margin is rather deeply excavated forming a narrow fingerlike apex, which is curved outwardly. Aedeagus composed of a ventral straight portion, which - has a dorsally curved pointed hook at apex. At the base a dorsal portion is directed dorsally 394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 34, NO. 12 STRICTUS BULLATUS TRIPARTITUS i OLLUS OLLUS BIDENTATUS Fig. 1.—Leafhoppers of genus Ollarianus Ball: Ventral and lateral views of male genital structures of species as labeled. Dec. 15, 1944 DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 395 - -- ff, tva~7% le ad VESTIGII MUESEBECKI US LOBATUS LOBATUS RUDICUL Fig. 2.—Leafhoppers of genus Ollarianus Ball: Ventral and lateral views of male genital structures of species as labeled. 396 and apically. It is shorter and a little broader than the ventral portion and is narrowed at the apex. There are two pairs of pygofer spines. The apical pair arises on the apical dorsal por- tion of the pygofer. These are rather short, en- larged at apex and bear several radially ar- ranged apical pointed teeth. The ventral pair is long and slender, arises near the base of the pygofer, and extends inwardly and apically. The specimens from which this species was described were taken in the Santa Rita Moun- tains of Arizona. Ollarianus muesebecki, n. sp. In general form, appearance, and coloration resembling rudiculus but with distinct male genitalia. Length 4.5 mm. Vertex broadly rounded, more than twice as wide between eyes at base as median length. Color yellowish, vertex with four round black spots about equidistant from each other in a row across vertex between anterior margins of eyes. Pronotum with a round black spot on an- terior margin behind each eye. Pronotum ap- pearing darker. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment roundedly produced with a rounded notch or excavation each side of median third, giving the posterior margin a trilobate appearance. Male plates narrowed to bluntly pointed, out- wardly curved apices. Style broad at base rather gradually but strongly tapered to acutely pointed outwardly curved apex. Aed- eagus rather short and erect, the apex divided into two converging processes which are up- turned. At about its middle a process extends dorsally which is rather long, thick, and blunt at apex. The apical spines arise on the dorso- apical portion of the pygofer and extend ven- trally. These are flattened like broad blades in caudal view. The ventral spines arise at about the middle on the ventral side and extend in- wardly. Holotype male collected at Iguala, Guerrero, Mexico, September 11, 1939, and allotype fe- male collected at Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Mexico, elevation 4,488 feet, September 10, 1939, by Plummer and DeLong. Paratype males from Iguala, Guerrero, elevation 2,398 feet, same date; Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Octo- ber 25, 1941; Zamora, Michoacdn, elevation 5,140 feet, October 2, 1941, all collected by Plummer, Good, Caldwell, and DeLong. A JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 paratype from El Mante, Tamaulipas, eleva- tion 264 feet, October 26, 1930, collected by Dr. Dampf (M. F. 1775). I take pleasure in naming this species in © honor of Dr. C. F. W. Muesebeck through whose kindness it has been possible to study the types of this genus in the U. S. National Museum and thus describe the Mexican species that have previously been unnamed. Ollarianus tripartitus, n. sp. Resembling rudiculus in form and general — appearance but with distinct male genitalia. Length 4.5 mm. Vertex broadly rounded, more than twice as wide between eyes at base as median length. Color yellowish, vertex with a straight trans- verse row of four round black spots just before anterior margins of the eyes. The outer pair is much larger than the median pair. Pronotum with a round black spot behind each eye on an- terior margin. A pair of round black proximal spots on disk of scutellum. Elytra subhyaline, veins pale brown. Face yellow. Genitalia: Male plates long, gradually tap- ered to bluntly pointed apices. Style elongate, rather narrow, apical portion narrowed to a finger-like process which is curved slightly out- wardly. Aedeagus short, erect, the basal and median processes are single, the apical-ventral portion is paired. Two pairs of spines are lo- cated on the pygofer. The apical pair arises on the apical dorsal portion and extends ventrally and anteriorly. The ventral pair arises at about the middle of the ventral margin and extends medially and apically. Holotype male and paratype males collected at Iguala, Guerrero, Mexico, elevation 2,398 feet, September 11, 1939, and October 25, 1941. Paratype males from Mexcala, Guerrero, ele- vation 1,706 feet, December 13, 1929, collected by Dampf (M. F. 1518), and Veinco, Guerrero, September 3, 1940 (M. F. 1790). Ollarianus insignis, n. sp. Resembling armus in the intense color pat- tern but with distinct male genitalia. Length 5 mm. Vertex broad, bluntly produced, less than twice as wide between eyes at base as median length. Color gray, vertex with a transverse straight row of four black spots between anterior mar- Dec. 15, 1944 gins of eyes. The outer pair of spots is larger than the inner pair. Pronotum with brown mottling on disk, the humeral angle almost en- tirely covered by a large black spot. Scutellum pale with two black spots along outer margin on each side. Elytra marked with brown spots. Usually three pairs along commissure, a spot each side on disk and tips of elytra smoky. Face pale with two small proximal spots on up- per portion. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin sloping to median third, which is roundedly produced. Male plates long, strongly concavely narrowed to slender apices. Style gradually narrowed from base to form narrow apices, which are bent outwardly. Aedeagus rather short with a dorsal process at base. The main portion of aedeagus curved, extended apically with a pair of rather long apical spines extending ventrally and laterally. A pair of pygofer spines arises ventrally at about the middle and curves apically. Holotype male collected at Puente de Ixtla, Morelos, December 27, 1929 by Dampf (M. F. 1557). Allotype, female, collected at Zamora, Michoacan, elevation 5,140 feet, October 2, 1941. Paratype males and females collected at Acapulco, Guerrero, elevation 328 feet, October 24, 1941; Chilpancingo, Guerrero, elevation 4,488 feet, October 25, 1941; Jiutepec, Morelos, elevation 3,500 feet, September 6, 1939; Iguala, Guerrero, elevation 2,398 feet, October 22, 1941; Zamora, Michoacan, elevation 5,140 feet, October 2, 1941; Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, eleva- tion 328 feet, October 13, 1941; Mexcala, Guer- rero, elevation 1,706 feet, October 22, 1941; Guadalajara, Jalisco, elevation 5,051 feet, Oc- tober 3, 1941; Puente de Ixtla, Morelos, De- cember 27, 1929; Pungarabato, Guerrero, August 22, 1930 (M. F. 1769); Zincauro, Guer- rero, September 2, 1930 (M. F. 1789); and Paxtial, Guatemala, elevation 660 feet, Sep- tember 14, 1925 (M. F. 807). Ollarianus bidentatus, n. sp. Resembling ollus in general form and ap- pearance but with distinct genitalia. Length 4— 4.5 mm. Vertex broad and blunt, almost parallel- margined, about twice as wide between eyes at base as median length. Color yellow with the usual row of four black spots between the anterior margins of the eyes. DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 397 The outer pair is large and rounded, the inner pair minute. Scutellum with a small spot on either side not far from apex. Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin truncate, median third round- edly produced. Male plates long, strongly con- cavely rounded on outer margins to form long slender apices. Style broad at base, narrowed rather abruptly before middle, the apex pointed and bent outwardly. Aedeagus with a short dorsally directed process at base. The main portion of aedeagus elongate, narrowed toward apex with a pair of rather long slender pointed apical spines directed ventrally. One pair of pygofer spines arises on the dorsal portion near the middle. These are long and slender, extend- ing ventrally and medially, then curving apically and extending almost to apices of the plates. Holotype male, allotype female, and male paratypes collected at Iguala, Guerrero, eleva- tion 2,398 feet, October 25, 1941, and Septem- ber 11, 1939, by Plummer, Good, and DeLong. Paratype males collected at Balsas, Guerrero, August 15, 1930 (M. F. 1754); Zirandaro, Guerrero, elevation 639 feet, August 29, 1930 (M. F. 1786); San Geronimo, Guerrero, August 30, 1930 (M. F. 1787); Coyuca-Catalon, Guer- rero, August 24, 19830 (M. F. 1771) by J. Parra; male paratypes were also collected at Jiutepec, Morelos, elevation 2,500 feet, Sep- tember 6, 1939, and Valles, San Luis Potosi. elevation 312 feet, September 24, 1941, by Plummer, Good, Caldwell, and DeLong. Ollarianus lobatus, n. sp. Resembling bidentatus in form and appear- ance but with vertex more produced and with distinct genitalia. Length of male 5 mm. Vertex broadly rounded and bluntly pro- duced, basal width about twice median length. A little longer at middle than next the eyes. Color yellow with a transverse row of four black spots on vertex between anterior margins of the eyes. The outer pair is rounded and larger. The inner pair is minute. Elytra sub- hyaline without conspicuous veins, face with traces of pale arcs. Genitalia: Male plates rather long, concavely rounded on apical half to form pointed apices. Style broad at base rapidly narrowed to nar- row, pointed outwardly bent apices. Aedeagus with a dorsally extended lobate structure at 398 base. The main portion is curved, directed api- cally and bears a pair of rather long laterally directed spines at apex. Pygofers with a pair of ventral spines arising not far from base which extend inwardly and curve apically. Holotype male collected at San Geronimo, Guerrero, August 30, 1930, by J. Parra (M. F. 1787). Ollarianus vestigii, n. sp. Resembling strictus in general form and ap- pearance but with distinct male genitalia. Length 4—4.5 mm. Vertex broad, bluntly produced, more than twice as broad at base as median length. Color, vertex yellow with faint traces of the four black spots on anterior portion between eyes. The median pair is most easily recog- nized. Pronotum dull gray. Scutellum with a transverse row of minute round spots across disc. Elytra subhyaline with dark brown veins especially the apical cross veins, which are con- spicuous. Three pairs of brown spots along com- missure on clavus and small brown spots on base, corium, and posterior clavus. Apical por- tion smoky. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with posterior margin truncate, median third rather broadly, roundedly produced with a brown mark at middle and one either side of produced por- tion. Male plates elongate, triangular, tapered to acute, pointed apices. Style long, narrowed near base, apical portion excavated on outer margin and curved outwardly. Aedeagus com- posed of a long slender ventral portion which is curved dorsally and bears a hook at apex. A shorter but slightly thicker portion arises at base and curves dorsally. The pair of apical pygofer spines is elongate, slender, and broadened to form a footlike apex. The ventral pair arises basally, is rather long, and extends inwardly. Holotype male, allotype female, and female paratype collected at Palomas, San Luis Potosf, October 12, 1931, by Dr. Alfonse Dampf (M. B. 338). This species can be separated from ollus to — which it is apparently closely related by the longer apical spines, which are broadened at the apex to form a footlike structure, and the absence of the ventral pygofer spines. ENTOMOLOGY .