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Parte sean oo 4 HEP wee OH tw, oe ee shee ‘i nhee we os ow Oe Ow oelse wire see ee a pr ee a * oe 04 oar onies ope * eee +e 9° oO Nive) Seb toe . ie © Oe ee Me & 22 + wir b HOw & “i Sa Gabe by wb Ho wryi gel dopegs wa Oo bo (heh © iw bebe ae me webas we het Teh AE et | Ae phy “a ie Ay ey ben Bot wh pk. ce mpiar et £9e Oe Orarebe wm g ee ee ee ed pnd aA ew OF we pee Ag . ‘es oe PPh eh ed 7 op Aad, CS “eb A A ee eek Pes OE RES He em ee ee PR Red ale oo eb ‘Herne © ote ten ae i Ae eee Ca Pit err are bea! * +o em he ee aeleteteeit el Leveseissmesde PET oF rear earache tedok Lgl Switol ot ol mbm o p AL's ere 1 ah m a bo» Oh enoreretole wos rye to) eee we ree et oe ee Pots He oe 2 Ob. Be ew 2% JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 7 ‘ VOLUME 385, 1945 BOARD OF EDITORS Lewis V. JuDSON HarRAutp A. REHDER WILLIAM N. FENTON NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ASSOCIATE EDITORS FRANK C. KRACEK PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Tra B. HANSEN BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY ALBERT E. LONGLEY BOTANICAL SOCIETY JAMES I. HOFFMAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Raupu W. IMLAy GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY T. DALE STEWART ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 450 AHNAIP ST. at MENASHA, WISCONSIN SCIENCES ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 35 No. 1, pp. 1-32, January 20, 1945. No. 2, pp. 33-68, February 16, 1945. No. 3, pp. 69-104, March 15, 1945. No. 4, pp. 105-136, April 17, 1945. No. 5, pp. 137-168, May 21, 1945. No. 6, pp. 169-200, June 19, 1945. No. 7, pp. 201-236, July 11, 1945. No. 8, pp. 237-268, “August T851945. No. 9, pp. 269-300, September 10, 1945. No. 10, pp. 301-336, October 16, 1945. No. 11, pp. 337-372, November 23, 1945. No. 12 pp. 373-408, December 29, 1945. ERRATA Page 154, Fig. 10: The four pictures are upside down. Page 157, col. 2, line 7: After the phrase ‘‘at a SiO2/A1.O3 ratio’ and before the words “‘is 78/22 and the’’ the comma should be omitted and the words ‘“‘of 46/54 bends sharply toward the $102 apex in the presence of Na2O until it reaches a composition in which the ratio is” inserted. Page 160, col. 1, line 14: For “‘Herz’’ read “Harz.” ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 35 No. 1, pp. 1-32, January 20, 1945. No. 2, pp. 33-68, February 16, 1945. No. 3, pp. 69-104, March 15, 1945. o. 4, pp. 105-186, April. 17, 1945. o. 5, pp. 137-168, May 21, 1945. o. 6, pp. 169-200, June 19, 1945. No. 7, pp. 201-236, July Ji, 1945. o. 8, pp. 237-268, August {18> 1945. 0. 9, pp. 269-300, September 10, 1945. O. 10, pp. 301-336, October 16, 1945. o. 11, pp. 387-3872, November 23,.1945. No. 12, pp. 373-408, December 29, 1945. ERRATA Page 154, Fig. 10: The four pictures are upside down. Page 157, col. 2, line 7: After the phrase ‘“‘at a S102/A1.O3 ratio’’ and before the words “‘is 78/22 and the’’ the comma should be omitted and the words “‘of 46/54 bends sharply toward the SiO» apex in the presence of Na2O until it reaches a composition in which the ratio is’ inserted. Page 160, col. 1, line 14: For “‘Herz’’ read “Harz.” ‘ - a =? “ r. ate, > ee eee ek oa, okies Sts he ce ET ekeere he Se ees “y Oh t Ch ss . ; * é x mm a a] eta ee ‘* = » ‘ phe te ' v wt 4 a » et 7 y ; + hove . * ein No. 1 a t ‘ a me Yo SNIAN ss j 7 iiP~ ye % “\ AOS — i TN f | Ee teas : fi ay _— 4m : . | Pek NOT 49 so \\ JI AN “@ tt 1940 : ji i Va. fh ~S <0) ye “a a =, VAL MUSE — _ ht get t oF THE ‘ge sae | Ss ot eee 7 Mi #8: J = ah Tat Kt ws " Yy : ‘ {i «BOARD OF EDITORS) Ral bss Lewis V. Jupson Haratp A, ReapER 4 Ai ‘NATIONAL BUREAU or STANDARDS i U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM i. “i ve J Beg "ASSOCIATE EDITORS | | 7 CRAG} ae ‘3% ALAN STONE : at ‘om of doe ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ‘Tea B. a nb Rates W. 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Smits, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: Frank M, Srerzier, U. S. National. Museum, = r i 4 LS ee ee a Pe TE a ee eee -~ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLuME 35 LINGUISTICS.—Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Navajo of the North. JANUARY 15, 1945 No. 1 JOHN P. Harrineron, Bureau of American Ethnology. If one were asked to enumerate the most outstanding native American languages, Aztec, Maya, Quechua, and Guarani could be mentioned, and No. 5 could well be the Lhiinkit of North America, famous tongue of what is now southeastern Alaska and true closely related mother of the Navajo language spoken by North America’s largest tribe. Lhinkit is the Indian lan- guage that prevailed at Sitka, formerly Russian capital of Alaska, and at Juneau, present-day capital. Lhiinkit war canoes roved from Yakutat Bay in the north to Puget Sound in the south. The writings of the widely mentioned Veniaminoff and also standard modern Russian have Koldsh, Lhiinkit native, Koléshi, plural, and it was from an aberrant form of this, transmission through German being apparent in the sch, that Powell, in part following Gallatin, pub- lished in 1891 ‘‘Koluschan”’ as his adoption for the stock consisting of the Lhiinkit lan- guage, which stock became revealed clearly by subsequent study as genetically related to the Skittagetan (Haida language) and to the Athapascan (including Navajo) linguis- tic families set up by Powell in the same pages. The word hinkit is Lhiinkit for per- son, that is, Indian, and has been spelled in various ways, especially as Tlingit, the local pronunciation among the Whites being al- ways Clingit, and the Russian name for the language and tribe having stuck in English not at all. The Lhiinkit tribe was first discovered by Chirikof in 1741, whose ship got separated from that of Bering. A Russian fort was built in 1749 at Sitka, whose name means on _— the seaward side of Baranof Island. In 1802 1 Received August 29, 1944. the Lhiinkit Indians threw off the Russian authority at Sitka, only to be reconquered again in 1804, Sitka subsequently becoming the Russian capital of Alaska. The entire Lhinkit region was acquired by the United States through purchase from Russia in 1867. The Lhiinkit Indians are supposed to have numbered about 10,000 at the time of their discovery; their population is at pres- ent less than half that number. They repre- sent the typical focus of Northwest Coast culture. They are bifurcated into raven and eagle moieties and have matrilineal descent, as depicted in totem poles and otherwise. Fresh from the study of the Navajo lan- guage of the southwestern United States, I pried into the Lhiinkit language for genetic relationship with Navajo, and found it, amounting to practical identity in sounds and structure and lexical co-inheritance ex- tending to some 400 vocables. Exactly like Navajo, Lhiinkit operates with a high and a low accent, and rarely both of these accen- tuations are to be found in one and the same Lhiinkit morphom, for instance Lh. hi, 10-, nose. Coming to comparison of consonants, these like the vowels show much discrep- ancy in their appearings, to such an extent that at this stage of the study comparative presentation of shifts can not well be made. Thus Lh. thé, stone, is patently the same word as Nav. tshé, stone, reminding one of such changes as are found in Quechua dialects, while Lh. khét, dog, Nav. tii’, pet, reflect some ancient metathesis. In order correctly to understand correspondences, one would have to know the ancient devel- opment of forms, which lack of record for- ever deprives us of knowing. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Anyone who might look into the Lhiinkit, Haida, and Athapascan languages at all would see the thorough resemblance, and Boas early observed and reported on this resemblance. Sapir? later united these stocks, calling them ‘‘Na-dene.”’ This dis- covery was not followed up by Sapir, at least not with further publications of com- parison. Contemporaneous with Sapir’s _ article, Boas worked with Shotridge, a Lhiinkit-speaking Indian employed by the University Museum, Philadelphia, and pub- lished as the result his “Grammatical Notes on the Language of the Tlingit Indians.’ In this paper Boas sets forth sweepingly and definitely for the first time that Lhiinkit has as its accentuation preeminently high- and low-pitched syllables, which later proved to be true also of Navajo and is the case with many languages. Also he gave much better presentation than had been given before of sounds and elements of Lhiinkit. Boas studied with Shotridge the Chilcat dialect of the northern mainland. I studied the Prince of Wales Island dialect, that of the southwesternmost large island, and the illustrative forms given below are all from this dialect. The dialects of the Lhiinkit language differ to a comparatively slight de- gree from one another. The prime essential to comparative work is that if possible the languages to be com- pared should be studied by one and the same individual. Studying Lhinkit fresh from Navajo, I enjoyed an advantage in having both languages in mind. It is to be regretted that structure follows mastery of sounds, and that the limits of the present publication prescribe a dealing only with the sounds. The main purpose of this paper* is to present the constituent sounds of Lhiinkit. As in all other languages, these sounds fall into vowels and consonants. VOWELS The Lhinkit vowels as regards quantity 2 Sapir, Epwarp, The Na-dene languages, a preliminary report. Amer. Anthrop. 17: 231-266. 1915. 3 Boas, Franz, Univ. Pennsylvania Anthrop. Publ. 8(1): 1-179. 1917. 4 The use of the term ‘‘daylight”’ in the title of this paper is in keeping with the widely known Lhiinkit myth that Raven let loose the daylight for the people. VOL. 35, No. 1 are only four in number: a, u, e, 1. These are exactly the four vowels of Navajo. It is the Lhiinkit lack of o that makes the native say, for instance, fium instead of foam when talking English. The vowels are appo- sitionalized as shorts and longs, the former tending to take on the secondary feature of centralized quality. Nasalized counterparts of these vowels have arisen in Navajo, mainly through the eating into the vowel of a Syllable-closing nasal consonant, but na- salized counterparts do not occur in Lhin- kit. The short vowels of Lhiinkit are, of course, as short as it is practical to pro- nounce them and tend toward being cen- tralized or obscured, while an adjacent consonant can sometimes be detected as having an influence; for instance, the se- quence wa in Lhiinkit has regularly the a-quality of English water. In fact, an a in Lhiinkit has in certain instances a labializing effect on an immediately fol- lowing consonant. Thus Lh. hfinna-k’w, (1) a little water, (2) a drink of water, is the diminutive of the word for water, yet for instance tu-yyiit-k’, his little son, diminu- tive of son with possessive pronoun, has its -k’ unlabialized. The long vowels of Lhiinkit and of Navajo can well be written by dou- bling, just as has been practiced by Thalbit- zer in writing Eskimo and is recommended by high authority for the writing of African languages. QUALITY VOWEL CHANGE The Lhiinkit language has three quality ablauts of its vowels: e versus a, € Versus ee, i versus ii. These are illustrated by the fol- lowing: thé, stone; tha-yylis, wedge. cé, blood; ti-ccée, it is bleeding. ’4-kk’fi, my buttocks; hastu-kk’fi-x’, dpl. their buttocks. VOWEL DIPHTHONGS In Lhiinkit vowel diphthongs are heard clearly and easily to consist of a short or long vowel plus ww or yy. The second ele- ment of the diphthong always tends to be held, but is often very centralized. The consonantal character of the second element is brought out when the preceding is of the JAN. 15, 1945 same general quality. The following words exemplify vowel diphthongs: *dyy, interjection of disgust. t’daww, feather. néyy, listen! Véeww, sand. Aww, ouch! *iuww, buy it! PITCH There are in Lhiinkit, just as in Navajo, only two accents, which can also be spoken of as pitches or tones: high and low. This feature has already been set forth above, but deserves remention here as in proper place, since it concerns primarily vowels and vowel diphthongs. Sometimes the accent distinguishes what would otherwise be homophones. Thus: X?tiun, fur-seal; X’tun, fallen-tree. tik, out at the beach; ‘ii&, (1) copper, (2) soldering-iron. Xdayy, yellow cedar; Xaayy, sweathouse. Words of most different meanings are as often exact phonetic homophones. Thus: ’4a, (1) lake, (2) he is sitting. thaan, (1) sea-lion, (2) navel cord. Boas states that many postfixes put in appearance as high and as low, this being brought about by the postfix taking a pitch the opposite to that of the base to which it is attached, but Boas gives his finding of only two: -yf, -yi, possessional, and -tée, -tée, to. And I have been able to find only these same two. Also /ong neti 2Adial HARRINGTON: PHONEMATIC DAYLIGHT IN LHIINKIT 3 STRESS The making prominent by loudening of the final low syllable of a coherence-group, and of certain other low syllables, is not in- dicated by Boas. CONSONANTS The articulative tract for producing con- sonants is much longer than that employed for the production of vowels, the vowel pro- ducing section being only a small central part of the long consonant tract. The consonants of Lhiinkit are very nu- merous and on the whole impress one as be- ing forceful and audible above the noise of waves and the murmurings of the forest. The buccal or mouth consonants are tri- furcated into plain, clicked, and aspirated varieties, the first pronounced as in French, the second clicked like the clicked conso- nants of Georgian and Ethiopian, the last pronounced with a distinct h after the con- sonant, like Mr. Dooley’s “t-hake.’”’ Lhiun- kit tsh does not occur at all, but tch occurs, which has also an overaspirated by-form occurring only in one word: teX4n, grand- child (instead of *tchan). Even y interchanges with w in the posses- sional. Thus -yi, -yi, when following the vowel u, certain a’s, or the consonant w ap- pears as -wii, -wu. The earlier forms must have been *-Gi, *-Gi, -*Gu, -*Gu. A buccal clusive telescopes with alif to become a clicked clusive. Alifized fricatives have the alif pro- THE LH/INAIT PHONEMS 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nounced after the fricative. Thus, for in- stance, Ss’. ° Both unaspirated and aspirated clusives occur at the beginning of or in the interior of words, but the unaspirated when etymo- final or pausal become aspirated. iit, room, has t which becomes by positionality as- pirated, whereas ’tith, place, has aspirated th, so one forms ’4X-~’litt-f, my room, but ’aAX-lith-f, my place. Consonant diphthongs having the second member consisting of a voiced fricative, for instance kw, tz, tl, have this second member voiceless when pausal: yaakw, canoe, pro- nounced pausally with voiceless w. The labialized clusives of this group are of two origins: those having labialization induced by preceding sound and those labialization not having so induced; but of whichever origin they are handled exactly the same. This phenomenon is only a phase of that formulated into statement in the preceding paragraph as regards the aspirating when final of otherwise unaspirated clusives, but since one is cut from knowledge of the his- tory of the language, it is practical to make a separate statement about consonant diph- thongs with voiced last member separately. In Lhiinkit, as in Navajo, a consonant sound between vowels within a word is lengthened or held, reminding one of yy and ww, sole second members of vowel diphthongs mentioned above, and it is the tendency in Lhinkit and in Navajo to lengthen an intervocalic consonant so posi- tioned by the coming together of words in the same way: "Aan, town; ’Aann-f, his town. tiinkit, person; ’AX-tiinkitt-f, my native. yaannadahhéen, it is moving about without support (as a shadow hovers). When any one of these words with length- ened interior consonant is syllabized, the doubled consonant resolves itself into syl- lable-closing h plus syllable-opening single consonant: ’Aann-i, his town, syllabized: "Aah-ni. — Many of the Lhiinkit consonant clusters are single sounds, but some are caused by the coming together of two distinct sounds. The more widely available &, X, G, Y, N, and W have been employed instead of VOL. 35, NO. 1 less widely available characters for the radical clusive, the radical fricative, open g, superior y, dorsal n, and superior w, re- spectively. For practical orthography w can be used for W. We next list the Lhiinkit consonants, finding them to occur produced in five ar- ticulatory positions. GLOTTAL ’ The apostrophe is here pressed into serv- ice for indicating the sound produced by the closure of the glottis or vocal cord chink, which sound is known in Arabic grammar as alif, or more precisely as ham- sated alif. In Lhiinkit, just as in Arabic, no word begins with a vowel, but an etymo- initial vowel is begun with an alif, a pro- cedure that in the language of singing would be termed a hard attack, and that can be well compared to the teeing of a clarinet at - the beginning of each note; it need not be written, but since it is becomes prominent as a “hiatus”? when a word ending in a vowel precedes, it is best written. a’, being a consonant, is treated like any other conso- nant and between vowels becomes doubled. ’aan, village. wa’’é, you. The colliding of alif with a clusive produces the clicked variety of clusive, for instance, t’, the mouth closure smacking against the glottis closure with the result that the t be- comes clicked or clucked. h The other glottal consonant of Lhiinkit is h, pronounced practically as is the h of English. Lhiinkit has h in addition to X and x, and not only in interjections but in other words as well: haaww, well! ’Uhhaan, dpl. we. hastt-, dpl. their. ith-wda&k, your eye. RADICAL & &a4n, firewood. &akkaan, sun. slid, smoke. ~~ Jan. 15, 1945 &’ thia&&’dia, mosquito. t’ii&’, ice. &h &ha, and. &hda, man-in-prime. &hi, to go in a canoe. ta&&haan, dpl. they are quarreling. &W Found in the material to occur only in &wiattlan, Portland, and this is suspected to be more properly &whaattlan. & WwW’ &W’an, to dry salmon. &Wh _&Whaan, person of a place. E xX Xat, I. Xaat, root. XX, husband. ae X’adan, fire. CthaX X’iin, Stikine River. XW XWaaX Xas’, I mended it with roots. XW’ No sure example can be found. N an&hdawwut, rich-man (assimilated from ’an&hdawwu). DORSAL k kuut9, hill. niik, news. k’ k’issAanni, group of youths. ’atk’abhiin, believer. te’aak’, bald eagle. kh khdat’, digging stick. khéetl, dog. Ciikkhd4, Baranof Island. kw k Wat, to hit with the fist. tthakw, always. kW’ kW’at’, egg. ’ankW’, cry baby. HARRINGTON: PHONEMATIC DAYLIGHT IN LHIINKIT 5 kWh kWhéeyy, mark. x xaas, horse. Ts’uutxxan, Tsimshian person. t’éex, fishhook. b x This is perhaps the most difficult sound of the language, for those who are not native speakers, to make quick and approximately correct adjustment for. Perhaps to make the sound more distinct from X’, almost xY’ is pronounced. x’dat’, island. thaaxx’dl’, needle. théex’, heart. rw xWee, (1) interjection of surpressed expect- ancy, (2) interjection of fatigue. ya XtixxWaAs’, it is hanging. s’AaxW, hat. ew’ xW’aal, (1) featherdown, (2) euphemistic substitute word for tal, (1) halibut-club, (2) weight. *unnannda-xW’, dpl. inland mainland In- dians. N tiiNkit, person (assimilated from liinkit, which latter form is the more commonly heard form). POSTEROMEDIAL y yaan, hunger. yiit, son. The noticing that y if made a little more fricative is GY makes it more understand- able how y in Lhiinkit interchanges with w: tu-t’dayyi, his board, but ’AX-&hdawwu. my man. FRONTAL The most remarkable fact about the frontal series of Lhiinkit is that, just as in Navajo, tc, ts, and tt do not occur. t téeX’, 2. nattdak W, table. Xaat, root. 7,’ t’4, king salmon. yatt’aa, it is warm. Hit’, eel. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES th thé, stone. c caa, mountain. khéeccic, alder. jiccdan, pitiable. wac, cheek. tc’ te’aak’, bald eagle. wulte’éX W’, it is dirty. tch tchdn, stink. yaantattchtiun, (1) it is straight, (2) it is true. tcX This overaspirated form of tch has been found to occur only in one word: tcXan, grandchild. The commonly used form of this is always the diminutive, tcXan-k’, grandchild. t9 t9in, hand. th-cu&&hatt94a, let me show you how. *fit9, half-submerged rock. s sfik, belt. khis, bracelet. 3 s’AaxW, hat. ktus’, cloud. &hukkdas’, fog. ts’ ’Atts’uuts’, it is jerking (on the fishline). tsh tshaa, hair seal. tz tzaias, thong. littzfi, it is difficult. ts’utzkW, bird. t tée’, red-ocher. khahittzfi, it is somewhat difficult. thiil, scar. VOL. 35, NO. 1 iM Puiut’, tongue. ’éel, (1) ocean, (2) salt. tt’ tVu, rotten. tVii, (1) finger, (2) toe. tth tthaa, mother. -tthén, augmentative il tléet, (1) snow, (2) whiteness. xdatl, iceberg. n naa, tribe. This word is the prebase of Sapir’s Na-dene, proposed as a stock name (see above); the postbase is a reflex of Nav. tinné, also tinné, person, Indian, and related forms following Morice’s attempt to replace the term Atha- pascan by ‘‘Déné.”’ ’Anntiucci, Russian person, said to be from Russian Russkiy, a Russian. "aan, town. LABIAL The absence of lip sounds except w in Lhiinkit has been noticed by various ob- servers and is regarded as a trait of superi- ority by the natives themselves, who feel that throat and tongue adjustments are more easily negotiable than lip adjustments. Russian and English with their full measure of lip sounds get loan-words from these languages into Lhiinkit reflexed by the near- est thing to them, which is such sounds as &W, kW. Foreign m is twisted to w. Ap- pearance of y as w has been given above. wat, river-mouth. wuun, maggot. - wan, edge. Hint9itchwaan, Englishman (from this). téek Wa, bread (from Russian xléb, bread). & WaAattlan, Portland (from this). Jan. 15, 1945 OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 7 ENTOMOLOGY .—Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske).! Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Severe attacks by larvae of the scarab Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske) on the Island of Guam in 1937-38 destroyed many young corn plantings. The insect, probably introduced from the Philippine Islands at some undetermined time, first occurred in damaging numbers on corn in 1935, accord- ing to reports, but became of increasing importance in 1937. These destructive ap- pearances of the beetle may have been sporadic in nature, or they may have been due to a population build-up during the years subsequent to its supposed introduc- tion. Its future importance to Guam’s ma- jor food crop is a matter of conjecture. To determine the habits of the insect as a basis on which to attempt control measures, studies of the pest were conducted by the writer during the period from June, 1937, to July, 1939, at odd times when other duties, including the enforcement of plant quaran- tines, permitted. Owing to the discontinuity of these studies and lack of equipment, the results obtained can not be considered either conclusive or complete. The data ac- quired may be of some value to Island agriculture, however, and are therefore summarized below. HISTORY Ancylonycha mindanaona was described by Brenske in 1893 under the generic name Holotrichta from specimens collected on the Island of Mindanao, Philippine Islands. It is probably indigenous to the Philippines, where its importance is unknown to the writer, literature on the subject not being available. Dammerman (1929) reported a related species, (Holotrichia) A. vidua (Sharp), as a commonly mentioned root pest there in 1929, and Lopez (1931) stated 1 The writer gratefully acknowledges the coop- eration of the Naval Government Guam in supplying the excellent services of José I. Cruz to assist in investigative studies, and the kind assist- ance received from Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of insects in the United States National Museum, who prepared the description of the adult in this paper, and from A. D. Cushman, who prepared the drawings. Received October 4, 1944. R. G. Oaxkuey, U. 8. Bureau of (Communicated by ALAN STONE.) in 1929 that a little-studied species of An- cylonycha, probably vidwa, was responsible for extensive damage to sugarcane. The presence of Ancylonycha mindanaona in Guam was first definitely established in 1936 when Swezey submitted specimens col- lected on banana leaves to the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I., for specific deter- mination. Vandenberg (1931) recorded “‘Lachnosterna sp.” as attacking pineapple roots on Guam. It is considered possible that he had reference to the form identified as mindanaona by the Bureau of Science, and by Boving at the United States Na- tional Museum in 1937 from specimens col- lected in Guam. DISTRIBUTION IN GUAM Nine of the Island’s 17 districts were known to be infested by Ancylonycha min- danaona in July, 1939, although damaging infestations of outstanding importance had been found only in the districts of Asan, Tumon, and Dededo. The thickly dotted areas in Fig. 1 represent those districts bearing the heavier infestations, whereas the thinly dotted areas in the districts of Sumay, Piti, Agana, Sinajana, Barrigada, and Yona represent localities where infesta- tions were more sparsely distributed. Sig- nificant damage to economic crops was only rarely found in the lightly infested districts. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The economic value of crops destroyed in Guam by Ancylonycha mindanaona was insignificant when compared with damage inflicted by a major pest in the United States. To the Guam farmer, however, who can cultivate only a small acreage with his primitive hand tools, losses sustained from attacks of the pest on corn represented part of a season’s labor and a subsequent lack of his principal food supply until a second crop could be produced 9 months later, when rainfall again became favorable. Some farmers, rather than attempt to continue cultivations and suffer crop losses, actually 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES transferred their farming operations to non- infested areas. Both larvae and adults are very voracious feeders, the former attacking lateral and tap roots, the latter feeding on the leaves. In October, 1937, 10 fields of young corn located at Dededo exhibited plant losses Machanao North e Yigo CuSO. Base ase Dededo a @® Heavily Infested Area Lightly Infested Area Scale of Miles Fie. 1—Map of Guam showing relative infes- tations of Ancylonycha mindanaona and infested localities. ranging from 35 to 95 percent on sites where infestations ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 larvae per square foot of surface-soil area. A larval infestation slightly exceeding an average of 1 specimen per square foot was sufficient to destroy most of the young corn plants. In June, 1938, adults demonstrated their de- structiveness to tasseling corn by causing an estimated defoliation of 50 percent in sev- eral fields observed. From March to May of the same year many banana leaves in the Dededo district were denuded and large portions of the leafy area on coconut palms were stripped by the beetles. FOOD PLANTS Surveys of adult and larval infestations from 1937 to 1939 revealed hosts to be at- tacked as indicated below. Cultivated Hosts Stage of Pest Avocados (Persea spp.) Adults Bananas (Musa spp.) Adults Beans (Phaseolus spp.) Larvae Breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) Adults Cassava (Manthot utilissima) Adults Citrus (Citrus spp.) Larvae Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) Adults and larvae Coffee (Coffea spp.) Larvae Corn (Zea mays) Adults and ; larvae Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) Adults Wild Hosts (Baryxylum) Peltophorum inerme Adults Bauhinia malabarica Adults Carissa arduina Adults Cestrum pallidum Adults Euphorbia didyma Adults Grasses (several varieties) Larvae Guamia marannae Larvae Hibiscus tiliaceus Adults Leucaena glauca Adults Malpighia glabra Adults Phyllanthus sp. Larvae Pithecellobium dulce Adults Sida rhombifolia Larvae » Urena lobata Larvae VOL. 35, No. 1_ There are probably other hosts in addi- tion to those in the foregoing list. Roots of grasses, weeds, corn, and coconut palms are preferred hosts of the larvae, while leaves of bananas, coconut palms, tasseling corn, and Manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce) are preferred by adults. DESCRIPTION EGG The freshly deposited egg is pearly white, elliptical, approximately 2 mm in length, and slightly more than 1 mm in diameter. It begins enlarging on the second day of in- cubation, becomes oval by the fifth day, and attains a size from 2 to 3 times the original before it hatches. LARVA AND PUPA Descriptions by Dr. Adam G. Boving may be found in the following paper herein. ADULT The original description of Ancylonycha mindanaona by Brenske was somewhat brief. The ensuing description was therefore prepared by Dr. E. A. Chapin: Color above medium to pale castaneous, head and pronotum slightly darker than elytra, Co pleat ¢ ee : Ss: , £ 2 g é . * r E 77 re ee Oe eee S- Jan. 15, 1945 underparts paler, yellowish brown, legs cas- _ taneous with extreme apices of tibiae (entire outer margin of anterior tibia) darker, apices of ; mandibles and maxillae nearly black. Head coarsely and closely punctured, the z punctures tending to form longitudinal groups of two or three. Clypeal suture slightly sinuate, _elypeus with strongly reflexed anterior margin which is very broadly and very feebly notched at middle. Antenna 10-segmented, club in male about as long as first segment, in female about three-fourths as long as first. Pronotum more than twice as broad as its length along median line, all margins finely beaded, apical angles subacute, basal angles obtuse, lateral margins nearly parallel in apical fourth, thence strongly diverging to basal third, the point of greatest breadth of prono- tum. Surface moderately coarsely and sparsely punctured on disc, more finely and densely punctured in lateral thirds. Scutellum broadly triangular, with a few coarse punctures. Elytron with prominent humeral callus and moderately convex sutural bead, apical sutural angles in male minutely mucronate, in female simple. Surface as coarsely and slightly more densely punctured than disc of pronotum, with very feeble traces of three discal costae. Pygi- dium sparsely and coarsely punctured. Underparts of metathorax rather finely and densely punctured, rather densely clothed with pale hair. Abdominal sternites, except terminal, completely anchylosed with sutures obliterated across middle, very sparsely punctured at mid- dle, more dense laterally. Terminal sternites not notably different in the sexes. Tarsal claw strong, moderately curved, accessory tooth acute and subbasal. Aedeagus, Figs. 1-3; female genital plates, Fig. 4. Length: 17-19 mm. Known distribution: Philippine Islands (Mindanao and Luzon); Guam. The identification of the Guam specimens was based on comparison with material from Mindanao in the C. F. Baker Collection identi- fied by the late J. Moser. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS Studies of the life history of Ancylonycha mindanaona were conducted under field OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 9 conditions from July, 1937, to May, 1939, and in an open-air insectary from March through May in 1938-39, when pupae, adults, and eggs were abundant. Adults collected in the field in April, 1938, were confined to cages kept in an undisturbed shed, because females would not oviposit under insectary conditions. DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS The records shown in Table 1 were ob- tained for eggs in April, 1938, for larvae TABLE 1.—LENGTH OF IMMATURE STAGES OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA UNDER CAGE CONDITIONS Length of Stage Speci- Stage mens | Mini- | Maxi- cesta vevdind Average Number Days Days Days Wipeyi. {3 eka ee 205 11 15 12.1 Perreein es, Mae rs bik oc 19 290 309 301 Prepupa...... 45 5 20 1 PUPA Ho oe < owes 30 16 20 17.4 Egg to adult...... 19 323 346 335 1 No complete data. from April, 1938, to March, 1939, and for pupae, including some specimens develop- ing from mature larvae collected in the field, from March to May, 1938-39. It may be seen from these that the insect has an annual life history. The eggs studied were deposited by the beetles in boxes of sifted moist soil placed in cages with adults early in the morning and removed at dusk when beetles emerged to feed. Eggs were incubated in small tins and in partially open petri dishes containing moist soil. Newly hatched larvae were placed in drums containing a mixture of leafmold and soil previously planted to centipedegrass, Eremochloa ophiuroides. Periodical observa- tions of the grass roots established approxi- mate periods when larvae changed from feeding on soil organic matter to living plant material. On January 31, 1939, the larvae, having discontinued their feeding, were transferred singly into vials containing sufficient soil for the formation of pupal cells. After entering the prepupal stage each specimen was placed on a layer of cellu- 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cotton covering a layer of soil, needed to supply moisture, in a vial where dates of pupation and final transformation to adult could be established. The open end of every vial was loosely plugged with cotton to re- tard the escape of moisture. Subsequent attempts to ascertain pre-emergence pe- riods of adults newly transformed from - pupae, by holding them separately in caged tin cans of soil under insectary conditions, resulted in failures, as no specimens emerged and all died within a few weeks. LARVA The length of the larval stage, ranging from 290 to 309 days (Table 1), was pos- sibly shortened under cage conditions. The young larva, hatching in March or April, remains at a depth of 5 or 6 inches in the soil, where it feeds on decaying organic matter until it is almost full-grown in July, when the summer rainy season begins. Moisture conditions then being favorable, it rises closer to the soil surface to attack living roots of an abundant weedy and grass growth, or other hosts. If the host is cleared away before November and is replaced by a cultivated crop, the latter—corn for ex- ample—is attacked as soon as roots develop. The larva burrows more deeply into the soil from late November to January, prob- ably to escape dry surface-soil conditions following reduction in rainfall, and forms an VOL. 35, No. 1 earthen pupal cell by January if a food sup- ply is absent. Some larvae may continue feeding until March or later if a host is available. The cell is usually to be found near a limestone rock formation ranging in depth, at Dededo, from 5 to 13 inches. The latter depth is generally sought, judged from groups of mature larvae and pupae often found in small areas where the soil was slightly deeper than the average sur- rounding soil depth. The larva remains in the cell for days, or even weeks, turns slightly brown, becomes limp, shrinks to almost half its former size, and finally casts its skin to become a pupa. PUPS: The first noticeable change in a pupa in transforming to an adult is the early re- placement of the pearly-white color by a creamy color. The eyes and tibia become slightly brown on the fifth day, as do the head and thorax on the seventh day. The entire specimen is brown by the eleventh or twelfth day. The pupal skin is then cast several days later to complete the transfor- mation. ADULT Feeding habits—The adult remains in its pupal cell for several days after transforma- tion, before emerging to feed. After ma- turity, it emerges from the soil at dusk, flies Fia. 2.—Ancylonycha mindanaona: a—c, male genitalia; d, female genitalia. Drawings by A. D. Cushman. Jan. 15, 1945 briefly or until a desirable host is reached, then feeds voraciously for an hour or two on the outer edge of a leaf. It mates later during the night and continues to feed until just before daybreak, when it flies to soil nearby, hiding during the day at depths of 2 to 6 inches. The adult probably continues to feed nightly throughout its life after its emer- gence from the pupal cell. Although average adult longevity appears to be of only a few weeks’ duration, the individual beetle con- sumes a large amount of leafy material. Oviposition habits—When a female dis- continues feeding at daybreak, it flies to the ground, burrows to a depth of from 4 to 6 inches, and spends the day either resting or Ovipositing. Eggs are laid singly, or in groups of 2 to 5. A glutinous substance secreted on each egg causes soil to adhere to it as a protective covering. The total num- ber of eggs an adult may deposit was not established, although dissections of nu- merous females indicated an average of about 30. Small valleys or depressions where mois- ture prevailed during the dry season ap- peared to be more favorable to larval sur- vival but were apparently given little pref- erence by females for oviposition sites. It even seemed doubtful that the type of plant cover had much influence on the selection of places for oviposition. That there was some selection of loose soils is supported by the fact that larvae were found mostly in sandy portions of lowland soils at Piti in 1938-39. Adults probably had difficulty in penetrat- ing the clay loam soils, particularly in un- cultivated areas, which were dry and well baked during the season of oviposition. Concentrations of larvae in Dededo fields during the fall of 1937-38 were invariably found near host plants of the adults. In one cornfield, for example, 100 percent of the plants were destroyed by larvae in an area located within 75 feet from the forest edge, but at a greater distance only an occasional plant was molested. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE There is a slight overlapping of the one generation per year of Ancylonycha min- danaona in Guam (Table 2). OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 11 TABLE 2.—SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF THE VARIOUS STAGES OF ANCYCLONYCHA MINDANAONA AT Depgepo, GuaM, IN 1938-39 Period of Period of Stage occurrence! greatest prevalence Adults Feb. 20 to Aug. 15 March 15 to April 30 er Sik .n Feb. 25 to June 1 March and April Larvae....}| March 10 to May 25 of succeeding year June and July Pupae..... Feb. 1 to May 30 March 1 Exact dates given represent the earliest and latest dates on which individuals were actually observed in the field. At Dededo in 1938 the beetle flight began late in February and at Piti early in March. During the same year the maximum flight occurred about April 20 at the latter place, according to data obtained from small catches of beetles in light traps. The data also showed a rapid decline in the popula- tion later and a complete disappearance of beetles by August 6. Oviposition begins al- most immediately after the first beetle emergence, but apparently ceases long be- fore the last beetles of a season disappear. Larvae of a single generation occur over a period covering almost 15 months (Table 2). The peak population is reached in June or July, or within 3 to 4 months after the first appearance of larvae in March, then starts to decline. It develops during a period of dry weather, which may cause considerable mortality of both eggs and young larvae. The 1938 generation appeared small in size in July, by comparison with the number of beetles present to oviposit in the previous March and April, and was less than one- fifth of its maximum level by January, 1939, according to results of surveys conducted in 10 fields. Maximum concentrations of ap- proximately 8 larvae per square foot of surface soil existed in July at one site, as compared with 1 larva per 10 square feet in November. CLIMATIC AND SOIL CONDITIONS IN GUAM POSSIBLY AFFECTING LIFE HISTORY Soils on the Island of Guam are largely of three general types—the shallow upland limestone type, lowland clay loams, and savannah lands. The upland soils are porous and shallow with an underlying limestone- rock formation, of which outcroppings are frequently to be seen; are usually from 6 to Nb JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 8 inches in depth but may be a few inches deeper at some sites; and have little water- holding capacity. The lowland and savan- nah-land soils are several feet in depth; the former having small sandy areas in spots. The savannah soils cover the greater por- tion of the southern half of the Island and produce a thick growth of swordgrass. In- festations of Ancylonycha mindanaona were most severe in the loose upland soils preva- lent at Dededo and near Asan, and in the limited sandy areas in the lowland at Piti. No infestations were observed in the sa- vannah lands. The average total annual rainfall in Guam for the period July 1, 1937, to June 30, 1939, was 79.77 inches, a reduction from a normal average of approximately 95 inches. Most of it occurred during a distinct rainy season extending from June to No- vember and was followed by a dry season from January to May during which time the average monthly rainfall amounted to less than 5 inches. The temperature and relative humidity were less variable, the former ranging from 71° to 92°F. and the latter averaging 80.8 percent. Daily mean minimum and mean maximum tempera- tures approximated 74° and 87°, respec- tively. Crops growing in lowland areas during the period from December to June suffer from lack of rainfall; nevertheless they often yield fair-sized harvests. Those in upland areas, however, must as a general rule reach maturity by December, in order to escape drastic effects of too little rainfall from that month to the following May. Young crops are likely to be drowned out in either area by excessive rainfall, sometimes exceeding VOL. 35, No. 1 25 inches, in August. Favorable months for planting corn in the upland areas are there- fore limited to May, June, September, and October. The problems of successful grain storage, inadequate land acreage for culti- vation, and an even distribution of labor make plantings in the two last-named months very desirable, yet they fit favor- ably into the habits of the larvae of An- cylonycha mindanaona. SUMMARY The scarabaeid beetle Ancylonycha min- danaona (Brenske) was a destructive pest in both the larval and adult stages in Guam in 1937-38. The 1939 generation was smaller than the previous ones. The larvae feed on roots of plants and the adults attack foliage at night. Life-history studies proved that the pest completed its cycle in one year, with an egg stage of from 11 to 15 days, an approximate 10-month larval stage, and a pupal stage of 16 to 18 days. Eggs occur largely from March to May, larvae from March of one year to March of the following year, pupae from February to May, and adults from February to August with the peak in April. LITERATURE CITED BrENSKE, E. Melolonthiden von Borneo und einigen anderen malayischen Inseln. Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr. 38: 347-358. 1895. DAaMMERMAN, K. W. The agricultural zoology of the Malay Archipelago, 433 pp., illus. Amsterdam, 1929. Loprz, A. W. Report of the entomology depart- ment. Philippine Sugar Assoc. Ann. Rep. 1929-30: 145-172, illus. 1930. VANDENBERG, S. R. Report of the entomol- ogist. Guam. Agr. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1930: 23-25. 1931. Jan. 15,1945 BOVING: LARVA AND PUPA OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 13 4 ENTOMOLOGY .—Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle Ancy- | lonycha mindanaona (Brenske).! mology and Plant Quarantine. In the larval stage Ancylonycha appears congeneric with the genus Phyllophaga from the mainland of America and is in- separable from it except on geographical grounds. To be sure, the larva of Ancylo- nycha mindanaona is readily separated from all the species of Phyllophaga by possessing numerous round, dark spots (DS, Figs. 3, 7) on different places of the body, but similar dark spots have not been found on the larva of any other known species of Ancylonycha and must therefore be considered as a spe- cific, not a generic, character. The larva of A. mindanaona comes very close to the larvae of the least-differentiated species of Phyllophaga, notably to the larvae of P. vetula (Horn), P. crinita (Burmeister), and P. tristis (Fabricius). In the following description of the three larval instars of A. mindanaona, little re- gard is paid to the tribal and generic char- acters, which, as mentioned, are identical with those well known in the corresponding instars of Phyllophaga. On the other hand, all the specific characters are given that show the systematic relation of Ancylonycha mindanaona to the different species of Phyllophaga and especially the three above- named forms. DESCRIPTION First-stage larva-—(Typical sample in U. S. National Museum labeled: ‘Interception No. 556, reared from eggs oviposited by adults in Interception No. 554; Guam 1938. R. G. Oak- ley.) Posterior part of labrum behind the transverse labral ridge without setae (compare TrR, Fig. 8). Anterior marginal region of frons (AF, Fig. 8) with one moderately long seta on each side. Epicranium on each side opposite the concave posterior part of the frontal suture (FS, Fig. 8) and the epicranial suture (ES, Fig. 8) with two setae. Dorsomolar region of right mandible (compare DMR, Fig. 2) with a transverse patch of about 12 setae; dorso- exterior region (DER, Fig. 2) with no punc- tures and no setae; scrobis (Sr, Fig. 2) with about 10 punctures in a longitudinal row and 1 Received October 4, 1944. ApaAm G. Bovina, U. 8S. Bureau of Ento- no setae; ventrolateral carina (VLC) without setae; basolateral region with a patch of about seven fairly long and small setae. Epipharynx (compare Fig. 6) with about nine heli (HI); proplegmatium absent; chaetopariae (Chp) without punctures among the setae; crepidal punctures (Crep) about 20. Raster (compare Fig. 1) with an elongate-ovate septula (Sept), which is sometimes slightly constricted at the middle; palidium (Pa) with one regular row of about 25 slightly curved, pointed, rather short pali (P); distance between bases of pali from less than half the length of a palus to as long as, or longer than, a palus; preseptular setae (PrSept) five or a few more. Numerous dark spots present in groups on different parts of the body but especially in the bottom of a fold posterior to the spiracles of most segments (compare DS, Fig. 7). Hatching tooth ( =rup- tor ovi) (Fig. 4) on the posterior dorsal area of metathorax, small, dome shaped, and with a moderately long seta. Spiracles (Fig. 5) with a circular, disk-shaped, multifenestrate, cribri- form respiratory plate and no bulla and no spiracular orifice. Mediodorsal length of body, measured segment by segment from anterior margin of prothorax to V-shaped anus, about 9 mm; width of head capsule about 2.5 mm; length of head capsule about 2 mm. Second-stage larva.—Similar in all characters to the third-stage larva, except in size. Medio- dorsal length of body from anterior margin of prothorax to anus about 28.5 mm; width of head capsule about 5 mm; length of head cap- sule about 3 mm. Third-stage larva.—(Typical sample in U. S. National Museum labeled: “In soil, field; Guam; Guam No. 1784; 17.1I1.1939; R. G. Oakley.’’) Labrum (Fig. 8) rugose, with pos- terior part behind the labral ridge (7rR) bear- ing a transverse, irregular series of about six moderately long setae (e) on each side. Head capsule finely verrucose, yellowish brown. An- terior marginal region of frons (AF) with a transverse, irregular series of six to nine mod- erately long setae (k) on each side (and some- times with a few short additional setae). Epicranium (Fig. 8) on each side opposite the concave posterior part of one of the frontal pS A 14 _ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 1 Se ee ee ee ee ee ee Je an wis ee Fries. 1-8 —(See opposite page for legend) ee ee ee ea a eS ee a a ee a ee ee JAN. 15, 1945 BOVING: LARVA AND PUPA OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 15 sutures (FS) and the epicranial suture (ZS) with a somewhat oblique, longitudinal series of three setae (p) of various lengths. Dorsomolar region (DMR, Fig. 2) of right mandible with a transverse patch of about 12 setae, dorso- exterior region (DER) with no punctures and no setae; scrobis (Sr) without setae but with several longitudinally arranged sensorial punc- tures distributed over most of the surface and in the wall of the carinae, which limit the re- gion; ventrolateral carina (VLC) with about 10 moderately long setae; basolateral region with a patch of about 10 fairly long setae. Epi- pharynx (Fig. 6) with about nine heli (HI); proplegmatium absent; chaetopariae (Chp) without sensorial punctures among the setae; crepidal punctures (Crep) about 20. Raster (Fig. 1) with elongate-ovate septula (Sept); palidium (Pa) with one regular row of from 20 to 27 depressed, straight, dagger-shaped, pointed and (when not worn) moderately long pali (P); distance between bases of pali about half as long as, or considerably shorter than, length of a palus; preseptular setae (PrSept) six or a few more or less. Claws unequal in length and different in shape on the three pairs of legs; on first and second pairs of legs about one-third length of tibiotarsi, enlarged at bases, straight and distally pointed; on third pair of legs less than half as long as claws of first and second pairs of legs, at base enlarged and dis- tinct but distally very short. Spiracles (Sp, Fig. 7) well developed, each with the respira- tory plate C-shaped, surrounding more than three-fourths circumference of bulla, and with an open, curved, spiracular orifice; minute fenestral elements of cribriform respiratory plate oval and arranged in numerous transverse series with about 20 in each series; thoracic spiracle one and one-half times as large as the first abdominal spiracle; abdominal spiracles decreasing slightly and gradually in size pos- teriorly. Mediodorsal length of body, measured segment by segment from anterior margin of prothorax to the simple V-shaped anus, 42.5 mm; width of head 6 to 6.2 mm; length of head 4mm. Pupa.—Body soft-skinned, free from vesti- tures, all segments without lateral expansions. Mesonotum and metanotum slightly grooved longitudinally in the middle line; scutellum distinct. Base of each elytron with a thornlike, conical projection. Dorsal portion of each of the anterior abdominal segments rounded, but dorsal portions of the last three segments more flattened and with obtusely waved wrinkles; posterior margin of dorsum of each of fourth and fifth abdominal segments furnished with a pair of paramedian, dark, flat, dorsally convex knobs. Pleura of abdominal segments fused with their ventral parts. Cerci rather slender, conical, glabrous, directed obliquely backward and extenuated into a corneous, incurved, sharply pointed hook; each cercus about five times as short as one of the sides of the ninth abdominal segment. Anterior four pairs of abdominal spiracles provided each with a slightly tubular, rather thick and dark peri- trema; rest of abdominal spiracles without distinct and dark peritremata. Mediodorsal length of pupa, measured from middle of ver- tex to posterior end of abdomen (excluding the cerci), about 28 mm; greatest width of pro- thoracic shield about 8 mm. Figs. 1-8.—Larva oF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA (BRENSKE) The drawings for the figures were made by the author. When a figure presents a dorsal view of a structure the front part of the structure is shown pointing toward the upper margin of the plate, but when a figure gives a ventral view it is the rear part which points toward the upper margin. The right and left sides of the structure as they appear on the figure will then correspond to the veritable right and left sides of the structure in natural position on the insect when the latter is seen from above with its head away from the observer. Fig. 1.—Raster: P, palus; Pa, palidium; PrSept, preseptular setae; Sept, septula. Fie. 2.—Right mandible, dorsal view: DER, dorsoexterior region; DMR, dorsomolar region; Sr, scrobis; VLC, ventrolateral carina. Fic. 3.—Left maxilla (facing the cavity of the mouth): Ca, cardo; DS, dark spots; G, galea; L, lacinia; Pl, palpus; St, stipes; Str, stridulatory teeth. Fic. 3a.—Stridulatory teeth. Fie. 4.—Hatching tooth (ruptor ovi). Fie. 5.—Spiracle of first-stage larva. Fie. 6.—Epipharynx, ventral view: Chp, chaetoparia; Crep, crepidal punctures; Hl, helus. Fie. 7.—Sixth and seventh abdominal segments, lateral view: DS, dark spots; Sp, spiracle. Fic. 8.—Dorsal surface of head: AF, anterior marginal region of frons (with 6 to 9 setae, k, on each side); ES, epicranial suture; FS, frontal suture (p, oblique longitudinal series of 3 setae opposite and close to the concave posterior part of frontal suture and the epicranial suture); TrR, posterior transverse labral ridge (e, transverse series of about 6 setae on each side behind the ridge). 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. | ENTOMOLOGY .—Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mezxico.: EDWARD W. Baker, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. by ALAN STONE.) The mites of the family Ereynetidae are prostigmatic and in addition are char- acterized by the two pairs of long, finely pilose, sensory hairs, one pair on the thorax and the other on the rear of the abdomen; by the 3- or 5-segmented palpus; and by the presence of two pairs of genital cups. Most of the species are known from Europe, the majority of these being parasites or ‘“nseudoparasites’’ on snails and insects, al- though some are found in moss or on plants. Of the five species presented in this paper, one is already known from snails in Holland, while the others appear to be new. Type slides, as well as a slide of the snail- inhabiting species, have been deposited in the United States National Museum, Wash- ington, D. C. Genus Riccardoella Berlese Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor Fig. 1 Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor, Zool. Anz. 99: 249, figs. 1-17, 1932; Das Tierreich 60: 63, figs. 71-87, 1933. (Description after Sig Thor, 1933. Translated by the author.) Body broad, egg-shaped, rounded, not segmented. Color yellowish or reddish white, with a broad dorsal stripe. Skin with fine tuberculated striations. Hairs short, stiff, thick, and finely pilose. Rostrum short, broad, sharpened triangularly to tip, with two pairs of very short, pilose hairs. The 3-seg- mented, short palpus has short, relatively thick segments, the end segment with four short, pilose hairs. Thorax without eyes or chitinous plates but with the usual four pairs of hairs; between the two long sensory hairs the usual setae, and close anteriorly a pair of very small hairs; thoracic shoulder hairs longer, the 14 ab- dominal hairs of the usual arrangement and size. Few hairs ventrally; five pairs of small genital hairs, and five pairs of longer hairs more laterally. Two pairs of round genital cups. Anal opening indistinct (easily seen in Mexican ma- terial). Epimera of medium size, with one to three pairs of hairs; the two anterior pairs of 1 Received September 18, 1944. (Communicated epimera have a single bent chitinous rod or plate. The legs relatively thick and short, about 200—240u long, with few pilose hairs. On the tarsi many flat, leaflike, pilose hairs; a small clavate seta on tarsi I and II; two weak claws and a pilose tarsal pad. Length about 360—- A0Ou, width 224—280y. In Holland the mite was taken on Limaz sp. In Mexico, D. F., the mites were found in some abundance running over the slimy part (the foot) of the snail Helix pomatia Linnaeus, which is European in origin. The mites were taken December 4, 1943. Genus Opsereynetes Sig Thor Opsereynetes simplexus, n. sp. Fig. 2 Female.—Of medium size; thoracic furrow en- tire in fresh mounts; amber colored, with a lighter dorsal stripe and lighter legs and beak. Striations typical. Rostrum of normal size; venter with a pair of pilose hairs out under seg- ment I of palpus, and a posterior pair of pilose hairs. Second mandibular segment long, nar- row, slightly curved. Palpus of normal length, segment III reaching to about tip of rostrum, 22u long and 16yu wide, with two pilose hairs about as long as segment IV; segment IV lly long and 9u wide, rounded, with two pilose hairs about length of segment; segment V 10y long and 5.5u wide, constricted toward tip, . with two pilose lateral hairs and a simple strong end hair. Cephalothorax with a pair of large eyes just outside and slightly anterior to the thoracic sensory hairs; all body hairs pilose; thoracic sensory hairs 83y long; the tiny pair of hairs just anterior to the sensory setae 5.5y long; longer pair 16.6 long, between the sen- sory setae. No chitinous shields seen. Dorsal abdominal hairs 19.5u long; posterior abdom- inal sensory setae 75u long. Anal opening on rear. Genital opening of female with five pairs of pilose hairs. Legs normal; legs I, III, and IV about 166y long, leg II 133 long; all leg hairs pilose, those on tarsi strong; tarsus I with a small, broad, clavate seta; tarsus II with a narrow clavate seta. Tarsal pads with hairs. Length with rostrum 266y, width about 100y. Jan. 15, 1945 BAKER: FIVE MITES FROM MEXICO 17 rv ° A ee ROR Pe eS aya ees aF wie —_ . Fig. 1.—Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor, adult. Fic. 2.—Opsereynetes simplexus, n. sp., adult. Fic. 3.—Opsereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp., adult. Fia. 4.—Opsereynetes robustus, n. sp., adult. Fra. 5. —Ereynetes sabinensis, n. sp., camera-lucida drawing of dorsal shield. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Type.—U.S.N.M. 1468. Type on slide with two paratypes from moss taken at the Desierto de los Leones, Mexico, December 5, 1943. A nymph was also collected from moss by Penelope, Carlos, and Sandra Plummer, November 19, 1943, at the same locality. The lack of dorsal shields and presence of strong pilose hairs are distinctive of this spe- cles. Opsereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp. Fig. 3 Female.-—Of medium size; body furrow not seen dorsally but present laterally; light amber- colored body with lighter legs and beak. Finely striated. Rostrum of normal size, pointed; venter with a pair of fine pilose hairs out under segment I of palpus and a pair of anterior pilose hairs. Mandibular segment I not broad, sides about parallel; second mandibular segment short, stubby, slightly curved. Palpus shorter than that of the other species, segment III reaching about to tip of rostrum; segment III with one center and one distal hair, both pilose, the distal hair reaching about halfway out of segment IV; fourth segment oval, with three pilose hairs not so long as segment is wide; fifth segment about as long as fourth is wide, con- stricted toward tip, but rounded, with four or five end hairs, which appear pilose. Cephalo- thorax not distinct from abdomen dorsally; eyes not seen (probably dissolved by mounting fluid) ; sensory setae about 50y long, fine, wire- like, pilose; laterad of sensory setae a pair of pilose hairs about 20u long; anteriorly and slightly inside a pair of shorter pilose hairs, about 15u long; in the center and anteriorly a small tubercle with two short pilose hairs about 10u long. Shield lines all faint, hard to see (in some specimens not seen), consisting of a branch forking to include the sensory hair and apparently connected medianly by another forking line as illustrated. Abdominal body hairs about 12.5y long, stiff, strong, pilose; pos- terior sensory hairs fine, pilose, of same length as thoracic sensory hairs. Ventral body hairs short, pilose, broadening slightly toward tip. Six pairs of pilose genital hairs; three pairs more laterad. Legs apparently normal, sparsely haired with blunt, heavy, short, pilose setae; length of legs: I, 1664; II and III, each 133y; IV, 155; tarsus not blunt at tip; tarsal pads VOL. 35, No. 1 with hairs. Length with rostrum 255yu, width 11lp. Type.—U.8.N.M. 1469. Type and paratype from moss from the Desierto de los Leones, Mexico, February 7, 1943. Also a paratype from the west slope of Mount Popocatepetl at about 9,000 feet, De cember 29, 1943. The faint dorsal shield and lines and the an- terior tubercle appear to be distinctive for this species. Opsereynetes robustus, n. sp. Fig. 4 Female.—Of medium size; light amber in color; active. Body furrow not seen dorsally, present laterally; body broad in shoulders. Finely striated. Rostrum of normal size blunt at tip; venter with a single pair of posterior pilose hairs. Mandibles not sharp, somewhat blunt but broader at base; second mandibular segment long (about two-thirds as long as first segment), curved, somewhat thicker at base. Palpus of moderate length, segment III reach- ing past tip of rostrum; third segment with two pilose hairs, one in center and one on apex; fourth segment with one pilose hair the length of the segment; fifth segment small, round, with four or five end hairs, which appear to be simple. Cephalothorax short, not defined dor- sally from abdomen; eyes not seen (probably dissolved by mounting fluid); anterior sensory setae fine, pilose, 66—77y long; inside anterior sensory setae a pair of short pilose hairs, and — anterior and outside another pair of short pi- lose hairs; the thoracic shoulder hairs longer, of the size of the abdominal hairs. Thoracic shield lines hard to see, fine, short, in form of a half circle medianly of the sensory hairs and con- nected posteriorly to another fine, short line; not connected to one another. Dorsal abdom- inal hairs heavy, pilose, about 14y long; ab- dominal sensory hairs about 56y long, pilose. Five pairs of short pilose genital hairs; large egg in body, about 70u times 110yu; anal open- ing on rear. Legs of normal size: legs I and IV about 157u long, II and III each, about 135y long. Legs sparsely clothed with short, blunt, pilose hairs; tarsal tips stubby, with a pilose tarsal pad and normal claws. Length with ros- trum about 292u, width about 157. Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 1470. The type was found in moss collected by i i a a a Hu | rye JAN. 15, 1945 Penelope, Carlos, and Sandra Plummer at the Desierto de los Leones, Mexico, November 19, 1943. The allotype (male) is on the type slide for Ereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp. The body shape and the dorsal lines are dis- tinctive. Genus Ereynetes Berlese Ereynetes sabinensis, n. sp. Fig. 5 Female.—Medium sized; color not known, as described from mounted specimen. Finely stri- ated. Rostrum somewhat long and narrow in proportion to body; venter with a pair of medium-length posterior pilose hairs and a pair of shorter anterior pilose hairs. Second mandib- ular segment of medium length, curved. Pal- pus slender; segment III slender, with two me- dium-length pilose hairs; segment IV with one medium-length pilose hair, segment V hard to ZOOLOGY .—A new starfish of the genus Luidia from the coast of Georgia. H. Criark, U.S. National Museum. The genus Luzdia, represented in all seas except the polar and subpolar, includes 45 species, of which nine occur in the western Atlantic, chiefly in the Tropics, two of these ranging to west Africa. The discovery of a well-marked new species of this genus in a region so well known as the southeast- ern United States is a matter of no little interest. Luidia bernasconiae, n. sp. Diagnosis.—A species of the alternata group (subgenus Alternaster) with 5 arms, numerous long and prominent paxillar spines, the actinal intermediate plates with pedicellariae, and the lateral paxillae each with a prominent pedicel- laria. Description—R=100 mm; r=10 mm; breadth of ray at base 12 mm. The arms are slender, tapering evenly to a rather sharply rounded tip, rather thick, the abactinal surface flat and the sides, formed of the three outer- most rows of paxillae, sloping abruptly down to the inferomarginals, as in L. alternata. Above the inferomarginals there are three 1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 4, 1944. CLARK: A NEW STARFISH OF THE GENUS LUIDIA 19 see but with several apparently simple hairs. Cephalothorax with dorsal chitinous pattern as shown by the camera-lucida drawing in Fig. 5, anterior portion either weakly or not at all connected. Thoracic sensory setae fine, pilose, about 78u long; shoulder hair 25.5u long; tho- racic setae on shield pattern about 12.7 long, the hairs anterior to these about half that length; all pilose and strong. Abdominal hairs about 16.6u long, strong, pilose; posterior ab- dominal hairs shorter. Seven pairs of short, strong, pilose genital hairs. Legs normal; leg hairs strong, pilose. Length with rostrum 288uy, width 122y. Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 1471. A single female was collected by Dr. F. Bonet in bat guano in the Cueva de los Sab- inos, San Luis Potosf, April 3, 1942. The thoracic shield pattern appears to be dis- tinctive. AUSTIN regular longitudinal rows of paxillae arising from quadrilobate plates; these paxillae form regular transverse as well as longitudinal rows, each transverse row corresponding to an infero- marginal. The paxillae of the two outermost rows are similar, rather small, each isolated from its neighbors. The crown is more or less convex and bears about 15 rather stout cylin- drical spinules with rounded tips, the length of which is slightly greater than the diameter of the crown. In addition to the spinules each -paxilla bears on the distal side a conspicuous stout pedicellaria slightly longer than the spine- lets with two or three, very rarely four, valves. The paxillae of the third row alternate large and small. The small paxillae resemble those of the two outer rows, and each bears a conspicu- ous stout pedicellaria. The large paxillae, the diameter of which is two or even three times that of the small, bear a stout pointed central spine 3 mm in length the base of which is sur- rounded by 25 or 30 spines resembling those of the other paxillae, arranged in a complete outer and more or less incomplete inner row. On the aboral surface between these three lateral rows on either side the paxillae are irregular in arrangement, smaller and lower, and arise from polygonal, often 5-sided, bases. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In the middle third of the arm they are com- posed of one to four much swollen club-shaped spinules, which are surrounded by seven to nine spinules of the usual type. The paxillae on the outer borders of this median band, which are larger and intergrade with the lateral paxil- lae, carry pedicellariae, and some of them bear long central spines. Spines therefore occur in a continuous row along the dorsolateral border of the arms, with a partial row borne on the adjacent paxillae and a few on the next, very irregular, paxillar row. The paxillae of the middle third of the arms do not bear spines or pedicellariae. The paxillae of the central portion of the disk are small, like those of the midline of the arms, but intermixed with these are a dozen or so larger ones bearing spines of various sizes. In a general view of the aboral surface the paxillae do not form a continuous and un- broken covering studded with numerous gran- ules (the broadly rounded tips of the spinules) as in L. alternata and in L. numidica; the paxil- lae are more or less distinctly separated from each other so that each appears individually, the papular pores between them being, except in the center of the disk, everywhere more or less clearly visible. The inferomarginal plates are narrow, and the fasciolar channels between them are deep and about as broad as the high intervening ridges. Each plate bears a stout regularly taper- ing spine about 4 mm long near its outer end, with frequently a similar though usually some- what smaller spine below it. Occasionally the outer spine is smaller than the inner. The ~ eenter of the ridge is occupied by four to six stout sharp spinules, the longest 1.5 to 2 mm in length, which are somewhat irregularly ar- ranged and are flanked by similar but shorter and slenderer spinules. These spinules are all well separated from one another. Each adambulacral plate bears a_ long, curved, and flattened furrow spine about 1.5 mm long. This is followed by a straight or slightly curved spine nearly 3 mm long, and this is turn by a similar but shorter and slenderer spine that has a much smaller spine situated at its base on the adoral side. The first two adambulacral plates on each side of the mouth plates each bear a very large 3-bladed pedicellaria (rarely two); these pedicellariae are larger than those on the adjacent actinal VOL. 35, NO. 1 intermediate plates. None of the other adam- bulacral plates carry pedicellariae. Throughout most of the length of the arms the actinal intermediate plates project in the form of a thick column resembling the stalk of a paxilla between the outer ends of the adambulacrals and the inner ends of the infero- marginals. This column is surmounted by a large conical pedicellaria 2.5 to 3 times as long as broad at the base and about 1.25 mm high with three slender jaws. Just beneath this pedicellaria on the adoral side is a very slender spinule the length of which is one-fourth to about one-half that of the pedicellaria, and there are usually from one to several similar spinules elsewhere about the summit of the column. These large pedicellariae continue to within about 15 mm of the tips of the arms, where they disappear and the plates become incon- spicuous. In the interbrachial areas about the mouth there are four actinal intermediate plates in addition to those of the complete row, each of which bears a large 3-valved pedicellaria and beneath it a circlet of about five long slender spinules. The narrow mouth plates each bear a margi- nal row of four long and stout spines, which re- semble those on the adjacent adambulacrals but are slightly smaller; the two innermost spines are usually slightly larger than the others. In addition to these large spines there are numerous spinules, but no pedicellariae. The color, dried from alcohol, is uniform white tinged with pale brownish gray. Type.—U.S.N.M. E.6718; from between 60 and 100 miles off the Sea Islands, Ga.; collected by William W. Alexander, August 6, 1931. It gives me great pleasure to dedicate this new species to Miss Irene Bernasconi, the talented custodian of echinoderms in the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Buenos Aires. Comparisuns.—This new species is a member of the alternata group of Luidia, the 19 mem- bers of which are distributed throughout the warmer portion of the oceans, occurring from the shore line down to 380 meters, though most of them live in shallow water. Six species of this group were heretofore known from the Atlantic, one, numidica, from west Africa, the other five, alternata, barbadensis, convexiuscula, quequenensis, and variegata, from tropical and : 7 7 : — _ a Jan. 15, 1945 subtropical America, chiefly from the Carib- bean region. Two of these species, barbadensis and convexiuscula, have six arms and need not be further considered. From alternata this species differs in the smaller paxillae with stouter spinules and in the occurrence of pedi- cellariae on the paxillae of the lateral portions of the arms. From variegata and quequenensis it differs in the presence of pedicellariae on the lateral paxillae, and in the fewer and more localized spine-bearing paxillae. In the presence FRASER: SOME RECENTLY COLLECTED HYDROIDS 21 of numerous pedicellariae on the lateral paxil- lae, in the character of the paxillae, and in the form of the pedicellariae on the actinal surface it agrees with the west African numidica. It appears to differ from nwmidica in having the spines on the abactinal surface more numerous, longer, and more slender, the abactinal pedicel- lariae more regular and more numerous, and the paxillae in the midline of the arms smaller with less diversified spinelets. It is without doubt the American representative of numidica. ZOOLOGY .—Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United States Na- tional Museum, with descriptions of three new species. (Communicated by Waupo L. ScHmirrT.) University of British Columbia. A small assemblage of hydroids from the United States National Museum, recently collected, is made up of three lots: a collec- tion made off the coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and northern Florida by the Peli- can, February, 1938, to February, 1940; a collection made from the lower Potomac oyster bars in December, 1942, and Janu- ary, 1943; and a collection from the Lou- isiana State University, obtained off the Florida and Louisiana coast in the summers of 1942 and 1943, respectively. Although only 13 species were obtained, most of them common, the collections were not lacking in interest. Three of the species appear to be new, and the known range of each of three others was extended. Two of the new species were from the Pelican col- - lection and the other one from the Louisiana collection. Of the species of which the range was extended, two were from the Pelican collection and one from the lower Potomac. I wish to express my indebtedness to the United States National Museum for again making available to me for study interesting hydroid material, and also to Miss Marian McCrea, of Vancouver, who has made the enlarged drawings used in illustration. SPECIES FROM THE Pelican COLLECTION Halecium gracile Verrill. Station 182-16; lat. 32°53’ N., long. 79°30’ W., 5 fathoms. Synthecium tubithecum (Allman). Station 181- 13, lat. 32°03’ N., long. 79°49’30’’ W., 14 fathoms. 1 Received October 18, 1944. C. McLEAn FRASER, Monostaechas quadridens (McCrady). Blackfish Bank, 8. C., depth not given. Aglaophenia acacia Allman. Station 181-14, lat. 32°03/30” N., long. 79°45’30” W., 16 fath- oms; station 183-11, lat. 33°40’ N., long. 78°13'30” W., 9 fathoms. The only pre- vious records in the western Atlantic for this species are for off North Carolina. These records extend the range southward to Savannah, Ga. Aglaophenia aperta Nutting. Station 13, lat. 29°20’ N., long. 88°16’ W., 33 fathoms; station 14, lat. 29°20’ N., long. 88°28’ W., 304 fathoms. There are two previous rec- ords of this species, both off Habana, the one in 194 fathoms, the other in 200. These records extend the known range some dis- tance to the northward and into much shallower water. Aglaophenia longiramosa, n.sp. Station 142-5. lat. 29°58’ N., long. 88°03’ W., 16 fathoms. Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp. Station 13, lat. 29°20’ N., long. 88°16’ W., 33 fathoms. SPECIES FROM LOWER POTOMAC OYSTER BARS Bimeria tunicata Fraser. Station 19, Lower Ce- dar Point Bar. This record extends the known range of this species very consider- ably, as all previously recorded specimens were obtained off the coast of Louisiana. Clytia longicyatha (Allman). Station 1, Sheeps- head Bar; 3, Cords Flats Bar; 13, Higgins Point Bar; 15 and 16, Sheepshead Bar; 18, Heron Island Bar. This must be the common species in this area, since it ap- peared in all the stations but one from which hydroids were collected. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Thuiaria argentea (Linnaeus). Station 13, Hig- gins Point Bar. SPECIES FROM LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY (Presumably all littoral) Bougainvillia inaequalis Fraser. Front Beach, Grand Isle, La. Eudendrium speciosum, Nn. sp. Sound, Pensacola, Fla. Aglaophenia late-carinata Allman. Grand Isle, La. Santa Rosa Eudendrium speciosum, n. sp. Fig. 1 Trophosome.—Colony erect, 4-5 cm, with a continuous main stem, nearly straight, with several branches varying very much in length; the larger ones are branched again; there is a tendency to alternation, but it is rather irregu- lar. The main stem is practically free of annula- tion, although somewhere in its length there may be a single series of two or three annula- tions; none appears above the origin of the branches. Each branch has rather an abrupt bend near the base, and the base appears to be set on the stem rather than to be growing from it. Each branch and pedicel has four or five annulations at the base, but otherwise the sur- face is smooth; even in the larger branches an- nulations appear only at the base. The hy- dranth is handsome, with about 25 long, slender tentacles. Gonosome.—Male gonophores, bithalamic, are arranged in a single whorl around the base of the hydranth which is not at all aborted. Female gonophores were not observed. Type.—U.S.N.M. 43464. Aglaophenia longiramosa, n. sp. Fig. 2 Trophosome.—Colony stout, 15 cm, consists of a main stem and several long branches that grow outward at an acute angle with the stem and pass along in much the same direction as the stem, to look like a portion of the stem it- self; both stem and branches are fascicled. The hydrocladia are given off alternately from both stem and branches; they are long, up to 2 cm or even more; they are divided into short inter- nodes, but at times the nodes are not so pro- nounced as the internal septa, of which there are two to each internode; the one nearly op- posite the intrathecal septum is strongly marked; the other, just below the supracalycine VOL. 35, NO. 1 nematophore, is not so distinct; sometimes it scarcely shows. The hydrotheca is about 13 times as long as wide, projecting outward at an angle of 15°, and with the margin comparably oblique; the face is nearly straight; the intra- thecal ridge is well marked, horizontal, and complete, slightly lower than the corresponding internodal septum. There are seven marginal teeth; the median tooth is small and rather sharp, the first lateral is slightly larger and blunter, the other two laterals are broader and rounded at the tip. The supracalycine nemato- phore is curved, reaching beyond the margin of the hydrotheca; the mesial nematophore is al- most as long as the face of the hydrotheca; onlya small, somewhat shovel-shaped portion is free. Gonosome.—Not observed. Type.—U.S.N.M. 438463. Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp. Fig. 3 Trophosome.—Fragment of colony, 4 em, was not branched; stem fascicled; hydrocladia up to 2 cm in length, slender, divided into long internodes that are strongly septate, usually eight or nine septa present. The hydrotheca is long and slender, gradually increasing in size from base to margin; face slightly convex; the intrathecal ridge is short, turned upward; the margin is horizontal. There is one short median tooth much longer than the others, of which there are six pairs, shallow and rounded to pro- duce a wavy appearance. The supracalycine nematophores overtop the margin of the hy- drotheca; the mesial nematophore is short, with the base adherent to the internode below the hydrotheca and the short free portion pro- jecting out past the base of the hydrotheca; there is a definite joint at the base. Gonosome.—The gonangia are oblong, with the tip curved over, and the opening pointing outward or downward; they grow in large num- bers from the bases of the hydrocladia and from the stem nearby. The phylactogonia are of the staghorn type with two prongs, each regularly curved, with usually four points to each prong. Remarks.—This species closely resembles C. septatus Nutting. It differs from it in having a fascicled stem, a longer and slenderer hy- drotheca, with a greater number of small teeth on the margin, and in having simpler phylacto- gonia. . Type.—U.S.N.M. 43465. JAN. 15, 1945 FRASER: SOME RECENTLY COLLECTED HYDROIDS e°>eRrite. s kal seeReric .& emetie A +5 ae stoa>e? nd Sp Litislmar” nd ts i pate ye nwt whee et) ". Woe Tatas } ae ra La beary Ay yo ded peeked PRT PT Meee,” ects anesnnrar ~~ eb. wen wee ay: :in'n Noten Wi aON AA Me LN caren nce NET STN ariel Sure ott Ween rn Drank 1 he Akal ee inten, Meer tec cae w & Fic. 1.—Eudendrium speciosum, n. sp.: a, natural size; b, portion of colony showing hydrothecae and male gonophores (X20). Fria. 2.—Aglaophenia longiramosa, n. sp.: 4, natural size; b, portion of hydrocladium with hydrothecae (X20); c, portion of hydro- cladium with hydrothecae (X40). Fia. 3.—Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp.: a, natural size; b, portion of colony showing hydrothecae, gonangia, and phylactogonia (X20); c, portion of hydrocladium with hydrothecae (X20); d, two hydrothecae (X40). 23 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 1 ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with description of a new species.' In proposing the generic name Bactrurus in 1902, Dr. William P. Hay (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 25: 430) said, “C[rangonyz| mucronatus Forbes is neither Crangonyx nor Niphargus, but belongs to a distinct genus for which I propose the name Bac- trurus.”’ His proposition appears not to have been accepted, as subsequent students al- lowed the species to remain in Hucrangonyx where it had been placed by T. R. R. Steb- bing in 1899 (Trans. Linn. Soc. London (ser. 2) 7 (pt. 8): 423). In 1940 Leslie Hubricht and J. G. Mackin (Amer. Mid- ‘land Nat. 23 (1): 201) revived the genus and gave a diagnosis, which Hay had failed to do. I am here giving a fuller description of some of the generic characters, and I am also describing a new species from a well at Topeka, Kans. Description of Bactrurus.—Animal long and slender, with the first 4 coxal plates about as deep as their respective segments. Head rather long with evenly rounding lat- eral lobes. Eyes absent. Antenna one-half to two-thirds the length of the body; primary flagellum very long, accessory flagellum 2- jointed and very short. Antenna 2 much shorter than 1. Mandible, molar strong, ac- cessory cutting plate complex, about 7 spines in spine-row, palp with second and third joints subequal in length. Maxilla 1, inner plate with 5 or 6 plumose setae; outer plate with 7 spine-teeth. Maxilla 2, inner plate with oblique row of plumose setae. Maxilliped, inner plate with 4 or 5 apical spine-teeth; outer plate with from 5 to 7 spine-teeth on inner margin. Gnathopod 1 shorter and stouter than gnathopod 2, palms armed with many stout, notched spine-teeth. Peraeopods 3 to 5 with second joint moderately expanded. Abdomen elon- gate. Metasome segments with lower hind margins broadly rounding. Urosome seg- ments free. Uropod 3, outer ramus about as long as its peduncle; inner ramus rudi- mentary. Telson entire or with slight emar- 1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 31, 1944. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U. S. National Museum. gination. Stalked coxal gills occur on gnath- opod 2 and peraeopods | to 5, but may be absent on peraeopod 5. Simple lateral sternal gills occur on mesosome segments 6 and 7 and may occur on metasome seg- ment 1. The two described species and the new species which I am here describing bear a close superficial resemblance, but they can be distinguished by certain characters, as follows: Telson of male very long and cylindrical; telson of female extending beyond third uropods, slightly notched and armed with rather long spines. mucronatus Telson of male extending slightly beyond third uropods, apex slightly convex, entire, and armed with many short spines; telson of female extending beyond third uropods, slightly notched and armed with many short spines. brachycaudus? Telson of male and female not extending beyond third uropods, notched and armed with long Spines . «3.46700 Sek hubrichtt Bactrurus mucronatus (Forbes) Fig. 1 Crangonyx mucronatus 8S. A. Forbes, Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. Bull. No. 1: 6, figs. 1-7. 1876. Crangonyx mucronatus O. P. Hay, Amer. Nat. 16: 241. 1882. Eucrangonyx mucronatus T. R. R. Stebbing, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (ser. 2) 7 (pt. 8): 423. 1899. Bactrurus mucronatus W. P. Hay, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 25: 4380. 1902. Eucrangonyx mucronatus T. R. R. Stebbing, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I: 388. 1906. Eucrangonyx mucronatus A. L. Weckel, Proce. U.S. Nat. Mus. 32: 29, fig. 2. 1907. Bactrurus mucronatus L. Hubricht and J. G. Mackin, Amer. Midl. Nat. 23 (1): 201. 1940. Bactrurus mucronatus L. Hubricht, Amer. Midl. Nat. 29 (3): 698. 19438. Forbes’s description and figures of this spe- cies, which he first discovered in a well at Nor- mal, Ill., are very good, but I am here giving a figure of the anterior part of the animal and detailed figures of the gnathopods of the male. I am also figuring the mouth parts, which were not figured by Forbes. The gnathopods of B. mucronatus have the palms slightly concave, and gnathopod 1 is 2 Husricut and Mackin, Amer. Midl. Nat. 23 (1): 201, fig. 8. 1940. -y - Jan. 15, 1945 SHOEMAKER: THE AMPHIPOD GENUS BACTRURUS 25 ; shorter and appears to be somewhat stouter is armed distally as follows: a sharp spine at the _ than 2. The mandibular spine-row contains 7 upper inner corner followed by a stout sharp - spines; second and third joints of mandibular — spine-tooth, then a plumose or pectinate spine a a . ifs j Y K \ f 1 Nie ’, TR Ms Y WN xs H F Fic. 1.