—Siudies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the Vienna Museum of. Natural History.? by ALAN STONE.) This paper presents the final study of some syrphid flies from a small collection submitted to the author in 1936 through the courtesy of Dr. Hans Czerny, whom I wish to thank for the opportunity of studying them. Other short articles have described species from this material from time to time. The types of the flies here described were deposited in the Naturhistorischer Museum in Vienna in 1938. Genus Baccha Fabricius Baccha ariela, n. sp. This species is readily recognized by the large, central, irregular triangle of brown upon the middle of the wing, which connects broadly with the complete, anterior border of brown. Related to clarapex Wiedemann. Female.—Length 11 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: hemispherical. The vertex and front are dark, shining brown, obscured by mold, probably 1 Received July 31, 1944 F. M. Huu. University of Mississippi. (Communicated violaceous in life. The large, shield-shaped, light-brown area before the antennae contains a small shining black spot. The antennae are widely separated and short. The third segment is thick and rounded. The face is rather promi- nent; the very large tubercle juts barely farther than the antennal prominence. The antennae are dark brown. The arista is short and thick- ened and black. The face is light reddish brown or yellow. The tubercle is dark brown and dif- fuse. From the lower part of the tubercle, along the oral margins of each side, there is a narrow blackish stripe running to the black cheeks. The cheeks posteriorly and along the oral margin are dark brown. The extreme lower occiput along the oral margin is light brown. The eyes are strongly excised just above the middle, silver-pubescent and scalose- pilose. The occiput behind is quite concave, so that the head fits well over the thorax and is very much wider than the thorax. Thoraz: the dorsum is dully shining black with a strong Dec. 15, 1944 violet cast. The sides, in a stripe almost as wide as the humeri and uninterrupted at the suture, are light ochre-brown. The pleura are entirely light yellowish brown. The humeri ap- parently are bare, but with some very short pubescence. The scutellum is entirely light coffee-brown, dully shining. There is no scutel- lar fringe, but it may have been rubbed away. Abdomen: strongly spatulate; the sides of the fourth segment are parallel and three times as wide as the middle of the second segment. The end of the second segment is one and two- thirds or one and three-fifths as wide as the middle. The extreme base of the abdomen is twice as wide as the narrow part of the second segment. The base of the second segment is little wider than the narrowest part. The end of the fifth segment is two-thirds as wide as the base of that segment; sixth segment small. Abdomen obscured by mold; it appears to be dark reddish brown, with obscure yellow spots that are palest on the fourth segment, and tri- angular in shape in the anterior basal corners. There are very dark opaque brown cross bands present; these are rather wide and begin on the posterior, lateral margin and are directed obliquely toward the anterior middle of the segment and meet very broadly in the middle. This is the arrangement on third and fourth segments. The second segment in the middle has a large, opaque, cone-shaped spot of the same color as the cross band. The pile of the abdomen is quite appressed and black. The halteres are pale orange. The squamae are whitish with yellow margins. Legs: the first and second femora and tibiae are light orange- brown or yellow, paler at the apices and bases of femora and tibiae, respectively. All the tarsi are dark brownish black. The bases of the hind tibiae are pale yellow. Wings: hyaline, except for extensive brown patterns. There is no stig- mal cross vein; the vena spuria is faint; wings villose. The alulae are well developed. The en- tire anterior margin of the wing above the third vein is dark brown; this brown color descends basally to fill the first and second basal cells or slightly below them, to fill the basal anterior corner of the first posterior cell, nearly the basal half of the discal cell, and the basal half of the posterior to the discal cell. Holotype.—A female, from Brazil (collection of Winthem). This species was figured in the review of HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 399 Baccha by the author, in Entomologica Ameri- cana 23: 89, fig. 49. 1943. Genus Microdon Meigen Microdon (Omegasyrphus) biluminifera, n. sp. Characterized by the slender form and the large hyaline spots at the base of the brownish abdomen. Related to such species as baliopterus Loew. Male.—Length 12 mm exclusive of antennae; wings 10.2 mm. Antennae 2.5 mm. Head: short, much wider than the thorax. The ocelli are raised into a very conspicuous, round, sub- globose, vertical dome, in front of which is a marked crease. The front, beginning at this crease, is rather short and barely longer than the second antennal segment. The antennae are thus set high upon the head; they are elon- gate. The second segment is barely longer than wide, the third segment nearly five times as long as the second and the first segment about as long as third, or barely longer. The third segment is subtruncate and flattened at tip, widened in the middle, with a lateral crease and with a deeply thickened arista, which is only two-thirds the length of the segment. First two segments dark brown, third lighter. The vertex and the front and upper part of the face are very dark shining brown, the lower part of the face and cheeks light shining brown. There is a thick band of silvery-yellow pile on the lower sides of the face which is continued nar- rowly up the sides of the face, not quite to the level of the antennae. There is a bare shield- shaped spot above the antennae. The eyes are bare. Thorax: very dark brown and covered with an appressed, setaceous-black pile; and on the suture there is a band of flattened, pale, brassy pile and similar flattened pile in the posterior part of the midline, which is directed posteriorly and meets a broad, semicircular area of similar pile lying just in front of the scutellum and which is directed forward so as to intermesh with this. The scutellum is light brown, shining, roughly triangular on its pos- terior margin and terminates in two tiny, very close-set points. Humeri pilose. The pleura have a row of pale, sericeous, stiffened hairs. The metanotum is conspicuous and large. The halteres are orange, the squamae pale brown. Abdomen: rather elongate, a little wider than the thorax; nearly four times as long as wide. The sides of the last two segments are nearly 400 parallel but practically cylindrical; they are barely wider at the base of the third segment. The second segment is only a trifle wider in the middle than the third segment but is much flattened, especially over an area corresponding to the spots, which are actually concave. The lateral, ropelike margin on the second segment ‘is thick and prominent. The first segment is rather short, with a deep crease between it and the second segment. The second segment is neither cylindrical nor flat; it is rather inflated and marked on each side with a large, poste- riorly pointed, anteriorly broad, quite hyaline spot, which is continuous on the sides with the translucent yellow margins and which is di- vided in the middle by a roughly triangular, black spot; its base lies on the posterior margin of the segment, its peak is narrowly continuous with the first segment. The remainder of the abdomen is very dark brown and densely ap- pressed-setate with crevices for the setae; on the posterior margin of the third segment, not reaching the sides, there is a band of flat, gold- en, posteriolaterally directed pile, which is widely separated in the middle. A similar band on the fourth segment is equally separated, be- ginning about the middle of the segment, and obliquely directed away toward the posterior corners, after first being directed toward the midline. The hypopygium is perfectly rounded. Legs: light orange-brown, becoming almost golden yellow on the tibiae and tarsi. The hind femora are a little thickened, especially on the scar a third of the way from their bases. The thickening gradually extends throughout the remainder of each femur. There are no ventral spines. The last half of each of the hind tibiae is rather thick, ending simply, with an oblique scar in the middle. Wings: considerably longer than the abdomen, very pale brown and thickly pilose. The spurious vein is chitinized, the posterior veins are brown; the anterior veins yellow, the stigmal cell pale yellow, the costal cell and the small area past it also yel- low. Holotype—A male, from Espirito Santo, Brazil (collection of Fruhstorfer). Microdon (Omegasyrphus) baliopterus Loew brunnipennis, n. var. Male.—Length 9.56 mm without antennae; wing 7.2 mm. Head: hemispherical and a little wider than the thorax. The vertex is swollen, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 convex, and purplish coppery; the sides of the - face are parallel. The face is quite convex, slightly violaceous, and narrower than in bali- opterus Loew. The first segment of the antennae is light brown and about four times as long as wide; the second segment is light brown and about a fourth as long as first segment; third segment missing. Thorax: dark shining black with very obscure violaceous vittae. The scutel- lum is shining, with a violaceous cast and two small points upon the rim, which are much shorter and somewhat farther apart than in baliopterus. Abdomen: of the same type of coloration as in baliopterus but without any black upon the sides of the third and fourth seg- ments. Legs: entirely light brownish red and but little darker on the femur; the basal scar is much less prominent than in baliopterus. The halteres are almost white instead of deep orange-brown. The squamae are white, but are yellow to orange in baliopterus. Wings: the pattern of the infuscation of the wings is sim- ilar to that of baliopterus, but the bulge in the lower vein seems to be less conspicuous. The dark markings seem to be more uniform and less diffuse in the centers of the cells. Holotype.—A male, from St. Thomas, Guate- mala (Alte Sammlung). Originally, I held this fly to be distinct from baliopterus; I now believe it better considered a variety for the present; the species of Micro- don seldom have a large range, and this must be considered quite an extension of the range of baliopterus. Genus Merodonoides Curran Merodonoides czernyi, n. sp. Related to circularis Curran, this species is distinguished by the chiefly reddish femur and a different pattern of eye stripes. Male—Length 11.5 mm; wing 6.5 mm. Head: large and somewhat broader than the abdomen. The eyes are bare and red-brown, with four vertical stripes; the posterior stripe lies on the margin of the eye, is smooth-edged and continuous; the other three are equally spaced but quite irregular and become very slender and disappear ventrally and are partly broken up into spots. The vertex is dark brown, the upper front black and covered with light yellowish-brown pubescence; the eyes are barely approximated, not actually touching; the lower front, except from the narrow, shin- Dec. 15, 1944 ing black rim to the antennal prominence, is shining black and densely covered with yellow- ish pubescence. The face below the antennae is covered everywhere, except from the facial knob and a narrow continuation of the knob to the epistoma, with pale pubescence and thick, rather long, shiny, yellowish pile; this pile and pubescence are omitted on the extreme lower face and cheeks. The antennae are fairly large. The third segment is a little over one and one- half times as long as wide; it is rounded apically and is pale orange and has narrow, dark, dorsal margins; the first two segments are slightly darker. The arista is basally thickened, barely longer than the antenna, and pale orange. Thorax: the ground color is feebly shining and very dark brown; on the mesonotum are four wide, black vittae; the outer pair is not inter- rupted at the suture, the inner pair is slightly closer than the separation between outer and inner stripes. The stripes do not reach the scutellum. The scutellum is large, broad, two and one-half times as wide as long, with sub- truncate rim and feebly impressed rim; its color is light reddish brown. The pile of the thorax, scutellum, and humeri is light yellowish, be- coming golden on the scutellum. Abdomen: not quite twice as long as wide, rather thick; the terminal segments are cylindrical, with a large hypopygium. The base of the fourth segment is three-fifths as wide as the widest part of the second segment close to the base. From near the base of the second segment the abdomen tapers gradually down to the end of the third segment. The first segment is gray; the second segment has a narrow but conspicuous black basal border and just before the apex a wider, dark brown band that is produced obtusely forward in the middle and not quite touching the anterior black band, and instead of brown in the middle of this band there is an oblong, elongate black spot. The remainder of segment is light brownish yellow. The third segment is similar in color without. any black band and with the posterior brown band vague in form and in outline. The entire basal three-fifths of the fourth segment, except for narrow, small triangles in the lateral corner at the base, is dark brown; the remainder is light yellow. The pile of the abdomen is pale yellow to reddish brown according to the area. Legs: almost en- tirely light reddish brown, with an irregular black band in the middle of each of the thick HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 401 hind femora which disappears toward the top half of the femora. On the inside of each of the front femora there is a small, basal, black spot; the apical portion of each of the front femora and all the front and middle tibiae and the extreme base of the hind tibiae are light yellow. The tarsi are light reddish. The apical spines of the femoral and basal patch of setae are black; otherwise the pile is pale. Wings: short and broad, the veins outlined in dark brown; remainder of the wings pale brown; a stigmal cross vein is present and beyond it a brown stigma, which is a little longer than wide. The spurious vein is chitinized. The wings appar- ently lack villi. Holotype—A male, from Tonkin, Montes Mauson, April-May, 2,000-3,000 feet (H. Fruhstorfer). Genus Mallota Meigen Mallota brevipila, n. sp. This fly is characterized by its pale pink or reddish color on the abdomen, its whitish pile, and the slender black fascia on the abdomen. Apparently it is not closely related to other described species of Mallota. Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: eyes bare, the vertex dark brownish black with yellowish- gray pollen and pale yellowish-white pile. The front is similarly colored; the pollen is yellower and somewhat sparser in the middle, particu- larly in front of the antennae; the dark-brown ground color of the front is thus allowed to shine through. The front is narrowly yellow- ish brown just in front of the antennae; the pile of the front and face is yellowish white. The eyes are rather widely separated in the male but are angularly produced toward each other. The width between them is as great as the dis- tance between the posterior ocelli. The face is dark brown, thickly covered with yellowish- white pubescence, which is a little thinner on top of the well-developed tubercle and appears to have been rubbed off. The face is deeply concave beneath the antennae, and the cheeks are dark shining brown and largely bare. The antennae are dark brown. The third segment is wider than long, the first two segments equal. The arista is light yellow and thickened throughout its length; the apex, however, is sharpened. Thorax: brownish black and thickly covered with light brownish-gray pollen and thick but short, almost white pile. There is 402 a thin band of brownish-black pile across the middle between the wings. The pile of the post- calli, of the scutellum, and of the mesonotum in front of the scutellum is entirely whitish. The pleural pile is abundant and white. The squamae and their border and fringe are yel- lowish white. Abdomen: the first and second segments are almost entirely light red, becom- ing orange upon the lateral margins. The pos- terior border of the first segment exclusive of the posterior corners is, however, gray with yellowish-white pubescence. On the posterior part of the second segment near the posterior margin there is a somewhat darker brown, nar- rower fascia, which fades into light red as it approaches the lateral margin; the posterior margin is narrowly yellowish white with sim- ilarly colored pubescence and pile; the pile of both of these two segments is entirely white and becomes slightly more yellowish in the middle of the second segment. The third segment is light red; its posterior and anterior margins are narrowly yellowish white and pollinose, and on each side of these fasciae there is a slender, transverse fascia of black; the black fascia laterally fades into red on each side at a con- siderable distance from the lateral margin. Be- tween the black fascia the segment is red. The fourth segment is dully shining black; upon it there is a trace of a basal, lateral, linear, yel- lowish-white pubescent fascia on each side of the segment. Lying within this black area on each side there is also a trace of a red, diffuse obscure fascia, which continues laterally into the reddish lateral margin. The posterior mar- gin is broadly yellowish-white-pollinose. The hypopygium is shining black and white-pilose. The pile of the third and fourth segments is black on the posterior black areas and yellowish in front of the black areas and white elsewhere. The pile of the abdomen is much shorter than is characteristic for the genus Mallota and is rather short and setaceous and subappressed posteriorly on the second to the fourth seg- ments. Legs: the first four femora are dark brown; their tibiae are brownish black in each case upon the apical half and yellowish brown basally. The tarsi are light brown. The hind femora are moderately thickened and are light orange-brown upon the lateral surface for the basal two-thirds and upon the dorsal surface for the basal two-fifths; elsewhere, except at its extreme apex, it is brownish black; its pile JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 12 is long, abundant, and whitish, except for a ventral patch of black, appressed setae near the apex and except for a thick patch of longer, erect, black bristles ventrally near the base and a little more toward the medial surface. The hind tibiae are brown, and darker brown later- ally upon each apical third. The tarsi are dark brown. Wings: nearly hyaline, the marginal cell widely open. Holotype.-—A male. One paratype male. Both from Turkmenien. Paratype in author’s col- lection. Mallota apimima, n. sp. This species is related to saltt Curran but is distinguished by the wholly black legs, and it is separated from colombi1 Macquart by the yellow pilose abdomen. Male—Length 15 mm. Head: the eyes touch quite narrowly at a point on the upper part of the head leaving the vertical triangle less than half as long as the front. The eyes are thick white-pilose and the vertex is feebly shining black with thick, long, black pile. The front is polished, shining black with sparse, long, yel- low pile on the sides and a few long, black hairs at the top and through the middle. The face and cheeks are shing black with sparse, long, pale, pale yellowish pile that becomes dark brown to black in front of the cheeks. The an- terior part of the cheeks and adjacent posterior part of face covered with a broad band of sparse white pubescence, which runs from the eye margin to the epistoma. The face is thus left broadly bare; the concavity below the an- tennae is rather deep, the tubercle low and broad. The first two segments of the antennae are black and black-pilose; the third segment is very dark reddish brown, obliquely oval, and a little longer below. The arista is pale yellow, thickened on the basal half. Thorax: mesono- tum opaque black covered by dense brownish- black pollen. Across the mesonotum in front of the suture there is a band of dense, deep, yellow pile, which on the two sides is continued on to the humeri and the upper part of the meso- pleura. Most of the mesopleural and all the pteropleural pile is brownish black. The pile on the posterior half of the mesonotum behind the suture and on the postcalli is blackish, the hairs apically becoming brown. There are just a few long yellow hairs immediately in front of the scutellum. Scutellum opaque reddish, or Dec. 15, 1944 sepia-brown with very long and very dense brownish-yellow pile. Abdomen: black, opaque upon the first two segments and shining black upon the remainder of the abdomen. The pile of the abdomen is thick, long, subappressed and brownish yellow on the whole of the second and third segments, except that there is con- siderable purplish-brown to blackish pile in the basal corners of the second segment and nar- rowly upon the sides of the first and second segments. The pile of the fourth segment is long, quite sparse, and light yellow. Legs: black and largely shining with black pile that becomes dark purplish brown upon the femora. The hind femora are only moderately thick- ened, the greater part of the thickening being found on the basal two-thirds. Wings: strongly tinged with brown; the interiors of the cells are more pale centrally, but there is a large, exten- sive, diffuse, brown blotch in the center of the wing. The apical half of the first basal cell has a diffuse, longitudinal, nearly hyaline bar down its middle, and there is a similar bar down the middle of the basal half of this cell. Holotype—A male, and one paratype male, from Venezuela. Paratype in author’s collec- tion. Genus Cerioides Rondani Cerioides rubrobrunnea, n. sp. This species is related to kertesz1 Shannon, from which it is distinguished by the reddish antennal prominence, and reddish third anten- nal segment, besides differences in the pattern of the wing. | Female.