—Bactrurus mucronatus (Forbes): Male: A, anterior half of animal; B, mandible; C, maxilla 1; D, maxilla 2; HZ, maxilliped; F, lower lip; G, gnathopod 1; H, gnathopod 2; J, uropod 3. palp subequal. Inner plate of first maxilla with followed by a stout sharp spine-tooth and a 5 plumose setae; outer plate with 7 spine-tecth. curved spine; outer plate armed with 5 or 6 Second maxilla with oblique row of plumose _ spine-teeth on inner margin. setae on inner plate. Inner plate of maxilliped The outer ramus of uropod 3 is rather 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 1 K J F L Fia. 2.—Bactrurus hubrichti, n. sp.: Male: A, anterior half of animal; B, apex of inner plate of maxilli- ped; C, D, palm of gnathopods 1 and 2; E, seventh joint of peraeopod 1; F, peraeopod 5; G, posterior all of animal; H, uropod 3; J, telson. Female; J, K, palms of gnathopods 1 and 2; L, uropod 3; , telson. / - . JAN. 15, 1945 slender, converges to the narrow truncate apex and is about as long as the peduncle; the inner ramus is very small and apparently unarmed. The telson of the male is very long and slender; that of the female is about twice as long as wide, slightly emarginate and armed distally with 2 groups of rather long spines. In the fe- male the telson extends decidedly beyond the third uropods. Forbes says that the telson of the female is very similar to the telson of Crangonyzx gracilis, but this is not correct, as the telson of C. gracilis in the female is some- what wider than long and is cleft for about one- third its length. Coxal gills are present on the second gnathopods and the first 4 peraeopods but are not present on the fifth peraeopod in either sex. Lateral sternal gills are present on the sixth and seventh mesosome segments and may sometimes be present on the first meta- some segment in either male or female. Forbes gives 9 to 10 mm as the length of the animal, but his specimens were apparently not fully grown, as some males in the national collection measure 16 mm from the front of the head to the end of the first uropods, and some of the females measure about 12 mm. As no type has ever been designated for this species and as none of the original material ap- pears to be extant, I am creating a neotype as follows: A male, U.S.N.M. 81546, taken from a well at Champaign, II]., March 29, 1902. Bactrurus hubrichti, n. sp. Fig. 2 Male—Antenna 1, peduncular joints de- creasing consecutively in length; primary flagellum of about 40 joints, all of which except the first eight and the terminal joint bear small, slender sense clubs; accessory flagellum of 2 joints, the terminal joint very small. Antenna 2, fourth joint a little longer than fifth; flagel- lum shorter than peduncle and composed of about 13 joints. No sense organs present. Mouth parts very much like those of B. mucro- natus. Maxilliped, inner plate armed distally as follows: at upper inner angle a sharp spine followed by two larger sharp spine-teeth, then a pectinate spine followed by another large sharp spine-tooth and a curved spine (Fig. 2, SHOEMAKER: THE AMPHIPOD GENUS BACTRURUS 27 B); the outer plates in the male figured have 6 marginal spine-teeth on right plate and 5 on the left, but other males examined had as many as 7 teeth on a plate. The first 5 coxal plates are as shown by Fig. 2, A. Gnathopod 1 perhaps a little shorter, but much stouter than 2. The palm of gnathopod 1 is slightly convex and that of gnathopod 2 is nearly straight. The armature of these palms is shown by Figs. 2, C, D. Peraeopods 1 and 2 sub- equal in length and alike in form; the seventh joint is strong and has a long sharp nail and a spine on inner margin. Peraeopods 3 to 5 in- creasing consecutively in length; the second joints bearing short spines on front and hind margins; seventh joints like those of peraeopod 1 and 2. Coxal gills are present on gnathopod 2 and all the peraeopods; lateral sternal gills are present on the sixth and seventh mesosome seg- ments and the first metasome segment. Metasome segments with lower hind margins broadly rounding and bearing short setae; and lower margin of segments 2 and 3 with a few short spines. Uropods 1 and 2 stout and very spinose, as shown by Fig. 2, G. Uropod 3 ex- tends quite noticeably beyond the telson; outer ramus as long as peduncle and armed on outer margin with two groups of spines, each contain- ing 3 spines, and a single spine proximally; in- ner ramus very small and without spines. Tel- son as long as wide; distal margin divided into two lobes by a shallow sinus, each lobe armed with about 10 long stout spines; lateral margins each with a central plumose seta. Length of male from front of head to end of uropod 1 about 21 mm. Type.—A male, U.S.N.M. 80039, taken from a well at Topeka, Kans., by E. A. Popenoe, April 16, 1912. Female.—The female closely resembles the male, the principal difference being in the sec- ond gnathopod. The palm of this gnathopod is convex, while that of the male is nearly straight. The arrangement of the spine-teeth of the gnathopods is shown by Figs. 2, J, K. The telson is a little wider than long, but other- wise like that of the male. Length of female from front of head to end of uropod 1 about 19 mm. 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 1 ICHTHYOLOGY.—Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside chub of the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western United States.! ROBERT R. Miuuer, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by LEonarp P. ScHULTZ.) During a preliminary survey of the spe- cies of cyprinid fishes currently referred to the genus Gila, I made a detailed study of the pharyngeal teeth and arches of the leatherside chub, ‘‘Gzla’’ cope. This species has been classified in six different genera: Squalius Bonaparte, Leuciscus Walbaum, Tigoma Girard, Cheonda Girard, Richard- sonius Girard, and Gila Baird and Girard,? but my work indicates that copez belongs to none of these. Therefore, I am erecting a new genus for its sole reception. Snyderichthys, new genus Genotype.-—Squalius cope. Jordan and Gil- bert. Snyderichthys differs from the other Gila-like fishes of the West principally in having only four teeth in the main row of each pharyngeal bone, instead of five on the left side and four on the right. I have examined the pharyngeals of 34 specimens of S. copei as follows: 5 from Provo River, at Provo, Utah (U.S.N.M. 125138); 10 from the same place (U.S.N.M. 41632); 10 from Little Wood River at Shoshone, Idaho (U.S.N.M. 48041 and 48111); 2 of the 3 types of Squalius aliciae, a synonym of Snyderich- thys copet, from Provo River near Utah Lake (U.S.N.M. 27412); 5 from the Beaver River at Beaver, Utah (U.S.N.M. 15795); and the 2 types of Squalius cope: from Bear River, Evanston, Wyo. (U.S.N.M. 27409). Despite published tooth counts, these fish (with two exceptions noted below) have only four teeth in the main row of each side. The dental for- mula varies in these specimens from dominantly 2,4-4,2 in the Bonneville system to dominantly 1,4-4,1 in the specimens from Little Wood River. The pharyngeals of the two types of 1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received November 22, 1944. 2 See JORDAN and EverMann, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 1: 236. 1896; JorpaAN, EVERMANN, and CLarRk, Rep. U. 8. Comm. Fish., pt. 2: 119. 1928 (1930); Simon, Wyoming Wild Life 7 (4): 7, 1 fig. 1942; Stmon and Simon, Univ. Wyoming Publ. 6 (4): 51, 61. 1942; Tanner, Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters 13: 160, 169. 1936. 3 Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 3: 461. 1880 (1881). Squalius aliciae, which previously had been examined (presumably by Jouy), were 2,4-4,2 and 2,4-3,2, the third tooth of the right arch of the second pharyngeal appearing to be en- larged as if representing a fusion of two teeth. This abnormality was also noted in one speci- men from Little Wood River, which had a formula of 1,4-3,1. In the two types of S. cope, the larger specimen has the right arch missing (teeth 1,4 on left arch, the single tooth represented by a strong alveolus), and the smaller one lacks the left arch (teeth 4,1 on right arch, one tooth of the main row repre- sented by a prominent alveolus). No other specimens from Bear River are at hand. Snyderichthys differs further from the fishes cur- rently placed in the genus Gila in having the gill membranes attached very close together rather than comparatively wide apart. Of the other known genera of cyprinid fishes in the Bonneville and Columbia River drain- ages with biserial dentition, only three have four teeth in the main row on each side. These are Rhinichthys Agassiz (including the subgenus Apocope Cope), Oregonichthys Hubbs, and Couesius Jordan. Snyderichthys differs from each of these genera in lacking a barbel and differs further from Rhinichthys in the absence of basal radii on the scales. The monotypic genus Oregonichthys, with very large specialized scales, is obviously distinct, and Couesius (as represented by the type of greeni, U.S.N.M. 44454) is likewise not closely related to Snyder- ichthys. So far as known, the new genus is monotypic, and it is confined to the basin of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville in Utah, Wyo- ming, and Idaho, the Upper Snake River of Idaho and Wyoming, and the Wood River drainage of western Idaho. It is a pleasure to name this distinctive fish in honor of the late John Otterbein Snyder, in recognition of his pioneering work on western fishes. Snyderichthys takes its place among the peculiar cyprinid genera Jctichthys Jordan and Evermann, Mylocheilus Agassiz, Acrocheilus Agassiz, and Oregonichthys, which are confined to the Bonneville and Columbia River drainage basins. ; . : ‘ . " ‘ —— Se, eS a ee eee eee eee a | =a Jan. 15, 1945 SCHULTZ: A NEW CATFISH FROM VENEZUELA 29 ICHTHYOLOGY.—Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Venezuela.’ LEONARD ; P. Scuutrz, U. 8. National Museum. q Recently, three specimens of a South 12.2 (14.3; 14.8); least depth of caudal pe- - American catfish, collected near Caracas, duncle 10.6 (11.0; 11.2); length of caudal pe- 4 Venezuela, by Sr. Egardo Mondolfi and Sr. duncle from base of last anal ray to midcaudal _ Vivas, were turned over to me for study. fin base 18.8 (20.4; 20.0); distance from tip of _ After careful comparisons were made with snout to origin of dorsal fin 65.3 (66.8; 66.7); _ related species in the collections of the snout to anal origin 75.3 (72.5; 74.2); snout to United States National Museum, it was pelvic insertion 63.2 (58.6; 62.1); snout to anus q concluded that these fishes represent a dis- 72.7 (68.6; 70.3); pelvic insertion to anal origin tinct species, and this is described below and named in honor of Sr. Mondolfi, through whose efforts the specimens were eollected and forwarded to me. It is re- gretted that they were received too late to be included in my recent paper on The cat- fishes of Venezuela (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 94: 173-338, figs. 1-5, pls. 1-14. 1944). Genus Pygidium Meyen Pygidium mondolfi, n. sp. Holotype.—U.S.N.M. 120377, a sexually ma- ture male, 60.5 mm in standard length, col- lected by Sr. Egardo Mondolfi and Sr. Vivas, July 16, 1939, from Quebrado Chacaito near Caracas but in Estado de Miranda, Rio Tuy system, Venezuela. Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. 120378, 2 specimens, 45.5 and 33 mm in standard length, collected along with the holotype and bearing the same data. Description.—Based on the holotype and two paratypes. Measurements, expressed in hun- dredths of the standard length, are recorded for the holotype then paratypes in parentheses, respectively. Standard lengths in mm. 60.5 (45.5; 33). The two longest specimens are sexually mature males. Length of head 19.3 (19.8; 20.0) ; width across body at pectoral insertions 14.4 (15.4; 17.3), greatest depth of body 17.2 (18.5; 15.2); length of snout 7.28 (8.78; 7.88); diameter of eye 1.98 (2.20; 2.73); least width of fleshy inter- orbital 5.12 (4.62; 5.76); postorbital length of head 9.58 (10.5; 10.3); length of longest ray (first branched) of anal fin 10.4 (11.2; 10.0); longest dorsal ray 10.1 (11.2; 10.6); longest pelvic ray 6.62 (7.90; 8.18); longest (first) pec- toral ray 10.6 (14.3; 13.9); longest caudal ray 1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 22, 1944. 13.4 (13.4; 11.5); length of upper maxillary barbel 8.27 (13.4; 13.0); length of lower maxil- lary barbel 6.62 (9.67; 9.09); length of nasal barbel 6.94 (10.8; 12.1); distance from edge of eye to margin of posterior nasal opening 1.98 (2.42; 2.42): distance from tip of first pectoral ray to pelvic insertion 37.2 (30.2; 30.3); dis- tance that first pectoral fin ray projects beyond other pectoral rays 1.65 (2.20; 1.51); distance from dorsal origin to midcaudal fin base 32.7 (31.9; 30.6); anal origin to midcaudal fin base 26.4 (27.0; 26.4); pelvic insertion to midcaudal fin base 38.8 (40.1; 39.4). The following counts were made, respec- tively: Dorsal rays, v, 5 (iv, 6; iv, 6); anal iv, 4 (iv, 4; iv, 4); pectoral i, 7-i, 7 (j, 7-1, 7;1, 7-i, 7); pelvic i, 4-i, 4 (i, 4-4, 4; 1, 44, 4); branched rays of caudal fin 10 (11; 10). Teeth all conical; anal origin under a vertical line through fourth branched dorsal fin ray; dorsal origin in front of a vertical line through front of anus; depressed dorsal fin reaches to opposite middle of depressed anal fin; pelvic fins not quite reaching to anus; pectorals much shorter than the head, the first ray little pro- longed; nasal barbel reaches a little past the eye; upper maxillary barbel reaching about two- thirds the way to rear of opercle, and lower maxillary barbel a little shorter. The eye is in the anterior half of the head, the rear of orbit about equidistant between tip of snout and rear of head; the caudal fin is rounded or what may be considered as truncate-rounded, at least the middle rays are longest; dorsal and anal rounded; the pectoral fins are short and the first pectoral fin ray is barely prolonged; the dorsal origin is about equidistant between tip of caudal fin and base of pectorals; distance from midcaudal fin base to dorsal origin about 1.9 times in distance from tip of snout to dor- sal origin; pelvic insertions about equidistant from midcaudal fin base and middle of length - 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of pectoral fisn; distance between pelvic inser- tions and anal origin is contained from 23 to 23 times in distance from tips of pectoral rays to pelvic insertion. Coloration.—A_ distinct interrupted dark brownish lengthwise streak, a trifle above the midaxis of body, formed of irregular-shaped dark brown blotches more or less elongate, these blotches with extensions of the pigment dorsally, sometimes reaching nearly to the back, but ventrally this streak of elongate blotches ends abruptly; below dark streak on the largest two specimens are minute brown specks, but lacking in the smaller specimen; above the dark lateral streak are numerous Ir- iregularly shaped brown blotches, less distinct and smaller than any forming the lateral stripe; area around nasal openings darkish; peritoneum white ventrally, dusky dorsally and laterally. Remarks.—This new species belongs among those species of Pygidiwm with these character- istics: Conical teeth; a rounded or truncate- rounded caudal fin; the dorsal origin a little closer to midcaudal fin base than tips of pec- toral rays; pelvic insertions a trifle closer to tips of pectoral fin rays than midcaudal fin base; with the eyes located just in front of middle of head length and the sides with a lateral streak of dark blotches. In this group P. mondolfi is related to the following: In P. dorsostriatum Eigenmann, P. latistri- atum Eigenmann, and P. venulosum Steindach- ner, the dorsal origin is farther forward so that it is equidistant between tip of caudal fin and some point on the head instead of near tips of pectoral rays as in the new species. In P. regani Eigenmann the maxillary barbel reaches beyond the head, but in P. mondolfi it does not reach to rear of head. VOL. 35, NO. 1 In P. striatum Meek and Hildebrand, the pelvic insertion is equidistant between mid- caudal fin base and rear of head instead of tips of pectoral rays as in mondolfi, and in the latter the barbels are much shorter, not reaching rear of head. Pygidium mondolfi may be distinguished from other species of Pygidiwm reported from Venezuela by the following key: la. Caudal fin rounded or truncate-rounded, mid- dle rays longest. 2a. Maxillary barbels slender, reaching to mid- dle of pectoral rays; nasal barbel short, reaching a little past eye, or about half- way to end of operculum; origin of dorsal a trifle closer to base of midcaudal fin rays than to tips of branched rays of pectoral; insertion of pelvics equidistant between base of midcaudal fin rays and end of operculum; length of upper pro- longed pectoral ray 1} times in distance from its tip to insertion of pelvics; a ver- tical line through origin of dorsal passes a little closer to insertion of pelvics than to anus; dark diffuse spots or blotches, no lateral band. . Pygidium meridae (Regan) 2b. Both maxillary as well as nasal barbels not reaching beyond three-fourths way to rear of opercle; origin of dorsal much closer to midcaudal fin base than tips of pectoral rays; insertion of pelvics an equal distance between base of mid- caudal fin rays and rear of pectoral fin; length of upper or first pectoral fin ray 23 to 3 times in distance from its tip to pelvic insertions; a vertical line through dorsal origin passes about an equal dis- tance between pelvic insertions and middle of anus; a dark lateral streak composed of dark brown blotches, with other smaller dark blotches dorsally. Pgidium mondolfi, n. sp. 1b. Caudal fin emarginate or a little concave. 3a. Color plain or sides with one or more con- tinuous dark lengthwise bands, but no dark spots on back or sides. Fig. 1.—Pygidium mondolfi, n. sp.: Holotype, U.S.N.M. 120377, from Quebrado Chacaito near Caracas, Venezuela. Ca. X2. Drawn by Mrs. Aime M. Awl. Jan. 15, 1945 a ae 4a. Three dark bands, two on sides, one along middorsal line anteriorly; a wide diffuse blackish band along lateral line with wide pale streaks above and be- low; a second wide blackish band above upper pale band beginning at base of nasal barbel and passes through eye, thence along upper sides close to base of dorsal fin, thence fading pos- teriorly on upper sides of caudal peduncle; a third blackish streak sepa- rated from second black band by a pale streak runs along middorsal line of head and back, fading in front of dor- sal fin; nasal barbel long, reaching past end of operculum; origin of dorsal equi- distant between base of midcaudal fin rays and posterior one-fourth of length of branched pectoral rays; insertion of pelvics equidistant from base of mid- caudal fin rays and middle of post- orbital length of head or eye in young; length of prolonged upper ray of pec- toral fin about equal to distance from its tip to insertion of pelvics; usually a more or less evident dark streak across outer two thirds of length of caudal fin. Pygidium emanueli emanueli Schultz 4b. Three dark bands on sides, none along middorsal line of back anteriorly; a blackish band on midsides along lat- eral line, above and below which is a pale band or streak; below lower pale streak another band, more or less a series of diffuse blotches running to- gether, beginning in axil of pectoral and continuing above pelvic base and fading posteriorly; a third intense dark band above upper pale streak, begin- ning at base of nasal barbel, passing through eye, thence a little distance away from base of dorsal, fading pos- teriorly ; origin of dorsal fin equidistant OBITUARIES 31 from base of midcaudal fin rays and middle of length of branched rays of pelvics; insertion of pelvics equidistant from base of midcaudal fin rays and about middle of postorbital length of head; nasal barbel reaching past end of operculum; length of upper pro- longed pectoral ray contained 1 to 1-1/7 times in distance from its tip to insertion of pelvics. Pygidium emanuelt motatanensis Schultz Color plain in adults, but in young about 30 to 40 mm or shorter a single black streak occurring along midsides, but at 70 mm streak barely discernible; origin of dorsal equidistant from base of midcaudal fin rays and tips of branched rays of pectoral; insertion of pelvics equal distance from base of midcaudal fin rays and middle of postorbital length of head; length of first (pro- longed) ray of pectoral contained 14 to 1¢ in distance from its tip to inser- tion of pelvics; nasal barbel reaching a little past end of operculum; pelvics not reaching past anus. Pygidium knerit Steindachner 3b. Back or sides or both with numerous black- ish or brownish spots, these small or of moderate size; caudal fin a little concave; belly plain; sometimes spots along mid- sides more or less fusing into a dark, nar- row streak; origin of dorsal a little closer to tips of branched rays of pectoral fin than to midbase of caudal fin; insertion of pelvics equidistant from midcaudal fin base and second third of postorbital length of head; length of upper prolonged ray of pectoral 0.9 to 1.2 times in dis- tance between its tip and pelvic inser- tion; nasal barbel extends considerably past end of operculum. Pygidium banneaui maracaiboensis Schultz 4c. @bituaries Harry FIELDING REID, emeritus professor of dynamical geology and geography at the Johns Hopkins University, died on Sunday, June 18, 1944, just one month after his 85th birthday. Born in Baltimore, he took his A.B. and Ph.D. degrees at Johns Hopkins. After graduation he served successively as professor of mathematics and then of physics at Case School, returning to his alma mater in 1894 as lecturer, then as professor of geological physics, retiring in 1929. He is survived by his wife, Edyth Gittings, a son, and a daughter. His was a long and distinguished career as a scientist as evinced by his early election to the National Academy of Sciences. He was devoted to the precise thinking and rigid demands of proof which doubtless grew out of his mathe- matical training and exercised a very salutary influence by both example and precept in the field of geology which is, to such a large degree, an eclectic science. Trips to Switzerland and Alaska to investigate glaciers and an absorbing interest led to his presidency of the Seismologi- cal Society of America and presidency of the Geophysical Union as well as to his appoint- ment to the California Earthquake Commission and to that which made a study of the Panama Canal slides. Along with the late Joseph S. oa: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ames, he was sent to Europe during the early part of World War I to report on the contribu- tions of British science to the war effort. Dr. Reid was a member of the American Philosophical Society, the International Geo- detic and Geophysical Union, Geological Soci- ety of America, Seismological Society, Société Hélvetique des Sciences Naturelle, Interna- tional Seismological Association, Washington Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, and others. He was Hitchcock lec- turer in 1911. He served his state as director of the High- way Division of the Survey for several years. He will be widely missed in all quarters where clear and precise thinking is practiced. It seems to me that the highest tribute that can be paid his memory is that all his life he was a high- minded gentleman and scholar. Epwarp W. Brrry. On June 3, 1944, “‘finis’’ was written to the many-sided crowded career of WiLL1aAM Mat- COLM CorsE, a member of the Academy since 1923 and, at the time of his death, vice presi- dent representing the Society of Military Engi- neers. Brimming over with vitality, energy, and enthusiasm, Mr. Corse was an outstanding fig- ure in American metallurgical circles for many years. He was born at Malden, Mass., in 1878, of New England parentage dating back to early colonial days. Twenty-one years later he was graduated from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He soon turned from chemistry, his first interest, to metallurgy as a life career and during a period of 20 years (1902-1922) had a wide and varied experience. He held a number of metallurgical industrial positions of constantly increasing importance. Brass was seemingly his favorite, although nickel and bearing metals were close seconds. During World War I, on a special Navy civilian assign- ment, he spent much time at the Portsmouth, N. H., Navy Yard on brass foundry problems. His Washington career began in 1922 with the National Research Council and his special as- signment of administrative work in connection with the International Critical Tables project. VOL. 35, No. 1 After 1925 he conducted a metallurgical con- sulting service in Washington in the course of which his ability to make and hold friends was strikingly demonstrated. He became well known in Army, Navy, and other Washington circles. ; Mr. Corse’s outstanding ability as a leader and organizer is well illustrated by the leading part he played in 1912 in the organization of the American Institute of Metals, now the Insti- tute of Metals Division of the American Insti- tute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. For 20 years he served either as the secretary- treasurer or secretary of this unit. He also served as the American corresponding secretary of the British Institute of Metals for many years up to the time of his death. For over 21 years he was a member of the metallurgical ad- visory committee of the National Bureau of Standards, where he will long be affectionately remembered. He played an important part in the organization of this committee by his close friend Dr. George Kimball Burgess, then chief of the Division of Metallurgy. He was the author of the book Bearing Metals and Bearings, a pioneer in the field pub- lished as one of the technologie series of the American Chemical Society, as well as many technical papers dealing with metallurgical sub- jects. His many nonmetallurgical interests are illustrated by his membership in the Society of Colonial Wars, Sons of American Revolution, Arts Club of Washington, Cosmos Club, Ro- tary Club (Keene, N. H.), Society of American Military Engineers, and Army Ordnance Asso- ciation. Mr. Corse was married twice, and through the son of the daughter of his first wife his name is carried on. He is survived by his wife at the home, ‘‘Windy Hill,” Westmoreland, N. H., to which he retired a few years ago when his health first became impaired. As a man who always rang true as the metal with which he worked and as a sympathetic friend with an earnest disposition to make others happy, he will long be remembered by his many associ- ates in the metallurgical profession. H. 8. Rawpon. CONTENTS LINGUISTICS. —Phonematic daylight i in Lhiinkit, Navajo of ie North. JoHN P. HARRINGTON Pecgtt Lec hey these ae ih OO RA WaiRL Ve eee as eR ge a ENTOMOLOGY.—Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). R. G. OAKLEY...... ENToMOLOGY.— Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). ApAm G. BOvING......... ENTOMOLOGY.—Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mexico. Epwarp: W. BAKER. i000 005 0.3. Shen Ta a 2 ee ZooLocy.—A new starfish of the genus Luzdia from the coast of Georgia. AUSTIN ET, Cuame | oo es i ta ap apace he a ZooLtocy.—Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United States National Museum, with descriptions of three new species. GC. McGLRaAn PRAM. 00) ae tao PSS a el ee ZooLoGcy.— Notes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with descrip- tion of a new species. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER.............. IcHTHYOLOGY.—Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside chub of the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western United States... Roser Ry: Mraume . of. ose as el. as Oe ee IcHTHYOLOGY:—Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Venezuela. LEONARD P. SCHULTZ......... Se tae FCs RETRO ee en RS OBITUARIES: Harry Fielding Reid; William Malcolm Corse...:...... This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 13 21 24 i a eae Rl .* $< ae g EF fn oe fa ealis 1 Se GC, abe | 2.3 . a Wz Vou. 35 Fesruary 15, 1945 No. 2 JOURNAL 7 OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS G. ArtHurR CoopEeR Lewis V. Jupson Harrap A. REBDER Uv. &. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS Frank C. Kracex PHILOSOPHICAL BOCIETY ALAN STONE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Ina B. HANSEN BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY Raupx W. ImMuay GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ALBERT E. LonNGLEY WiuuraM N. Fenton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL BOCIBTY James I. HorrFMAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Aunaip Sr. aT Menasya, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 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C. : ; | , Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. 2 ev OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Joun E. Grar, U. 8. National Museum. Secretary: FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, Nationa! Bureau of Standards. eg . ¥ Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappiyye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. EY a ae Archivist: NatHan R. Suita, Bureau of Plant Industry. oo Oa Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Surzusr, U. S. National Museum. : i a 4 g ee ™ q ; ve 2 OLUME 35 JOURNAL OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fresruary 15, 1945 No, 2 a —A new form of the moonvine Calonyction aculeatum with divided co- rolla limb, and length-of-day behavior and flowering of the common form. H. A. ALLARD, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. The corolla limb of the moonvine Calo- nyction aculeatum is normally undivided. A form has been discovered differing from the typical form only by having the corolla limb divided into five (sometimes four) rounded, distinctly clawed segments. This distinctive form, which appears to have arisen as a mutant, seems worthy of a name and is diagnosed as follows: Calonyction aculeatum (L.) House f. apopetalum Allard, forma nova Limbus corollae in segmenta 5 (interdum 4) unguiculata divisus. Type material has been deposited in the : U.S. National Herbarium under the num- ber 1871928. Isotypes have also been de- _ posited in the general herbarium collection and the herbarium of introduced plants un- der the numbers 1871929 and 1871930, re- - spectively. An abundance of herbarium ma- terial of the original type plant has been distributed among other large herbaria in _ the United States, including the Herbarium of the National Rebaresunh at Beltsville, _ Md., and the Gray Herbarium at Harvard _ University. .. ie ~ ORIGIN OF THE NEW FORM For many years I have grown a number of - moonvines each summer at Arlington, Va. _ As this vine is a native of the American ‘Tropics, where cold is never experienced, _ the plants are not constituted to withstand _ winter severity at any stage in northern latitudes. A few plants, however, usually appear spontaneously each spring in my a ® Seen ape Sere 7. 7: Ps 4 i 1 Received October 12, 1944. garden. The survival of such seeds seems to be favored by the very hard, impermeable seed coat and the protection afforded by an abundance of leaf litter, which may some- times accidentally cover and Loess them from freezing. In October 1943 a vigorous seedling appeared in my garden under such cir- cumstances and was left undisturbed until some time in November. For a brief period it was covered with a bucket to protect it from frost; then when it had begun to show signs of injury from the cold nights it was transplanted to a bucket in the warm greenhouse. Here it grew _ vigorously throughout the winter but showed no evi- dence of flowering until late in March and April, when the first buds appeared. Early in May 1944 the plant was transferred from the bucket to a spot in my garden where it could climb a high wire fence. The first open blossom appeared on the evening of June 20. From this date new flowers appeared nightly, their number in- creasing throughout July and August, and on several nights as many as 45 flowers were displayed at one time. The first ripe seed pods appeared on July 7, the seed coat be- ing mostly brownish in color. The. usual color is a uniform black, but some plants produce seeds with entirely white seed coats. In all, 1,015 blossoms appeared on this vine up to and including September 16. Few blossoms appeared after that date. The corolla limb was divided usually into five broad, rounded, distinctly clawed seg- ments. Only four blossoms departed from this form, these being distinctive in having four segments. The twist of the lobes in the 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bud is similar to that of the normal form, the direction of twist being clockwise, or from right to left. The pollen grains, as in the normal form, average about 160.15 in diameter, ranging from 144y to 165.6y. The moonvine normally produces five exserted stamens, which are adnate to the corolla tube, a stamen being situated below or 1n line with each sinus. In those blossoms having only four lobes, however, or four sinuses, the stamens are always four in number. Numerous cuttings have been rooted from the original plant and cross pollina- tions with the normal unlobed form have been made to determine the genetic be- havior of the mutant form. An abundance of selfed seed has also been obtained from the original plant, since it was induced to flower very early outdoors and has con- tinued to flower until fall. The moonvine normally does not flower around Washing- ton, D. C., until late in July or August when grown from seeds planted outdoors in May. LENGTH-OF-DAY BEHAVIOR OF THE MOONVINE The length-of-day behavior of the moon- vine appears to be typical of that of many tropical plants, since it can flower in re- sponse to days only 12 hours long at the Equator and also during the much longer days that prevail during the warm growing season in middle latitudes. Experiments carried out 15 or 16 years ago with seedlings subjected to various con- stant lengths of day from April 17, the date of germination, have revealed that days much below 12 hours in length may be un- favorable to flowering. The plants experi- encing a 10-hour day never flowered, while the plants experiencing a 12-hour day and the controls experiencing full day began flowering July 27. The plants experiencing full day showed indications of becoming less floriferous and finally ceased flowering in September. Since this behavior may have been considered the result of aging, or a response due to lowering temperatures, fur- ther studies were made. To test this point a plant was transferred to a large bed of soil in the warm greenhouse September 27. This plant remained in a vigorous growing condi- VOL. 35, NO. 2 tion throughout the winter, but buds did not appear until March 29. The plants experiencing the 10-hour day, which had never flowered, were also brought into the warm greenhouse and given the same conditions. These plants likewise failed to produce buds until April. The mutant form that germinated in Oc- tober showed the same nonflowering tend- ency throughout the winter, since in the warm greenhouse buds did not appear un- til late in March and early in April, a pe- riod of at least 162 days. Experiments have shown that normal plants will flower at Washington, D. C., in summertime when planted outdoors in about 100 days, which - is about two months sooner. This would indicate that the moonvine may show a more or less intermediate be- havior in its flowering, since days as short as 10 or 11 hours do not appear favorable to free flowering. Whether there are upper limits with days too long for flowering is not known. A length of day of 14.9 hours from sunrise to sunset, which is the longest day prevailing in the Washington area, does not appear to be very unfavorable to flower- ing when earlier flowering has been induced. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS The moonvine is a very ornamental climber and a worthy addition to any gar- den. Its big, immaculately white flowers, exhaling a delightful perfume, opening at dusk and enduring until the next morning, always excite admiration in the lover of flowers. The flowers appear to self-pollinate very readily, as the anthers, usually closely investing the stigma in the bud, have de- hisced and exposed their large pollen grains even before the flowers have actually ex- panded their corollas. If plants can be started in the greenhouse in winter and grown to good size before transplanted into the garden in May, flowering can be induced a month or more in advance of those grown from seed outdoors. The common peduncle of the flowers and the pedicels of the individual blossoms show a strong negatively geotropic be- havior, and so the buds and flowers are usu- ally held stiffly erect. After flowering and pol- lination the thick, enlarged pedicel of the | Fes. 15, 1945 opened blossom bends downward sharply under the influence of a positive geotropism, causing the enlarging, immature capsules to point earthward. This positive geotro- pism affects only the individual maturing blossoms of the cluster. Experiments have shown that when the stamens are removed and fertilization is prevented, the pedicels do not bend earthward, and after yellowing they finally dehisce at the base and fall off. The moonvine under normal summer con- ditions is a nocturnal flowering plant and in warm weather opens its flowers in the eve- ning some time after sundown. The flowers soon wither the next morning. As the au- tumn days approach and cooler weather intervenes, the opening of the flowers may be retarded. When the night temperatures become too low the time of flowering is com- pletely reversed. The plants then behave like the morning-glories, their flowers open- ing only during the day and persisting even until the next day. During the warm days of late summer the nocturnal flowering of the moonvine is a very persistent behavior. Some years ago ALLARD: A NEW FORM OF THE MOONVINE 35 I cut off the main stem of a large flowering plant at the ground and noted its subse- quent behavior. This plant continued to open its blossoms in the evening at the nor- mal time for one or two evenings until pro- found wilting had set in. It would be of some interest to know whether the flowering of the moonvine is seasonal and becomes reduced in the tropi- cal and subtropical conditions of its native home when the shortest days prevail. As previously stated, flowering outdoors becomes noticeably reduced in September, but lower temperatures conceivably might be an unfavorable condition here. How- ever, plants kept in a greenhouse with warm summer temperatures still tend to be- come nonflowering. Some change in light conditions appears to be responsible for this behavior. Not only do greatly short- ened days intervene in wintertime, but also there is reduction in ultraviolet and other qualities of radiation in the greenhouse dur- ing the winter months in temperate regions. Furthermore, there is a great reduction in intensity of radiation throughout the win- Fic. 1.—Blossoms of mutant form of moonvine, Calonyction aculeatum f. apopetalum; 0.58 natural size. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ter, since the average maximum intensity is perhaps less than 1,000 foot-candles in com- parison with an average of 10,000 foot- candles in summertime. It is evident, then, that while a shortened length of day may appear to explain the nonflowering tend- ency of the plants in wintertime, this may not be the only factor involved at this sea- son. The failure of the plants to flower un- der daily durations of summer sunlight of 10 hours, as tests have shown, would appear to be correctly explained as a length-of-day response. While the moonvine is highly regarded in our gardens only for its beauty, the natives of Central America long ago somehow learned that a decoction of the macerated plant would coagulate the latex of the castilla tree in the production of its rubber. This coagulating characteristic has been BOTAN Y.—Dyipterocypsela, a new genus of Vernonieae from Colombia.! VOL. 35, NO. 2 studied and a resin has been isolated? that may find use in the commercial production of castilla rubber. The scientific name Calonyction is a most appropriate one for this lovely flower, be- ing a compound of the Greek words kalos, beautiful, and nyktios, nightly, meaning beautiful at night. Surely the flower de- serves this characterization. The flowers are so very fragrant during the warm summer nights that their delight- ful perfume can be detected some distance from the plants. However, during the cool autumn days and nights the blossoms are almost entirely devoid of fragrance. 2 WitpmaNn, 8. G., McMutuan, A. V., and Grieas, Rosamonp, Isolation of an active sub- stance from Calonyction aculeatum capable of co- agulating castilla latex. Science 97: 471-472. May 21, 1948. Se Ee BuakE, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. A composite from a little-known area in interior Colombia, referred to me for study by E. P. Killip, of the U. 8. National Her- barium, proves to represent a new genus of Vernonieae with somewhat remarkable fea- tures of involucre, corolla, and achene. Dipterocypsela Blake, gen. nov. Capitula homogama discoidea multiflora. In- volucri hemisphaerici phyllaria ca. 3-seriata gradata, extima parva linearia subherbacea saepe cornuta, media oblonga submembranacea margine subscariosa plusminusve concava apice cucullata dorso infra apicem herbaceo-cornuta, intima ovata submembranacea plana inappen- diculata. Receptaculum planum nudum. Corol- lae irregulares 5-fidae, fauce campanulata tubum subaequante, limbo bilabiato, labio exteriore e dentibus 2 longioribus, interiore e dentibus 3 brevioribus constante. Antherae apice appendicibus ovatis praeditae, basi alte sagittatae, auriculis obtusis ecaudatis, eis con- tiguis connatis. Styli rami anguste lineari- subulati hispiduli. Achenia (immatura) late ovalia valde obcompressa saepius bialata, facie interiore 4-costata exteriore 3-costata, alis (una vel ambabus) saepe in cornua productis. Pap- pus pluriseriatus gradatus fragilis deciduus e setis numerosis hispidulis compositus.—Herba 1 Received December 14, 1944. © elata succulenta apice bifurcata inconspicue pilosula pilis appressis; folia ampla late ovata repande paucidentata (suprema integra) pen- ninervia sicc. membranacea olivaceoviridia longe petiolata petiolis supra alatis; capitula mediocria numerosa in spicis scorpioideis longis nudis pedunculatis basi interruptis axillaribus v. extra-axillaribus et terminalibus disposita; corollae purpureae. Species typica D. succu- lenta, sp. nov. Dipterocypsela succulenta Blake, sp. nov. Herba 2.5 m alta, basi invisa, partis novellis cinerascentibus. Folia inferiora magna, petiolo 9-20 em longo infra nudo supra cuneate alato, ala interdum 1-—2-dentata, lamina late ovata ca. 30 cm longa et lata acuta basi subtruncata vel obscure cordata paucidentata et inter dentes vix evidenter multidenticulata dentibus venulas terminantibus obtusis glandulosis inter se saepius 1.5-3.5 mm distantibus penninervia nervis 8—10-jugis apice curvato-anastomosanti- bus albidis; folia media minora, basi rotundata; folia suprema multo minora integra v. sub- integra, petiolo 1.5—4.5 cm longo, lamina 7.5— 11.5 em longa, 5.5-8.5 cm lata. Pedunculi saepius 5.5—9 cm longi; spicae 8-30 cm longae, duabus terminalibus equalibus v. inaequalibus. Capitula ca. 26-flora basi lata sessilia ebrac- teata ca. 1 em diam. 7 mm alta, vel florentia ; a Me 4 r ‘Fen. 15, 1945 (sicca) ca. 20 mm diam. 8 mm alta. Phyllaria -extima ca. 5 anguste linearia ca. 4 mm longa 0.5 mm lata laxa apice saepe breviter herbaceo- _ cornuta vel cucullata; media ca. 4 oblonga ca. 6.5 mm longa obtusa submembranacea dorso _viridescentia margine et apice subscariosa Fig. 1.—Dipterocypsela succulenta, from the type: a, Apex of plant, 4; b, upper part of stem, 3%; ¢, d, phyllaries of outermost series, <5; e, f, phyllaries of middle series, 5; g, phyllary of inmost series, <5; h, corolla in side view, X5; 7, corolla spread out, X5; 7, 3 stamens, X5; k, style, 5; J, achene, X5; m, pappus bristle, 10. BLAKE: A NEW GENUS OF VERNONIEAE 37 plusminusve concava apice saepe cucullata infra apicem cornu dorsali obtuso molliter herbaceo recte patente donata; intima ca. 4 late ovata ca. 8 mm longa, 4.5 mm lata, obtusa apice paullum erosa submembranacea dorso viridescentia margine et apice subscariosa 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES paene ad apicem breviter ciliata ut phyllaria cetera dense cinerascenterque pilosula pilis appressis; omnia margine et apice saepe pur- pureo-tincta. Corollae purpureae ca. 8 mm longae, saltem exteriores horizontaliter pa- tentes tubo stamineo et stylo sursum curvatis; tubus tenuis ca. 2.5 mm longus glaber; faux campanulata ca. 2.56 mm longa glabra; dentes apice recurvati dorso prope apicem praecipue juventate stipitato-glandulosi, ei labil exterioris 3 mm ei labii interioris 2 mm longi. Achenia valde immatura ca. 1 mm longa 1.5 mm lata (alis tenuibus ca. 0.25 mm latis inclusis) trun- cata glabra. Pappi albi setae ca. 56, exteriores ca. 1.5 mm interiores 3 mm longae. Cotomsia: Erect succulent herb to 2.5 me- ters high, flowers purple, showy, in dense colo- nies on masses of broken limestone in forest 5 km south of Codazzi, Dept. Magdalena, alt. ca. 150 meters, 31 Oct. 1948, Oscar Haught 3796 (type no. 1708581, U. 8. Nat. Herb.). The proper position of this plant in the tribe Vernonieaeis not easy to determine. Bentham and Hooker’s series Ethulieae, containing 11 genera, was separated from their series Euver- nonieae, containing 6 genera, by no definite character aside from the pappus. In the Ethu- lieae the pappus was described as absent or composed of very caducous and usually few bristles, in the Euvernonieae as more or less persistent and usually 2-3-seriate, with copi- ousinner bristles. Hoffmann, in Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, split the Ethulieae into two groups, the first without pappus. the second with a pappus of caducous (‘leicht abfallen- den’’) bristles, but did not assign them the dignity of series names. In this, as in some simi- VOL. 35, NO. 2 lar cases in other groups of Compositae, it is not too easy to discriminate between a caducous pappus, one that is fragile and readily decidu- ous, and one that is definitely persistent. Moreover, some species of Vernonia and related genera of the Euvernonieae possess a pappus that is quite as fragile and as readily deciduous as that of Erlangea and Blanchetia (of the Ethulieae). For the present the genus may be placed after Vernonia. It differs primarily from that genus, as from all other known Vernonieae, in its truly winged and strongly obcompressed achenes. Its bilabiate corollas and curiously appendaged phyllaries are additional points of distinction. The presence of an outer lip made up of two petals instead of three is certainly very rare in Compositae, but repeated and care- ful dissection seemed to leave no doubt of its reality. The immature state of the achenes makes a complete description of their characters im- possible. Those of the two or three outer series of flowers are normally although not invariably winged as described; the very immature inner achenes show no evidence of a wing. Several instances of connation between two ovaries of the same series, and in two cases even between three, were observed in the material dissected; these immature fruits were much broader than normal ones and showed two circles (in two cases three) of more or less completely detached pappus bristles at apex. In one instance two corollas were found in place on a double ovary, and in another three embryos, one much smaller than the others, were found in place in a triple ovary. ENTOMOLOGY .—The mealybug genus Heterococcus Ferris and some of tts rela- tives (Homoptera: Coccoidea).} and Plant Quarantine. First described in 1918 by Ferris (4, p. 65), Heterococcus has attracted little atten- tion in the years since its description, and only a few species have been assigned to it during this time. In fact the genus has been so infrequently recognized that for most of this period no examples of any species be- longing to it have existed in the United States National collection of Coccidae. While a few specimens have become avail- 1 Received December 11, 1944. Harotp Morrison, Bureau of Entomology able in recent years, this situation was modified only during the summer of 1944, when specimens in numbers from an in- festation of one species on timothy were sent in for examination from Wooster, Ohio, and when this same species was found on foxtail inside the city of Washington, D. C. After reviewing the descriptions of the species that have been assigned here, it ap- pears reasonably certain that this recently collected insect is undescribed, and since it has been reported from an important forage Fes. 15, 1945 MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 39 plant, the name and description here pre- specific descriptions are too incomplete to sented may prove useful to economic en- _tomology. At the same time a review of the other species assigned to the genus is at- permit accurate recognition of their rela- tionships. First in line for consideration is one of the species originally described in the genus Heterococcus, H. painei Laing (15, p. 20). This species, while conforming with some tempted, although this, of necessity, is based mostly on literature and not on actual 3 specimens of the species involved and so | undoubtedly possesses the deficiencies of work so based. Through the much appre- ciated courtesy of Prof. G. F. Ferris, it has been possible to examine a specimen from the type material of the genotype, Helero- _coccus arenae Ferris, and supplementary descriptive notes and figures for this spe- cies, as well as a broadened generic diagno- sis, thereby have been added to the paper. The illustrations accompanying the paper were drawn by Mrs. Sara Hoke DeBord. GENERIC RELATIONSHIPS OF HETEROCOCCUS There exists at present so much confu- sion respecting the characteristics and limits of the various genera that have been described among the mealybugs that any suggestions or conclusions that may be offered in this restricted study must be accepted as tentative or preliminary. Pro- fessor Ferris in his initial presentation of this genus stressed the combination of the characters 9-segmented antennae, tarsal claw with denticle, and presence of circular pores only in the dorsal derm as a basis for generic recognition. With some additions and elaboration these still seem to present the most significant characteristics of the group of species involved. To anyone who has examined numbers of mealybugs, the outstanding characteristic of this genus surely will be the numerous circular multilocular disk pores, normally quinquelocular, that are distributed widely over both surfaces of the body and that _ appear obviously to represent an alternate to the small trilocular (and usually triangu- lar) disk pores that may be called a normal feature of mealybug anatomy. These circu- lar pores are so distinctive that they must have some classificatory significance, and on this account consideration has been given to certain other mealybugs that are known to possess them in comparable strik- ing fashion. Possibly additional species in _ the mealybug group beyond those discussed should be considered, but many of the elements of the original generic character- ization, is described as lacking any definite indications of cerarii, such as the paired spines on the anal lobes of the genotype, and as possessing a single transverse ventral cicatrix (or circulus), a structure not found in any of the species here considered to be- long properly in the genus. The stout oval body of painei and its very different habitat, on coconut in the South Pacific, also con- tribute to the conclusion that it would be best to exclude the species from Heterococ- cus. On the basis of present imperfect knowledge of mealybug generic standards, a new genus for this species would seem to be indicated and is described in this paper. A second species in which the quinqueloc- ular pores are numerous and conspicuous, and which possesses other characteristics of Heterococcus, as 9-segmented antennae, ce- rarian spines, and denticulate claw, is the one described as Pseudococcus flagrans by Brain (3, p. 140). Although it is so similar to Heterococcus, it became evident, in the process of checking literature, that flagrans is congeneric with and closely related to Annulicoccus ugandensis James (13, p. 209), having the same 9-segmented antennae, the same row of four ventral cicatrices down the ventral abdominal midline, and, from James’s illustration, an even greater abun- dance of large quinquelocular and smaller multilocular disk pores. Surprisingly, how- ever, while James in his generic discussion states flatly that the claw lacks a denticle, this, as indicated above, is definitely pres- ent, and sometimes almost conspicuous, in specimens of Brain’s species. From exami- nation of many species in the so-called Phenacoccus series of mealybug genera it has seemed that the presence of a claw denticle (usually in association with 9-seg- mented antennae) was positively signifi- cant as evidence of a segregation group including several genera. Even if the pres- ence or absence of a claw denticle is actually without classificatory significance in An- 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nulicoccus, the genus certainly seems to be a sound morphological and ecological segre- gate with the two species here associated in itis Ve The presence of more or less enlarged, circular, usually quinquelocular pores has been reported for several species of Ripersza, but, so far as has been ascertained, only one of these, Ripersia asphodelt Boden- heimer (1, p. 178) appears to approach Heterococcus in respect to the abundant de- velopment and very wide distribution of the quinquelocular pores. In this species, on the basis of specimens supplied by Dr. Joseph Carmin, the large quinqueloculars (many actually are quadrilocular, or sometimes even trilocular) are heavily distributed over the body, especially along the margin and towards the apex of the abdomen, there is a distinct claw denticle, apical cerarii are developed and no ventral cicatrix or circulus is present. To this extent the insect is very strongly suggestive of Heterococcus, but the antennae are reduced to six segments, a few normal, small trilocular, pores are pres- ent, chiefly in the developed cerarii, and there are none of the large multilocular disk pores which occur in most of the species of Heterococcus. The situation of this species seems to be comparable to that of H. painez, already discussed, in that its characteristics, on the basis of our present knowledge of mealybug generic standards, appear to en- title it to segregation in a distinct generic unit; certainly it stands out as sharply as Brevennia and Lacombia separated from Ripersia as subgenera by Goux (10). Accordingly, it has seemed best, in spite of the fragmentary character of this study, to establish a new genus for this anomalous species. VOL. 30, NO. 2 These various genera, so far as our pres- ent knowledge goes, may be separated from all other described mealybugs by the pres- ence in the derm, both dorsally and ven- trally, of numerous, circular, usually quin- quelocular (but the loculi may range from three to six or more) disk pores, these oc- cupying the place of the characteristic small trilocular pores of most mealybugs, with the triloculars either wanting entirely or greatly restricted in numbers and distribution. The key below is offered for the separa- tion of the four genera under discussion. Genus Annulicoccus James Adult female—Thinly coated with white secretion, without cerarian tassels, body color pinkish, size medium (length 2-4 mm), elongate elliptical, length more than twice width, wholly membranous. Antennae 9-segmented, as in Heterococcus. Eyes approaching hemispherical, — with only a small asymmetrical sclerotized base. Legs a little thickened, an obscure pattern of widely scattered tiny pores more or less de- veloped on femur and tibia, these lacking on coxa, claw with or without denticle, tarsal digi- tules slender, acute, attaining or exceeding claw apex, claw digitules slender, slightly knobbed apically, slightly exceeding the claw apex. Beak very short conical, incompletely 2-seg- mented. Spiracles not unusual, with both quin- queloculars and multiloculars associated with each. Dorsal ostioles developed, not conspicu- ous, lips with some pores and setae. Cerarii not sharply developed, superficially with only the apical two or three pairs obvious, these each with two (rarely one) lanceolate spines and numerous rather long and stout setae and quin- quelocular-type pores associated; actually (at least in flagrans) with 16 or 17 pairs of cerarian structures, each, except posterior as stated, Key to HETEROcOccUS AND ASSOCIATED GENERA a. One or more ventral cicatrices present. b. A single transverse ventral cicatrix; no traces of cerarii, not even one or a pair of slender spines in any cerarian area; multilocular disk pores few, restricted to midventral areas of last three seg- MENS st HS Pes Ee ee op ete PER ER oN AS Laingiococcus, n. gen. bb. Four conspicuous, circular to transversely elliptical ventral cicatrices in a row down ventral mid- line of abdomen; definitely recognizable cerarian spines present, on anal lobes at least; multi- locular disk pores much more abundant, in wide bands on ventral surface of posterior ab- dominal segments and in irregular rows dorsally; quinquelocular-type pores distinctly larger than ’multioculars; ere a ee aa. No ventral cicatrices present. LAE ESS SLOG, See ere Rete eer Annulicoccus James c. Antennae normally 9-segmented; no trilocular (triangular) pores present; multiloculars usually present, lacking in one species........... OE arta Mee an Cae Sten ACen Mee OT: Heterococcus Ferris cc. Antennae 6-segmented; a few trilocular pores present in cerarii and widely scattered elsewhere; mintiloculars lacking’). S.-cmaee oleae wa hatin Toon ans Soe eae ee ee Asphodelococcus, n. gen. . ee ee ee ee ee So sp ania Neg aie se by with a single slender, lanceolate spine and sevy- eral setae and quinquelocular-type pores. Anal lobes not developed, at most a faint bulge, no ventral thickening or any sclerotized area. Anal ing approaching the normal pseudococcine shape, loosely arranged in middle of row, bunched at ends, pores of inner row more tightly bunched throughout, this row shorter than outer; with six setae, the longest a little shorter than apical anal lobe seta. Four types of derm pores present, all in numbers: Large -quinquelocular-type with range of four to six even nine loculi, multiloculars, here smaller than the quinquelocular-type, much smaller ‘short tubulars, expanded at inner ends, and “finally very tiny, short, cylindrical, simple pores; no normal triloculars and no normal elongate, slender tubulars. Body setae numer- ous on both surfaces, varying strongly in size, stiff basally but tapering to delicate tips. Char- _ acteristically four circular to transversely stout elliptical ventral cicatrices, posterior smallest, located on the midline seemingly in the inter- _ spaces between the second to sixth segments. _ Type of genus.—Annulicoccus ugandensis James (13, p. 209). The preceding description has been based, in aus. on specimens of the second species in- cluded, that is, flagrans (Brain), since the de- es ption of ugandensis omits mention of a few of the characters considered. i The two species now included may be sepa- rated by the following key: | a. Claw without denticle; large quinquelocular- pee pore described as actually with 6 to 9 het ili Sie nae pias ugandensis James aa, clas rail distinct denticle; quinquelocular- type pore actually normally with 5 loculi. flagrans (Brain) 3 The preceding discussion and the accompany- ing illustrations (Figs. 6, 14-21) of flagrans, drawn from specimens Se Brain’s type ma- terial, should serve not only to fix the generic characters clearly but also to present descrip- _ tive details beyond those provided by Brain in a his original description of this species (3, pp. 140-143). Asphodelococcus, n. gen. Adult female.—Secretionary covering uncer- tain, body color pink, size medium, length around 3 mm, elliptical, wholly membranous. _ Antennae 6-segmented, apical segment much | onger than any other and with four sensory MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 41 setae. Kye somewhat rounded and on a flat, asymmetrical, basal collar. Legs normal but small and a little thickened, posterior without pores On coxa or femur, a few scattered on tibia, claw denticle distinct, tarsal digitules acute, not exceeding claw apex, claw digitules faintly knobbed apically, surpassing claw apex. Beak stout conical, wider than long, incom- pletely 2-segmented. Spiracles not unusual. Both pairs of dorsal ostioles present. Only the posterior two or perhaps three pairs of cerarii plainly developed and recognizable, but others along the body margin vaguely indicated, de- veloped cerarii including slender spines, trilocu- lar pores, and spinelike accessory setae, smaller than spines, but otherwise hardly differenti- ated. Anal lobes indicated by rounded bulges, no ventral thickening, apical setae of moderate length. Anal ring approaching normal pseudo- coccine type, with two rows of pores on each half, and with six setae, the longest a little shorter than apical seta. Three types of pores present, normal small triloculars scattered in small numbers, large quinquelocular-type, with three to six loculi, very numerous and crowded, and small tubular ducts with inner ends thick- ened and swollen and externally protruding openings; no multiloculars. Dorsal body setae small, almost spinelike, scattered, inconspicu- ous in midst of pores, ventral considerably longer and more slender, but few and likewise inconspicuous. No ventral cicatrix. Type of genus.—Ripersia asphodeli Boden- heimer (1, p. 178). This is the only species at present known to possess any close approximation to the above combination of structural characters. From lit- erature, Lacombia Goux (10, p. 62), based on the species Ripersia bouhelieri Goux (9, p. 199), possesses certain characteristics indicating pos- sible relationship, since it lacks multilocular disk pores, but does have triloculars, quinque- loculars, and tubular ducts with protruding openings. However, there is no evidence from the description that the quinqueloculars occur in abundance as with this genus, the apical antennal segment is not so conspicuously elon- gated, there is no claw denticle, the body setae are comparatively very numerous, the anal ring is unusual, with the pores in the bands reduced in size and mostly widely separated, no cerarii are developed, and at least one ventral cicatrix is present. Certainly it is preferable to let these two stand as independent generic units until 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES much more knowledge on mealybug classifica- tion has accumulated. The following descriptive details on the spe- cies asphodeli are supplementary to those given above in the generic description, and both should be used together for specific recognition. Asphodelococcus asphodeli (Bodenheimer) Fig. 1-5, 7-13 Adult female——As mounted, elongate ellipti- cal, maximum observed length 3.25 mm, width 1.6 mm. Antennal segments in microns: I, 40— 44; II, 36-40; III, 44-48; IV, 18-20; V, 23-24; VI, 64-70 (four antennae); preapical segment with a single long, slender, somewhat curved sensory seta in addition to the four similar ones on the apical segment. Lengths of parts of a posterior leg in microns: Trochanter, 52; femur, 112; tibia, 100; tarsus, 68; claw, 17; tarsal digitules, 20; claw digitules, 20; a few large indistinct areolae on coxa, pores on tibia 12-16; small, widely scattered; leg setae small, stiff. Observed beak dimensions: Length 62- 72u, width 76—-80u, with proportions main- tained. Spiracles stout, but not enlarged, the bar with wide sclerotized extensions; posterior a little larger than anterior; a definite pore cluster around the opening of each spiracle, including 2—5 small triloculars immediately adjacent to outer margin of opening and a much larger number (25-50) of quinquelocular-type pores around three sides. Each dorsal ostiole centered in a roughly circular dermal area, of considerable size, free of the large quinquelocu- lar-type pores; pore and setal association with the individual lips variable, from one tiny trilocular pore to as many as six, and from usually no setae to an observed maximum of two small, stiff ones. Only the two posterior pairs of cerarii sharply defined, each comprising two slender, faintly lanceolate spines about 19u VOL. 35, NO. 2 long, perhaps 12-15 (apical) or 6 to 10 (penul- timate) small triloculars and around five short, stiff setae of varying sizes, some hardly distin- guishable from the paired spines, all loosely grouped in a marginal area of appreciable size devoid of the large quinquelocular-type pores; other abdominal segments with suggestions of cerarian development involving similar rather distinct cleared areas and one to several small spines or setae plus a few small triloculars; parallel obscure hints at cerarian development anteriorly, but here intermingled directly with the large quinquelocular-type pores, not in cleared areas. With a very small, irregular, sclerotized area around the bases of the cerarian spines of the anal lobe, apical seta about 120u long, ventral subapical about 42u. Anal ring small, the pores in the outer row approximately circular, separated by interspaces except at ends; pores in inner rows irregular in shape, crowded; longest and ring seta about 105y. Trilocular pores around 3.5u in diameter, quin- queloculars around 7y, internal length of tubu- lar ducts about the same, these with a short, cylindrical, external collar and a considerably longer membranous, somewhat tapering exten- sion, together approximating a little more than half the internal length of the duct. The few scattered dorsal setae with an observed length range of 9-16, the longer ventral setae ranging up to 43yn. This redescription is based on mounted ex- amples of the species, collected by Dr. Joseph Carmin at Tel-Aviv, Palestine, April 12, 1927, prior to the date of publication of the original description of the species. Examiners of both this and the original description will find some discrepancies between the two, notably in the measurements of the antennal segments; all such divergences have been rechecked on the material studied, and statements here pre- sented are believed accurate for this material. Fias. 1-5, 7-13.—Asphodelococcus asphodeli, adult female: 1, Apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, 115; 2, posterior spiracle with associated pores, 460; 3, posterior leg, 230; 4, body, optical section, x50; 5, antenna, 230; 7, disk pores in spiracular area, 1,500; 8, ventral disk pores, 1,500; 9, tubular duct, 1,500; 10, dorsal disk pores, 1,500; 11, ventral setae, showing size variation, 1,500; 12, dorsal setae, 1,500; 13, single cerarian spine, 1,500. Fies. 6, 14—21.—Annulicoccus flagrans, adult female: 6, Body, optical section, X50; 14, apex of ab- domen, dorsal and ventral, 115; 15, multilocular disk pore from spiracular area, X1,500; 16, ventral multilocular and quinquelocular disk pores, X1,500; 17, body setae, 1,500; 18, dorsal multilocular and quinquelocular disk pores, X1,500; 19, cerarian spine, X1,500; 20, tubular duct, 1,500; 21, mi- nute simple pore, 1,500. Fies. 22, 23.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult male: 22, Apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, 650; 23, disk pore from cerarius of same, 1,500. ee Fes. 15, 1945 MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 43 Pee a See — 33 ee ~ a: ee ee = Fias. 1-6.—(See opposite page for explanation.) 44. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2 se ° gn? So Kee ° ©o Oo ° oes? ° 22 Je onl o*/o ° st x ° }: e 3 Oo 8° eo 90 o : ©0095 Fies. 7-23.—(See p. 42 for explanation.) - Fes. 15, 1945 Genus Heterococcus Ferris 4 Adult female.—Occurring on Gramineae, be- neath leaf sheaths, accompanied by more or less white secretion and thinly coated with white powder. Size medium (length 1.5-3 mm), varying strikingly according to maturity of the individual; elongate elliptical to almost paral- lel-sided, length usually more than twice width. Membranous throughout. Antennae charac- teristically 9-segmented, the joint between eighth and ninth rigid and often incomplete or lacking; one slender sensory seta on seventh, one on eighth, three on ninth. Eyes circular in outline, approaching hemispherical, each on a small asymmetrical base. Legs normal, a little thickened, no pores on hind coxae, but tiny ones scattered on hind femora and tibiae; claw denticle developed; tarsal digitules slender, acute, not exceeding claw apex, claw digitules slender, slightly knobbed apically, definitely exceeding claw apex. Beak short conical, in- completely 2-segmented. Both pairs of dorsal ostioles present, the lips more or less orna- mented with quinquelocular pores and small setae. Definitely recognizable cerarian develop- ment at most restricted to the posterior two to four pairs, and the cerarli, even here, not sharply defined, the association of the two MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 45 spines, quinquelocular pores, and spinelike setae loose and sometimes even indistinct; existence in some species of additional cerarii on anterior abdominal segments and especially on head above eyes more or less suggested but not clearly evident. Anal lobes at most rounded bulges, apical seta definitely developed on each, no ventral thickening. Anal ring of normal pseudococcine type, with six setae, the longest a little shorter than apical seta, and inner and outer rows of pores on each half. Several pore types developed among included species though not all present on each, these including quin- quelocular disk, large multilocular disk, tiny clear circular disk, and slender tubular duct. Dorsal body setae small, inconspicuous, vary- ing from slender to almost spinelike; ventral setae slender, averaging much longer, all vary- ing much in size. No ventral cicatrix. Type of genus.—Heterococcus arenae Ferris (4, p. 65). Although no attempt is made at this time to provide generic descriptions for stages other than the adult female, since these are known from only a single species, the descriptions of the first-stage larva and adult male that are presented for the new species described later from timothy and other hosts should supply Key To SpEcIES OF HETEROCOCCUS a. Multilocular disk pores wanting; cerarii not developed, cerarian spines represented only by slender ns ik, cw aol oh eine SNe Ee Re eee oe ie, ee biporus (Goux) aa. Multilocular disk pores present; at least the apical cerarii developed and usually with evidence of others. b. Posterior cerarian spines tiny, perhaps one-sixth length of longest of 4 or 5 slender accessory setae associated in each cerarius.............. suit Sat Senate 13 ht EiRein es ow 00s LEE. x rae nudus (Green) bb. Posterior cerarian spines much larger, at least half length of longest of associated accessory setae. c. Cerarian spines and dorsal derm setae slender (see figures), tapering, at most only very faintly lanceolate; multilocular disk pores relatively few, restricted to vulvar area of ventral surface. arenae Ferris cc. Cerarian spines and dorsal derm setae with obviously stouter proportions, definitely slender spinelike, often fairly distinctly lanceolate; multilocular disk pores much more numerous, present all along body margin and on both surfaces. of the abdomen. d. Multilocular disk pores more numerous in midabdominal area, dorsally fourth to seventh segments inclusive each with two rows, one complete and one interrupted medially, ven- trally with a broken transverse row on third segment, an entire row on fourth, a band three pores wide on fifth, and numerous pores across sixth and seventh [tritici Kiritshenko Le a eS ee Sige Saree Ss ae ae oe Cee ee Ef Fens ea en whe 2 apn borkhsentt, n. sp. _dd, Multilocular disk pores, while variable, fewer in midabdominal area, thus, dorsally fourth to seventh segments inclusive each with a single, often somewhat irregular and often in- complete row of pores, ventrally one or two pores on third, several on fourth in a medially interrupted single row, around 20 on fifth in a more narrowly interrupted single row, a continuous band two or three pores wide on sixth, a similar band on seventh, and numer- ous pores on eighth. e. Anal lobe apical and anal ring setae normal, slender, long-tapering, lobe seta around 150xz, longest anal ring seta around 96x. . ee Ses La! ee WE Roe es graminicola, n. sp. ee. Anal lobe apical and anal ring setae heavy, short, often bifurcate apically, lobe seta 684 or less, anal ring setae less than 50u SA Mae we “hint gd “aa loniy' oi. 0.00 9 5 occidentalis, n. sp. a6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES reasonably satisfactory evidence as to the structural characteristics to be expected for these stages in all the included species. Thus far, five species have been described in or have been transferred to this genus. One of these, painer Laing, is made the type of a new genus in this paper. The remainder, together with two apparently undescribed species, are discussed below. All these have been reported from grasses (Gramineae) only. Goux (8, p. 253), in connection with his de- scription of the new species biporus, reduces Heterococcus Ferris to the status of a subgenus of Phenacoccus Cockerell, but from the present and other studies of mealybug classification it appears that the basic framework of a classifi- cation in the group is so poorly developed that there is little assurance that such a subordinate relationship presents a true picture. Accord- ingly Heterococcus Ferris is re-accepted in its original standing as a genus. The foregoing key is offered for the separa- tion of the species here included in the genus. No specimens of any of the three European spe- cies have been available for examination. Heterococcus arenae Ferris Figs. 24-38 Adult female-—Elongate, sides nearly paral- lel, length 1.6 mm, width 0.55 mm, rounded tapering at anterior end, tapering posteriorly past the penultimate segment, then sharply constricted to the protruding anal segment. Membranous throughout. Antennae normally 9-segmented, maximum longitudinal dimen- sions of the segments in microns as follows: I, 32-36; II, 40; III, 28-32; IV, 20-22; V, 20; VI, 18-20; VII, 24; VIII, 24-26; IX, 35-38; last two segments incompletely separated in one antenna, combined length 60; sensory setae slender, curved, about 20y long. Eye small, rounded, set on a comparatively large base, eye diameter about 16u, base about 33u. Posterior leg maximum longitudinal dimensions in mi- crons: Trochanter, 60; femur, 120; tibia, 116; tarsus, 68; claw, 20; tarsal digitules, 20; claw digitules, 18-20; claw denticle sometimes ob- VOL. 35, NO. 2 scure; pores on leg parts somewhat uncertain from specimen available, presented in figure as believed to occur. Beak somewhat distorted, apparent dimensions: Length 60u, width 72y. Bar of spiracle rather broadly sclerotized, a few scattered pores adjacent to opening. Lips of dorsal ostioles each with two to four quin- queloculars and posterior lip of anterior ostiole with two to three small setae in addition. Each apical cerarius recognizable as a combination of two slender spines about 18u long, with a quinquelocular pore between them, and with a tiny, irregular, sclerotized area at base of one or more spines, and of a loose group of six to nine additional quinqueloculars and four to five stiff setae, hardly differentiated from the spines and 9-38u long; the penultimate cera- rian association is recognizable as two slender, well-separated spines, each being about 18y long with a slightly closer association of the quinqueloculars around them; spines of other anterior cerarii probably present, but not clearly distinguishable through size, shape, or pore association. Anal lobes somewhat devel- oped, rounded (the specimen probably recently molted), apical seta around 112y long, subapi- cal ventral 35—56y; no ventral thickening. Anal ring with longest setae about 84u. Body with numerous quinquelocular pores with average diameter about 5y, but varying somewhat, these approximately uniformly distributed both dorsally and ventrally, except on the interseg- mental lines; a few multiloculars, each usually with 10 loculi and average diameter about 6.6y, on the underside of the abdomen, as follows in specimen examined: 16 behind vulvar opening, 17 in a loose cluster just anterior to vulvar opening, 4 on the next segment anterior; with a few slender, delicate tubular ducts about 10— lly long, and somewhat varying in diameter, distributed over the body on both surfaces, some, at least, with opening on a protruding cone. Body setae small and inconspicuous dor- sally, stiff but not spinelike, lengths from 4-12 in middorsal area; ventrally much larger and more slender, lengths from 7—55y in midventral area. Fias. 24~-38.—Heterococcus arenae, adult female: 24, Posterior spiracle, 460; 25, beak, K330; 26, eye and tubercle, X370; 27, apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, X230; 28, anal ring, detail of right half, X460; 29, antenna, 230; 30, dorsal aspect of left anal lobe area, X230; 31, anterior dorsal ostiole, X230; 32, tubular ducts, one with protruding opening, 1,500; 33, ventral disk pores, multi- locular, normal quinquelocular and abnormal quinquelocular, 1,500; 34, body, dorsal and ventral, showing pore distribution, X87.5; 35, posterior leg, 230, with detail of claw, 650; 36, detail of cerarian spines, 1,500; 37, dorsal setae and disk pore, X1,500; 38, ventral body setae, 1,500. wares LE. ad be ig EE a a Fes. 15, 1945 MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS Fies. 24-38.—(See opposite page for explanation.) ~ 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES This species has been redescribed from a single adult female, evidently recently molted, from the type material labeled as collected from Poa douglasit on dunes near Pacific Grove, Calif., December 1, 1917, by G. F. Ferris. In addition to this record, Ferris again collected the species, on an undetermined perennial grass, in Inyo County, Calif., between Big Pine and Deep Springs (5, p. 22). Heterococcus biporus (Goux) Judged from Goux’s description (8, p. 253), this species differs more widely from the char- acteristic generic condition than does any other included, since it lacks the multilocular disk pores that appear in all the others, the tubular ducts are described as restricted to the ventral surface, and cerarii are reported to be unde- veloped, though possibly represented by a pair of long setae on each margin of each of the last two abdominal segments. In his discussion of its relationships the author suggests that it would be desirable to erect a new subgenus of Phenacoccus for his species if it were established that the type of Ferris’s genus possessed multi- locular disk pores. However, from this study of available specimens and descriptions it has seemed best to retain the species in Heterococ- cus, although possibly a different conclusion might have been reached if actual specimens of biporus had been studied. The insect was collected in July 1934 at Tamaris, in the Var Department of France, on Brachypodium pinnatum, and there appears to have been no subsequent published record of its rediscovery. Heterococcus borkhsenii, n. sp. In 1932 Kiritshenko (14, p. 135) (as Alexis Kiricenko) described the species Trionymus tritict from the vicinity of Odessa, U.S.S.R., reporting among other descriptive items body dimensions of 8-9 mm by 3 mm, and the color as pale pink. Later, in 1937, Borkhsenius (2, p. 55), in his tables for the identification of coccids (Coccidae) injurious to cultivated plants and forests in the U.S.S.R., transferred this species to the genus Heterococcus and presented a short description and figure for it. On the basis of a noncritical translation of this portion of his paper, which appeared only in Russian, the conclusion appears unavoidable that the speci- mens which he discusses represent a different species from that described by Kiritshenko. As VOL. 35, NO. 2 partial evidence it may be noted that the Borkh- senius specimens have reported dimensions of 2mm by 1 mn, instead of 8-9 mm by 3 mm, and that the body color is yellowish, not pink- ish. Discrepancies in other parts of the descrip- tions, though less striking, are likewise evident. So far as the literature has been examined no other name seems applicable to the material reported by Borkhsenius and it is therefore here called borkhsenit, n. sp., on the basis of his de- scription and figure (2, p. 55). This insect evi- dently is extremely closely related to the first of the new species described below, and, indeed, it has been difficult to find in Borkhsenius’s brief description a positive basis for the separa- tion of the two, yet without some tangible evidence of actual interchange, or, at least, opportunity for this, it does not seem desirable to assume that our American specimens are — identical with the Russian species which Borkh- senius discussed. Heterococcus graminicola, n. sp. Figs. 22, 23, 39-49, 51-61 Adult female.—Developing between the leaf sheaths and stems of the host, producing some white waxy secretion, and lightly coated with white secretion. Color a pale yellow. Body, as mounted, at least twice as wide as long, varying considerably in size, from a minimum of 1.41 mm by 0.53 mm in recently molted adults to an — observed maximum of 3.25 mm long by 1.6 mm wide in fully distended individuals. Maximum dimensions in microns of segments of one, ap-. parently average, antenna as follows: I, 36; IT,.40; 11, 32; 1V, 21; V, 25; Vi, 22- Vile; VIII, 37; IX, 44; however, obviously with much variation in the lengths of all segments; the sensory setae on apical segments slender, curved, showing an observed length range of 28-44u; each intermediate antennal segment with a minimum of four to five setae. Eye base about 36yu long, 24u wide, and, with eye itself, perhaps 12u high, but variable. Posterior leg with maximum dimensions in microns of parts measured: Trochanter, 73; femur, 170; tibia, 163; tarsus, 85; claw, 20; tarsal digitules, 24; claw digitules, 26; claw denticle usually quite distinct; as with the antennae, considerable variation in the dimensions of the parts of the posterior leg apparent in different individuals; a pattern of scattered, tiny, clear pores over the upper surface of femur and tibia, but none on coxa. Beak around 73y long by 76u wide, but Fen. 15, 1945 dimensions varying somewhat. Dorsal ostioles inconspicuous, especially on distended speci- mens, usually three to four quinqueloculars on each lip, and a single short, stiff seta on the posterior lip of each cephalic ostiole. The pos- terior three pairs of cerarii fairly plainly de- veloped, and the fourth and fifth from the cau- dal apex often suggested by a pair of recogniz- able cerarian spines, the two spines in each pair usually distinctly separated, but appreci- able variation occurring in the extent of de- velopment of all these cerarii; an average anal lobe cerarius including two faintly lanceolate spines around 17—22u long, about 15-18 loosely grouped quinquelocular pores, and 3-6 stiff, short setae, differentiated from spines chiefly by smaller size; basic organization of the other evident cerarii including two spines and a few quinqueloculars, with the small setae really outside this association; a recognizable supra- ocular cerarius including, usually, three small spines and two or more quinqueloculars; or- ganization of all cerarii, except anal lobe pair, tending to become obscured with body disten- sion at maturity. Anal lobes suggested by rounded bulges in just molted adults, not evi- dent in fully distended individuals; apical seta with maximum observed length 157y, ventral subapical 60u, and several smaller ventral setae from 16u to 32u long. Longest observed anal ring seta 100u. Derm pores and ducts nu- merous, quinqueloculars widely and fairly uni- formly distributed over both surfaces except for intersegmental clear bands and areas oc- cupied by multiloculars, diameter around 4y; - multiloculars with diameter around 6—7y and 10-12 loculi distributed in groups or rows dorsally, ventrally, and along margin, these groups conspicuous only in recently emerged adults, more or less obscured in fully distended individuals; numbers and groupings varying much from individual to individual, approxi- mately as follows in one examined fully: Along margin, each side a cephalic group of 25 before antennal base, an ocular group of 5 or 6, a postocular of 17, about 5 scattered, a group opposite anterior coxa of 11, 2 scattered, a group opposite midcoxa of 8, 4 scattered, a group opposite posterior coxa of 7, first ab- dominal 6, second abdominal 3, third abdomi- nal 12, fourth abdominal 15, fifth abdominal 20, sixth abdominal 36, seventh abdominal 46, last two practically continuous with ventral transverse rows of similar pores; dorsally with MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 49 a scattered transverse row of 10 pores on ab- dominal segment III, of 17 on abdominal seg- ment IV, of 20 on V, of 15 on VI, of 5 on VII; ventrally with 1 on III, 9 on IV, interrupted medially, 31 on V, 44 on VI, about 70 on VII, and about 65 on VIII; slender tubular ducts numerous ventrally, in one individual around 16 on underside of each anal lobe, around 66 across abdominal segment VII (prevulvar), around 98 across the next preceding (VI), around 71 on the next (V), and successively fewer on the anterior abdominal segments; ap- parently wholly absent on head and thoracic segments, much fewer dorsally on abdominal segments and likewise apparently absent on head and thorax, approximate length 9-10y, diameter at opening 1.7y, at inner end 2.1y; a very few tiny, flat, cylindrical pores without apparent internal structure, with diameter about 1.6u visible both dorsally and ventrally. Dorsal setae not numerous, small and incon- spicuous, stiff, almost spinelike, observed lengths varying from 3—6u in the middorsal area, to 10u toward margins; ventral setae slen- der, much longer, 12—36u in midventral area and up to 44u toward apex of abdomen. Larva.