—Length 19 mm; antennae 5 mm; wing 14 mm. Head: the vertex is rather swol- len; the ocelli are tuberculate; the occiput is not greatly produced behind the eyes near the vertex. There is a strong sunken depression just before the ocelli, and sublunate areas of opaque black lie at the top of the front along the eyes. The vertex and the front and upper face, except about the antennal process, are shining black with*a slight bluish cast. The whole lower half of the face, from above the lower level of the eyes, as well as the cheeks and lower occiput, the antennal process, the third antennal segment, and a spot below the process are all light reddish or coffee-brown. The. first and second antennal segments are dark brown to blackish. The apical half of the style is white. The antennae are elongate; the HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 403 process is long, nearly as long as the slender first segment. The second segment is three- fifths the length of first and third segments; without the style it is a little longer than the second. The style is two-fifths as long as the second segment. On the black area of the face there is one pair of roundish spots of thick silver pubescence, and there is another pair a short distance farther down on the sides by the eyes. The face has a small rounded tubercle well below the eyes, and the face is deeply produced and slightly pointed at the apex of the epistoma. Thorax: unusually convex from any angle; it is entirely shining, slightly bluish black with, in certain light only, an overlay of vague, silver pubescence, and a vague, small, brown spot of the same lying longitudinally on the posterior half of the thorax in the middle. The thorax is quite scrobiculate. The scutellum is broad, short, rounded, and the basal margin and apical margin are light clay brown; its middle is bluish black, the surface scrobiculate. The metanotum is well developed and very steep. The halteres are pale yellow, humeri very prominent and convex; squamae white, brown-fringed. The pleura are entirely black, silvery pubescent in places. Abdomen: very strongly constricted basally; the apex of the second segment is barely wider than the base of the first; the second segment is only a little more than two-thirds longer than the first seg- ment. The base of the second segment has a conspicuous, translucent, pale-brown band, which is narrowly interrupted in the middle. The second segment at its narrowest width is scarcely more than a third as wide as the pos- terior part of this segment. It is a little less than half as wide as the base of the first seg- ment. Between the end of the second segment and the beginning of the third segment is a crease and a constriction, and the second seg- ment expands suddenly and gradually into a beautifully rounded semicylindrical body, which reaches its maximum at the end of that segment and then tapers off into the long, slender fourth segment, which is one-half longer than the third segment and which, at its tip, is only half as wide as the end of the second seg- ment. The fifth segment is drawn out into a blunt point. The entire remainder of the ab- domen, the yellow basal annulus excluded, is dull shining black, with a very faint bluish cast and a heavily scrobiculate surface. Legs: 404 hind legs entirely dark brown, the basal half of the fore and middle femora deep reddish brown, the fore and middle tarsi light orange-brown; elsewhere the legs are dark brown. Wings: quite elongate and pointed; longer than the abdomen with the anterior border of the wing past the middle light orange-brown. The posterior basal half of the wing is of the same color. The posterior, apical half of the wing is quite pale brown, nearly hyaline and has a strong, rich, dark brown stripe running from the base of the - wing to the apex; it includes the costal cell, the two cells beneath, and the entire upper half of the cell containing the spurious vein; it is de- limited by this vein and by the upper outward half of the cell above. Holotype.—A female, from Muzo, Colombia, 400-800 meters (collection of Fassl). Cerioides polistiformis, n. sp. This species is related to facialis Kertesz, from which it is distinguished by the yellow posterior fasciae on several of the segments of the abdomen and by the pattern of the face and wing. Female.—Length 15 mm; antennae 4.5 mm; wings 14 mm. Head: the vertex is slightly raised and considerably developed behind the eyes; it is dark, dull shining black. The upper front has two sublunate impressions. The antennal prom- inence or process is two-fifths as long as the first segment. The front and face and cheeks are everywhere shining black, except that be- ginning a short distance beneath the antennal process there is a pair of rather slender, light yellow, vertical stripes, which are a little wider apart at the top than they are at the tubercle, and they continue to converge to- ward the epistoma but do not meet. The an- tennae are very elongate; the process and first two segments quite black, somewhat shining and deep black, flat-appressed-pilose. The base of the third segment is deep, rich red. The re- mainder of this segment is grayish brown, only the extreme tip of style white. The face has a rather prominent knob, though it is scarcely tuberculate, which lies below the eyes. The face is rounded, pointed, and considerably pro- duced downward. Thorax: dull, shining black with papillose pile, which is exceedingly short. The black of the thorax is overlaid with very dark reddish-brown pollen, quite obscure and a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 little more evident where it forms a wide median vittae; in some lights the pollen appears to cover all the dorsum, leaving the sutures and a short abbreviated stripe at the inner ends of the sutures outlined in black. The scutellum is black and shining, with a narrow, brownish- yellow margin, scarcely visible above. The metanotum is conspicuous. Abdomen: elongate and pointed at the tip; the second segment is quite conspicuous, the end of the second seg- ment is a little wider than the base of the first, and the base of the second segment is a very little wider than the narrowest part of this seg- ment. The second segment is very little longer than the third segment. Third and fourth seg- ments equal. Fifth segment small and pointed. The narrow lateral margin of the anterior half of the second segment and a conspicuous though fairly narrow, posterior margin on the second segment which is widest in the middle and upon the sides, and together with a similar slightly wider, uniform band upon the posterior margin of the third and fourth segments, are all yellow. Upon the third and fourth segments there are middle bands of yellowish-gray pollen, punc- tate and well interrupted in the middle, and on the fourth segment these bands are sublunate, their inner ends pointed, and the concave sur- face directed anteriorly. Legs: largely dark brown. The lateral surface of each of the fore- femora, the ventral surface of the midfemora, all the hind femora, the hind tibiae except their apices, the midtibiae except their apices, and the foretibiae except their bases are all very dark brown. The remainder of the legs are light orange-brown. The ventral spines of the rather slender hind femora are double-rowed, run the entire length, are rather long, sparse, black, and exceedingly sharp. Wings: the anterior margin of the wing above the third vein is brown, and the third vein is narrowly margined with brown posteriorly ; also the upper half of the first basal cell is brown. The brown of the submarginal cell, and of the distal portion of the stigmal area of the subcostal cell, is considerably darker in color. The third vein emits a downward, oblique spur vein, and at the point of emission it is angularly but shallowly kinked; third vein and subapical cross vein confluent practically at wing apex. Holotype-—A female, from Cuesta de Cil- lutincara, Bolivia, 3,000 meters (collection of Fassl).. Dec. 15, 1944 COCKERELL: SOUTH AFRICAN BEES 405 ENTOMOLOGY.—South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Notomelitta (Hymenoptera).? by C. F. W. MuESEBECKE.) The types of the new species described herein will all be placed in the British Museum, from which they were received. Genus Scrapter Lepeletier and Serville Scrapter braunsianus Friese and S. leonis Cockerell Turner’s No. 16, represented by 30 females and 5 males from Worcester, C. P., Lion’s Head, Cape Town, and (1 female) Rapenburg, Cape Flats, is a mixture of three different things. The Rapenburg species has light red hair at end of abdomen, and mainly red tarsi, so it is quite distinct from the others. Sixteen females from Worcester agree with S. braunsi- anus, while 13 females and 5 males from Lion’s Head are conspicuously smaller and must be re- ferred to S. leonis Cockerell, although the re- current nervures are in most specimens nearly equally distant from the ends of the second submarginal cell. It is now questionable whether S. leonis is really distinct from S. capensis (Friese), but the latter was based on a male, 10 mm long, from Little Namaqualand, and the males of the Turner species are all much smaller. Hence it appears certain that the original S. capensis is a different species, though S. leonts may later have been confused with it. Scrapter subincertus, n. sp. Female.—Length about 8 mm; shining black, the abdomen without bands; head broad, face and front with long white hair, not hiding the surface of the face; mandibles very faintly brownish; flagellum brown beneath except at base; clypeus coarsely punctured, with a deep median groove on upper half; supraclypeal area brilliantly polished; thorax with thin, pale hair, scanty above, except behind scutellum, where it is slightly reddish; mesonotum coarsely punc- tured, shining between the punctures; scutel- lum polished; area of metathorax rugulose and dull; tegulae very dark brown; wings dusky hyaline; stigma red, nervures brown; basal nervure falling a moderate distance short of nervulus; second submarginal cell long (much longer than in supposed female of S. niger 1 Received August 28, 1944. T. D. A. CockERELL, Boulder, Colo. (Communicated Lepeletier and Serville), receiving first recur- rent nervure some distance from base, the sec- ond more distant, but not twice as distant, from end (in S. pallidipennis Cockerell the first recurrent is nearer the base); legs black, with the tarsi reddish, and the anterior tibiae red in front; scopa of hind legs all pale; hair at end of abdomen pale, slightly reddish. Cape Province: Rapenburg, Cape Flats, October 1-14, 1920. (R. E. Turner, 16 in part.) I was puzzled to know whether this could be the female of S. nager, but what I have identi- fied as probably S. niger, from Natal, is cer- tainly different. S. niger was described from Caffraria. The darker nervures, the absence of the dusky cloud beyond the cells, the details of the venation, and the dark tegulae rule out S. pallidipennis Cockerell. S. divergens Brauns I know only in the male; it has the face narrow; the flagellum dusky reddish orange beneath; tarsi dark, hind legs very slender; basal nervure falling short of nervulus; second submarginal cell receiving recurrent nervures about equally distant from base and apex; mandibles strongly bidentate; first tergite elevated, strongly con- vex in lateral profile, with a deep suture be- tween it and second; mesonotum coarsely punctured; area of metathorax dull. Found by Brauns at Willowmore. Evidently this is related to S. subincertus, but I think it can not be its male. S. glaberrimus Friese, among other char- acters, has a very much larger and darker stigma. Scrapter merescens, n. sp. Female——Length 8-9 mm; black, shining, the mesonotum closely punctured and not highly polished; pubescence scanty, not red on thorax above; the abdomen without hair- bands, the hair at apex black. Clypeus closely and finely punctured; mandibles black, supra- clypeal area polished; face broader than long; antennae black, rufescent apically beneath; wings dusky, with brown nervures, stigma rather slender, dark brown; second submarginal cell long, receiving recurrent nervures far from base and apex; basal nervure falling short of nervulus; tibial scopa pale, not bicolored. Considerably smaller than S. braunsianus 406 Friese and distinguished from S. leonits Cocker- ell by the duskier wings and the absence of red hair on the scutellum, as well as the broader head. The mesonotum is entirely different from that of S. glaberrimus Friese. It is smaller than S. fuscipennis Friese, without the bicolored scopa. S. fuscipennis is described from ‘‘Kap- land,”’ without precise locality. Cape Province: Worcester, September, and August 31, 1928. (R. E. Turner.) Seven fe- males. There is a single male, taken at Worce- ster by Turner in the latter part of August 1928, which should apparently belong to this species, but the wings are only faintly brown- ish, and the long hair on the posterior part of the thorax above is light yellow, contrasting with the pure white hair of the mesonotum. The legs are black. This is much larger than S. glaberrimus Friese, and the stout abdomen does not have the constriction, between the first and second tergites, so conspicuous in S. glaberrumus. Scrapter macrocephalus Cockerell is very much like S. merescens but is easily distin- guished by the light hair at end of abdomen and the highly polished scutellum. Scrapter sinophilus, n. sp. Male (type) —Length about 9 mm; black, with the tarsi light yellow, dark at end; pubescence long and white, varying to red on thorax above; face densely covered with pure white hair; mandibles black; flagellum long, dusky reddish beneath; face dull; mesonotum dullish, finely punctured, more shining poste- riorly; area of metathorax dull; tegulae small, very dark brown; wings hyaline, stigma dusky reddish, nervures pale brown; basal nervure falling far short of nervulus; second submar- ginal cell very long, receiving recurrent ner- vures far from base and apex; hind legs long and slender, the spurs very long; abdomen rather slender, moderately shining, the de- pressed hind margins of tergites colorless; first tergite narrowly reddened apically; middle ter- gites with thin hair-bands. Female.—Similar, but stouter, with the legs all black, and the hyaline hind margins of ter- gites much broader; wings more brownish; flagellum red beneath; hair of scutellum clear ferruginous, of mesonotum whitish, but not ‘clear white. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 34, No. 12 Cape Province: Mossel Bay, August 1932, 12 males, 4 females (R. E. Turner, 18). In my key this runs (male) near S. flavitarsis Cockerell but is larger, with dark antennae. In Friese’s table the male runs nearest to the much smaller S. glaberrimus Friese. The female runs in Friese’s table to S. lon- gulus Friese, but that is quite different, as shown in Stylops, March 1933. S. longulus dif- fers by the extremely broad head and the basa! prominence on third abdominal sternite of the male. Scrapter flavipes Friese Seven from Umtata, Transkei, February— March 1923; 10 from Weenen, Natal, January 1925. The first taken by R. E. Turner (his 17), the others by H. P. Thomasset. The sexes differ in the marking of the abdomen, so that they might. be taken for different species. In the fe- males, the short black vertical mark at each side of the red second tergite is characteristic. The types came from Zululand. Scrapter flavostictus Cockerell Natal: Van Reenen, Drakensberg, December 1926 and March 7, 1927, 9 males, 11 females (R. E. Turner, 15). Scrapter brunneipennis, n. sp. Male.—Length about 8 mm, anterior wing 6.3 mm; black, shining, the head and thorax with long white hair; mandibles faintly reddish apically; face with very long white hair; an- tennae long, the flagellum obscurely reddish beneath; mesonotum shining, with large punc- tures, and a strong median sulcus; scutellum highly polished; area of metathorax entirely dull; tubercles black; tegulae very dark brown; wings rather dilute fuliginous, stigma dusky brown; lower section of basal nervure not arched (as it isin S. caffra Brauns) ; second sub- marginal cell of the shorter type (style of S. perpunctatus Cockerell); first recurrent nervure ending a little nearer base of second submar-_— ginal cell than second to apex; legs black, tarsi pale reddish, fron tibiae pale yellowish in front, middle tibiae pale at base and apex; abdomen very stout, black, without hair-bands, the apex with scanty dark hair. Cape Province: Mossel Bay, August 1932 (R. E. Turner). Dec. 15, 1944 Easily known from 8S. sinophilus by the shining mesonotum with very strong punc- tures, pale reddish tarsi, much shorter second - submarginal cell, and abdomen without hair- bands. Known from S. leonis Cockerell by the pale reddish stigma and very brown wings. The wings are much brower and the stigma is not so red as in S. subincertus. S. perpunctatus Cockerell, known only from the female, is very similar, but the stigma is larger and darker, and the area of metathorax quite different, with conspicuous raised ridges. S. caffra Brauns, of which I have seen the male, differs in vena- tion and otherwise. There remains the briefly described S. fuscitpennis Friese, known only in the female, 10 mm long. It is not impossible that our insect is the male of S. fuscipennis. Scrapter sphecodoides Friese Cape Province: Matjesfontein, October 16— 21, 1928 (R. E. Turner). I have specimens from Cape Town collected by Peringuey. Genus Notomelitta Cockerell Notomelitta rufocincta, n. sp. Male (type).—Length 12-12.5 mm, rather slender, with shining abdomen as in N. politzs- sima Cockerell, which it closely resembles, but it differs by having the second and third ab- COE: A NEW HOPLONEMERTEAN 407 dominal segments, above and below, bright fer- ruginous, the tergites each with a very broad triangular black mark, based posteriorly; the first tergite is sometimes slightly reddish at sides, and the fourth sternite is largely reddish, while the fourth tergite is red at the extreme (usually covered) base. There is a variable amount of black hair on the thorax above, es- pecially on the anterior part of the scutellum. The second submarginal cell has its outer side vertical, but the inner very oblique. The ab- dominal hair-bands are narrower than in JN. — politissima. Female-—Length about 13 mm. Abdomen colored as in male. Hind basitarsi extremely broad, reddish, with mainly black hair, but white hair in front, and long white hairs at base. The front tarsi are not unusually long. Natal: Van Reenen, Drakensberg, December 1926 (one male, January 1927). Five males, seven females. In my key in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., April 1934, this runs to N. politissima. In the key based on venation it runs near to N. politissima, but the third submarginal cell is less produced at end. In my key to Melitta in Ann. Transvaal Mus. 17: 76. 1935, it runs nearest to M. longicornis Friese, which differs by the dullish, unbanded abdomen. All the specimens were collected by R. E. Turner. ZOOLOGY.—A new species of hoplonemertean (Paranemertes biocellatus) from . the Gulf of Mexico.' Wes.ey R. Coz, Osborn Zoological Laboratory, Yale University, and Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of Cali- fornia. Among the nemerteans collected on the intertidal sand flats near Biloxi, Miss., were three specimens of an undescribed species of Paranemertes Coe. Only five other species of that genus have been previously reported; four of these were found on the Pacific coast of North America and one on the coast of South Africa. This new species presents such morphological deviations from the others that their description will supple- ment in some degree the available knowl- edge of nemertean morphology. Individuals of this new species, which may be known as Paranemertes biocellatus resemble those of P. californica, found on 1 Received October 5, 1944. Contributions of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, New Series No. 241. (Communicated by Watpo L. ScumirTT.) the Pacific coast, in size and general appear- ance but differ in having the proboscis sheath nearly as long as the body, in the character of the proboscis armature, in size and shape of ocelli, and in other morphologi- cal details. The species also resembles Amphiporus bioculatus McIntosh in having a narrow, pointed head and a single pair of ocelli but differs widely in most other char- acteristics. DESCRIPTION Body long, moderately slender, pointed an- teriorly and much flattened in intestinal region. Shape and general appearance similar to the published figure of P. californica (Coe, 1904, pl. 15, fig. 2). Size when mature 60 to 120 mm or more in length and 2 to 4 mm in width. 408 Color.—Although no record is available as to the details of coloration in life, the specimens a short time after preservation were translu- - cent, (with a pale opalescence and tinges of green and rose anterior to the intestinal region. The rest of the body varied from pale to deep green, fading to colorless near the posterior ex- tremity. The green color was confined mainly to the intestinal diverticula. The general ap- pearance in life must have been similar to the colored figure of P. californica published by Coe (1904, pl. 15, fig. 2), although the colors were presumably paler than those shown in that figure. ep SGT SSS olm — 3,00 aoa Aare DOV ATS ° j ilm 2 4/4 670 ‘9 000 t CO NEC 200 ° a SS Oo y JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 After clearing in oil the tissues become pale yellowish with the exception of the intestinal diverticula, which retain their green pigmenta- tion. Ocelli.—The tip of the head is provided with a single pair of large, kidney-shaped, intensely black ocelli. These are always conspicuous after clearing in oil, and presumably also in life, al- though they are situated deep in the tissues of the head. In a specimen about 100 mm in length each ocellus measures 0.009 mm in length and 0.006 mm in diameter (Fig. 1). | Proboscis.—This species differs from the other described species of the genus in having Paranemertes biocellatus, n. sp.: Fie. 1.—Diagram of organ systems in anterior end of body after clearing in oil; c, caecum; cd, caecal diverticulum; cg, cerebral ganglion; cso, cerebral sense organ; e, esophagus; In, lateral nerve cord; m, opening of mouth into rhynchodeum; oc, ocellus; pyl, pylorus; r, rhynchodeum; ro, rhynchodeal opening on ventral surface of head; st, stomach. Fie. 2.