—Elongate ovoid, length 0.52 mm, width 0.2 mm. Body membranous throughout, except a small, slender thickening from base of ventral subapical seta of each anal lobe. An- tennae not unusual, dimensions of one in microns; I, 20; II, 20; III, 16; IV, 10; V, 12; VI, 56; three long sensory setae at apex of terminal segment, one on preapical. Eyes dis- tinct, somewhat bulging, anterior margin of small, basal collar much wider than posterior. Legs not unusual, maximum lengths, in microns of parts of a posterior one: Trochanter, 32; femur, 64; tibia, 52; tarsus, 56; claw, 18; acute tarsal digitules, 24, faintly knobbed, slightly dis- similar, claw digitules, 18; claw denticle weakly developed but usually evident, sometimes ob- scure or wanting. Beak short conical, rounded apically, 40u long by 44y wide, incompletely 2-segmented. Spiracles small circles with slen- der tapering bar, a single quinquelocular pore outside each. Dorsal ostioles present, but ob- scure, especially the anterior. No complete ceraril developed, but a pair of enlarged spines on each side of anal ring, and additional pairs, reduced in size and the two spines more or less obviously associated, along the body margin to the cephalic apex, a total of 18 pairs evident and possibly homologous with the true cerarian 50 spines of species having these fully developed; individual quinquelocular pores more or less obviously associated with each spine pair. Anal lobes not developed, only a slight bulge on each side of anal ring; apical seta 76u, ventral subapical 28u, a small, irregular thickening about twice as long as wide extending forward from this. Anal ring normal, with 6 setae with maximum length around 40yu. Only quinque- locular-type pores present, appearing as if in longitudinal rows on abdomen, middorsal about 2.4u in diameter, laterals up to 4u. Setae tiny, almost spinelike, about 4u in middorsal area, somewhat larger laterally and posteriorly, with anal lobe cerarian spines about 8; ventral setae slender, maximum about 20u. Adult madle-—Fully developed, winged, tho- rax strongly sclerotized; body length (of one individual) 1 mm, width (through thorax) 0.26 mm. Head rounded from above, ventral surface more strongly sclerotized, this sclerotization continued dorsally on each side into an elongate triangular area enclosing the two upper eyes. Front of head, around and between antennae, and middorsal area between eyes somewhat less strongly sclerotized, bearing an irregularly elongate cluster of 10-12 tiny, simple pores above each antennal insertion, an irregular row of around 10 curved setae, each about 13y, on each side between upper eye and mid-line, and perhaps 15 longer curved setae, up to 22y, be- tween antennal insertion and lower eyes; pos- terior portion of head membranous, transpar- ent, bearing a cluster of 4-5 small setae (around 14u) dorsally on each side behind sclerotized area enclosing upper eye. Prothorax strongly transverse, anterior margin, and a tri- angular, posteriorly directed extension of this on each side, an irregular plate at posterior margin behind the anterior marginal areas, and coxal attachment piece all sclerotized; remain- der of prothorax membranous; quinquelocular disk pores and small setae dorsally as in figure, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2 a pair of quinqueloculars and two tiny simple pores between coxae, and a pair of setae with a tiny simple pore behind each coxa ventrally. Mesothorax and metathorax definitely sclero- tized, shape and dorsal setae as shown in figure, length 280u, width 260u; wing shape and vena- tion as in figure, surface thickly clothed with tiny hairs, with larger ones forming a marginal fringe, length 800y; halteres about 60y long, elongate, somewhat enlarged about middle but with anterior margin irregular and incised at one or more points; a single apical seta, strongly recurved, at apex, length to apex of curve 48y. Legs moderately slender, each trochanter with three sensory pores on each face, each tarsus plainly 2-segmented, the basal ringlike, claw nearly straight, with small denticle on inner face about one-third of length from tip; leg setae stiff, but tapering to very slender apices, a pair of definitely enlarged, spinelike setae at apex of each tibia; lengths of parts of a hind leg in microns: Trochanter, 48; femur, 120; tibia, 162; tarsus, 84; claw, 27; slender tarsal digitules, 32; short, acute claw digitules, 5. Abdomen membranous throughout, except for apex and for one complete transverse sclerotized band just behind scutellum and one to three addi- tional, medially interrupted and obscure, on the one to three segments immediately follow- ing that bearing the complete band; arrange- ment of dorsal quinquelocular and tiny disk pores and setae (about 22) about as shown in figures; ventrally with a transverse row of from four to eight setae (about 16) across the mid- line of the segments, and with a marginal cluster, characteristically of three to four setae, a single quinquelocular and a single tiny disk at each margin of the segments anterior to the cerarii; two pairs of cerarii, each cerarius with two long (156), slender setae, a close cluster of quinquelocular pores (anterior around 24, posterior around 46), two to four tiny disk pores, and usually just outside the pore cluster Fies. 39-49, 51, 54.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult female: 39, Ventral setae and disk pores, 1,500; 40, cerarian spine, X1,500; 41, tubular duct, 1,500; 42, dorsal setae and disk pores, X 1,500; 43, eye and adjacent supraocular cerarius, 370; 44, apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, «230; 45, anal ring, right half, X 460; 46, anterior and 47, posterior dorsal ostioles, X 230; 48, posterior leg, 230, with detail of claw, 650; 49, body, dorsal and ventral, with distribution of pores, X50; 51, antenna, X 230; 54, beak, 330. Fig. 50.—Heterococcus occidentalis, adult female, apices of abdomen, dorsal of two individuals, X 230. Fias. 52, 57-61.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult male: 52, Posterior leg, attachment plate and halter, X165; 57, body, dorsal, X87.5, with detail of wing margin, X165; 58, ventral disk pore, X 1,500; 59, marginal disk pore, 1,500; 60, dorsal disk pores, X1,500; 61, antenna, 165. Figs. 53, 55, 56.—Heterococcus graminicola, first stage larva: 53, Beak, 650; 55, anal ring, left half, X 825; 56, body, dorsal and ventral, 230. MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 51 Figs. 39-51.—(See opposite page for explanation.) - OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY ; x \ « fe Wy) ‘ 4 Px oft M4 * i “i U } SS f . Ue \ idee O Oe (4 ~ %, . . a " ° y t OEP bi Me hed d i " 5 eee VY . Js X\ COD {ES ~ e } ote x 14 Comyn fee, sf ‘y ° /* : ‘toy x a ‘ GY) \ WY y == AN FZ N , oNeee 5 y ‘Age ° oftteate Dai Sree Age afvae ert e outs << vfe uf se ay ' = ar Po BE < Sawo'® b Be o ; Ce LLP LL NR Been \ ; ee aT | 58 60 Figs. 52—61.—(See p. 50 for explanation.) . a < te “ » : ae < JF - Fes. 15, 1945 two to five slender setae; genital capsule at apex of abdomen about 100y long, its protrud- ing tip with expanded conical base about 36u; _ penis proper about 60y; penis directed diagon- ally downward, nearly straight except for slightly curved base. This insect has been described from a num- ber of specimens, mounted and unmounted, in- eluding material on timothy (Phleum pratense) from Wooster, Ohio, June, July, and August 1944, the first and last lots forwarded for study by J. S. Houser, the July lot collected by Dr. F. W. Poos (holotype and paratypes); from foxtail (Setaria viridis) from Washington, D. C. (Mount Pleasant section), August 13 and 20 and September 3, 1944, collected by Harold Morrison (paratypes and male allotype); in grass sheaths, from Fort Lee, N. J., May 24, 1938, collected by George Rau (paratypes); and on Poa sp., Portland, Oreg., May 12, 1944 (No. 16271) collected by George C. Anderson and James Roaf. In addition, specimens on Fes- cue grass from State College, Pa., October 25, 1941, collected by Keil, although all preadult stages, are considered to be this species, as are adult females on Festuca rubra in field, collected at State College, Pa., in 1942 by Keil (received through G. F. Ferris). The types are in the U.S. National, collection of Coccidae. The relationships of this species have been indicated in the key to species, and in the dis- cussion under Heterococcus borkhsenti. The New _ Jersey specimens examined are very similar to the material from Ohio; the specimens from the District of Columbia seem to average a little lower with respect to numbers of pores on vari- ous parts of the body, but no basis has been found thus far for a suspicion that they might be specifically distinct from the Ohio speci- mens. Heterococcus nudus (Green) First described in 1926 (11, p. 172) as a Phenacoccus, this species was transferred two years later by its author (12, p. 21) to Heter- ococcus. The only subsequent references of sig- nificance that have come to attention are by Goux (6, p. 332; 7, p. 63; 8, p. 256), who found the species in southern France. Assuming the full accuracy of all details of the original description and figures, we may distinguish the species easily from others in- cluded in the genus, as shown in the key. Green’s specimens came from undetermined MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 53 grasses taken at Camberly, England; Goux’s, from Holcus lanatus collected at Courzieu, Rhone Department, France. Heterococcus occidentalis, n. sp. Fig. 50 Adult female.—V ery similar to graminicola in size and organization of pores, ducts, and setae but differing sharply in respect to appear- ance and dimensions of anal ring and anal lobe apical setae, these in all specimens examined much shorter and much stouter in appear- ance than with graminicola. Size as mounted up to 2.93 mm by 1.63 mm; elongate ellip- tical, broadly rounded at ends. Antennae characteristic, lengths of one in microns: I, 40; II, 44; III, 36; IV, 23; V, 24; VI, 23.6; VII, 28; VIII, 32; IX, 44; sensory seta on VII often curved and twisted, that on VIII about 28u long, those on IX about 24y long. Eye with outside dimensions of base around 24yu by 8u. Legs characteristic, posterior with an obscure pattern of tiny clear pores as in other species, and with maximum lengths of parts of one in microns as follows: Trochanter, 64; femur, 153; tibia, 140; tarsus, 84; claw, 19.5; tarsal digitules, 21; claw digitules, 20; claw denticle present but often inconspicuous. Beak characteristic, length of one 68u, width 72y. Spiracles characteristic. Dorsal ostioles quite inconspicuous. Usually only the apical two pairs of ceraril definitely recognizable, spines in anal lobe cerarii about 17y long, with 10-12 quinqueloculars adjacent, and one to two stiff body setae associated; penultimate cerarii less developed, and cerarian traces on next two anterior segments of abdomen rather obscure. Anal lobes not developed, apical seta short, usually heavy, observed length range from 44y to 4 maximum of 68u, ventral subapical seta likewise stout, about 28u long, perhaps six addi- tional scattered ventral setae, approximating 16u in length. Anal ring with setae short, ob- served maximum 40yu, many between 30y and 36u, some of normal shape, but many flattened and split apically, as if composed of two setae fused together for most of their lengths. Quin- queloculars widely distributed, general dis- tribution of multiloculars as in graminicola, along margins and dorsally and ventrally in abdominal area; numbers very variable, ob- served range of total marginal multiloculars 120-225, dorsal and ventral about as in gram- inicola, but variable; small tubulars similar, 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES but somewhat fewer. Body setae likewise sim- ilar, observed range of middorsal 5-10, maxi- mum observed midventral 24u, all somewhat stiffer than with graminicola. This species is based on a few mounted and unmounted specimens collected August 28, 1940, on grass at Yakima, Wash., by F. W. Carlson. These are so very close to graminicola that a decision was made to describe them only after long consideration. The extraordinary condition of the anal ring and anal lobe setae surely is due, in part at least, to molting difh- culties of some sort at the time of change from preadult to adult, but this would not with cer- tainty account for all the differences that ap- pear in these structures, since the few in the material examined that approximate normal condition are likewise much shorter and stouter than corresponding structures in graminicola. The types are in the U. 8S. National collection of Coccidae. Laingiococcus, n. g. Adult female—Appearance in life uncertain. Broad elliptical, flattened dorsally and ven- trally, posterior apex broadly notched. Size medium, length 2 mm; derm membranous throughout. Antennae 9-segmented, apical seg- ment short, not enlarged, with two sensory setae, preapical with one. Eyes developed. Legs not unusual, claw with distinct denticle, tarsal digitules acute, not attaining claw apex, claw digitules longer, extending well beyond tip of claw, knobbed at apices. Beak described as 1- segmented. Spiracles not unusual. Dorsal ostioles described as absent. No cerarii of any sort developed, at most with evident clusters — of large body setae on margins of terminal ab- dominal segments. Anal lobes broadly rounded protrusions, apical seta not differentiated. Anal ring removed from the body apex, appearing dorsal, presumably with six setae, each half narrow, apparently with a single pore row. With circular quinquelocular pores on both sur- faces, and multilocular disk pores on posterior abdominal segments. Body setae numerous, some large, stiff, some small, slender. A single transversely elliptical ventral cicatrix. Type of genus.—RHeterococcus painet Laing (5, p. 20). The preceding description has been based en- tirely on the description of the genotype (15). Laing’s placement of this species in Heterococ- cus has been accepted as the starting point for VOL. 35, NO. 2 its reassignment to a related new genus, but it should be noted that the description contains certain discrepancies which, if verified, may prove barriers to the assumed close relation- ship. Thus the described absence of doral osti- oles and of all traces of cerarii, the occurrence of an unsegmented beak (perhaps a question of interpretation of structure), and (from its illus- tration) the narrow anal ring with only a single pore band all depart widely from the basic pseudococcine structure exhibited by the other genera here discussed. LITERATURE CITED (1) BoprenueEImeER, F. 8. Third note on the Coccidae of Palestine. Agr. Rec. Inst. Agr. and Nat. Hist. in Tel Aviv 2: 177-186, illus. 1927. (2) BorxusEentius, N.S. Tables for the iden- tification of coccids (Coccidae) injurious” to cultivated plants and forests in the U.S.S.R. [title translated]. Leningr. obl. karant. Insp., 148 pp., illus. 1937. (3) Brain, Cuartes K. The Coccidae of South Africa I. Trans. Roy. Soe. South Africa 5: 65-194, illus. 1915. (4) Ferris, Gorpon Fioyp. The California species of mealy bugs. Stanford Univ. Publ., Univ. Ser., 78 pp., illus. 1918. . A contribution to the knowledge of the Coccidae of the southwestern United States. Stanford Univ. Publ., Univ. Ser., 68 pp., illus. 1919. (6) Goux, L. Notes sur les Coccides |[Hem. Coccidae] de la France I. Note prelimin- aire: Monophlebinae, Ortheziinae, Dac- tylopunae, Ervococcinae. Soc. Ent. France Bull. 20: 330-333. 1930. . Notes sur les coccides [Hem. Coc- cidae] de la France II. Contribution a Vétude des Eriococcus de la France. Soc. Zool. France Bull. 61: 58-75, illus. 1931. . Description dun Phenacoccus nouveaux graminicole et remarques sur quelques espéces décrites anterieurement. Soc. Ent. France Bull. 42 (17): 253- 256, illus. 1937. . Description d’une Ripersia [Hem. Coccidae] nouvelle du Maroc. Soe. Sci. Nat. Maroc Bull. 18: 199-201, illus. 1988. ‘ . Remarques sur le genre Ripersia Sign. et description d’une Ripersia et d’une Eriococcus nouveaux (Hem. Coc- cidae). Soc. Hist. Nat. Afrique du Nord Bull. 31: 55-65, illus. 1940. (11) Green, E. Ernest. Observations on British Coccidae X. Ent. Monthly Mag. 62: 172-188, illus. 1926. (5) (7) (8) (9) (10) (12) . Observations on British Coccidae XI. Ent. Monthly Mag. 64: 20-31, illus. 1928. a) 4 Fes. 15, 1945 (13) James, H. C. New mealybugs from East Africa. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc., Lon- don 85: 197-215, illus. 1936. (14) Kiricenxo, ALEXIs. Descriptions of some new Coccidae (Hemiptera) from Turkestan and Ukraine. Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U. 8. S. R.: 135-141. RUSSELL: NEW NEOTROPICAL WHITEFLIES 55 1932. [Author’s name later transliter- ated in various Russian publications as Kiritshenko. | (15) Laine, F. A new genus and two new spe- cies of Coccidae from the Solomon Is- lands. Bull. Ent. Res. 21: 19-21, illus. 1930. ENTOMOLOGY.—A new genus and twelve new species of Neotropical whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae).} and Plant Quarantine. This paper treats the pupae of an inter- esting new genus of Aleyrodidae that is widely distributed in the Antillean Subre- gion of the Neotropical Region but that is unknown elsewhere. Members of the group appear to be somewhat restricted in their host associations, for each available species is recorded from only one plant genus, and several of those at hand are known from a single species of plant. Such geographical and host limitations doubtless will be some- what modified by additional collecting, however. Two species described here, from Malpighia and Stigmaphyjllon, respectively, were received for identification. Ten species were collected from herbarial specimens of Coccoloba by Marjorie J. Camp, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, through the courtesy of the persons in charge of the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botanic Garden, and the United States National Herbarium. In the collection data for the species from Coc- coloba the names of the herbaria are ab- breviated; the name of the plant collector is given when known. Type specimens are in the collection of the United States Na- tional Museum. Crenidorsum, n. gen. The genus Crenidorsum is composed of both similar and diverse species, with intergrading forms between the extremes of the group. Little variation has been observed in the char- acters which separate the species, and the most closely related forms are amply distinct from one another. The genus appears to be most closely allied to three genera established by Quaintance and Baker, Aleuroplatus, Aleuro- trachelus, and Aleurotulus, and superficially at least it resembles Aleuroputeus and Laingiella, 1 Received November 11, 1944. Louise M. Russexu, Bureau of Entomology (Communicated by C. F. W. MursEBeEck.) both erected by Corbett for Oriental species. Crenidorsum can be distinguished from these and other genera by the following combination of characters: A somewhat longitudinal, differ- entiated line consisting of a row of scallop- shaped thickenings, or a ridge, or a furrow, in inner subdorsum (for terminology see Russell, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 45: [131]-132, 1943) on each half of body; those intersegmen- tal sutures lying between differentiated lines terminating mesad of lines; vasiform orifice subcordate to broadly elliptiéal, its sides ap- parently without minute spines and not con- tinued forward to form the bottom of the orifice; operculum nearly or actually filling orifice, not recessed posteriorly; lingula appear- ing jointed near the center, expanded distally but not transverse, with an apical notch; sub- median cephalic setae present; submargin not separated from dorsal disk; without median abdominal disk pores, a complete submarginal or subdorsal row of setae, or a tubercle between caudal setae. Generic description—Body somewhat oval, flat to slightly convex dorsally, flat ventrally. Brown or black and heavily sclerotized, or colorless and membranous. Body margin weekly to strongly dentate. Anterior and posterior marginal setae present. Ridges extending mesad from margin. Sub- margin not separated from dorsal disk, not de- flexed. A somewhat longitudinal, differentiated line consisting of a row of scallop-shaped thicken- ings, or a ridge, or a furrow, in inner subdorsal area of cephalothorax and abdomen, on each half of body. A submedian pair of cephalic, eighth abdominal, and caudal setae. Three sub- dorsal pairs of minute setae on thorax and 1 anteriorly on abdomen. Transverse molting suture extending laterocaudad from its mid- point, curved cephalad slightly mesad of, and 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES continued at least to, differentiated lines; its center approximately three times as far from mesometathoracic suture as from thoracoab- dominal one. Intersegmental sutures between differentiated lines terminating mesad of lines; cephalothoracic and promesothoracic sutures curved posteriorly. Median length of cephalic segment greater than that of thorax; pro-, meso-, and metathorax subequal; abdominal segments 1-6 subequal. Pockets rather small, not contiguous. Pairs of submedian depressions arranged as follows: Three on cephalic segment (1 or 2 mesocephalad and 0 or 1 mesad of setae, and 1 posterior to setae near suture), 2 small or 1 large in cephalothoracic suture, 1 on prothorax, 1 in promesothoracic suture, 1 each on meso- and metathorax, 1 adjoining posteriorly thoracoabdominal and each ab- dominal suture; cephalothoracic and posterior abdominal ones often rather faint. Vasiform orifice subcordate to broadly elliptical, located approximately its length from posterior suture and at least its length from body margin; its sides minutely ridged vertically, apparently without minute spines, slightly converging near base but nearly vertical, not continued forward to form the bottom of the orifice; rim of orifice rather thick. Operculum nearly or actually fill- ing orifice, not recessed; ventrally covered with minute spines, a pair of small setae near center. Lingula somewhat linear near base, narrowed and appearing jointed near the center; gradu- ally expanded distally, but not transverse, with an apical notch; longer than orifice but lying in a curved position and contained in it; a pair of minute lobes bearing a pair of small setae, near base of expanded area; a pair of elongate setae arising ventrally just before apex; cov- ered with minute spines. Caudal furrow broad, shallow. Caudal ridges (ridges laterad of either or both the vasiform orifice and caudal fur- row) present. Tracheal folds defined. Spiracles small, tho- racic and anterior abdominal pair nearly as large as posterior pair, the latter slightly pos- terior to widest part of orifice. Antenna reach- ing to anterior spiracle; distal eighth narrowed, covered with minute spines, a sensorium at base and a seta at apex. Two minute setae just be- fore disk of each leg, one just before these, and at least one on inner basal area of each middle and posterior leg. One pair of adhesive sacs. Male organ apparently a simple (not bifid) sac. Genotype, Crenidorsum tuberculatum, n. sp. VOL. 35, NO. 2 KEY To SPECIES OF CRENIDORSUM 1. Minute spines absent ventrally; submedian cephalothoracic and eighth abdominal setae either about 14 long and somewhat nail-shaped, or about 6 or 100-125, long and slender, not stout at base in relation to length’ (Figs. 5; 18,20). 773.2 eee 2 Minute spines present ventrally; submedian cephalothoracic and eighth abdominal setae 30-60u long, somewhat conical, stout at base in relation to length (Figs. 22, 30). .9 2. Derm brown or black and heavily sclerotized; a row of large scallop-shaped thickenings in inner subdorsum, terminating on abdom- inal segment 7; submarginal teeth present; minute setal bases present, located mesad of scallops; submedian cephalothoracic and eighth abdominal setae somewhat nail- shaped (Fig: 5). (us. oss.sd.ca yo et ee 3 Derm colorless and membranous; a row of small scallop-shaped thickenings, or a ridge with scallops suggested, or a furrow with- out a suggestion of scallops, in inner sub- dorsum, each terminating before abdominal segment 7; submarginal teeth apparently absent; minute setal bases absent; sub- median cephalothoracic and eighth abdom- inal setae tapered from base to tip (Figs. 18,20) Sea ok a ee fi 3. Outer side of ridge over scallops densely sclerotized and tending to be divided into somewhat rectangular, transverse plates with a plate over each scallop, rows of min- ute, stout spines running lengthwise of each plate (Figs. 10, 11); submedian depressions and intersegmental sutures unusually con- spicuous, deep, dotted and bordered with minute irregular areas and minute spines (Fig. 10); marginal teeth about twice as long as wide, about 15 in 100u; 3 pairs of subdorsal minute setae on cephalic segment. ornatum, nN. sp. Outer side of ridge over scallops, and sub- median depressions and intersegmental sutures not as in ornatum; marginal teeth not or only slightly longer than wide, no more than 13 in 100u; 0 or 1 pair of sub- dorsal minute setae on cephalic segment. . 4 4. Outer disk pores subdorsal in position, the majority approximately three times the width of a marginal tooth from submarginal teeth (Fig. 3); a well-defined median tuber- cle on each of abdominal segments 2-6 (Fig. 1); 1 pair of outer subdorsal minute setae on cephalic segment. tuberculatum, n. sp. Outer disk pores submarginal in position, the majority no more than the width of a mar- ginal tooth from submarginal teeth; median tubercles absent, or well-defined only on ab- dominal segments 2—5; no subdorsal minute setae on cephalic segment.............. 5 5. Two pairs-of subdorsal disk pores on poste- rior segment, 0 just laterocaudad of vasi- Fen. 15, 1945 form orifice (Fig. 12); majority of outer disk pores the width of a marginal tooth from submarginal teeth; most marginal teeth slightly longer than wide, approxi- mately 13 in 100u........ commune, N. sp. Three pairs of subdorsal disk pores on poste- rior segment, 1 pair just laterocaudad of vasiform orifice; majority of outer disk pores at ends of submarginal teeth; most marginal teeth at least as wide as long, ap- spoxumately 10 in 100g................ 6 6. A median tubercle on each of abdominal seg- ments 2—5; ends of body broadly curved, the posterior end as broad as the anterior end and nearly straight in the center; cau- dal setae as near to body margin as to vasi- > a io malpighiae, n. sp. No median tubercles on abdomen; ends of body less broadly curved, the posterior end narrower than the anterior end and curved in the center (Fig. 13); caudal setae about one-third nearer to vasiform orifice than to body margin..............armatae, n. sp. 7. (2) Differentiated inner subdorsal line consist- ing mostly of small scallops (Fig. 14); sub- median mesothoracic setae present, these and other submedian setae about 6y long. leve, n. sp. Differentiated inner subdorsal line either a ridge or a furrow, without distinct scal- lops; submedian mesothoracic setae absent, or these and other submedian setae at least ES cay Uc oe 8 8. Differentiated inner subdorsal line a low dis- tinct ridge sclerotized on its outer side (Fig. 17); submedian setae approximately 100— 125 long, mesothoracic pair present (Fig. 16); 0 submedian disk pores on first ab- dominal segment, 1 inner subdorsal pair on meso- and metathorax (Fig. 16). differens, n. sp. Differentiated inner subdorsal line a narrow furrow sclerotized on each side (Fig. 19); submedian setae approximately 6y long, mesothoracic pair absent (Fig. 21); 1 pair of submedian disk pores on first abdominal segment, 2 inner subdorsal pairs on meso- and metathorax (Fig. 21).marginale, n. sp. 9. (1) Derm membranous, colorless; submedian meso- and metathoracic setae absent, cephalic ones about 40 long, and 8y in diameter at the base, eighth abdominal ones about 30y long, and 6y in diameter at the base; rows of scallops terminating on abdominal segment 6 (Fig. 29). diaphanum, n. sp. Derm sclerotized, brown or black; submedian meso- and metathoracic setae present, these, cephalic, and eighth abdominal ones about 60y long, and 14-20u in diameter at the base; rows of scallops terminating on abdominal segment 5................. 10 10. Ridges extending inward from submarginal furrow of ventral surface except in tracheal RUSSELL: NEW NEOTROPICAL WHITEFLIES 57 folds and beside abdominal tracheal fold; a band of minute spines reaching from ridges to submedian area, also present across tracheal folds (Fig. 26); a tongue- shaped projection extending inward from collar around each submedian cephalotho- racic seta (Fig. 28); 20-26 scallops in each a On Rae: Se stigmaphylli, n. sp. Ridges extending inward from submarginal furrow of ventral surface much less numer- ous than in stigmaphylli, or absent; minute spines much less numerous or arranged dif- ferently than in stigmaphylli; no tongue- shaped projection extending inward from collar around submedian cephalothoracic seta; 26-36 scallops in each row....... 11 11. Ventral surface with ridges extending mesad from submarginal furrow on cephalic seg- ment and on abdominal segments 2—4; min- ute spines in a band starting near median line anteriorly, and terminating before ven- tral abdominal setae, mesad of ridges (Fig. 25); a rather deep invagination in anterior margin of vasiform orifice (Fig. 24); caudal setae considerably farther apart than eighth abdominal ones........... debordae, n. sp. Ventral surface without ridges; minute spines along tracheal tract from anterior edge of thoracic tracheal folds to anterior abdom- inal spiracles (Fig. 23); a relatively shallow invagination in anterior margin of vasiform orifice; caudal setae as far apart as eighth abdominal ones.........magnisetae, n. sp. Crenidorsum tuberculatum, n. sp. Figs. 1-5 White, cottony, waxy material extending outward from submargin in contiguous strands about one-third as long as width of body; similar strands also extending from inner sub- dorsum to body margin; a few flecks of white, waxy material scattered mesad of strands. A layer of transparent, colorless wax present ven- trally, rather thick at margin, thin elsewhere. Body broadly oval, ends broadly curved, posterior end nearly straight in center; slightly narrowed on pro- and mesothorax, widest across metathorax and first abdominal seg- ment; 0.75-1.10 mm long and 0.60—0.85 wide. Brown to black, heavily sclerotized. Marginal teeth strong, close-set, their sides converging slightly and their apices broadly curved, slightly longer than wide, 3 or 4 at each tracheal pore area often slightly smaller than others, slightly variable in width, approxi- mately 10 in 100u. Submarginal teeth located slightly mesad of marginal ones, weak, light colored, netlike in appearance. Each marginal seta about 28u long. ~ 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ridges extending from margin to inner sub- dorsum, as wide as a marginal tooth in sub- margin, at least twice that width in subdorsum. Aninner subdorsal row of 24-30 strong, heavily sclerotized, scallop-shaped thickenings; 1 or 2 scallops smaller and mesad of others (some- times poorly defined) on cephalic segment, rows slightly and evenly curved from cephalo- thoracic suture, terminating on abdominal segment 7; scallops nearly contiguous, the curved portion extending into the body cavity, the outer ends in derm and forming the basal part of the outer side of a rather sharp ridge extending over scallops; scallops as long as height of ridge; outer side of ridge more heavily sclerotized than subdorsum, a membranous line at top of ridge. A subcircular or transverse, smooth, median tubercle near posterior edge of each of abdominal segments 2—6. A submedian pair of meso- and metathoracic setae present; these, cephalic, and eighth abdominal ones somewhat nail-shaped, about 14u long; meta- thoracic ones located close to anterior edge of transverse molting suture, eighth abdominal pair cephalolaterad of vasiform orifice, midway between orifice and posterior suture; caudal setae tapered from base, about 6yu long, located on outer side or on top of caudal ridges, slightly nearer to body margin than to orifice, practically as far apart as eighth abdominal ones. The four pairs of subdorsal minute setae in central subdorsum, an additional pair in outer subdorsum on cephalic segment. Two inner subdorsal (mesad of scallops) pairs of minute setal bases on prothorax and 1 pair usually on each of abdominal segments 3-5. Inner margin of disk pores not circular, with 2-5 points, larger than associated porettes; pores arranged in a row about three times the width of a marginal tooth from submarginal teeth, about one-seventh as numerous as teeth; other pores in a row distad of and about one- half as numerous as scallops; an occasional pair between the rows and 3 or 4 central subdorsal pairs on cephalic segment; mesad of rows of scallops and an imaginary curved line extend- VOL. 39, NO, 2 ing from their ends to median line of body, pairs of pores arranged as follows: Cephalic segment, 1 submedian anteriorly and 1 near cephalothoracic suture, and 1 subdorsal; pro- thorax, 1 submedian and 2 subdorsal; meso- and metathorax, each 2 submedian and 1 sub- dorsal; first abdominal segment, 0; second, 1 submedian; third through fifth, and seventh, each 1 submedian and 1 subdorsal; sixth, 1 sub- dorsal and rarely 1 or 2 submedian pores; eighth, 1 subdorsal laterocaudad of eighth ab- dominal seta, 1 slightly posterior to widest part of orifice, and 1 just laterocaudad of orifice. Transverse molting suture terminating just outside scallops, its ends nearly opposite its center; a little transverse sculpturing along median molting suture; abdominal sutures 1-6 terminating just outside submedian area, their ends nearly straight; abdominal segment 7 one- half to two-thirds as long as segment 6; inter- segmental sutures and submedian depressions moderately defined, the latter more distinct on abdomen than on cephalothorax. Vasiform orifice subcordate, the outer edge of its rim not, or barely defined anteriorly, but the inner edge of its rim defined around anterior end of orifice, measuring 48—62yu long and wide (including lip between rim and margin anteriorly and rim elsewhere, the former 4—6y long and the latter 4—6y thick); orifice slightly elevated, a de- pressed line along its sides, located about one and one-third times its length from body margin. Operculum filling orifice, with 2 longi- tudinal depressed lines and 1 or 2 transverse ones. Caudal ridges weak, extending from op- posite orifice to caudal setae. Ventrally a membranous furrow just within margin. Minute, slender, spine-shaped mark- ings in abdominal tracheal fold. Ventral ab- dominal setae 24u long. Type.—U.S.N.M. 56965. Between Guaya- nilla and Tallaboa, Puerto Rico, from Coc- coloba. Described from 14 specimens collected from Coccoloba obtusifolia Jacq. in Puerto Rico; be- tween Guayanilla and Tallaboa, plant collector Fies. 1-5.—Crenidorsum tuberculatum: 1, dorsum, 87; 2, vasiform orifice, without operculum or lingula, X530; 3, section of margin and submargin, 650; 4, minute setal base, disk pore and porette, 1,500; 5, cephalothoracie submedian seta, 1,500. Fias. 6—-9.—C. malpighiae: 6, median tubercle, 650; 7, section of margin and submargin, 650; 8, subdorsal scallops, ventral view, 650; 9, sub- dorsal scallops, dorsal view, 650. 115; 11, plates above scallops, «530. Figs. 10, 11.—C. ornatum: 10, posterior 4 segments, dorsal view, Fig. 12.—C. commune, posterior segment, dorsal view, X165. Fia. 13.—C. armatae, dorsum, X87. Fias. 14, 15.—C. leve: 14, area around scallops, 650; 15, pos- terior segment, dorsal view, 165. ") ij! j hf iT / Bi nat ali! i fullths 4 if 0 HPA Hine "Ht! LA TT Tad ne me i WKY 4 1h : MOTT rire iW HI (lb yt NU ADEA Tg ld i! iy 4 Hei Vil | Nl} (eli i} rh WN: ti i! OE J i (" Mi A Wii as 4 | i Nee ail PTR / My aif 1} | ‘iy Uh f ti ALOT fal 4 ‘a inf ((é (ee i i a 7 ! Dugct HAD atgaé NT Ws eS Figs. 1-15.—(See opposite page for explanation). 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES unknown, July 29, 1886 (including, holotype), and J. A. Shafer, March 13, 1913, U.S.N.H.; Guayanilla, Britton and Shafer, March 10, 1913, N.Y.B.G.; west of Ponce, A. A. Heller, November 26, 1902, U.S.N.H. and N.Y.B.G. Crenidorsum malpighiae, n. sp. Figs. 6-9 Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows: Marginal teeth as wide as long. Outer disk pores submarginal in position, the majority at inner end of submarginal teeth. A well-defined median tubercle only on abdominal segments 2-5, one sometimes suggested on segment 6, each usually divided into 3-5 smaller ones with minute, stout spines. Caudal setae as near to vasiform orifice as to body margin. No minute setae on cephalic segment. Type.—U.S.N.M. 56966. Habana, from Malpighia. Described from 30 specimens from Malpighia glabra L., Vedado, Habana, Cuba, collector un- known, February 4, 1919, and C. H. Ballou, February 23, 1921 (including holotype). Cuba, Crenidorsum armatae, n. sp. Fig. 13 Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows: Ends of body less broadly curved, posterior end narrower than anterior end, curved in center; body not narrowed on thorax in available specimens. Marginal teeth as wide as long. Outer disk pores submarginal in position, lo- cated at inner end of submarginal teeth, about one-fifth as numerous as teeth. A total of 22-24 scallops in each row. Median tubercles absent. Caudal setae about twice as far from body mar- gin as from vasiform orifice. No minute setae on cephalic segment. Vasiform orifice approxi- mately its length from body margin. Type.—U.S.N.M. 56967. La Carbonera, Cuba, from Coccoloba. Described from two specimens from Coc- coloba armata Wright, from Cuba; paratype from Calicito, Loma de Ciego, Cienfuegos, VOL. 35, NO. 2 Santa Clara, Rob Combs, August 26, 1895, holotype from La Carbonera, Oriente, E. L. Ekman, September 23, 1914, U.S.N.H. Crenidorsum commune, n. sp. Fig. 12 Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows: Marginal teeth slightly more tapered, apices narrower, approximately 13 in 100u. Outer disk pores submarginal in position, the majority the width of a marginal tooth from submarginal teeth; 2 pairs of subdorsal disk pores on pos- terior segment, 0 just laterocaudad of vasiform orifice. Median tubercles absent, or barely sug- gested on abdominal segments 3-5. Caudal setae as near to vasiform orifice as to body margin. No minute setae on cephalic segment. Type.—U.S.N.M. 56968. Navassa Island, Haiti, from Coccoloba. Described from 30 specimens from Coccoloba spp., as follows: C. bergesiana ovato lanceolata E. Schmidt, near Port de Paix, Haiti, E. L. Ekman, March 26, 1925, U.S.N.H., and E. C. and G. M. Leonard, May 1, 1929, U.S.N.H. and G.H.; C. laurifolia Jacq., Navassa Island, Haiti, E. L. Ekman, October 23, 1928 (includ- ing holotype), U.S.N.H., and H. A. Rehder, January 6, 1930, A. A., and Baille La Lomas, near St. Michel de |’Atalaye, Department du Nord, Haiti, E. C. Leonard, November 26, 1925, U.S.N.H.; C. wifera L., Miami, Fla., J. F. Collins, December 9, 1917, G.H. The fol- lowing from the Bahama Islands: C. diversifolia Jacq., Rose Island, Britton and Millspaugh, January 27-28, 1905, Inagua, Nash and Taylor, October 11, 1904, West End, Little Inagua, Percy Wilson, December 21, 1907, N-Y.B.G.; C. krugii Lind., Fortune Island, plant collector unknown, February 2, 1888, road to South Side, Long Cay, L. J. K. Brace, December 7-17, 1905, U.S.N.HL: C. laurtfolia dacas Nicolls Town, Andros Island, J. and A. North- rop, April 11, 1890, N.Y.B.G., edge of Man- grove Swamp, Hog Island, Britton and Brace, August 29, 1904, N.Y.B.G., Harbour Island, Figs. 16-18.—Crenidorsum differens: 16, half of dorsum, X87; 17, half of third oan segment, dorsal view, 165; 18, cephalothoracic submedian seta, X345. Fras. 19-21.—C. marginale: 19, sec- tion of subdorsal furrow, X 650; 20, cephalothoracic submedian seta, X1,500; 21, half of dorsum, X87. Figs. 22, 23.—C. magnisetae: 22, cephalothoracic submedian seta, 650; 23, ‘outline, dorsal surface on right, ventral surface on left, X87. Fias. 24, 25.—C. debordae: 24, vasiform orifice, X650; 25, half of ventral surface, X87. Fries. 26-28.—C. stigmaphylli: 26, half of ventral surface, x 87; 97, lingula dorsal view, x 460; 28, base of cephalothoracic submedian seta, X650. Frias. 29, 30.—C. diaphanum: 29, outline, dorsal surface on right, ventral surface on left, X87; 30, cephalic submedian seta, 650. (Drawings by Mrs. Sara. Hoke DeBord.) oy Subscriplions or requests for the purchase of back numbers or volumes of the Jotiey, NAL or the ProcEEpDINGs should be sent to Frank M. Snurzuer, Custodian and Sub- scription Manager of Publications, U.S. National Museum, Washington 25, D. C. Subscription Rates for the JOURNAL.—Per year... .. cece ccccccceeceveeeesd 6.00 Single numbers.......... of o.d'g sho Ninie Xo 08. 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Archivist: NatHan R. Smita, Bureau of Plant Industry. ; Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Serzuimr, U. S. National 1 Museum, POR AR he LUME 35 i v1 PE NOLOGY. _ FEenron.) eo . " The caste system of India is a growth of ich vast dimensions that it requires an roach by local surveys of a fairly in ensive nature before any relevant ideas can b be acquired concerning the structure as a yhole. Geographically there is a wide range ¢ of variation i in the development of the caste ations from the more complex groupings of the Ganges Valley to the simpler units of 1e peripheral areas such as the Laccadives and Ceylon. It seems both logical and easier ) commence a series of local surveys with 4 areas of simpler development and gradually work up to the more complicated relations in areas of central caste specializa- tions. _ In Ceylon the number of castes is fewer ind the complexity of their relations is much ess marked than on the mainland in India proper. European penetration has to a the indigenous system of social and eco- nomic stratification. This process of eco- agg change, if properly studied, should as.a clear example be an aid to the under- oe anding of the caste relationships both here and elsewhere in India. BP Ceclon. i is divided primarily between two peoples, the Sinhalese of the south and ¢ pentral areas and the Tamils of the north. ‘he former number over 3,500,000; the iter about 790,000, or 15 percent of the aE : Received November 28,.1944. The translitera- = ns. of Sinhalese words in this paper are pre- ented as they are given in the literature. It will be noticed that some of the caste names have a variety of spellings. Some writers use ch for ec, ih for s, c for §. Coomaraswamy in his work on Medieval Sinhalese Art gives a clear and con- al at the end of this paper gives an official transliter- ation of the main caste names. “oe eee = te ee Ete, Pat Marcu 15, 1945 Lo JOURNAL OF THE \ VASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES No. 3 —The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon2 — WituraM H. Givpert, Jr., Library of Congress. (Communicated by W. N. total. In addition there are about 325,000 greater degree than in India broken down. tent system of transliteration. Appendix IV, 69 Moors, or Mohammedans, on the coasts of the northeast and northwest. The Sinhalese and the Tamils each possess a caste system peculiar to their own nationality. The Tamils, being in a minority and sharing the social stratification of their fellow nationals in India, are not considered in this paper except where they show relationships with the Sinhalese. The Moors do not appear to have castes. The most important items of inquiry to which the present paper is devoted relate to the identity of the Sinhalese castes, the nature of their membership, their location past and present, their origin, and their dif- ferences in customs and manner of life. By assembling the known facts concerning Sinhalese social stratification it is possible that a contribution will be made not only to the understanding of caste in India but to the science of human social stratification in general. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND According to Arthur Perera (1917, p. 26)? the Sinhalese castes probably had a tribal basis. The lower castes, he says, formed tribes of a prehistoric Dravidian race, the Rakshas of tradition, who drove into the interior the still earlier Australoid Veddas, who were the Yakkas of tradition. Later the higher castes of northern India entered Ceylon, and the frequent subsequent con- tacts with the Deccan in historical times led to the formation of the artisan castes. The original Sinhalese Kingdom compre- hended most, if not all, of the present Island 2 Complete references are given in the Litera- ture Cited. 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of Ceylon and was founded, according to historical tradition, about 504 B.C. by Vijaya, an immigrant chief from either Bengal or Gujarat. Among other elements of culture that he is credited with having introduced into Ceylon the caste system was notable. Vijaya’s Sinhalese appear to have colonized the entire southern part of Ceylon, both highland and lowland, dis- placing the aborigines as they proceeded. Later accounts tell of continued struggles with the Tamils in northern Ceylon, but. whether these Dravidian people arrived at a prior date is subject to dispute. The contests between the apparently Aryan Sinhalese and the Dravidian-speak- ing Tamils continued until A.D. 1505, when the coming of the Portuguese introduced European influences for the first time. The explorers and colonists from Portugal were able to subdue only the lowland coastal areas. Here they carried on a brisk trade in cinnamon bark and converted about a tenth of the natives to the Roman Catholic faith. In the highlands the independent Sinhalese of Kandy succeeded in maintain- ing their Buddhistic traditions, caste cus- toms, and economic life in relative inde- pendence. The impress of 133 years of Portuguese rule still remains in the culture of lowland Sinhalese today and helps ac- count for their many differences from the highlanders or Kandians. The economic life of the lowland castes was affected by the European overseas plantation culture, while the aboriginal economy of the interior castes was largely medieval and self-con- tained. The Dutch attacked the Portuguese forts in Ceylon about 1638 and in a series of sanguinary campaigns completely ousted them from their coastal settlements by 1658. They were aided by disgruntled Sin- halese whose caste system had been dis- rupted by the impressment of men of high caste as coolie labor by the Portuguese. For more than a century the Dutch now monop- olized the cinnamon trade and firmly in- stalled the Romano-Dutch law among the lowland Sinhalese. The Cinnamon-peeler caste was greatly augmented by many new recruits during this period, and friendly re- VOL. 85, NO. 3 | lations were maintained with the independ- — ent Kandian Kingdom of the interior. In 1795 the English assailed the Dutch © colony of Ceylon and added it to their grow- _ ing domains in British India. Later, Ceylon — was separated as a Crown colony. Within a — few years continued conflict with tle native — independent Kandians was terminated by the conquest of the highland area by the British, and the native dynasty was ex- tinguished. The Kingdom of Kandy in 1802 was still organized on the basis of an inter- — change of goods and services between castes as part of a vast native civil service depend- ent upon the king and his nobility for its existence and stability. With the introduc- — tion of British rule this system rapidly col- — lapsed, and a European plantation econ- omy, marked by the cultivation of coffee, tea, cacao, rubber, and other tropical prod- ucts, was introduced into the highlands. The castes that had formerly performed — certain functions exclusively were now forced to take up vocations outside of their — former sphere, although they still main- — tained to a large degree their restrictions on — intermarriage with other castes. DIFFERENCES FROM INDIA According to Denham the caste system differs in the following re- — spects from the system in India. proper (Hayley, pp. 146-147): . (1) The Sinhalese, being of a homogeneous race and religion, do not have the complexity — of Indian castes, with their mingling of nes races, and relicnyus orders. (2) The Sinhalese castes are more or ee alike in language, dress, and customs, with a ~ few notable picepiione castes differ greatly in these items. (3) Buddhist tolerance in matters of caste — has eliminated the technical religious sanctions and complicated rules prevailing in India. (4) There are no Brahmans in the Sinhalese — caste system, and their place is taken by the © comparatively autocratic central covert in the native kingdom. 4 (5) The native Kandian Kingdom, by or- — ganizing the people under state departments each under the control of a crown officer, sup- plied the economic needs of the realm. Thus a system of state socialism was effected by hered- itary occupations under official direction. Sinhalese — whereas the Indian ~ “Mar. 15, 1945 (6) Sinhalese caste emphasizes duties, while Indian caste is concerned with customs and habits. (7) In the Sinhalese system no distinct order _ of precedence of castes seems ever to have been agreed upon. . _ (8) The religious sanction is lacking in the Sinhalese system, but popular psychology and government control operate through the ninda overlords and the authority of the native courts _ to enforce the caste rules. (9) In Sinhalese society such matters as legal rights and liabilities, distinctions of name, salutation, comfort of living, liability to deg- - radation to slavery, and penal restrictions all help to maintain caste. In India proper slavery is rare, legal rights are interpreted by the _ Brahmans rather than by royal officers, and other bases of caste distinction are imposed. Ts SOURCES The literature describing caste as it has _ 30 writers have listed, with varying degrees __ of completeness, the names of the Sinhalese - easte groups. The number listed runs from a 7 to 63. Most of these writers content them- _ selves with merely itemizing the castes and furnishing a few characterizations of major ¥ groups. Some list the castes in their order _ of strength or membership, others in their hierarchical status from highest to lowest; _ while still others classify the castes in terms _ of their occupational specialties. Alphabeti- cal lists are not given, possibly because of the mixture of English and native terms used as caste names. OCCUPATION AND STATUS __ - The titles or names of the castes are pri- _ marily occupational, but there exists a rich synonymy of terms, especially euphemistic titles, which are inspired by the native E: politeness and well-bred manners of the _ Sinhalese. The Cultivators rank highest, _ followed by the Fishermen, Toddy-drawers, _ 352-353). At the base of the system are the a Rodias, or Outcastes, a group of wandering beggars. Social status, while ostensibly based on - occupation, is probably in the main de- pendent upon numbers and racial back- 3 Cinnamon-peelers, etc. (Upham, vol. 3, pp.. GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 71 ground. The most numerous caste, the Cultivators, or Vellalas, constitutes about two-thirds of the Sinhalese population and also ranks highest in status. Persons of low caste are traditionally descended from groups outcasted by royal action or of low degree because imported from beyond Ceylon. Some of the caste terms are synony- mous with those used by the Tamils and the Malayalam-speaking peoples. Such terms are Vellala (Cultivator) and Achart (Smith, or Artisan). The occupational spe- Fic. 1—Map of Ceylon, showing in schematic fashion the general location of certain Sinhalese castes, Tamils, and Moors. Solid line: Boundary between Sinhalese and Tamil-Moor areas. Dotted line: Boundary between coastal, or lowland, Sinhalese and Kandian, or highland, Sinhalese. 1, Agriculturists; 2, Cinnamon-peelers; 3, Drum- mers and Weavers; 4, Fishers; 5, Jaggery- makers; 6, Lime-burners; 7, Mat-weavers; 8, Outcastes, or Rodias; 9, Potters; 10, Smiths and Artisans; 1/1, Toddy-drawers; 12, Veddas; 13, Washers; 14, Tamils; 15, Moors, or Mohammedans. 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cializations of particular castes and their grouping resemble the system found in southern India. For example, the phrase ‘five performers of services,” or “‘five vil- lage servants,”’ is used in both the Sinhalese system and the Indian in referring to the Carpenters, Weavers, Washers, Barbers, and Shoemakers (Coomaraswamy, pp. 178— 179). In older times there were basic distinc- tions in dress, dwelling types, and char- acter of food between the castes, which were imposed by sumptuary laws under royal command (see infra). Nowadays these differences have largely gone by the board. Almost the only outstanding remaining dis- tinction is the restriction on intermar- riage. The land rights and duties of the various castes under royal command have all lapsed since the abolition of compul- sory labor or Rajkariya in 1832, and one cannot as a rule be sure of telling a man’s occupation from his caste. With the dis- appearance of the occupational character of caste restrictions has gone also the ecologi- cal linkage whereby particular artisan castes were located in the special localities that furnished the raw materials for their work. Free movement from one place to another is now possible for all, while under the old native system the lower castes were attached to their estates (Ferguson, p. 135). Slavery was permitted under the native regime, but no one could hold slaves of a higher caste than himself. The villages were classified in accordance with the caste groups that predominated among their in- habitants. Thus we find Outcaste villages, © Cinnamon-peeler villages, etc. In southern India.the larger cities of towns had special streets for individual caste groups. Each person was identified by his ‘“‘ge,”’ or house, name, which referred both to his caste and to his caste village (Denham, pp. 178-179). In addition to distinct traditions of origin some of the castes formerly possessed badges or ensigns peculiar to their own group and symbolical of traditional events or objects connected with their history or occupation. Thus the Fisherman caste, or Karawe, had a fish on their flag, while the Artisans, or Smiths, had an ape, the symbol VOL. 35, NO. 3 7 4 of Hanuman, king of the monkeys and , prominent in their legends (E. W. Perera, pp. 20-23). BUDDHISM AND CASTE; ROMAN CATHOLICS The Buddhist religious functionaries — have in the past been selected entirely from the Goigama, or Cultivator, caste since the respect required for the religious office could be consistent only with one of high caste. The higher grades of castes that rank immediately after the Gozgama, however, — are not professedly excluded from the reli- _ gious worship of the Buddhist faith by any formal ordinances. Lay brothers of low caste called Szlvat frequently led a life similar to that of the Goigama functionaries and performed minor religious duties. These low-caste officials were not, however, for- — mally ordained, nor were they treated with — any distinction (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 313). 9 The Siamese sect of Buddhists was ~ founded about 1750 and had its stronghold — in Kandy. It admitted only Goigama to its _ membership, which constituted about half of all Sinhalese Buddhists. The A marapara and Ramanya Buddhist sects were both founded later than the Siamese sect and under Burmese influences. They, in con- trast with the Siamese sect, profess to ad- — mit all castes to their membership but in reality are asserted to admit only Karawe, — or Fishers, along with Cinnamon-peelers. and Toddy-drawers, the three highest-rank- — ing castes next to the Cultivators. The Amarapara and Ramanya predominate in — the low country and now constitute about 34 and 16 percent, respectively, of the Sin- halese Buddhists. In the highland area these two sects together constitute less than 10 percent of the Buddhist Sinhalese. Al- — though in the lowlands the Siamese sect — numbers only about 20 percent of the © Buddhists, they own all the temples (Cop- — leston, pp. 250-252). 4 Sinhalese Buddhism is not alone in its — tolerance of caste, since we find that the — Buddhists of Kashmir, Nepal, and ancient — Hindustan also maintained caste differ- — ences. As in orthodox Hinduism, persons engaged in occupations requiring the killing of and contact with dead animals or human ~ “Mar. 15, 1945 beings, such groups, for example, as grave- diggers, butchers, executioners, fishermen, and leather-workers, are all outcasted. — About 10 percent (300,000) of the Sin- halese are Roman Catholics. This group is mainly located in the lowlands and consists of converted Fishers, Cinnamon-peelers, -Toddy-drawers, Washers, and Cultivators. The Ceylon police records under the title of “Hue and Cry”’ in the Ceylon Government Gazette showed during the period 1905- 1907 the following numbers of Roman ~ Catholics among Sinhalese castemen: (o7- gama, 935 persons, 68 R.C., or 7 percent; _Karawe, or Fishers, 158 persons, 60 R.C., or 38 percent; Halagama, or Cinnamon- _ peelers, 98 persons, 21 R.C., or 20 percent; | Wahumpura, or Jaggery-maker cooks, 94 persons, no R.C. because this is primarily a highland caste; Durawe, or Toddy-drawers, _ 69 persons, 12 R.C., or 17 percent; and _ Radaw, or Washers, 34 persons, 4 R.C., or 11 percent. THE TAMILS The Maldive Islands to the southwest of - Ceylon are inhabited by a Moslem people whose speech is related to Sinhalese. It is _ generally believed that the culture of the 3 archipelago stems historically from Ceylon. _ The various writers who first reported on _ the Maldives detailed four major caste _groups—(1) the Bandara, or royal caste, _ which was composed of the sovereign and his relatives, (2) the Didus, or persons of r high digtity who might intermarry with _ royalty if specially permitted and carried _ hereditary titles of -nobility, (3) the _ Manike or Maniku, who were the gentry, _ and (4) the Kalo, or Kamulo, the common | people, made up of artisans, tradesmen, and _ persons engaged in ordinary occupations. Ps _ Apparently the nobility was more of a class | than a caste, especially in relation to the | first rank and since some were given titles from the gentry (Bell, 1917; Hockly, p me 111). | The M billed would seem to correspond | closely with the Goigama, or Cultivator, | caste, while the lower Sinhalese castes | would correspond with the Kalo. It is a RELATIONS TO THE MALDIVIANS AND TO +4 GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 73 noticeable that the Moslems or Moors of Ceylon itself are divided into four classes: merchants, weavers, fishermen, and _ bar- bers. The Maldivian occupational equiva- lents to the lower Sinhalese castes occur in the following examples: Fishers, Lac- workers, Mat-weavers, Carpenters, Gold- smiths and Silversmiths, Blacksmiths, Tailors, Barbers, Masons, Weavers, and Toddy-drawers. The available literature does not indicate, however, that these occu- pations were hereditary and characterized by in-marrying restrictions. Among the Tamils of the north and east of Ceylon the occupational-caste equiva- lents to many of the Sinhalese castes are to be found. The following are the most im- portant of these (based on Chitty, pp. 231— 234): Cultivators (Tamil Vellala are di- vided into four groups, which are the equivalents of the Goigama); Herdsmen (Tamil Idayer are equivalent to the Patti- wala Aya subdivision of the Gozgama); Fishers (the Tamils have six castes in this category as the equivalents to the Karawe) ; Toddy-drawers (Tamil Nalawers and Shan- avars are equivalent to the Durawe); Lime- burners (Tamil Kadeyers equivalent to Hunno); Palanquin-bearers (Tamil Chiviyars equivalent to Paduwo); Weavers (Tamil Seniyers equivalent to Chalias and Bera- wayo); Tomtom-beaters (Tamil Parreyar equivalent to Berawayo); Barbers (Tamil Navider equivalent to Embattayo); Black- smiths (Tamil Kaller equivalent to Cam- buro); Goldsmiths (Tamil Tattar equivalent to Navandanno); Brass-founders (Tamil Kannar equivalent to Lokuruwo); Car- penters (Tamil Tatcher equivalent to Vadu- vo); Masons (Tamil Sztper equivalent to Galvaduvo); Tailors (Tamil Paver equiva- lent to Hannali); Potters (Tamil Kusaver equivalent to Badahelayo); and Washers (Tamil Wanna equivalent to Radaw). ECOLOGICAL FACTORS The principal varieties of environment in the Sinhalese area of Ceylon are: (1) the forests of the uplands, (2) grassy areas of both upland and lowland, (8) cultivated area of upland and lowland, and (4) the coastal areas. Each of these environmental 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES types requires a definite mode of life, and the castes that fit one type may not be well adapted to life in another. In the forested uplands dwell the Veddas, the nearest equivalents to the hill tribes of the south Indian mainland. The Veddas are divided into settled and wandering groups. The economy of the wandering Veddas involves a competition with bears for the fruits and wild honey of the forests and with the leopards for the deer and wild boar, which they hunt in both pasture and forest. Under the native regime the patena, or grassy areas, of the western part of the Island were used for pasturage rather than for cultivation. The talamas, or grassy meadows, on the eastern side of the Island were scarcely utilized at all. In the north- west coastal semidesert areas population was also sparse. The Sinhalese part of the Island was divided from the Tamil by a forest band running from the northwest to the southeast and including much of the highland areas. The cultivated areas were mainly in- habited by the Gozgamas and their allies. The upland areas included terrace cultiva- tion of rice, while the lowland cultivation was in the river basins near the sea. In the upland the Goigamas cultivated cocoa, tea, rubber, and in modern times coffee. The occasional broad and marshy plains of grass were not much used in cultivation. In the upland the kitul palm furnished the jaggery or palm sugar extracted by the Hakuru caste, the grasslands material for the Grass-cutter caste and for the Mat- weavers, while the clayey river beds and fields furnished material for the Potter caste. The cinnamon tree flourished in the lowlands and furnished a basis for sub- sistence to the Chalia, or Cinnamon-peeler, caste. In this area also occurred the coco- nut palm, the basis of toddy and the sub- sistence of the Toddy-drawer caste. Fi- nally, on the coastal or maritime area proper were the Karawe caste—fishermen, carpenters, and handymen of the castes. In addition to the above-mentioned crops the lowlands permitted the growth of rubber, citronella grass, and the areca palm. The last was the basis of betel chewing. VOL. 35, No.3 For each of the occupational castes, then, can be plotted an area of distribution in terms of the location of minerals, plants, animals, topographic features, and climatic characters most intimately related to the caste activities. These caste areas of dis- tribution tend to cluster around highland and lowland and thus reinforce the basic distinction in mode of life between Kan- dians and lowlanders. The castes were linked together in the production and servicing of items of mate- rial culture. For example, the Achari, or Blacksmith caste, constructed the chunam boxes to hold the betel-nut and the areca- nut cutters, the Lime-burner caste pro- — duced the lime that must be chewed with the betel, while the areca palm was culti- vated by Goigamas. As another example the building and operation of Buddhist temples required the services of carpenters in the Artisan caste, of stone workers also in that caste, of Cultivators, Painters, Tomtom-beaters, Washers for temple linen, of Potters for sacred vessels and of Ivory, Lac-, and Wood-workers. Thus a fine de- gree of cooperation was required, involving the products of several different. types of environment. Since the most of the castes lived by the material goods produced or services rendered, they appear to have been definitely linked with the ecological areas of the Island. Not only were the castes localized in terms of environmental materials but they — also had their own streets and quarters in _ the towns, as we have already intimated. _ Thus Pridham in his account of Ceylon ~ (1849, vol. 2, p. 682) mentions that the site ~ of Madoola still had in his time straight — fields bearing the names of streets, such as Tomtom-beaters’ Street, Potters’ Street, etc. Localization of Sinhalese castes can be determined specifically by their classified sources of livelihood. The latter may be roughly divided into four categories, animal, vegetable, mineral, and special services. The castes exploiting animal resources are: (1) the nonsettled Veddas, who subsist on honey and on deer and wild boar and con- — sequently live mainly in the hill forests; (2) Mar. 15, 1945 F the Elephant-catchers, who must also haunt the hill forests; (3) the Fishers, who subsist on edible marine fish on the coasts and coastal rivers in the mangrove and palm areas; (4) Scavengers and Leather workers, who, along with the Pastors, inhabit the Sections in which stock abounds, i.e., pri- 4 marily the cultivated lowlands; (5) the Lac- _ collectors and workers who are dependent on the hill forests where the trees inhabited _ by lac insects are found. The castes exploiting vegetable resources are (1) the Goigama, who depend primarily on rice and vegetables and who are found in the areas of coastal and upland rice cul- tivation; (2) the Cinnamon-peelers, who are definitely limited to the western and southern coasts where the cinnamon tree abounds; (3) the Jaggery-makers, who are _ situated mainly in the highland areas of the kitul palm and other sugar-bearing trees; (4) Toddy-drawers, who tap mainly the coconut palm, a tree found in the long set- tled coastal areas of the south and west; (5) Grass-cutters, who are mainly in the grassy uplands; (6) Tree-fellers, who were timber cutters in the hill forests; (7) Weavers, who were located in the areas that produced cotton, namely, the highlands; (8) Mat-weavers, who wove materials such as rattan and reeds found in the upland grassy and swampy areas; (9) Basket- makers, who were similarly employed and lived in similar areas; (10) Gardeners, who cultivated flowers in the uplands areas; and (11) Carpenters, who subsisted by their labor on economic woods from the hill forests. The castes whose major source of liveli- hood lies in mineral resources are (1) Pot- ters, who were wont to collect their clay from cultivated areas (ricefields) and river- sides in the uplands; (2) Smiths, who were located in the uplands near the sources of iron ore, which latter was extracted for them by the Yamannu; (3) Gem-collectors, a division of the Goigama who haunted the river beds and earth deposits of the Rat- napura region in the highlands; and (4) -Lime-burners, who burned coral rock, wood, and other materials for lime and charcoal in both upland and seacoast. GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 75 The service castes, whose major duties were ceremonial and sumptuary, were (1) Barbers, located at the royal court; (2) Palanquin-bearers, who were mainly in de- mand at the royal court or the towns of the overlords; (8) Tomtom-beaters, who were most important in services connected with planet and devil worship and with temple rites; (4) the Dancers, who were similarly employed and _ located; (5) Washers, who served all the castes in rites of ceremonial purification and whose loca- tion was consequently the same as the other groups; (6) Tailors, who were located at the royal court in Kandy, as were also (7) the Silversmiths and Goldsmiths. CASTE NUMBERS No available census records exist of Sin- halese caste numbers. Evidently the Euro- pean administrators of Ceylon thought that it was possible to make this social phenomenon disappear by ignoring it. Ac- cording to Coomaraswamy the most im- portant caste groups in the Kandian popu- lation are: Goviyo (Goigama); Kamburu (Navandanna and Galladdo artificers); Va- duvo (Carpenters and Blacksmiths); Radav (Washers or Dhobies); Duravo (Toddy- drawers); Kumbakarayo (Potters); Bera- vayo (Musicians, Weavers, Astrologers) ; and Padwvo (servile Cultivators, Palanquin- bearers) (Coomaraswamy, p 22). An examination of the caste data re- ported in the “Hue and Cry,” or Ceylon police records, for 1905-1907 shows the following (1) numbers, (2) percentages, (3) estimated number in the gross population, and (4) (where available) the number shown by the 1901 census of occupations: Goigama, 935, or 60 percent, est. 1,400,000; Karawe, 158, or 10 percent, est. 237,000. Fishers by occupation 38,504; caste not recorded, 104, or 7 percent; Halagama, 98, or 6 percent, est. 147,000; Cinnamon- peelers by occupation 15,222; Wahumpura, 94, or 6 percent, est. 141,000 (Cooks of - Jaggery-maker caste); Durawo, 69, or 3 percent, est. 103,000, Toddy-drawers by occupation 11,836; Radaw, 34, or 2 percent, est. 51,000, Washers by occupation 29,749; Navandanna, 26, or 1.5 percent, est. 39,000, 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Goldsmiths and Silversmiths by trade 14,361; Hunno, 23, or 1.5 percent, est. 34,000, Lime-burners by occupation 870; Salagama, 16, or 1 percent, est. 24,000 (Weavers); Batgama, 13, est. 18,000 (La- borers); Duraya, 13, est. 18,000 (Laborers) ; Paduwa, 13, est. 18,000 (Laborers); Ha- kuru, 7, est. 10,000, Jaggery-makers by oc- cupation 803; Berawa, 5, est. 8,000, Tom- tom beaters by occupation 1,649; Oliya, 5, est. 8,000, Dancers by occupation 5,423; Badahela, 5, est. 8,000, Potters by occupa- tion 9,678; Pannaya 3, est. 4,500 (Grass- eutters) ; Badala, 2, est. 3,000 (Silversmiths) ; Rodiya, 2, est. 3,000 (Beggars); Hedide- mala, 2, est. 3,000 (Tamils); Vedda, 1, est. 1,500 (Primitive Hunter); Parava, 1, est. 1,500 (Tamil); Pannaderia, 1, est. 1,500 (Grass-cutters) ; Demalagattera_ 1 est. 1,500 (Tamil Slaves); and Porokara, 1, est. 1,500 (Axmen). It can be safely assumed that the tradi- tional caste occupation is generally disre- garded today. A very small minority of the Karawe are fishermen; of the Halagama cinnamon-peelers; of the Durawo toddy- drawers, etc. On the other hand, the great majority of the Gotgama are still rice-culti- vators; of the Radaw washermen and of the Navadanna goldsmiths. Pieris (n.d., vol. 2, pp. 256-258) asserts that the Portuguese first violated traditional occupations by forcing large numbers of the Goigama to do coolie labor, and other sources assert that the Dutch were likewise guilty of violations of caste regulations in regard to occupation (Tennent, 1889, vol. 2, pp. 123-124). CASTE SERVICES, VILLAGE TYPES, AND SUMPTUARY LAWS In the native Kingdom of Kandy there existed a system of forced labor, the so- called rajgkaria, in which royal authority was employed to allocate the different oc- cupations of the realm among the available labor supply. Families performed the tenant services by turns, i.e., alternating in giving their services under public officers in return for their land holdings. At a late date the labor services might be commuted by a money payment (Coomaraswamy, 1908, pp. 22-24). VOL. 35, No. 3 @ Some of the more important lines of spe- cial service performed in the native Kandy — Government included messenger or guard — duty (Atapattu vasama); husbandman (Gan- ~ vasama); military duty (Heva vasama); — artificer work (Badal panguva); potter work (Badahela panguva); musician (Davul pan- — guva); washermen service (Rada vasama); — servant (Nila vasama or Uliyam vasama); iron-smelting (Yamanna); and outcaste — services (Rodiya). (Ibzd.) 4 There are six departments in the Kandian Government, as follows: Kottalbadde, or Ar- — tificer’s Department; Badahelabadde, or Pot- ters’ Department; Radabadde, or Washers’ — Department; Handabadde, or Mat-makers’ — Department; Kuruwe, or Elephant Depart- — ment; and Madige, or Carriage Bullock — Department (D’Oyly, pp. 7-18). Each de- — partment was organized with a hierarchy of officials responsible for the performance — of duties by the particular castes concerned — with work in that department. a The work of the departmental officials — was made easier by the caste segregation — in specific villages. In fact, each village was classified according to the type of caste or — service to which it belonged. The following — were the more important types of village: — (1) Gabada-gama, a royal village or manor ~ that was the private estate of the king and ~ consisted of crown lands cultivated under — the half-share system; (2) Bat-gama vil- — lages inhabited by the Paduwo caste of low status (their services included carrying the — hinder parts of palanquins, watching the — house or fields, and other menial work), — who could never acquire any permanent — rights to the land; (3) Brso-gama, or royal — villages set apart for the Pallervahala or — queen’s palace or for the royal household ~ on the same terms as the Gabada-gama — (this type of village, along with the first — and second, was inhabited by degraded ~ castes who as tenants could be ejected at — any time in favor of some other caste at — the will of the king); (4) Vzhara-gama type — villages belonged to some Buddhist temple — and services were performed for the priest- — hood; (5) Devala-gama were villages belong- — ing to some Hindu temple or deity with — services as in (4); (6) Nindagama was a — d f Mar. 15, 1945 village under the entire protection of a local chief or landlord, and tenure of land was conditioned by service tohim; (7) _Vidanegam was a village of low-caste people liable to public services under Vidanes, or Siéadmen ; (8) Wedi-gama were villages in- _habited by Veddahs; (9) Gattaru-gama were inhabited by persons who had been out- -easted by the king; (10) Gahala-gama were ‘inhabited by executioners, scavengers, and persons of extremely low caste; and Kup- payama were villages of Rodiyas, the heredi- tary outcaste beggars. (Denham, pp. 191- 193; Coomaraswamy, p. 27.) Not only were the castes segregated in terms of departmental services and village residence, but they were strictly regulated _as to the goods they might use for clothing _and the kinds of houses they might inhabit. Barbers wore doublets but could not sit on stools. Potters wore no doublets and could not sit on stools. Only the king could wear certain types of gold or silver jewelry, an eight-cornered hat, shoes, stockings, or trousers, be served with an umbrella, or. live in plastered walls under tiled roofs and in two-story dwellings. (Knox, in Phila- lethes, p. 138.) According to Pridham (1849, p. 597), at one time there was a thriving trade in carved figures portraying the native castes at the town of Matura. Between the low and high castes there were many invidious distinctions of dress. No low-caste woman was allowed a neck ornament except one of the Potter or Smith caste. She could not wear clothing above the waist except in cold weather. Low-caste men were not allowed _to wear colored cloth or cloth embroidered with colored thread in Kandy or in the presence of higher castes. (Pamatella, p. 119 ff.). NAMES AND CASTES _ The ge name is a surname used before the personal name—a praenomen—and is SO called because of the ending ge or geyi generally affixed to such surnames. The word varige and vasagana are used to ex- press these surnames. The ge name is the most important part of a Sinhalese proper name as it usually reveals the rank, occu-, a re = ‘= i GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 77 pation, residence, caste, native place, or some characteristic or achievement of the original ancestor of the family bearing the ge name. Thus Bentarahunuge indicates a Lime-burner caste (Hunuw) and the type of village (ge) whence the person came. Per- sons of Washerman or Barber caste often drop the part of the name showing occupa- tion and assume the family name of the person they serve. In some instances names are changed where they furnish impedi- ments to securing suitable marriages for sons and daughters. The Goigama formerly named their children about 16 days after birth, while the other castes allowed 32 days to elapse. The wife keeps the ge name of her father after marriage. (Denham, pp. 178-179.) In former times personal names were re- stricted to the particular castes, and this is still the practice in some parts of the Kand- ian area. Although today it cannot be said that a particular name belongs to a certain caste, the termination usually indicates whether the bearer of the name is of high or low caste. Modes of salutation vary . greatly with the caste and rank of the ad- dressee. Terms of affection and endearment are often applied to persons of low caste, such as ‘‘uncle”’ and ‘‘aunt’’ when address- ing members of the Washerman caste or ‘“‘boss’”’ in addressing a Carpenter caste member. (Denham, 1912; Alwis, 1856- 58; Hocart, 1938.) In the earlier days a caste consisted of a group of clans, each clan claiming descent from a common ancestor from whom it took its name. Its name might also be taken from the office he held or from the village whence he came. Hereditary surnames were given to chiefs and the clan name dropped. During the Portuguese ascendancy Euro- pean surnames were adopted by converts to Roman Catholicism. (A. A. Perera, 1917, p. 26.) AGRICULTURISTS, OR CULTIVATORS The Goigama, or Vellala, the great cul- tivating caste of the Sinhalese, is given the following synonyms by Upham (1883, pp. 338-339): Khetta or Kettauw Jiewakayo, livers by the field; Kassakayo, plowers of 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the land; Goyankaranno, sowers or culti- vators of rice; Gozyo or Goigama Etto, cul- tivators (or rice village people); Goz Ba- muno or cultivating Brahmans; Gozkulayo or of the cultivating caste; and Handuruvo or Sandurowo, sons of peace. The plow- share was their flag symbol (see E. W. Perera, p. 23). This caste was subdivided into a consid- erable number of subgroups in terms of oc- cupations and hereditary or ceremonial rank and the upper divisions did not for- merly intermarry freely with the lower. The upper rank of Gozgama could marry a Pattea (Shepherd) woman, but no man of the latter could dare present openly a claim to a bride in the upper ranks. (Pridham, 1849, vol. 1, p. 235.) The Hondrews (Hamaduruwo), or Gen- tlemen, were distinguished by their names and their clothing. The men wore the cloth halfway down the legs and the women to the heels with one end flung over the shoulder. The Hondrew head-covering con- sisted of two flaps tied over the top of the crown. Their caps were always white or blue and those of inferiors of different eclors. (Pridham, loc. cit.) The Hondrew chiefs and nobles performed various hon- orary services for the king and paid homage on New Year’s Day, presenting a roll of betel leaves. (A. A. Perera, 1903, pp. 336— aon.) Goigama tenants carried messages, sup- plied betel and areca, kept guard, provided for strangers or visitors, attended during domestic ceremonies, and when necessary cooked provisions or provided buffalo for plowing (zbzd.). | The duties of the various classes of Goz- gama tenant were highly specialized and carefully delineated. For example, the Ata- pattu-wasama, or messenger. class, carried messages, kept guard over treasures, tem- ples, and chiefs’ houses, carried state um- brellas in procession, watched threshing floors, and accompanied proprietors on journeys. (Coomaraswamy, p. 24.) The Dunukarawasama, or military class of archers, held land in return for services in carrying letters and messages, keeping guard at the house of the proprietors, VOL. 35, NO. 3 ; watching the threshing floor, and accom- _ panying the proprietor on journeys of state bearing the lance. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App. Ds Vis) The Dalumura-Panguwa performed. the service of supplying weekly or fortnightly _ and at festivals a certain quantity of betel leaves for consumption by the officers and ~ priests. This service was of greatimportance at the royal court, and the king had plan- — tations of betel in different parts of the country complete with staffs of officers, — gardeners, and carriers. Later under British — rule the tenants of this class supplied betel to proprietors for consumption at home and while on journeys. In some instances a quantity of areca nuts also was furnished. brads p:ave) The Ganwasama were a superior class of — tenants in the village who supplied the proprietor with subordinate village officials such as vzdanes (headmen), lekamas(writers) and kankanamas (overseers). This class was often of the same social standing as the proprietor and sometimes related to him. They were often the wealthiest people in the village, holding the most fertile lands. They had to make heavy contributions to the proprietors and their retinues. This class also provided sustenance and shelter — for visitors and strangers. The superin- — tendence of building work at the proprie- tor’s house and the function of presiding at festivals also devolved upon them. The Ganwasama accompanied the proprietor on — journeys and took the lead in the annual — presentation of the tenants before the pro- — prietor. (Ibid., p. vii; Coomaraswamy, p. 24.) The Hewawasama was a military class whose services included carrying messages _ and umbrellas, keeping guard, and attend- — ing at funerals. They also furnished sub- 7 ordinate officials. This class had charge of — _ proprietors’ houses, of cleaning and repair- — ing the premises, and of supplying flowers” to the temples. (Perera, p. xii; Coomar- — aswamy, p. 25.) . The Lekam Panguwa tenants did duty as — writers to the proprietors, superintended — working parties and harvesting operations, — and appeared before the proprietor at the — 4 ‘ 3 2 P "a : a ~ Mar. 15, 1945 os oe annual presentation of the tenants. They - also attended the proprietor on journeys, eared for him when he was sick, and helped guard his house. They also occasionally as- sumed the duty of headmen, but their regu- lar duty was to keep accounts of things re- - ceived and issued and of arranging and supervising services of tenants. (Perera, p. xii.) The Nilawasama class supplied temples with vegetables for festivals and performed avast array of domestic duties of outdoor type. They supplied fuel and water to the kitchen and bath, pounded paddy, ex- tracted oil from nuts, repaired walls and floors, transported timber, prepared clay, supplied firewood for brick and tile kilns, blew bellows for the smith and supplied him with charcoal for the forge, broke up lime- | ‘stone, cut banks and ditches, put up fences, cleared gardens, swept out courtyards and compounds, joined in all agricultural opera- tions in gardens and fields such as planting and harvesting, tied straw and assisted in thatching, carried palanquins or baggage on journeys, bore objects in processions, and served in the ceremonies at weddings, fu- nerals, Yak(Devil Worship) and Bali (Planet Worship) rites. (Perera, pp. xv—xvi.) Nilawasama tenants were of low status _ for the most part, and their yearly dues consisted of vegetables and contributions of uncooked food. Beside working for the proprietor they also performed services for headmen and for other classes working in the fields for a few days and carrying their baggage on journeys. Some were placed in charge of temple cattle and pro- vided fresh milk at ceremonies and at New Year’s. (Perera, pp. xv—-xvi.) The Manana tenants measured out paddy given to be pounded as well as paddy brought in from the fields. This office came to be held by a low class of Goigamas and has been equated with those who put up privies, put mud on walls, or carry palanquins, baggage, and torches. They served as messengers for the headmen of the village, watched at the threshing floor, took care of buffalo brought in for plowing or threshing and assisted in the collection of dues. (Perera p. xiii.) GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 79 The Nillemakareyea or Pattea people were not very numerous since their occupa- tion was stock-keeping, and large pasture areas were few in old Ceylon. They were also cultivators and paid taxes in rice, milk, and ghee. They were of inferior status. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 236.) The Veddas (Dodda veddas) are of Goi- gama caste. They were called Wanachara- kayo, wild men or men of the desert, and Weddo or tormentors because although they fled to the jungle to escape oppression or being tormented they killed animals for a living there. They lived in Wedigama vil- lages and were held in low status because of their taking animal life. Under the Kan- dian regime they were required to furnish the king with wild game. (Upham, vol. 3, p. 346; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) There were several minor groups of Goigamas such as the Gauraykawallu or village watchmen and the Kappuwo or temple watchmen, the Hunu gambadu or coolie pezsants who foddered and took care of cattle, and the Malcaruwo or flower gar- deners. The last were sometimes called Mawlacawrayo, or chain makers, because they made garlands or chains of flowers. (Upham, vol. 3, pp. 349-350; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 241.) The dress of the Gozgama men consisted of a topett:, a long cloth of two breadths about the loins and extending as far down as the ankle. A cloth about the head was folded like a turban leaving the top of the head exposed. On state occasions a short jacket was worn except in temples. (Prid- ham, vol. 1, p: 235.) The dress of the Gorgama women was a long cloth of a single breadth called a hala wrapped around the loins and cast over the left shoulder. On state occasions a jacket was worn with a kind of ruff hanging from the neck over the shoulders. Rings, silver or crystal bangles, and ear ornaments also were worn. (Pridham, zb:d.; Bennett, pp. 98-99.) Rank with the gozgamas was indicated by the rich quality and quantity of apparel rather than by fashion. The highest rank wore the finest embroidered muslin set off by a succession of topetties, often six or 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES eight in number, with the shoulders un- naturally widened by a jacket stuffed and padded to correspond with the girth of the hips. (Lbid.) According to Coomaraswamy (p. 22) the Goigama constitute about 90 percent of the Sinhalese population. This seems to be too high when other evidence is taken into ac- count. The minor groups such as the Ved- das have always been small in modern times. The Veddas numbered 2,030 in 1871, 5,332 in 1911, and 4,510 in 1921 (Census of Ceylon). In the ‘‘Hue and Cry”’ statistics 780 Goigama were found in the following occu- pations: cultivators (317), coolies (266), carters (49), miners (43), domestic servants (27), traders (21), masons (12), carpenters (10), cooks (10), clerks (9), boatmen (6), breadsellers (5), and peons (5). According to the same source the chief crimes charged to 401 Gozrgama castemen were theft (es- pecially of cattle) and housebreaking (234), causing hurt (55), robbery (34), criminal breach of trust (27), habitual criminal (18), assault (9), criminal misappropriation (8), forgery (6), arson (5), and cheating (5). There are almost a score of divisions re- corded for the Gorgama. They are as fol- lows: (1) Axmen and Porakara or Porawak- karayoand Kunammaduvegamayo (Niti Nig- handuwa); (2) Bali ceremonialists, Balibat- gamayo (Niti Nighanduwa); (3) Betel- furnishers, Dalaemurecarao (Valentyn); (4) Bridge-builders, Waddewassam Karayo (De Saram); (5) Cattle-tenders, Pattiwalayao (Armour) or Pattewala aya (Niti Nighand- uwa); (6) Cultivators, Ratte etto or Wel- lales (Armour) and Gombaducarao (Val- entyn); (7) Elephant-keepers, Hiwalapan- nikkayo (Niti Nighanduwa); (8) Flower- growers, Malkaruvo, Garland-makers (Niti Nighanduwa) or Mallaccarao (Valentyn); (9) Gem-collectors, Dzegaranno collected from stream beds and Goddegaranno col- lected from the soil (Valentyn); (10) Hunters, Weddo (Armour) or Wediwanse (Niti Nighanduwa) or divided into Wan- neweddas and Dadaweddas (Valentyn); (11) Milk-suppliers, Munkicarao (Valentyn); (12) Nobility and Gentlemen are divided into Handuruwo (Armour), Bandaarawaliya VOL. 35, No.3 7 (Armour) or Bandares or Adassing (Dukes, — Princes, etc., of Royal Family—Upham), — Appuhames (De Saram), Safframadoo Ap- — puhamies (De Saram), Mantriunu (Privy councilors—Upham), Mandelliperu. (Mili- — tary officials and modeliars, adiyars, des- — saves—Upham), Radalakamperuwa and — Mudeliperuwa (Armour and Niti Nighand- — uwa), Paindi Peruwa or Rate Eito (Niti — Nighanduwa); (13) Outcastes from Goi- — gama, Gattaroo (Armour) or Gattaru (Niti — Nighanduwa); (14) Seeders, Batgamwella — etto (Valentyn); (15) Shepherds, Nilemak- — kareyo (Armour) or Nillamakkarayo (Niti — Nighanduwa); (16) Soldiers, Hewapannay — (Soldiers and lascoreens—De Saram) or — Gowiperu (Military and agricultural la- — borers—Upham); (17) Soothsayers and — Jugglers, Wiramestaragolla (Niti Nighandu- — wa); (18) Tamil Fishermen, 3 (Armour) or Jzbiblo (Niti Nighanduwa); — (19) miscellaneous groups such as Cari- ~ awassin or Mayorals (De Saram), Kuttan- ~ wala etto (Niti Nighanduwa), Weerames- — seroo or Gooroowo (Armour) and Kammal- — handooroowo or Wagayo (Armour). BARBERS The Barber caste was always a small one, — since the Sinhalese usually shaved them- — selves. However, the royal court at Kandy — required some barbers. The following syn- — onyms are given for this caste by Upham — (vol. 3, p. 343): Cappakayo, or cutters; Nahapikayo, or comforters; Karranawiyo, or razor users; Pannikkiyo, which means leaf or foliage cutters; Ambetteo or Embet- — tayo, i.e., near approachers or livers near in reference to their position as ministers of — the royal cabinet and proximity to the — king’s person. 4 As a rule barbers shaved only the higher — castes. The Barber paid a tax in money for ~ his land and was liable to service as a — baggage porter. The annual ceremony of — feigned shaving of an image of the Buddha ~ in the Temple at Kandy was performed by — a member of this caste with the aid of a ~ looking glass so that he might not desecrate — the image by looking at it directly. The © manorial lord was always attended by his — barber. Barbers had the privilege of wearing Timbillo Mar. 15, 1945 _ white linen under the Kandian monarchy. Both men and women of this caste could _ wear doublets but could not sit on stools. - Upper-caste Washermen washed for them | but would not dine with them. (Pridham, _ vol. 1, p. 238; Davy, p. 125.) Virchow says _ that the Barbers and Hanomoreyo (betel - box-makers of Uva) were even lower in - status than Rodiyas. The vidahn mohandiram, or caste head- man, wore a cloth or linen coat with silk buttons and loops; a sword hilt and scab- bard of silver, the latter with two plates of tortoise shell on it; and a belt of colored _ yibbon embroidered with flowers of silver thread. (Bennett, p. 100.) _ Sinhalese Barbers numbered 260 in 1881; ~ 1,287 in 1891; and 1,327 in 1901, according to the Census Report. BASKET-MAKERS The Basket-maker caste was apparently a small one. Upham (vol. 3, pp. 348-349) gives the following names for this group: Sinnawo, or cutters, referring to their cut- ting and bringing home of their materials; Hadayo, or plaiters, because of their weav- ing or plaiting of materials; Welwaduwo, or rod-carpenters in reference to their use of | rods to manufacture articles; and Cooloopot- to, or peeling winnower makers, because they made winnowers by peeling bamboo cane and reeds. More commonly this group was called Handee, or Handi. They were required to furnish the stores of the Kandian monarch with baskets and win- nows, and were thought to be a beggar caste by some writers. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 348-349; Davy, p. 129.) BRAHMANS AND OTHER VARNAS There are apparently no Brahmans among the Sinhalese of today. Tradition- ally this caste, however, was present among them and constituted the next to the high- est, if not the highest, of all the castes. The - Kings, or Rajahs, were members of the _ Kshatria Varna and were the landlords of _ Ceylon. Regarding the third major division, | the Wysya (Vaishya) Varna, there is some - confusion. Buyers and sellers as well as makers of merchandise were once classed GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 81 as Wysyayo and were divided into three categories: (1) dealers or merchandisers, (2) cattle tenders, and (3) tillers of the soil. The merchants, or Welindo, seem to have disappeared from the Sinhalese sys- tem and their place was taken by the Tamil Chittys and Moslems. The Goigama claimed descent from the Vaishyas and held themselves aloof from all the lower groups who were called Sudras. Members of other castes assert that the Goigamas were originally Sudras rather than Vaishyas. Karawe caste mem- bers have laid claim to Kshatriya status. The different divisions of the Kshoodra Wanse, or Sudras, were organized by the government for its own use and for the benefit of the ruling caste of the Goigama. Under the Kandian monarchy each caste had specific duties to pay and certain serv- ices to perform and were responsible to officers appointed by the king. Armour lists 18 Wanam, or occupations, that in their names were reminiscent of the 18 guilds of the Buddhist Period and the 18 servants of the Tamils. Bennett speaks of the five performers of service, namely, carpenters, weavers, washermen, barbers, and sandal- makers. This recalls the fivefold division of servants into smiths, tailors, washers, bar- bers, and leather-workers given in the Jana- vamsa. Arthur Perera (1917, pp. 26-27) divides the groups below Gozgamas: into Naides (smiths and allied groups), Durayas (servants), and professional or service groups including barbers and washers. The Pancha-chandalo, or five men of degraded caste, were among the Sinhalese tradition- ally the washermen, potters, barbers, silver- smiths, and tailors. In addition there is the tradition of the Pas kula or five tribes (five handicraft castes or traders), viz.: car-. penters, weavers, washers, barbers, and shoemakers. CINNAMON-PEELERS The following synonyms are given by Upham (vol. 3, pp. 339-340) for this caste: Paisakara Brahmanayo, or gold and silver thread weaving Brahmans; TJ’ antavayo, or yard-stretching weavers (because they stretched and ordered their warp and wove 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES it with weft); Parsacawrayo, or Pathairo, i.e., weavers of gold and silver thread; Salagamayo, or Halagamayo, i.e., people who inhabit the large hall village (referring to Chilaw on the west coast whose older name was Salawa); and Mahabadde, the great rent, referring to cinnamon as the principal source of revenue (they were also called Chalias, or people of Chilaw, some- times abbreviated to Hali); and Pesa kar- ayan, or makers of cloth strainers to filter water. According to tradition the king of Dam- balewa in the Seven Corles, called Walthi- mi Buwanaika Rajah, six or seven hundred years ago caused a colony of Paisekara weavers to be brought from India to estab- lish a cloth manufactory at Chilaw. Special apartments or large halls were reserved for their use. (Upham, loc. czt.; Johnson, pp. 44-84; EK. W. Perera, pp. 20-21.) In later times, with the coming of the Portuguese, these weavers took up cinna- mon-peeling as a major occupation. Their numbers were always small and insignifi- cant in the highland area of Kandy, but in the maritime provinces they were numer- ous. Many have become wealthy and am- bitious under European rule. A small branch called the Velledurat weavers were described as living chiefly in the barren dis- tricts of Neurakalalawa in the north. On the coast the Chalias of today are chiefly clus- tered about Galle and Chilaw. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 239; Davy, p..126.) The Washermen for the Chalias were called Hinnevo. Under the older regime the Cinnamon-peeler caste was not allowed to wear white linen. For their lands they were required to pay a money tax and were li- able to be employed in the royal kitchens to fetch firewood, clean chatties or pots, and carry provisions. They also served as the bodyguards of the lords, especially on journeys. De Saram (7n Hayley, p. 101) divided the Chalias into four occupational subcastes—Paniuidacaraya, headmen or messengers; Hewapanne, or lascoreen war- riors; Cooroondo Caraya, or cinnamon- peelers; and Oliyakaraya, or palanquin- bearers. The services required of the Chalias of VOL. 35, NO. 3 the Seven Corles, a total of about 500 fami- lies, included the furnishing of the king’s stores with an annual quota of salt fish. They could not wear caps or cloths reaching much below the knees, and the dress of the women was similar to that of the Potter caste. a According to the ‘‘Hue and Cry” data — the chief occupations of 60 Cinnamon- — peelers, or Halagamas, in 1905-07 were— cooks 27, cinnamon-peelers 10, carters 8, traders 6, cultivators 5, and carpenters 4. The occupations of 14 Salagama Cinna- mon-peelers were—cultivators 7, cooks 4, and cinnamon peelers 3. Under the European rule in the maritime provinces the Cinnamon-peelers came under a special jurisdiction and ultimately felt powerful enough to dispute precedence with the Fisherman caste. In 1733 they went on a strike against the Dutch Govern- ment because of the poor working condi- tions and income derived for their labors. — Their disabilities and the degraded state of the caste generally caused many of them to flee into the highlands. The remainder were able to obtain much more favorable terms with the Dutch cinnamon traders. Although the women were forbidden to do so, the men might marry into the caste next below them. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 239, footnote; Tennent, vol. 2, pp. 123-124, footnote,157.) There were, according to the Census, 1,773 Sinhalese cinnamon-peelers by occu- — pation in 1881, 7,899 in 1891, and 15,222 — in 1901. | DANCERS The masked Dancers were a small caste. Their principal designation was Oliyo, which is interpreted to mean disguised actor or comedian. According to Upham (vol. 3, p. 350) the term Uhuliyo was also applied to this group because they appeared ~ with masked faces and made gestures. To exorcise the Spirits of Poverty, the Gara — Yakku, the Olt performed a special all-day _ dance called Gara, Yakuma, wearing special — masks. One of the major functions of this group was to carry the large effigies of the Assooriah demons in processions at the — annual festivals. They are thought to have — manufactured these effigies (Pridham, vol. ~ Mar. 15, 1945 1, p. 241). Denham (p. 190) gives the honorific term Bali-eduro, a teacher of Bali ceremonies, and Balitiyanna, one who molds Bali images, to members of this group. Davy (p. 129) terms them Olee. In older days the Olz provided the lords of the manors with oil for burning at night and swept out the premises by day. They also assisted in the care of the elephants. They were not allowed the honor of white linen and the Gangavo Caste washed for them. (A. A. Perera, 1903, p. 337.) According to the census, there were 1,520 Sinhalese Devil-dancers in 1881, 3,278 in 1891, and 5,423 in 1901. Devil-dancers might also include Tomtom-beaters. DRUMMERS AND WEAVERS The chief synonyms for the Tomtom- beater caste or Weavers were, according to Upham (vol. 3, pp. 346-347): Atodya- wasakqyo, after*Atodya a royal minister who first appointed them to this duty and who himself made and played on the first timbrel or drum with one head, which was later called by his name; Berawayo, be- cause they beat the barra, or tomtom; Ganitayo, or counters (calculators), be- cause they were astrologers and calculators of the motions of the planets. Denham (p. 190) asserts that the term Panikkiya, which referred to a headman of this caste, was frequently employed as an honorific title to ordinary members as was Nekatiya, as- strologer, because of the knowledge pos- sessed by this caste on the subject of the stars. Other terms employed were Tablin- jenos and Wajjankarayo, the latter meaning “tomtom beaters.” In general a consider- able variety of names were applied to this Berawayo caste in terms of the various functions it performed. According to Valentyn (in Philalethes, p. 330) the Berawayo had lime-burner, dancer, grass-mower, and deccum-carao (annual poll-tax payers) divisions, each of which had its own superintendents or man- quedams whom they especially designated as ulewalia. The Berawayo did not eat with low castes but could not use white linen, and the Pally caste washed for them. On the whole GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 83 Berawayo were numerous and well dis- tributed through the villages. Their major employment was as weavers of coarse na- tive cloth, but they were noted also as musicians and as participants in festivals or rites, beating the drum and giving notice of such events. (Coomaraswamy, p. 232; Parker, 1917, pp. 28-29.) They were ex- perts at rhythm and melody and were de- voted also to duties as watchers at temples, sweeping and cleaning temple premises, gathering flowers for temple offerings, and fetching water for the temple. Their serv- ices were necessary at weddings, funerals, Yak (Devil-worship) and Bali (Planet- worship) ceremonies, and on state occa- sions. They paid a tax in money to the Kandian king. In addition they supplied the royal store monthly with vegetables and provided the wooden gutters of the Ke- toolga tree. In some districts an annual quantity of cloth was provided by them to the manorial lord. Particular families among the Berawayo had lands for their services as_ pipers, dancers, and players at the great festivals. Temple lands were cultivated by them on the same terms. They were allowed to eat and carry away all victuals offered to the gods and were also reputed to eat beef. The members of the caste who beat the tomtom were called Tammattankarayo, while those who wove cloth primarily were called Da- wulkararayo. Another group was the Bali- eduro, who made the clay images for and danced at Bali ceremonies to propitiate the planets. A performer of devil ceremonies in this caste was called Yakdessa. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App.; Coomaraswamy, p. 148; Davy, pp. 128-129; Pridham, pp. 240- 241.) The census enumerated 823 Sinhalese Tomtom-beaters in 1881, 2,318 in 1891, and 1,649 in 1901. ELEPHANT-CATCHERS The Weenawo were a caste devoted to the function of elephant-snaring. They fol- lowed the track of elephants and drove them into snares or put them to death in cases of peril or emergency. Special washer- men washed for them but would not eat 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES with them. They did not have the privilege of wearing white linen. (Valentyn, in Philalethes, p. 329.) FISHERS | Upham (vol. 3, pp. 345-346) gives the following synonyms for the Carawo, or Fisher, caste: Wagurikayo, 1.e., workers or ' dealers in the water, referring to their habit of wading and working in the water; Jaw- likayo, or workers with nets; Kay-wattayo, or surrounders of water, because in fishing they surround a spot in the water; Kaywulo of Kaywattayo, which means those who dwell near the shore; and Carawo, which means ‘‘shore people” or dwellers near the shore. The Fisher caste was evidently divided into a considerable number of sub-groups, and, according to Valentyn (7m Philalethes, pp. 325-327) the lower ranks were kept separate from the rest. The higher ranks of Fishers participated in the privileges of the Vellalas or Goigama, and higher washerman were under obligation to wash their clothes. On the great festive occasions the higher Fishers could spread a white cloth on which they could dine and could cover their stools with white cloth also. Their dwelling could be decorated likewise, and they could carry a torch in their processions. They displayed a white flag with the device of a fish or ‘elephant in the center. (Fonseka, pp. 1-11; E. W. Perera, pp. 21-22.) In addition they could carry an umbrella of the tallcpot palm and in their own lands could have a white calico cloth spread beneath their feet. They possessed military offices and some were appointed to the office of adzgar by the king. They might be carried in palanquins with drums beat before them on the road in ceremonial parades. (Valentyn, op. cit.; Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 236-237.) The Fishers were members of the Madege Department in the government along with the Moors, or Moslems, whose reputation and status they shared. (Davy, pp. 122-123; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 237.) The Modeliar and Mahavidahn Modeliars of this caste wore a silk or cloth coat with silver buttons and loops; sword hilt and scabbard of silver and with eyes and tongue of the lion’s head VoL. 35, No. 3 made of gold, the belt of gold or silver lace _ but not spangled. The headmen of the Chandoos, or Toddy-drawers, shared this. — costume. (Bennett, p. 99.) 7 The duties of the Karawe tenants in- cluded the transportation of the paddy from the fields to the granary and attendance to the carriage department already noted. They also provided fish for the kitchen of the landlord. (A. A. Perera, p. 336.) Dharmaratne (pp. 27, 40, etc.) divides the Sinhalese castes into two geographical groups, namely (1) Coastal or Lowland Karawe, together with their ancient allies _ the ‘poetic’ Durawe, and the “witty” — Chalias, and (2) Kandyans who comprised Goigamas, Navandannas, Badahelas, and Wahumpuras. Further, he would add the Tamil-speaking ‘‘Karawe’”’ of the North and east coasts to the Sinhalese Karawe caste. Three-fourths of the Karawe, he as- serts, are today the owners of extensive lands, planters, traders, merchants, etc., and the remaining one-fourth are car- penters, coopers, builders, boatmen, cart- _ ers, and coolies, with only a scant one- — sixteenth engaged in fishing. In the recent period the Karawe have engaged in a vigorous rivalry with the Goigama for social position. The period of Portuguese rule was marked by extensive conversion of the Karawe to Roman Catho- lic faith. For this reason the Protestant Dutch favored the Gozgama over the Kara- we, it has been asserted. ([bid.) Under English rule the Karawe prospered once more, and their acquisition of new — wealth led to the demand early in the ~ twentieth century for better representation in the Legislative Council of Ceylon. — Hitherto the Goigama had monopolized the — position of representing Sinhalese interests on the council. From this situation it can be seen that the caste spirit is still very — much alive among the Sinhalese even at the present time, in spite of the decline of the old occupational sanctions. (Encyclopedia Britannica.) a The ‘‘Hue and Cry”’ gives the following ~ occupations for 112 Karawe members listed: coolies 51, cultivators 18, carpenters 16, traders 9, fishermen 9, and carters 9. ~ Mar. 15, 1945 _ According to the census the Sinhalese _ fishermen numbered 10,414 in 1881, 35,367 in 1891, and 38,504 in 1901. In the ‘‘Hue - and Cry” records of crimes charged to 149 _ Karawe, we find the following figures: theft and housebreaking 67, causing hurt _ 32, criminal breach of trust 15, robbery 14, _ murder 9, assault 6, and escaping custody 6. The Fisher caste is subdivided into about 17 groups, as follows: (1) Animal-trap- makers, Ugulwadi (Bennett and Pridham); | (2) Archers, Dunuwaayeli (Bennett and _ Pridham); (3) Ax fishers or Timber-fellers, - Porawakkara Karaway (De Saram); (4) _ Bird-catchers, Paksi or Pakai wadi (Ben- ~ nett and Pridham); (5) Bird-snarers, Wil- | liya (Bennett and Pridham); (6) Boat- fishers or Skate fishers, Oru Karaway (De Saram) or Moru-karawo (Valentyn); (7) _ Crocodile-fishers, Kayman wadi (Bennett and Pridham); (8) Date-flower fishers, Indimal Kewulu (De Saram) or Indimal- _ keulo (line-makers and net-makers—Va- lentyn); (9) Executioners, Wadekayo (Ben- nett and Pridham); (10) Fishmongers, Maswikunanno (Bennett and Pridham); (11) Hook-and-line anglers, Kaywulo (Ben- nett and Pridham); (12) Madel-net fishers or red-sail fishers, Madel Karaway (De -_ Saram) or Kadul-karawo (Valentyn); (13) Net fishers in the sea, Muhududaye or Meehududaye wadi (Bennett and Pridham) and Baroodel Karaway (De Saram) or _ Barudel-karawo (Fishers who do not use | casting nets—Valentyn); (14) Rivermouth fishers, Gode kewuloo (Fishers from land— De Saram) or Godo-keulo (Valentyn); (15) Rod fishers with bamboo, Dandoo Karaway (De Saram) or Dandukarawo (Valentyn); (16) Tok fishers, Tok Kewuloo (De Saram) or Tock-keulo (Fishers in fresh water— Valentyn); and (17) Turtle- or Tortoise- fishers, Kesbakaraway (De Saram) or Kespe-karawo (Valentyn). According to De Saram numbers (3), (14), (16), and (8) were low in status and did not intermarry with the rest. Similarly, Valentyn lists (16), (14), and (8) as of low status and not - intermarriageahle with the others. There are some indications that (11) and (16) may be identical groups. There are also evidences of two distinct classifications, GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 85 with Valentyn and De Saram agreeing fairly closely as against Bennett and Prid- ham. GRASS-CUTTERS The term Pannayo is generally applied to the Grass-cutter caste and is derived from the word pan, a name for a species of high grass that they cut. This caste is also called Jana Capanno, or grass-cutters, because they cut fodder for horses and gathered leaves and branches for elephants. (Upham, vol. 3, pp. 347-348.) This was a numerous group, and the services they rendered in return for their land tenures included the care of the royal cattle, and elephants, and the horses, as well as the furnishing of vegetables for the king’s stores every fortnight. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240; Davy, p. 127.) They also wove grass mats (peduru) out of various grasses and palm leaves and manufactured baskets and betel pouches. They employed a grass knife making their baskets of cane or rattan (Calamus roz- burght) and dyeing them red. Mats were provided for royal use when required. (Coomaraswamy, p. 240; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) In 1881 the census recorded 104 grass cutters and in 1891 listed 918. JAGGERY-MAKERS The manufacturers of sugar from palm juices were quite a distinctive caste. Accord- ing to Upham (vol. 3, p. 347) they are called Kandey Etto, or Kandians, because of their residence in the Kandian highlands; San- garammu, or defender of the priests’ gar- dens (also interpreted as cohabitors with sisters or with own blood); and Sakuro or Pakuro, stone-makers because of the hard cakes of sugar or jaggery they produced. Frequently heard in modern times are the terms Hakuru and Wahumpura, or cook. According to Denham (p. 189) the honorif- ic terms Devayo and Vahum purayo applied to this caste means workers in the kitchen. They were also called by the euphemistic name of Kande-minissa, or hillmen, because they were located primarily in the high- lands. 86 In general the duties of this caste in- cluded sugar-making, cookery, palanquin- bearing, domestic service of various kinds, baggage-carrying, and agricultural activi- ties. They were required to attend the manorial lords on journeys and to carry the palanquins of female members of the pro- prietor’s family. When not engaged in domestic duties they supplied jaggery and vegetables, attended agricultural duties, or carried baggage. One-half share of the toddy (Kitulanda-Mure) of all kitul palms tapped was due to the proprietor. The tod- dy was converted into sugar by the Ha- kuru. This caste furnished the Gozgama with cooks and were a fairly numerous group. The Hinnevo washed for them and they were excluded from the use of white linen. (A. A. Perera, App. p. xxii, uses the name Wahumpuraya for them; see also Upham, vol. 3, p. 347; Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 239-240; Davy, p. 127.) The Sinhalese jaggery-workers numbered 303 in 1881, 1,990 in 1891, and 12,413 in 1901. The chief Hakuru occupation in the ‘“‘Hue and Cry” records was agriculture, while the chief Wahuwmpura pursuits were coolie labor and agriculture, with small numbers serving as carters and masons. LEATHER-WORKERS The Leather-workers (Tanners) and the Shoemakers appear to have been one and the same caste. Following Upham’s ac- count (vol. 3, p. 344), the principal terms employed for this group were Chammakar- ayo (Chamars?), i.e., skin dressers; Rat- takarayo, i.e., carriage makers in reference to the manufacture of harness for chariots and carriages; Samwaduwo, or skin car- penters; and Sammahanno, or shoemakers. The common terms Sommaru and Hom- maru were employed to designate leather- workers. According to Bennett (p. 365) this caste was one of the Pass mehe Karayo or five performers of services along with carpenters, weavers, washermen, and bar- bers. The standing of Leather-workers is fairly good among Sudra groups. The Janavamsa includes them as one of the five servants along with smiths, tailors, washers, and barbers. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 3 LIME-BURNERS The caste of Lime-burners has been designated by a variety of names. Accord- ing to Upham’s account (vol. 3, p. 347) the principal ones were Chunna-karayo (re- ducers to powder, i.e., by burning stones, shells, and trees), Suwnno, and Hunno. Den- ham (p. 190) asserts that the Hunno, or Lime-burners, may be addressed as Pani- vidakaraya or Payunda, literally a mes- senger. He believes that persons of this caste may have been formerly employed as — 4 messengers or that perhaps the term arose from a designation for a minor headman. The terms Chunam burner and Chinambero _ were also used for them. According to Ben- nett (p. 566) the Hunno or Chunam makers were of the Jolil Karayo or particular serv- ices, along with the Tailors, Cooks, Tom- tom-beaters, and Palanquin-bearers. In general, the Lime-burners were given a low status among the Sudra castes, and accord- ing to Davy they were rather few in num- bers. (See also Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) The headmen of the Lime-burners were called Hunudewea and usually were en- gaged in plastering walls or superintending others of their caste. In olden times these persons whitewashed the house of the manorial lord once or twice a week. They also furnished purified lime for chewing with the areca nut and betel leaf. The Dec- cum carao of this caste paid an annual poll tax to the Kandian king and were required to keep up the lime furnace, to supply fuel, and to attend until the process was finished. They did not have the privilege of wearing white linen, and the Pallys washed for them. The Huno kattanno were employed in felling trees in the woods and in providing fuel ‘+ the lime kilns. (Upham, vol. 3, p. 347.) According to the Ceylon census of o¢c.- pations in 1881, there were 785 Sinha ose Lime-burners, in 1891 some 2,092, anc 1901 about 870. The Lime-burners in | “Hue and Cry” records were prima coolies and masons. MAT-WEAVERS The following terms are used for Mat- _ weavers, according to Upham (vol. 3, pp. — 350-351): Pannakarayo, i.e., leaf-workers, _ ie. Py Mar. 15, 1945 referring to the weaving of various kinds of leaves; Cattakarayo, i.e, workers in hard matter or wood, because they pound on tree fibers until these are reduced to a pulp or wooly substance, which they use to make mats; Tinakarayo, i.e., workers in grass, because they make some kinds of grass into mats, and this by a transposition of con- sonants becomes Kinnaru, grass-workers; and Hainawalaya, i.e., fringe-makers be- cause some mats are made with fringed selvedges. According to Denham (p. 190) the honorific term Karmantakaraya, or workmen, was applied to this caste. Under the Kandian regime the Kinnaru were not allowed to wear any head covering or handkerchief. They were required to pay a deccum or poll tax and in virtue of this were called Hiene Jaty. They were regarded as a very low caste and were rather small in numbers. Their function was to furnish the royal stores with ropes and rush mats. They also wove cane baskets, made fans for fanning corn, and manufactured lace bed- "PALEOBOTANY.—The Lower Eocene BERRY: LOWER EOCENE FLORA 87 steads and stools. The Dumbara mats were made of niyanda fibers (bowstring hemp or Sanseveria zeylanica). (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 241; Coomaraswamy, p. 243, gives exam- ples of their work songs; Valentyn, in Philalethes, p. 331, gives the term Hiene Jaty; Parker, 1917, p.30; Parker, pp. 44—45, 563-566. ) The Kinnaru were considered semi-out- castes of slightly higher position than the Rodias. The men were forbidden to grow hair beyond their necks, and the females from wearing anything more than a.narrow strip of cloth above the waist to cover their breasts. Mat-weavers were absolutely for- bidden to enter temples or sacred enclosures. Like the Rodias, they had their own doc- tors, astrologers, soothsayers, and officials for demon ceremonies. (Parker, 1917, p. 30; A. A. Perera, p. 337.) According to the census, Sinhalese cane- workers numbered 40 in 1881, 363 in 1891, and 438 in 1901. (To be concluded.) flora of southeastern North America.! Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University. The Lower Eocene flora of southeastern North America comprises what is probably the most extensive fossil flora known from a single horizon in the world’s Tertiary. It consists of several hundred nominal species —the precise number is immaterial, coming from 132 localities scattered along the shores of the Wilcox embayment through Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. I said the exact number of species is im- material and I designated the species as nominal because it is a sound paleobotanical principle that in describing any fossil as- semblage, where gradations between vari- ants are not preserved or discovered, the _ new forms should be carefully described as new species. Hence, in all good paleontologic work there are probably more species de- scribed than actually existed. It is a sound method for a refined analysis to precede an attempted synthesis. 1 Received December 20, 1944. In a recent number of this JouRNAL? four Wilcox species and others inferentially are combined in three new generic assignments. It is these three generic assignments that invite comment. It is far from my purpose to become a knight errant in defense either of my own or of Knowlton’s determinations, and I suspect that most readers have slight, if any, interest in the problem, but inas- much as certain fundamental questions of paleobotanical practice are involved I feel constrained to review them. The first in- volves a form named Diospyros asper and thought to be a concrescent calyx compared with that of the living Asiatic D. lanceolata Roxburgh and with the fossil D. rugosa Saporta. Brown states in the article cited that these comparisons “fail to be convinc- ing,’ and he therefore transfers the Dzo- spyros to the genus Fagus and suggests that Dryophyllum tennesseensis Berry, a wide- 2 Brown, R. W. Temperate species in the Eocene flora of the southeastern United States. This Jour- NAL 34: 349-351. 1944. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES spread and very common leaf in the Wil- cox, represents the leaves of this Fagus, of which the Diospyros calyces are regarded as the burs. Neither of these suggestions ap- peals to me as convincing, but there is more to be said. These supposed burs have been found only at a single locality in Tennessee, and the Dryophyllum leaves have been found abundantly at 38 plant localities in five states and at none of these localities have the supposed burs been detected. Brown | may, of course, be right. Fagus and the scarcely distinguishable Nothofagus are found in beds of this general age in various -antipodeal regions and are considered to have had ancestors in the Northern Hemi- sphere, a fact that invalidates any argu- ment against the presence of Fagus in as low a latitude as Tennessee at this time. By the same token it precludes the possi- bility of Dryophyllum representing a Fagus lead.o Fagus burs are carried greater distances by natural means than are the leaves, and if, as Brown’s hypothesis has it, this Wilcox material was brought into the basin of sedimentation from uplands with a cooler climate than that of the coastal Wilcox strip, these ‘‘burs’’ would be expected to be more abundant than the leaves. They are objects that would scarcely fail of detec- tion, and it is strange that they have not been found at any of the 132 plant locali- . ties. Moreover, there is evidence that the eastern United States in Eocene time was a region of low relief and mature topography, and the fact that a considerable number of Wilcox species are identical with forms found in the contemporaneous lignites of Brandon, Vt., suggests that there was a general amelioration of climate, not only in eastern North America but in other parts of the world, notably shown in southern Eng- land.. The second species is called Sassafras suspectum and is based on certain leaves of Sterculia wilcoxensis found by me at Pine Top, Tenn. Although opinions may legiti- mately differ as to the propriety of associa- ing the Pine Top specimens with the other occurrences of this species, I see no basis for referring them to Sassafras. Back in VOL. 35, NOs 4 1902 I made a study of the leaves of the liv- ing Sassafras* based on what was probably the largest collection ever made, and so there is presumably some actual basis for a judgment. The Wilcox leaves in question are too large to.be those of a Sassafras ; they have a different texture, which is hard to define in. words but unmistakable to the trained observer; they do have the marginal hem in the sinuses, but this is also a feature’ of Artocarpus and other unrelated genera; they lack the characteristic venation of the basal triangle. — - The chief point I want to make is that students should refrain from making changes unless they have facts as a basis rather than opinions. For example, I have long been of the opinion that some of the Wilcox leaves that are referred to Ficus mississippiensis really represent the genus Hernandia, but I certainly would not sug- gest such a change unless I had something more valid than a hunch with which to proceed, even though the genus Ficus is not very convincing. Another example is a statement (made, to be sure, when the au- thor was inexperienced and afterward re- gretted by him) in the first volume of the late A. C. Seward’s Fossil plants, where he implied that the paleobotanist could not differentiate between Restio (a monocoty- ledon), Equisetum (a lepidophyte), Casua- rina (a dicotyledon), and Ephedra (a gym- nosperm). The convergence in habit of these four is quite beside the point, since never in earth history have all four grown together or would they ever occur in the same deposit or ecological assemblage. The third questionable proposal is to unite Euonymus splendens Berry and H7- coria crescentia Knowlton, to constitute a new species of Staphylea. The latter genus has trifoliate or pinnate leaves of moderate size with serrate margins and with the lat- — q eral leaflets sessile or subsessile. The fossils — average 100 percent larger, are much more broadly ovate, and have acuminate tips — and dentate margins. The petioles are long even in the minimum-sized specimens. 4 Waiving the question of whether the ~ Wilcox leaves determined as Hicoria cres- 3 Bot. Gaz. 34: 426-450. 1902. ri ‘> _— a — ENTOMOLOGY .—Five new flea beetles from the West Indies Mar. 15, 1945 centia are identical with Knowlton’s type from the West, they seem to me to differ from Huonymus splendens, and here again the Huonymus is abundant at 31 widely scattered localities at not one of which, or any other of the 132 plant localities, has a seed or the characteristic inflated fruits of Staphylea been found, the sort of a fruit admirably adapted for preservation had it (Communicated by 8. F. Buake.) The following species of flea beetles, with _ one exception, were collected by P. J. Dar- lington, Jr., and were found in unidentified material at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Genus Hadropoda Suffrian Hadropoda albicincta n. sp. Fig. 4 About 3 mm long, reddish brown with pice- ous head and prothorax and dark, somewhat metallic markings on elytra and body beneath; covered with golden appressed pubescence not concealing the dense punctation of the head and prothorax and large striate punctures of the elytra. Elytra considerably wider than prothorax and with numerous dark spots, the ones nearest the suture raised to form warty swellings, also a hump at the apical narrowing. Antennae short, with greatly enlarged apical joints, fifth and sixth conspicuously white. Head with interocular space more than half its width, piceous, densely and roughly punc- tate, with fine, short, appressed pubescence; frontal tubercles not very distinct, interan- tennal area not produced, lower front short. Antennae extending below humeri, the five apical joints darker and much wider than the basal ones, fifth and sixth joints conspicuously white. Prothorax with sides nearly straight, only slightly curved, with a nodule at each corner, densely punctate, covered with short, appressed pubescence, surface uneven with two sharp median elevations slightly before the middle and a shorter one below and between them; piceaqus with basal margin paler. Scu- — tellum covered with golden pubescence. Elytra. 1 Received January 5, 1945. BLAKE: NEW FLEA BEETLES FROM WEST INDIES 89 been in existence anywhere in the general region. In closing, may I again disclaim any feel- ing of proprietary interest or chivalry in de- fending the species discussed, but I do feel strongly that if science is not to become a joke its votaries must refrain from making changes in which opinions and not facts are allowed to assume so leading a role. Doris H. BLAKE. considerably wider than prothorax, fairly con- vex, deep reddish brown with a darker area at base and along the sides, and dark spots, the spots in the line nearest suture raised to form warty elevations, one on the callosity near the scutellum, one before and one after the middle, and a swollen area on the side at the apical narrowing, other less prominent spots along the sides, these not raised, about all these spots the pubescence arranged in a sort of circular whirl; a deep incurving sulcus running from within the humerus about the basal callosity nearly to the suture. Striate punctation large and deep. Body beneath deep reddish brown, shining, with pale pubescence, basal half of ante- rior femora pale, hind femora on back densely pubescent with dark median band. Anterior claws exceptionally large, and with a basal tooth; hind claws swollen. Length 3 mm, width 1.4mm. Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26925. Type locality—Morne La Hotte, elevation 5,000—7,800 feet, Haiti, collected October 16, 17, 1934, by P. J. Darlington. This species belongs to the same group as Hadropoda barberi and hugonis, the former from Puerto Rico, the latter from the Dominican Republic. Together they form a group that stands a little apart in the genus and resembles in many ways the species of the North Ameri- can genus Distigmoptera. H. albicincta closely resembles hugonis but differs in having raised sutural margins and three warts as well as an apical tumidity on each elytron. Its elytral punctation is a little finer and the whole beetle slightly more slender. All three species are peculiar in having a white fifth, and in this species also a white sixth, antennal joint. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 35, NO. 3 -@ Genus Oedionychis Latreille Oedionychis pseudothoracica, n. sp. Fig. 5 About 6 mm long, oval, not very shiny, densely and coarsely punctate; head, pro- thorax, abdomen, coxae, and middle of breast yellow, antennae, legs, and rest of under- surface and five spots on pronotum dark brown, elytra blue-violet. Head densely and rugosely punctate, the tubercles distinct, area between antennae slightly produced; interocular space approxi- mately half the width of head; yellow-brown with dark mouthparts, slightly darkened tu- bercles, a spot on occiput and margin about eyes darker. Antennae rather heavy, extending to the middle of elytra, entirely dark brown, joints 3, 4, and 5 long and about equal. Pro- thorax at base twice as wide as long, narrowed anteriorly with the explanate margin becoming wider and slightly produced; disk covered with coarse and moderately dense punctures, yel- low with five piceous spots. Scutellum black and shiny. Elytra smoothly convex, slightly wider posteriorly, with a narrow margin; in- trahumeral depression short and not marked, ‘sutural edges smooth, a little raised, surface more densely punctate than prothorax, deep violet-blue. Body beneath very sparsely pu- bescent, legs and metasternum shining with a faint metallic lustre, prosternum, middle of metasternum, coxae and abdomen pale. Length 5.7 mm, width 3 mm. Type male, U.S.N.M. 57228. Type locality Camagiiey, Cuba, collected July 30, 1923, by J. Acufia. Superfically this species resembles the North American Oedionychis thoracica Fabricius in markings and coloration. It belongs, however, to the group with the front of the head pro- duced and the eyes rather closely set. It also has fewer pronotal spots than are found in O. thoracica. Genus Pseudoepitrix Jacoby Pseudoepitrix tetraspilota, n. sp. Fig. 1 About 2.5 mm long, shining, reddish brown with four darker brown elytral spots, two at base and two in middle, and a dark abdomen; the striate elytral punctures distinct to the apex. Head with interocular space half its width, — frontal tubercles not distinctly marked, a de- pression behind running up to fovea by the eye, lower front of head long and gradually narrowing to labrum, distance from top of labrum to antennal sockets approximately equal to width between the eyes; occiput alu- taceous and with a circle of fine punctures in | the middle; head reddish brown, alittle darker | on top. Antennae extending to the middle of the elytra, gradually deepening in color, fifth joint long. Prothorax about a fourth wider than long, widest anteriorly, narrowed slightly to a prominent basal nodule, sides straight; basal margin somewhat sinuate; disk with a — deep basal sulcus, punctation moderately dense and distinct. Scutellum deep reddish brown. — i Elytra shining, a distinct callosity at base near the suture and a well marked intrahumeral depression extending around and below it; on this callosity a deepening in coloration, a similar dark area in the middle of each elytron, these dark areas more or less conspicuous in ~ four of the five specimens examined, in one ~ only traces of the spots. Striate punctures dis-- _ tinct to the apex. Body beneath polished yellow brown, the abdomen, except for the pale tip, deep reddish brown. Length 2.3-2.6 mm, width 1:2-1.3. mm. Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26922. Four paratypes, two males, two females, a pair of these in National collection, U.S.N.M. 57229. Type locality—Pico Turquino, 5,000—6,000 feet elevation, Cuba, collected in June 1936 by — P. J. Darlington. q This is the first species of the genus to be de- — scribed from Cuba and the first spotted species known in the genus. Pseudoepitrix longicornis, n. sp. Fig. 3 About 2 mm long, shining, pale yellow-brown with slightly darker head and antennae, an- tennae in male approximately equal to length of beetle; elytral striae poorly marked toward — apex ofelytra. q Head with interocular space a little more than half width of head, lower front tapering, giving head a triangular shape in front, occiput alutaceous, very finely punctate on vertex, a depressed line running behind tubercles to fovea at margin of eyes. Antennae very long, — > seudothoracica’ 2. Re udoepitrix darling toni aie Ww ao wu > j= ae ° n ; ae are Go ie . ~Q = ww a © fy Lf S 4 ee eee L : 3 ( ae eres -? ee, aes 2 r ae e- : © ™ es Se (o) 3 ae = 3 —— * x wR — a 3 re) Z ~ ® ‘ ie L 3) e S ,, ND i py oar Ds a] Ip OEE oe oO S - = a wv + Pse udoe pilrix I 4 Hadropoda albicinefa 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in male equaling the length of the insect, not quite so long in female, reddish brown. Pro- thorax less than a fourth wider than long, with straight sides narrowing slightly toward basal sulcus, basal sulcus well marked, disk covered with moderately dense and distinct punctures. Scutellum pale. Elytra entirely pale, basal callosity well marked, elytral striae becoming very faint and indistinct at apex and on sides. Body beneath pale in all but one of the four specimens, in that one the abdomen deep reddish brown, very sparsely pubescent, shin- ing. Length 2—2.2 mm; width 0.8—1 mm. Type male and 3 paratypes, Mus. Comp. Zool. No. 26924. One paratype in National col- lection, U.S.N.M. 57230. Type locality — Mountains north of Imias, 3,000—4,000 feet altitude, eastern Oriente Province, Cuba, collected July 25-28, 1936, by P. J. Darlington. This species is well distinguished by the un- usually long antennae, which in the male equal the length of its body; in the female they are not quite so long. In addition, it is smaller than the two other species described here from Cuba, and the punctation is less marked at the apex. Pseudoepitrix darlingtoni, n. sp. Fig. 2 About 2.5 mm long, shining, yellow-brown, with the head sometimes reddish brown, elytral striation visible to the apex. Head with interocular space a little more ~ than half its width, the front not so long as in ZOOLOGY .—New urocoptid mollusks from Mezxico.} tional Museum. The United States National Museum re- cently received two collections of mollusks from Mexico representing several new species of the family Urocoptidae. One of these collections was made at Teotitlan del Camino, Oaxaca, by the indefatigable col- lector Miss Marie E. Bourgeois, whose en- _ deavors in the past have yielded a consider- able number of new species as well as in- formation pertaining to the ecology and distribution of previously described forms. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 22, 1945. VOL. 35, NO. 3 am P. tetraspilota, frontal tubercles not very dis- tinct, bounded behind by a depressed line ex- tending to fovea by the eye; occiput alutaceous and finely punctate. Antennae pale, deepening in color to apex, extending a little beyond the middle of the elytra, fifth joint longest. Pro- thorax about a third wider than long with al- most straight sides, narrowing slightly toward base, basal sulcus well marked, surface moder- ately densely and distinctly punctate. Scutel- lum pale. Elytra with callosity at base and a deep incurving intrahumeral depression run- ning down around it; elytral striation stronger at base but visible to the apex; color entirely yellow brown. Body beneath entirely pale, shiny, very sparsely pubescent. Length 2.2—2.4 mm; width 1—-1.1 mm. Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26923, and three paratypes, two of which, a male and fe- male, in the National collection, U.S.N.M. 57231. ; Type locality—Pico Turquino, 3,000-6,000 — feet altitude, Cuba, collected in June 1936 by P. J. Darlington. | This is a paler species than P. tetraspilota and without markings. The aedeagus is also ‘more pointed. The thorax is more coarsely punctate than in P. hispaniolae Blake, and the aedeagus is distinguishable from those of P. hoffmani Bryant, P. jamaicensis Blake, and P. hispaniolae. All these species of Pseudoepitrix are very closely related, but those on each island appear distinct. In Cuba alone three species have been collected. Pau Bartscu, U. 8. Na-— The second lot was collected by Ing. A. R. V. Arellano and his students of the Instituto Politécnico de México. They were obtained — in the limestone hills 10-30 km north-north- east of Cadereyta, Querétaro, at an eleva- tion of about 2,100 meters. Genus Holospira Martens Holospira teotitlana, n. sp. Shell cylindroconic, varying in color from milk white to soiled white; aperture white. — Nuclear whorls smooth. The postnuclear whorls — | are slightly rounded on the cylindric portion of the shell. The early postnuclear whorls are , Mar. 15, 1945 marked by weak, closely spaced axial ribs, which become less well defined on the later > turns where they are also a little more distantly spaced. On the last whorl they become heavier and even more distantly spaced. Base well a : rounded with a well-impressed umbilicus. A per- _ture subcircular with a slight angulation at the posterior angle. Peristome white and reflected. The columella is slender and hollow and bears a strong lamella on the middle in the penulti- ‘mate turn, which is thick and rounded at its free edge. The parietal lamella is broad, con- eave on the outside, and slightly outward re- Ww aa flected. The basal lamella is less strongly de- veloped-than the parietal lamella and occupies the middle of the base. The labial lamella is poorly developed, consisting of a mere heavy thread. All three of these elements find their _ greatest expression in the penultimate turn, a _searcely extending beyond this in either direc- tion. This species somewhat resembles Holospira nelsoni Pilsbry, from which it can be readily distinguished by its white aperture. I am recognizing two subspecies. ' Holospira teotitlana teotitlana, n. subsp. Fig. 2 This subspecies differs from Holospira teo- Fie. 1.—Holospira teotitlana filia. Fia. BARTSCH: NEW UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS FROM MEXICO 2.—Holospira t. taroensis. Fic. 4—Malinchea politecnicae. Fic. 5.—Malinchea arellanot. (All X33.) 93 titlana filta in being smaller, more slender, and with the axial sculpture a little more pro- nounced. The type, U.S.N.M. 431954, has 12.5 whorls and measures: Height, 17 mm; diameter, 5.5 mm. It and 27 additional specimens were col- lected by Miss Bourgeois under rocks of a small circular foothill at the foot of the higher sierra called Cerro Blanco or Cerro de Tiza- tepec at Teotitladn del Camino, Oaxaca. Seven- teen topotypes are entered as U.S.N.M. 431955. U.S.N.M. 431956 contains five specimens from a nearby locality, and five additional spec- imens from the same lot are in Miss Bour- geois’s collection. Holospira teotitlana filia, n. subsp. Fig. 1 This subspecies is in every way larger than Holospira teotitlana teotitlana, with the axial sculpture less strongly pronounced. The type, U.S.N.M. 431957, has 13.2 whorls and measures: Height, 19.4 mm; diameter, 6 mm. It and seven additional specimens were collected by Miss Bourgeois at the foot of an- other circular hill near the village of Ignacio Mejia, Cerro de Tizatepec, State of Oaxaca, which is 10 km distant from the type locality of Holospira teotitlana teotitlana. Four of seven teotitlana. Fic. 3.—Malinchea quere- 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES specimens are entered as U.S.N.M. 431958; three are in Miss Bourgeois’s collection. Malinchea, new name Tristemma Bartsch, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 31: 133. 1906. (Not Tristemma Brandt, Prod. Anim. Mertens 1: 15. 1835.) When I defined the genus T’ristemma in 1906 I overlooked Brandt’s previous use of this name. I am therefore rechristening the group as above. Malinchea arellanoi, n. sp. Fig. 5 Shell cylindroconic, bluish white, marked with a few feeble rust spots; interior of aper- ture and peristome white. The nucleus forms a slightly bulbous apex, which consists of 2.2 well-rounded, smooth turns. The early post- nuclear whorls increase rapidly in size and are marked by well-developed, retractively slant- ing axial ribs, which are about half as wide as the spaces that separate them. These ribs vary somewhat in strength and spacing. On the suc- ceeding whorls the axial ribs rapidly become diminished and completely disappear on the cylindric portion of the shell. On the last 1.5 turns, however, they recur and become very strong and almost vertical. The whorls on the cylindric portion are almost flattened and sep- arated by a slightly impressed suture. Base moderately long, openly umbilicated, and marked by the axial riblets. Aperture obliquely broadly oval, slightly angulated at the poste- rior angle of the aperture. Peristome expanded and reflected, free at the parietal wall. The columella is rather broad and hollow, and in the penultimate whorl it bears a well-devel- oped median lamellar fold. A broad, somewhat concave fold subtends from the parietal wall, while another a little less strong is present on the middle of the base. There is no indication of a fold or thread on the inside of the outer lip. The type, U.S.N.M. 481959, was collected by Ing. A. R. V. Arellano and his students on a limestone hill 10 to 30 km north-northeast of Cadereyta, Querétaro, Mexico. It has 14.4 whorls and measures: Height, 18.3 mm; diame- ter: 7° mm. U.S.N.M. 481960 contains seven topotypes from the same source; three more are in the collection of the Instituto Politécnico de México. VOL. 35, NO. 3 Malinchea politecnicae, n. sp. Fig. 4 Shell rather small, cylindroconic, white with — 4 the peristome and the interior of the aperture — yellowish white. The nucleus consists of about 2.2 whorls, which form a somewhat bulbous _ smooth apex. The early postnuclear whorls are marked by retractively curved, strong, axial ribs, which are separated by spaces a little wider than the ribs. The middle whorls are ‘almost flattened and marked by strong incre- mental lines amounting almost to ribs, while the last two turns bear very strong, almost vertical, curved axial ribs, which are not quite so wide as the spaces that separate them. The suture is slightly impressed. The base of the last turn is narrowly openly um- bilicated and marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. The aperture is irregularly ovate, angulated at the posterior angle. The ~ peristome is expanded and reflected, free, and elevated at the parietal wall. The columella is rather broad and bears a strong median fold in the penultimate turn. Here also on the parietal wall is a moderately broad, concave lamella, while the basal wall in the same region bears a less elevated lamella. There is no sign of a lamella or thread on the inside of the outer lip. This species comes from another limestone block 10 to 30 km north-northeast of Cade- reyta, Querétaro, Mexico. | . The type, U.S.N.M. 431961 has 12.2 whorls and measures: Height, 14.6 mm; diameter, 6 mm. natch U.S.N.M. 431962 contains 12 topotypes and some fragments from the same locality. Five additional specimens are in the collection of the Instituto Politécnico. This species resembles Malinchea areallanor but can readily be distinguished from it by its smaller size and stronger axial sculpture. Malinchea queretaroensis, n. sp. Fig. 3 Shell small, cylindroconic, yellowish white, with the interior of the aperture and peristome pale yellowish white. The nucleus consists of 2.3 well-rounded, smooth turns which form a _ slightly bulbous apex. The early postnuclear whorls increase rapidly in size. These, as well as the rest of the whorls of the shell, are marked by strong, retractively slanting axial ribs, Mar. 15, 1945 which are almost sublamellose. The spaces sep- arating these ribs vary from twice to three times the width of the ribs. Suture moderately constricted. Base of the last whorl! short, rather widely openly umbilicated and marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture sub- quadrate. Peristome expanded and reflected; that of the parietal wall free. Columella rather broad. In the penultimate turns this bears a moderately strong fold, which is anterior to the middle. The parietal fold is very broad and lamellose and extends in its widest portion RIVAS: THE TYPES OF RIVULUS MARMORATUS POEY 95 over more than half of the width of the whorls. The basal fold, on the other hand, is rather low when compared with the parietal fold. There is no indication of a fold or thread on the inside of the outer lip. The type U.S.N.M. 431963, was collected by Ing. A. R. V. Arellano and his students on a limestone hill 10 to 30 km north-northeast of Cadereyta, Querétaro, Mexico. It has 13.5 whorls and measures: Height, 14.2 mm; diame- ter, 5.7 mm. ICHTHYOLOGY.—The discovery and redescription of the types of Rivulus mar- moratus Poey, a cyprinodont fish from Cuba.} Historia Natural, Colegio de La Salle, Habana, Cuba. LEONARD P. ScHULTZ.) While recently examining material of Rivulus in the United States National Mu- seum, Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, kindly called to my attention two specimens of Poey’s, long ago labeled Riv- ulus cylindraceus Poey, and suggested that they were possibly a new species, since no fine-scaled Rivuius was recognized from Cuba by any current author. After careful examination of several facts and from cir- cumstantial evidence, I am convinced that the two specimens are the types of Rivulus marmoratus Poey (1880: 248), and I submit the evidence below. I wish to thank Dr. Schultz for calling these two specimens to my attention and am grateful for the opportunity to report on this Cuban fish, which has never been cor- rectly diagnosed. Rivulus cylindraceus Poey (1860: 308) was described first and is a coarse-scaled species that cannot be confused with the two fine- scaled specimens at hand. Furthermore, the types of R. cylindraceus are deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology; the holo- type is a female bearing M.C.Z. No. 6423, a male paratype being in the same jar. There is another series of paratypes bearing _M.C.Z. No. 6395 (see Luis Howell-Rivero, _ 1938: 176). I have examined these speci- mens and they agree with Poey’s original description of R. cylindraceus. In addition, I have collected a fine series of topotypes 1 Received November 1, 1944. Luis René Rivas, Museo de (Communicated by that agree perfectly with Poey’s descrip- tion. Thus I have concluded that there can be no doubt cast on the current diagnosis of this species. Poey’s original description of Rivulus marmoratus, translated into English, reads as follows: “I have in my possession two specimens which I believe I have received from Dr. Rafael Arango; and they are from Cuba, if they do not exist in the United States of America, whence Professor Gill has sent me some species of Cyprinodontes. The ocular blotch indicates that they are males; they are 55 millimeters long. “Tt differs from the preceding species [Rivulus cylindraceus Poey] in the more pos- teriorly inserted dorsal, because its distance to the caudal extremity equals that of said dorsal to the opercle, which is why the anal appears more advanced. The body is cov- ered with dark and light blotches. A black blotch is noticed above the base of the pec- toral fin.—No. 774.” This description by Poey fits exactly the two specimens under consideration, even in regard to the total length of about 55 mm. It is concluded that to have two of Poey’s specimens of Rivulus 55 mm. in length in the same jar from Cuba is also additional evidence and especially significant. I be- lieve, therefore that they are the two speci- mens described as Rivulus marmoratus Poey, and I recognize them as the types of that species. 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Rivulus marmoratus, after examination of the pertinent literature, I conclude has been erroneously synonymized by most authors with Rivulus cylindraceus Poey (1860: 308), the only other Cuban representative of the genus, from which it differs widely. Jordan and Evermann (1896: 663) wrongly stated (footnote) that Poey was in error in indicat- ing the existence of an ocellus above the pec- toral origin. The ocellus, although some- what faded after the long preservation, is present on both specimens, thus confirming Poey’s description. Later, Myers (1927: 121) was in error in stating that Jordan and Evermann (l.c.) had mistaken the ‘‘anal”’ for the “dorsal” in Poey’s original descrip- tion of Rivulus marmoratus. A careful check- ing of Jordan and Evermann’s account with Poey’s description proves that these au- thors were correct in that respect. The taxonomic status of this species and a redescription of the two types are given below. Rivulus marmoratus Poey Rivulus marmoratus Poey, 1880: 248 (original de- scription; compared with FR. cylindraceus).— Jordan, 1887: 564 (listed).—Garman, 1895: 134 (erroneously synonymized with R. cylindra- ceus).—Jordan and Evermann, 1896: 663 (de- scription, after Poey),—Regan, 1912: 500 (er- roneously synonymized with R. cylindraceus), —Myers, 1927: 121 (erroneously synonymized with R. cylindraceus),—Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, 1930: 179 (erroneously synonymized with R. cylindraceus). I am designating as the lectotype U.S.N.M. 37429, a female 46.5 mm in standard length (56.5 mm total); the paratype, U.S.N.M. 123000, also a female, measures 45.5 mm in standard length (54.8 mm total). Measurements are expressed in hundredths of the standard length. Throughout the de- scription, the measurements and counts of the lectotype are given first, followed by those of the paratype in parentheses. For the methods followed in measuring and counting, see Rivas (1944: 41). | Greatest depth of body 19.8 (19.3); greatest width 18.3 (15.6); length of head 28.0 (27.3); greatest width 20.4 (19.1), greatest depth 14.2 (13.8); eye 6.7 (6.4); interorbital 12.7 (12.7); snout 8.2 (7.2); greatest width of mouth 11.2 (10.0); least depth of caudal peduncle 14.4 VOL. 35, No. 3° (13.8), length 21.5 (20.4); distance between anal origin and tip of mandible 61.7 (65.2). Dorsal rays 8 (8); anal 10 (10); pectoral 13 (13); pelvic 6 (6); branched caudal 14 (14); origin of anal fin midway between caudal base and anterior margin of orbit in the lectotype; midway between caudal base and posterior — : margin of orbit in the paratype. Distance be- tween dorsal and anal origins 21.1 (20.0); be- tween dorsal origin and caudal base 26.9 (25.5); between anal origin and caudal base 36.8 (34.3); length of dorsal fin—19.6 (19.3); anal 24.1 (24.4); pectoral 24.1 (16.9); pelvic 6.9 (7.0); middle caudal rays 19.8 (18.9). Scales in 48 (46) transverse rows and 14 (18) longitudinal rows; 18 (18) rows around caudal peduncle, and 15 (15) zigzag rows between pec- toral bases; 35 (33) predorsal scales. General - coloration (in alcohol) reddish brown. A reddish-brown humeral spot (faded ocellus); both specimens have a dark spot (faded ocellus) on the upper part of the caudal base; there are faint traces of spotting on the dorsal, anal and caudal fins; pectoral and pelvic fins colorless; faint traces of spots all over the sides of the body. This species differs from R. cylindraceus in the smaller scales (about 36 transverse rows in cylindraceus), smaller head, more advanced anal and other characters; the size seems to be larger. It resembles R. hildebrandi Myers (1927: -123) from Panama and R. myerst Hubbs (1936: 210) from Yucatén in having more than 42 transverse rows of scales. A direct comparison with these two species should be made. LITERATURE CITED GARMAN, SAMUEL. The cryprinodonts. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 19 (1): 1-179, pls. 1-12. 1895. Howe ui-Rivero, Luis. List of the fishes, types of Poey, in the Museum of Compara- tie Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 82 (3): 169-227. 1938. Huss, Cart L. Fishes of the Yucatan Penin- sula. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 457: 157-287, fig. 1, pls. 1-15. 1936. JorpAN, Davip Starr. A preliminary list of the fishes of the West Indies. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 9: 554-608. 1887. JorDAN, Davip Starr, and EverMANN, Bar- TON WARREN. Middle America. 47 (4 pts.): 1-3313, pls. 1-392. 1896-1900. 7 JorDAN, Davip Starr; EvVERMANN, BARTON ~ The fishes of North and = U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull) 3 Mar. 15, 1945 WarREN; and Citark, Howarp WALTON. Check list of the fishes and fishlike verte- brates of North and Middle America north of the northern boundary of Venezuela and olombia. Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. for 1928, pt. 2: i-iv, 1-670. 1980. Myers, Georce 8. An analysis of the genera of neoptropical killifishes allied to Rivulus. _ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 9) 19: 115-129. oe 1027, Porgy, Feruirpe. Poissons de Cuba, especes nouvelles. Mem. Hist. Nat. Isla de Cuba PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY | 97 2 (ch. 49): 115-336. 1860. . Revisio pisctum cubensium. An. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. 9: 243-261 (1-19). 1880. ReGan, C. Tare. A revision of the poeciliid fishes of the genera Rivulus, Pterolebias and Cynolebias. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 10: 494-508. 1912. Rivas, Luts René. Contributions to the study of the poeciliid fishes of Cuba. I. Descrip- tions of six new species of the subfamily Gambusiinae. Proc. New England Zool. Club 23: 41-53. 1944. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1221sT MEETING The 1221st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Octobér 23, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. Program: Ropert Simua, Howard Univer- sity: Elasticity and flow in high polymers.——The mechanical properties of high polymeric sys- tems were considered in a state of equilibrium and in regard to rate phenomena such as creep, relaxation, volume-temperature, and volume pressure behavior. The characteristic differ- ences between the molecular mechanism under- lying elastic deformation in ordinary solids and in rubberlike polymers were discussed and con- ditions favorablefor highly elasticresponse were pointed out. Creep was interpreted in terms of of a distribution of mechanical relaxation fre- quencies attributable roughly to three molec- ular mechanisms: the diffusion of chain seg- ments in the field of stress, the change of shape of flexible chains under stress, and the relative displacement of the centers of gravity of the molecules which ultimately leads to flow. In a rubberlike system the relaxation spectrum is broad and the average time constant small. Oppression of “chain effects’? by increased in- tensity of molecular interactions, excessive cross linking, or crystallization leads to a nar- rowing down of the spectrum and to an in- crease of the mean time parameter, as is char- acteristic for a plastic or fibrous material. The transition from ordinary to high elasticity upon increase in temperature was interpreted on the same basis as the transition points observed by means of thermal expansion and specific heat data and those to be expected in the volume- pressure curves. Finally the importance of mechanical absorption and dispersion measure- ments below and above the transition tempera- ture was pointed out. (Author’s abstract.) 1222pD MEETING The 1222d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 6, 1943, Presi- dent SEEGER presiding. Program: R. Weller, Naval Ordnance Labo- ratory: Photoelasticity. (Abstract not received.) 1223D MEETING The 1223d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 20, 1943, Presi- dent SEEGER presiding. Program: L. B. TuckeRMAN, National Bur- eau of Standards: Mathematics as she are taught: Fit the Second—Part I: Teachers of college physics have long recognized that if they are to inculcate correct ideas they must spend a large part of their time in eradicating many misconceptions about mathematics, physics, and science in general, which are firmly entrenched in their students’ minds. In recent numbers of the American Journal of Physics! there are listed 158 current misconceptions. In discussing this problem Prof. Henry A. Per- kins? says: ‘‘They originate in outworn notions whose vitality is perennial, in lack of clarity or in positive misstatements in text books and in previous faulty instruction.” A fruitful source of such faulty instruction was recently brought to my attention by a very favorable review of A Source book of mathe- matical applications, 17th Yearbook of the Na- tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1 Vol. 11: 101-102, 110-111, 164-165, 227-228. 1943. 2 L.c., p. 101. Se JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1948, and planned as a “reference book for the.teachers of the mathematics usually offered in grades seven through twelve.” It seems incredible, but it is unfortunately true, that in this book there is crowded more misinformation than I have ever seen within the covers of a single book issued by a sup- posedly reliable organization. It abounds in grossly careless proofreading, in careless check- ing of references, in confusion of units such as “knots per hour,’’ “force” for energy, “‘watts consumed ...in one hour,’ in careless state- ments and even in sheer asininities—boners which deserve to be immortalized in a book devoted to boners. Numerous quotations from the book were given as illustrations of these statements. Students have enough difficulty with mathematics as it is ordinarily given in schools without being further confused by the absurdities printed in this book. Part II: Recently there appeared in my mail a flamboyant advertisement of the ‘‘National Educational Alliance’? announcing a ‘“‘vital new 180-day Emergency Short”... ‘“‘N.E.A. Course in PracticaAL MaTHEMATICS”’ contain- ing amongst a plethora of other eulogistic statements the following: 5. ... No previous Mathematics Knowledge Needed.... 6. ... ANY AVERAGE PERSON can readily acquire.... Not in 4 Years, but Only 6 Months—a Practical Working Knowledge of ALL 14 Branches of Mathematics—Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Calculus, etc., and their Practical Applications to Machine Shop, Engineering, Chemistry, Electricity, Navigation, Aviation, Gunnery, Business, etc. Many similar advertisements come in my mail. I usually glance at them and drop them in the waste basket, though I have called some of them to the attention of the Post Office and some to the Federal Trade Commission only to learn that they were so carefully worded that, although they were false and even fraudu- lent in their implications, under our present laws no action could lie against the adver- tisers. This advertisement, however, I did not drop in the waste basket. My eye was caught by the words: “No Single Faculty Ever Could Proclaim such a Distinguished Group of Mathematicians.” VOL. 35, NO. 3 In the list of names following were two mem- bers of the National Academy o° Sciences and nine other professors of mathematics in some of our largest universities and technical schools. What sort of mathematics teaching can we expect when the names of such distinguished mathematicians appear as sponsors on such an advertisement? (Author’s abstract.) An informal communication on the measure- ment of temperature in moving aircraft was presented by Mr. BRoMBACHER. 1224TH MEETING The 1224th meeting, constituting the 74th annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 4, 1943, President SEEGER presiding. The Treasurer reported that the income from dues and from interest on investments was $1,196.99 and that the expenditures, other than investments, were $1,138.74, leaving a net surplus of $58.25 on ordinary expenses. The ordinary expenditures were at the rate of $3.55 per member. The Treasurer reported the sale of a $1,000 Bond of Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railway for $269.25. The Secretaries’ joint report showed an ac- tive membership as of December 1, 1943, of 321, of whom the following were new members: ARTHUR D. BERNSTEIN, RALPH Moore BERRY, RicHarp S. Burincton, Howarp F. Cart, DonaLp H. Jacoss, Paut J. Kopp, WALTER H. MacWI.tiams, Jr., ALBERT May, LAwson M. McKenziz, Rospert G. Nucent, WILLIAM R. Oseoop, Exizasersa Rona, Anatou J. SHNEIDER, SIDNEY T. Smitu, F. LEo TALBOTT, and Harotp O. Wyckorr. They reported the following deaths: ALan S. HAWKESWORTH, JaMEs E. Ives, G. W. LirrLEHALES, CHARLES F. Marvin, and NATHAN S. OSBORNE. Following the report of the Committee on Elections, the following officers were declared elected for the year 1944: President, H. F. Stimson; Vice-Presidents, CLemMEnT L. Gar- NER and Grorce R. Wait; Corresponding Secretary, WaLTeR RampBerG; Treasurer, Francis E. Jounston; Members-at-Large of the General Committee, Frank C. Kracek and ALBERT K. Lupy. Program: 8. CHANDRASEKHAR, Yerkes Ob- servatory: Galactic evidences for the time scale of the universe.—Galactic star clusters like the Pleiades and the statistics of double stars pro- 4 BS + Mar. 15, 1945 vide two independent sources of information for drawing inferences concerning the time - scale of the universe. Considering first star clusters, we can readily 4 show that they are continually being impover- ished by the gradual escape of stars. An esti- mate of this escape of stars will therefore pro- - yide a means for determining the average life of a star cluster. And it is found that the mean life of a cluster like the Pleiades is about 3X10° years. With respect to binary stars, it is clear that as aconsequence of the tidal effects of the neigh- boring stars, double stars should gradually tend to be disrupted. An estimate of this gradual - dissolution of binary stars shows that binaries ir Pith separations between 1,000 and 10,000 | astronomical units will be disrupted in times ranging from 7 X10" to 2 X10° years. However, the number of known binaries in the range spec- _ ified is far too large to be compatible with a | time scale long compared to 3 X10° years. ia Thus both the star clusters and the binaries | agree in indicating a time scale of 3 X109 years. ie (Author’s abstract.) a 1225TH MEETING The 1225th meeting was held in the Cosmos - Club Auditorium, December 18, 1943, Presi- dent STrMson presiding. r Program: ATHERTON H. Mears, Weather _ Bureau: Electrical instruments for meteorologi- | cal measurements. (Abstract not received.) _ An informal communication on paper fold- | ing, with a demonstration of the construction | of the regular octahedron, was presented by Mr. GorpBerc. : 1226TH MEETING The 1226th meeting was held in the Cosmos _ Club Auditorium, January 15, 1944, President _ SrrMson presiding. The Retiring President, R. J. SrEGER, gave | an address entitled On understanding electric _ breakdown in solids. It will be published in this | JOURNAL. , 1227TH MEETING S. The 1227th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 29, 1944, President me Frogram: E. a KENNARD, Cornell Univer- : pity, and Davin Taytor, Model Basin: Why «ie i PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 99 be scientific—A striking feature of the natural sciences, in contrast to the continual fluctuation of opinion in certain other fields, is the steady growth of a large body of well-established facts and laws. This feature is to be ascribed in part to the employment of a characteristic method. Neither the use of experiment, however, nor of measurements, nor of mathematics, nor of theories is essential; for, in spite of their enor- mous value, each of these-procedures is absent in much scientific work. The basic unifying principle in all sciences appears to be the search, by any means available, for objective knowledge, that is, for conclusions acceptable to all honest and sane men who will take the trouble to inform themselves. Two subsidiary universal procedures are the adequate definition of terms and a principle of restraint; problems that cannot as yet be at- tacked receive little emphasis or discussion. Extension of the scientific method to other fields is going forward. The ultimate basis of values, however, lies in the realm of feeling and so is not a question of truth. Furthermore, scientists should be distinguished from practi- tioners, who are compelled to do something about practical problems even in the absence of relevant scientific knowledge. (Author’s ab- stract.) An informal communication on a curious and interesting little point in the theory of electric circuits was presented by Mr. Oscoop. 1228TH MEETING The 1228th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 12, 1944, Presi- dent Strmson presiding. Program: Ricuarp §. BurineTon, Case School of Applied Science: Invariance in science. —This lecture was concerned with applications of the theory of invariance as it permeates various old and modern physical theories. As an introduction, an elementary but brief survey of various types of geometries (transla- tional, rotational, affine, projective), their groups of fundamental invariants, was given. Many illustrations from various fields of physics were included, both classical and mod- ern. Brief reference was made to the fundamental items of invariant theory in general, with men- tion: of the case when the underlying transfor- 100 mations do not necessarily form a group. A short summary was given of the role of invari- ants in certain mathematical fields that appear in physics; in particular, brief mention was made of differential invariants, the existence of fundamental systems of invariants, the invari- ant characterization of. boundary value prob- lems and their relation to characteristic values and quadratic forms and their principal invari- ants. The meaning and significance of invariants both in mathematics and in physical situations were stressed and carefully illustrated. In par- ticular, to indicate the nature and role of in- variants in a physical field, considerable use was made of the set of energy quadratic forms commonly considered in linear dynamics and electrical circuit theory, together with its prin- cipal invariants, under a group of m-affine transformations. Specific mention was made of the trend of the concept of invariance in Newton’s theory of the universe, Maxwell’s theory of electro- dynamics, and Einstein’s special theory of relativity. ' A short résumé of the part played by invari- ance in various other parts of physics, engineer- ing, economics, and the medical and social sciences was included. Some indication of the trend that theories of invariance may take in the future was dis- cussed in a broad way. (Author’s abstract.) An informal communication on the origin of the Japanese Nation was presented by Mr. SHNEIDEROV. 1229TH MEETING The 1229th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 26, 1944, Presi- dent STIMSON presiding. Program: RicHarp C. DarRNnELu, Office of the Chief of Ordnance, War Department: The problem of antiaircraft fire control.—Antiair- craft fire-control systems vary in complexity from the simplest for .50-caliber machine guns, the more elaborate for intermediate caliber weapons (37 and 40 mm material), to the most complex and precise for the major caliber guns, which comprise the 3 inch, 90 mm, 105 mm, and larger cannon. A major caliber system will include sound locators or other devices for early warning and location of hostile aircraft, and searchlights for JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES their illumination at night..These are placed some distance in advance of the gun battery. The present angular position in azimuth and elevation is determined by optical tracking of ye the target by the Director. A 133-foot base op- tical height finder is used to measure either the _ slant range or height of the target. From these _ data the target’s future position, after the in- terval required for the travel of the projectile, 4 is calculated and corrections then applied for horizontal and vertical parallactic displacement of the guns, gravity drop, wind, drift, air den- sity, and muzzle velocity. This solution is trans- mitted by a self-synchronous data transmission system to the guns, which are automatically oriented in aximuth and elevation by an elec- tronic-hydraulic remote control device in ac- cordance with the data received. A fuse setter cuts the mechanical timer fuse on the projectile so as to cause it to explode at the expiration of the. computed time of flight. (Author’s ab- stract.) 1230TH MEETING The 1230th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 11, 1944, President STIMSON presiding. s Program: IrveN Travis, Bureau of Ord- nance, Navy Department: Differential analyzers. (Abstract not received.) In the discussion Mr. SHNEIDEROV called attention to the existence of a paper, A mechanical integrator for the solu- tion of ordinary differential equations, referring to an instrument designed by A. J. Zavrotzky, available at the Smithsonian Institution. The Secretary read a letter from Mary G. WorTHLEY, of Western High School, on the the paper Mathematics as she are taught, fit the second presented by Mr. TuckERMAN on 4 November 20, 1943. It was discussed by Mr. — TUCKERMAN. 