—Portion of transverse section of body posterior to brain, showing the two layers of longitudinal muscles; cm, circu- lar muscular layer; dv, dorsal blood vessel; ep, epithelium of body wall; ilm, inner layer of longitudinal muscles; Jn, lateral nerve cord; lv, lateral blood vessel, with branches in surrounding parenchyma; olm, outer layer of longitudinal muscles; ps, proboscis sheath; rc, rhynchocoel; sé, stomach. Fie. 3.— Central stylet and basis from two individuals. Fic. 4.—Diagram of transverse section through septum of proboscis, showing, in center, stylet basis and canal leading from anterior to posterior proboscis chamber, and longitudinal musculature surrounded by eight pouches of accessory stylets; gl, wreath of pigmented gland cells. Dec. 15, 1944 the proboscis sheath nearly as long as the body. The proboscis is armed with a slender, nearly cylindrical basis and with four or eight pouches of accessory stylets (Fig. 4). In one specimen the basis was of nearly equal diameter through- out the entire length and truncated posteriorly, while in another specimen it was slightly en- larged posteriorly (Fig. 3). In an individual ex- ceeding 100 mm in length the basis was four times as long as its diameter, measuring 0.24 mm in length and 0.052 to 0.06 mm in diam- eter. In an individual 45 mm long the basis was only 0.016 mm long and 0.05 mm wide ante- riorly and 0.07 mm posteriorly. The stylets are approximately two-thirds as long as the bases. The latter are deep brown in color. There are 12 proboscidial nerves. Musculatures—In this species, as in the others of the genus, the longitudinal muscula- ture in the anterior portion of the body is di- vided into two distinct layers, as described and figured by Coe (1904, 1905) for P. californica. Of these, the outer layer is approximately equal to the circular layer in thickness, while the inner layer averages several times as thick. The two layers are separated by a thin sheet of con- nective tissue carrying numerous blood vessels and branches of the lateral peripheral nerves (Fig. 2). In the brain region this inner muscula- ture closely invests the brain and esophagus and so nearly fills all the space between these organs and the outer muscular walls that the cephalic parenchyma is reduced to small patches. This inner longitudinal musculature is continuous with the proboscis insertion mus- culature. In the region of the pylorus the sheet of con- nective tissue separating the two longitudinal musculatures becomes thicker but diminishes again anterior to the intestinal region, and the two layers become united more posteriorly. The inner portion can, however, be recognized by its larger fibers far back in the intestinal re- gion. Digestive system. is shown in Fig. 1, the mouth opens by a long slit into the Fin Cho: deum some distance posterior to the rhyncho- deal opening when the proboscis remains in its normal position within the body. The slender esophagus leads to the elongated stomach and thence to the slender pylorus, which opens into the midgut somewhat farther behind the brain than the distance from brain to tip of head. The caecum is remarkably short and bears but a COE: A NEW HOPLONEMERTEAN k 409 single pair of diverticula (Fig. 1). The paired midgut diverticula are as in other species. Blood and nephridial systems.—In the two specimens cut into serfal sections the blood ves- sels were much contracted, both in the head and throughout the body. Near its origin from the cephalic anastomosis of the lateral vessels, the dorsal vessel passes into, but not through, the wall of the proboscis sheath for a short dis- tance and then continues on the ventral side of the sheath to the posterior end of the body. There are numerous connections between. the dorsal and lateral vessels. In neither of the two specimens are the nephridial canals well preserved, nor could the efferent ducts be demonstrated. The same diffi- culty was encountered in two specimens of P. californica (Coe, 1905), although in a third specimen both the canals and the efferent ducts were conspicuous (Coe, 1940). Nervous system.—The brain is situated far- ther back from the anterior end of the head than in most hoplonemerteans (Fig. 1). The four ganglia and their dorsal and ventral com- missures are of the usual hoplonemertean type. The 12 proboscidial nerves are large and well differentiated from the interneural plexus. The lateral nerves unite posteriorly on the dorsal side of the rectum. Cerebral sense organs.—These organs, with their sensory and glandular components, are relatively small, elongated structures situated far anterior to the brain. They are connected with the exterior by a pair of ciliated canals leading anterolaterally to the lateral surfaces of the head (Fig. 1). Reproductive organs.—The gonads are of the usual hoplonemertean type, alternating more or less regularly with the intestinal diverticula. The gametes were not fully ripe in December. Habitat.—These specimens were found bur- rowing in intertidal sand flats at Deer Island and at two other localities on the shore at Biloxi, Miss., by M. W. Williams. Cotypes, U.S.N.M. 20641. REFERENCES Cor, Westey R. The nemerteqns. Harriman Alaska Exped. 11: 1-202. 1904. . Nemerteans of the west and northwest coasts of America. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 47: 1-319. 1905. | . Revision of the nemertean fauna of the Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern South America, Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 2: 247-323. 1940. 410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 ICHTHYOLOGY.—A new species of cichlid fish of the genus Petenia from Colom- bia. Recently, while studying the cichlid fishes of Venezuela and attempting to iden- tify other specimens from South America in the collections of the U. 8S. National Museum that had never been identified or reported upon, I came across two fishes that appear to belong to a new species of the genus Petenia. A few years ago Dr. George S. Myers, when in charge of the fish col- lections in the National Museum, had examined these two specimens and noted — that they seemed to represent a new species, but he did not work up a description or separate it from other members of the genus. In view of Dr. Myers’s preliminary notation, I take great pleasure in naming this new species in his honor. ~ Genus Petenia Giinther Petenia Ginther, Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum 4: 301. 1862. (Genotype: Petenia splendida Giinther.) Petenia myersi, n. sp. Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 120533, a specimen 137 mm in standard length, collected by Brother Nicéforo Maria, in the Rio Dedo, tributary of the Rio Orteguaza, near Florencia (Amazon system), Colombia. Paratype.—U.S.N.M. no. 120534, a specimen 65 mm in standard length with same data. This fish is in poor condition, with injured snout, and was preserved in a hunchback position. Meas- urements, therefore, may not be very reliable, although I tried to straighten the specimen. Description.—Measurements are expressed in hundredths of the standard length, first for the holotype, then for the paratype in paren- theses. Standard length in mm 137 (65). Length of head 37.9 (40.0); greatest depth of body 43.1 (46.9); length of snout 14.6 (13.1); diameter of eye 8.61 (11.5); width of interorbit- al space 10.2 (9.23); least width of preorbital 4.89 (4.62); postorbital length of head 15.7 (16.9); snout tip to rear end of maxillary 24.1 (— —); snout to nostril 10.9 — —); eye to nostril 3.65 (3.08); length of caudal peduncle 17.7 (14.2); least depth of caudal peduncle 14.2 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of cae Smithsonian Institution. Received April 13, 44, LEONARD P. Scuuttz, U. 8. National Museum. (13.8); length of fifth dorsal spine 12.4 (16.5); length of last dorsal spine 12.4 (——); longest ray of pelvics 31.0 (31.5); longest ray of pectorals 21.5 (24.9); distance out from base that cau- dal fin is scaled 13.9 (11.5); longest caudal fin ray 25.5 (26.2). The following counts were made, respec- tively: Dorsal rays XV,13 (XV,13); anal rays V,9 (V,9); pectoral rays 15-15 (15-15); pelvic rays, I,5-1,5 (1,5-1,5); branched caudal fin rays 14 (14); scale rows below lateral line 32 (32); scales from dorsal origin to lateral line 6 (6); scales from pelvic base to lateral line 12 (12); pores in lateral line 18+13 (18+11); seales from base of last dorsal spine to lateral line and on base of dorsal 5+2 (5+2); zigzag row of scales around caudal peduncle 20 (20). Body compressed, greatest depth at origin of dorsal fin 24 in standard length; caudal peduncle a little longer than deep; head 22 in standard length; eye 1.9 in snout and 44 times in head; interorbital equal to snout tip to nos- tril and 32 in head; snout tip to rear of maxillary 1.6 in head, maxillary curving downward to un- der middle of eye; premaxillary greatly pro- tractile, the premaxillary process reaching to a vertical through middle of operculum; gill rakers short, stubby, about 1 +9; teeth in a vil- liform band on both jaws, the outer rows en- larged, curved, conical, caninelike teeth and widely spaced, largest forward; upper and lower lips fleshy, continuous around the end of the jaw without a frenum; scales large, ctenoid, forward on top of head to middle of interorbital space; cheeks and operculum scaled, except the preopercular edge posteriorly, which is naked; spinous dorsal with a row of scales at its base posteriorly, then several rows of scales on soft dorsal, mostly on membranes between the rays; base of anal fin similarly scaled; caudal fin scaled out for half its length; soft rays of vertical fins prolonged; soft rays of pelvic fins filamentous and extending to opposite base of first few anal spines; pectoral fin rounded, reaching just past the middle black vertical bar; nostril twice nearer eye than tip of snout. Color (in aleohol).—Light brownish, darker above, paler ventrally; a black vertical bar be- ginning at dorsal origin, passing through eye, thence downward just behind maxillary to un- Dec. 15, 1944 SCHULTZ: A NEW CICHLID FISH FROM COLOMBIA 411 TABLE 1.—Fin-RAY Counts RECORDED FOR THE SPECIES OF PETENIA Dorsal Species Spines soft XV XVI XVII 10 11 splendida.... xl x a —_ ex spectabilis.. . x _- — == = RFOUSSIU =~... 4 15 1 4 16 MYCTSt. ...<: 2 — == ee oe 1x means that counts were taken from the literature. derside of head; brownish area on back below front of spinous dorsal fading at lateral line; then a second vertical dark brownish bar from bases of seventh to tenth dorsal spines down- _ ward across middle of body to a little in front of anus; third vertical bar extending downward from front of soft dorsal and fourth at and a lit- tle behind rear of soft dorsal; fifth bar occur- ring at rear of caudal peduncle, narrowly sepa- rated from a dark bar at base of caudal fin; a more or less indistinct and broken lateral band from behind eye to caudal peduncle on the holo- type but lacking on the paratype; pelvics black- ish; other fins appearing to be plain in color at the present time. Remarks.