1231sT MEETING The 1231st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 25, 1944, President STIMSON presiding. ‘ Program: Herpert G. Dorsey, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey: Radio applied to ocean current observations.—This instrument, devel- oped by Lt. Comdr. E. B. Roszrts, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, consists of aradio transmitter in a floating buoy anchored at the place where observations are desired actuated a y VOL. 35, No.3. ~ Po A = ~ Mar. 15, 1945 by a meter suspended beneath. Vertical vanes - onthe meter cause it to face the current and an impeller rotates as a function of the current flow. A magnetic drive in the impeller com- municates motion to the interior without fric- _ tion. An alnico compass is pivoted over a hori- - zontal gear, rotating at $ the speed of the im- _ peller. The horizontal gear carries a planetary _ rotating at 3/2 the speed of the horizontal. _ Contacts are arranged to close an electrical cir- ~ euit on each revolution of the horizontal about the vertical axis of the compass and every other revolution of the planetary. A pair of wires passing through stuffing boxes in the _ meter and buoy operate a relay to send a radio dash from the battery operated crystal con- trolled radio transmitter. These dashes are re- ceived at a central station, preferably on a sur- -veying ship and actuate a tape chronograph. Dashes by pairs give the velocity of the water and the third dash, by its spacing between the others, gives the direction. Observations are _ made at several locations by tuning the receiver to different buoys using different radio fre- quencies. (Author’s abstract.) An informal communication on a misconcep- tion concerning crystallization in metals, and its appearance in the literature was presented by Mr. TuckEeRMAN. An informal communication on the differen- tiation of empirical functions was presented by Mr. Buake. 1232D MEETING The 1232d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 8, 1944, Vice-President WalrT presiding. Program: GrorcE F. A. Stutz, New Jersey Zine Co. (of Pennsylvania): Luminescent pig- ments (illustrated)—Luminescent materials are described as capable of absorbing invisible ultraviolet light and re-emitting visible light. They are divided into two classes: fluorescent _ materials glow only while the activating light shines on them; phosphorescent materials con- tinue to glow after the activating light is ex- tinguished. Fluorescent materials include a wide variety of organic dyes, dye intermediates, metallo-organic compounds, and zine and cad- _ mium sulphides. Phosphorescent materials in- clude zine sulphide, zine and cadmium sul- _ phide, calcium sulphide, and strontium sul- _ phide. Activation of these materials is accom- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 101 plished by a variety of sources of ultraviolet light, including daylight. Fluorescent materials are used in plastics, wool, silk, cotton or paper, lacquers, printing inks, and powders. Phosphorescent materials are somewhat more limited in application be- cause of coarse particle size. They may be fabricated in plastics, paints, and vitreous enamels. The phosphorescent materials are useful only where their low brightness is ade- quate. In general, this requires complete or nearly complete darkness and dark-adaptation of the observer. Radioactive materials are a third type of luminescent materials, the activation in this case being furnished by an admixed radium compound. Such materials require no activa- tion by external light sources. The application of luminescent materials in the present war effort has resulted in a number of newly developed pigments and in a greater variety of practical applications. A demon- stration of prewar applications, wartime appli- cations, and possibly postwar applications is given. (Author’s abstract.) 1233D MEETING The 1233d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 22, 1944, PREsIDENT STIMSON presiding. Program: Joun G. KtrKwoop, Cornell Uni- versity: The structure of liquids——The struc- ture of liquids on the molecular scale has been investigated on the experimental side by the X-ray scattering technique and on the theo- retical side by the methods of statistical me- chanics. Although liquids lack the long-range order characteristic of crystal lattices, they are found to possess residual local order maintained by each molecule in its immediate environ- ment. Local order in liquids is characterized by the radial distribution function, which spec- ifies the average local molecular density in the vicinity of any given molecule. The radial dis- tribution function is characterized by a series of rapidly damped maxima and minima cor- responding to a blurred crystalline arrangement of neighbors merging into randomness at dis- tances of several molecular diameters. The X-ray scattering technique for the in- vestigation of liquid structure was originated by Zerniekie and Prins and by Debye and Mencke. By means of a Fourier integral inver- 102 sion the radial distribution function may be calculated from the intensity of scattered X- rays measured as a function of scattering angle. The method has been employed to investigate the structure of many liquids and gases. The methods of statistical mechanics have been used to determine the relationship be- tween the radial distribution function of a liquid and the intermolecular forces acting be- tween its molecules. In this manner it has been possible to make a theoretical analysis of liquid structure and to establish its connection with thermodynamic and other bulk properties of a liquid. (Awuthor’s abstract.) An informal communication on focal plane properties of a telescope was presented by Mr. ARCHIE MAHAN. 1234TH MEETING The 1234th meeting was held in the Audi- torium of the U. S. National Museum, April 29, 1944, President STiMson presiding. The thirteenth Joseph Henry lecture, en- titled Faster than sound, was delivered by THEODORE VON KarMaN, of the California In- stitute of Technology. It will be published in this JOURNAL. 1235TH MEETING The 1235th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium May 20, 1944, President ‘STIMSON presiding. Program: Dran B. Cowltz, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car- negie Institution of Washington: The 60-inch cyclotron at the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism.—The operation of a large cyclotron is dependent upon a large number of electrical and mechanical components functioning in uni- son. This paper outlined the theory of operation of the instrument and indicated the large num- ber of safety factors included in its construction to assure continuous reliable operation. The principles of artificial radioactivity were briefly discussed to indicate ultimate use of the products of the cyclotron in medicine, physics, and industry. Perhaps the most important use could be ascribed to the “‘tracer technique of radioactivity’? where the various radioactive isotopes are used to follow chemical and bio- logical processes heretofore impossible by other means. Some discussion was made concerning the protection of personnel both from the large JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 3 amounts of radiation produced by the cyclotron and from the electrical hazards associated in its operation. A specially designed building hous- ing the instrument incorporates many auto- matic safety measures eliminating many sources of danger. (Author’s abstract.) Mr. Tuckerman presented an informal com- munication on lack of rigor in textbooks of calculus. ARCHIE BLAKE, Recording Secretary CHEMICAL SOCIETY 564TH MEETING 3 The 564th meeting was held at George — Washington University on October 12, 1944. 4 At the conclusion of a general meeting the fol- lowing divisional meetings were held: Biochemistry, Huau J. CREEcH, presiding Some properties of cystine oxidase. J. P. GREENSTEIN (National Cancer Institute). The determination of tryptophane in proteins and foods. (a) A rapid colorimetric method for the determination of tryptophane. M. J. HORNE and D. B. Jonrs (Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics, U. 8. Department of Agriculture). (b) T’wo microbiological methods for the determination of 1-tryptophane. G. G. Woo.ey and W. H. Sesreu (National Insti- tute of Health). Organic Chemistry, L. W. Butz, . presiding The phosphorylation of 4,4'-diaminodiphenyl- sulfone and conversion of the products into amidophosphoric acid derivatives. ERNEST L. Jackson (National Institute of Health). A study of the direction of enolization of 3-nitro- 4'-methoxydibenzoylmethane. R. Percy BARNES and JoNATHAN L. SnEap (Howard University). The cyclopentenolone components of pyrethrins. F. B. LaForce and W. F. Bartuet (Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture). Physical Chemistry, M. H. Van Horn, presiding ; The use of the mass spectrograph in studies of hydrocarbon miztures. A. Kn1tH BREWER (Na- tional Bureau of Standards). The mechanism of certain organic reactions in non-aqueous solvents. A. L. SkuaR and JoHN DurFiz (Catholic University of America). Vee od a a a 7 Mar. 15, 1945 The determination and elimination of liquid junction potentials. GeorGe F. Manov, N. x Da Louis, and 8. F. Acrer (National Bureau of Standards). Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, R. E. STEvENS, presiding New developments in the use of sealed tubes in chemical analysis. C. L. Gorpon, W. G. Scuiecut and Epywarp Wicuers (National Bureau of Standards and U. 38. Geological Survey). Tnternal structure and decomposition of crys- talline materials. W. G. Scuutecnut and K. J. Morava (U.S. Geological Survey). Spectrographic sensitivity of elements in sili- cate materiols. K. J. Murata (U.S. Geological Survey). Anclytical patterns in inorganic analysis: Applications to mineralogy, metallurgy, and histology. HerMAN Yacopa (National Insti- tute of Health). 565TH MEETING The 565th Meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 9, 1944. Dr. KENNETH C. D. Hickman, Distillation Products, Inec., spoke on An in vitro chemistry of nutrition (with spe- cial reference to vitamins A and E). The election -of officers for 1945 was held with the following results: President, H. 8. ISBELL; Secretary, L. A. Suinn; Treasurer, J. J. FAHEY, Coun- cilors, N. BEKKEDAHL, N. L. Drake, W. L. eee by. Hatter, W. J. Hamer, F. C. Kracex, B. H. Nicoter; N. K. RicuTMyYeEr, J. H. Roe, E. R. Suitru, B. D. Van Evera, J. K. Wotre; Managers, R. Giucurist, A. T. McPuerson, W. I. Patterson, J. L. Svir- BeLY, W. W. WatrTon, C: E. WHirTe. 566TH MEETING The 566th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December 14, 1944. Dr. Norman BEKKEDAHL, of the National Bureau of Stand- ards spoke, on Rubber research in_ tropical Brazil. Leo A. SHINN, Acting Secretary PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 103 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held January 16, 1945, elected the following officers: President, T- DALE STEWART; Vice-President, REGINA FLAN. NERY; Secretary, WILLIAM N. FENTON; Treas- urer, WALDO R. WEepEL; Members of the Board of Managers, W. M. Coss, Wm. H. GILBert, ALFRED Mrrraux, Maurice A. Mook, and JuLIAN H. STEWARD. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last annual meeting fol- lows: Life members, 1; active members, 63; Asso- ciate members, 24; total, 88. This represents an increase of 21 over last year. The members elected during the year were: Dr. Joun M. ArmstronG, Rev. HuGuH BIHLER, S.J.. HuNTINGTON CaIRNS, JOSEPH BLAKE EGe@En, Witt1AM Leo Hansperry, Mrs. ANNE FROMME HERTFORD, Dr. FREDERICK 8S. HULSE, Dr. Epwin M. Lors, Ernest Mass, Dr. PrEv- ERIL Meics, Joun A. Pops, Sister Lucta Van DER EERDEN, Dr. A. J. WARING, JR., active members; Mrs. Susan W. ArmsTRONG, Miss ELIZABETH Bacon, Lt: FREDERICA DE LAGUNA, U.S.N.R., Gorpon W. Hewes, Lt. W. W. Howe tts, U.S.N.R., Lt. Comdr. A. H. Lereu- TON, U.S.N.R., Dr. Dorornea C. LEIGHTON, Dr. Marcaret Meap, Dr. J. 8. Storxin, Dr. Laura THompson, Dr. Grorce L. TRAGER, Capt. Witit1am L. Van NEss, associate mem- bers. One member, Dr. WiLtu1AmM H. SPINKs, ac- tive member since 1942, was lost through death. The Society voted to record its deep sense of loss at the death of this member and to extend its sincere sympathy to his wife. The report of the Treasurer follows: Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (with interest to July 1, pS ite at ce, ae ie see Rae een a 2 21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- provement Co. (par value $10 per $1,789.35 BATS see, paced GR WE ela 210.00 2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co. (par value $100 per share). .... 200.00 U.S. Savings Bond, Series G........ 500.00 257.39 $2,956.74 Car Pawan ttle , s1 ag he hs eee Ss OL 104. Bills outstanding: To American Anthropological Asso- ciation (subscriptions to Ameri- can Anthropologist for 4 members ateS aceach)'s etal Ae ees ee 20 .00 fovhickersPrinting: Co .4 oe aes oe 21.48 $2,915.26 Total as of January 17, 1944.. 2,959.04 Deerense:..:its ha Ae ee $ 6643.78 The Society acted as host to the Society for American Archaeology on the occasion of its annual meeting on May 13, 1944, at the Cos- mos Club. All regular meetings were held at the U. 8. National Museum. The May meeting was the oceasion of a dinner in honor of Dr. ETHEL Joun LrnpGreNn at the National Zoological Park restaurant. Continuing a practice adopted in 1942 of keeping the mailing list current with the roster of anthropologists in Washington, the Secretary has sent out an average of 180 notices for regular meetings. The Washington Urban League members were invited to the November meeting; the social scientists in the Department of Agriculture were invited to the January meeting; 600 invitations went out for Mrs. Roosevelt’s lecture, including the membership of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Society has continued to enjoy the pres- ence in the Capital of a large number of an- thropologists. Some of them have joined our ranks and others have delivered papers. The programs of meetings during the first months of the year continued under the direction of a committee headed by the Secretary. This group, having served two years, requested that a new committee be appointed. The President appointed Dr. Juutian H. Stewarp. chairman and asked Dr. Gorpon R. WiLuBy and Dr. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | VOL. 35, No. 3 _ W. R. Wxper to serve with him. Turning from _ the anthropology of war areas, with occasional — discussions of theoretical anthropology, the new committee initiated a series of symposia first, on New World Prehistory, followed by a series of Discussions of oy and Con-_ j temporary Problems. meetings of the Society were as follows: _ January 18, 1944,717th meeting, Dr. Gorpon — T. Bowes, Probable developments in the fle of comparative racial anatomy. February 15, 1944, 718th meeting, ELE ANOR- ‘a Titles of papers presented before the regular es R. RoosEvett, Civilization .in the South Paw a cufic. March 21, 1944, 719th meeting, Ruta * Evans ee Some aspects of Minankdbau 4 socrety. On, April 18, 1944, 720th meeting, Dr. Homes G. Barnett, Emotional factors in cultural change. May 31, 1944, 721st meeting, Dr. JOHN LINDGREN, Some current trends in Briel anthropology. October 17, pon R. Wiuuey, Dr. Frank H.. H. Roperts,; JR., on Dating in New World Prehistory. November 21, 1944, 723d meeting, Discus- 3 ETHEL 1944, 722d meeting, Dr. Goma and Dr. Watpo R. WxpeEL, symposium ~ sions of Anthropology and Contemporary — Problems—I, Dr. thropology and Colonial administration. RayMOND KENNEDY, An- — December 19, 1944, 724th meeting, Discus- sions of Anthropology and Contemporary — Problems—II, Symposium on Race. contacts 3 and race conflicts; Dr. Morris E. OPp.mr, American White-Oriental relations; Dr. ARTHUR Raper, American White-Negro relations; and _ Dr. ALFRED Mérravx, Race relations in Latin — America. Wiuuram N. Fenton, Secretary CONTENTS coo eapaeL Gayo The Siahtiiae ee system of central and sewers: eee nae Ceylon. Wiii1am H. GitBert, JR. ieee eee eee eee eee F any 7 XM ae ; PALEOBOTANY.—The Eimne Rocce Hors of ‘southeastern, ‘No America. Epwarp W. Brrry.. ENromo.oey. —Five new flea beetles from the West. Indies, Doris I ™ BLAKE. ee 3 5 ; Vinx oat at all a aay te © eNT> ee 4 F, ¥ . ae <3 ae edie ee ee Mie 7 ‘ i ‘ Mas x i ied Ragan se a eee 4 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 2.04 0°. finns eee ea ee es fe me Procrepines: CHEMICAL SOCIETY... 0... c ee bee eee ee ~ v ~~ ~ / Procnepines: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY......2.5..3... ~ oad S A This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. No. 4 _ JOURNAL | OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS ; We - Haraup A. Reaper Wituam N. Fenton U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BURBAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLO@Y eee . ASSOCIATE EDITORS : | C. Kracex ALAN STONE pe PHICAL SOCIETY —t™S ENTOMOLOGIOAL SOCIETY _ . i Tra B. Hansen | - -Raupxa W. Imuay bs ps ; "BIOLOGICAL SocTETY > GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY x BRT tt LonGLEY Xe T. Daty Stewart SICAL SOCIETY Fa : ; ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY — ot James I, HorrMan ath Ba er 0 +45 . CHEMICAL SOCIETY — | ; ey See a \ pUBLISHED MONTHLY : e : es BY THE . = - WASHING GTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ay “oi aes 450 AnnarP Sr, a ar ManasHa, WIsconsIN : , a ” Nt et ee ee _ (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy 3(2) _ Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good ewvige Footnotes souls | addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. Rappierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Waee J qubnel of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington A caimeny of ‘Beiativesn ere proceedings and programs of meetings' of the Academy and affiliated societies: (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journat is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. 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Secretary: FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, National Bureau of Standards. <> ae Treasurer: Howarp S. RappueyeE, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. __ ha ea Archivist: NarHan R. Smitz, Bureau of Plant (ea ete 4 a, a a Custodian of Publications: oat M. Serzier, U. ational Museum. : | JOURNAL OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rv OLUME 35 FENTON.) (Continued from page 87.) OUTCASTES The Rodiyas, or Outcastes, had the fol- " Ic wing names, according to Upham (vol. 3; . 351): Rogadikayo, i.e., incurably ‘sick a en because they were originally lepers; ¥. idarmishtayo, le., unrighteous men _ be- cause they were addicted to bestiality; and Wasalo, or Wasalayo, i.e., subject to all be- “cause they were below all other castes in status. The term Roda is stated to be a ‘es ruption of Rogadikayo. They were also called Antere Jaty. The euphemistic terms 7 iived for Rodia were Hulawaliya (title of a headman of this caste) and Madu- karaya, or rope man because they made x propes. (Valentyn, in Philalethes, p. 351.) The Rodiyas have engaged the attention _of writers on Ceylon out of all proportion to their numbers and comparative importance. T hey were always a small group and found in but few areas. Their primary duty in the Kandian Kingdom was to supply prepared aie: for drums and ropes of hide, halters, ‘ ies, and cords for cattle, as well a8 to bury carcasses of dead aniials found on t he estate to which they belonged. (A. A. Perera, p. 337; Knox, im Philalethes, pp. ape Parker, 1917, pp. 29-30.) They ere occasionally called Gasmundo as a ‘euphemism based on the fact that they sed a rope by this name for catching and astening elephants to trees. They were of a Dindering gypsylike character and given to begging, but they are not to be confused with the true gypsies in Ceylon, the Ahli- Be oskavo. The Rodiyas were not exempted a rom taxation, and their services to the king i APRIL 15, 1945 No. 4 BTHNOLOGY.—The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon. Wiuuram H. Gipert, Jr., Library of Congress. (Communicated by W. N. were supplied supposedly because of the land allotted for their village or camp sites and the alms they were given. (Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 241-2438. For the true Ceylon gypsies see Spittel, pp. 229-244, and Bell, pp. 108-114.) Only the village charcoal burner or the King’s gaoler communicated with Rodias and then generally at a distance. Rodiya dwellings were the merest sheds open com- pletely on one side. Their hamlets, or cupayas, were miserable collections of these hovels temporarily erected until the band moved on elsewhere. In carrying a pingo load they were required to load it at one end only. If a Rodia met a Goigama he was required to salute with uplifted hands and move out of the way or, if the way was too narrow, to retreat to a distance until the higher caste man passed by. Rodias were barred from temples and were in general absolutely untouchable. They were not allowed the use of white linen and were re- quired to tie the hair in a knot on the top of the head. (Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 241-2438. Tennent, vol. 2, pp. 187-191, compares the Rodias with the Cagots of the French Pyrenees, the latter group being also of re- puted leper origin and engaged in occupa- tions similar to the Rodias with correspond- ing outcaste position.) Rodia women were often given the euphe- mistic designation of Nettukkaraya, or dancers, and were skilled in that art and in fortune-telling. They were prohibited from wearing clothing above the waist but were attractive and often found favor in the eyes of men of the higher castes. It has been as- serted that not only the women but also the 105 APR 23 "45 106 men were in general robust and physically well developed. (Davy, pp. 129-131, See list of illustrations of castes in Sppendis V herein.) Traditionally the Rodiyas were degraded by a king because they ate human flesh and beef. They. were not reputed to be trust- worthy and much of the thefts or other damage to property was attributed to them. When displeased with the alms given it was claimed that they were especially prone to vandalism. The census of 1901 gave their number as 1,464, of 1911 as 1,573, and of 1921 as 1,619. The patron goddess of Rodiyas was Navaratna Valli, who was born from the Telembu Tree (A. A. Perera, 1917, p. 19). PALANQUIN-BEARERS The Palanquin-bearers were called by the following terms, according to Upham (vol. 3, p. 349): Baddo, or Paddo, a deriva- tive of Padiwo and meaning rice-makers; Batgammu, Batgamayo, or Batgama Eitto, 1.e., rice-village, people because they culti- vated the rice in villages for the Kandian king. The Palanquin-bearers lived in Batgama villages. According to Davy the Paduwo, or © Palanquin-bearers, were divided into three sections: (1) the Paduwo proper, who were fairly numerous and paid a pecuniary tax, built walls for houses, thatched roofs, car- ried loads, fetched wood and ornaments for archways, and carried objects in proces- sions; (2) the Y amanoo, or ironworkers, who sialvans iron for the Kanan king; ae (3) the Gahalagambadayo, or Gahalayo a very degraded section who were not allowed to eat or intermarry with the other divisions and who served as executioners, street Sweepers, and removers of carcasses. Of the latter group one subsection ate beef and were held to be lower than the rest. The washermen for Gahalayo were called Hina- wo. (Davy, pp. 127-128; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) » In general the Palanquin-bearers were a lowly caste. They were not permitted to wear a Cloth that reached below the knees, and the women were not allowed to wear one over their shoulders or to conceal the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _ upper parts of their bodies. When carrying © palanquins the Paduwo were allowed to VOL. 35, NO. 4) q carry only males, the J ageery-makers _ | (Wahumpura) enone the palanquins of , females. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) Accord- ing to one account the Paduwo could carry — only the hinder part of the palanquin of a — dissawa, or high official. ‘They served also — as atenraen and performed a variety of — menial duties. a Although some Paduwo paid a poll be and served as lascoreens (soldiers), they — were not allowed to acquire any permanent ~ rights in land and were always at the dis- — posal of the king (cbzd.). According to — Arthur Perera (1903, p. 337) the Paduwo tenants were required to furnish onions and garlic (lunubadda duties). 7 Upham (vol. 3, p. 348) gives the following. ; synonyms for the Gahalayo, or Scavengers: Pookoosayo, 1.e., removers of city dirt; — Pupphachaddakayo, 1.e., casters away of — flowers because they removed the faded — flowers from temples; Kasalayo, or throw- — ers away of dirt; and Gahalagambadayoo, — i.e., elephant or other carcass removers. ~ They inhabited the Gahala-gama villageas 4 (Pridham, vol. 2, p. 491). The census of ~ 1891 listed 99 Sinhalese scavengers and that f of 1901 some 120. 3 The position of the Paduwo in célatiegn to. J ironworking is not clear. According to A. A. Perera (1903, p. 337) the Paduwo tenants © ; brought charcoal for the smith and work 4 at the bellows as yamanu. Pridham (vol. 1, | p. 240) says that the Yamanoo were iron- — smelting Paduwo and were required to fur- ~ nish the king’s store and the district head- ~ man with a certain quantity of iron for their land tenures. This does not clarify their ex- — act relation to the ironworking smiths. The term Duraya appears to have been © employed in recent years for the laboring ~ castes that performed Palanquin-bearing — duties. Perera lists five classes of Durayas: (1) Kande duraya, or molasses-makers ~ (Wahumpura); (2) Batgam duraya, or — palanquin-bearers; (3) hunu duraya, or lime-burners; (4) Valli duraya, or cloth- — weavers; and (5) panna duraya, or bringers — of fodder for elephants and cattle. (A. A. — Perera, 1917, App. p. xxiv, Yamanna.) ae ie ss BApn. 15, 1945 ~ The Duraya caste were required to pro- vide the manorial lord with uncooked pro- visions, such as vegetables and raw rice, as _ part of their services (cbid.). Parker (1917, _ p. 29) asserts that Dwraya women could not _ wear above the waist more than a strip of calico about a hand’s breadth across the breasts and that later a colored handker- _ chief took the place of this article. _ Pridham (vol. 2, p. 491) tells us that Paduwo were numerous in the Moderagam Walley of Northern Province, where they drew sound from earthen pots with the breath and kept admirable time in the dance. POTTERS _ The terms for Potters, according to Up- ham (vol. 3, p. 345), were: Cumbakarayo and Cidailayo after Coombeya and Culala, _ eponymous ancestors who were the reputed first Potters; Pandittayo, or wise men, be- cause they made their wares according to their own fancy without any previous pat- _ tern; Bada Sellaya, i.e., possessors of near halls because they burned their wares in a halls or places close to their dwellings; and _ Cumballu, another name derived from _ Cumbakarayo. According to another ver- sion (Denham, p. 189) the name Pandit- tayo derives from the name for scholars be- S cause a tradition tells of a scholar who once _ disguised himself as a potter in order to es- : i cape a king’s wrath. Other terms in com- mon use were Baddaballaya, Badahela, ~ Cubello, and Kumballa. : _ The Potters were fairly numerous and paid a small tax in money for their lands in “7 addition to furnishing the kitchens of the king and nobles with earthenware. Because _ all earthenware vessels used at a feast were | destroyed immediately thereafter through | fear of pollution or disgrace by lower caste | contamination, the demand for new pottery cS was fairly high. Thus the fear of caste con- _ tamination or disgrace aided the Potter’s _ trade. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 238.) In addition to pottery this caste also _ made tiles and helped repair roofs of this | material, made bricks for walls, and manu- 3 " factured clay lamps and other pottery ob- | jects for temples and for festivals or rites. A Pa ae GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 107 Some Potters were attached to temple properties and were required to service these institutions. Potters had Dureas or overseers and were required to pay a poll tax or deccum. Coomaraswamy, pp. 25, 218 ff., gives examples of Potters’ work songs. Potters did not have the privilege of wearing white linen, nor could they wear any doublets or any cloth much below the knees. They might not sit on stools, and Goigama would only give them drink by pouring the water. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. ii, Badahela-Panguwa; Valentyn, in Philalethes, p. 327 ff.). The flag of the Potters bore a wheel as the symbol of the caste (E. W. Perera, p. 5). According to Parker (1917, p. 28) some of the Potters undertook service as priests for the ceremonies of propitiating planets or other evil bodies and served as astrologers. The census lists 5,255 Sinhalese potters in 1881, 11,248 in 1891, and 9,678 in 1901. SLAVES AND MINOR CASTES Slaves were in general deemed to belong to the Wallu, one of the low castes, but these again were subdivided into at least three groups, namely, Covias, Nalluas, and Pallas. The Covias were domestic servants. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 241.) In the management of slaves the restric- tions of caste could not be neglected by the owners, and no one might hold as a slave a member of a caste higher than his own. (Coomaraswamy, p. 22.) ” The origin of the slave groups was largely through war with the Tamils. One of the groups is actually called Demala- gattaru or Tamil captives. This body was found chiefly in a few villages of the west- ern and southern provinces. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 241.) In addition to the slave castes there were several groups of obscure origin, such as the Palleru or Pallaroo, bandits and freebooters living in woods and caverns; the Raadayo, or Comb-makers; the Hirawas, or Sieve- makers; and the Indrajaliko, or Conjurers. Pridham (zbid.) names certain obscure castes concerning which little is known, such as the Yaka Daru, or Devil-worship- pers; Kontayo, or those who carried the 108 frame upon which the king’s palanquin was placed when he traveled; the Pidaynidanno, - or Offering-makers to devils; the Gauray- kawallu, or Village-watchmen; and the - Kappuwo, or Temple watchmen. SMITHS AND ARTIFICERS The workers in metals are called by the following terms, according to Upham (vol. 3, pp. 340-342): Cammakarayo, or workers | in copper, brass, and silver (i.e., workers in metal); Swwannakarayo, workers in gold; Ayokarayo, workers in iron; Achariyo (Guruwarayo), masters; Nawankaranno, makers of new things; Nawandanno, knowers of the art of making new things out of old; Lokuruwo, founders or makers of vessels with melted lead; and Cammaro (Camburo), a term of reproach because they took employment from high and low (Kam- -buranawa meaning subject or slave). Up- ham goes on to differentiate the carpenters who, he thinks, are possibly a distinct group as Waduwo, enhancers of value, and Tachakayo, i.e., smoothers or planers. According “6 Coomaraswamy’s account (p. 54) the artificers were split into a higher division called Gallado and a lower division called Vaduvo, between which there could be no interdining or intermarriage. The Gallado included architects, painters, gold- smiths and silversmiths; brass-repoussers, _ivory-carvers and wood carvers, while the Vaduvo included carpenters, wood and ivory turners, blacksmiths, damasceners, stone- carvers, and lac-workers. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 237, also gives subdivisions. ) Achart was a general term meaning masters. or teachers of the arts, and this was frequently applied to the Smiths. Oc- casionally the term Gurunnehela, or teacher, was used for them because of their claimed descent from Brahmans who are teachers, according to Coomaraswamy. ’ One - interesting group discussed by Coomaraswamy (p. 215) were the Iwaduwo, or lac-workers, formerly arrowmakers. The two lac-producing insects in Ceylon are both different from those occurring in India. The Ceylonese species are Tachardia albizzgae (Green), occurring on the. acacia, and Tachardia conchiferata (Green), occur- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ‘years. VOL. 35, NO. 4 | ring on euphorbiaceous plants. Some Indian lac has been imported into Ceylon for a a long period. The native work in this sub- ~ stance was carried on at South Matura and — in the lowlands near Tangalla in recent The blacksmiths, or Achart, supplied — nails for roofing houses, for hinges, locks, — keys, kitchen utensils, agricultural imple- ments, tools for felling and working timber, areca nut cutters, chunam or lime boxes, — and for ear and tooth picks. The last four a items were penum, deccum, or presents for chiefs. The braziers, or Lokuruwo, mended — all brass and copper vessels of the temples — and took part in the services of the oe "7? Smiths. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. s Badal-Panguwa. ) Silversmiths and goldsmiths worked for. the proprietors in their special craft when required and in temples. They mended and polished sacred vessels, did engraving and ~ carving, decorated the car of the deviyo or god, remained on guard during the Pera- hera ceremony, attended at the Kaphita- — wima, and supplied the silver rim of the ~ Ehala-gaha. Their penum or dues consisted of silver rings, betel boxes, and ornamental — arrowheads. (Perera, bid.) _ a The Stttaru was a tenant of the Smith — caste who mended and-kept in repair the — images and paintings in the temples. He also supplied ornamental sticks as handles _ for lances, flags, walking sticks and betel trays. (Perera, zbid., 1917, Sittara.) The Navandanna artificers carried a flag . with a device of an ape on it, which was — called anumanta after Hanuman the Mon- — key god. At festivities they had hangings of white calico. In general practice the Smiths = were permitted to sit on stools, which none . of the inferior castes might do. In consid- a eration of the value of the services of the — Smith he was often allocated a large ex- — panse of fertile land. Men of the caste were entitled to wear the cloth below the knees ~ and the women the ohoriya cloth thrown — over one shoulder but separate from the regular cloth. (Perera, zbid.; see E. W. Perera, pp. 21-22.) : : Certain names were peculiar to the Smith ~ caste, and some of their lore bore witness to B.S Apr. 15, 1945 Tamil families of the sixteenth and seven- _ teenth centuries. The men were frequently 4 ppelied Jiwan and Vijendra, while the women _ Were styled Nachchire or Nachchilli, and by B inferiors Etana. The goldsmiths, alone of _ the Kandians other than the Vellalas, held _ slaves. (Codrington, p. 222.) _ The Kottal-Badda, or Artificer Depart- _ ment, was organized for Smiths in each dis- trict of the Kandian Kingdom. The royal _ goldsmiths and silversmiths formed a close _ corporation known as the Pattal-hatare, or _ the Four Workshops, all others being village - Smiths. (Ibid.) _ The costumes of the headmen of the Smith and Washermen castes were much - alike. The Mahavidahns and Mahavidahn _ Mohandirams wore a cloth or linen coat, - with silver buttons and loops, sword with “hilt and scabbard of silver, and a plate of _ tortoise shell on the scabbard, a belt or ribbon embroidered with flowers and gold | Band silver thread. The Arrachies wore a ~ linen coat with silver buttons and silk loops; sword hilt of horn, embellished with _ silver, the scabbard of horn or wood and | with silver bands; and the belt of plain _ colored ribbon. The Canganies wore a linen | coat with horn or covered linen buttons, | a sword hilt of horn, the scabbard of horn or wood; three copper bands; and a plain ribbon belt. (Bennett, pp. 99-100. ) | The Yamanna iron-smelters were re- | quired to give a certain number of lumps | yearly as part of their services and also to | burn charcoal for the forge, to carry bag- | gage, and assist in field work and at Yak | and Bali ceremonies. They put up the Tali- | mana or pair of bellows for the Smith, but ~ they were of Paduwo origin and not mem- Py | bers of the Smith caste. (A. A. Perera, od App. ., Dp. xxiv, Yamanna.) Bias than 4 percent of the Kandian popu- Ration now appear to belong to the Smith ecaste if present occupations are any guide. | The number of persons belonging to this - easte, however, undoubtedly is greatly in . excess of the number of those still practicing is ‘the ancient craft. It is conjectured that per- haps 10 percent of the population of Kandy during the eighteenth century were Smiths ond their dependents and that perhaps one- ; GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 109 half of these were Navandanno. (Coomar- aswamy, p. 54.) The following occupations were pursued by 20 members of the Navandanno group in the ‘‘Hue and Cry” records: goldsmith 8, cultivator 5, cooly 3, carpenter 2, silver- smith 1, and blacksmith 1. The census fig- ures for Sinhalese carpenters are: 1881, 12,648; 1891, 39,179; 1901, 56,143. The cor- responding figures for masons were: 1881, 1,765; 1891, 6,850; 1901, 13,088. The fig- ures given for blacksmiths were in 1881, 3,185 and in 1891, 10,298. Finally, the fig- ures for goldsmiths and silversmiths were in 1881, 3,764; 1891, 11,469; and 1901, 14,361. It is notable that the goldsmiths had particular quarters in the large cities: and certain streets were reserved to them. The subdivisions of the Smith caste are as follows: (1) Architects, Galladdo (Coo- maraswamy); (2) Arrowmakers and Lac- workers, Ee waduwo (Bennett) or Vaduvo (Coomaraswamy) and Iwaduwo (Valen- tyn); (3) Artificers, Nawandanno (Armour), Nawaymiyo or 9 services (Bennett), Nayide (Parker) and Nazdes (Perera); (4) Black- smiths, Kamburo or Acharz (Armour, Per- era, Pridham), Achiary (Valentyn); (5) Brass-founders, Repoussers, or Braziers, Lokooroowo (Armour), Braziers or Loko- ruwo (Perera), Brass-founders (Pridham), Brass-repoussers (Coomaraswamy), La- curuwo or Smelters (Valentyn); (6) Car- penters, Waduwo (Armour, Valentyn); (7) Damasceners, part.of Vaduvo (Coomaras- wamy); (8) Goldsmiths, Tarahallo (Ar- mour), Ranhallo (Bennett, Pridham), part of Gallado (Coomaraswamy), Ridiceto An- carao or Gold and silver inlayers (Valen- tyn); (9) Lapidaries, Galwaduwo (Bennett, Pridham); (10) Masons, Galwadoowo (Ar- mour); (11) Painters, Hzttaroo (Armour), Sittaru (Bennett, Perera, Pridham), Szit- tereo (Valentyn), part of Galado (Coomar- aswamy); (12) Sculptors, Galwaduwo (Pridham, Valentyn), Stone-carvers or Va- duvo (Coomaraswamy); (13) Silversmiths, Badaalo (Armour), Badallu (Perera), Bad- dallo (Valentyn); (14) Solderers of metal, Yamanu (Bennett); (15) Turners, ivory and wood cabinetmakers, Liyana waduwo (Ben- nett, Pridham), Adatketeancarao (Valentyn) ; \ 110 miscellaneous, Hommaru or Carcass-remov- ers and Skin-dressers (Bennett, Pridham), Ratneenderecarao or Jewellers (Valentyn). TAILORS The Tailors, like the Barbers, were a luxury caste for the Sinhalese. There were several terms for this group, as noted by Upham (vol. 3, p. 342), namely: Tunna- wayo, or weavers (sewers) of pieces; Sochi- kayo, or workers with the needle; Sannaw- liyo, makers of cloth armor; Mahanno (Mananno), or sewers; and Hannalio (Han- — nawilt). Washermen washed for them but would not eat with them, and they did not enjoy the privilege of white linen unless by special permission of the Kandian king. The caste was a small one and was employed princi- pally by the royal palace for embroidery work and by the large Hindu Dewalas or temples and Buddhist Wiharas where as tenants they sewed and stitched the sacred vestments, curtains, and flags. They as- sisted in decorating these establishments and were responsible for the manufacture of the gorgeous costumes worn by the king and court in return for which land was al- lowed them. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 238; A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. viii, Hannaliya; Coomaraswamy, p. 237 ff.) According to the census there were 3,465 Sinhalese tailors in 1881, 1,716 in 1891, and in 1901 approximately 6,803. TODDY-DRAWERS The Toddy-drawers, or Chandos, have the following synonyms, according to Up- ham: Sondikayo, or producers of lust (from Sondamakaya, who first discovered toddy) ; Maggawikayo, or vendors of intoxication; Surawbeejayo, i.e., toddy-makers or pro- ducers of good taste (referring to their sale of toddy to bakers); Madinno, i.e., pruners of trees; Surawo, gives of pleasant taste; and Durawo, producers or givers of the evil-producing taste. (Upham, vol. 3, pp. 344-345. ) This caste was employed in collecting the sweet juice or toddy from the decapitated flower stalk of the coconut: palm, kitul palm, and other trees for the purpose of fermentation. Since use of intoxicants is JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~ contrary to Buddhist precept, the Toddy- drawers’ calling is confined to a very few families of the interior. (Pridham, voll 1am Di zat.) There were a number of subdivisions of — the Toddy-drawer caste, according to Ben- nett, Pridham, and Valentyn (see data be- low). The highest grades of this caste, ac- — cording to Valentyn (in Philalethes, p. 327 _ ff.) were the elephant-tamers, who had the right of using white linen or ealico and pos- — sessed a flag with a red lion on the middle of a white background, along with other dis- 4 VOL. 35, NO. 4 7 tinctions from which inferior sections were _ barred. Dress of the headmen is described _ by Bennett (p. 99). (See also E. W. Perera, pad) : The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data show the fol- : lowing occupations as pursued by 47 Toddy-drawer people: coolies 23, cultiva- 3 tors 13, toddy-drawers 6, and servants 5. The census of Sinhalese Toddy-drawers _ listed 2,604 in 1881, 9,857 in 1891, and 11,- — 836 in 1901. The principal subdivisions of the Toddy- — drawers are: (1) Blacksmith helpers, Acker- — (2) Carriage-makers, — Rata Karayo (Pridham); (3) Cowherds, — (4) Dancers, Kuttadi (Bennett, Pridham), Cu- — tany Wolle-etto or Arambeo (Valentyn); (5) — (6) ammo (Valentyn); Pati Karayo (Bennett, Pridham); Drummers, Agunmady (Valentyn); Elephant-feeders, Pannayo (Bennett); (7) Knife-carriers, Niello (Valentyn); (8) La- — borers, Duravo or Chando (Bennett, Prid- — ham, Valentyn); (9) Rice-sacrificers, Bali- — battu (Bennett, Pridham); (10) Riders of — elephants, Magul Duravo (Pridham, Valen- — (Bennett, — Pridham), Usanno (Valentyn); (12) Tim- ~ ber-fellers, Porawa Karayo (Bennett, Prid- — ham); (13) Toddy-drawers, Harz duravo or — Nattambu (Bennett), Hari Duravo or Nal- — lambu (Pridham), Nattambovo (Valentyn); — tyn); (11) Servants, Aynadz (14) Washermen, Hiwattayo (Bennett, Pridham); miscellaneous, Solil Karayo or particular services (Pridham), Weedy and a Cottu (Valentyn). TREE-CUTTERS The Heert, or pioneers, were a small caste. 4 They had a vidane, or chief, and their of-— fice was to fell all kinds of trees, to carry — , Sh > “Apr. 15, 1945 “ammunition in war, and to act as pioneers in clearing the way for troops. They did not enjoy the privilege of wearing white linen, and a particular caste called the Gangavos washed for them. (Valentyn, in Philalethes, 331.) The census enumerated 309 Tim- _ber-fellers in 1881 and 258 in 1891. | ¥ WASHERS _ The following are the names given by Biicham (vol. 3, pp. 342-343) for the Wash- erman caste ; Winney Jakaya, restorers; Ra- jakayo or Radau. removers of dirt; Paihara Haliyo, cloth cleaners; Paidiyo or takers of “payment; and Hainayo or Snathayo, be- loved persons (referring to their washing the foul linen of little children and thereby _ ot aining their affection). The accounts concerning the Washer “caste are rather confusing inasmuch as the _ identity of the different washermen groups and their status relation to each other is “not indicated. Apparently the Radaw _(Henaya or Henawlaya) were the washers for the Gorgama and other castes of high _ status such as sections of the Fishers, Tod- | _ dy-drawers, etc. Below the Radaw were at least three other washer castes, namely: (1) _ Hinniwo or Hinawa, who washed for Cin- Dy amon-peelers Meiaziy and also for Peiniths, Toddy-drawers, Potters, Tailors, eee and Scavengers; (2) Gangavo, pri- oy washers for Tree-cutters and Dancers; and (3) Pali, Paliyo, or Apul- _ lanna, Washers primarily for low castes such as Rime-burners, Palanquin-bearers, Bar- bers, Drummers, and J agvery-makers. In Saddition, there appears to have been still _ another group of washers, the Tarumpar, who worked for outeastes. Thus it seems ~ evident that the caste status of their clients | was reflected in the status of the different _ Washer groups. . The Washers were a fairly large caste and s oc for their land in one-twentieth of its produce in rice. They were said to possess etent powers as arbiters in cases of violation _ of social-etiquette or custom, and their re- | fusal to wash the clothes of objectionable ‘persons constituted a form of social ostra- _cism. Washers were occasionally officials at Yak or demon ceremonies, and Parker has : recorded some of their songs sung while at GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 111 work. Paddy was often used to pay them for their services. The term Henaya was used in polite address and means a cleaner. (Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 238-239; Knox, in Philalethes, pp. 136-137; A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. xix, Rada-Baddara-Raja- karzya.) The dress of the females of this caste consisted of two short cloths, one wrapped around the loins and the other thrown over the shoulder. None of the Washers was al- lowed to wear white linen. (Knox, ibid.) The Radaw could eat with Fishers and Toddy-drawers but could not eat with Tailors, Potters, and Barbers, nor could they go to their festivals even though they might wash for them. They washed also for themselves. They were said to use lye in their wash- ing. They set a pot containing seven to eight gallons of water over the fire and then laid the dirty clothes on top. The steam of the water went through the clothes and scalded them. Afterwards they were taken to the river and flapped against the rocks until clean. (Knox, ibid.) A square repre- senting the stone on which the linen was bleached served as a symbol on their flag. (E. W. Perera, p. 37.) The duties of the Washers consisted in furnishing of white cloth to spread on the ground at ceremonies; to line rooms and cover chairs whenever the Kandian king or his chiefs were expected; to wash at peri- odic intervals clothes, curtains, flags, and temple vestments; to decorate temples and homes at weddings and ceremonies; to sup- ply carpets and bathing costumes; and to attend the manorial lords on journeys car- rying torches of wick and tow. (Coomaras- wamy, p. 26; A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. xix, Rada-Baddara-Rajakariya.) The fami- lies who washed for the court had their land free for that service. They were not required to wash for any of the superior castes without payment or to degrade them- selves by washing for those beneath them- selves. At the New Year ceremonies the Washer received in addition to sweetmeats and rice a coin from every member of the family. The coin was tied up in a cloth de- livered for washing. At funerals and pu- berty ceremonies the Washer is entitled to 112 certain of the clothing used, the clothes not being burnt on the funeral pyre. For details of the dress of the caste headmen see Ben- nett, pp. 99-100. The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data indicate that out of 36 persons of Washer caste 14 were following that occupation, 6 were cultiva- tors, and 16 were unrecorded or miscel- laneous. According to the census there were 12,601 Sinhalese washermen in 1881, 27,- 466 in 1891, and 29,749 in 1901. CONCLUSION The picture herein presented of Sinhalese castes may seem to be somewhat confusing in detail, yet there are certain integrating factors in the system that call for notice. First, there was the formerly existing system of rajkariya or fixed economic serv- ices, which were required of each caste in return for its land tenure. These services, each of which was peculiar to the single caste, were rendered to the king, the land- lord, or the proprietary temple. The local village or caste headman and the village council were responsible for the perform- ance and maintenance of these duties as royal or local officials. The departmentaliza- tion of the government of the native Kan- dians assigned to each caste specific duties within a section of the political hierarchy. When new services were required new castes were often imported from India to perform them. The disposition of duties and assign- ment of caste functions constituted a royal prerogative but were limited by customs and traditions of the castes themselves. Thus there existed a complete system of economic exchange. between villages, each of which specialized in its particular caste occupations. Second, a pattern of exploitation of the natural environment becomes apparent in the various caste divisions. The majority caste was the Agriculturist, or Vellala, who specialized in the exploitation of the rice- fields of the Island. Other castes such as the Potters and Iron-miners specialized in the extraction and use of inanimate mineral substances, while still others such as the Fishers and Lac-collectors exploited the ani- mal resources. As a result of this specializa- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tion there occurred a geographical segrega- a tion of caste villages and of urban caste quarters by means of which specialization ~ could be maintained in exclusiveness and — without interference from the outside. The — manner and the matter of exploitation ele- — vated or debased the social station of the — various castes, the Farmer being of high ~ status, the Scavenger of low. : Third, as Hocart (1935, 1936) has shown — so ably in his writings on the subject, a group of ritualistic functions assigned to — each caste made the services of that caste — indispensable to the community generally — and to each of the other related castes indi- — vidually. Thus the Washer was necessary ~ in the purification of clothing from the pol- — lution of menstrual blood and for the per- ~ formance of rites of marriage; the Barber — was necessary for funeral services; the Tom- — tom-beaters were needed for Devil exor- cism; and the Jaggery-maker cook for tem- — ple feasts. The various washer castes re- — flected the standing of their respective ~ clients and furnished a parallel hierarchy of ceremonial ministrants who buttressed — and reinforced the hierarchy of castes ~ proper. A similar situation exists in India — where the various Brahman groups are cor- related with the social status of their clients — and parallel the caste ladder of ranks. The ~ annual processions and seasonal ceremonies — in which the Tomtom-beaters and Dancers ~ participated likewise reinforced and re- ~ iterated the social priorities of specific caste groups. The repetition of the great cere- — monies at specific times of the year helped — to perpetuate the social order and peculiar _ functions of some of the castes and also af- fected the other groups. The marriage rites, — perhaps more important in some respects — than any of the others, required the partici- ~ pation of special-service castes even though — the rite itself was generally within the single ~ caste group. ‘Fourth, for each of the castes there was — always a certain degree of occupational — latitude or elasticity of function. The tasks — involved in cultivation were performed by — almost all the non-Cultivator castes as well — as being a major function of the latter. ~ Each of the non-cultivator groups, how- — aes Ae voL. 35, NO. 4 i & i vi Apr. 15, 1945 ever, was regarded as lower in status and more restricted in occupational choices than the Cultivators. At the bottom of the social scale there was also a latitude of oc- cupational choice, since the Rodiyas and Kinneras were forced to supply their own _ barbers, doctors, soothsayers, and officials _ for demon ceremonies. Each caste, in fact, _ tended to develop a hierarchy of occupa- tions within its own ranks, and we hear of higher and lower degrees of Cultivators, Fishers, Smiths, Toddy-drawers, Weavers, ~ and Cinnamon-peelers. Fifth, in explaining the threads underly- % ‘ing Sinhalese caste it is necessary to call e attention to certain psychological tenden- | cies apparently shared with the people of § _ India proper. These tendencies include (a) - a feeling for classification and arrangement | in neat logical sequences of all the facts and | objects of existence, including human social | groupings; (b) a craving for order and estab- lished precedence expressing itself in a | priority system for allocating goods and services to those castes whose functional | value is held higher than others; and (c) a | fear of pollution or contamination shared by - Hindu and Buddhist alike, which is evi- ere _denced in the avoidance of low-caste im- _ purity by frequent use of new pottery or by | use of clothes cleaned by the Washer. The _ Potter, Washer, and Scavenger, since they ( _ removed the impurities of life, seemed to ac- a quire thereby a certain impurity them- selves. The caste having to do with life | processes and growing, the Cultivators, ranked highest, while the Scavengers and | Executioners, concerned with death, were at the bottom of the social scale. oa Hocart maintains that each of the Sin- _halese castes, as well as those of India | proper and other parts of the world, consti- _ tuted a priesthood with a peculiar ritualis- | tic function of its own. His comparisons of _ other systems with the Sinhalese, extending | from ancient times to the present, from _ Europe to Polynesia, have brought the caste ; system of Ceylon into focus with reference | to the rest of the world. One does not have iY to accept unreservedly his generalizations, | but it is worth while to read him for his fer- | tility of ideas and helpful logic in untangling GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 113 the mass of apparently chaotic and con- fusing practices associated with caste. The foregoing summary represents the gist of the material at present available in libraries and bibliographies on the subject of Sinhalese castes. It is evident that there is a considerable need for field work and further investigation of this subject. The deficiencies can be summed up in the follow- ing order. (1) There is practically a complete lack of censuses of Sinhalese castes, and although such censuses may have been taken at some time in the nineteenth century no record seems to have been made of it. The occupa- tional census is of very little value in this regard. (2) There are very few illustrations of Sinhalese caste types in the literature, and these suffer from lack of identifying cap- tions as to whether they are Sinhalese or Tamil and do not show physical types. Pic- tures of Jaggery-makers, Palanquin- bearers, and Lime-burners in particular seem difficult to find. In Appendix V of this paper a list of illustrated material on the castes is given. Anthropometric data on the different castes are needed in addition to good photographic records. (3) There seems to be dearth of mate- rial on the internal structure of the Sin- halese castes. Though we are told in a gen- eral way that each village had a council and a caste headman, little is really gath- ered regarding the actual operation of the system. Can we say that there are caste panchayats or other institutions similar to those of India proper? (4) There are no records of community surveys including caste data along with other relevant social facts concerning resi- dence, segregation, present occupational ac- tivities, incomes, endogamy, and tenden- cies toward disregard of caste rules. Even a single instance of such a survey would go far toward throwing light on the present social conditions of the Sinhalese castes. (5) There are no facts relevant to the ef- fects of the European system on the native economy, especially as regard the caste ob- ligations and how the transition was made from one to another. If this story were ever ~~ eo ee aaEEeEeEOEeEeEEeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEOEOEeeeee 112 certain of the clothing used, the clothes not being burnt on the funeral pyre. For details of the dress of the caste headmen see Ben- nett, pp. 99-100. The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data indicate that out of 36 persons of Washer caste 14 were following that occupation, 6 were cultiva- tors, and 16 were unrecorded or miscel- laneous. According to the census there were 12,601 Sinhalese washermen in 1881, 27,- 466 in 1891, and 29,749 in 1901. CONCLUSION The picture herein presented of Sinhalese castes may seem to be somewhat confusing in detail, yet there are certain integrating factors in the system that call for notice. First, there was the formerly existing system of rajkariya or fixed economic serv- ices, which were required of each caste in return for its land tenure. These services, each of which was peculiar to the single caste, were rendered to the king, the land- lord, or the proprietary temple. The local village or caste headman and the village council were responsible for the perform- ance and maintenance of these duties as royal or local officials. The departmentaliza- tion of the government of the native Kan- dians assigned to each caste specific duties within a section of the political hierarchy. When new services were required new castes were often imported from India to perform them. The disposition of duties and assign- ment of caste functions constituted a royal prerogative but were limited by customs and traditions of the castes themselves. Thus there existed a complete system of economic exchange. between villages, each of which specialized in its particular caste occupations. Second, a pattern of exploitation of the natural environment becomes apparent in the various caste divisions. The majority caste was the Agriculturist, or Vellala, who specialized in the exploitation of the rice- fields of the Island. Other castes such as the Potters and Iron-miners specialized in the extraction and use of inanimate mineral substances, while still others such as the Fishers and Lac-collectors exploited the ani- mal resources. As a result of this specializa- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tion there occurred a geographical segrega- a tion of caste villages and of urban caste quarters by means of which specialization ~ could be maintained in exclusiveness and — without interference from the outside. The — manner and the matter of exploitation ele- — vated or debased the social station of the — various castes, the Farmer being of high ~ status, the Scavenger of low. : Third, as Hocart (1935, 1936) has shown — so ably in his writings on the subject, a group of ritualistic functions assigned to — each caste made the services of that caste — indispensable to the community generally — and to each of the other related castes indi- — vidually. Thus the Washer was necessary ~ in the purification of clothing from the pol- — lution of menstrual blood and for the per- ~ formance of rites of marriage; the Barber — was necessary for funeral services; the Tom- — tom-beaters were needed for Devil exor- cism; and the Jaggery-maker cook for tem- — ple feasts. The various washer castes re- — flected the standing of their respective ~ clients and furnished a parallel hierarchy of ceremonial ministrants who buttressed — and reinforced the hierarchy of castes ~ proper. A similar situation exists in India — where the various Brahman groups are cor- related with the social status of their clients — and parallel the caste ladder of ranks. The ~ annual processions and seasonal ceremonies — in which the Tomtom-beaters and Dancers ~ participated likewise reinforced and re- ~ iterated the social priorities of specific caste groups. The repetition of the great cere- — monies at specific times of the year helped — to perpetuate the social order and peculiar _ functions of some of the castes and also af- fected the other groups. The marriage rites, — perhaps more important in some respects — than any of the others, required the partici- ~ pation of special-service castes even though — the rite itself was generally within the single ~ caste group. ‘Fourth, for each of the castes there was — always a certain degree of occupational — latitude or elasticity of function. The tasks — involved in cultivation were performed by — almost all the non-Cultivator castes as well — as being a major function of the latter. ~ Each of the non-cultivator groups, how- — aes Ae voL. 35, NO. 4 i & i vi Bitpn. 15; 1945. Clark, Ency. Brit.); Fish-curers (Perera) _ Karawo (Armour, Bennett; Chitty, Cordiner, Davy, Encyel. Metrop., Guenther, Hue and Cry, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Niti _ Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, Prid- ham, Queyroz, de Saram, Schmidt, Schouten, - Selkirk, .Upham, Valenty n); Keulht (Dhar- - maratne); Ouagouri kayo (Gauttier). 11. Grass-cutters - | Grass-cutters (Barrow, Upham); Fodderers or Fodder-providers (Perera); Pannayo (Ar- _mour, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana- - vyamsa, Jancigny, Selkirk, Schmidt, Perera, - Pridham); Pannaduras (Bertolacci); Panna _ duraya (Perera); Hinnawo (Niti Nighanduwa). a 12. Hunters _ Dodda weddahs (Davy, Jancigny, Pridham); _ Vedda (Gauttier, PapatATEe, Hue and Cry, _ Joinville, Queyroz). 13. Jaggery-makers __ Jaggery-makers (Barrow, Bertolacci, Encycl. _ Metrop. ., Knox); Cooks (Bennett); Cooks or _ porters (Cordiner, Nordhoff); Molasses-makers _ (Perera); Jagreros (Armour, Cordiner, Encycl. y* Metrop., Joinville, Nordhoff, Ribeiro, de | Saram); Manparteno (Armour, Knox, Niti g Nighanduwa, Valentyn); Hakuro (Bennett, Chitty, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana- vamsa, Jancigny, Perera: Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham): Wahumpura (Hue / and Cry); ahde. duraya (Perera). o 14. Leather-workers Sandal-makers (Bennett, Pridham); Shoe- makers (Chitty, Ribeiro, Upham, Valentyn); _ Tanners (Cordiner); Homaru (Armour, Ben- q nett, Chitty, Ribeiro, Valentyn); Somaru (Bennett, Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nordhoff, _Pridham, Upham); Nagaran Karas (Berto- - laeei); i Spevarienn? (Guenther). 15. Lime-burners - Lime-burners (Barrow); Chuwnam-burners _ (Bennett, de Saram, Upham); Lime- and mor- : tar-makers (Bertolacci) Hunno (Armour, Chit- | ty, Cordiner, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana- _ -vamsa, Joinville, Nordhoff, Perera, de Saram, _ Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn): Burma _ (Bennett, Jancigny); Hunu durayo (Niti Nig- : OR ccdurn. Perera); Hunu badde (Davy, Jan- | cigny, Pridham); Chinambero (Valentyn). 16. Mat-weavers Mat-weavers (Barrow); Kinnaru (Armour, ~ GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM Roriz 115 Cordiner, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Knox, Niti Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham); Hinnarayo (Bennett); Hinnawo (Bennett); Kinnera badde (Davy); Kinnaya (Eneyel. Metrop.), Kinna- rayo (Janavamsa); Kinneru badde (Jancigny, Pridham); Kinnava (Joinville); Kirinerahs (Knox); Hiene Jaty (Valentyn). 17. Outcastes Outcastes (Barrow, Clark, Percival); Skin- ners (Bennett); Beggars (Knox); Leather- and rope-makers (Upham); Rodiya (Armour, Ben- nett, Chitty, Cordiner, Davy, Dharmaratne, Encyel. Metrop., Guenther, Hue and Cry, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Knox, Niti Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, Prid- ham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham); (Queyroz); Gasmundo (Jancigny, Schmidt); Antere Jaty (Valentyn); Gattaru (Cordiner, Encycl. Metrop., Jancigny, Prid- ham, Schmidt); Shenders (Cordiner, Nord- hoff). 18. Palanquin-bearers A. Palanquin-bearers (Barrow); Paduwo (Armour, Bennett, Bertolacci, Chitty, Cor- diner, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jan- cigny, Joinville, Knox, Nordhoff® Perera, Prid- ham, Queyroz, Ribeif, de Sarai, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, V alentyn)- Porters (Chitty): Baggage carriers (Encycl. Brit.); Carriers (Guenther). B. Executioners (Barrow, Nordhoff, Niti Nighanduwa, Selkirk, Pridham, Cordiner); Hangmen (Guenther, Schmidt); Scavengers (Bennett, Encycel. Brit.); House-wall builders (Bennett, Upham); House-builders (Guen- ther); Carcass-removers (Guenther, Upham, Schmidt); Batgama (Dharmaratne, Hue and Cry, Schmidt); Batgam duraya (Perera); Bat- gam Paduvo (Niti Nighanduwa); Galahayo (Armour, Guenther, Bennett, Janavamsa, Gauttier, Schmidt, Selkirk); Gahalega or Bedea (Cordiner, Nordhof, Upham); Duraya (Par- ker). C. Iron-smelters (Armour, Pridham, Schmidt); Yamannu (Armour, Ribeiro, Schmidt). 19. Potters Potters (Ballou, Barrow, Clark, Dhar- maratne, Ency. Brit., Knox, Percival, Perera, Ribeiro); Tile-makers (Perera); Badahelayo (Armour, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Niti Nighanduwa, Parker, Perera, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham); Kumbalu (Bennett, Chitty, Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nord- hoff, Selkirk, Valentyn). 116 20. perecnehens Hirawa (Armour, Cordiner). 21. Slaves Wallu (Bennett); Daasayo (Bennett, Gaut- tier); Nallovas (Schouten). Ri eM TA Smiths (Ballou, Barrow, Bertolacci, Encyel. Brit., Knox, Parker, Percival, Perera, Ribeiro, Upham); Mechanics (Cordiner); Artificers (Valentyn); Nawandanno (Armour, Chitty, Hue and Cry, Joinville, Niti Nighanduwa, Perera, Upham, Valentyn); Nawaymiyo (Ben- nett); Kamburu (Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nord- hoff); Achari (Davy, Gauttier, Guenther, Jan- cigny, Parker, Pridham, Schmidt, Selkirk); Vaduvo (Janavamsa) ; Kottal badde (de Saram) ; Badalo (Selkirk, Hue and Cry). 23. Tailors Tailors (Perera, Upham); Hanali (Armour, Bennett, Chitty, Davy, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Niti Nighanduwa, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt). 24. Toddy-drawers Toddy-drawers (Barrow, Bertolacci, Perera) , Coconut-climbers (Clark); Elephant-tamers (Upham); Durawo (Armour, Bennett, Chitty, Cordiner, Ency. Metrop., Hue and Cry, Jana- vamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Niti Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Perera, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn); Chando (Armour, Bennett, Cordiner, Davy, Encycl. Metrop., Guenther, Jancigny, Pridham, Queyroz,, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn); Madinno (Davy, Parker, de Saram); Sourave (Joinville). 25. Tree-cutters Wood-cutters (Chitty); Woodsmen (Chitty) ; Pioneers (Chitty); Shooters (Upham); Palleru APPENDIX II: GLOSSARY OF ABORIGINALS: Veddas. ACHARI or ACHARIYO: Achariya, a blacksmith. Acutary: Achari. AcKERANNO: Coconut-bark rope-makers and Smiths’ assistants; Chando. ADARMISHTAYO: Unrighteous men or beets men; Rodias. ADASSING: Nobility of the Goigama. ADATKETEANCARAO: Workers in ivory and Cabinet-makers; Smiths. Blacksmiths, sing. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 4 a (Cordiner, Chitty, Jancigny, Niti Nighanduwa, Pridham, Queyroz, de Saram, Upham, Valen- — tyn); Heeri (Chitty, Valentyn); Porokara (Hue ° and Cry); Hunna kotanno (Chitty). 26. Washers A. Washermen (Armour, Ballou, Barrow, Bennett, Bertolacci, Clark); Washers (Encyel. Brit., Guenther, Joinville, Percival, Perera, Ribeiro, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn); Radav (Armour, Bennett, Chitty, Cordiner, Davy, Ency. Metrop., Guenther, Hue and Cry, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, — . Knox, Niti Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, ; Upham, .Valentyn); Dhobies (Dharmaratne, Guenther); Henayo (Parker). B. Hinawa or Hinnevo (Bennett, de Saram, Perera, Chitty, Upham, Valentyn, Selkirk, Guenther); Washers to Cinnamon peelers (Barrow, Guenther, Perera, de Saram, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn); Washers for Nazdes (Pe- rera). C. Gangavo (Chitty, Perera, for Oli (Perera, Valentyn). D. Pali or Apullano (Armour, Niti Nighan- duwa, Jancigny, Chitty, Guenther, Schmidt, Upham, Perera); Washers to Hunno (Chitty, Valentyn); Washers to low castes (Barrow, Guenther, Upham); Washers to Scavengers (Bennett); Washers for Duraya, Barbers, Neketto (Perera); Washers for Jaggery-makers, Lime-burners, Tomtom-beaters, and Palan- quin-bearers (de Saram). 27. Weavers Villedurat (Davy, Guenther, Jancigny, Pe- rera, Pridham). | : 28. Miscellaneous Cattle-keepers (Chitty, Cordiner); Pack- bullock-drivers (Perera); Hunugambadu (Chit- ty); Gopaliya (Cordiner); Gopeloas (Nordhoff). SINHALESE CASTE NAMES AGRICULTURISTS: Goigama. AGUNMADY: Drummers; Chando. AHLIGUNTHIKAYO: Ceylon gypsies. AIMADUWO: Arrow-makers. AMBETTAYO or EmMBeEtTToO: Those who live near- by. As ministers of the king’s cabinet they were near the royal Beleoneee Panikkayo | or Barbers. Anpt: Beggars (Tamils). ANGLERS: Kaywalo or Karawe; Dandu-karawo. ANTERE JATy: Rodias or Outcaste Ropemakers. é § Valentyn); Washers for Heeri (Chitty, Valentyn); Washers ‘agg > oa ie Apr. 15, 1945 _ Appunamy: Descendants of chiefs and head- men, a branch of the Goigama. _ ApuLLANo: Washers to Lime-burners and low ___eastes, Pali or Paliyo. _ AramBeo: Pagoda-dancers; Chando. _ Arcuers: Dunuwaagely or Karawe. _ ArRow-MAKERS: Iwaduwo. _ Artiricers: Nawandanno. _ Asrro.ocers: Weavers or Berawayo. _ Aropya-wapakaya: Berawayo. Name derived from Atodya, a minister who first appointed _ them to the duty of Tomtom-beating and _ who himself made and played on the first _ timbrel or drum with one head which is _ ealled by his name. _ AympartHaro: Ambettayo or Barbers. _ Aywapi: Servants to Duravos; a branch of _ Duravos. Ayoxarayo: Workers in iron. _ Aytraxayo: Feeders of elephants. _ Baax-Kayo: Purveyors of food. ‘BapawELa or BADAHELAYO: Coombakarayo or _ Potters, sing. Badahelaya, a potter. ‘Bapatv: Baddallo, Silversmiths, sing. Badala, _ asilversmith. | Baba Setuayo: Possessors of near halls, so _ called because they burnt their wares in _ large huts near their dwellings. Potters. _BappAHALLAYA: Coombakarayo or Potters. Bappauo: Silversmiths; Achari. _ BADDEMINIHA: Tomtom-beaters (respectful). : - Bappo: Rice-makers; Paduwa or Palanquin- 4 bearers. _ Baneama: Batgammi. _ Bawiparcamayo: Bali or planet propitiatory Oe _ eremonialists; Goigama. ag Baui-EDURA: Teachers of Bali ceremonies; “ Oliya. Bau Tryana: One who makes bali images; — Oliya. _ Baru sattu: Rice-sacrificers; Duravos. _ Bammanu: Brahman, sing. Bamuna. _ BANDARA WALIYA: Goigama. _ Barpartans: Rodias. _ Barzers: Panikkayo; m - tayo: Bart Kayo: Carriers. | BarRawABADDE MaHaBapDE: __ Tomtom-beaters; Berawayo. | Barupet-Karawo: Fishers who do not use casting nets; Carawo. _ Basket-Makers: Sinnawo; Handi. Barcammi, Batcamayo or Batcama Etro: _ Rice village people; Paduwo or Palanquin- bearers. _ Barcamweta: _ Goigama. Ambettayo, Embet- Weavers or Seeders of royal domain; GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM ' 117 Bepa or Beppa: Vedda. BERAKARAYA: Tomtom-beater, Drummer. Berawa, Berawayo, Bereveras: Beaters of the baira or tomtom; sing. Berawaya, a weaver. BeRBAYAS: Berawayas. BETEL-GROWERS: Dalae-Murecarao; Goigama. Brrp-cATCHERS: Pakai wadi; Karawe or Fish- ers. Brrp-sNARERS: Williya; Karawe BuacksMiTuHs: Ranhallo; Achari. BrAGHMAN: Brahman. BrRAHMANAYO: Brahman. BRAHMAN WANSAYA, BRAMIN, Brahman. Brass-FOUNDERS: Lokuruwo; Achari. Braziers: Brass-founders; Lokuruwo. BRACHMAN: CampBooas: Mechanics, carpenters, goldsmiths; Smiths. CaMBURO, CaMMARO: Derived buranawa, slaves; Smiths. CAMMAKARAYO: Workers in copper, brass, and silver; Nawandanno. CANDALAYO: Scavengers, food. CanpgEyY Erro or Kanpians: Livers in the mountains; Pakuro or Jaggery makers. Cappakayo: Cutters; Barbers. Carawo or KaraweE: Shore people or dwellers by the shore; Fishers. CARIAWASSIN or Mayorats: Goigama. CARPENTERS: Waduwo, Danduwaduwo; Kar- awe or Fishers. CarreEas: Karawe or Fishers. CARRIAGE-MAKERS: Rata Karayo; Karawe or Fishers. CaTTAKARAYO: Workers in hard matter or wood. So called because they beat up pieces of wood into pulpy matter, which they used to manufacture mats; Kinnaru. Cuattas: People of Chilaw; Cinnamon-peelers and weavers by trade; Halagama. CHAMMAKARAYO: Skin-dressers; Sanmahanno or Shoemakers. CHANDA LAYO: Skin-dressers; Candalayo. Cuanpo: Toddy-drawers who extract toddy from Coconut and kitul palm. CHINAMBERS: Lime-burners or Hunno; Chun- na-karayo. Cuivias: Chalias. CHUNNA-KARAYO: Lime-burners or reducers to powder by burning stones and trees. CHUNAM-BURNERS: Hunno or Lime-burners. CINNAMON-PEELERS: Originally imported to from Kam- eaters of unclean Ceylon as weavers, they became peelers of cinnamon bark; Chalias. ConsureErs: Indrajalikayo. 118 Cooxs: Wahunpurayo or Pakuro, Jaggery- makers. CooLoopotTo: Peeling winnower-makers. This refers to their manufacture of winnowers from peelings of bamboo cane and reed. Sin- nawo or Handi (Basket-makers). CooMBAKARAYO: Potters, named after Coo- beya, a first potter. CoomBELOOAS: Potters. Cooroonpo Caraya: Cinnamon-peelers; Cha- lias. Cornacas: Elephant-tenders; Couratto. CourattTo: Elephant-tenders. Cottu: Chando or Toddy-drawers. CowHeErps: Pati Karayo; Duravos. Also Gom- baducarao division of Goigama. CROCODILE-TRAPPERS: Kayman wadi; Karawe. CuBELLO: Coombakarayo or Potters. CuLAWLAYO: Potters or Coombakarayo. So called after Culala, first potter. CuitivaTors: Goigama or Vellala agricul- turists. CuMBALLU: Coombakarayo or Potters. Curary Wo.un-rTTo: Dancers in pagodas, etc.; Chando or Toddy-drawers. DADEWEDDA: Goigama. Dancers: Oliya. DANDU-KARAWO: Fish only with angling rod of bamboo, anglers; Karawe. DanpUWaADUWO DaNnpDovAbDOoUYoO: Carpenters; Karawe. Darawo: Elephant-tamers; Duravo. Deccum Carao: Lime-burners or Hunno who paid a poll tax. DEMALAGATTERA or DEMALA GaTTaArRu: Tamil ‘slave caste, captives of Sinhalese in war. Dervayo: Workers in the kitchen or Hakuru. Duosy: Washerman, Radaw. DIEGARANNO: Collectors of gems from stream beds; Goigama. DryaLuwo: Water-carriers. Doppa VEDDAS: Veddas or hunters. DrumMMERS: Berawayas or Tomtom-beaters and weavers. DuNnuWAAYELT: Archers; Karawe or Fishers. Durave or Durawe: Producers of evil-pro- ducing taste; Chando or Toddy drawers, sing. Durawa. Duraya: Palanquin bearers, Paduwas. Hunters or game _ procurers; ELEPHANT-CATCHERS: ravo. EMBETTAYO: Barbers. EMBETTEO: Barbers. ETTWALAPANNIKKAYO: Elephant-keepers; Goi- gama. Weenawo; Magul Du- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES von. 35, No, 4°34 e EXECUTIONERS: Gahalagambadayo or “Paduwa. Also Wadekayo or Karawe. FAMALE: Workers in iron, miners. FisHmMonceErs: Matwikunanno or Karawe. FISHERMEN, FISHERS: Karawe or Carawo. FLOWER GARDENERS: Malecaruwo or Goigama. Gani: Rodiya (respectful). GAHALAGAMBADAYO, GAHALAYA, GAHALA PAM: . Removers and bane of corpses and ele- phant carcasses. Executioners and scaven- gers; Paduwas. Gauuapo: Artificers of upper division. GaLWApDuwo: Lapidaries, stonecutters and sculptors; Achari. GanGavo: Washers for Heeri and Olias. GANITAYO: Counters or calculators. So called because they are astrologers and predicters of the motions of the planets; Berawayas. GARDENERS: Malcaruwo; Goigama. GASMANDO: Outcastes or Rodias. Named from a kind of rope made by them for catching ele- phants. Sing. Gasmanda. GaTTARU: Outcasted members of upper castes by royal action. Descendants of captives, condemned thieves, etc. GAURAYKAWALLU: Village watchmen. GEM COLLECTORS: Diegaranno, Goddegar- ranno; Goigama. GODDEGARRANNO: Searchers of gems in the soil. GopE KEwuLoo: Fishermen or inlets of the sea or at river mouths. They possessed a peculiar fishing tackle. Karawe. GOEWANSE: Goigama. Gort Bamuno: Cultivating Brahmans; gama. GorcaMa or GoyicaMA: Cultivators or Vellala. — GoIGAMA ETTO: Goiyo or Cultivators, rice- village people. 4 GorkuLayo: Of the cultivating caste; Goigama> Goryo, Gowrya, GoIGAMA ETTO: Cultivators. GoupsMmiITHsS: Nawandanno, Badalo. GOMBADUCARAO: Peasants who attended cows and supplied king with grain; Goigama. Gony WamsayYa: Goigama. GoPELOOAS, GOPALAYES: Cattle-keepers. GOYANKARANNO: Dowers or cultivators of rice; Goigama. GRASS CUTTERS: Pannayo. GURUNNEHE: Tomtom-beaters (respectful). GURUNNEHELA: Teachers; Achari. GurRuWARAYO: Masters; Achari. Goi- Guruwo: A mixed caste of Sinhalese and Moors, Moslem in religion. Hapayo: Plaiters; Sinnawo or Handi. HaAINAWALAYO: Fringe makers; Kinnaru. Apr. 15, 1945 Harinayo: Beloved persons; Radaw or Wash- . ers. Haxuro, Haxkxkvuroo: Jaggery-makers, sing. Hakura. Hatiyo or Hai: Chalias or Cinnamon peelers, sing. Haliya. HALLAGAMA or HaLaGaAma: Chalias or Cinna- mon-peelers. HatuGe: People of the Washer caste. HANDEE, Hanpt, or Henpayo: Basket-makers. Furnished the royal stores with baskets and winnows. Were thought to be beggars or Rodias by some. Hanpurvuwo: Sanduruwo or Hondrews, Gentle- men; Goigama. HANGAREMA or HANGAREMMU: Sugar-makers from palm sap; Wahunpurayo or Jaggery- makers (respectful). Hannaui or HANNAWLI: Tailors or Mananno. Hart Duravo: Duravos proper. _ Haywayo: Soldiers; Paduwa. HeEpIpEMALA: Tamil caste name. HeEeEr!: Pioneers or Tree fellers in war. HeNnawatayo: Mat-makers; Kinnaru. Henayo: Washermen, sing. Henaya. Henpayo: Handi or Basket-makers. HEWAPANNAY: Soldiers or lascoreens; Goigama. HieENE Jaty: Weavers of mats with which they pay poll tax; Kinnaru. Hinawau: Washers to Gahalaya or Scavengers. Hinnawo: Pannayo or Grass cutters. HInNEVoO or Hinnivo, Hinnawo: Washers for Chalias, Jaggery-makers, and Feeders of elephants. Hrrawa: Sieve-makers. Hiwartrayo: Washers for Duravos: Duravos. Hommarv: Skin-dressers and Scavengers. HonprkEws Honpuru: Gentlemen; Goigama. Horv: Thieves. Hutawa.tya: Rodiaheadmen. Huncarammu: Hangarema or Jaggery-makers. HuncGRAMs: Jaggery-makers. Hounkrricarao: Suppliers of milk; Goigama. _ Hunwo: Lime-burners or manufacturers, sing. Hunna. Hunters: Veddas. Hunvu Gampapu: Peasants who fodder and take care of cattle. Hunv KaTranno: Fellers of trees for lime kilns. INDIMAL-KEULO or KEWULU: Manufacturers of lines and nets from the bark of the coconut tree, which they sell to the Fishers. They use baskets and little nets to catch fish in rivers. They employ the date-tree flower in their festivals, which they call Indimal. They are Karawe. GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 119 INDRAJALIKAYO: Conjurors. INLAYERS OF GOLD AND Ancarao. IRON-FOUNDERS: Yamanayo. IVORY-WORKERS AND CABINET-MAKERS: Adat- keteancarao; Smiths. Iwapuwo: Arrow-makers and Workers in lac; Achari. SILVER: Ridiceto JAGGERY-MAKERS: Manufacturers of Jaggery sugar from the sap of trees, Wahunpurayo. JAGHERERS: Coolies or common porters. JAGREROS: Jaggery-makers. JANA CAPANNO: Grass-cutters; Pannayo. JAWLIKAYO: Workers with nets; Karawe. JEWELERS: Ratneenderecarao. KADUL-KARAWO: Sails of the fishing boats of these Fishers are of dark red color and this color is made from a dye extracted from the bark of the cajou tree. KANDE-MINISSA: Hillmen or Jaggery-makers; Hakuru. Kappuwo: Temple watchmen. KaRAWE or Karawo: Fishermen, sing. Ka- rawa. P KARMANTAKAKARAYA: Workmen; Kinnaru. KARRANAWIYO: Razor-users; Barbers. Kasauayo: Throwers-away of dirt; Gahalayo or Scavengers. ‘Kassakayo: Plowers; Goigama. KaYMAN WADI: Crocodile-catcher; Karawe. Kay-watTrayo: Surrounders of water; Karawe. Kaywuto: Anglers who catch fish only with hook and line; Karawe. Kersspa KARAWAY, KESPE-KARAWO: Subsisters by turtles and tortoises which they catch in a large net; Karawe. KeTTaAvu JIEWAKAYO, KHETTA JIEWAKAYO: Livers by the field; Goigama. KIDAWARU, KIDDEAS: Makers of fans to fan corn and cane baskets, lace bedsteads, and stools; Kinnaru. KINNARU, KINNARAYA: Workers in grass or Mat-weavers, sing. Kinnara. KINNERA BADDE, KIRINERAHS: Rope: and mat- makers; Kinnaru. Kontayo: Carriers of the frame of the king’s palanquin. Koostarociyo: Lepers and devil dancers. KsHaTrRIA: Royal Race. KsuHupra: Sudra. KuMBALLU: Potters, sing. Kumbala. KuRruNDAKARAYO: Chalia, Cinnamon-peelers. KuruneEka: Elephant-attendants, Cornacas. KUNAMMADUVEGAMAYO: Palanquin-bearer headmen; Goigama. Kutrapi: Dancers; Durawo. 120 Lacuruwo, Loxuruwo: Smelters; Achari. Lac-WoRKERS: Iwaduwo, workers in lac and Arrow-makers. LAPIDARIES: Galwaduwo; Smiths. LEAD-FOUNDERS: Lokuruwo. LEATHER-WORKERS: Sanmahanno, shoemakers. LIANE or Liyana Wapuwo: Turners; Achari. LIME-BURNERS: Hunno, those who burn wood, shells, or stones for lime. Loxuruwo: Brass-founders or Lead-makers, Lacuruwo; Smiths, sing. Lokuruwa. MADAMEMINIHA: Guruwo Ces peon) Mapawn: Madinno. Mapru Karawayr: Madel net fishers; Karawe. Map1nno: Tree-pruners; Chando. MADUKARAYA: Ropemen; Rodias. ~ Macau (Macut) Duravo: Riders or tamers of the royal elephants; Duravo. Maccawikayo: Vendors of intoxication; Chan- do, also deer-killers. MAHABADDE or MAHABADDEY-ETTO: People of the Cinnamon caste. From Mahabadde, the great rent, referring to cinnamon as the principal source of revenue; Chalias. Mananno: Sewers; Mananno or Tailors. Maucaruwo: Derived from Mawlacawrayo, flower-chain makers or garland-makers; flower gardeners; Goigama. Mananno: Tailors. ManpuKARAYA: Rodiya (respectful). MASKED DANCERS: Oliyo. Mat-weavers: Kinnaru. ; MATWIKUNANNO: Fishmongers; Karawe. MEEHUDUDAYE WaADt!I: Fishers with nets in the sea only; Karawe. : MitkmeEn: Hunkiricurao; Goigama. Morvu-karawo: These Fishers use hemp nets to catch skates and extract oil from the latter; Karawe. MupaireRuMa: Goigama. Musicians: Berewayas or Tomtom-beaters. NaGARAM Karas: Leather-workers. NAHAPIKAYO: Comforters; Barbers. Nap or NAyip&: A group of inferior artisan castes, namely, Smiths, Potters, Fishers, Toddy-drawers (respectful). NauakaRAyo: Players upon wood _ instru- ments. : . NALLAMBU: To ddgnaaees: Nauutovas: Unclean slaves and servants of cultivators. NatTamMBovo: Chando. NAWANDANNO, NAWANKARANNO, NAWANDAN- naso: Makers of new things, or goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other metal workers. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES NexaTayo: Astrologers; Berawayas, sing. Nekatiya. Net anp Linn-MakeERs: Indimal-keulo; Ka- rawe. . NiELLO: Chando. — 7 NETTUKKARAYA: Dancer, a term applied to Rodia women. ie . NILLEMAKAREYEA or Parrea: Shepherds; Goigama. | NINNEY JAKAYA: Restorers; Radawa or Washers. Oxras: Providers of oil for illumination at night and tenders of elephants. Oxryo or Our: Masked dancers; also washers to low castes. OLLEE or Ott: Carriers of effigies of demons called ‘‘Assooriahs” in annual festivals. OuutE: Procurers of coal. OUAGOURI KAYO: Fishers. Orv Karaway: Boat-fishers; Karawe. OvutTcastTEs: Rodias. OvutTLaws: Palleru. PacwHas: Paduwa. Pappo, Pappas, duwo. Pappuwoo: Erecters of house walls; Paduwo. Papuwo: Palanquin-bearers, hereditary royal serfs, carriers, sing. Paduwa. ParHara Hexryo: Cloth-cleaners; Radaw. Paiptyo: Takers of payment; Radaw. PAINDA PERUMU: Goigama. PAINTERS: Sittaru; Smiths. PAISACAWRAYO, PATHARO: Weavers of fold and silver thread from Paisecarawa in India. Chalias. PAISAKARA BRAHMANAYO: Gold and. silver- thread-weaving Brahmans; Chalias. PAKAI WADI: Bird-catchers; Karawe. Paxuro: Stonemakers, so called by reason of " the hard cakes of sugar that they manu- — facture; Jaggery-makers. PALANQUIN-BBARERS: Paduwa or Duraya. PALHORUPADUVO: Robber, Paduwo. Pau: Washers for low castes. PALLAROO, PALLARU or PALLERU: Banditti or freebooters in the woods liable to any service; also Washermen to low castes, subdivision of Pali. Patuy: Washers for Lime-burners, Tomtom- beaters, Jaggery-makers, Paduwo. PanpDITTAYo: Wise men; Potters. Panikxayo: Leaf or foliage cutters; Barbers. — PANIKKILA: Tomtom-beater. PANIKKIYA: Barber (in lowlands). PANIVIDAKARAYA: Messenger; Lime-burner, ; je | ~ = - VOL. 35, NO. 4 Papiwo: Rice-makers; Pa- Apr, 15, 1945 _ PANNADERIA: Grass-cutter. _ PANNAKARAYO: eee or leaf-weavers: Kinnaru. _ Pannayo: Named froth Pan, a species of high grass which they cut. These are Grass-cutters, leaf-cutters, or leaf-strippers for elephant | __ fodder. | Parava: Bard (Tamil caste). _ Pas xutu: Five tribes; carpenter, ___washer, barber, and shoemaker. - Pass MeHE Karayo: Five performers of serv- ices; Karawe. _ Parr Karayo: Cowherds; Durawe. _ Parreras: Nillemakereyea or Shepherds. PATTIWALA AGA: Cowherds; Goigama. S Pawtces: Paduwa. weaver, -Payinpa: Messenger; Hunno or Lime-burner. Peasants: Goigama. _ PersakaraYeE: Carriers of Palanquins. _ PESAKARAYO: Chalia. _ PipAYNIDANNO: Sacrificers to devils. _ PronEErs: Heeri. - Poppan: Husbandmen and soldiers. Pooxoosayo: Removers of city dirt; Gahalayo. ~ PoRAWAKKARA KARAWAY, PoRAWAWA Ka- __- rAyo: Timber-fellers or Woodsmen; Durawo; also Karawe. e Poroxara: Axmen; Goigama. _ Porters: Paduwo. - Porrers: Coombakarayo, Badahelayo. _ Priests: Pidaynidanno. re PuPAWELENDO: Cake-sellers. ; _ PuppHacHappoxKayo: Casters away of flowers; — -Gahalayo. ri od aq = | RAAWELENDO: Toddy-drawers. _ RApALAKAMPERUWA: Goigama. Ti Rapav, Rapaw: Washers for superior castes and for Karawe, Chandos, Tailors, Potters, and Barbers, sing. Radawa. _ Rapayo: Skinners. & RapeEas, Rapupa: Washermen. se Raata: Kingly caste, Raja wansaya. rs RaJAKAYO: Removers of dust; Radaw. oo RANHALLO: Silversmiths and blacksmiths; | _brassfounders; Achari. _ Rat Karayo: Carriage-makers; Durawo. _ Rartsetto: Field-cultivators; Goigama. | RaTNEENDERECARAO: Jewelers; Achari. a RaTTakarayo: Carriage-makers and manu- | _ facturers of harness for chariots or carriages; _ Sanmahanno. _ Reau Cuaitry: Wisin i or Vaishya (Merchant) c Caste. a8 RICE-VILLAGE PEOPLE: Batgamma Etto or hs Paduwo. «2 > va : RIvIcETo ANCARAO:; Inlayers of gold and silver; Achari. GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 121 Ropawa: Radawa or Washers. Roni: Rhodias, Barbarians or Outcastes, sing. Rodiya. RoGapiKayo: Incurably’ sick men or lepers; Rodias. Rorsr-MAKERS: Ackeranno: Chando. Roriz: Rodias. RuppauGuH: Radaw or Washers. SAFFRAMADOO AppuHAMY: Hereditary titled persons; Goigama. SAKANI KAYO: Bird-killers. Sakuro: Stonemakers. So called because they make hard cakes of sugar; Jaggery-makers. SALAGAMA or SALAGAMAYO: People who in- habit the village of large halls. The old name of Chilaw was Salawa. The King of Damba- dema of the Seven Corles caused a colony of weavers to be brought from India to Chilaw where spacious halls or apartments were re- served for their use. Chalias. SamMwaDuwo: Skin-carpenters; Shoemakers. SANDAL-MAKERS: Sommaru; Karawe. SANDURUWO or HANDURUWO: Sons of peace, the pacific; Goigama. SANGARAMMU: Defenders of the priesthood’s gardens; Cohabitors with own blood or with sisters; Jaggery-makers. SANMAHANNO: Shoemakers or leather-workers. SANNAWLIYO: Cloth-armorers; Mananno or Tailors. ScavENGERS: Gahalayo or Candalayo; Paduwo ScuLpTors: Galwaduwo. SEEDERS: Batgamwella Etto; Goigama. SEPPIDIWIJJI Karayo: Wizards. SHANDOS, SHENDERS: Chandos, SHEPHERDS: Nillemakareyea or Pattea; Goiga- ma. SHOEMAKERS: Sommaru. SHooTERS: Veddas. SILVERSMITHS: Baddallo; Smiths. Sinnawo: Cutters. So called because they cut and bring home materials; Basket-makers. SITTARU or SITTEREO: Painters; Achari. SKATE-FISHERS: Moru-karawo. SKIN-DRESSERS: Chammakarayo or Hommaru. Staves: Wallu (Tamil). Smirus: Achari, Ranhallo, Nawandanna. SnarHayo: Hainayo; Radaw or Washers. Sockikayo: Needleworkers; Tailors. Sotit Karayo: Particular services; Durawo. SomMarayo: Leather-workmen; Sanmahanno. SomMaru: Sandal-makers; Karawe. Soupikayo: Producers of lust. Named after Soudamakaya who first discovered toddy. Chandos. SourAveE: Toddy-drawers. STONE cuTTERS: Galwaduwo. 