—The members of the genus Pe- tenia may be recognized by the combination of the following characters: Premaxillary ex- Anal Spines soft 13 V | VI VII 8 9 10 x | x —- x x x x paar x = as x x — — 19 1 5 14 iL 2 2 = =: = 2 — tremely protractile, with the ascending process reaching from behind the orbits to a vertical line through middle of operculum, this pre- maxillary process nearly as long as length of head; lips thick, fleshy, without a frenum; maxillary much exposed, only partly slipping under preorbital, and extending to a vertical line through middle of eye; in the outer row teeth enlarged, curved, conical, and widely spaced, followed by a band of villiform teeth inside; lateral line interrupted, continuing on middle of caudal peduncle; the upper lateral line separated from base of dorsal fin by 4 or more full-sized scales; lateral line scales same size as those above and below; gill rakers short, thick, about 9 or 10 on lower part of first arch; preorbital narrower than diameter of eye; nos- tril closer to eye than tip of snout; bases of soft ea oon ij Fey 4 \ ay Fig. 1.—Petenia myersi, n. sp.: Holotype (U.S.N.M. No. 120533). Drawn by Mrs. Aime N. Awl. 412 rays of median fins scaled; gill membranes joined but forming a wide, free fold across isth- mus; scales ctenoid; dorsal rays XV or XVI, rarely X VII, 10 to 13; anal V or VI (rarely VII), 8 to 10. See Table 1 for counts made on the spe- cies of Petenia. This new species may be distinguished — from all others referred to the genus Petenia by the following key: la. Pores in lateral line 18 to 21-+-15 to 20; 6 to 8 black blotches along midaxis, first on oper- cle, then 5 or 6 on midaxis of body, the last an ocellated spot on base of upper rays of caudal fin; head and median fins black spotted; scale formula—6 from dorsal or- igin to lateral line, 38 to 41 from upper opercular opening to midcaudal fin base below lateral line, and 15 to 20 from pelvic origin to lateral line; dorsal rays XV or XVI, 12 or 13; anal V or VI, 8 to 10; head 23 to 3, depth 22 to 22 in standard length eNotes Rae Petenia splendida Giinther? 1b. Pores in lateral line 18 to 20+9 to 138; scale formula—5 or 6+29 to 32+11 to 13; color pattern of blackish vertical bars or not more than 3 black blotches along midaxis; head 23 to 22 in standard length. 2a. Three black blotches along midaxis, the first on opercle, sometimes joining with a black blotch on shoulder at beginning of lateral line, the second in middle of length below lateral line, the third an ocellated spot on base of upper caudal fin rays; no black vertical bar through eye; distance from rear base of anal fin to midcaudal fin base 1.1 or 1.2 in least depth of caudal peduncle; depth 2% to 22 in standard length. da. Greatest depth 2% to 23 in standard length; last dorsal spine 22 to 22 in head; opercular and shoulder spots usually prominent on adults, less so or absent on young; about 6 usually double darkish vertical bars on body and vertical fins somewhat black spotted; dorsal rays XV or XVI, 10 or 11; anal VI, rarely VII, 8 or 9; scales 6 +29 to 30+11 to 13; pores in lateral lime 19 or 2049 to 11s. 0s os ee ee ae. Petenia kraussiz Steindachner® 2J have observed the following references to this species: Petenia splendida Giimther, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. 4: 301. 1862 (Lake Petén).— Kigenmann and Bray, Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 7: 615. 1894 (Lake Petén).—Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 7) 16: 433. 1905 (Lake Petén).—Regan, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Pisces: 29. 1908 (Lake Petén).—Pellegrin, Mem. Soc. Zool. France 16: 243. 1903 (Lake Petén; Bélize). $I have noticed the following references to this species: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 3b. Greatest depth 2 in standard length; last dorsal spine 23% in head; shoulder spot and opercular spot absent; verti- cal fins not spotted; vertical dark bars lacking; dorsal rays XV, 12 or 18; anal rays VI, 9 or 10; scales 5 or 6+380+11 or 12; pores in lateral line 19 or 20+11 £0 AB ee ES Be ee ....Petenia spectabilis (Steindachner)* 2b. No ocellate black spot on caudal fin base; a blackish bar from dorsal origin through eye to underside of head; a second black- ish bar from middle of base of spinous dorsal to belly in front of anus, a third one from front of soft dorsal, one or two more bars on caudal peduncle, and an- other blackish bar on base of caudal fin; pelvics black; vertical fins probably black spotted; no black blotches along midaxis of body, as in 2a; a more or less indistinct darkish lateral streak along midaxis on adult, absent on small specimen; length of caudal peduncle about 0.8 or 0.9 in its least depth or longer than deep: least depth 22 to 22 in standard length; dorsal rays XV, 13; anal rays V, 9; scales 6+ 32-+12; lateral line pores 18 or 19+11 to Iba oar deemed Petenia myerst, n. sp. Petenta kraussiz Steindachner, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 39: 28, pl. 2, fig. 1, a—b. 1878 (Rio Magdalena); 42: 56. 1879 (Rio Cauca); 72: 1380. 1902 (Rio Lebrija, trib. Rio Mag- dalena. at Santander).—Higenmann and Bray, Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 7: 615, 1894 (Rio Magdalena).—Pellegrin, Mem. Soc. Zool. France 16: 244, 1903 (Maracaibo; Rio Magdalena). Cichlosoma krauss1, Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 7) 16: 339, 1905 (Baranquilla, Colom- bia; Venezuela). Cichlasoma kraussii, Eigenmann, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9 (1): 207. 1922 (Magdalena and Atrato Basins).—Myers, Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 2 (4): 114. 1942 (Quebrada Sargento, trib. Rio Limon, north of Maracaibo, Venezuela). Astronotus (Petenia) kraussi, Eigenmann and EKigenmann, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 14: 69. 1891 (Magdalena system). - In addition, I collected this species in 17 locali- ties in the Maracaibo Basin of Venezuela during 1942. 4 T have noticed the following references to this species: Acara (Petenia) spectabilis Steindachner, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 71: 36, pl. 4. 1875 (Ama- zon River at Gurupa and Obidos). Petenia spectabilis Eigenmann and Bray, Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 7: 615, 1894 (Amazon near Gurupa and Obidos).—Pellegrin, Mem. Zool. Soc. France 16: 244. 1903 (Parda). Cichlosoma spectabile, Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 7) 16: 339. 1905 (Rio Amazon). Astronotus (Petenia) spectabilis Eigenmann and Eigenmann, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 14: 69. 1891 (Gurupa; Obidos). INDEX TO VOLUME 34 An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an aftiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washington. 183. Chemical Society of Washington. 61, 346. Philosophical Society of Washington. 160. Washington Academy of Sciences. 198. AUTHOR INDEX ALDEN, Witu1amM C. Frank Leverett (obituary). 206. AuuarD, H. A. An analysis of the flora of the Bull Run Mountain region of Virginia using Raunkiaer’s ‘‘life-form’’ method. 112. BARAKAT, GEorGE M. See Jonn P. HARRING- TON. 383. BELKIN, JoHN N., and ScHiossER, RatepH J. A new species of Anopheles from the Solomon Islands. 268. BENSON, SetH B. The type locality of Tadarida - mexicana Saussure. 159. BRODKORB, PreRcE. The subspecies of the gnat- catcher Polioptila albiloris. 311. BROMBACHER, W.G. Altitude by measurement of air pressure and temperature. 277. Brown, Rotanp W. Temperate species in the Eocene flora of the southeastern United States. 349. Bryan, G. S. George Washington Littlehales (obituary). 96. CampsetL, T.D. The dental condition of a skull from the Sikyatki site, Arizona. 321. CurisLterR, V. L. *Field measurements of air- raid warning devices. 160. CuarK, Austin H. A new fossil comatulid from the Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, Colombia. 303. James McKeen Cattell (obituary). 207. CocHRAN, Doris M. Leonhard Stejneger (obitu- ary). 95. CockERELL, T. D. A. South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Notomelitta (Hymenop- tera). 405. Cor, WrestEy R. A new species of hoplonemer- tean (Paranemertes biocellatus) from the Gulf of Mexico. 407. Geographical distribution of the nemer- teans of the Pacific coast of North America, with descriptions of two new species. 27. Nemerteans from the northwest coast of Greenland and other Arctic seas. 59. Couuins, Henry B.,-Jr. Ales’ Hrdlitka (obitu- anVe)e = Oo. CoopEerR, G. A. Charles Elmer Resser (obituary). 32. Courant, Ricuarp. *Stability and instability as demonstrated by soap films. 165. Curtis, H. L. Leon Wilson Hartman (obitu- any,)2. 205: CusHMAN, J. A. Additional notes on Foramini- fera in the collection of Ehrenberg. 157. DreLone, Dwicut M. The genus Ollarianus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in North Amer- ica, including Mexico. 391. The Mexican species of leafhoppers of the genus Texananus (Homoptera: Cicadel- lidae). 228. DRAKE, C. J., and HaAmMBLETON, EK. J. Concern- ing Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). 120. Ey, CHAaruEs A. A new brittle-star (Ophtocoma anaglyptica) from Canton Island. 373. EMBREE, JoHN F. Sanitation and health in a Japanese village. 97. Fanny, JosepH J. George Steiger (obituary). 347. Fenton, Witut1AMN. SeeJ.N.B. Hewitt. 65. GausE, G. Rupert. *Statistical control of qual- ity in manufacturing and inspection. 165. GinssurG, Isaac. A description of a new gobiid fish from Venezuela, with notes on the genus Garmannia. 375. GRIFFIN, JAMES B. The De Luna Expedition and the “buzzard cult” in the Southeast. 299. Hacearp, Howarp W. Andreas Vesalius. 1. HaMBLETON, E. J. See C. J. DRAxeE. 120. HARRINGTON, JOHN P. A new method of trans- literating’ Russian. 108. Origin of clock-dial V and of zero. 137. The origin of our State names. 255. and BARAKAT, GEoRGE M. Western Med- iterranean island names and survival of Ara- bie’s most divergent dialect. 33. HENDRICKS, STERLING B. Polymer chemistry of silicates, borates, and phosphates. 241. Hewitt, J. N. B. The requickening address of the Iroquois condolence council. (Edited by WiuuiaAM N. Fenton.) 65. HoprFiELD, J. J. *The Raman effect in chemical compounds. 165. Hopkins, Sewett H. See Mitprep Sanpoz. 132. Hui, Frank M. Some genera of flies of the family Syrphidae. 129. Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the Vienna Museum of Natural History. 398. Ineuis, D. R. *The moments of atomic nuclei. 161. JENKINS, ANNA E. ‘“‘Oedema,” or ‘‘wart,” of cultivated violet identified as scab. 352. Kirk, Epwin. Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrin- oid genus. 138. Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk. 85. 413 414 Thyridocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Silurian. 388. LEsHER, C. E. Edward Wheeler Parker (obitu- ary). ~239: LotKa, A. J. Comparison of two methods of estimating capitalized value of earning ca- pacity. 10. MantTEeR, Harotp W. Notes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), with a description of a new genus. 86. Martin, G. W. The fungus genus Chetromyces, with description of a new species. 358. Maxon, WiLtit1AM R. A new species of Hemitelia from Peru. 309. Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru. 24. —— Three new species of Alsophila from Colombia and British Honduras. 46. May, ALBERT. *The latent image in the photo- graphic plate. 160. McKinney, H. H. Descriptions and revisions of several species of viruses in the genera Marmor, Fractilinea, and Galla. 322. Genera of the plant viruses. 139. McNatuy, Paut A. *The universe in which we dwell. 164. Metrravux, Aurrep. ‘‘Tapirage,”’ a biological discovery of South American Indians. 252. Moox, Maurice A. Algonkian ethnohistory of the Carolina Sound. 181, 213. MvELLER, E. F. Nathan Sanford Osborne (obit- uary). 166. Nouttine, P. G. The formation of colloid from halloysite in dilute acid solutions. 110. Parr, Letanp W. Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis. 169. REED, Howarp 8S. An account of sixteenth-cen- tury agriculture on the Mexican Plateau. 209. REESIDE, JOHN B., JR. (obituary). 168. REICHELDERFER, F. W. Charles Frederick Mar- vin (obituary). 134. REINHARD, Epwarp G. Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs from the Northwest Pacific. 49. RIDDLE, Oscar, and ScHOOLEY, JAMES PLUMMER. Tests indicating absence of progesterone in certain avian ovaries. 341. Rona, EvizapetH. *Radioactivity of the ocean. Edward Oscar Ulrich 162. Rossini, FrepERIcK D. *Modern thermochem- istry. 1638. RussEuL, Lovis—e M. Descriptions of nine spe- cies of Aleuroplatus from eastern North America (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). 333. Sanpoz, Miuprep, and Hopkins, SEWELL H. Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. 132. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - TitterRINGToN, P. F. See T. D. STEWart. VoL. 34, No. 12 ScHaLuER, W. T. Roger Clark Wells (obituary). 348. SCHLOSSER, RatpH J. See JoHN N. BELKIN. 268. SCHOOLEY, JAMES PLUMMER. See Oscar RIDDLE. 341, Scuuttz, LEonarp P. A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from Colombia. 93. A new species of cichlid fish of the genus © Petenia from Colombia. 410. Seitz, FRepERIcK. *The photoelasticity of crys- tals. 160. — SHanor, Letanp. Additional records of aquatic Phycomycetes isolated from Mexican soils. 330. SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus Anisogammarus from Oregon. 89. SINGEWALD, JosEPH T., JR. Edward Bennett Mathews (obituary). 167. — SmitH, Hopart M. Notes on a small collection of reptiles and amphibians from Tabasco, México. 154. SPRINGER, STEWART. Sphyrna bigelowi, a new hammerhead shark from off the Atlantic coast of South America, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from New South Wales. 274. STEVENSON, JOHN A., and WELLMAN, FRED- ERICK L. A preliminary account of the plant diseases of El Salvador. 259. STEWART, T. D., and TirtERineTon, P. F. Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. 317. Stone, ALAN. Some relationships of Anopheles lungae Belkin and Schlosser (Diptera: Cu- licidae). 273. StosE, GEorcE W. Arthur Keith (obituary). 240. SWALLEN, JASON R. A new species of Orcuttia from Baja California. 308. The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. 16. B17. *Physical science and ToL~MAN, RicHarRD C. philosophy. 162. TuckERMAN, L. B. *Early use of meteoric iron in weapons. 163. VoRHIES, CHARLES T. Elmer Darwin Ball (obit- uary). °205: WEIGHTMAN, R. H. Edward Hall Bowie (obitu- Ary Je wltooe WELLMAN, FREDERICK L. See JoHN A. STEVEN- SON. 259. WESLAGER, C. A. The Delaware Indians as women. 381. Woopsury, ANcus M., and Woopgsury, Drxon M. Notes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. 360. . Woopsury, Dixon M. See Anaus M. Woop- BURY. 360. Dec. 15, 1944 INDEX 415 SUBJECT INDEX Anthropology. Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. T. D. Stewart and P. F. TirTeRIncrTon. Siz: The De Luna Expedition and the “buzzard cult’? in the Southeast. James B. Grir- FIN. 299. The dental condition of a skull from the Sikyatki site, Arizona. T. D. CamMpBEtu. a2k. Astronomy. *The universe in which we live. Paut A. McNatry. 164. Botany. Additional records of aquatic Phyco- mycetes isolated from Mexican soils. LELAND SHANOR. 38380. An account of sixteenth-century agriculture on the Mexican Plateau. Howarp S. REED. 209. A new species of Hemitelia from Peru. WiiiiAM R. Maxon. 309. A new species of Orcuttia from Baja Cali- fornia. JASON R. SwAaLLEN. 308. A preliminary account of the plant diseases of El Salvador. JoHuN A. STEVENSON and FREDERICK L. WELLMAN. 259. Descriptions and revisions of several species of viruses in the genera Marmor, Fractt- linea, and Galla. H.H.McKInnNzEy. 322. Five new species of Dryopterts from Peru. WiutiaM R. Maxon. 24. Genera of the plant viruses. KINNEY. 139. The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. R. SwaLuEn. 16. Three new species of Alsophila from Colom- bia and British Honduras. Wiuuiam R. Maxon. 46. Chemistry. “Modern thermochemistry. ERICK D. Rossini. 163. Polymer chemistry of silicates, borates, and He. (Me- JASON FRED- phosphates. STERLING B. HENDRICKS. 241. *Radioactivity of the ocean. ELizABETH KONA. —162. Ecology. An analysis of the flora of the Bull Run Mountain region of Virginia using Raun- kiaer’s ‘‘life-form’”’ method. H. A. AL- LARD. 112. Economics. Comparison of two methods of esti- mating capitalized value of earning capac- iy. A.J. LorKa., 10: Entomology. Anew species of Anopheles from the Solomon Islands. JoHn N. BELKIN and Rawupu J. SCHLOSSER. 268. Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemip- tera). C. J. Drake and E. J. Hamstiet- TON. 120. Descriptions of nine species of Aleuroplatus from eastern North America (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Louise M. Russeuu. 333. Some genera of flies of the family Syrphidae. Frank M. Huu. 129. ‘Some relationships of Anopheles lungae Belkin and Schlosser (Diptera: Culicidae). ALANSTONE. 278. South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Notomelitta (Hymenoptera). T.D.A. CocKERELL. 405. Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the Vienna Museum of Natural History. F.M. Huu. . 398. The genus Ollartanus (Homoptera: Cicadel- lidae) in North America, including Mexico. Dwicut M. DeLone. 391. The Mexican species of leafhoppers of the genus Texananus (Homoptera: Cicadel- lidae). Dwigut M. DreLonea. 228. Ethnology. Algonkian ethnohistory of the Caro- lina Sound. Maurice A. Mook. 181, 213. Sanitation and health in a Japanese village. JOHN F. EMBREE. 97. ‘“‘Tapirage,”’ a biological] discovery of South American Indians. ALFRED M®b&TRAvUX. 252. The Delaware Indians as women. WESLAGER. 381. The requickening address of the Iroquois condolence council. J. N. B. HeEwirrt. (Edited by Wituram N. Fenton.) 65. Western Mediterranean island names and survival of Arabic’s most divergent dialect. CAs: JoHN P. Harrineton and GrorcE M. BARAKAT. 383. Geochemistry. The formation of colloid from halloysite in dilute acid solutions. P. G. Nurrine. 110. Grants in aid. 380. Ichthyology. A description of a new gobiid fish from Venezuela, with notes on the genus Garmannia. Isaac GinsBpuRG. 375. A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from Colombia. Leonarp .P. ScHutrz. 93. A new species of cichlid fish of the genus Petenta from Colombia. LEronarp P. Scuuttz. 410. *Sphyrna bigelowt, a new hammerhead shark from off the Atlantic coast of South Amer- ica, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from New South Wales. STEWART SPRINGER. 274. Linguistics. A new method of transliterating Russian. JoHn P. Harrineton. 108. Origin of clock-dial V and of zero. JouN P. HARRINGTON. 137. The origin of our State names. JouHN P. HARRINGTON. 255. Mammalogy. The type locality of Tadarida mexicana Saussure. SETH B. BENSON. 159. Medicine. Andreas Vesalius. Howarp W. Hac- GARD. 1. Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis. LELAND W. Parr. 169: 416 Meteorology. *Early use of meteoric iron in weapons. L. B. TuckERMAN. 163. Mycology. ‘‘Oedema,”’ or ‘“‘wart,’’ of cultivated violet identified as scab. ANNA HE. JENKINS. 352. The fungus genus Cheiromyces, with descrip- tion of a new species. G. W. Martin. 358. Obituaries. Bau, ELMER Darwin. 205. Bowikt, Eywarp Hau. 135. CaTTELL, JaMES McKergEn. 205. CuARK, ALLEN CuLLING. 64. HartTMaNn, LEon Witson. 205. HrpuicKa, ALES. 62. Keitu, ArtHurR. 240. LEVERETT, FRANK. 206. LITTLEHALES, GEORGE WASHINGTON. 96. Marvin, CHARLES FREDERICK. 134. MatuEws, Epwarp BENNETT. 167. OsBORNE, NATHAN SANFORD. 166. PARKER, EpwarRD WHEELER. 239. REsSsER, CHARLES ELMER. 382. STEIGER, GEORGE. 347. — STEJNEGER, LEONHARD. 95. Uuricu, Epwarp Oscar. 168. WeELLis, RoceR CiarK. 348. Ornithology. The subspecies of the gnatcatcher Polioptila albiloris. PIERCE BRODKORB. 311. Paleobotany. Temperate species in the Eocene flora of the southeastern United States. Rotanp W. Brown. 349. Paleontology. A new fossil comatulid from the Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Austin H. CuarKx. 303. | Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus. Epwin Kirk. 13. Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk. EpwINn Kirk. 86. Thyridocrinus, anew inadunate crinoid genus from the Silurian. Epwin Kirx. 388. Physics. Altitude by measurement of air pres- sure and temperature. W. G. Brom- BACHER. 277. *Field measurements of air-raid warning de- vices. V.L.CHRISLER. 160. *Physical science and philosophy. C. TotmMan. 162. *Stability and instability as demonstrated by soap films. RicHarD Courant. 166. RICHARD | JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 12 *The latent image in the photographic plate. — ALBERT May. 160. *The moments of atomic nuclei. D. R. Ineuis. 261. * The photoelasticity of crystals. FREpD- BRICK SEiTz. 160. *The Raman effect in chemical compounds. J.J. HOPFIELD. 165. Statistics. *Statistical control of quality in manu- facturing and inspection. G. RUPERT GausEe. 165. | Zoology. Additional notes on Foraminifera in the collection of Ehrenberg. J. A. CUSHMAN. 157. ; A new brittle-star (Ophiocoma anaglyptica) from Canton Island. CHarues A. Ety. 3 Goe re A new species of hoplonemertean (Para- nemertes biocellatus) from the Gulf of Mexico. WrEsLEY R. Con. 407. : Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus Anisogammarus from Oregon. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 89. Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the Pacific coast of North America, with descriptions of two new species. WESLEY Re Conn t: ee Nemerteans from the northwest coast of Greenland and other Arctic seas. WESLEY R. Cor. 59. Notes on a small collection of reptiles and amphibians from Tabasco, México. Ho- BART M.Smirn. 154. Notes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. Ancus M. Wooppury and Dixon M. WoopsurRy. 360. Notes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), with a description of a new genus. Harotp W. ManteErR. 86. Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs from the Northwest Pacific. Epwarp G. REIN- HARD. 49. ; Tests indicating absence of progesterone in certain avian ovaries. Oscar RIDDLE and JAMES PLUMMER SCHOOLEY. 341. Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. _Mitprep Sanpoz and SrwxELut H. Hopkins. 132. (ad eo NB grec.) be t CONTENTS EruHNoLogy.—The Delaware Indians as women. C. A. WESLAGER.. / PALEONTOLOGY.—Thyridocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Stlunan:.) Wawa Kae Ro) a ee eerie EntromoLoay.—The genus Ollarianus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in North America, including Mexico. Dwicur M. DeELonc...... ENToMoLogy.—Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in ae Vienna Museum of Natural History. F.M. Huun...........550. 00% ENToMOLoGy.—South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Noto- melitta (Hymenoptera). T. D. A. CocKmRELL................ ZooLocy.—A new species of hoplonemertean (Borate Le laen from the Gulf of Mexico... Wstey R. Com...04 0%... 21708 IcHTHYOLOGY.—A new species of cichlid fish of the as Petenia biden Colombia. \Lwowarp P, ScHULTe. 20005 ea Ae INDEX TO: VOLUME S4 ie Oe ee a ee ee eae This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Page 381 391 405 —_———..... 3 9088 01303 1885 ni