122 Sunno: Chunam or Lime burners. SURAWBEEJAYO, Surawo: Producers of good taste (for bakers); Chando or Toddy- drawers. SUWANNAKARAYO: Workers in gold; Nawan- danno. TABLINJENOS: Berrawayo or Tomtom-beaters. TacHAKAYO: Smoothers or planers; Waduwo. Taitors: Mananno, Hannali. TanTAvAyo: Yarn-stretching weavers. So called because they stretched and ordered their warp and wove it with a _ weft. Chalias. ; TARAHALLU: Smiths, sing. Tarahala. TARUMPAR: Washers of clothes for artes: TaTAR: Slaves, itinerant beggars. TCHOUDERES: Sudras. TIMBILLO or TrBrIBLO: Tamil Fishers. TINAKARAYO: Workers in grass; Kinnaru. Tock-KEuLO, Tok Kewvuu: Fresh-water Fishers with a peculiar sort of net. Karawe. Tok Fishers. TODDY-DRAWERS: Chando, Durawo. TOMTOM-BEATERS: Berawaya or Weavers. TORTOISE FISHERS: Kespe-karawo. TRAP-MAKERS: Ugulwadi; Karawe. TREE-FELLERS, TIMBER-FELLERS: Heeri, Hunu kattanno or Chunna-karayo, Porawa Karayo TUNNAWAYO: Weavers or sewers of pieces; Mananno or Tailors. TurNeERsS: Liane Waduwo. Ucutwapt: Trap-makers for animals; Karawe. Unuttiyo: Oliyas or Dancers. Usanno: Chandos. VELENDES or VELENDE VANSE: caste. Veppas: Hunters. The pre-Sinhalese aborigines of Ceylon. VELLALA or WELLALE: Goigama. VELLEDURAI or WELLEDURAI, VELLEDURAYI: Weavers and descendants of Chalias. VEL: VADUVO: Rattan-workers, Rod-carpenters. So called because they work with or make Merchant JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 4 7 articles with rods. Sinnawo or Basket- — makers. VINAKARAYO: Players on the Vina. W ADDEWASSAM: KARAYO: Builders of bridges. — Goigamas. Wapuwo, Wappuwo: Carpenters and Smiths, . Achari. WapeExkayo: Executioners; WADIGHE VANSE, Velendes. a Wacurikayo: Fishers who use nets only. — Workers or dealers in the water; Karawe. WaHUNPURAYO: Cooks for Goigama; Jaggery- — makers, sing. Wahunpuraya. 4 WAJJANKARAYO: Tomtom-beaters, sing. Waj- — jankaraya. Wau: Slaves. WANACHARAKAYO: Wild men or men of the desert; Veddas. WaANIJA WANSAYA: Merchant caste. WANNEWEDDA: Hunters or Veddas. WasaLo or Wasauayo: Inferior to all; Rodias. — WasHERS, WASHERMEN: nivo, Gangavo, Hiwattayo, Tarumpar. WatTcHMEN: Gauraykawallu, Kappuwo. WeAvVERS: Chalias, Wiyamao or Karawe. Weppo: Tormentors, so called because they live by killing animals. Veddas. WEDDIWANSE: Veddas. Weexpy: Chando. WeENAwoO: Elephant-catchers. WELINDO WELLANDU, Wysya, WANSE: Merchant caste. Wiuuiya: Bird-snarers; Karawe. WIRAMESTARAGOLLA: Soothsayers or jugglers; Goigama. Wriyamoo: Weavers; Karawe. WIYANNO: Weavers. Woop cutTers: Hunu kottanno. Woopmen: Palleru, Pallaru. Wysyas, Wysyaya: Vaisyas, buyers and sellers. Karawe. praia Merchants or WIESSIA — YaxkpuEssa: A Berawayo who performs Devil — Ceremonies. : YaMANoO, YAMAMMU: Iron-smelters; Paduwo, : sing. Yamanna: ‘ APPENDIX III: DATA DERIVED FROM HUE AND CRY REPORTS (JAN. 1905-DEC. 1907) Data are presented on 1,646 persons charged with crimes in the Ceylon Government Police Records. In each case data include name, caste, crime charged, religion, ethnic group, and occupation. In addition the place of birth, haunts, location of family and of relatives and acquaintances, marital status and children, if any, are generally noted. Physical features are also noticed such as complexion (fair or dark), — eyes and their defects, hair, nose, age, height, — body build, teeth, presence or absence of beard or mustache, and deformities or peculiarities. — In the present study data on occupation, — crimes charged, religion, and relative numbers — in relation to the different castes are summar- — ized. . Radaw, Pally, Hin- ~ ‘Apr. 15, 1945 GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM APPENDIX IV: SINHALESE CASTE 123 NAMES ‘From Glossary of Native and Foreign Words occurring in Official Correspondence and other b Documents. Colombo, 1893. -Achari: Blacksmiths Badahelayo: Potters Badallu: Goldsmiths and Silversmiths Eiddeminihs : Tomtom-beater (respectful) Batgamayo: Paduw6é erawayo: Tomtom-beater Siandala: An outcaste D awe: Chandus, Toddy-drawers De maja Gattaru (from Demala, Tamil and gattaru, captives) Embettay6: Barbers Gadi: Rodiya (respectful) Gahalayo, Gahalagambadayo: Executioners, _ Seavengers Gal-addo: Lapidaries, workers in precious stones Gasmanda: A Rodiya Gattaru: A low caste Goyigama: Vellalas, Cultivators ‘Gurunnehe: Tomtom-beater (respectful) ha Sinhalese caste mixed with Moors kurd: Jaggery-makers J : Haligama: Corruptly Chalias, _ peelers _ Hali: Chalias Cinnamon- _ ANNvAL GeneraL Report for 1937 on the 34 economic, social, and general condition of the Island. Colombo, 1938. , Potter, facing p. 46. _ ~Kandyan dancers, facing p. 71. Cave, Henry W. The Book of Ceylon. London, 1908. > Barber, facing p. 85. Cinnamon-peeler, facing p. 141. Toddy-drawer, facing p. 181.” Potter, facing p. 202. - Rodiya at Udugalpitiya, facing p. 245. Silversmith, facing p. 315. :- Devil dancers, facing p. 389. " CooMARAsWaAmy, ANANDA K. Medieval Sin- | halese art. Broadcampden, Gloucester- ‘ shire, 1908. Mat-weaver (Kinnarayo), pl. 4, fig. 1. Potters, pl. 5, figs. 1-4. Horn-combmaker (Rodiya), pl. 5, fig. 9. Cloth-weavers (Berawayo), pl. 6, figs. 1-3. Handuruwd: Vellilas Hangarammu: Wahunpuray6d (respectful) Hannali: Tailors Hénaya: A washer Hinnawod: Washers for Chalias Hunno: Lime-burners Karawo: Fishers Kinnaru: Mat-weavers Kumballu: Potters Kurundukaray6: Cinnamon-peelers Lokuruw6d: Brass-founders Madaméminiha: Guruwo (respectful) Mahabaddé: Halagama or Chalias Nekatiya: Tomtom-beater; astrologer Oli: Dancers Paduwo: Palanquin-bearers Pali: Washers for low castes Pallaru: Subdivision of Pali Pannayo: Grass-cutters } Radaw: Washers Ratéminiha: A Vellala Rodiya: An Outcaste Salagama: Chalias Wahunpurayo: A Cook or Jaggery-maker Yamanna, Yapammu: Smelters of Iron APPENDIX V: ILLUSTRATIONS OF SINHALESE CASTES IN THE LITERATURE FrrGuson, JoHN. Ceylon in 1903. Colombo, 1903. Barber, Washer, Toddy-drawer, Devil- Dancer, App. IV (caricatures). GUENTHER, Konrap. Einfuhrung in die Tro- penwelt. Leipzig, 1911. Rodias, facing p. 314, p. 313. GUENTHER, Konrap. Ceylonfahrt. Frankfurt, 1913. Rodias, p. 81. NicHouas, SAMUEL E. Commercial Ceylon. Colombo, 1933. Cinnamon-peelers, facing p. 44. Puatsh, Ltd. Ceylon, its history, people, com- merce, industries and resources. Co- lombo, 1924. Fishermen, pp. 22, 194. Toddy-drawers, pt. 2, p. 51. Cinnamon-peelers, p. 101. Scumipt, Emiu. Ceylon. Berlin, 1902. Rodias, facing pp. 38, 182, 184. Travtz, F. M. Ceylon. Munich, ees Rodias, pl. 41. 124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED Auwis, JAMES. Terms of address and modes of salutation amongst the Singhalese. Journ. Ceylon Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc. 1856—- 1858, 219-276. ARMOUR, J. Armour’s grammar of the Kandyan, law methodically arranged and digested .. . by Joseph M. Perera. Colombo, 1861. Bautitovu, Maturtn M. The pearl of India. Boston, 1884. Barrow, Sir GEORGE. -ent. London, 1857. Bee. bob. Report on the Kegalla District of the Province of Sabaragamuwa. Ceylon, past and pres- 1892. . The “Ahligunthikayo” or Ceylon gyp- sies. Ceylon Antiquary 2: 108-114. 1916. . The Maldive Islands, 1602-1607. Ceylon Antiquary 3: 64-66. 1917. BENNETT, J. W. Ceylon and its capabilities London, 1848. BrERTOLACCI, ANTHONY. A view... of Ceylon. London, 1817. CAMPBELL, JAMES. LHzacursion... in Ceylon, 2 vols. London, 18438. CrNnsus OF CEYLON, 1881, Colombo, F. Luker, 1882; 1891, 3 vols. in one, Colombo, G. J. A. Skeen, 1892; 1901, 4 vols., Colom- bo, H. C. Cottle, 1902; 1911, 5 vols. [I (see Denham); II, Population; III, Estates; IV, Occupations; V, Towns and Villages]; 1921, 3 vols., Colombo, L. B. J. Turner, 1923- 1924; 1981, 2 vols. CryLton GOVERNMENT GAZETTE, Supplement (Ceylon Police Gazette, Part If). The Hue and Cry twice weekly from Wednes- day, Jan. 4, 1905, No. 2210, to Saturday, Dec. 28, 1907, No. 2510. Cuitry, Stmon Casiz. The Ceylon Gazetteer. Gotta Church Mission, Ceylon, 1834. . Some account of the Rodiyas with a specimen of their language. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc., Ceylon Branch, 2: 171-181. 1882. CuaRK, ALFRED. Peeps at Many Lands Series: Ceylon. London, 1910. Coprineton, H. W. The Kandyan Navan- danno (caste of Smiths and Stone workers). Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc., Ceylon Branch, 21: 221-253. 1909. CooMARASWAMY, ANANDA K. Medieval Sin- halese art. Broadecampden, Gloucester- shire, 1908. CopLeston, Rucinatp 8. Buddhism past and present in Ceylon. London, 1892. . Buddhism primitive and present in Magadha and in Ceylon, ed. 2. London, 1908. CoRDINER, JAMES. A description of Ceylon, 2 vols. London, 1807. Archeo- — logical Survey of Ceylon XIX. Colombo, . JANCIGNY, DUBOIS DE. Davy, Joun. An account of the interior of — Ceylon and of its inhabitants. London, 1821. DrnuamM, E. B. Ceylon at the census of 1911. Colombo, 1912. DHARMARATNE, GEORGE A. The Kara-Got — contest with an appeal to the House of Com- mons. Colombo, 1898. ENCYCLOPEDIA Britannica. Ceylon. Vol. 5. Ceylon. Vol. Chicago, 1942. ENCYCLOPEDIA METROPOLITANA. 16. London, 1845. Ed. 9, Edinburgh, 1904. a FERGUSON, JoHN. Ceylonin 1903. Colombo, — 1903 : Fonseka, Lionet bE. The Karawe flag. Ceylon Antiquary 7: 1-11. 1921-1922. Forsers, Masor. Eleven years in Ceylon..., 2 vols. London, 1840. Ed. 2, 1841. GautTTieR, Louis Epovuarp. Ceylan, ou Re- cherches sur l’histotre, la litterature, les moeurs et les usages des Chingulais. Paris, 1823. is GEIGER, WiLHELM. Ceylon. Wiesbaden, — 1898 . ji GLossary of native words occurring in official correspondence and other documents. lombo, 1893. GUENTHER, Konrap. LHinfuhrung in die Tro- penwelt Ceylon. Leipzig, 1911. Hayury, Freperic A. A treatise on the laws and customs of the Sinhalese including the 4 portions still surviving under the name, Kandyan Law. Colombo, 1923. Hocart, ArtHuur M. The basis of caste. Acta Orientalia 14: 203-223. 1935. Cairo, 1936. . Kings and councillors. ..Les castes. Paris, 1938 Hockuy;. 'T, ePhe two thousand isles. London, 1935. Hur anp Cry. Ceylon Government Gazette, Supplement (Ceylon Police Gazette, Part II). 1905-1907. Japon, Indo-Chine . Ceylan. Paris, 1850. JOHNSTON, A. Flag representing the introduc- tion of the caste of Chalias or Cinnamon- peelers into Ceylon. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. 2(n.s.): 44-84. 1886. JOINVILLE, Mr. On the religion and manners of the people of Ceylon. Asiatick Re- searches 7: 399-446. 1806. Knox, ROBERT. Island Ceylon. London, 1681. NITI-NIGHANDUWA, or the Vocabulary of the law as it existed in the last days of the Kandyan Kingdom. (Translated by C. J. R. Le .» Mesurier and T. B. Panabokke from the al Sinhalese original.) Colombo, 1880. NoRDOFF, CHARLES. world. New York, 1857. VOL. 35, NO. 4 q Stories of the island © 4 Co- A historical relation of the 4 pr. 15, 1945 ~ tion of the Kandyan Kingdom. Colombo, 1929. AF eeeTELLA, T. B. Sumptuary laws and social of the Kandyans. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc., Ceylon Branch 21: 119-128. 1909. mg - Parker, Henry. Ancient Ceylon. London, 1909. . Village. folk-tales of Ceylon, 3 vols. London, 1 ‘fp PERCIVAL, - Semilt An account of the Island i of Ceylon . , ed. 2. London, 1805. PERERA, ArTuur A. Glimpses of Singhalese gociallife. Indian Antiquary 32: 336-337. Hy 1903. . Sinhalese folklore notes. Bombay, 1917. ERERA, Epwarp W. Sinhalese banners and standards. Mem. Colombo Mus. Ser. A, no. 2. 1916. PHILALETHES (pseud. of RoperT FELLOWES). — The history of Ceylon and Robert Knoz’s ie relation of the Island. London, > 181 P ieRIS, P. E. Ceylon and the Hollanders, "1658-1796. Telippalai, Ceylon, 1918. . Ceylon and the Portuguese, 1505-1658, 2 vols. London, n.d. ——. Ceylon, the Portuguese era, 2 vols. Colombo, 1913-1914. PRIDHAM, Cuartes. An historical, political and ’ statistical account of Ceylon and its dependencies, 2 vols. London, 1849. _ QuerRoz, FERNAO DE. The temporal and spiritual conquest of Ceylon (1671-1686). (Translated in 3 vols. from Portuguese.) Colombo, 1930. E, CLARE. London, 1930. ali — Things seen in Ceylon. GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM D Ors, Sir Jonn H. A sketch of the constitu- Riserro, Jodo (1685). 125 Ribetro’s History of Ceilao with notes from de Barros, de Couto and Antonio Bocarro, translated from Portuguese by P. B. Pieris, 2 vols. Galle, 1899? SaraM, A. DE. A description of the casles on _ the Island of Ceylon, their trades and their services to the Government. Galle, 1823. Scumipt, Emin. Ceylon. Berlin, 1902. ScHOUTEN, Woutrer. Wouter Schouten’s ac- count of Ceylon (1658-1665). (Translated by Ph. Freudenberg, Esq.) Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc., Ceylon Branch 11: 315-354. 1890. SELKIRK, JAMES. London, 1844. SERVICE TENURES Commission Report, 1872. Sessional Papers of Ceylon. Srrr, Henry Cuarues. Ceylon and the Cinga- lese...,2 vols. London, 1850. SpitTeL, R.L. Wald Ceylon. Colombo, 1924. Suckiine, Horatio Joun. Ceylon..., 2 vols. London, 1876. TENNENT, Sir JAMES EMERSON. 2 vols. London, 1889. UpHam, Epwarp, ed. The Mahavansa, the Raja-ratnacari and the Raja-vali, forming the sacred and historical books of Ceylon; also a collection of tracts illustrative of the doctrine and literature of Buddhism. (Translated from Sinhalese, 3 vols.) Lon- don, 1883. Recollections of Ceylon. Ceylon..., VALENTIJN, Francois R. I. (1656-1727). Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien ..., (5 vols. in 9). Dordrecht, 1724-1726. VircHow, R. The Veddas. Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc., Ceylon Branch, 9: 374-875. 1885-1886. 126 BOTAN Y.—Seven new species of Gesneriaceae from Peru and Colombia! C. V. Morton, U. 8. National Museum. The seven new species of Gesneriaceae here described have been detected in recent collections from Colombia and Peru. One of them was found by Prof. César Vargas, of the University of Cuzco, and another by Dr. W. A. Archer, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The remaining ones were all collected in the Department of Antio- quia, Colombia, by Dr. R. D. Metcalf and Dr. José Cuatrecasas, as members of the third University of California Botanical Garden Expedition to the Andes. For the privilege of studying the latter I am in- debted to Prof. T. H. Goodspeed, of the University of California. The proposed new species belong to the genera Besleria, Cen- trosolenia, Columnea, and Episcia. Besleria Vargasii Morton, sp. nov. Frutex, caulibus subquadrangularibus, stri- gosis; petioli elongati; lamina foliorum ovalis, basi rotundata, denticulata, supra strigosa, mox glabrescens, subtus praecipue in venis strigosa, venis primarlis 14- vel 15-jugis; in- florescentia cymosa, longe pedunculata, flo- ribus numerosis; calycis lobi fere liberi, suborbi- culares, rotundati, sub apice mucronati, venosi, externe paullo strigosi, perspicue ciliato-fimbri- ati; corolla aurantiaca, erecta, basi non gibbosa, externe pilosula, intus basi glabra, faucem versus glandulosa, limbo terminali, subregu- lari; flamenta corollae tubi basin versus affixa, glabra; antherae parce glandulosae; ovarium glabrum; stylus glaber; stigma bilobum; discus semiannularis. Shrub 3 meters high; stems subquadrangu- lar, 4-5 mm in diameter, densely and coarsely sericeous-strigose above, glabrescent below; leaves opposite, equal, long-petiolate, the pe- tioles about 7 cm long, densely sericeous, the blades oval, 15-19 cm long, 8-11 cm broad, short-acuminate at apex, rounded and sub- complicate at base, papyraceous, remotely denticulate, deep green above, paler beneath, sericeous-strigose above. when young, soon gla- brate, persistently strigose beneath on the . 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of - the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 16, 1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES apex; calyx 3-4 mm long in flower, the lobes — Cuzco, Peru, at an elevation of 1,200 meters, ‘ments inserted in the middle of the corolla tube VOL. 35, No. 473m : veins, the primary veins 14 or 15 pairs, ele- vated beneath; inflorescence axillary, solitary, | corymbose, many-flowered, long-pedunculate, | the peduncles 12-16 cm long, sericeous-strigose, the pedicels 7-10 mm long in flower, up to 2.2 — | cm long in fruit, strigose, slightly thickened at. E | nearly free, equal, orbicular or broader than — | long, rounded at apex, conspicuously venose, lacking a midrib, slightly mucronate below i. apex, suberose, thinly sericeous externally, a i glabrous within, conspicuously and coarsely | ciliate-fimbriate; corolla orange, 13-15 mm | long, erect in calyx, not spurred or gibbous at base, the tube cylindric, 4-5 mm broad, slightly ventricose toward apex, becoming 5.5-6 mm a broad, slightly contracted in throat, sparingly — pilosulous externally, lacking a hairy ring with- in at insertion of filaments, glandular-pilosu- lous within throat, the limb terminal, sub-. a regular, 5-6 mm broad, the lobes suborbicular or broader than long, spreading or reflexed, rounded, glabrous and eglandular on both sides, not ciliate; filaments broad, flattened, in- : serted about 2 mm above base of corolla tube, — glabrous, eglandular; anthers connivent, about 1 mm long, 2 mm broad, the cells orbicular, confluent at apex, sparingly glandular; ovary glabrous; style glabrous; stigma bilobed, pu- — bescent; disk semiannular, glabrous; berries (immature) spherical, 7 mm in diameter. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1875008, collected at Mandor, Marcapata, — Province of Quispicanchis, Department of — December 11, 1943, by C. Vargas (no. 3732). — The most nearly allied species is Besleria tetrangularis Ruiz, also a native of Peru, which differs in the much shorter hairs of the stems, shorter petioles, smaller leaf blades with fewer lateral veins, much broader corollas, and fila- rather than near the base. Centrosolenia conferta Morton, sp. nov. Caules radicantes, ramulis brevissimis; folia — rosulata, cujusque paris valde inaequalia, — majora anguste elliptica, infra medium usque ad basim gradatim attenuata, apice acuminata, © “Apr. 15, 1945 lata, supra viridia, glabra, subtus pallidi- “ora, in venis strigillosa, venis primariis 10- yel 11-jugis; folia minora stipuliformia, sub- ulata, angustissima; flores axillares, conferti, -pedunculo communi obsoleto, pedicellis sparse ilbo-pilosis; bracteae rubrae, inconspicuae, an- - gustae; ealycis lobi rubri, lineari-subulati, yosticus deflexus, brevior, remote glanduloso- denticulati, utrinque strigillosi; corolla alba, ar ice rubro-maculata, calcarata, tubo angusto, sursum ventricoso, externe pilosulo, limbo amplo, patente; filamenta glabra; antherae gla- -brae, basi subsagittatae; ovarium villosum; stylus pilosulus; stigma pubescens; discus in 3 andulam elongatam solitariam reductus. i — Stem about 6 mm in diameter, radicant, giv- ing rise to short branchlets barely 1 cm long, these strigillose, bearing a few leaves in a ‘rosette; leaves of a pair.strongly unequal, the la ger 20—32 cm long, the expanded part 15-20 em n long, 4.2-5.8 em broad, gradually narrowed below middle to a petiole-like base 4-12 em long (a proper petiole lacking or nearly so), thin- chartaceous, remotely biserrulate, acuminate at apex, green and glabrous above, paler beneath, _ Strigillose on the midrib and veins, the primary _ veins 10 or 11 pairs; smaller leaf of a pair - stipule-like, nearly filiform, about 1.8 cm long, less than 1 mm broad; flowers axillary, crowded, the common Setividle obsolete, the pedicels - 10 mm long, sparingly white-pilose; bracts in- conspicuous, about 14 mm long and, 1 mm broad, entire, pilose; calyx lobes red, free, _ linear-subulate, subequal, 18-19 mm long (the posterior deflexed at base, about 16 mm long), 15-2 mm broad, filiform-attenuate, slightly _ narrowed toward base, remotely glandular- denticulate (the teeth 1-3 to a side), sparsely _ strigose on both sides; corolla white with a _ broad red stripe on anterior side below apex, _ about 35 mm long, oblique in calyx, calcarate _ at posterior base, the tube very slender near _ base, about 1.5 mm broad, rather abruptly en- _ larged and ventricose upwardly, becoming 7 - mm broad, contracted to throat (this 6 mm _ broad), finely pilosulous externally, glabrous - within, the limb ample, spreading, 18 mm _ broad, the lobes rotund, not fimbriate, glandu- _ lar within; filaments glabrous; anthers conni- vent but not connate, about 2 mm long, 1.6 s mm broad, subsagittate at base, glabrous, the cells oblong, discrete, parallel, the connective So . MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE 127 not thickened; ovary elongate, densely villous; style conspicuously pilosulous; stigma bilobed, pubescent; disk reduced to a solitary, elongate, acute, glabrous, posterior gland. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1833447, collected north of Dabeiba, on road to Turbo, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, at an elevation of 300 to 350 meters, February 25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Metcalf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30200). Related to Centrosolenia decurrens Morton of Costa Rica, which may be distinguished as follows: Anthers bearded at apex; calyx lobes entire; hairs of stems and pedicels red; leaf blades hirsute along midrib beneath........... C. decurrens Anthers glabrous; calyx lobes remotely glandular- denticulate; hairs of stems and pedicels white; leaf blades strigillose beneath on midrib. C. conferta Columnea parviflora Morton, sp. nov. Caules vix ramosi, apice rubro-hirsuti; folia cujusque paris valde inaequalia, breviter peti- olata; lamina foliorum majorum elliptica, acuta, basi obliqua, serrulata, supra viridis, albo-hirsuta, subtus ubique rubro-purpurea, hirsuta, venis primariis 4-jugis; folia minora stipuliformia, lineari-lanceolata; flores in axillis aggregati, breviter pedicellati; calycis lobi liberi, valde inaequales, 2 antici suborbicu- lares, denticulati, obtusi, unguiculati, 2 la- terales obovato-spathulati, unguiculati, denti- culati, posticus parvus, lineari-lanceolatus, at- tenuatus, integer, omnes rubri, dense utrinque hirsuti (posticus intus glaber); corolla minuta, erecta, dense albo-sericeo-pilosa, limbo regu- lari, lobis minutis, erectis; antherae parvae, liberae; ovarium-albo-pilosum; discus in glan- dulam posticam reductus. Stems unbranched, or branched at base only, 30-35 cm long, 2.5-3 mm in diameter, densely red-hirsute in younger parts; leaves of a pair strongly unequal, the larger short-petiolate, the petiole 4-7 mm long, hirsute; larger leaf blades elliptic, 4.5-9.5 em long, 2-5.5 cm broad, acute, oblique at base, the lower base rounded or subcordate, the upper cuneate, serrulate, chartaceous, fragile when dry, green and white-hirsute above, red-purple all over beneath, white-hirsute, especially along the midrib, the primary veins 4 pairs; smaller leaves of a pair petiolate, the blades linear- lanceolate, not over 1 cm long and 2 mm broad, 128 acuminate, entire or toothed, green and nearly glabrous above, red beneath; flowers 2—5 in an axil, short-pedicellate, the pedicel 2-8 mm long, bracteate at base, the bracts minute, lanceo- late, 2-7 mm long, acuminate, red; calyx lobes © free, very unequal, the posterior one erect, linear-lanceolate, 5-7 mm long, 0.8-1.5 mm broad, attenuate, entire, the two lateral spatu- late-obovate, 7-8 mm long, 4.5-6 mm broad above middle, concave, subrecurved, unguicu- late, glandular-denticulate upwardly (the teeth 1 or 2 to aside), acute at apex, the two anterior lobes suborbicular, 8-9 mm long, 7-9 mm broad, concave, subrecurved, unguiculate, ob- tuse at apex, glandular-denticulate (the teeth - 2 or 3 to a side), all lobes red, densely red- hirsute on both sides (except the posterior, this glabrous within), accrescent after anthesis; corolla yellow, 7-8 mm long, erect in calyx, gibbous at posterior base, the tube cylindric, not ventricose, straight, 2 mm broad at base, 2.5 mm broad above base, densely white- sericeous-pilose externally, glabrous within, the throat 1.5 mm. broad, the limb subregular, about 3 mm broad, the lobes minute, erect, about 1 mm long, long-pilose without, glabrous within; filaments very slender, glabrous, the sheath elongate; anthers free, oblong, minute, 0.5-0.6 mm long, 0.3-0.4 mm broad; ovary white-pilose; style glabrous, slender; stigma conspicuously bilobed; disk reduced to a single entire or bilobed, posterior gland. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1517373, collected at Tutunendo, 20 kilo- meters north of Quibdé, Intendencia del Chocé, Colombia, at about 80 meters elevation, May 19-20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2145). ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Cotomsia. El Chocé: La Concepcién, 15 km east of Quibdé6, alt. 75 meters, Archer 2076, 2205. El Valle: Near highway bridge over Rio Dagua, about 20 km east of Buenaventura, alt. 40 meters, Killip & Garcia 33331. Antioquia: North of Dabeiba, along road to Turbo, alt. 300-350 meters, Metcalf & Cuatrecasas 30179. This plant is evidently an epiphyte and is so described on all the specimens cited above ex- cept the type. Archer’s note on his no. 2145 says “‘on the ground,” but this is probably an error. The specimen has the appearance of an epiphyte. According to Archer’s notes, the fruit is white. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 4 — ‘Columnea parviflora has the smallest corolla of any described Columnea. It is doubtful to which section it should be referred, but the closest relationship seems to be with Columnea ~ Lehmanni Mansf. and C. Herthae Mansf., both of which Mansfeld referred with doubt to sect. — Collandra. Columnea parviflora may be dis- : ; tinguished from these as follows: Ovary glabrous. Corolla 18 mm. long. .C. Herthae Ovary sericeous-pilose. Corolla 26 mm. long, the lobes about 4 mm. long; leaf blades acuminate. .C. Lehmannii Corolla 7-8 mm. long, the lobes about 1 mm. long; leaf blades acute........ C. parviflora Columnea Lehmannii was described from a specimen collected on the western slopes of the Western Andes of Popaydn, El Cauca, Colombia, at a comparatively high altitude (1,200-1,500 meters). The type is Lehmann 6063. I have not seen it, but the following collection agrees very well with the description: West of Rio San Joaquin, Micay Valley, El Cauca, alt. 1,200-1,400 meters, Killip 7884. Columnea Herthae was described from San _ Carlos de los Colorados, Ecuador (Schulze- Rhonhof 1939). I have seen no specimens answering the description. Columnea pulcherrima Morton, sp. nov. Caules elongati, non ramosi, dense rubro- hirsuti; folia cujusque paris valde inaequalia, sessilia; lamina foliorum majorum oblanceo- — lata, abrupte et argute acuminata, basi valde inaequalis, cordata, serrulata, supra viridis, hirsuta, subtus viridis, marginibus et venis perspicue rubro-purpureis exceptis, hirsuta, venis primariis 7- vel 8-jugis; flores axillares, conferti, longe pedicellati; bracteae rubrae, in- _ conspicuae, lineari-lanceolatae, integri; calycis lobi liberi, lineari-subulati, subulato-dentati, dentibus 5- vel 6-jugis, elongatis, perspicue longe hirsuti, intus glabri; corolla lutea, faucem : versus rubra, basi gibbosa, tubo cylindrico, piloso, limbo subregulari, lobis non ciliatis; filamenta glabra; antherae exsertae, connatae, quadratae; ovarium parce pilosum; stylus glaber; discus in glandulam magnam posticam — et glandulam anticam parvam reductus. Stems climbing, unbranched, 70 cm long or more, becoming 1 cm in diameter, about 5mm in diameter near apex, densely red-hirsute, the — hairs 3-4 mm long; leaves of a pair strongly unequal, sessile; larger leaf blades oblanceo- “Apr. 15, 1945 late, 14-24 cm long, 4.5-8 em broad, abruptly ‘and sharply acuminate at apex, strongly un- equal at base, cordate, membranaceous, fragile when dry, inconspicuously serrulate, green ‘above, short-hirsute (the hairs flaccid, white, ’ few-celled), red-purple beneath all around mar- _ gin and along midrib and usually at apices of the primary veins, elsewhere green, short- hirsute, the primary veins 7 or 8 pairs; flowers axillary, crowded, the pedicels slender, 4—8 in : ; oa 3-3.5 em long, conspicuously long-red- hirsute; bracts red, inconspicuous, linear- lanceolate, about 15 mm long, 2-3.5 mm broad, long-attenuate, entire, hirsute; calyx lobes free, erect, linear-subulate, about 25 mm long (the posterior one about 20 mm long), 2 mm. _ broad, attenuate to a filiform apex, subulate- _ toothed (the teeth 5 or 6 to a side, up to 7 mm long and 0.2 mm broad), densely hirsute ex- ‘te nally (the hairs red, many-celled, flaccid, _ 2-5 mm long), glabrous within; corolla yellow with a red band around throat, 4: 7 mm long, erect in calyx, gibbous at posterior base, nar- rowed to about 3.5 mm above base, the tube _ cylindric, 7-10 mm broad at middle, minutely . puberulous externally and also sparsely long- “ pilose (the hairs colorless, eglandular), glabrous _ within, slightly narrowed to throat, the limb _ subregular, 7-9 mm broad, the lobes erect, 3 yellow, about 4 mm long, not ciliate; filaments connate at base into a sheath about 6 mm long, _ glabrous; anthers exserted at maturity, con- _ nate, quadrate, 1.5 mm long and broad, the _ cells discrete, parallel, dehiscent throughout; ovary sparingly pilose; style glabrous; disk composed of one large posterior gland and a _ smaller anterior gland. _ Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. _ 1833423, collected north of Dabeiba, along road to Turbo, Department of Antioquia, _ Colombia, at 300 to 350 meters elevation, - February 25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Met- a calf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30174). _ The present species is not closely related to _ any of the described members of the section _ Collandra, but is very near one as yet unde- _ scribed that was collected in the Intendencia of Choeé by E. P. Killip (nos. 35024 and 35051). se Columnea rubrocincta, described below, has a similar corolla, but is not really of close af- finity. The two are different in many ways, _ some of which may be indicated as follows: MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAB 129 Leaf blades red all over the lower surface, 6-10 em long, acute; calyx lobes 6.5-7 mm long, bearing 1 pair of teeth; corolla 2.8—3.5 cm long, the lobes ciliate with capitate-glandular hairs; filaments glandular-pilosulous. .C. rubrocincta Leaf blades red on margins and veins only, hir- sute, 14-24 em long, sharply acuminate; calyx lobes 25 mm long, bearing 5 or 6 pairs of teeth; corolla 4—4.7 cm long, the lobes not ciliate; fila- Piette RiIsDTOUs fT Se oan C. pulcherrima Columnea rubrocincta Morton, sp. nov. Planta terrestris, caulibus elongatis, apicem versus foliosis, substrigosis; folia cujusque paris valde inaequalia; lamina foliorum majorum obovato-oblonga, acuta, basi valde inaequalis, rotundata vel truncata, crenata, supra viridis, strigosa, subtus rubro-purpurea ubique, stri- gosa, venis primariis 6-jugis; folia minora sub- sessilia, ovata vel elliptica, parva; flores in axillis conferti, pedicellis ca. 6; calycis lobi liberi, erecti, aequales, lanceolati, acuminati, subulato-dentati, utrinque pilosi; corolla lutea, apicem versus rubrocincta, erecta, basi gib- bosa, tubo cylindrico, recto, faucem versus paullo constricto,’ externe puberulo et pilis capitato-glanduliferis dissitis praedito, limbo subregulari, lobis superioribus paullo connatis, rubris, alteris deltoideis, luteis; filamenta glandoloso-pilosula; antherae connatae; ova- rium dense pilosum; discus in glandulam posti- cam reductus. Terrestrial; stems unbranched, 80 cm long or more, 8-9 mm in diameter, leafy only near apex, substrigose, the hairs white; leaves of a pair strongly unequal, the larger short-petio- late, the petiole 5-10 mm long, appressed- pilose; larger leaf blades obovate-oblong, 6—10 cm long, 3-4.7 em broad, acute, unequal at base, rounded or truncate on both sides at base, inconspicuously crenate, chartaceous, green above, strigose, red-purple all over beneath, strigose, the primary veins 6 pairs; smaller leaves of a pair subsessile, the blades ovate to elliptic, 1.7-3.2 cm long, 1.1—-1.3 cm _ broad, acute, subcordate at base, green above, red- purple beneath; flowers axillary, the pedicels about 6 in an axil, about 1 cm long, densely white-appressed-pilose; bracts minute, linear, 4—5 mm long, entire; calyx lobes brown, free, | erect, equal, lanceolate, 6.5—-7 mm long, 2 mm broad (excl. teeth), acuminate, bearing a single pair of subulate teeth below the middle (the teeth about 1.5 mm long, 0.2 mm broad), : ° ee a 130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35,NO.4 densely white-hirsute externally, pilose within; corolla yellow with a conspicuous red band around the throat, 2.8-3.5 cm long, erect in calyx, conspicuously gibbous at posterior base, narrowed above base to 3.5 mm broad,” the tube cylindric, 8-9 mm broad at middle, slightly narrowed in throat (this 6-8 mm broad), finely puberulous externally (the hairs mixed with longer, capitate-glandular ones), glabrous within, puberulous within throat, the limb subregular, 6-8 mm broad, the 2 upper lobes about 4 mm long, connate for 1 mm, red, the other 3 lobes yellow, free, deltoid, about 2.5 mm long, 5mm broad at base, ciliate (the hairs capitate-glandular); filaments connate into a sheath for 5 mm at base, glandular-pilosulous above; anthers exserted, persistently connate, broader than long, about 1.6 mm long, 2 mm broad, the cells discrete, parallel, dehiscent throughout; ovary densely white-pilose; style glabrous; stigma slightly bilobed; disk reduced to a thick, posterior gland. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1850674, collected between Valdivia and Yaru- mal, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 2,200 meters elevation, February 20, 1942, by R. D. Metcalf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30133). Columnea rubrocincta belongs to section Col- landra. Only two or three species of this section have been described from Colombia, but a dozen or more are represented in recent col- lections. Among the features of the present species to be especially noted are the uniformly red-purple lower surfaces of the leaves, pu- bescence of a strigose type, the relatively small calyx lobes, each with a single subulate tooth, the yellow corolla much exceeding the calyx and bearing a conspicuous red band at the throat, the capitate glands on corolla and fila- ments, and the exserted anthers. Columnea silvatica Morton, sp. nov. Epiphytica; caules parce strigillosi; folia cujusque paris aequalia, breviter petiolata; lamina oblongo-lanceolata, acuminata, basi cuneata, integra, revoluta, supra glabra, sub- tus parce strigillosa, venis primariis 2-jugis; flores solitari, breviter pedicellati; calycis lobi liberi, aequales, ovato-lanceolati, longe at- tenuati, basi perspicue dentati, externe pilosi, intus glabri; corolla coccinea, erecta, non cal- carata, tubo calycem multo superante, valde bilabiata, galea acuta, lobis lateralibus brevi- 4 bus, acutis; ovarium apice sparse pilosum; ~ discus in glandulam posticam bilobam re- — ductus. Epiphyte; stems about 40 cm long, sparingly a branched, about 3 mm in diameter, sparsely — strigillose; leaves of a pair equal, short-petio- late, the petiole 3-4 mm long, sericeous-pilose; leaf blades narrowly oblong-lanceolate, 4.5-7 4 ; em long, 9-11 mm broad, long-acuminate, % cuneate at base, chartaceous and fragile when _ dry, entire, somewhat revolute, pale and gla- brous on upper surface, darker beneath, sparse- ly strigillose, the lateral veins 2 pairs, obscure ~ above, the secondary veins obscure on both ~ sides; flowers solitary, axillary, ebracteate, the pedicel 7-10 mm long, erect, red-sericeous- pilose; calyx lobes red, free, erect, equal, ovate- lanceolate, about 2 cm long, 12 mm, broad near ~ base (including teeth), sharply long-attenuate at apex (the apex itself entire, 15 mm long, 5 mm broad at base), deeply toothed at base — (the teeth 5 or 6 to a side, the largest 5 mm long and 1.6 mm broad at base), sericeous-pilose externally, especially at base of midrib, gla- brous within, ciliate; corolla scarlet, erect in calyx, not calcarate at base, about 5 cm long, the tube about 3.5 cm long, about 3 mm broad a at base, straight, gradually enlarged upwardly, about 7 mm broad at throat, sparsely jointed- pilose externally, the limb. strongly bilabiate, the galea about 1.6 cm long, the free part9 mm long, 7.5 mm broad, acute, the lateral lobes short, the free parts 4 mm long and 2.5 mm broad at base, acute, the lower lobe 10 mm long, ~ a 3 mm broad; anthers oblong, 1.8 mm long, 0.8 mm broad, the cells discrete, parallel, longitu- dinally dehiscent; ovary sparsely long-pilose . at apex; disk reduced to a bilobed, glabrous, posterior gland. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. — 4 1833439, collected north of Dabeiba, along road to Turbo, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, at an elevation of 300 to 350 meters, February 25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Met- ~ calf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30191). A second — specimen was collected at the same locality, Metcalf & Cuatrecasas 30178. The collectors . ‘ 4 state that the plant grows in deep rain-forest (rainfall 320 inches a year) in the crotches of trees, always at least 10 feet from ground. The ~ leaves are succulent when fresh. A ‘ Dt oh x gr” Fg . a 15, 1945 ‘Species of the section Hucolumnea*are not numerous in Colombia, the center of develop- ment being in Costa Rica. The present species is perhaps related to C. Kienastiana Regel,? de- seribed from ‘‘Colombian Andes” from a col- le ition of R. Pfau, from which it may be sepa- r pated as follows (from description) : ves (incl. petiole) 2.5-3.5 em-long, subrotund Bat ie calyx lobes 11-12 mm long, 3 as long as corolla, bearing 1 or 2 teeth at base; corolla 4 tube about equalling limb..... C. Kienastiana aves (incl. petiole) 4.8-7.4 cm long, cuneate at iiss; calyx lobes 20 mm long, more than } as - long as corolla, bearing 5 or 6 teeth at base; corolla tube much longer than limb. SS C. silvatica ; 8 Regel described* another species from Colom- via, C. ringens, also from a collection of R. Pfau. This also is known to me from descrip- C n only. It is evidently more distantly related d may be distinguished as follows: a 3 em long, the tube shorter than the calyx Biches; calyx lobes denticulate or subentire; leaf blades up to 27 mm broad........ C. ringens Corolla 5 cm long, the tube much exceeding the a calyx lobes; calyx lobes conspicuously and ia deeply toothed; leaf blades 9-11 mm broad. a ,C. silvatica Episcia peltata Morton, sp. nov. _ Herba decumbens, caulibus basi radicanti- bus, sursum parce hirsutis; folia cujusque paris aequalia, longe petiolata, petiolo rubro, hir- 4 to; lamina foliorum elliptico-oblonga, magna, ints, prope basin perspicue peltata, herbacea, Berosse dentata, supra pilosa, subtus hirsuta, -venis rubris, primariis 10— 13-jugis; flores axil- lai es, conferti, pedunculo communi brevissimo, _pedicellis elongatis, hirsutis; bracteae lineares; _ealycis lobi liberi, lineari-oblongi, obtusi, basi angustati, glanduloso-denticulati, externe pilosi, intus glabri; corolla flava, obliqua, sub- ealearata, tubo cylindrico, tenuiter piloso, limbo magno, patente, lobis non ciliatis; fila- menta glabra; antherae oblongae, glabrae; -ovarium pilosum; stylus glaber; stigma bilo- bum; discus in glandulam angustam posticam é reductus; lamellae placentarum intus solum- | 4 ovuliferae. ~ Decumbent herb 80-50 cm long, the stems red, 4-5 mm in diameter, radicant at the lower ‘nodes, sparingly hirsute upwardly; leaves of a Bt. = * Act. Hort. Petrop. 8: 274. 1883. _ * Op. cit. 273. MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE 131 pair equal, long-petiolate, the petiole 6-10 em long, red, hirsute, enlarged and flat at base; leaf blades elliptic-oblong, the well-developed ones 11.5-22 em long, 4-8 em broad, acute, peltate, the petiole inserted 3-7 mm above base, the leaf base itself rounded, herbaceous, deeply dentate or doubly dentate to base, sparsely pilose above, hirsute beneath, green on both sides, the midrib and veins red beneath, the primary veins 10-13 pairs; inflorescence axillary, the flowers numerous, crowded, borne on a short common peduncle (1-2 mm long), the pedicels elongate, 2—2.4 cm long, reddish, hirsute; bracts inconspicuous, linear, up to 1.8 em long and 2.5 mm broad, attenuate to both ends, entire, sparsely pilose; calyx lobes free, linear-oblong, about 14 mm long, 3 mm broad (the posterior one narrower, 2.5 mm broad), obtuse, slightly narrowed toward base, glandu- lar-denticulate (the teeth 1 or 2 to a side), sparsely jointed-pilose externally, glabrous within; corolla yellow, oblique in calyx, about 35 mm long, subcalearate at posterior base, the tube cylindric, 3-4 mm broad at middle, about 25 mm long, finely pilose externally, glabrous within, slightly enlarged to throat, glandular within throat, the limb ample, widely spread- ing, 20-25 mm broad, bilabiate, the lobes en- tire, not ciliate, the anterior and posterior large, the lateral smaller; filaments slender, glabrous; anthers free, barely exserted from corolla tube, glabrous, 1 mm long, 0.8 mm broad, the cells oblong, discrete, parallel, de- hiscent throughout, the connective not en- larged or extended; ovary densely pilose; style glabrous; stigma conspicuously bilobed; disk reduced to a narrow, elongate, acute, glabrous, posterior gland; ovules borne only on the inner surface of placentae. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1883352, collected on banks of Rfo Cauca at Puerto Valdivia, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 240 to 260 meters elevation, February 17 to 20, 1942, by R. D. Metcalf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30098). Pending a revision of the group, the genus Episcia is here accepted in the inclusive sense of Bentham and Hooker. The present species does not belong in Episcia in the restricted sense as emended by Sprague. It differs from all described species of Episcia in its peltate leaves. 132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO.4 ICHTHYOLOGY.—Emmelichthyops atlanticus, a new genus and species of fish 3 (family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, with a key to related genera.’ ~ LEONARD P. Scuuttz, U.S. National Museum. Z While looking through Dr. A. E. Parr’s publication ‘‘“Teleostean Shore and Shallow- water Fishes from the Bahamas and Turks Island” (Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 3 (4): 60. 1930), I observed that figure 12 did not agree with Poey’s figure of his spe- cies Inermia vittata from Cuba. Poey’s specimens in the national collections con- firmed this observation, and upon writing to Dr. Daniel Merriman, director of the Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory, the two specimens on which Parr’s figure was based were kindly lent to me for study and description. I am most grateful to Dr. Merriman for the loan of the specimens and for permission to describe them in this paper. Family EMMELICHTHYIDAE Before it was possible for me to assign this new genus and new species to any family of fishes, its relationships were com- pared with several forms that appear re- lated to it. Various authors have placed these genera in the following families: Emmelichthyidae, Centracantidae, Maeni- dae, Merolepidae, Erythrichthyidae, Dip- terygonotidae, and Inermiidae, all of which I propose to unite in the single family Em- melichthyidae, which is defined as follows: Marine fishes with the body oblong, fusi- form, or compressed; mouth oblique, the lower jaw longer than or equal to upper jaw; teeth obsolete, small, or well developed on jaws or vomer, usually lacking on pala- tines and pterygoids; preopercle entire, with thin membranous posterior border, with or without thin serrae or small spines at least in the young; opercle with or with- out one or two flat thin spines; premaxil- laries greatly protractile, the ascending bony process reaching to orbits or even to rear of orbits, nearly to occiput; gill mem- branes free from isthmus, extending far forward, with a narrow free fold across isthmus; gills 4, with a slit behind fourth 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received February 21, 1945. arch; pseudobranchiae present; lower — pharnygeals with teeth; pyloric caeca few; - nostrils paired; scales strongly ctenoid, coverings body and head, except snout, lower jaw and sometimes underside of ~ head; a scaly sheath along soft rayed parts of both dorsal and anal fins but no scales, on these fins; caudal fin scaled, deeply — forked or emarginate; lateral line continu- — ous, complete, ending on caudal fin, mostly following dorsal contour anteriorly but ~ running along middle of side of caudal ~ peduncle; accessory pelvic scale well de- — veloped; pelvics I, 5, thoracic, mserted ~ nearly under base of pectorals, the latter usually with scaly bases; spiny dorsal and ~ soft dorsal continuous or separated, with VIII to XVII spines and 9 to 25 soft rays; anal fin with II or III spines and 8 to 24 © rays; all fin spines slender; gill rakers slen- — der, numerous; air bladder present; the — maxillary either slips under the preorbital ~ or is almost fully exposed posteriorly; the dentary has a large dorsally projecting leaf- like bony lobe posteriorly inside of mouth. Several genera in this group of fishes have % been reviewed in part by other ichthyolo- ~ gists, and the literature has been brought together by them, and so it is not necessary for me to give a complete bibliography. Dr. Paul Chabanaud published in 1924 a a small paper entitled ‘‘Remarques sur Diptery- ° gonotus gruveli Chab. et sur la Famille des — Dipterygonotidae”’ (Bull. Soc. Zool. France ~ 49: 248-256) in which he gives a synoptic key — to the genera Inermia, Plagiogeneion, Ery- throdes, Boxaodon, Emmelichthys, and Diptery- gonotus. There follows a section listing the — various species under each genus. The next — review or analysis of genera was givenby ~ Henry W. Fowler (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, 12: 344. 1933) under the family name Emme- lichthyidae, in which the following genera were __ recognized: Emmelichthys, Dipterygonotus, Iner- mia, Erythrodes, Plagiogeneton, and Cypse- lichthys. A list of species for each genus is given with synonymy. In 1936 three genera belonging 4 in this group of fishes were placed in the family . 15, 1945 Centracantidae by Fowler in his big work entitled “The Marine Fishes of West Africa” (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (2): 860-865, 1300-1301). _ From my examination of the literature it ; g uppears that this is the first time the Maenidae ave been combined with the Emmelichthyidae ‘into a single family. This seems a logical step, wever, when based on the external anatomy a d such bony structures as can be examined : ithout the preparation of formal skeletons. ‘The true relationships within the present fam- of and perhaps other genera not yet referred - o this group, will have to be worked out from earefully prepared skeletons when material for t he genera, now apparently lacking, becomes able in the museums where such a study ald be made. My arrangement, therefore, is a Dtative one, and I am unable to conclude of Dist significance the maxillary may be in ‘sl oping almost completely under the pre- orbital in one group of genera while in the other ‘group the maxillary is almost wholly exposed posteriorly. Otherwise these genera appear to have much in common. vA A = Emmelichthyops, n. gen. _ Genotype—Emmelichthyops atlanticus, n. sp- _ This new genus is essentially characterized by the two dorsal fins completely separated, the space between fully scaled, the first dorsal “spiny, the second with a feeble spine followed *b y soft rays; the pelvics are thoracic, inserted a trifle behind a vertical line through rear of pec- toral bases; body fusiform, snout bluntly . caudal peduncle rounded, rather slen- the Retekilltry slips under wasrhital and : ‘mostly concealed by it; eye large; scales cten- oid, on body and head: except snout, and underside of head; gill membranes extending far forward, free from isthmus; gill rakers 8 ender, numerous; teeth minute on jaws, none ‘yomer, palatines, pterygoids, or tongue; premaxillaries excessively protractile, the as- cending process extending a trifle past a line through rear of orbits. Other characters are | ing pages. _ It differs from all other genera referred to the family Emmelichthyidae in having the SCHULTZ: A NEW FISH FROM THE BAHAMAS 133 other related genera by the accompanying key. Named Emmelichthyops, meaning appearing like Emmelichthys. Emmelichthyops atlanticus, n. sp. Emmelichthys vittatus (non Poey) Parr, Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 3 (4): 60, fig. 12. 1927 (the two specimens herein described). Holotype.—B.0.C. 2515, a specimen, 98 mm. in standard length, from Cat Island, Bahamas, taken at night with surface light, Pawnee, March 21-22, 1927. Paratype.-—U.S.N:M. 123165, a specimen 80 mm. long, bearing same data as holotype. The following measurements, expressed in hundredths of the standard length, are re- corded first for the holotype, then for the paratype. Standard lengths 98 and 80 mm. Total lengths 116 and 94 mm. Greatest depth of body at front of spiny dorsal fin 17.4 and 19.0; length of head 24.6 and 27.7; length of snout 7.96 and 8.75; diam- eter of orbit 7.66 and 9.12; postorbital length of head 10.8 and 11.9; least width of bony in- terorbital space 6.02 and 6.50; tip of snout to rear edge of maxillary 9.90 and 11.0; edge of anterior nostril to tip of snout 4.49 and 5.25; edge of posterior nostril to eye 2.35 and 2.38; distance from base of last anal ray to midbase of caudal fin 21.4 and 21.3; least depth of caudal peduncle 5.82 and 6.62; pelvic insertion to anal origin 35.7 and 32.6; anus (center) to anal origin 6.94 and 7.12; tip of snout to origin of spiny dorsal fin 35.2 and 37.5; to second dorsal 66.2 and 68.0; to anal origin 65.8 and 65.0; tip of snout to pectoral insertion 25.5 and 28.0; to pelvic insertion 30.1 and 32.4; tip of snout to center of anus 58.7 and 57.9; length of longest (third or fourth) dorsal spine 14.3 and 15.4; longest anal spine (second) 4.59 and 2.75; length of spine at front of second dorsal 2.35 and 2.87; length of pelvic spine 8.37 and 10.0; longest soft ray of dorsal fin 9.08 and 10.9, anal fin 8.67 and 9.75, pectoral 14.3 and 15.0, pelvic 12.3 and 13.5, and of caudal fin 17.2 and 19.8. The following counts were made, respec- tively: Dorsal rays X-I, 10 and X-I, 11; anal rays II, 11 and II, i, 10; pectoral rays ii, 16— ii, 17 and ii, 17-ii, 17; pelvics I, 5-I, 5 and I, 5-I, 5; branched caudal rays 8+7 =15 and 8+7 =15; scale rows from upper edge of gill 134 opening to midbase of caudal fin 78 and 77; scales from origin spiny dorsal to lateral line 8 and 8, and from origin of second dorsal to lateral line 8 and 8; scales from anal origin to lateral line 10 and 9; scales between the two dorsal fins 11 and 11; scales from origin of spiny dorsal to occiput 18 and 19; zigzag scales around least part of caudal peduncle 24 and 24; gill rakers on first gill arch 8+1+21 and 8 +1421. Body fusiform, greatest depth through base of spiny dorsal; head bluntly pointed; caudal peduncle slender, .its least depth equals bony interorbital space; dorsal and ventral profiles about equally curved; snout nearly equal to orbit but a little shorter than postorbital length of head; interorbital space slightly convex; lateral line complete, continuous to at least halfway out middle rays of caudal fin; body covered with small ctenoid scales, these con- tinuing on head covering operculum, pre- orbital and top of head to in front of nostrils; tip of snout and area from front of eye to tip of snout, gill membranes, and lower jaw, not scaled; middorsal line and midventral line evenly scaled over, no crowding of scales; pelvies with a long accessory scaly appendage reaching halfway the length of the pelvic fins; base of pectoral fins fully scaled, these scales continuing out along the rays for about two- thirds their length; caudal fin sealed out about four-fifths its length; base of soft dorsal fin and soft anal fin with a scaly sheath, one scale wide but no scales on the rays or membranes, these fins partly hidden between the sheath when depressed; origin of spiny dorsal at a vertical line near middle of length of pelvics; a vertical line passes through the origins of both second dorsal and anal fins; pectorals rather short, equal to snout and eye, not quite reaching as far back as tips of pelvics, the latter reaching to under the base of the sixth dorsal spine; last ray of soft dorsal and anal fins a little elongated; pectoral fins and lobes of caudal fin pointed; posterior or distal margin of spiny dorsal fin slightly concave or truncate; distal margin of soft dorsal and anal fins truncate to very slightly concave; gill rakers slender; teeth minute, probably in a single row on premaxil- laries, obsolete or absent on lower jaw; no teeth on vomer, pterygoids or tongue; dentary with a high leaflike lobe extending dorsally, so that when mouth is widely opened this forms inner JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Pe ™ Re Z ‘ “ae side of mouth; premaxillaries excessively pro- — tractile, the ascending process reaching a little — past orbits when mouth is closed; preopercle 4 with thin membraneous edge, the lower corner — extended to form a projecting lobe, its edge : with thin, flexible serrae; opercle ending in a — short, thin flat spine; upper edge of shoulder — near upper part of gill opening with a notch; nostrils paired, somewhat near together but well separated by a narrow dermal isthmus — anus | between anterior and posterior ones; some distance in front of anal origin but closer to the latter than to tips of pelvic fins; longest — gill raker about equal to distance that posteraay nostril is from eye. Color (in alcohol) light brownish, pale below, midline of back with a brownish streak — and two more narrow brown streaks between it — 4 and the lateral line, and possibly one or two more narrow brown streaks below lateral line ~ anteriorly, but these are hardly discernible — now; inside of gill cover rather heavily black — pigmented; top of head with numerous small — brown specks. A small dark brown elongate — spot, two-thirds the way out on the lower two — rays of the lower lobe of caudal fin in the para-— type, is absent in the holotype. This new species differs from all other genera — and species in the family Emmelichthyidae as qi diagnosed in the key below. It was named — atlanticus because of its occurrence in the | Atlantic Ocean and because it undoubtedly ~ will be found to be a pelagic species of wide distribution in this ocean. It should be noted — that specimens of most of the species referred — to this family are very scarce in museum col- lections. Key To GENERA OF EMMELICHTHYIDAE RELATED TO EMMELICHTHYOPS la. Maxillary slipping for most part under and almost wholly concealed by preorbital. — 2a. Spinous and soft dorsal fins connected, scarcely emarginate or not emarginate © between spiny and soft part; last rays of — soft dorsal and anal fins elongate or with ~ last ray as long as next to last rays. , 3a. Soft dorsal and anal rays shorter than spines, and when fins are depressed soft rays concealed in scaly sheath at 7 base of rays; body deep, compressed, | depth 22 to 23 vomer fopthless: dorsal rays XII, 16; anal III, 15 or 16: gill rakers on lowaen part of first arch. 14 or 15; maxillary | scarcely reaching to under front of eye. Coleosmaris Norman — VOL. 35, NO. 4 ; . na in standard length; pe ee. eras? \PR. 15, 1945 3b. Soft dorsal and anal fins not especially - short, and when fins are depressed soft _ parts not concealed by scaly sheath at base. 4a. Outer teeth at front of jaws more or less enlarged, conical, sometimes 2 to 5 pointing forward and more or less flaring outward, at least on adults; vomer with small or minute teeth; Fa dorsal rays XI or XII, 9 to 11; anal Ill, 7 to 9...Merolepis Rafinesque Ab. No enlarged caninelike teeth at tips of jaws; vomer toothless; dorsal rays _ X, 15 or 16; anal III, 15 or 16. Pterosmaris Fowler a 2%, Either spinous dorsal separated from sec- by a deep emargination to base or nearly so at posterior end of spiny part of dorsal fin; body fusiform, not compressed; last rays of soft dorsal and anal fins a little elongated; ascending process of premaxil- s laries reaches to or nearly to rear of a orbits; tip of snout rounded, without : concave notch; each pair of nasal open- ings separated by a narrow dermal isthmus. 5a. Dorsal fins completely separated, inter- vening space scaled over, this space slightly greater than postorbital length of head; dorsal rays X-I, 10 or 11; anal : II, 10 or 11... Emmelichthyops, n. gen. 5b. Spiny and soft parts of dorsal fin not me. completely separated, the intervening a space, if present, not scaled over. i - 6a. Posterior spines of dorsal connected a by a membrane; dorsal XVI or ae XVII, I, 9 or 10; anal II or III, 8 - oe a eee Inermia Poey 6b. Posterior spines of dorsal fin more or less isolated, scarcely connected by a membrane; dorsal XII-I, 10; anal III, 10. ... Centracantus Rafinesque “1b. Maxillary almost wholly exposed, its dorsal edge searcely slipping under preorbital, Ta. Tip of snout convex over premaxillary, without a convex notch. 8a. Spiny part of dorsal shorter than soft 4 _ part; dorsal rays X or XI, 25 to 27; anal J rays III, 23 or 24. Cypselichthys Steindachner and Déderlein _ 8b. Spiny part of dorsal fin longer than soft a part; dorsal rays XIII to XV, I, 9 to ! 11; anal rays III, 9 to 12; last ray of spiny dorsal notably longer than next to last rays; a deep emargination in front of last dorsal spine, the next to last 4 or 5 spines short; nostrils separated by a a narrow dermal isthmus; maxillary ; naked; body fusiform but somewhat compressed; last rays of soft dorsal and anal probably not elongated. Dipterygonotus Bleeker _ 7b. Tip of snout with a concave shallow notch 2 above tip of premaxillaries; last rays of ond dorsal or fins more or less separated, SCHULTZ: A NEW FISH FROM THE BAHAMAS 135 soft dorsal and anal fins not elongated; preopercle with a somewhat posteriorly produced rounded lobe; body somewhat compressed; maxillary sealed; spiny part of dorsal longer than soft part; nostrils especially close together; opercle with two flat spines, concave between them. 9a. Last spine of dorsal notably longer than next to last spine, the spiny dorsal with a deep emargination in front of last dorsal spine, but fin more or less continuous; no teeth on vomer; dorsal rays X, I, 11; anal III, 9 or 10. Erythrocles Jordan 9b. Last spine of dorsal fin not longer, usu- ally about same length as next to last spines of dorsal. 10a. Dorsal fins continuous but with a moderately deep emargination pos- teriorly in spiny part of fin; minute. teeth on vomer; dorsal rays XII, 10 or Il: anal ITI, 9. Plagiogeneion Forbes 10b. Dorsal fin with posterior IV or V spines isolated, probably not con- nected by a membrane; vomer toothless; nostrils separated by a dermal isthmus; dorsal rays XIII, — 10 or 11; anal III, 9 or 10. Emmelichthys Richardson Genus Coleosmaris Norman Coleosmaris Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 10) 7: p. 359, fig. 4, 1931 (type—Coleos- maris nigricauda Norman) (Accra, Gold Coast, Africa). This genus contains but one species, Coleos- maris nigricauda Norman, from off the African Gold Coast. I have not examined a specimen, but the generic diagnosis is from Norman’s figure and description. Genus Merolepis Rafinesque Merolepis Rafinesque, Indice d’ittiologia sicili- ana, p. 25. May 1810 (type—Sparus massilien- sis Lacepéde=Sparus zebra Briinnich) (ref. copied). Maena Cuvier, Régne animal (ed. 2) 2: 185. 1829 (type—Sparus maena Linnaeus) (ref. copied). Mena Swainson, Natural history of fishes... or monocardian animals 2: 170, 215. 1839 (type— Sparus maena Linnaeus). Spicara Rafinesque, Caratteri di aleuni nuovi generi e nuove specie... Sicilia, p. 51. 1810 (type—Spicara flexuosa Rafinesque =Sparus smaris Linnaeus). Smaris Cuvier, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom. Paris, p. 92. 1814 (type—Sparus smaris Linnaeus) (preoc- cupied). Marsis Barnard, Ann. South African Mus. 21: 682. 1927 (type—Sparus smaris Linnaeus) (new name to replace Smaris Cuvier, preoccupied by Smaris Latreille, 1796, in Arachnida). 136 I have examined 25 specimens, U.S.N.M. 2259-2263, 5384, 6053, 2966, 29743, 37241, 45051, 48336, 48337, and 48373 belonging to this genus, on which I have checked the charac- - ters given in the key. This genus is treated by Fowler in volume 2, p. 860, of his ‘‘The Marine Fishes of West Africa,’”’ published in 1936. Rafinesque’s descriptions are so very incom- plete one cannot be certain of the species he had. Barnard (l.c.) refers Smaris australis Regan to this genus in addition to the genotype. Genus Pterosmaris Fowler ; Pterosmaris Fowler, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 162: 4. 1925 (type—Smaris melanurus Valencien- nes). The only species referred to this genus is the genotype, which I have not examined. Perhaps it should be treated as a subgenus along with Spicara Rafinesque. Genus Inermia Poey Inermia Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2: 1983. 1861 (type—Inermia vittata Poey). Four specimens (U.S.N.M. 21253, 33121, and 33124) from Cuba and one (B. O. C. 235) from Cay Sal Bank are Inermia vittata Poey, and from them the characters used in this key were described. Only one species is known. Genus Centracantus Rafinesque Centracantus Rafinesque, Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie... Sicilia, p. 42, pl. 10, fig. 1. 1810 (type—Centracantus cirrus Rafinesque). Centracanthus Rafinesque, Indice d’ittiologia sicili- ana, p. 18. 1810 (type—Centracantus cirrus Rafinesque) (ref. copied). Centracantha Rafinesque, ibid., p. 67 (type— Centracantus cirrus Rafinesque) (ref. copied). I have examined two specimens, U.S.N.M. 94455 and 123195, which belong to this genus. Fowler, in his ‘‘Marine Fishes of West Africa,’”’ volume 2, p. 862, 1936, discusses this genus. I am removing Spicara from Fowler’s list of synonyms of this genus on the basis of dentition and placing it with Merolepis. Genus Cypselichthys Steindachner and Déderlein Cypselichthys Steindachner. and Déderlein, Denkschr. math.-nat. Akad. Wiss. Wien 48: 14, pl. 7, fig. 1. 1883 (type—Cypselichthys japonicus Steindachner and Déderlein). The genotype is the only species referred to this genus. I have not examined a specimen but have taken my generic diagnosis from the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO original description and figure of C. japonicus. Genus Dipterygonotus Bleeker z Dipterygonotus Bleeker, Journ. Indian Archi-— pelago 3: 71. 1849 (type—EHmmelichthys leuco-— grammicus Bleeker). a I have examined two specimens, U.S.N, M. 126386 and 56238, which belong to this genus. They probably are D. leucogrammicus, al- though U.S.N.M. 56238 is in very poor condi- — tion and my identification is doubtful. Another ! species, D. gruveli Chabanaud, is referred to this genus. In addition, we have a large series, — U.S.N.M. 131118, 1,505 specimens, none of ~ which exceeds 40 mm. in standard length, — from Varadero Bay, Mindoro, Philippines, | July 22, 1908, Albatross. Genus Erythrocles Jordan 4 Erythrocles Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- — delphia, 1918: 342. 1919 (replaces Hrythrichthys — Temminck and Schlegel, preoccupied) (type—_ Erythrichthys schlegels Bleeker = Emmelichthys schlegelit Richardson). ‘ Erythrichthys Temminck and Schlegel, Faun Japonica, pp. 117, 318, pl. 63, fig. 1. 1845 _ (type—Emmelichthys schlegelit Richardson, de- * signated on p. 318). a I have examined two specimens of £. schle- : geliit, U.S.N.M. 52518 and 62367, from the i Hawaiian Islands. From these I have taken the characters used in the key. Besides the geno- ~ type, LErythrichthys scintillans Jordan and I Thomson belongs in this genus. i a ” a Genus Plagiogeneion Forbes Plagiogeneion Forbes, Trans. New Zealand Inst. 22: 273. 1890 (type—Therapon rubiginosis Hutton). Plagiogenion Forbes, in Fowler, U.S. Nat. Mus. - Bull. 100, 12: 350. 1933 (error in spelling) (type —Therapon rubiginosus Hutton). :: Two species are referred to this genusel : Plagiogeneion rubiginosus (Hutton) and Plagi- ogeneton macrolepis McCulloch. I have not seen a specimen of either. b. Genus Emmelichthys Richardson Emmelichthys Richardson, Voy. Hrebus and Ter-— . ror, Fishes, 2: 47. 1844 (type—Emmelichthys” “4 nitidus Richardson). ¥ Bozxaodon Gay, Historia fisica y politica de Chile, — Zoologia, 2: 208. 1848 (type—Boxaodon cy amie ¥ cens Gay). a The species in this genus are Emmelichthys — nitidus Richardson and Boxaodon cyanescens — Gay. I have examined three specimens of BE. nitidus, U.S.N.M. 48817, from which the char- — acters used in the key have been taken. Re CONTENTS Erunotocy.—The Sinhalese caste system of oun tral and: southern — Bs Ceylon. Cee: ). Wiutram H. Giuperr, JR........-... ve e C: v. MORTON. .'..--4. 44. ; 8 ws 0 9 @ lle Rio Cin Se SSIS, ec ls env mR Ua tens ras . ra ~ : IontHyoLoey. = irnadichiene atlanticus, a new genus and species ie : ue fish (family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, wath a key to 4 related genera. Lronarp P. BURULSS: 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 142 New Ey, UORIIOLF JUD TOULIOZUOD WAEqUoDT ‘you UOT}V[NSULIIY VYSe[Y—'|[ “SI ees eS et F gro. se gs \ “4, \ Chitays: e tay, Ne Si = SoS 1 GS KS Sas ! ) N xX ASS Saw » RON SH VUSVIV ay 15, 1945 may eventually be expected to extend all over North America and to a connection ' to the geodetic work of South America “somewhere on the Isthmus of Panama. At the request of the War Department ‘and through the cooperation of Canada it ‘has been possible during the past four years ‘to extend the North American datum into the interior of Alaska. Through this work what previously were four independent geodetic datums (Yukon datum, Valdez datum, Unalaska datum and St. Michael ‘datum) are now referred to the North American Datum. The triangulation scheme to Alaska follows the Alaska Military High- way, and in fact, was carried on while the road was under construction (see Fig. 1). Phis single line of communications and travel along the axis of the scheme probably reduced the cost to one-fifth of what it otherwise would have been. Air transporta- _ tion was required for about 75 percent of all field operations on the work west of Fair- banks. This was accomplished by the use of light float planes of from 200 to 800 _ pounds capacity which could be landed on small lakes and streams near the stations. By reason of this work there is now a con- tinuous are of first-order triangulation from Bering Strait, which separates Alaska from Siberia, through Alaska, Yukon, | southeast Alaska, British Columbia, the United States, and Mexico to southern Mexico, a distance of approximately 5,400 miles. e _ WESTERN HEMISPHERE _ The events of the past three years have emphasized among other things the need of international cooperation in mapping. Prior to 1941 no concerted action had been taken by countries in the Western Hemi- sphere in regard to geodetic surveying or in fact concerning any phase of mapping. The situation was very suddenly changed when he war spread to the Western Hemisphere | bringing an unprecedented demand for all lasses of maps of world coverage, particu- larly for aeronautical charts. Another potent factor toward accelerat- ing surveying and mapping in the Western Hemisphere has been the two recent Pan American Consultations on the various GARNER: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEYS 143 branches of cartography, the first of which was held in Washington in October 1943 and the second in Rio de Janeiro August 14 to September 2, 1944. The following is quoted from a report in the January 1945 issue of the Bulletin of the Pan American Union by Robert H. Randall, United States Member and Chairman of the Committee on Cartography, Pan American Institute of Geography and History: The American Geographical Society acted as host for the United States, and the Commission on Cartography of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History acted as joint sponsor, and organized the Consultation. Broad lines for the program of mapping improvement in the hemisphere were drawn. The First Consultation was attended by technical representatives from _the countries of North and South America. In the Second, all of the American nations with the ex- ception of El Salvador, Haiti and Nicaragua, were represented. The Brazilian Government joined the Pan American Institute in sponsoring the Second Consultation and the general program outlined in the First Consultation was further refined, and specific recommendations as to im- mediate and future procedure were made. The nations of the American Hemisphere have, for the most part, always been conscious of the need for more and better map information. The need for maps of certain classes, notably aero- nautical charts, has been critical since the be- ginning of the Second World War. For while the excellent maps compiled by the American Geo- graphical Society were fortunately complete and available for most of Latin America at the be- ginning of the war, the need of charts for air transport and related purposes made it necessary to fly over and photograph large portions of the Southern Hemisphere. Further, aeronautical charts prepared in some South American locali- ties by the Germans before the war were found to be not only inaccurate but apparently pur- posely so. The lack of map information in some areas, and the unreliability of the information in others, called for a tremendous effort in the production of aeronautical charts. The job was undertaken by the United States Air Forces, in cooperation with the other American nations concerned. The series of aeronautical charts which resulted was pre- pared in a remarkably short period of time. Fur- thermore, the charts are of such a high standard that they constitute a milestone in the geographic progress not only of the Hemisphere but of the entire planet. 144 Interest in such matters has been further accelerated by the State Department’s program of cultural relations in cooperation with the American Republics in which several Federal departments and agencies are actively cooperating. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has five small projects, three of which consist of the intern training type, which provide for representatives from certain countries to visit the United States and observe our methods of geodetic and hydrographic surveying and of map and chart reproduction. The present program provides for training 21 students each year. The principal of triangulation, that is, the ability to determine the distance and PHYSICS.—Faster than sound. of Technology. The modern mathematical theory of flight as worked out in the past three decades is based on the assumption that the air can be considered as an incompressible fluid. At first thought this assumption may appear rather paradoxical, since, while water is considered as the typical example of an almost incompressible fluid, air is justly regarded as the typical example of compressible fluid medium. Nevertheless, the theory of incompressible fluids fur- nished, for example, good approximations of the forces acting on airplane wings, pro- vided the ‘flight speeds of airplanes are small in comparison with the velocity of sound. The entrance of the velocity of sound into the problem has nothing or very little to do with acoustic phenomena. The term velocity of sound stands for the velocity of propagation of small pressure changes in the fluid medium. If this velocity of propa- gation is large in comparison with the velocities involved in the fluid motion con- cerned, it can be considered as being of infinite magnitude as well. However, infi- nite velocity of sound is the characteristic 1 The thirteenth Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at the 1234th meeting of the Society on April 29, 1 944. Received January,27,"1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 5 direction to far distant and inaccessible points without actually going anywhere near them, probably will always be one of fascinating interest. The discovery of this geometric law, although certainly more than 2,000 years old, must have been as epochal in its time as the discovery of elec. a tricity or radio in ours. Of this, President — Woodrow Wilson in a public address in 1916 said: “‘I have wished, particularly since I entered public life, that there was some moral process parallel to the process of triangulation so that the whereabouts, in- tellectually and spiritually of some persons, could be discovered with more particu- larity.” THEODORE VON KARMAN, California Institute - (Communicated by Hueu L. DrypEn.) feature of an incompressible fluid. This ex- plains the success of the classical hydro- dynamical theory of incompressible fluids — in aeronautics. However, as the airplane be- came speedier, the deviations from the results predicted by the theory of incom-— pressible fluids became larger and larger. As the flight velocity surpassed approxi- mately two-thirds the velocity of sound, it became evident that the discrepancy be- tween the actual phenomena and the sim- ple theory can no longer be removed by — small corrections. The so-called ‘‘com- pressibility effects” became a plague and headache of the airplane designers who — were used to thinking in terms of low speed aerodynamics. It appeared necessary to — consider the air as compressible and to work out the theory of wings, propellers, and other devices based upon the laws of the dynamics of compressible fluids. This — reformulation of aerodynamic theory be- came a necessity as in our ambitious and — air-minded age the speed of airplanes is being pushed up to and perhaps beyond ~ the velocity of sound. The requirements of ‘ modern warfare have further accelerated this process. . To be sure, the science of ballistics has + ee eee eS ee A ee ee eat / “ae ie = a ait ee 2. 7- — ; a ee Ma ee ee ee +i - : ae Ns ee ee Eee pa A ye a 7 4 standing—appear in the range which re- cently was denoted as “transsonic.”’ This is the range of velocities just below and just beyond the velocity of sound, where the air flow pattern contains both regions of subsonic flow and of supersonic flow. Let us consider for example the law for _ the resistance of a body moving in a fluid - medium. This law can be expressed as a functional relation between certain di- mensionless combinations of the velocity of motion, the size of the body, and the physical properties of the medium. Such a for exam- ple, the drag force D divided by an appro- priately chosen sectional area S of the body, _ the density p of the medium and the half of the square of the velocity v. It is evident that pv?/2 has the dimension of pressure; asa matter of fact, it is equal to the stagna- tion pressure of an incompressible fluid moving with the velocity v and having a density equal to p. Hence, the surface S multiplied by pv?/2 has the dimension of a force. The dimensionless combination _ D/{S(pv?/2)] is called the drag coefficient and is a function of two other dimension- - less combinations which are known as the Reynolds number and the Mach number. The Reynolds number expresses the rela- tive influence of the inertial and the fric- tional forces. The Mach number expresses << the influence of compressibility. It is de- fined as the ratio between the velocity of a motion or a flow and the velocity of sound. Now, experience and theory show that as _ long as the “‘Mach number of the motion,” 1.@., the ratio between the velocity of motion _ of the body and the velocity of sound in the medium, is small in comparison with unity it has no significant influence on the drag. If the Mach number reaches values com- parable with unity, the compressibility _of the air has very large influence on the drag and other aerodynamic characteristics of the body. To be sure, the Mach number remains the governing factor over the en- FASTER THAN SOUND 145 tire supersonic range; however, if the velocity of the moving body is considerably higher than the velocity of sound, aero- dynamic coefficients change with the Mach number at a moderate rate and the flow pattern retains its general character. In the range of velocities slightly lower and slight- ly higher than the velocity of sound radical changes in the flow pattern take place and the phenomena are much more complex than in the pure subsonic and pure super- sonic ranges, essentially because regions of subsonic and supersonic flow are coexistent. This speed range is designated as the transsonic range. The magnitude of the velocity of sound in a fluid medium is determined by the equation c?=dp/dp where p is the pressure and p is the density of the medium. The pressure p is considered in this equation as a function of the density p. It is assumed that the change of density with change of pressure is fairly well approximated by the relation corresponding to adiabatic change. The easiest way to obtain the expression for the velocity of sound is based on the consideration of the propagation of a small pressure change from the viewpoint of an observer who moves with the propagating front. For such an observer the motion of the fluid appears as stationary flow; the fluid appears moving through the front with the velocity of sound in a direction opposite to the direction of propagation. Let us denote the pressure increment through the front by dp and the correspond- ing increment of the density p by dp and the velocity of the fluid moving against the front by c; then according to Bernoulli’s equation for stationary flow the velocity c changes as the fluid passes through the front by the amount 1 dp Cae Cc Pp (1) Now, since cp is the mass of fluid passing through the front in unit time, the con- tinuity of matter requires that the product of density and velocity remains constant. Consequently, cp=(c+dc)(p+dp) or cdp + pdc=0 and therefore 146 cdp ae Se p (2) Combining the two equations we obtain c?=dp/dp. Hence, the velocity of propaga- tion of an infinitesimally small pressure increment dp is equal to /dp/dp as indi- cated above. Substituting the value of the derivative dp/dp from the equation of the adiabatic change p=const p’, where y is the ratio of the specific heats of the medium at constant pressure and constant volume, we have c?= yp/p. Newton gave an expression for the veloc- ity of sound in air, which in modern lan- guage amounts to the formula c?=dp/dp. In his calculation of the value of c, he used the relation p=const. p (isothermal law). We can not blame him for this, since in his time the equivalence of heat and work was not yet recognized. However, he noticed that his value was too small in comparison with the measured value, which was ob- tained by observation of gun shots. He tried to apply certain corrections in order to reconcile theory and experiments. The real reason for the discrepancy was found almost a hundred years later by Laplace. With c?=yp/p, the square of the Mach number of a fluid flow or a moving body can be expressed by the following combination of velocity, pressure, and density: 2 9 iT peta ately (3) C YP Perhaps the two most important basic problems of fluid mechanics applied to engineering are the flow of a fluid in a con- duit and the motion of .a solid body in a fluid medium at rest. In both cases we find certain interesting facts in the transsonic region, i.e., when the velocity of the fluid in the conduit changes from subsonic to supersonic or the velocity of the moving body passes through the velocity of sound. We will see that these peculiar phenomena in the two cases are interconnected, and as a matter of fact, engineering ingenuity was necessary to obtain supersonic flow in a conduit, and engineering ingenuity will be necessary to design airplanes flying with a speed greater than the velocity of sound. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES However, the difficulty in the first case was surmounted when engineers recognized the VOL. 35, NO. 5° wate, fundamental laws of supersonic flow, where- as the difficulties to be surmounted for — transsonic flying require the solution of intrinsically difficult. problems in power plants and airplane design. Let us consider — first the problem of flow through a conduit. If we mount a so-called simple rounded q orifice on the wall of a pressure vessel and observe the efflux of a gas, we find the y following results: As long as the pressure difference between the inside and outside ~ pressure is small in comparison to the in- — side pressure, the velocity of outflow obeys approximately Torricelli’s law. It is equal y 1/2gh, where h is the pressure height. — to The rate of flow is equal to the cross-sec- tional area of the orifice multiplied by this velocity. If the pressure difference is in- creasing, the quantity of outflow gradually lags behind the value given by this rule. — At a certain value of the ratio between inside and outside pressure the quantity of a efflux reaches a maximum. We gall this . pressure ratio the critical pressure ratio. Its — value is given by the equation | De flr Larne D a 2 ) If the outside pressure is lowered further, while the nozzle pressure is kept constant, — the velocity and the rate of efflux remain ~~ unchanged. A simple calculation shows that — the velocity in the orifice is equal to the ~ velocity of sound corresponding to the — pressure and density prevailing in the ori- fice. This experience led quite a few engi- neers of the nineteenth century to the a conclusion that the velocity of flow from a — pressure vessel to the outside atmosphere cannot be greater than the velocity of s sound.’ It is known that the Swedish engi- — 2 St. Venant and Wantzel (1839) derived the correct relation between velocity and pressureina — compressible fluid. They determined the maxi- — mum value of the efflux, but did not give a full — picture of what happens when the pressure ratio is _ larger than critical. Since the application of their ~ formula to the pressure ratio exceeding the critical — value would indicate a decrease of the efflux with increasing pressure ratio and zero. efflux into ~ vacuum, they made the hypothesis that when the ~ ratio between inside and outside pressure is — supercritical, the pressure on the orifice is not ~ oe See : A Lae ™ ze une May 15, 1945 neer Carl Gustaf Patrick DeLaval showed by practical experiments that this is not - true. If we employ a converging-diverging — nozzle, much higher velocities can be ob- tained. The maximum velocity corre- - sponds to outflow into vacuum and is ~ equal to et, a. 2y . De | Vin } is bane Pe where p, and p, are the pressure and density _ in the pressure chamber. This value is for air about 2.235 times larger than the velocity of sound corresponding to the pressure and density prevailing in the ves- _ sel, and 2.450 times larger than the velocity of sound prevailing at the ‘‘throat”’ of the nozzle. The “local Mach number”’ of the flow itself, i.e., the ratio between the veloc- ity of flow and the velocity of sound pre- _vailing at the same location, increases to infinity since the velocity of sound in vacuum is theoretically zero. _ The reason for the necessity of a con- _ verging-diverging nozzle becomes evident if we combine Bernoulli’s equation for _ adiabatic frictionless flow and the equation of continuity. Then it appears that the product of the velocity and density reaches _ @ maximum value at a certain value of the _ pressure. According to the continuity equa- tion, the product of cross-sectional area, _ velocity and density is constant along the ‘ - nozzle. Consequently the maximum value of _ density times velocity corresponds to a ' minimum value of the cross section. The _ maximum value of vp is given by the equa- » tion d(vp) =0, or —_— ee * | dv | dp am sao: (4) Vv p | If we combine this equation with Ber- : A. — noulli’s equation written in the form | dp/p=-—vdv and eliminate dv we obtain a | discussed pro and con in the engineering literature | of the following decades. It seems that Osborne | Reynolds (1886) was the first author who com- | pleted the theory both for the case of a simple at and that of the convergent-divergent nozzle. KARMAN:! FASTER THAN SOUND 147 the minimum cross section, in the so-called “throat,” is equal to dp/dp, i.e., to the square of the local velocity of sound. Whether the velocity be larger or smaller than the velocity in the throat, the same amount of mass flow requires a larger cross- sectional area than the throat area. Table 1 shows the comparison between TABLE 1 Incompressible Compressible fluid fluid Continuity. itso. Sv =Const. | Spv =Const. Differential form. ...| dS/S+dv/v=0 |dS/S+dp/p+dv/v =0 dp/p+vdv =0 Bernoulli's equation. | the equations for incompressible and com- pressible fluids. Fig. 1 illustrates the rela- tion between cross section and velocity for S cr Umax —> V Fig. 1.—Relation between cross section and velocity for an incompressible fluid (curve a) and for a compressible fluid expanding adiabatically (curve b). an incompressible fluid (curve a) and for a compressible fluid expanding adiabatically (curve b). The equation for the cross section S can be written in the form: dS dv —-=— (M*-1) S v where M=v/c is the local Mach number. It is seen that dS is positive for positive a a a aoe 148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES values of dv when M>1, and negative when M <1. We do not want to discuss here the ap- plication of the mechanics of compressible fluids to the design of machines like com- pressors and steam and gas turbines. How- ever, it is necessary to point out an essential difference in the behavior of a converging- diverging nozzle in the subsonic and super- sonic range. The nozzle shown in Fig. 2 is designed for a certain pressure ratio Po/Pe, Which is larger than the critical. If the computed pressures prevail at the inlet and outlet, we obtain a flow with adiabatic expansion of the gas from the pressure p> to pe; the flow is supersonic between the throat and the outlet. Let us now consider the behavior of the fluid when the pressure at the outlet is raised, whereas the pressure at the inlet is kept constant. We start with a small value of the pressure difference. In this case the gas behaves approximately as an incompressible fluid. The velocity reaches a maximum value at the throat and the expanding portion of the nozzle acts as a diffuser in that kinetic energy is trans- formed into pressure. As the pressure ratio reaches its critical value (at an exit pressure equal to p.’) the velocity at the throat reaches the value of the local velocity of sound. If we decrease the outlet pressure below the value p.’, we observe the follow- ing phenomena. The gas after passing through the throat continues its accelera- tion, the pressure drops, the velocity in- creases until at a certain cross section the pressure suddenly jumps to a higher value; at the same time the density undergoes a sudden increase and correspondingly the velocity decreases. We call this phenome- non a “‘compression shock.”’ Such a com- pression shock can occur either inside the nozzle mostly as a ‘normal shock’ or starting from the rim of the outlet section as a so-called oblique shock. Sometimes we observe an oblique shock also inside the nozzle. In such a case the flow separates from the wall so that the main flow occu- pies the center part of the nozzle and a certain space in the neighborhood of the walls is filled with eddying fluid. The theory of compression shocks for ideal fluids has been worked out theoreti- cally by several scientists in detail. How- ever, the experimental research shows considerable variance with the simple theory mostly due to the friction at the wall. We know that strictly speaking the velocity of the fluid is zero at a solid sur-_ face and increases gradually in the bound- ary layer until the full value prevailing in the main flow is reached. Consequently, even if the main flow is supersonic, near the wall we always have subsonic flow. This fact alone is sufficient to show why the theory of ideal fluids can not explain all phenomena connected with compression shocks. The experimental research in this field is yet in the early beginning stages. The main conclusion we draw from theory and observations is the different behavior of the fluid in the subsonic and supersonic range as far as flow against increasing pres- sure is concerned. In subsonic flow, Le., when the velocity at no place surpasses the velocity of sound, we are able to transform pressure into velocity and _ retransform velocity into pressure in a continuous man- ner. To be sure, the retransformation of kinetic energy into pressure involves more loss than the transformation of pressure into kinetic energy, but it occurs without discontinuous change in either pressure or velocity. However, if the velocity once sur- passed the velocity of sound, in general we are unable to carry out the retransforma- tion of the kinetic energy into pressure without sudden change and this sudden change involves undesirable transfer of mechanical energy in heat instead of pres- sure. The main physical reason for the occur- rence of the compression shock is the fol- lowing: Let us first assume a purely subsonic flow through a converging-diverging nozzle. If we raise the outlet pressure by a small amount, the pressure change propagates upstream with a velocity which is equal to the velocity of sound minus the velocity of flow. The end effect is an adjustment of the pressures and velocities in every cross sec- tion to the new pressure ratio. However, if the velocity at the outlet is supersonic, a small pressure rise is unable to travel up- stream, since the velocity of the gas is larger than the velocity of pressure propa- VoL. 35,NO.5 | \ ‘ and p,’ denoted by p-. May 15, 1945 gation. Consequently, the effect of pressure change that is imposed on the periphery of the jet is confined to the downstream por- tion of the jet, more exactly to the region downstream from a conical surface emanat- ing from the cross section of the orifice. In this case we obtain an oblique shock outside the nozzle. Now it can be shown that a finite pressure rise travels with a higher velocity than the velocity of sound which is, strictly speaking, the velocity of propagation of an infinitesimal pressure change. Consequently, a large pressure rise applied to the outlet is able to intrude up- stream into the nozzle. By doing so its intensity and its velocity of propagation decreases until it becomes equal to the velocity of the stream. Thus we obtain a stationary compression shock at some cross section inside the nozzle. Fie. 2.—Computed pressure distributions in a converging-diverging nozzle for various exit pres- sures. Fig. 2 shows computed pressure dis- tributions along the axis of a nozzle for various exit pressures p,. The limiting value for which subsonic flow occurs is de- noted by p.’. The exit pressure which produces supersonic flow without shock is pe. The curves ending at values between p, ’’ refer to adiabatic change of state after a shock occurred. The CUIVE PecrPipeps Yefers to states in which _ the velocity is equal to the local velocity of sound. If the exit pressure is above the end - point of this curve, the shock is inside of KARMAN: FASTER THAN SOUND 149 the nozzle and the flow beyond the shock is subsonic. If the end pressure is lower the flow is supersonic along the whole nozzle and the applied shock occurs downstream outside of the nozzle. We can produce compression shock by performing another fundamental experi- ment, namely, putting an obstacle, for example, an inclined plane or a wedge in the way of the gas moving with supersonic velocity (Fig. 3). If we perform this experi- / a d ¥ “ ialesihebs kcantics used & $ M= 2.5 E J : fey MN ee ORO be Z 2 < oe LK Caan ras re By \* WO OS COMPRESSIBLE FLOW > 4 Pa \ \ \ 4S md = ot \ CpSpM? (5) 1.e., the drag equals the product of the wing area, the atmospheric pressure at the alti- tude at which the diving is performed, the square of the Mach number multiplied with a numerical factor equal to yCp/2. Using the value y=1.405 and putting the drag equal to the weight W of the airplane, we JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 39, NO. 5 obtain the following expression for the value of the drag coefficient which permits a certain Mach number J to be reached in diving: Cy etag ee (6 En ORO: (6) For diving at sound velocity, we have to substitute M=1 in this equation. The weight of the airplane divided by the wing area is called the wing loading l1,,. Hence, we obtain for the maximum value of the - drag coefficient which would permit diving at sound velocity the following simple expression: C Fic. d 10.—Schlieren photographs of flow past an elliptical cylinder with 0.15 thickness ratio at zero angle of attack. The direction of flow is from right to left. The small oblique channel visible in the pictures at the leading edge of the ellipse serves to remove the upstream wall boundary layer. Correct flow past the surface of an elliptical cylinder is thus obtained using only half of an elliptical section. Dark areas correspond to expansion, light areas to compression. Exposure time 1/25 sec. ; ¥ . Cp =1.42 — - (7) i: 2 gives the values of the allowable : maximum aay coefficient as function of TABLE 2 _ Altitude | Pressure | oy se t (ft.) (ib. /ft.2) | 50 je a ee Sea level 2,106 | 0.0202 | 0.0269 | 0.0404 | 0.0538 Laie? 1,448 | 0.0294 | 0.0392 | 0.0588 | 0.0784 re, 6 968 | 0.0440 | 0.0586 | 0.0880 | 0.1172 pe 626 | 0.0680 | 0.0906 | 0.1360 | 0.1812 a 390 | 0.1092 0.2184 | 0.2912 0.1456 of 35 to 50 pounds per square feet; un- “manned missiles have still higher wing _ loading. On the other hand, the drag coeffi- cient at low speeds, i.e. ye Mach numbers _ is reported to be about 0.02 for the Spitfire y and about 20-25 per cent lower for some question as to whether such an pe can _ dive with sound velocity depends on he _ data for estimating the ratio, it appears _ that we have a marginal case. It should not be impossible to make design alterations _ that would allow an airplane of the present a general type to dive at a speed equal to the _ velocity of sound. p The case of level flight at transsonic #8 - supersonic speeds is much more complex. _ The present official international world _ record is 468.94 m.p.h. (1939). To be sure, pe according to regulations the flight for the international speed record has to be per- 2 formed at sea level. We do not know what ; maximum speed was reached actually in recent years. Probably the man who will z - first challenge the world record will have to : prepare himself for a substantial step up. 'y , i 2: Fi oe | y KARMAN: FASTER THAN- SOUND 155 The problem is complex because reduction of the drag of the airplane is only less than half of the whole story. The question of weight is the most important point. First, of course, a certain percentage of the total weight is necessary for safe structure. Then the airplane has to carry the weight of the power plant and the weight of the fuel. The size of the power plant is determined by the thrust required to balance the drag, the weight of the fuel by the thrust required and the desired flight duration. In general, the power plants of lighter weight for the same power output consume relatively more fuel. The power plants of high fuel economy are relatively heavier. The aerodynamic considerations give pref- erence to high altitude; on the other hand, a power plant of a given weight will fur- nish, in general, less power at a_ higher altitude. To some extent the question of super- sonic flrght is analogous to another intrigu- ing problem discussed sometimes by serious men, more often by authors having more imagination than scientific knowledge. I mean the question of the feasibility of navi- gation off from the gravitational field of the earth. Of course, some fabulous new fuel would change the situation completely in both eases. However, basing the considera- tion on power plants and fuels which are available or which we hope to have with reasonable expectation, the answer to the question of the feasibility of stellar naviga- tion is probably negative, whereas there is no evidence that the velocity of sound - should constitute a “stone wall” of despair. To be sure, it will be necessary to use all good advice which aerodynamic science, chemistry of combustion, and thermody- namics may contribute. We did not touch one question at all, a question that perhaps is fundamental: Why does anyone want to travel so fast? I think this question is too difficult for an engineer. It should be asked of a philosopher. 156 GEOCHEMISTRY.—Contact deposits in an artificial silicate magma. InsutEY, Pennsylvania State College. It is my purpose here to give an example of how petrological laboratory methods may be applied to a technological problem and how in turn the solution of that prob- lem affords some speculation on a question in petrogenesis. Much of the work referred to was done some years ago, but interest in it and in the petrogenetic speculations arising from it has lately been renewed be- cause of war work on the corrosion of opti- cal glass melting pots. The technological problem in question was the determination of the cause of the corrosion and failure of refractories used in glass melting, and, therefore, a necessary part of the solution was the determination of the course of attack and the reaction products produced by the attack of molten glass on the walls of the tank used as con- tainer. The method used was the petro- graphic-microscopic examination of the contact zones of glass and container. The molten glass in a melting tank is.an artificial silicate magma and in general is not unlike a natural magma, although there are some marked differences in detail. The artificial and the natural are similar in that both are silicates, and the containing cham- bers of both are composed of similar ma- terials. They differ in the details of their composition, the temperatures to which they are exposed, the time of exposure, the amount and character of the gaseous phase present, and the rate of flow of the magma in the basin. The glass-containing portions of tanks are generally rectangular in plan and in elevation, varying in dimensions from one 25 feet long by 12 feet wide by 2 feet deep to one as large as 100 by 60 by 3 feet. The quantity of glass contained may range from 60 to 1,500 tons. The walls and floor of the tank which are in contact with the molten glass are essentially an aluminum silicate. Sometimes they are fired clay 1 Address by the retiring president of the Geo- logical Society of Washington, delivered at the 5lst annual meeting of the Society, December 8, 1943. Received February 5, 1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES blocks and sometimes a mixture of alumina and silica fused and cast into blocks. The alumina-silica ratio of such refractories may vary over a wide range. The roof and upper side walls in contact with the tank at- mosphere are generally made of silica brick with a silica content of more than 95 percent. The melting end of the tank is separated from the ‘refining’ end by a refractory wall (the “bridge wall’’), the molten glass passing from one section to the other by means of a submerged “throat.” The batch mixture consisting usually of a alkali carbonate or sulphate, limestone, and quartz sand with the occasional addi- tion of other substances is introduced into the melting end of the tank and melted by the radiant gases from burning producer gas, fuel oil, or natural gas passing over the surface of the tank. Melting temperatures of 1,450 to 1,500° are generally used. The reaction to form glass proceeds by the re- moval of carbon dioxide and the mutual ~— solution of the alkalies, lime, and silica. Magnesia is sometimes substituted for part of the lime and additions or substitutions of other oxides such as alumina, lead oxide, barium oxide, etc., are frequently made. In the usual commercial window or bottle glass silica may range from 68 to 74 per- cent, soda from 11 to 17 percent, and lime from 8 to 14 percent. By comparison, the igneous rocks all contain much more alum- ina. Only the granite group contains as much silica and only the nephelite rocks as much alkali. Unlike natural igneous rocks where com- plete vitrification is extremely rare the chief aim in the manufacture of commercial glass is the total elimination of crystalline ma- terial. Within the glass-melting tank itself some crystallization may take place in corners where circulation is poor or an accumulation of unmelted batch material and devitrified glass may be gathered be- hind the bridge, but the appearance of these materials in the finished glass will cause the rejection of the ware. The reactions of the molten glass with . VOL.,.35, NO. 5 ae ?- “i ' fit HERBERT petandl 5.1 jcc aie ang Te ete a = tee. Te ee — PaO ae Pe eet a ee ek Mea IO ae . et he y J > on She cine ik ee ge = ee ae Fig. 1.—Broken piece of clay refractory block after exposure to the atmosphere of the glass tank above the glass level showing dark crust of small crystals of corundum on outer surface (left) with bleached layer of vitrified refractory next and unattacked refractory below. About 4 natural size. Fic. 2.—Aggregate in glass of platy crystals of corundum in parallel arrangement probably originating in the crust on aluminum silicate refractory above the glass level and carried down into the glass with liquid silicate material. X16. Fic. 3.—A “‘stone”’ of aluminum silicate refractory embedded in glass with an outer reaction rim of skeleton nephelite (marked ‘‘a’’) and an intermediate zone of thin platy crystals of corundum (appearing as needles in area marked “b’’). X50. Fic. 4.—A “‘stone’’ embedded in glass that was originally aluminum silicate refractory but that has been completely converted to nephelite by reaction with the glass. An outer zone of skeleton crystals with a core of complete nephelite crystals. 40. May 15, 1945 the walls of the container are interesting not only from the point of view of the glass manufacturer, who is concerned with the. durability of the glass tank and the purity a of the glass produced, but also from the point of view of the petrologist and the silicate chemist. The corrosion of the tank walls weakens the container by loss of ma- terials and also introduces crystalline reac- tion products and undissolved wall ma- terial into the glass. ‘That part of the aluminum silicate refrac- tory above the level of the molten glass is subject to reaction with the tank at- mosphere. This atmosphere contains the unburned fuel gases and the products of combustion as well as volatilized alkalies and the batch dusts composed largely of alkali carbonates with smaller amounts of _the coarser-grained quartz and limestone. Usually the ratio of alkalies to lime and ‘silica is much higher in the tank atmosphere than in the molten glass. The action on the aluminum silicate refractory above the - glass level is in general a decomposition to form crystalline alumina (@Al,O; or corun- dum) in a liquid sodium calcium aluminum silicate. On vertical or sloping side walls the platy crystals of corundum tend to form a network from which the silicate liquid drains away into the glass in the tank often leaving a thick crust of corun- ‘dum crystals (Fig. 1). At times the corun- dum crystals are carried into the tank glass _ with the liquid silicate to form troublesome and relatively insoluble “‘stones.’”’ Where the liquid is retained on the refractory wall it may sometimes crystallize to a plagio- clase feldspar? or, more rarely, to nephelite (NaAlSi0O,). The reaction to form corundum and liquid (Fig. 2) in the aluminum silicate re- fractories exposed to the glass furnace at- mosphere at operating temperatures takes _ place even though the refractory block has a ' composition more highly siliceous than that of a pure dehyrated kaolinite (Al,O;—46 percent, Si0.—54 percent) where one might reasonably expect an aluminum silicate ~ such as mullite to form. A consideration of 2 Feldspar crystals of the composition of oligo- : clase and labradorite have been observed. INSLEY: CONTACT DEPOSITS IN SILICATE MAGMA 157 the solubility relations in the system, Na,O-AleO;-SiO2 (Fig. 5°) at these tem- peratures shows the reason for the phases present. The boundary of the primary phase fields of mullite (8AlO0 3: 25102) and corundum (Al,O3), which in the AlsOs-SiOe system lies at a SiQ2/AlOs; ratio, is 78/22 and the Na2,O percentage is about 10. This represents a deep salient of the corundum primary phase field into the ternary system and in effect means that at the operating temperatures of glass tanks corundum may be the product of reaction between alumi- num silicate and soda where the original blocks were considerably higher in silica than kaolinite and which, therefore, may have contained originally considerable quartz. Moreover, close to the quintuple point albite-mullite-corundum-liquid-vapor the isotherms (not shown on the diagram reproduced) indicate that corundum may be a product of crystallization from the liquid at temperatures as low as 1,100°, although there is a very sharp increase in liquidus temperatures toward the AlOs; apex of the diagram. The diagram of the K,0—A].03;-SiO2 system* indicates the same strong inclination of the corundum-mul- lite boundary toward the silica apex as in the Na,O-Al:0;-SiO2 system. In the CaO- Al,O3-SiO2 system® the inclination of the mullite-corundum boundary is also toward the SiOz apex, although it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other two diagrams. Approximately the same reaction prod- ucts are formed at the contact of molten glass and aluminum silicate refractory as are formed above the level of the molten glass, although the relative quantities are 3 The figure shown is reproduced by the kind permission of J. F. Schairer, of the Geophysical Laboratory, and represents his tentative and as yet unpublished data on this system. Although later work may change some details of the dia- gram, he does not believe that any changes of significance to this discussion will be made in the final form. 4 Reproduced in N. L. Bowen’s Petrology and silicate technology, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 26: 285-301. 1943. ’ As modified from RANKIN and WRIGHT, Amer. Journ. Sci. 39: 1-79. 1915; Bowren and Greia, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 7: 238. 1924; and Greic, Amer. Journ. Sci. 13: 35-41. 1927; and summarized in Hau and INsuey, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 16: 524. 1933. 158 much different largely because of the fact that considerably greater percentages of silica and lime take part in the reaction in the former case than in the latter. In the reaction between glass and _ refractory, moreover, both of the reaction products, corundum and liquid, are carried away from the reaction face, thus continually ex- posing new material to attack. In fact, both above and below the glass line the reaction is a non-equilibrium process even over very short distances. Mullite and glass are the products produced in the manufacture of the refractory. In refractories below the glass level the first evidence of the reaction of the molten glass is shown by an increase in the amount of glass with respect to that of mullite with the eventual appearance of tabular rhombohedral crystals of corun- Cristo 10 20 30 40 Na,O Fre. 5.—Preliminary diagram by J. F. Schairer of the phase relationship in the system Na.O-—Al,0;-SiO». Reproduced with permission from unpublished data. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~~ VOL. 35, NO. 5 ~ 50 eM dum. The outer portion of the corundum ~ layer (next to the glass) frequently con- — tains skeleton crystals of nephelite (Fig. 3), — sometimes associated with carnegieite. In | the melting end of the tank the tempera- — tures are generally far too high to permit the — formation of the nephelite-carnegieite phase, — and here the crystallization probably takes — place during the cooling of the tank after a — campaign. In the cooler portions of the — tank operating temperatures are frequently — within the range in which these compounds _ may crystallize. Below the glass level, as — well as above, corundum crystals may form — ‘as a reaction product on refractories in — which the Al,O3/SiO2 ratio is considerably — below that of kaolinite (46/54). Even a re- — fractory material that contains enough ex- — cess silica for considerable free quartz may SiO 4 Bo 90 AlOg Na,@ Al,0,70 2050° ~ May 15, 1945 produce corundum with the molten glass. In xenoliths of refractory material which _ have been carried away in the magma vary- ‘ ing degrees of metamorphism and digestion have been observed. Pieces that have bro- ken from the refractory near the exit end of the tank and presumably exposed to re- action at fairly low temperatures (very ap- proximately 1,100°C.) for a short time may have slight evidences of solution of the mullite crystals with a few extremely thin corundum crystals at the contact. In others which have undergone longer attack ~ at higher temperatures the mullite crystals have disappeared completely, and the in- clusion has a core composed of a mass of small corundum crystals in a matrix of _ nephelite with an outer zone composed of almost pure nephelite. Where reaction has gone still further, the corundum crystals have. disappeared completely, and nephe- lite is the only crystalline material remain- ing (Fig. 4). ‘Stones’ showing all these stages of reaction have been gathered from a glass melting tank which has been closed down for repairs of the badly corroded re- fractories after a long melting period. A partial substitution of potash for soda, as is the case in some commercial and in some optical glasses, produces the same general reaction products with the refrac- tories. The feldspathoid associated with corundum is in this case a nephelite-kalio- _philite solid solution. In lead-containing optical glasses corundum also is a product of the reaction between molten glass and refractory even in the absence of alkalies. The solution of the technological prob- lem of increasing the resistance of the re- _ fractory to corrosion by molten glass would appear to be simple from the purely chem1- cal point of view after the products of the reaction have been identified. A moderate increase in the alumina content of the re- fractories may, however, do more harm _ than good, because solution of the more soluble phase in the molten glass may re- ; lease abundant, relatively insoluble corun- dum crystals into the glass and cause the rejection of the ware because of “‘stones.’’ If the refractory can be made out of -homogeneous, nonporous, pure alumina, then whatever slight solution there is will id aaa INSLEY: CONTACT DEPOSITS IN SILICATE MAGMA la 159 be uniform and do little or no damage to the glass. Technical difficulties in the man- ufacture of a mechanically stable refractory of this type are numerous, however, and so far it has not been satisfactorily solved. The fact of the occurrence of corundum as a contact metamorphic deposit in an artificial igneous magma at once brings up the question of its pertinence to the origin of corundum deposits in nature. It notable that. practically all deposits whose geological relationships are at all clear are in, or are closely associated with, igneous bodies and that, with one notable excep- tion, these deposits occur sharply localized at the contact with the country rock or in association with partly digested xenoliths. The exception is the group of Ontario corundum bodies. The deposit in nature that most nearly approximates that in the glass tank with respect to the composition of the intrusive magma and the absence of pneumatolytic or hydrothermal effects is undoubtedly that at Nun’s Pass in the Island of Mull de- seribed by H. H. Thomas.® Here the central felsitic portion of the invading magma in the sill has a composition of about 71 per- cent SiOe, 12 AlO;, 3.5 FeO, 1.8 CaO, 4.7 K,0, and 2.5 NaeO, which is not greatly different from that of commercial glass. The invading rock lining the walls is of a somewhat different character. On one wall it is characterized by cognate, on the other by accidental xenoliths. The accidental xenoliths are the important ones in this connection. In part they are buchites con- taining mullite and cordierite in glass as- tonishingly similar in texture to the matted mullite needles in the glass tank refractory in the first stages of attack by the molten glass. The most abundant accidental xeno- liths, however, are those containing as- semblages of corundum, spinel, anorthite, and a small amount of interstitial glass with the anorthite often acting as a matrix for the corundum and spinel. Even the rock acting as host for the xenoliths is so con- taminated by introduced material that Thomas does not consider it as a truly igneous rock. The xenoliths are thought by Thomas to be formed by the direct fusion 6 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 78: 229. 1922. is 160 of highly aluminous sediments in the magma, although the effect of the alkalies would be to lower markedly the Si02/Al.03 ratio at which corundum could form. There are other corundum occurrences that provide a somewhat less perfect” analogy to the glass-melting tank. In the Eifel district in Germany hornblende an- desites contain included fragments or streaks composed of cordierite, sillimanite, feldspar, corundum, etc., which are con- sidered to be crystalline schists that have been partly digested and recrystallized. In the Herz Mountains a biotite-plagioclase dike intrusive into clay slates contains cordierite, garnet, cyanite, sillimanite, and corundum, which are not characteristic of any purely igneous rock. A number of other occurrences can be cited where rocks varying from granites to andesites, diorites, and nepheline syenites are closely associ- ated with, or evidently intrusive into, clay- bearing rocks with corundum in the in- truded rock, the intrusive rock, or both. The chemical and phase relationship pointed out in the systems NasO—Al,O;-SiO2 and CaO-Al,O;-SiO2 seem adequate to explain the origin of corundum in these cases. Whether the formation of corundum is the result of contact metamorphism and re- crystallization with the intervention of véry little liquid phase, or whether the clay- bearing rocks have been partially digested in the igneous solution and then recrystal- lized, appears to be of no fundamental im- portance. The point is that localized reac- tion has taken place with rocks that, although, of course, aluminous, need not have any higher Al,03/SiOe ratio than ordinary clay, 1.e., AlsO3/2SiO2e molecu- larly. The presence of aqueous solutions at high temperatures and pressures need cause only a lowering in the temperature at which the reactions take place, and the solubility relations expressed by the bend- ing of the mullite-corundum boundary to- ward the silica apex which exist in the an- hydrous system may also exist in the pres- ence of water. The contact relations in some other de- posits of corundum associated with alkaline rocks cannot be so clearly visualized nor the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _ crystallization so definitely connected with phase relations in the alkali-alumina-silica a x \ \ oa VOL. 35, NO. 5 systems. In the Ontario deposits where corundum bodies are developed in syenites, — nepheline syenites, and anorthosites. Bar- low’ postulated that corundum crystallized — directly from a high alumina magma and — based his deduction on the relationships found by Morozewicz® in some empirical laboratory experiments on artificial melts. No one has so far, however, proposed any hypothetical line of petrologic descent from _ any of the conventional parent magmas that would result in the crystallization of — free alumina and its concentration by any ~ process of magmatic differentiation. Bar- — low, himself, emphasizes the fact that the — Ontario corundum deposits, although rela- — tively large, are extremely localized and — that the host rocks are chiefly notable for extreme and rapid variation in composition and mineral assemblages. These are not characteristics of crystallization from an — originally homogeneous magma even with later crystal sorting. May not the Ontario deposits represent a later stage in a process like that which operated in the Nun’s ~ Pass rocks? Although no source of the aluminous sediments was found in the lat- ter case, the relationships in the final rock — were such that this genesis could not be doubted. In the Ontario rocks the source of the sediments may have been further re- moved and the progress toward homo- geneity somewhat more advanced. The case of the association of corundum deposits with basic rocks like the peridotites and norites is more difficult to explain. Additions of neither magnesium metasili- — cate nor magnesium orthosilicate to alu- mino silicates of the composition of the quadruple point (approximately 54A1,O3, 46SiO2) bring the mixtures within the re- _ gions where corundum is either a final or intermediate product of crystallization. — The presence of ferrous oxide in the olivines or of alkalies in the alumino silicates may alter the relations sufficiently to permit 7A. KE. Bartow, Canada Dept. Mines. Geol. Survey, Memoir 57. 1915. 8 J. Morozewicz, Tschermak’s Pet. Mitt. 18: 1-90, 105-240. 1898. May 15, 1945 corundum to crystallize. It has also been pointed out in the case of the corundum deposits occurring with dunite in North Carolina that the mineral associates of the corundum are those characteristic of hydro- thermal metamorphism.’ It may be that water at elevated temperatures and pres- sures can also reverse the trend of the mul- lite-corundum boundary in systems with magnesia. A few preliminary high-tempera- ture experiments with additions of ferrous oxide, water, or both should demonstrate whether the production of corundum is pos- sible under these simplified composition relationships. The rather constant associa- tion of granitic gneiss or clay schist country rock with the corundum that is formed at the borders of basic magnesian rocks can hardly be accidental, and the source of the corundum would logically appear to be the reaction of the intruding and intruded rocks whether or not water vapors or other “‘mineralizers”’ take part in this reaction. These remarks can be summarized brief- ly. It has been shown that corundum is formed in a glass-melting furnace by the action of a melt containing large amounts of silica and alkalies and considerable lime on an aluminum silicate wall material that approximates dehydrated kaolin in com- position and that the formation of corun- dum under these conditions is explained by ® EK. S. Larsen, Econ. Geol. 23: 398-433. 1928. BOTANY.—/rregular barley, Hordeum irregulare, sp. nov.! ABERG AND WIEBE: IRREGULAR BARLEY 161 the phase relationships in the system Na2O-—Al,O3-SiOe. It is pointed out that the origin of corundum at the contact of sye- nites and nepheline syenites with aluminum silicate country rocks may be similar and that whether the corundum forms by lo- ealized digestion and crystallization from solution or by reaction essentially between the solids is a difference in degree and not in kind. Moreover, the country rocks do not have to be abnormally high in alumina, since in the case of glass tanks, at least, alumina-silica ratios lower than that of kaolin are sufficient to produce corun- dum by reaction. In the case of the reaction of highly basic magnesian magmas (peri- dotites and the like) with wall rock the re- action relations are less easy to understand. Nevertheless, the reaction relations must not differ radically from those found in the case of alkaline magmas even though water becomes a necessary agent in the reaction. Note: Since this address was delivered, a paper by W. K. Gummer (Journ. Geol. 51: 503-530. 1943) on the system CaSiO;— CaAl,Siz20;-NaAlSiO, shows that crystal- line alumina (8A1.O3 in this case) can exist at the liquidus on the join between NaAlISiO, (nephelite) and CaAlSiexO, (anorthite) as well as at the liquidus in the ternary system CaSi03;-NaAlSi0,-CaAl.8i.03. The petro- logic significance is discussed in the paper. Ewert ABERG, University of Wisconsin and Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul- tural Engineering, and G. A. Winse, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. One of the types of barley endemic to Abyssinia is best described by a single word, 1 Received February 22, 1945. Cooperative in- vestigations between the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station and the Division of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Research Administration,.U. S. Department of Agriculture. Published with the approval of the Diector of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Supported in part by a Research Grant from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation. (Communicated by M. N. Pops.) irregular. The late Dr. H. V. Harlan used this term in 1914 (6, p. 24) when he stated: ‘“‘Aside from the observations upon estab- lished forms, it has been the fortune of the writer to isolate a number of which there seem to be no published descriptions. These all came from Abyssinian barleys, and as the work is not yet completed, only a gen- eral indication of the results need be given here. .. . In barleys received from the same region, there is a group with a curious, 162 irregular, yet heritable, habit of floret abor- tion. In the ripened spike the spikelets are normal at the base and for a varying dis- tance toward the tip. The upper portion usually reduces suddenly to a 2-rowed form. In this case the lateral spikelets are not merely sterile, but are reduced to only the outer glumes and the rachilla, the floret having disappeared entirely. The spikes are found to present these modifications even when the head first emerges from the boot. The actual time of the reduction has not been determined but it is so early that no scar is present, indicating that the floret never started to develop.”’ Harlan continued orally to use the term, irregular barleys, for the type he described in 1914, but unfortunately it never became established in the literature nor came into general use. This is to be regretted, as there is a real need for this term in the barley classification, and especially so since the terms which have gradually come into use instead are confusing and not at all as descriptive as the one Harlan applied. It appears that the irregular type of Abys- sinian barley was.collected once by A. F. W. Schimper in the middle of the nineteenth century. It was grown by Al. Braun in the Botanical Garden at Freiburg in 1848, but at that time it was regarded only as a transi- tion form between 6-rowed and 2-rowed barley. This is evident from a statement in ‘“Sitzungsberichte des botanischen Vereins der Provinz Brandenburg’”’ published in 1875 (12, p. 437). There it is stated: “Herr Wittmack legte eine grdssere Zahl von Schimper in Abyssinien gesammelter Ger- stenéhren vor, die er theilweise von Herrn Prof. Braun, theilweise von Herrn Dr. Gronland erhalten hatte, und wies an mehreren den Uebergang von 4-zeiliger Gerste? in zwei-zeilige nach, ein Uebergang. der bei unseren Culturen sich nie zeigt, aber bei den vom Prof. Braun in Freiburg i/Br. 1848 angestellten Aussaatversuchen der abyssinischen Gersten widerkehrte.”’ The fact that this Abyssinian type appears morphologically to occupy an intermediate position between 6-rowed and 2-rowed bar- 2 The ‘‘4-zeilige Gerste”’ in the early literature is equivalent to the 6-rowed barley of the present- day literature. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ley later undoubtedly led to the use of the term ‘intermediate’ and also to the Latin name Hordeum intermedium, although the latter never was intended for that type. In 1882 Kornicke (8, pp. 185-186) dee scribed as Hordeum vulgare L. subsp. inter- medium a barley type with awned central florets and awnless lateral ones. The lateral seeds are markedly smaller than the cen- tral ones but germinate when seeded. In 1885 Kornicke (9, pp. 172-174) gives the same description, only adding that in one of the varieties of the subspecies, var. Hazxtont Keke., not all lateral florets are fertile. The florets are, however, fully de- veloped. In 1916 Carleton (3, p. 124) and in 1918 Harlan (7, p. 12) used the same description for the species Hordeum inter- medium Keke. Harlan’s description of Hor- deum intermedium in 1918 does not include the irregular type of Abyssinian barley that he discussed in 1914. The first time this type is again mentioned in the literature is by Engledow in 1924. Previous to that date it was discussed in correspondence between Harlan and Engledow.’ Judged from a let- ter to Harlan on January 29, 1921, Engle- dow had found the irregular type among Abyssinian barleys in 1920. From Harlan’s reply on February 23, 1921, it is clear that Harlan, at that time, knew about the varia- tions in irregular barleys from the type with occasional lateral seeds to those with practically all lateral seeds fully developed, but he did not classify them with any other — i group of barleys. Engledow's description in 1924 places the irregular barleys as excep- tional forms of Hordeum hexastichum or Hordeum decipiens. He placed them with a Hordeum hexastichum, when an occasional lateral floret was missing, and with Hor- deum decipiens, when many of the lateral florets were missing. In regard to the stabil- — a ity of the character he points out (4, p. 58), that ‘‘in three successive seasons this pecu- liarity has been maintained and it is, there- fore, to be regarded as a constant and heritable attribute.” Kornicke’s description of Hordeum vul- gare L. subsp. intermedium remained valid and was applied only to the type of barley 3 Correspondence between Harlan and Engle- dow filed in National Archives, Washington, D.C, ~ VOL. 39, NO. 5 Ge Lee A Fig. 1.—Spikes of irregular barley, Hordeum irregulare E. Aberg and Wiebe, of Abyssinian origin showing the variation found in number of missing lateral florets. A, Many lateral kernels missing (C, I. 5843); B, some lateral kernels missing (C. I. 3210-5); C, occasional lateral kernels missing (C, I, 1238). | May 15, 1945 for which it was intended, even during the | period when Harlan and Engledow worked ) with irregular Abyssinian barleys. In 1929, ' when Orlov gave a description of barleys from Abyssinia and Eritrea, he brought the irregular barleys in under the subsp, znter- medium Keke. (10, pp. 317-333, 344-345), ‘thereby causing considerable confusion. Ac- cording to his description of subsp. inter- dium Keke., the lateral spikelets may be fertile or sterile, in the latter case consisting of glumes, lemma and palea, or they also “may be completely reduced so that only the | glumes are developed. Considerable varia- tion occurs in the number of fertile and ‘sterile spikelets on the spike, which is useful as a means of classifying varieties. No men- _ tion is made of the type of awn on the lem- | mas of central and lateral florets. .. In 1936 Orlov (11, pp. 228-229) included i he irregular barleys under subsp. znter- edium Vay. et Orl. (subsp. nov.) and : Rointed out that this subspecies is sharply ic cuicted from subsp. intermedium | Keke. The characteristics for subsp. inter- | medium Vav. et Orl. are that a varying Bamber of spikelets (one, two, or three) _ with normal kernels develop at each node | of the rachis of the spike. See also Aberg (2, |p. 18). | As editor of the Russian publication a | Classification of Cereals, Flaksberger pointed out in an editor’s note (4, p. 342) that he | thought it would have been more nearly correct for Orlov to have retained the use of subsp. intermedium Keke., for the inter- medium group of barleys:as described by _Kornicke. Flaksberger also suggested that _ interjectum could be used for the Abyssinian intermediate barleys (irregular as used in _ this paper). Unaware of Harlan’s suggestion and con- tinued use of the term “‘irregular,”’ for the _ Abyssinian intermediate type, Aberg (1940) also applied Hordeum intermedium (Kcke.) - Carleton to barley of this type (J, pp. 102- 106). From this review it is evident that there is a great deal of confusion among workers in the use of these terms. The Latin name _ Hordeum intermedium has been applied to two types of barleys that in reality are distinct. The terms intermedium, interme- ro .* = ABERG AND WIEBE: IRREGULAR BARLEY 163 diate, and Abyssinian intermediate are used and each has a very defimite and specific meaning. Unfortunately, however, they sound very nearly alike and appear very similar in print. It seems desirable, therefore, to make the following disposition: (1) Retain ‘“‘inter- medium” essentially as used by Koérnicke in Hordeum vulgare L. subsp. intermedium for that type of 6-rowed barley in which the lateral kernels are reduced in size and their lemmas awnless. It is further suggested that Kornicke’s subspecies be regarded as a variety and used as Hordeum vulgare L. var. intermedium Keke. (2) Use the term ‘intermediate’ in a broad sense to de- scribe plant characters that are midway between extremes or limits, as, for ex- ample, leaf size may be intermediate; and also to describe in a broad way heterozy- gous genetic types like the F, of a 6-rowed X 2-rowed barley cross. (3) Replace ‘‘Abys- sinian intermediate’ with “irregular,” which latter name was suggested by Harlan as early as 1914. To achieve this the irregu- lar barley, which have been erroneously included under ‘Hordeum intermedium,” are here segregated as distinct and described as a new species as follows: Hordeum irregulare, sp. nov. Rhachi spicae dura; spiculis centralibus fertilibus, lateralibus aliis fertilibus aliis steri- libus, aliisque sine staminibus vel pistillis pro parte ad rhachillas in spicam irregulariter dis- positas reductis. Irregular barley with tough. rachis. The central florets fertile; lateral florets reduced to rachilla in some cases and these distributed ir- regularly on the spike, the rest of the lateral florets of only one of the following types: fer- tile, sterile, or sexless (Figure 1). Type: No. 161999, herbarium of the U. S. National Arboretum, grown at Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md., February 1945, from seed collected by H. V. Harlan at Lalibela market, Abyssinia, on January 7, 1924, from cultivated plants. (C. I.4 No. 3908-3, Division of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.) . 4C. I. refers to accession number of the Divi- sion of Cereal Crops and Diseases. 164 According to the above, the division of the section Cerealia Ands. of the genus Hordeum L. as given by Aberg (1, p. 119) is revised as fol- lows: . agriocrithon E. Aberg . spontaneum C. Koch by hoy Soy BB vulgare L. emend. Lam. . trreguiare EK. Aberg and Wiebe . distichum LL. emend. Lam. LITERATURE CITED (1) Aperc, E. The taxonomy and phylogeny of Hordeum L. sect. Cerealia Ands. Symb. Bot. Upsalienses 4: 156 pp., illus. 1940. . The classification of subspecies and varieties of Hordeum sativum Jessen. (Extracts from the paper on barley by A. A. Orlov, published-in Russian in Flora of Cultivated Plants II, Moscow- Leningrad, 1936.) Fedde Repertorium 50:18. 1941. (3) Caruteton, M. A. The small grains, 699 pp., illus. New York, 1916. (4) Eneiepow, F. L. Inheritance in barley. III. Journ. Genetics 14: 57-58, 60- * 62, illus. 1924. (5) FLAKSBERGER, K. A. FEdttor’s note in: (2) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | VOL. 35, No. 5 Bakhteyev, F. Kh., Hordeum L. Bar- ley. Classification of Cereals, ed. 4, illus. Moscow-Leningrad. 1939. (6) Haran, H. V. Some distinctions in our cultivated barleys with reference to their use in plant breeding. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 137, 38 pp., illus. 1914. . The identification of varieties of barley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 622, 32 pp., illus. 1918. (8) KOrnickE, Fr. Die Saatgerste. Zeitschr. Gesam. Brauw. Neue Folge, V Jahrg., pp. 125, 185-186, illus. 1882. _ Die Arten und Varietdten des Getreides. In Kérnicke und Werner: Handbuch des Getreidebaues 1, 470 pp., illus. Berlin, 1885. (10) Ortov, A. A. The barleys of Abyssinia and Eritrea. Bull. Appl. Bot. 20: 283- 345, illus. (English summary pp. 343- 345). 1929. . Hordeum L. Barley (In Russian. Parts of it in translation by Aberg, 1941). Flora of Cultivated Plants. II. 447 pp., illus. Moscow-Leningrad, (7) (9) (11) (12) Sitzwngsberichte des botanischen Vereins der Provinz Brandenburg. Bot. Zeit., 1875: 437-438. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY “NEW MEMBERS There follows a list of persons elected to membership in the AcapEMy by vote of its Board of Managers, during the ACADEMY year 1943, who have since qualified as members in accordance with the bylaws of the AcapEmy. The bases for election are stated with the names of the new members. RESIDENT WILLIAM SIDNEY BENEDICT, physical chem- ist, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington, Washington, D. C,, in recognition of researches in the spectroscopy of polyatomic molecules and application of spec- troscopy to kinetic studies of mixtures of iso- topes. MERRILL BERNARD, supervising hydrologist, U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., in recognition of original researches in hydrology. CLIFFORD ALLEN Betts, engineer, U.S. For- est Service, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the development of hy- draulic structures, including research on the generation of heat in concrete and the design of water tunnels. CHARLES Louis CRITCHFIELD, mathematical physicist, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the theory of nuclear forces in atoms. Lioyp GrorGr HENBEST, associate geolo- gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on micropaleon- tology, particularly the fossil Protozoa, and on stratigraphy. JOSEPH OAKLAND HIRSCHFELDER, assistant professor of chemistry, University of Wiscon- sin; consultant, National Defense Research Committee, Geophysical Laboratory, Car- negie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on the equations of state of gases and liquids, reaction kinetics, and molecular quantum mechanics. Emery CLARENCE LEONARD, botanist, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on the flora of Haiti and on the mosses and Acanthaceae. GLENN LANE Parker, chief hydraulic engi- May 15, 1945 PROCEEDINGS neer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of services in the field of water supply engineering, and in particular the development of techniques for making water supply, storage power, and irrigation analyses. CHARLES ELMER REsseER, curator of inverte- brate paleontology and paleobotany, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in Cambrian stratigraphy - and paleontology. Roger Gorpon Bares, associate chemist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the physical chemistry of electrolytes, and in par- ticular researches on the thermodynamics of bi-univalent electrolytes and the pH values of standard buffer solutions. _ SamMuEL WuHITTEMORE Boags, geographer, United States Department of State, Washing- ton, D. C., in recognition of contributions to political geography and cartography. DoNALD CLARKE BoUGHTON, zoologist, Bu- reau of Animal Industry, Beltsville Research Center, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of con- tributions to our knowledge of coccidia and coccidiosis of birds and livestock. EvBertT LuTHEeR LITTLE, Jr., senior den- drologist. U. 8. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., in recognition of distinguished services in the biological sciences, especially in the fields of forest ecology and dendrology. GEORGE C. MaAnovy, assistant chemist, Na- tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to physical chemistry, and in particlar work in thermody- namics and in the determination of pH values of standard buffer solutions. HENRY STEVENS, principal biochemist, Bu- reau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineer- ing, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C., in recognition of fundamental and pioneering application of methods of im- munochemistry to agricultural problems with particular reference to gossy pol and other prob- lems of sensitiveness connected with cotton. Howarp Bancrorr ANDERVONT, principal biologist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of original investigations in the fields of filterable viruses and experimental cancer. Hueco Bauer, chemist, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of chem- ical advances in chemotherapy. : THE ACADEMY 165 Haroutp WILLIAM CHALKLEY, senior physi- ologist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of services to the science of biology, particularly work on the physiology and chemistry of cell divisions. HELEN M. Dyer, research fellow, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recogni- tion of contributions to research in chemo- therapy, metabolism of sulphur-containing amino acids, and cancer studies. WILTon RoBINSON EARLE, senior cytologist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of outstanding researches in the technique and study of tissue culture, in par- ticular studies of the production of malignant cells from normal fibroblasts by the action of a chemical carcinogenic agent. JOHN FEE EMsREE, senior archivist, War Re- location Authority, Washington, D. C., in recognition of studies of village communities in Hawaii, which led to important work for the Office of Strategic Services, and for the War Relocations Authority on the Japanese in America. Emity Waucotr EmMart, associate cytolo- gist, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of the publication of the Badianus Manuscript, and especially for ac- complishments in research (1) in the applica- tion of tissue culture techniques to the study of cancer and (2) in the culture of the tubercle bacillus on animal membranes, the latter mak- ing possible a rapid and effective method for studying drug therapy. MarGareET Dorotuy Foster, associate chemist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on the geochemi- cal relations of ground waters in the Coastal Plain and improvements in methods for the analysis of minerals. MIcHAEL FLEISCHER, geochemist, U. 8. Geo- logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog- nition of work in inorganic and mineralogical chemistry. Maurice THEODORE JAMES, associate en- tomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the taxonomy of insects. Sotomon Ku.ipack, cryptanalyst, Signal Corps, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to mathematical statistics. Davin GoopMAN MANDELBAUM, Division of 166 Special Information, Office of Strategic Serv- ices, Washington, D. C., in recognition of con- tributions to the Ethnology of the Cree Indi- ans of Canada; the Social Organization of South India tribes; and important work for the Office of Strategic Services. Monroe HarnisH Mart, associate profes- sor of mathematics, University of Maryland, College Park, Md., in recognition of contribu- tions to mathematics, in particular to the - “three body problem”’ in Celestial Mechanics. ALBERT NELSON SAYRE, senior geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of investigations in geology and hydrology, especially in regard to the occur- rence of ground water in Texas. FLORENCE Marte: Maars, associate profes- sor of mathematics, George Washington Uni- versity; Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the theory of infinite series, wherein research of recognized merit has been done. Murray J. SHEAR, principal biochemist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of investigations on physico-chem- ical mechanisms of bone formation; carcino- genesis by chemical compounds; and chemical treatment of tumors. Drmitri Boris SHIMKIN, Major, U. S. Army, Military Intelligence Service, East European Division, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the ethnology of the Wind River Shoshone Indians, theoretical works on problems of interaction of culture and personality; and important research on Siberia for Military Intelligence Service. HERBERT CECcIL SPIcHR, associate geophysi- cist, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in geophysics and geophysical methods of investigation. Ro.tuin ELBERT STEVENS, chemist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in mineralogical and geo- logical chemistry. JosEPH MANSON VALENTINE, associate en- tomologist, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Washington, D. C.;in recog- nition of basic work on the classification of Coleoptera, and more especially contributions on speciation and raciation in insects. CuEsTER BuRLEIGH WatTTs, principal as- tronomer, U. 8. Naval Observatory, Washing- ton, D. C., in recognition of the invention of various devices for increasing the precision of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, NO. 5 observation of star positions; development of accurate methods for transmitting time sig- nals with especial application to longitude de- terminations; and determinations of precise positions of comets, planets, and the moon. FRANCIS JoSEPH Weiss, consultant, Board of Economic Warfare, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in the fields of chemical economics; world crop insurance; utilization of waste products; economic development and planned utilization of Alaskan resources; chem- ical utilization of peat and seaweed. MaxwrEL_t McMicHart KNECHTEL, geolo- gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on the geology of (1) mineral fuels in Angola, Venezuela, Mon- tana, and Oklahoma; (2) ground water in southeastern Arizona; (3) Pleistocene glacial phenomena in northcentral Montana; and (4) manganese deposits in Augusta County, Va. MicHAEL GOLDBERG, engineer, Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, Washington, D.C., in recognition of contributions to mathe- matics. RonaLpD BAMFORD, professor, University of Maryland, College Park, Md., in recognition of outstanding contributions in the field of bot- any, particularly with reference to cytology. RIcHARD STEVENS BURINGTON, associate professor of mathematics, Case School of Ap- plied Science (on leave), consulting mathe- matician and mathematical physicist, U. S. Navy, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to pure and applied mathe- matics, in particular to electric circuit theory. Grorce Tosias Faust, associate mineralo- gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in mineralogy and petrology. NONRESIDENT Epwarp C. Raney, instructor in zoélogy, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., in recogni- tion of contributions to our knowledge of the fresh-water fishes of eastern North America. ABRAHAM SINKOv, cryptanalyst, Signal Corps, U. S. Army, in recognition of contribu- tions to algebra, in particular to the theory of finite groups. Rosert BieHaM Brops, professor of phys- ics, University of California, Berkeley, Calif., in recognition of work on electronic phenomena in gases and metal vapors, and on cosmic rays. Rosert 8S. CAMPBELL, assistant chief, Divi- sion of Range Research, U. 8. Forest Service, Se) May 15, 1945 New Orleans, La., in recognition of contribu- tions in the field of range research, and in par- ticular for pioneering work in the development of range utilization standards. me F. G. BricKweppe, Secretary BOTANICAL SOCIETY The meetings for 1944 (except the banquet) were held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, President J. R. Maaness or Vice-Presi- ' dent Ecpert H. Waker presiding. Attend- ance ranged from about 60 to 100 persons. Other officers for the year were: GLENN GREAT- HOUSE, Treasurer; Miss Mary G. VAN METER, Corresponding Secretary; Mrs. ANNIE May Karrer, Recording Secretary; F. V. Ranp and R. K. Bearrir, counsellors; L. E. Yocum, representative to the Washington Academy. Nine new members were elected during the vear: JoHN R. Bowman, Lt. Haroup C. Bo.p, JEAN TurRPIN, Oscar R. MatTuews, Miss JANE Router, Froyp A. McCuiurer, HERBERT F. BrereGMan, Mrs. HELEN WuitTEe WILLIAMS, and Curtis May. Two members died during the year: Lt. Col. Grorcre E. Hauumay, formerly assistant biochemist in the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture, killed in action in Italy on July 25; and Lyster H. Dewey, in charge of fiber crop in- vestigations of the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture from 1890 to 1935, on November 27. The formal programs were prefaced by book reviews and comments on observations of botanical interest and were followed by a social hour with refreshments. A list of the papers presented is given herewith. Brief résumés of these papers are included in the minutes. 334TH MEETING, JANUARY 4 The botany of the-flat-rocks of the Southeast. Rocers McVavueu, Bureau of Plant Industry. A botanical trip through North Carolina. D.S8. CorRELL, Bureau of Plant Industry. 335TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 1 Some current research objectives and field ob- ‘servations on cinchona in Central and South America. W. C. Davis, Office of Foreign Agri- cultural Relations. Pasture and forage crops and their utilization on tropical American farms. RaLtpH E. Hopc- son, Bureau of Dairy Industry. 336TH MreTInG, Marcu 7 Invitation to study of Western Hemisphere PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 167 bamboos. ¥. A. McCuureg, Smithsonian Institu- tion. The Pan American Highway in Central A mer- ica and its botanical aspects. ARTHUR BEVAN and W. A. Dayton, U.S. Forest Service. 337TH MEBTING, APRIL 4 Our native orchids. P. L. Ricker, Bureau of Plant Industry. Developing American Easter lilies to replace stocks formerly received from Japan. 3S. M. EMSWELLER, Bureau of Plant Industry. BANQUET MEBTING, APRIL 25 The annual banquet was served at All Souls Unitarian Church with 188 persons present, including five honor guests: . D. MeErriLu, JosEPH F. Rock, C. R. Bau, H. L. SHANTz, and H. B. Humpurey. The last three were honored in accordance with the Society’s cus- tom of so recognizing the retirement of its members from active professional life. The group enjoyed a talk by Liberty Hyde Bailey, author and horticulturalist, formerly of Cor- nell University, on his botanical experiences of the past half century. 338TH MEETING, JUNE 6 Preservation of plant specimens in as nearly a natural condition as possible. G. R. FESSENDEN, Bureau of Plant Industry. Strawberry breeding. G. M. Darrow, Bureau of Plant Industry. 339TH MEETING, OCTOBER 3 Two years in China advising on potato im- provement. THEODORE Dykstra, Bureau of Plant Industry and Division of Cultural Rela- tions, State Department. 340TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 7 Exploring for rotenone in Colombia. F. J. HERMANN, Bureau of Plant Industry and For- eign Economic Administration. Phloem necrosis disease of elm. Curtis May, Bureau of Plant Industry. 341st MEETING, DECEMBER 5 Botanist abroad; or A philosophy for the ‘Good Neighbor.” W. A. ArcueEr, Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations. Climatic analogues for plant introduction pur- poses. MicHAaEL Nutronzon, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. 168 447TH ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 5 After the reports of the Executive Com- mittee and the Treasurer were read, that of the Nominating Committee for officers for 1945 was presented. There being no additional nom- inations, the Society voted to instruct the Re- cording Secretary to cast a unanimous ballot for the following nominees: President, AARON JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 5 G. JoHnson; Vice-President, FREDERICK V. Ranp; Recording Secretary, Nei, W. STUART; Corresponding Secretary, Miss JAnicE S&S. Brown; Treasurer, Ross W. Davipson; Counsellors, SAMUEL L. EMSWELLER @fi'd Ros- ERT L. WEINTRAUB; Representative to the Washington Academy, F. P. CuLLiInan. ANNIE May Karrer, Recording Secretary Obituary JOHN FRANKLIN MEYER, retired member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died on October 30, 1944, after an illness which had confined him to his home for more than four years. Dr. Meyer was born in central Pennsyl- vania on March 11, 1875. He came of ‘‘Penn- sylvania Dutch” stock and was a good example of that stable and dependable element of our population. Meyer graduated from Franklin and Mar- shall College at the age of 19. For 15 years thereafter he alternated between teaching and further study. He received a master’s degree from Franklin and Marshall in 1897, attended Johns Hopkins University for 3 years, and completed his work for the doctorate in 1904 at the University of Pennsylvania. After five years of teaching (1902-1907) at that institu- tion he went to Pennsylvania State College as professor of physics. The year 1909 brought two notable changes in his life. He married Ella Jane Mather and left academic work to become director of physical research at the Bloomfield, N. J., works of the* Westinghouse Lamp Company. The following four years were a period of rapid development in the lamp industry, bringing an almost complete change from carbon to metal filaments, and Dr. Meyer’s industrial experi- ence during this transition was of great value in his later work for the Government. In 1913, Dr. Meyer came to the National Bureau of Standards as one of a group formed to study technical problems arising in the governmental regulation of public-utility serv- ices. He compiled. the most complete collection of information on state and city regulations regarding electric service, and this was pub- lished by the Bureau of Standards in two edi- tions (1916 and 1923) under the title Standards for electric service. In 1923 he was put in charge of the Bureau’s section on photometry and illumination and was also made assistant chief of the Division of Electricity. He filled those positions until his retirement and was also given many other responsibilities, particularly in committee work. He had previously been assigned to the staff of the Congressional Com- mission on Reclassification and took an impor- tant part in the surveys of governmental and industrial employment which led to the re- classification of the departmental Civil Service in 1924. He became secretary of the Confer- ence of State Public Utilities Commission Engi- neers in 1929 and held that office until his re- tirement. He suffered a stroke during one of the sessions of the Conference in May 1940 and was never able to return to full-time duty thereafter. His retirement took effect on Janu- ary 31, 194t. Dr. Meyer belonged to many organizations and was an effective worker in them because of his modesty, good judgment, and sincere inter- est in furthering any good cause. He served the Academy as an editor of the JourRNAL from 1918 to 1921. He was a member of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Illuminating Engineering Society, Optical Society of Amer- ica, the Masonic Order, Acacia fraternity, Phi Gamma Delta, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, and the Cosmos Club. Besides his technical activ- ities he maintained a lively interest in religious and social questions and in educational work, being a member of the Advisory Council of Franklin and Marshall College, a trustee of Catawba College, and an officer of the Evan- gelical and Reformed Church. While holding administrative positions Dr. Meyer never for- got the interests and the feelings of his fellow workers, and any associate whether of high rank or low could be sure of receiving sym- pathetic consideration of problems brought to him. He will long be remembered as “‘one who loved his fellow men.” K. C. CritTENDEN aN ae : le BA Nett Bs GEODESY. The utility of geodetic control surveys. GaRNMR. 06.2 oe feng te Puysics.—Faster than sound. pane VON dome Botany. nibs barley, ordeum eee sp. “nov. Ewer Apere and G. A. WIEBE... 6... sees ee eee e elena ees : PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY. ......0-- 50+ s 0; 5+ beseeee cee e -.Procurepines: BoranicaL Society. ................ ; Hs Ry as" . te a a OsiTuary: John Franklin Meyer.......... aoe 5 oe “4 : a are ine: ewe eee eee af ey Dek ek a TA ene, Cn or Fee * ‘This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals, EN “BOARD ammrnena 8 1! Ufo RRR ham Bee. ey a Ae ae A. Reaper Wrurram N, Fenton © Pui U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM _ BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Vie Spee | | “ASSOCIATE 1 EDITORS eg | Chose Faanx C. Knacre: Ss OF ALAN STONE ees, , r ‘4 Lae ti ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ah B. ‘Hansen 0 Ane -‘Rauea W. Imuar ¥ " mrozosteat sOciETY . TAS Te _ GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY pBERT E, Lonater EROS SOO Dare Brevage 2 5 as seamed) ; -) at ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 4 ¥ ss James I. HorrmMan Weeds apeaminon SOCIETY | PUBLISHED MONTHLY | m4 eR bes cy. BY THE ‘ ( \ "WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES : oe } ’ 450 ABNAIP ‘Sr. m aT Menasua, Wisconar, e o 4 $6 ; or . cae i : rea * 4 Us 2h ; ; Ret tf - 12 ; ‘ , « 5 eu ‘aheden as secon clase matter under the Act he falas 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: ‘ : F of cceptance for railing ata special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 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Rappuieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHan R. Smrrg, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: Franx M. Surzupr, U.S. National Museum, So ee ee EE ee BC = 48 Pre ‘ are. a ee re) $3-% w& JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VouuME 35 JUNE 15, 1945 No. 6 ETHNOLOGY .—The mutual-aid and volunteer company of the eastern Cherokee: as recorded in a book of minutes in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared with mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois.' F. G. Speck, University of Pennsylvania, and C. E. ScHAEFFER, Pennsylvania Historical Commission. (Communicated by W. N. FenTovn.) In the progress of field research in the Southeast during the past decade, a growing mass of data describing the institutions and social life of the Cherokee has come into our hands. The Cherokee constitute an im- portant study group of North America whose way of life became strongly and strangely modified more than a century ago by deliberate movement toward accultura- tion; they took up learning and its institu- tions through association with Europeans. The Cherokee became literate in about the first quarter of the nineteenth century, by which time one of their intellectual leaders, Sequoyah, the Cherokee Cadmus, had given his people a system of quasi-syllabic sym- bols, enabling them to record in writing their own cultural properties. Scribes re- placed oral transmitters of knowledge. Not only this, but the acquisition of innovations in the whole gamut of their economic life transformed the group from moun- tain-dwelling hunters and mountain-valley maize-growers into mountainside crop- farmers, husbandmen, artificers, traders, and sedentary villagers in a space of time so short and phenomenally progressive as to arouse the envy and jealousy of the frontier settlers who first brought these changes across the horizon of the ‘‘savages.”’ The aforementioned changes in the cul- tural trend of the Cherokee are too well known to need reviewing. Such causes furnished the social and political back- ground out of which the Removal Event evolved in 1836. The works of Adair, Tim- 1 Received January 18, 1945. berlake, Royce, and Mooney abound in treatment of this epoch in southern history. Forman, Debo, and Milling, among others, have ably narrated the historical episodes. And the transition from former conditions of life to those of the post-Contact period has engaged the attention of modernly trained anthropologists, such as Olbrechts, Bloom, Gilbert, and Kelly, whose publica- tions have already appeared. The latter group have cross-sectioned and analyzed, through extensive field work among the conservative members of the Eastern Band in North Carolina, the manifold aspects of the physical, spiritual, social, economic, and political elements under historic changes of cultural life. THE LITERATURE ON COOPERATIVE ENDEAVORS But now leaving this review we come to a consideration of one characteristic of native life which is increasingly stressed by stu- dents in discussions of the structure and functioning of Cherokee society. Reference is thus made by Olbrechts,? Bloom,’ and more exhaustively by Gilbert* to the im- portance of cooperative endeavor and the various Cherokee social forms, both formal 2 JamES Mooney and Frans M. OLBREcHTs. The Swimmer manuscript: Cherokee sacred formu- las and medicinal prescriptions. Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 99: 1-319. 1932. 3 LEONARD Bioom. The acculturation of the eastern Cherokee: Historical aspects. North Caro- lina Hist. Rev. 19 (4): 323-358. 1942. 4 WILLIAM HARLEN GILBERT, JR. The eastern Cherokees. Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 133 (23): 169— 414, 1943. 169 j ea a ‘ae 170 and informal, through which it derives ex- pression. Our primary concern in this paper is with certain of the more formal coopera- tive units representing voluntary, associa- tive ““companies” of men organized for the purpose of mutual aid and charity. In addi- tion to placing on record heretofore unpub- lished but specifically literal data, we pro- pose to examine these institutions from the standpoint of their wider, historical rela- tionships. Thus the authorities cited above describe in greater or lesser detail the func- tions of these cooperative bodies, the scope of their activities, and the nature of their formation. In no case, however, has an at- tempt been made to scrutinize the associa- tions themselves from the viewpoint of the wider background of aboriginal social sys- tems of the Atlantic slope area. The fact that recent writers on the Cherokee welfare company have refrained from searching farther afield for genetically related institutions obscures its significance as a societal trait shared by the northern Iroquoian linguistic relatives of the Chero- kee. Can the mutual-aid agency of the Cherokee be shown to have a historic con- nection with the similarly associated com- pany reported among the Iroquois (Seneca) by Fenton? If so, does it represent one of the fundamentals of Iroquoian culture pre- dating the separation into northern and southern divisions? Beyond the unques- tioned relationship of speech between the two, ethnologists and archeologists have still to define the fundamentals of Iroquoian social ideology as well as correspondence in material culture. Having called attention to the bearing of these thoughts upon the wider aspects of community life in the East- ern woodlands, we may postpone for the present further examination of their latent possibilities. Reverting to the published accounts of the Cherokee cooperative agencies, the principal facts on record may be briefly summarized as follows: Economic coopera- tion in Cherokee society, according to Gil- bert (p. 307), is manifested both above and below the institutionalized level, in a vari- ety of forms. As representative of the less formal types, he mentions the simple ex- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, NO. 6 change of services and goods between husband and wife, and between neighboring farmers, and certain spontaneous communal activities, 1.e., construction of a foot bridge for the common good. The voluntary, or- ganized, associative forms, on the other hand, are represented, among others, by (1) the poor-aid companies and (2) the gadugi or mutual-aid associations. Gadugi.—The Cherokee gadugi,> or Mu- tual Aid association, is defined by Gilbert (p. 307) as a “company organized for the purpose of mutual exchange of services and earnings of money.’ The following data, paraphrased from the same observers’ de- scription (p. 212), provide us with an out- line of its structure and activities. The gadugi is a group of 12 men organized as a corporation. Its services are hired out to white farmers at nominal rates of pay, or allocated, in rotation, to members’ farms for four days of the week. The tasks per- formed include ordinary agricultural activi- ties, such as hoeing corn, “‘topping’’ corn for fodder, and clearing land for cultivation. Cash returns derive from an annual division of the corporation’s profits or, when de- sired, through a loan on the common treas- ury secured by a mortgage on the member’s livestock, land, or dwelling. Officials of the gadugt include the chief, treasurer, secre- tary, sheriff or money-collector, and warner, each of whom is elected annually by the members. Of these, the most important are the chief, who hires out the company, and the warner, who is in charge of actual labor supervision. Often two or three women, serving as cook-laborers, are members of the society. Poor Aid company.—The Poor Aid com- pany differs from the gadugi largely in the nature and orientation of its activities. The former is characterized by Gilbert (p. 307) 5 Bloom (p. 326) notes in passing that “a cooperative, the gadugh, was a distinctive feature of Cherokee society. Gatherings for community work were occasions for social diversions and had much the same motivation and aspect as the ‘bees’ of colonial and rural America’’’ Olbrechts omits any mention of the gadugi. The Cherokee term is gddugz’, translated as © ‘“‘welfare society”? in modern usage, denoting the Red Cross and other organizations operating for public benefit. JuNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE as a “form of mutual aid among neighbors when sickness or death disables one of the families.” The officials of the poor-aid agency, according to Gilbert (p. 213), con- sist of a chief, undertaker, secretary, grave- digger, coffin-maker, and two warners.® Of these, the chief serves as director of poor aid while the warners act as his assistants. The association, which is apparently made up of all the able-bodied members of the community, comes together once a year to hold a meeting and elect officers. In the Raven district, where Gilbert carried on his investigation, the annual meeting is held regularly in the community cemetery on August 10.7 The election is quite informal and usually consists in nomination of popu- lar individuals, by two or three of their friends, and oral assent of the remainder. Following the meeting the assembly cleans up the graveyard and straightens up the tombstones. The functions of the Poor Aid association consist largely in lending assistance to fami- lies in need. For example, if the head of a family falls ill and is unable to provide care for his family, the chief requests the two warners to go around and collect the neigh- bors. In such an emergency the chief can command the services of the community on three days’ notice during the growing sea- son, and at other times immediately. All the able-bodied people turn out to provide firewood and to plow the family’s fields, plant and hoe the corn, and, finally, to gather the harvest. In case a family’s house burns down, the association also assists in rebuilding and refurnishing it. It is impor- tant to note the reciprocal aspect involved, for, as Gilbert (p. 307) points out, ‘‘pay- ment for these services is, of course, ex- pected either in kind [chickens or livestock] or in return services.” As suggested by the list of officials previ- 6 The officials, as given by Olbrechts (p. 80), are the chief and an assistant whose duty it is to call out the members. The former is said to be regarded pretty much as the chief of the com- munity. Farther on in his account (pp. 135-38), he mentions other officers who carry out certain duties in connection with burial. 7 Olbrechts (p. 80) states that the annual meet- ing usually takes place “‘at corn planting time when members have to meet anyway to work for some sick neighbor.” 171 ously cited, important cooperative functions were carried out by the Poor Aid associa- tion in connection with death and burial. Olbrechts’ discussion (pp. 135-38) of its activities on such an occasion follows: As soon as it is known that some one has died, the head man of the “grave-digging company”’ is notified; he, in turn, gives notice to his helpers, and the same day or the next a grave is dug. The grave-diggers are a company of six volun- teers acting under a chief; the latter office at the time of my stay being held by one Gula-’ci. They also are appointed for one year, and are elected in the same manner as the coffin makers. . . The coffin is made by two men acting under a foreman. This “company” is elected for the term of one year, at the same time as the “grave- digging company” and the chief of the settle- ment.® Upon the close of the mourning rites at the home of the deceased, the corpse is borne to the burial place under the supervision of an aid company official. According to Olbrechts (pp. 187-38) :° At a sign of the chief of the coffin makers, four men will start hunting around for two stout poles or strong boards on which the coffin is put to be carried, and the funeral procession starts. : . Every 200 yards or so the chief of the coffin makers who now acts as a kind of “master of ceremonies,”’ shouts out aniso’i’ no-"Gw5" (“other ones now’’), and four other men, not necessarily belonging to this company, come out of the crowd and take the places of the coffin carriers... When the cemetery is reached, the coffin is put down near the grave which has been dug in the meanwhile by the grave-digging company .. . So much for the guise in which the Chero- kee welfare agencies have come down to us of recent years. That they existed in the tribal society of the Southeast in general is satisfactorily acceptable in view of the testimony in the narratives of writers who knew the Creeks and Cherokees in the latter part of the eighteenth century.!° In § Olbrechts goes on to state, “The election is a very unofficial affair, the members generally being volunteers. The foreman, and if necessary one of the two members, if there are no volunteers. are nominated and usually, ipso facto, elected.” ® Gilbert’s data (pp. 213, 256) follow closely those of Olbrechts on this subject. In another place the former (p. 347) states that formerly every Cherokee town had its undertaker who not only buried the dead but assisted the deceased’s family in carrying out certain post-mortem mourning rites. 10 Gilbert (p. 306) characterizes both agencies (1932) as “aboriginally remnantal organizations 172 the case of the Poor Aid association, we may refer to William Bartram and his recorded observations on the above-named tribes. He states that “the citizens, as one family, prepare the ground and begin to plant ...as convenience may direct for general good. The work is directed by an overseer elected or appointed annually, I suppose, in rotation throughout all the fam- ilies of the town. Thus when a family’s private stores fall short, in case of accident or otherwise, they are entitled to assistance and supply from the public granary by ap- plying to the king...” The Poor Aid company, however, under- went progressive disintegration within the last century as the result of influences aris- ing from European contact. We are in- debted to Gilbert (pp. 362-63) for a résumé of the events leading to the decline of the cooperative at Yellow Hill, one of the com- munities on the Cherokee reservation: In the late 19th century the American Govern- ment took over the work of the Quakers in the education of the Cherokees, and began an active program of bringing the younger generation into the Government day schools. In Yellow Hill a manual-training course was set up for the boys, and the latter were taught to make various handi- craft objects. Among other things coffins began to be made at this school, and soon the whole town was supplied from this source and the coffin- maker lost his job. The office of undertaker was hich function feebly today and seem to be des- fied to soon disappear.’”’ He has collected data to show the presence of the gadugi as a coopera- tive agency among the Cherokee during the early 19th century. The company persisted relatively unchanged until 1890 after which it underwent rapid modifications. It then began, to quote Gilbert (p. 362), to “‘hire out its services to white people at fixed rates by the day and became in effect an ordinary labor gang. This change in function led to dependence on white people for wages and subsistence instead of a reliance on their own unaided cultivation of the soil by mutual aid. Consequently the association came under the North Carolina regulations as a cor- poration and became subject to taxation. Unable to meet the taxes from their earnings, the gadugi soon declined and mostly disappeared in the open- ing years of the twentieth century.” Reference is made to this gadugz"’, or society, in one of the handwritten journals obtained for the University Museum from West Long himself. Some details of the action of the society are given by one of its members Kétogisti’, from whom West Long had obtained the records about 1906. It is still untranslated (MS. Book III, p. 67). 1 Quoted by Bloom, p. 329. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 also made less useful and the whole of the funeral functions of the Poor Aid Society vanished. Soon the effects of the native health» and welfare service of the American Government made itself felt and the rest of the functions of the Poor Aid Society vanished also. So it has come about that the cooperative and mutual aid among neighbors in sickness and death have disappeared in favor of direct Government aid in Yellow Hill. Having surveyed the published material on record for the Cherokee cooperative or- ganizations, we may now set forth addi- tional information on the Poor Aid company as acquired recently from native sources among the Cherokee. These data are taken from a record written in 1932 by Will West Long in the Cherokee syllabary script, and obtained from him in 1944 with a collection of manuscript records in the famous syl- labary.”” TRANSLATION OF SYLLABARY Introduction.—In making a translation of the text of the syllabary several difficulties have had to be considered. One of these was the selection of English terms from the vo- cabulary of West Long to coincide with the sense of the Cherokee original. Such terms as ‘elected,’ ‘‘votes,” “unanimous,” “‘chair- man,” and “‘secretary,’’ and others taken from the diction of parliamentary proced- ure, must impress one as obviously of modern structure and not a part of the basic Cherokee vocabulary of pre-Contact times. The tone of the whole record, in fact, be- trays the effect of a far-reaching influence from European sources. There is nothing in such a conclusion to surprise one who recalls that the Cherokee, by the middle of the previous century, had well earned their title 22 The notebook in which the text was written is a small composition tablet in which West Long, as an officer of the Poor Aid company, wrote down in full the acts, minutes, and proceedings of a meeting held by its members at the Big Cove settlement of the Cherokee in one of its final ses- S1ONS. Within the past few years a collection of hand- written books in the Cherokee syllabary, known as the Sequoyah alphabet, has been made and placed in the archives of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. The paper submitted is based upon one of these documents. Acknowl- edgements are due to the Faculty Research Fund of the University, and to Robert Riggs, for sup- port of the initial field work in the area which resulted in securing the manuscripts for the Uni- versity Museum. JuNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE as one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the South. That the cooperative-work units of earlier times should have become organized after the pattern of colonial American town- meetings, is as much to be expected in Cherokee social policies after 1850, let us say, as their progress in literacy,™ or their change of governmental policy from village to tribal chieftainship and confederacy, and finally, to an elective system with chief executive and house of representatives or councilmen.‘ The data pertaining to ac- culturative processes at work in the social and political history of the Cherokee have been too well overhauled in the monographs of Bloom and Gilbert, already mentioned, to require more than casual reference in this connection. The proclivity of the Cher- okee for progressive acculturation need not surprise one, even under an accelerating momentum between 1720 and 1830, when Bloom’s statement is weighed. He asserts, in comparing white frontier and native Cherokee culture, that by 1800 ‘‘the fron- tier presents the intruding culture in a cruder and simpler, perhaps a more elemen- tary form.”’ In presenting the translation of Will West Long’s minute book, we have used paren- theses to inclose words not appearing in the original text. The punctuation is that of the present writers, since the syllabary has none. The native terms are transcribed phonetically following the system, with some simplifications, employed by Dr. Ol- brechts. Will West Long is responsible for the translation and for the transcriptions and renderings of the personal names listed. It must be remarked that West Long is a purist in Cherokee pronunciation, diction, and style; hence his renderings and etymol- ogies will often vary from those of other speakers who act as informants on Chero- kee topics. Organization and procedure.— Without go- ing into matters that are only indirectly concerned with the functional aspects of the mutual-aid unit, we offer some observations 13 In 1848 “about three-fourths can read in their own language,’”’ meaning the Sequoyah syllabary (Bloom, p. 355, quoting Lanman). 4 The last a ‘“‘political instrument modeled on that of the United States’? (Bloom, p. 349). 173 on the procedures of the company during the final meetings held at Big Cove. West Long remembers that each village settlement community of the Nation, be- fore the era of its political dismemberment in 1836, the time of the Removal to Indian Territory, had what he calls a “lead-chief” or “‘little chief,” wste’"yu ukawi'yuhi’. Each settlement managed its own affairs of a public, legislative, and social nature as a small independent community unit or tribe. The community chief or “lead-chief’? was the social factor in organizing the group’s activities and formulating policies. He ad- ministered his control through a body of 12 men, known as anv’ tawiskagei’’, ‘smooth men,’’ whom he appointed. They served as police or sheriffs, having official authority to arrest and punish, according to tribal mores, men and women guilty of misde- meanor. They reserved the right to decide the degree of punishment for minor offenses by whipping with sticks (four to twelve lashes), or they could even pronounce acquittal. The mutual-aid cooperative, of which we treat, was a branch of this arm of community organization; its officers were appointed by the company itself, and au- thorized by the community lead-chief. Since it may not find elsewhere a niche in the records of the Eastern Cherokee, it is inter- esting to note here a fact of band history: West Long remembered that the last lead- chief of the Big Cove Settlement was Tsiltao’ski-, ‘Falling corn-tassel.”’* The office fell into disuse about 1875, according to his recollection. But the aid company at Big Cove continued to function as a work group until shortly after 1932, the date when the text of the last meeting minutes was written. A decade later, as we write, the company still functions in part, al- though the Agency staff has taken over some of its tasks as a phase of paternalistic policy. The native designation of the cooperative association, as given by West Long at the time of translating the text, is wyo’z-yun dahnde'gi:’, literally ‘‘poor people needy (company). The meeting referred to in the 15 The Anglicized form Chiltoski is still current as a personal name in the band. ‘ZE6l ‘AreqeiAs yefonbog oy} Ur U944zII AA ‘QOYOIOYO OY} JO JUSUIO]}}0S 9AOD Big ‘Auvdu0yg pry 100g jo Zuryo0w jo seqnuru s SuoT S90, TI! M Jo F pus “Z ‘T soseq—'| ‘DIq j June 15, 1945 SPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE minutes took place at the graveyard at Big Cove as the opening phrase of the text indi- cates. West Long explained that the out- door gathering on the occasion was held to clean up the burying ground while the people were assembled for the meeting. (The community has since discovered that the labor of cleaning the graveyard can be saved by pasturing their cattle there to eat off the weeds: Acculturation accelerating economic progress.) The meetings of the organization are now usually held in some- one’s home. The place is determined by ap- pointment each year and tends to follow aro- tation among the families of the settlement. The tasks of the benefit program of the company fall upon the whole community as ordered by the appointed officers, as West Long, the secretary, explained. This means that, then as now, 20 to 30 persons would constitute the work party. He estimated that about 40 families made up the Big Cove settlement, including those of remote Cherokee descent. Most of them attended the meeting covered in the minutes re- corded, and the votes, numbering 27 (page 4 of the text), represent the highest number of males voting on any office of the society, namely, that of notifier. With this brief review of the occasion, we now turn to the record of the meeting itself. MINUTES OF A MEETING OF THE MU- TUAL AID SOCIETY HELD AT BIG COVE SETTLEMENT, CHEROKEE RES- ERVATION, N. GC. (TRANSLATION OF A DIARY RECORD OF WILL WEST LONG, 1932) Page 1 Raven’s old grave yard, August 10, 1932, held meeting and organized to make as a com- pany, renew it and reelect its officers for as long as one year. First, motioned it and seconded it, chosen as temporary chairman, Tciskwq’na?j‘.16 Next motioned and seconded, chosen Will Westi!’ as secretary for one year. Third, motioned and seconded, chief head to make speech (explain- ing) what he has done, also other officers. 16 Literally “bird going,’? commonly known in Big Cove as Going Bird. 17 Cherokee form of Will West (Long). 175 Page 2 Again motioned and seconded: to person who has had any trouble or sickness, to sup- port and help them; Tcikilili:’!* will be the head as long as one year. Then, the volunteer (candidate) to run against (Tcikilili’), Lloyd Wahi‘ya’.!9 Ordered and given them to vote, voted first Lloyd, then last Tcikilili’’. Lloyd—S8 votes. Tcikilili’—5 votes. Lloyd was elected for one year. Next, assistant chosen, Djdni Es‘i‘*® re- elected. Chairman allowed him a vote, ran against him, for one year. Page 3 Next, dead person’s coffin-maker, there should be elected again. Chairman allowed them to vote. Diyelido’#! should be reelected. They all voted unanimously. Next, graveyard-digger, motioned and sec- onded, should be reelected Gwoala’dzi'” Next motioned, Kotagwa/ski",” foreman, ap- pointed against Gwola’dzi’. Gwola’dzi-—5 votes. Kotagwa’ski-—10 votes. Kotagwa’ski’ elected for one year. Page 4 Notifier, motioned and seconded, Mason Driver, next Djunu’lahaski’’.4 Next motioned Lasil‘a’‘,2> motioned elected, reelected Djo’na Amatzona’‘.?6 | Djunu’lahaski:’—4 votes. Mason—11 votes. Lasil'a’‘—8 votes, elected. Djo’na—4 votes. Mason, Lasil‘a’* elected for one year. ’ Page 5 Motioned and seconded, Djo’sa Wahiy’g?’ reelected coffin-maker—elected. Next, second assistant coffin-maker, mo- 18 Literally ‘‘chickadee,” locally known as Chikilili Driver. 19 Literally ‘“‘wolf.’’ 20 Cherokee equivalent of John Jesse (Lawson). 21 Literally ‘‘driver,’’ known as Will Driver. 22 Literally ‘‘echo,’”’ known as Gwolidge Wati. 23 Literally ‘‘all day long’ (Sunday). *% Literally ‘‘failer.”’ 28 Cherokee form of Russel. 26 Literally “Jonah back in the water ” 27 Equivalent of Joe ‘“‘Wolf.” 176 tioned and seconded, let it be reelected Djani Diyelido’hi*.28 Motioned and seconded Ma’ka Tsotatsj‘’2® assistant. Djani DiyelidShi-—2 votes. Maka Tsotatsj:/—11 votes, elected. Page 6 Motioned and seconded: if superintendent*® has an interruption, half-time assistant has to take authority; right to give order to notifier, to help them (people), but first he has to go to find out if it is necessary to help them. Motioned and seconded: if anyone is an old man, very old and helpless, also some old woman, cannot help herself and is living by herself, he (or she) in anything can be helped; seconded. Page 7 Foreman or superintendent, to give order must give advance notice three days before, but if it is hoeing corn or cutting wood, then just at any time he has right to give orders to work. COMPARABLE SOCIETIES AMONG NORTHERN IROQUOIS Turning now to the northern Iroquoian peoples, or Iroquois proper, we see that the recorded data reveal that patterns of mu- tual aid and assistance were as characteris- tic of their economic life as that of their southern congeners. We are indebted to Fenton (p. 43) for information on the type of mutual-aid association existing at the present time among the Seneca of New York State.*! The Seneca unit is organized not only for joint economic benefit but also incorporates the added function of group- singing for pleasure. Both men and women are members; but the former comprise the singers. The officials of the association differ apparently in number and in scope of duties on the various Seneca reservations. At a 28 Hquivalent of Johnny ‘‘Driver.” 29 Literal equivalent of Mark ‘‘Panther.”’ 30 Referring to Chikilili Driver. 31 WILLIAM N. Fenton. Some social customs of the modern Seneca. Social Welfare Bull. 7 (1-2): 4—7. New York State Department of Social Wel- fare, Albany, N. Y., 1935. Also reprinted in Indians at Work 3 (21): 10-14; 4 (6): 41-42. Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C., 1936. Pres- ent page references are to the latter source. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 recent meeting (1935) on the Tonawanda Reservation, one of these companies, the Salt Creek Mutual Aid and Singing So- ciety, was organized, and a chairman, secre- tary, treasurer, and two poormasters were elected by the members to serve for one year. The activities of the group include cutting wood for families with sickness, “raising”? houses for members, and lending aid to indigent old people. Anyone may ap- proach either of the poormasters and re- quest assistance. When help is thus re- quested, a ‘‘bee’”’ is organized, and, after the day’s work, the company sits down to a meal provided by the family in receipt of aid. Parenthetically, it may be pointed out that the reciprocal aspect noted previously for the Cherokee is also present here. After the meal the evening is given over to singing and dancing among the members present. “Similar mutual aid and singing societies prevail at Allegany Reservation, where there were two in 1933-1934, at Cat- taraugus, and at Six Nations Reserve” (Fenton, p.c.). It is worth pointing out that upon two occasions the Salt Creek Singers volun- teered to manage funerals in the community (Fenton, p. 42). The cost of lumber having been provided by a state welfare agency, the company delegated to one of its members the task of making the coffin. Thereafter the duties of preparing the body of the deceased, conducting the wake, digging the grave, and preaching the funeral sermon were assigned by the aid association to members of the deceased’s opposite moiety. The modern mutual-aid companies of the Seneca undoubtedly represent a develop- ment from native cooperative work groups of the Colonial period. In tracing their antecedents, Fenton (p. 13) notes that, according to current native tradition, “the Singing Societies grew out of groups of men who helped the women... Anciently the Chiefs were responsible for the welfare of the people. They could go to a society and ask it to assist a family.’’ Later, the same authority notes, the societies assumed the proportion of singing companies with defi- nite organizations, because of the tradi- tional tendency for Indians to sing and a JUNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE 177 dance when gathered in social groupings: the family, the clan, the locality or the na- tion. ‘But their original purpose—charity and mutual aid—still obtains.”’ Another type of mutual-aid association common to the Five Nations of the earlier period is presented to us in a report by Parker.® This form differs largely from that described by Fenton in the composition of its membership. Before outlining the data on this second agency, it is necessary first to sketch in the general economic back- ground of the northern Iroquoians. The Five Nations, a group of sedentary agricultural- ists like the Cherokee, based their subsist- ence upon maize-growing. In contrast to the latter, however, Iroquois maize produc- tion—planting, cultivation, harvesting, stor- ing, and final processing as food—was car- ried on almost exclusively by women. Men assisted in clearing the fields, older men oc- casionally aided the women in cultivation, but the predominant male pursuits were warfare and hunting. Even the chase, at times, was carried on in an intermittent and desultory fashion. Since the burden of eco- nomic responsibility was thus borne by women, it is no surprise to learn that co- operative work groups among the Five Na- tions of the Colonial period were primarily female organizations. The mutual-aid company that functioned in all agricultural activities was usually composed of women from the entire village. Each year, according to Parker (p. 24), they elected a chief matron to direct their work in the communal fields. These were plots of ground associated with the matrilineal fam- ily (clan) or the village as a whole. The produce from the village fields was em- ployed for the preparation of food required in the tribal festivals, the excess frequently being distributed among needy families of the village. The aid-company leader, usu- ally a matron from the dominating family, ordered all the details of planting, cultivat- ing, and harvesting. She was assisted by several lieutenants, matrons selected by her 32 AnTHUR C. PARKER. Jroquois uses of maize and other food plants. New York State Mus. Bull. 144: 21-32. 1910. Also see ALEXANDER A. GOLDENWEISER. Early civilization: An introduc- tion to anthropology: 72-73. New York, 1922. from other family lines. The fields con- nected with the village were cultivated, one by one, in this way. Early in fall the work company came together to harvest the crops. This was an occasion for festivity, the men attending to take part in the sing- ing and dancing. It is interesting to note Parker’s statement (p. 32) that the aid com- pany also tended the crops of sick and injured members, @ service considered as a right and never as a charity (italics ours). It may be inferred from the above writer that the women’s aid association continued to function among the Five Nations down to the last century, by which time male reluc- tance to participation in agricultural work, under the stimulus of state and federal government and missionaries, had begun to wane. The existence of still another variety of the cooperative work association is also noted for the Five Nations by Parker. This type functioned in connection with the utilization of certain fields near the village, the use of which was regarded as the prop- erty of individual families. According to Parker (pp. 29-30), the women of the com- munity in whom such rights were vested and their husbands or male friends might form a mutual-aid company. Like the ex- clusive women’s work-group previously dis- cussed, the activities of this association were directed by a matron selected from among the members. As long as members’ obligations toward cultivation of the com- munal fields were maintained, they were privileged to carry on the necessary work in their own plots. Few data are afforded us, however, as to the particular role played by male members of the agency except that they helped at husking, knowing that a full pail of corn soup awaited them whether they worked or not. ‘Often the ‘bee’ would be enlivened by a marching dance, and for this emergency the men brought their water drums and horn rattles and cleared their throats for singing”’ (Parker, p. 32). The dual-membership cooperative group is, perhaps, best regarded as a variant of the women’s aid-company. In summary, then, we have presented data describing certain cooperative associ- 178 ations present among the modern Seneca and Cherokee. Further, we have reviewed the more accessible sources for information upon antecedent and coexisting forms in the same cultures for the earlier historical period. Both the recent and earlier types of Iroquoian economic agencies reveal pro- nounced similarities as well as differences. Despite the dissimilarities, it is the writers’ opinion that the two sets of tribal institu- tions are genetically related, and reflect, in turn, an old, fundamental pattern of insti- tutionalized cooperation and _ poor-relief characteristic of and deeply embedded in Iroquoian culture. The reasons for so think- ing are set forth in subsequent paragraphs. In delineating the form and function of the economic institutions antecedent to contemporary Iroquoian mutual-aid com- panies, it is first necessary to set aside those accretions that have attached themselves to the base pattern during the course of recent centuries. Thus, if the Cherokee gadugt be screened of such alien elements as the corporate and parliamentary frame- work of organization, services for hire, loans to members, etc., the simpler form charac- teristic of the Colonial period remains as a residuum. The primary function of the Cherokee agency is then revealed as mutual exchange of services for economic ends. It is probable that the association during this earlier period was organized on a com- munity-wide basis and operated under the direction of a leader and several assistants. As thus depicted, the parent mutual-aid institution, except for its sexually mixed composition, equates essentially with the women’s mutual-aid company of the Sen- eca. This divergence in membership com- position, however, is of relatively minor significance when we recall the peculiar matriarchal trend of northern Iroquoian economy, and contrast it with joint par- ticipation of both sexes in agricultural ‘pursuits among the Cherokee. Similarly the poor-aid company of the Cherokee resembles its Seneca counterpart, the Singing Society, in functioning to allevi- ate economic distress. Fenton is of the opin- ion that the contemporary Seneca 2id com- pany is the lineal descendant of the sexu- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 ally mixed cooperative agency described by Parker. In his opinion the latter can be regarded as the parent institution of the Singing Society in the earlier period. A clear line of development, in the light of our pres- ent knowledge, can not be traced between the cooperative agency discussed by Parker, and a postulated, dual-composition work- group believed by Quain (p. 249) to function in the onerous activities of land-clearing during the aboriginal period.® It is entirely possible that Fenton’s ‘‘groups of men who helped the women” stemmed from some such aboriginal land-clearing agency. In this case, the dual-composition work-group merely represents the application of the basic pattern of institutionalized coopera- tion to the smallest, land-using unit in Seneca economy. The mutual-aid element may have become attached to what was once a _ predominately economic relief agency as the result of the decline in women’s agricultural cooperatives and the increasing attention paid by Seneca men: to farming. To return to our comparison of the Seneca Singing Society and the Cherokee poor-aid company, it is clear that both agencies functioned to alleviate distress within the community, whether resulting from life- crisis situations or from ordinary economic need. Upon sifting out the parliamentary elements of organization shared by both, an earlier pattern of supervision, that of a leader and several aides, is revealed. Simi- larly, the native traits of reciprocity and formalized social diversion are common to the economic cooperatives of both tribes. Further, both Seneca and Cherokee aid companies are characterized by mixed mem- bership since both men and women are members. If we again recall the sexual orien- tation of Five Nations economy, thesociety of males who aid the women during the earlier period appears complementary to the coexisting women’s farming cooperative, both functioning toward common coopera- tive and charitable goals. A point of differ- 33 B. H. Quain, chapter on “The Iroquois” in Cooperation and competition among primitive peoples: 240-281. Edited by Margaret Mead. New York, 1937. JUNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE ~ ence between northern and southern Iro- quoians is the role assigned to members of the Cherokee poor-aid company in execu- tion of certain mortuary rites. These respon- sibilities accrue to the southern aid-group, apparently, as the result of the widespread Southeastern pattern of individuals other than relatives carrying on the rites leading to inhumation of the deceased. In the northern area, a similar attitude is not lack- ing in that the deceased’s opposite moiety fulfills these obligations. Even here the Seneca poor-aid agency functions in an intermediary capacity. The Seneca aid companies also meet to clean graveyards. As a result of the preceding analysis, the fundamental pattern of the organized, eco- nomic cooperative common to both Five Nations and Cherokee cultures comes to assume proper proportions. If the recon- struction of a prototype institution char- acteristic of archaic Iroquoian peoples in - general be in order, it is to be defined as a voluntary association of individuals, probably community-wide, organized under the super- _ vision of a leader and several assistants to carry on mutual aid or relief activities within the locality on a reciprocal basis. The lack of homogeneity in the tribal economic coopera- tives of the recent period is assignable to (1) superficial accretions derived from Euro- pean sources and (2) more fundamental modifications effected by varying streams of influence impinging upon the Seneca and the Cherokee, respectively, subsequent to their separation and dispersion. As a result of tracing the economic agen- cies described to earlier levels of Iroquoian history, a fundamental trait characteristic 179 of the cultures of this linguistic family is brought to light. We refer to the pattern of institutionalization, which so thoroughly pervades without relaxation the social forms of [roquoian-speaking peoples in both northern and southern areas. Certainly one would search in vain among the Algonkians of the northern forests for indications of that capacity for economic, political, and social organization which so characterizes the life of their neighbors to the south, the Five Nations. Economic mutual aid is not entirely absent, it is true, among these less complex, hunting-gathering societies. How- ever, it is never manifested through these organized agencies attributable to the Iro- quoians but rather through the media of informal work-parties. In evaluating the observations recorded in this paper, it must be borne in mind that institutionalization appears convincingly to have been an Jroquoian cultural property from the period of discovery down to the present day. We shall have to presume that such a statement is acceptable to students of the group. It is only by means of such a predisposing factor that the rapid assimila- tion, for example, of Europeans patterns of organization by Seneca and Cherokee alike during recent centuries, is most satisfac- torily explained. The common basis thus pro- vided for the mutual aid groups in both areas affords increased evidence of cultural linkage in the past between two Iroquoian-speaking peoples who differ otherwise in most respects as to their cultural profiles. This substratum of social conformation in Iroquoian cultures represents a field of inquiry about which further information is desired. 180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 PALEONTOLOGY.—Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Mis- sissipptan.. Epwin Kirk, U. 8. Geological Survey. In the lower Mississippian of Kentucky and Tennessee is a small group of anoma- lous crinoids. In the main the species have been referred to the Pennsylvanian genus Stemmatocrinus, though one has been de- scribed as Mespilocrinus. Material showing the arm structures has been prepared, and the crinoids prove to represent a new genus. Gaulocrinus, n. gen. Genotype.—Stemmatocrinus trautscholdt Wachs- muth and Springer. , Crown. Low, massive, compact. Dorsal cup. The dorsal cups range from cupuli- form (type species) with flattened base and J BB not visible in lateral view through cyathiform to crateriform. In the deeper cups the BB are plainly visible in lateral view. In most of the species the plates are very thick. In the holotype of the type spe- cies the RR have a maximum thickness of 8 mm. The BB and JBB have approxi- mately the same thickness. This thickness is still greater in larger specimens. The spe- cies found in the New Providence of But- ton Mould Knob is a relatively small one and represented only by dissociated plates and one crushed dorsal cup. Here the maximum thickness of a radial is some- what less than 4.5 mm. Owing to the great thickness of the plates in most of the spe- cies, the cavity of the dorsal cup is rela- tively small. The plates themselves are pyramidal in form, their dimensions on the inside of the cup being but approxi- mately one-half those on the outside. IBB. In most of the specimens the JBB appear to be fused into a solid disk. The greater part of the specimens, however, are silici- fied, which militates against accurate ob- servations of sutures in the case of closely united plates. Several specimens seem clearly to show a single suture. In at least two specimens two sutures outlining a single infrabasal can be seen. As the cup is symmetrical there is no way of orienting 1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received March 16, 1945. BB. dele. the sutures as seen. The stellate outline of the infrabasal element in many of the specimens gives good reason to doubt anchylosis of the /BB. In all cases known to me where there is anchylosis in the proximal circlet of plates the resultant ele- ment has a symmetrical outline without reentrant angles. When two, three, or four elements result from fusion, reentrants are found only where sutures are shown, and even here they are usually not deep. In earlier days a great deal of stress was laid on the number and position of the elements in the proximal circlet. With greater knowledge we have found that such struc- tures may be fairly stable and character- istic in some evolutionary lines and vari- able in others. Again, sutures may appear in individuals through what Wilson has styled delayed anchylosis. In the case of Gaulocrinus, with our present knowledge, the status of the JBB may be given as anchylosed with sporadic appearance of sutures. There is a distinct pit for the re- ception of the column. It is circular, deep, and has vertical walls. The pit is usually submedian in position, but in one unde- scribed species it seems to be consistently excentric in varying degrees. Large, usually extending to about one- half the height of the cup wall. An inter- esting feature in older specimens is the sinuous course of the basal-radial suture. Large. The radial facet extends nearly the full width of the radial. As seen in lateral view the R-IBr articulation ranges from linear to deeply lunate. The straight or slightly excavate contact is shown chiefly in young individuals or in what are as- sumed to be stratigraphically older spe- cies. It may appear, however, within a spe- cies in specimens of the same size as those showing decidedly lunate outlines. The distal face of the radial forms a broad plat- form. There is a well-defined fulcral ridge. The dorsal ligament fossa is relatively narrow but sharply defined. There is also a well-marked ligament pit. The muscular fossae vary with age. In younger speci- JUNE 15, 1945 mens they are relatively shallow and have a papillose surface. In the largest individ- uals the fossae are deep and sharply de- fined. At the lateral ventral margins of the articulating face are triangular facets. Each of these combined with that of the adjacent radial forms a triangular depres- sion that broadens and becomes shallower ventrad. At times, a low ridge delimits the inner margin of the depression. It seems possible that those areas represent inter- articular ligament fossae. Arms. The arms are heavy and short. In the two species where they are preserved, their length is less than the height of the dorsal cup. The /Brr are broad, low, and two in number in the two species in which they have been seen. In G. trautscholdi the rami do not seem to divide again. In one half- ray there are six secundibrachs preserved. Judging by the rapidity of taper, one would hardly expect another division. In G. bordeni there is a second division on the seventh secundibrach. Tegmen. No part of the tegmen has been found in any instance. In at least one specimen the cup is partially filled with dissociated brachials without recognizable plates that could have been derived from the tegmen. It would appear that the tegmen was an incompetent structure made up of many small plates. Column. The column is known only in one specimen, where five of the proximal columnals are preserved. The column has a diameter of 5.0 mm and is circular in sec- tion. The columnals are of medium height and, as seen, all of approximately the same height. The sides are somewhat rounded. The face of the columnal is marked by fairly strong, radiating ridges. It is not possible to tell the shape of the lumen in the column itself. As shown somewhat in- distinctly in the JBB it is pentalobate to pentagonal in outline. Distribution.—Gaulocrinus to date has been found in place only in the New Providence of Kentucky and Indiana and an equivalent ho- rizon in Tennessee. Most of the specimens from the White Creek Springs area of Tennessee were found on slopes and bottom lands as KIRK: A NEW INADUNATE CRINOID GENUS 181 float, and their stratigraphic horizon is uncer- tain. It has been assumed generally that they are derived from the limestones overlying the New Providence equivalent and of approxi- mately Keokuk age, but this is doubtful. Relationships.—The placement and the dif- ferentiation of crinoids with relatively simple structure are difficult. The separation of Gaulocrinus from Stemmatocrinus is, however, an easy matter on the basis of arm structure alone. Stemmatocrinus has long biserial arms. To point out differences between Gaulocrinus and species referred to the Permian genus Calycocrinus is more difficult, however. Typical Calycocrinus has a turbinate cup. The arms are similar to those of Gaulocrinus, as for that matter are those of Edriocrinus and other widely dissimilar genera. In Calycocrinus the articulating face of the radial is narrow, with an indistinct transverse fulcral ridge and a small dorsal ligament pit. There is no platform ventrad and there are no well-defined muscular fossae. The structure is somewhat like that found in such a genus as Lecanocrinus and af- fords some justification for the assignment of Calycocrinus to the Flexibilia as now con- ceived. In Gaulocrinus the articulating face is of the type characteristic of many of the heavy- bodied Inadunata. Of what systematic value the articulating faces of the radials may prove to be is a moot point. For our present purposes the striking structural differences shown by the two genera seem sufficient to substantiate the inherently probable wide biologic separation of the two genera. Species referred to the genus.— Gaulocrinus bordeni (Springer), n. comb. Mespilocrinus bordeni Springer, 1920, p. 197, pl. 5, figs. 23a—c: ‘“‘Knobstone group; Clark County, Indiana” (New Providence). Gaulocrinus robustus (Troost), n. comb. Cyathocrinites robustus Troost, 1849, p. 419, nom. nud. ; 1850, p. 61, nom. nud. ; 1909, p. 98, pl. 7 figs. 12-14: ‘‘Keokuk horizon of the Tullahoma formation. Harpeth River and White’s Creek Springs, Davidson County, Tennessee’”’ (Wood). “Harpeth Ridge, Davidson County, Tennes- see” (Troost’s manuscript locality). Stemmatocrinus trautscholdi Wachsmuth and Springer (pars), Wood, 1909, p. 98. 182 Gaulocrinus trautscholdi (Wachsmuth and Springer), n. comb. Stemmatocrinus trautscholdi Wachsmuth ‘ ‘Sind Springer, 1885, pl. 9, figs. 7, 8; 1886, p. 256 (180): “Keokuk limestone near Nashville (White’s Creek), Tenn.” Gaulocrinus veryi (Rowley), n. comb. Stemmatocrinus? veryi Rowley, 1903, p. 133, pl. 38, figs. 7, 8: “‘. . . probably Keokuk group, of Cumberland County, Kentucky.” LITERATURE CITED Row ey, R. R., in Greene, G. K. Contribu- tion to Indiana paleontology 1, pt: 213: Privately published, New Albany, Ind., August 27, 1903. | SPRINGER, Franx. The Crinoidea Flexibilia. Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 2501, pp. vi, 1- A86, pls. A-C, 1-76. 1920. 'FROOST, GERARD. Communication. Amer. BOTAN Y.—WNotes on four eastern species of Gymnosporangium.! Albuquerque, N. Mex. This paper reports investigations con- ducted in 1912 and 1913 in the District of Columbia and vicinity, while the author was in the employ of the U.S. Division of Forest Pathology, on the occurrence of four species of Gymnosporangium, G. clavipes Cke. & Pk., G. nidus-avis Thaxt., G. effusum Kern, and G. quniperi- SO TOR Schw.; on the lesions produced by them on the eed red cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.); and on inoculations made with G. effusum. The purpose of these studies was to de- termine what species of Gymnosporangium occurred in the District of Columbia and adjacent areas, their prevalence and distri- bution, their action on the host, and to ascertain, if possible, the aecial stage of G. effusum. More than 3,000 red cedars were ex- amined for the presence of Gymnosporangza, and a record was made of the distribution on each tree of the species found. Data were taken on the extent and character of the lesions produced. Record for each tree was maintained on an individual card showing size and condition of tree, number of lesions on trunk and branches for each species of 1 Received March 9, 1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 Journ. Sci. and Arts (ser. 2) 8 420. November 1849. . A lost of the fossil crinoids of Tennessee. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1849: 59-64. 1850 . A critical summary of Troost’s unpub- lished manuscript on the crinoids of Tennes- see. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 64, pp. i-xi, 1-150, pls. 1-15. 1909. (Edited by El- vira Wood.) WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea, pt. a sec. 2, pp. 1389-302. (One unnumbered page in- serted after p. 302. One inserted page “Note to page 255.”’ The latter appeared in two different forms.) Index to pts. 1-8, pp. 303-334. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila- delphia 1886: 64-226. 1886. Woop, Exvira, in Troost, Gerard. A critical summary of Troost’s unpublished manu- script on the crinoids of Tennessee. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 64, pp. i-xi, 1-150, pls. 1— 15. 1909. (Edited by Elvira Wood.) (24): 419- W. H. Lone, (Communicated by JoHN A. STEVENSON.) rust, nature and size of each lesion, and any other pertinent data, such as nearness to aecial hosts if any, for each locality studied. Table 1 gives a summation of these data, showing number of trees examined, number infected, and number of trunk and branch lesions found for each of the four species of Gymnosporangium. The investigations were made during the months of April and May, as the lesions are most conspicuous during these months be- cause of the swelling and gelatinization of the telia. April was very rainy in 1912, with intermittent showers and often with mists and fogs making ideal conditions for the maturation and gelatinization of the telia. Three of these species of Gymnosporan- gium are perennial in the red cedar while the fourth is biennial. The prevalence of each species for any given area can be determined from the telial stage more ac- curately than from the aecial since the former is not dependent for its appearance on the climatic factors for each season. A dry year would reduce very materially the . aecial stage for that year, but would not affect to any great extent the perennial le- sions in the telial hosts. JUNE 15, 1945 A study of the table shows that 3,040 red cedars were examined, of which 1,206 were attacked by Gymnosporangium clavipes, 382 by G. nidus-avis, 165 by G. effusum, and 76 by G. juniperi-virginianae. G. clavipes headed the list with 17,030 lesions, G. nidus-avis had 1,650, G. effusum 408, and G. juniperi-virginianae 897, making a total of 19,985 lesions for the four species. Gymnosporangium clavipes This species was widely distributed over the areas investigated and was the most abundant as to number of cedars infected and lesions produced. The older and larger cedars were the most heavily infected (see Table 1 for Arling- ton Cemetery and Catholic University). None of the areas examined was free of this rust, but in some localities it was rare. . G. clavipes was rarely abundant on trees with open tops or with the lower limbs removed for one-half of the distance up the tree, or, strange to say, on solitary trees in the open with many small branches down to the ground. The trees of the last group have a close, dense growth, and this was especially true for trees 2 to 6 inches in diameter. When G. clavipes was spar- ingly present, G. nidus-avis and G. effusum were usually absent. Cedars that did not have trunk lesions of G. clavipes were often so situated that their trunks were not shaded much and had very open foliage. Apparently most of the trunk lesions originated directly on the trunk and did not start on a small branch or twig and thence work down along the trunk. This rust traveled more rapidly laterally than longitudinally and did not kill the living bark even in the center of the oldest and largest lesions on trunks and large branches, but killed small branches and twigs by girdling and sap- ping them of their vitality. The yellowish-red telia were small and inconspicuous under the old dead bark of the trunk and were irregularly scattered over the surface of the lesions. All these were well-marked characters of this rust. No lesions were found on very young twigs, but all were on those with well-developed wood and without needles. Many trunk lesions were found which ap- parently originated in the enlarged wood at the base of a branch protected by the loose bark at that point. Such lesions did not originate on LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM 183 the branch proper but at its juncture with the trunk and spread from there to the trunk. One of the largest trunk lesions found was 90 em wide by 40 cm long, with the outer bark very thick, rough, and blackish over the lesion, which was alive throughout. There were nu- merous trunk lesions on this tree, but there was no evidence that any of them started from branches and then spread to the trunk. Gymnosporangium clavipes is well recognized as a serious rust on certain varieties of apples, and the abundance of this species over the areas here reported indicates that it would become a serious menace to apple culture during favor- able years in these regions. Gymnosporangium nidus-avis This Gymnosporangium was also found widely distributed over the areas investigated, coming next to G. clavipes in number of cedars, infected and lesions produced. Only one area, Park Lane, Va., was free from this species, pos- sibly owing to the small size and youth of the cedars, which were only half an inch to 2 inches in diameter. | Arlington Cemetery and Great Falls, Va., were the most heavily infected areas both in number of trees attacked (301) and lesions (1,418) produced. This heavy infection prob- ably was due to the size of the cedars involved (2 to 45 inches in diameter) and the extreme age of many of them. This rust produces three types of lesions—trunk, branch, and broom. One hundred out of 1,108 branch lesions and 186 of 483 brooms were dead. The open type of broom with normal needles found about Washington was quite different in aspect and much larger than the dense brooms with juvenile needles found on Juniperus vir- giniana L. var. crebra Fernald & Griscom from Massachusetts. In the material examined from Washington and vicinity no telia or lesions were found on young twigs or among the needles, but they were confined to the limbs and branches with heartwood. The living bark down to the sapwood under and adjacent to the telia was stained a golden-yellow during the maturation and gelatinization period. This was a very marked character by means of which the in- fected area could often be determined even be- fore the telia were formed. This yellow color was due to small yellowish globules in the rust Fig. 1.—A, A typical branch lesion of Gymnosporangium effusum with its ridgelike galls extending in parallel lines on the diseased area; B, a row of red cedars on the grounds of the Catholic University of America at Washington, D. C., dying from the attacks of three species of Gymnosporangium, espe- cially G. effusum. Note how many lower branches have died and been removed, and the large black trunk lesions due to G. effusum; C, closeup view showing more clearly the lesions. Through the kindness of the University authorities, the writer learned that all the trees shown in this figure were dead by 1927, except one which, though still alive, has much dead wood on it. JunE 15, 1945 LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM 185 Fig. 2.—A, A row of living expanded telia of G. effusum; B, cross section of a living gall of G. effusum with expanded telia, showing the deep seated character of the lesion; C, cross section of a red cedar with three major trunk lesions of G. effusum, which have practically killed the tree. 186 hyphae, which occur in the subhymenial layers beneath the telia. In addition to these yellow globules, many suppressed but apparently ma- ture golden-yellow spores were present, but these were not the main cause of the yellow color. In the Sharon, Mass., material of G. nidus-avis no yellow color was found in the substratum beneath the telia. Some of the brooms around Washington, D. C., were very large, being 58 cm long by 77 em wide, while trunk lesions ranged from 70 cm long by 9 ecm wide to 175 cm long by 42 cm wide. One large branch lesion was 350 em long on a branch 9 cm in diameter, entirely girdling the dying branch for most of its length. The material of the dense juvenile-needle brooms studied was obtained from Sharon, Mass., through the kindness of the late Dr. Farlow, while the open type of brooms here discussed was found in the District of Colum- bia and vicinity. Gymnosporangium effusum This species was described by Kern (4, pp. 459-460) from material collected by him on the Santee Canal in South Carolina in 1909, but sinee then very little of importance has ap- peared in print concerning this Gymnosporan- gium. Lesions of this rust formed deep-seated, woody-corky, truncate, ridgelike galls, which ran longitudinally in parallel rows on branches and trunks of the red cedar. These galls were 2 to 6 mm tall by 3 to 12 mm wide, with “roots’’ penetrating to the sapwood of the host (Fig. 2B). These ridgelike galls when alive were composed of rather firm cheeselike tissue filled with rich foodstuffs for the development of the telia. After the teliospores matured the galls became brown, more or less suberized, and covered with a corky callus. After one or pos- sibly two years of fruiting these galls died but persisted for years on the old dead_areas of the lesions. These ridgelike galls usually checked transversely into pieces 2 to 15 mm long (Fig. PA): The infection spread very slowly transversely on the branches and trunks and the new galls developed at irregular intervals next to and on the outside of the old ones and parallel with them. The telia appeared longitudinally in the ridgelike galls, breaking through the surface JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 callus in slits with only one row of flattened telia to each gall. When expanded the telia were wedge-shaped (Fig. 2A), 10 to 12 mm tall by 2 to 6 mm thick at the top by 10 to 30 mm long, often with ends of the telia confluent for 4 to 6 cm, rugose to dentate on top, sometimes tongue-shaped to cristate, as thick atithe bot- tom as at the top or even thicker, rather firm. when fully expanded and often falling away in a body leaving a yellowish sear. The fallen telia had a longitudinal slit extending up into their bases for 1 to 2 mm. Telia when expanded were a light watery brown and about one- third to one-half taller than before gelatiniza- tion. Successive years of fruiting on twigs and branches finally killed the lesions by the com- plete destruction of the cortex, phloem, and cambium. The old galls became dark brown to blackish with age. The surface of the old lesion on the trunk was usually in a depression covered with the corky ridges of the dead le- sions. Very old dead lesions had a charred look like a fire scar (Figs. 1B and 1C) caused by the transverse cracking of the corky ridges and the darkening and partial falling out of the cubes of the diseased dead tissue from weather- ing. The trunk lesions gradually killed the live wood, and as these lesions extended very slowly transversely the fungus formed a depression in the trunk, which widened as the tree grew until often only a small amount of live wood tissue was left to nourish the tree (Fig. 2C). The tree was finally killed. Fig. 2C is a fine example of the action of this Gymnosporangium on the tree trunk. This cross section shows three large lesions, which through the years gradually killed nearly all the living tissue of the trunk. One of these lesions was 80 years old, the fungus having entered when the tree was 33 years old. The cross section of another trunk showed a 108-year-old lesion that started when the tree was 20 years old. The fungus at the edges of the lesion, by pro- gressive growth in the adjacent wood, pre- vented any wound callus from forming, thereby keeping the wound open as shown in Fig. 2C, where the small amount of wood still alive can be noted. | The longitudinal growth of the rust lesion ranged from a maximum of 3 inches to a mini- JuNE 15, 1945 mum of 1 inch, having an average of 1.5 inches per year with very little appreciable increase in width. No very young lesions were found, the youngest being 72 em long by 3} em wide. It apparently started on the trunk since no limb was near. Many trunks of red cedars had le- sions that were largest at the ground line, then tapered upward, as if the lesion started at or very near the ground. Many branches had been killed by being engulfed and surrounded by adjacent trunk lesions. These dead branches were free of any infection above their bases; hence they could only have been killed by being engulfed. Branches were often flattened by le- sions, many of which started on the underside. This is one of the few rusts in which the length of time the rust has been in the tree can be determined, due to the nature of the lesions that it produces. Trees were found that had been infected for 108 years or longer. Trunk le- sions ranged from 22 to 1,050 cm long and of those studied 40 were dead. The number of trunk lesions ranged from 0 to 6 per tree. Branch lesions totaled 173, ranging in length from 15 to 425 cm, and of these 37 were dead. This is the only Gymnosporangium so far as is known that kills the cortex, phloem, and cambium down to the xylem. No study was made on how this killing occurred or the meth- od of lateral spread in the host. Dodge (4) discusses the damage done to Juniperus virginiana by G. nidus-avis. He di- vides the lesions produced into two types, the effuse and the caulicolous forms, and on page 106, figure 3, gives photographs of the two types of lesions. His figure 3, A, is a good representation of the caulicolous type of lesions produced by G. nidus-avis, showing the irregu- lar orientation of the telia on the lesion, while figures 3, B, and 3, G, given as the effuse form of the above species, are typical examples of the lesions produed by G. effusum. Crowell (3, p. 473) claims that G. effusum and G. nidus-avis are the same species as deter- mined from cultures and microscopic studies of the two species. Apparently the data given and the inoculations made by him were based on the caulicolous form of G. nidus-avis. The highly characteristic lesions produced by G. effusum, so different from any other Gymno- sporangium, should make it impossible for this _ species to be confused with any other. LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM 187 The alternate stage of @. effuswm has never been positively determined. Arthur (/) re- ported inoculations made in 1911 on Aronia arbutifolia, Amelanchier canadensis, Pyrus com- munis, Malus coronaria, and Malus malus. These sowings produced pyenia on Aronia artibutifolia but no aecia ever developed and there was no infection on any of the other hosts inoculated. Arthur (2, p. 371) made only one set of cultures of this Gymnosporangium. Dur- ing April and May 1912, the writer made sow- ings with G. effusum from J. virginiana on the following species of hosts: Aronia arbutifolia—10 plants, April 19, 1912, and 5 plants, May 8, 1912. Aroma nigra—4 plants, April 19, 1912; 2 plants, April 29, 1912; and 2 plants, May 8, 1912. Amelanchier canadensis—4 plants, April 19 and 29 and May 8, 1912. Chaenomeles japonica—2 plants, April 10 and 19, 1912. Cydonia vulgaris—2 plants, April 10 and 19, 1912. Malus coronaria—3 plants, April 10 and 22, 1912. Malus malus—2 plants, April 10, 1912. Pyrus communis—2 plants, April 10 and 19, 1912. Cerasus arbutifolia—1 plant, April 10, 1912. No infections developed from any of these sowings. Recently the writer noted that there are only two species of Gymnosporangium whose alter- nate stages are unknown, G. effusum for the aecial and G. hyalinum for the telial stage. The type locality of both is South Carolina, and the range of each is much the same along the southern Atlantic coast. There is, therefore, a strong probability that the aecial host of G. effusum is one or more of the species of Cra- taegus listed for G. hyalinum, viz., C. clara Beadle, C. dispar Beadle, C. egens Beadle, C. egregia Beadle, C. michauxii Pers., C. munda Beadle, C. pera Beadle, C. quasita Beadle, C. viridis L., and C. visenda Beadle. It is rather strange that no one so far as known has made sowings of G. effusum on any of these or other species of Crataegus. G. trachysorum, a closely related species, has its aecial stage on Crataegus, which is another indication that this host may contain the aecial stage of G. effusum. Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae This species was not very abundant over the 188 areas investigated. Only areas with young and small cedars had any appreciable number of trees attacked by it; on those areas where the trees were old and large very few or none were infected. In Arlington Cemetery three galls _were found, and only one of these was alive. It seems odd that so few trees of the more than 3,000 examined were infected with this Gymno- sporangium, which is in marked contrast to the large number attacked by G. clavipes. Dead galls as well as living ones were counted, and yet the number found was very small, as shown in the table. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 LITERATURE CITED (1) ArtHuR, J. C. Cultures of Uredineae in 1911. Mycologia 4: 49-65. 1912. (2) . Manual of rusts in United States and Canada, 438 pp. 1934. (3) CrowELL, Ivan H. The geographical dis- tribution of the genus Gymnosporangium. Can. Journ. Res. (C) 18: 469-488. 1940. (4) Dopes, B. O. A destructive red-cedar rust disease. Journ. New York Bot. Garden 32: 101-108. 1931. (5) Kern, F. D. A biologic and taxonomic study of .the genus Gymnosporangium. Bull. New York Bot. Garden 7: 392-494. 1911. TABLE 1.—DaTa ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM LESIONS ON JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA FOR Eacu AREA INVESTIGATED! G. clavipes G. nidus-avis G. effusum G. juniperi-virginianae Location and | Trees diameter of | exam-| Trees Lesions Trees Lesions Trees | Lesions Trees Le- | Total trees ined Ine or ee is ; i= 00g | sos + eee a sions le- fected | Trunk! Branch| fected Trunk) Branch Brooms! fected | Trunk] Branch} fected | galls sions Arlington Cem- -etery, 2-45” 555 545 | 1,730; 6,580 169 33 545 | 433 97 100 89 3 3 9,513 Catholic Univ., | 4-28” 93 75 434| 1,006 12 4 12 1 33 107 56 oO | 0 1,620 Roads near Catholic Univ., 16-32” 76 44 40 275 15 nt 28 1 22 19 22 0 0 386 Great Falls, Va., 2-6” 405 403 | 1,697); 4,050 132 16 356 45 7 5 2 2 iS 6,186 De Bate Milan DES ! Ce a Se SE Park Lane, Va., 3-2” 383 4 ie 1 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Fences near Park Lane, 4-12” 388 29 32 119 10 3 33 0 0 0 0 6 63 250 Franklin Park, | 2-14” 174 14 42 70 3 0 10 0 0 0 0 36 615 737 Country Club, * 4-20” 116 30 200 464 11 il 35 0 0 0 0 1 20 720 El Nido to | Franklin Park, 6-14” -49 40 60 115 2 0 4 0 1 0 1 6 40 220 Fence rows, 3-16” 503 7 0 33 14 0 43 4 nt 0 1 22 141 222 Scattered trees, 6-12” 298 15 3 60 14 0 42 0 4 4 2 0 0 111 Totals '8,040 |1,206 | 4, 238 12 ,792 | 382 58 | 1,108 484 165 235 173 | 76 897 19 , 985 1 Many of the cedars in Arlington Cemetery were being seriously damaged in 1912 by three other enemies in addition to the rusts: a climbing grape vine (Vitis sp.) had overrun 75 of them, killing 38; 51 of the trees had poison-ivy (Rhus toxicodendron) on trunks and lower branches; while 102 had a butt rot (Fomes subroseus), which was destroying the heartwood, thereby weakening the trees. JUNE 15, 1945 MAO: THREE NEW SPECIES OF LAMINITARSUS 189 ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway from Singapore and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).' sity of California. In the course of revising the North Amer- ican species of the hymenopterous subfam- ily Cardiochilinae the author found three interesting species of Laminitarsus Full- away in the Baker collection at the U. 8. National Museum. The genus Laminitarsus was first established in 1919 by Fullaway to include only one species from Los Bafios, Luzon, Philippine Islands. He placed it in the subfamily Cardiochilinae without fur- ther statement. The species of both Cardiochiles Nees and Laminitarsus Fullaway have the third ab- scissa of the radius arched basally, but Laminitarsus may be easily recognized by the extraordinarily broadened and length- ened basitarsus of the posterior leg (Figs. 6, 7, 8) and the more or less triangular pro- podeum. Four species of Laminitarsus are now known and they may be distinguished as follows: 1. Occiput deeply excavated and temple con- spicuously bulging posteriorly; second seg- ment of hind tarsus joined apically to MME iis oa PT Ae Bea dw ok TW RL 2 Occiput shallowly excavated and temple not bulging much posteriorly; second segment of hind tarsus joined ventrally to basitarsus. singaporensis, Nn. sp. 2. Wings infumated.......... muirit Fullaway? Wings hyaline, with only apical fifth of fore- wing and tip of hind wing infumated...... 3 3. Face rugose; basitarsus of hind leg about twice as long as remaining four tarsal segments 11S 1 il ie eae Delle ae ei tare rudis, n. sp.. Face smooth; basitarsus of hind leg about one- third longer than remaining four tarsal seg- ments combined... .... .......: chapini, n. sp. Laminitarsus chapini, n. sp. Female——Length 6.2 mm. Body yellowish brown with the following parts black: Antenna except scape and pedicel, vertex, frons medi- ally, clypeus apically, mesoscutum except anterolateral corner, mesopleuron except dor- sally and posteriorly, pectus, base of middle tibia, middle tarsus, two spots on outer surface 1 Received March 3, 1945. 2 Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc., no. 80: 57-58, fig. 3, 9. 1919. Yina-Tou Mao, Univer- (Communicated by C. F. W. MursEepeck.) of hind coxa, hind trochanters, hind femur ex- cept apex, hind tibia basally, ventrally, and apically, hind tibial spurs basally, hind basitar- sus except medially, the remaining four tarsal segments, a spot on each side of second tergite and apical half of tergites 3 to 5. Fore tarsus except base, spurs of middle tibia, spurs of hind tibia apically, and ovrpositor sheath dark brown; wings with apical fifth light fuliginous and the rest hyaline; veins dark. Heap: Antenna 41-segmented; scape and pedicel with longer pubescence than the flagellum; eye bare; ocelli slightly elevated; vertex smooth, shining, and slightly sloping towards frons; occiput excavated; frons smooth, shining, impressed, and with a median longitudinal carina; face smooth, shining, and with a short median ridge at upper third; clypeus plain, smooth, shining, and not notched at the median apical margin; maxillary palpus prominent and longer than the head; temple narrower than the eye in dorsal view and bulg- ing posteriorly; galea short. THorax: Lateral face of pronotum rugose on posterior half; median lobe of mesoscutum plain; notaulices distinct and foveolate; meso- pleuron smooth and shining, upper groove weakly foveolate, lower groove foveolate and its lower margin flattened, posterior groove foveolate with a smooth depression at the mid- dle anteriorly; metapleuron rugose, median ventral part of its anterior portion smooth and shining, and the posterior margin of its posterior portion flaring; propodeum rugose, pleural carina high and distinct, areola long, flat and indistinct, spiracular area acute pos- teriorly, spiracle long ovate. First abscissa of radius longer and thicker than that of basal vein; second abscissa of radius slightly less than three times as long as first; third abscissa of cubitus longer than fourth; second abscissa of cubitus shorter than recurrent vein (Fig. 3); interanal vein absent. Second and fifth seg- ments of fore tarsus about equal; inner spur of middle tarsus about as long as basitarsus, sec- ond and fifth tarsal segments about equal; hind tibia flattened and broadened apically, tibial spur about as long as the second to fifth tarsal 190 segments combined, basitarsus long, broad, and flattened, about two thirds as long as the tibia, the remaining four tarsal segments combined about three-fourths as long as the basitarsus, second tarsal segment thickened, longer than the fifth and apically joined to the basitarsus (Fig. 7); hind tarsal claws pectinate basally. ABDOMEN: First abdominal suture extending obliquely forward from the sides of the median elevation of first tergite; second and third ter- gites medially of about equal length; hypo- pygium about as long as the third tergite, obtuse in profile; ovipositor sheath inconspicu- ous, pubescent, about half as long as the hypo- pygium. Type.—Female, Iligan, Mindanao, Philip- pine Islands, C. F. Baker, U.S.N.M. no. 57270. This species is named in honor of Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of insects, U. 8. National Museum. Laminitarsus rudis, n. sp. Female.—Length 6.5 mm. Yellowish brown, the following parts black: Antenna except scape lateroanteriorly and pedicle apically, a transverse band taking in posterior part of vertex and upper part of occiput, ocellar area, frons medially, three broad longitudinal vittae on mesoscutum, mesopleuron except dorsal third, pectus, middle trochanters apically, mid- dle tibia basally, middle tarsus except base, one spot on hind coxa dorsoapically, hind tro- chanters, hind femur basally, hind tarsus except base, and a transverse band on each tergite from third to seventh. Apex of hind tibia, and hind tibial spurs infuscated; wings hyaline and veins dark, forewing with apical fifth, and hind wing apically, light fuliginous. Heap: Antenna incomplete; scape and pedicle with pubescence about as long as the flagellum; eye bare; ocelli slightly elevated, the distance between the posterior pair about twice as long as that between either one of these and the anterior ocellus; vertex punctate and shin- ing; occiput excavated; frons punctate, shining, with a low median longitudinal carina; face rugose, with a short median ridge at about up- per third; clypeus punctate, not notched medi- ally on apical margin; temple and eye about equal in dorsal view; maxillary palpus promi- nent, about as long as the head; galea short. THorRAX: Lateral face of pronotum rugose on posterior half; mesoscutum punctate, its me- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 dian lobe plain; notaulices distinct, foveolate, and flat in the posterior angle; mesoscutellum punctate; upper groove of mesopleuron finely rugose, lower groove broad, punctate and flat on ventral part, and posterior groove foveolate with a smooth groove at the middle leading an- teriorly to the lower groove; metapleuron rugose, its posterior margin flaring; propodeum rugose, its pleural carina high and distinct, its aerolar carina represented by a short stump posteriorly, its spiracular carina not distinct, and its spiracle long ovate. First abscissa of radius equal to that of basal vein but thicker, and about one-fourth as long as the second ab- scissa of radius; third abscissa of cubitus longer than the fourth; second abscissa of cubitus and recurrent vein equal (Fig. 4); interanal vein ab- sent. Second and fifth segments of fore tarsus about equal; inner spur of middle tibia slightly shorter than the basitarsus and second and fifth tarsal segments about equal; hind tibia flattened and broadened toward apex, its inner spur longer than the second to fifth tarsal seg- ments combined; basitarsus enormously de- veloped, broadened, flattened, and slightly more than two-thirds as long as the tibia; the other four tarsal segments combined about half as long as the basitarsus, second and fifth seg- ments about equal; hind tarsal claws pectinate basally. ABDOMEN: First abdominal suture extending obliquely forward at the sides; second and third tergites of about equal length medially; hypopygium about as long as the third tergite and obtuse in profile; ovipositor sheath incon- spicuous, about half as long as the hypopy- gium, and pubescent. Type.—Female, Island of Basilan, Philip- pine Islands, C. F. Baker, U.S.N.M., no. 57271. Laminitarsus singaporensis, n. sp. Female-——Length 5 mm. Head and thorax yellowish brown; antenna, occiput, vertex, face medially, tip of mandible, lower half of proepisternum, mesopleuron, pectus, and an- terior portion of metapleuron black. Mesoscu- tum black with anterolateral vitta of median lobe, and anterior end and a narrow vitta of lateral lobe laterad of the posterior half of the notaulix yellowish brown. Wings hyaline, apical fifth of forewing and tip of hind wing infu- mated. Legs yellowish brown, middle leg with JuNE 15, 1945 MAO: THREE NEW SPECIES OF LAMINITARSUS 191 Fig. 1.—Head of singaporensis (dorsal view). Fia. 2.—Head of chapini (dorsal view) (similar to rudis). Fie. 3.—Part of forewing of chapini showing radius and cubitus. Fie. 4.—Part of forewing of rudis showing radius and cubitus. Fie. 5.—Part of forewing of singaporensis showing radius and cubitus. Fie. 6.—Left hind leg of singaporensis (ventral view). Fie. 7.—Part of hind leg of chapint showing tibial spurs and tarsus. Fie. 8.—Part of hind leg of rudis showing tibial spurs and tarsus. Fig. 9.—Typical propodeum of Cardiochiles Nees. Fie. 10.—Propodeum of Laminitarsus Fullaway. Fie. 11.—Abdomen of singaporensis (dorsal view) (similar to chapini and rudis). Fie. 12.—Part of abdomen of singaporensis showing hypopygium and ovipositor sheath (similar to chapini and rudis). All figures are proportionally drawn. A, areola; AF, antennal foramen; B-B, basal vein; BT, basi- tarsus; C-C, cubitus; E, eye; FR, frons; HP, hypopygium; IS, inner spur; OC, ocelli; OS, ovipositor sheath; PC, pleural carina; RC, recurrent vein; R-R, radius; SP, spiracle; SPA, spiracular area; SPC, spiracular carina; ST, stigma; TC, transverse carina; IAS, first abdominal suture; 1T, first tergite; _2T, second tergite; 3T, third tergite; 8T, eighth tergite. 192 basal half of trochanter, femur apically, tibia basally and apically, tibial spurs, and tarsus, and hind leg with coxa medially, trochanters, apical two-thirds of femur, tibia basally and medially, apical oblique half of basitarsus, and last two tarsal segments black. Abdomen black, first tergite, the second medially and anteriorly, the third, and venter except apex yellowish brown. Heap: Antenna 48-segmented; scape and pedicel shining and with longer pubescence than the flagellum; eye bare; ocelli elevated slightly, arranged in a flat triangle, the anterior member smaller than the lateral ones (Fig. 1); vertex wrinkled, punctate, shining, and slightly sloping towards frons; frons impressed, wrin- kled, and with a distinct median longitudinal elevation; face rough, with a median, narrow triangular extension above; clypeus rugose, api- cal margin not notched medially;. temple not bulging, narrower than the eye in dorsal view; galea short. THorax: Lateral face of pronotum rather plain; notaulices distinct, narrow, and finely foveolate; mesoscutum punctate; median lobe of mesoscutum plain without a longitudinal de- pression along each side of the median line; transverse fossa with five septa; mesopleuron punctate, upper groove flat and indistinct, lower groove oblique across the middle of meso- pleuron, and posterior groove narrow and finely foveolate; metapleuron rather plain; propodeum flat and plain (Fig. 10), pleural car- ina distinct, areola elongate, flat and indistinct, transverse carina absent, spiracular carina very JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 low, spiracular area acute posteriorly, and spiracle long ovate, directed obliquely in the center of the spiracular area. Wings with thin veins; stigma somewhat lanceolate; first ab- scissa of radius longer than that of the basal vein; the second abscissa about 2.5 times as long as the first; third and fourth abscissae of cubitus about equal; second abscissa of cubitus longer than the recurrent vein (Fig. 5); nervu- lus postfureal by half of its own length; inter- anal vein absent. Tibia of middleleg thin, inner spur about as long as basitarsus; second and fifth tarsal segments about equal. Coxa of hind leg prominent; femur thin; tibia flattened, broadened toward apex, and with a smooth de- pression at the upper apical end; inner spur of tibia long, slightly over half as long as the basitarsus; hind basitarsus enormously de- veloped, flattened, about as long as the hind tibia, and joined by the second tarsal segments ventrally at apex (Fig. 6); second tarsal seg- ment slightly shorter than the fifth; hind tar- sal claws pectinate basally. ABDOMEN (Figs. 11, 12): Shorter than thorax; first tergite slightly longer than the second and third combined; first abdominal suture extending obliquely forward at the sides; second tergite slightly longer than the third medially; hypopygium about as long as the fourth and fifth segments of middle tarsus com- bined, obtuse in profile, and not nearly attain- ing apex of abdomen; ovipositor sheath very short, subexserted, and pubescent. Type.—Female, Singapore, C. F. Baker, US-N-M,, ne: bi272. PARASITOLOGY .—Localization of radioactive antimony following multiple daily enjections to a dog infected with Dirofilaria immitis.} H. Lawton, A. T. Ness, FREDERICK J. BRapy, and GLEN E. OGDEN.’ municated by JoHn A. FLEMING.) Antimony compounds have appeared to offer the most promise in the treatment of human filarid infections. In our studies it was found (1) that daily injections of sev- eral such compounds were effective in eradi- eating microfilariae of Dirofilaria immitis 1 Received March 16, 1945. 2 From the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Laboratories of Zoology, Chemistry, and Industrial Hygiene Research, National Institute of Health. DEAN B. Cowig, ALFRED (Com- from naturally infected dogs. With regard to the fate of antimony in the tissues, we have reported (2) the distribution of radio- active antimony following a single intra- venous administration of tartar emetic, sodium antimony] xylitol, and an aqueous suspension of antimony trioxide. Since mul- tiple daily injections of compounds at the dosage level of 0.8 milligram of antimony per kilogram of body weight were used in the experimental treatments, a knowledge >. + 5) tial Be JUNE 15, 1945 COWIE ET AL.: LOCALIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE ANTIMONY of the fate of the antimony after multiple injections was desired. In this paper a study with repeated injections of sodium anti- monyl xylitol prepared from radioactive antimony is reported. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Radioactive antimony was prepared by the bombardment of antimony with deu- terons in the cyclotron of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The radioactive antimony was chemically separated from the other elements of the target and was recovered as nearly pure antimony trioxide. This was then synthesized into sodium antimony] xylitol by the method described elsewhere (1). An aqueous solution of this chemical containing 10 milligrams of anti- mony per milliliter of solution was used throughout the experiment. Dog no. 148 naturally infected with Dirofilaria immitis was given intravenously 0.8 milligram of antimony per kilogram of body weight as sodium antimony] xylitol solution daily, except Sunday, for two weeks or a total of 12 injections. Blood samples were drawn immediately before each injec- tion, 15 minutes after each injection, and 36 hours following the last injection. To these blood samples dry sodium citrate was added in the proportion of 10 milligrams per milliliter. Thirty-six hours after the last injection the dog was sacrificed and samples of 35 tissues were removed. The blood samples and the tissue specimens were weighed quickly after their removal, placed in a desiccator containing phosphorus pent- oxide, and kept under reduced pressure at room temperature by means of a vacuum pump. After 16 hours of drying, tissues were reweighed and the amount of weight loss was determined. The samples were then ground in a mortar to a more or less homn- geneous state. Determinations of the antimony con- tent of the blood and other tissues were made by measuring the number of disin- tegrations per second per unit weight of tissue powder with a Geiger-Miiller coun- ter and comparing this with a known stand- ard. The standards were prepared by adding a known amount of the radioactive anti- mony to a sample of normal blood which 4§ MINUTES, BEFORE INJECTION are oA Ste Peee=. BAREIS 8 ~ @ my 2 o v = +S) : z x % 2 & Ss +) & Y oa Fig. 1.—Antimony concentration in blood of dog no. 148, 15 minutes before and after injec- tion. was subsequently treated in the same man- ner as the samples containing the unknown quantities. An overall accuracy in these determinations of +1 per cent was de- monstrated. Microfilarial counts were made daily by a previously described method (3). RESULTS Figure 1 shows the blood content of antimony before each injection and 15 min- utes after each injection. The antimony content is expressed in micrograms per gram of wet weight of blood. It will be noted that each injection causes the 15-minute postinjection level to exceed the previous 194 15-minute level, and the residual antimony in the blood at the end of each 24-hour period after injection remained above the previous residual level. An average of 0.112 microgram of antimony was cleared from each milliliter of the blood in 24 hours. With the cessation of treatment the anti- mony rapidly left the blood stream. 20 4 6 r] ”0 172 1a r} MICROGRAMS ANTIMONY [GRAM WET WEIGHT OF TISSUE WUMMMMM@?7=|'™™|"|/”/7™1|]HTHMHHMHHYMVV001100 to gi WLLL LLL, * "YP MELD, PARATHYROID VILL), OIROF IU ARIA (6 ADULT MALES) VAAL) OIROFILARIA (MOSTLY MALE ADULTS) VALI JA SPLEEN V/A ING. LYMPH NODE Vij 7A JEJUNUM V/A KIONEY, CORTER V4 ZA) AORTA Vj4/4 EPIDERMIS VL) OIAPHRAGM V/A co“on V/ij/) THIGH MUSCLE V/A STOMACH VIZ 4 LEFT VENTRICLE VA RIGHT VENTRICLE V4 KIDNEY, MEOULL A V/A RETROPERITONEAL LYMPH NODE V/A ADRENALS GG VA TesTes V/A LEFT AURICLE VA RIGHT AURICLE V/A PANCREAS VA FEMUR V/A CEREBRUM V/A PITUITARY VA BRAIN STEM VA) CEREBELLUM VA Ere LENS 4. CORNEA OF EVE FEMUR, CORTEX Hy oeRMIS Hj 84000, 36 HOURS: Fig. 2.—Antimony concentration in tissues of dog no. 148, 36 hours after last injection. The dog in question became free of micro- filariae after nine injections given over a 10-day period. Six live adult male Dzrofilaria ammitis were found in the right ventricle at autopsy. No live female parasites were recovered, but numerous fragments of re- cently dead and degenerated worms were removed from the pulmonary arterial tree. No other abnormalities were observed. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 6 The antimony concentration of 35 tissues taken from this dog (no. 148) at autopsy 36 hours after the last treatment is given in Fig. 2 as micrograms per gram of wet weight of tissue. A wide variation in con- centration values was recorded for the vari- ous tissues, ranging from 18.72 to 0.29 micrograms per gram of tissue. The thyroid gland had the greatest concentration of antimony. The liver also had a high anti- mony concentration, since each gram con- tained 13.75 micrograms. The parathyroid glands with 4.49, the filarids with 3.28, and the spleen with 2.60 micrograms of anti- mony per gram of wet weight were all higher than the highest blood level recorded in this experiment. It may be assumed that these tissues have a specific affinity for antimony. The other tissues are listed in the figure in the order of their antimony concentration. DISCUSSION In a previous paper (2) determination of the antimony in the blood after a single injection of tartar emetic and sodium anti- monyl xylitol showed that there was an initial rapid decrease of the element during the first hour after injection followed by a slow removal for the next 4 to 16 hours with a slight secondary rise in the blood level at. 24 to 36 hours.. Of even more importance is the fact that the present experiment demon- strates continuous accumulation of the anti- mony in the blood. Parallel rates of aecumu- lation are seen both 15 minutes and 24 hours after the injections. This shows that the repeated injection of 0.8 milligram of an- timony per kilogram of body weight results in an accumulation of the element in the blood and that this dosage exceeds the clearance rate. Such a result adds support to the hypothesis (1) that a certain thresh- old of antimony must be reached before beneficial therapeutic results can be ob- tained. During the 24 hours preceding the elimination of circulating microfilariae, the highest recorded blood concentration was 0.218 microgram and the lowest was 0.096 microgram per gram of blood. The irregularity of the curve showing the antimony level of the blood samples 15 minutes after treatment can be explained JUNE 15, 1945 COWIE ET AL.: LOCALIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE ANTIMONY on the basis that the rate of change was so rapid that an error of a minute or two in drawing the blood was reflected in the con- siderable change in the antimony level. In the case of the specimens taken 24 hours after the injection a time error of a minute or two made little difference in the results. After single injections of tartar emetic, sodium antimony] xylitol, or antimony tri- oxide, the liver contained the largest con- centration of antimony. The thyroid and . parathyroid tissues contained the next larg- est concentration and the adult Dirofilaria immitis ranked third. After 12 injections of sodium antimonyl xylitol, at the same dosage level as with the single injections, the thyroid gland contained the highest concentration of antimony, the liver was now second in antimony concentration, and the adult filarids remained third. A possible explanation for this reversal of the relative ranking of the thyroid gland and the liver is that the thyroid may continue its specific uptake of antimony whereas the liver may reach a point of equilibrium more quickly and the uptake and discharge of the anti- mony from the hepatic tissue may become equalized. In this way the thyroid gland finally exceeded the liver in the amount of antimony contained per gram of wet tissue. There was an accumulation of antimony in all of the tissues studied and such tissues contained more antimony per gram of wet weight following multiple daily injections than they did following a single injection. The finding of an element that is not known to enter into normal metabolic pro- cesses, such as antimony, in large quan- tities, in the thyroid gland was unexpected. These studies are being broadened so as to determine the relationship of this finding to the toxicology and therapeutic useful- ness of antimony and other therapeutically active elements. This specific activity of the thyroid gland forms a broad basis for further 195 studies in general physiology and pharma- cology. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Twelve intravenous injections of sodium antimony] xylitol in the amount of 0.8 mil- ligram of antimony per kilogram of body weight daily, except Sunday, led to a con- tinuous rise in the antimony level of the blood. The tissue.levels of antimony were higher than those recorded following a sin- gle injection of this compound. With the multiple injections of sodium antimony] xylitol, the thyroid gland was found to contain the most antimony per unit weight and was followed in antimony concentration by the liver and the adult Dirofilaria immitis. Thirty-two other tis- sues showed a relatively small concentration of antimony, which was probably not of significance from a therapeutic standpoint. It is believed that the observed accumu- lation phenomena offer evidence that a certain threshold of antimony must be reached before microfilariae of Dirofilaria tmmitis disappear from the peripheral cir- culation of infected dogs. It seems probable that a similar conclusion may apply in other helminth infections in which antimony is of value. LITERATURE CITED (1) Lawton, ALFRED H.; Brapy, FREDERICK J.; Nuss, A. T.; and Haskins, W. T. Tests of mercury and antumony compounds in Dirofilaria immitis and Litomosoides carinii infections. (In press.) (2) Brapy, FrepErick J.; LAwron, ALFRED H.; Cowrz, Dean B.; ANDREWS, How- ARD L.; Ness, A. T.; and Ocpsn, GLEN E. Localization of trivalent radio- active antimony following intravenous administration to dogs infected with Diro- filaria immitis. (In press.) (3) Brapy, Freprerick J., and Lawton, AL- FRED H. A new method for quantitative estimation of microfilariae in blood sam- ples. Journ. Parasitology 30 (1): 34. Feb. 1944. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 618TH MEETING The 618th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, January 12, 1944, Presi- dent Grorcr TUNELL presiding. Informal communications—W. T. SCHALLER reported the discovery of' a new mineral, a hydrous potassium calcium silicate, which he named miserite. Program.—Manrts L. Linppere: Heavy min- eral correlation of the Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and Cannonball sediments, North Dakota. A study of sediments along the Cannonball and Missouri Rivers, N. Dak., was made to correlate expo- sures of Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and Cannonball formations. Nine heavy mineral zones were established. In the Fox Hills formation, three heavy mineral zones correspond to three litho- logic units: Zone 1, a thick-bedded yellowish- brown sandstone is characterized by an average amphibole content of 41 percent of the non- opaque heavy minerals; zone 2, an olive-colored sandy, banded shale contains 22 percent amphi- bole; zone 3, a gray-white sandstone increases in amphibole content to 66 percent. Zone 3 extends to the base of the Breien marine mem- ber of the Hell Creek. Zones 4 through 8 belong to the Hell Creek formation. Along the Mis- souri River, zone 4 is below the first bentonitic bed; zones 6 and 7 are superimposed. In the Cannonball River sections, zone 4, a fine- grained, badly weathered sand, is the lowest bed in the Breien; zone 6, a fine-grained to silty, grey-green sand begins in the Breien and ex- tends into continental Hell Creek. Zones 5 and 8 are local. Zone 7 extends through upper Hell Creek to the top of the Ludlow. In zone 4, the amphibole content is 21 percent; epidote is 38 percent; and garnet is 16 percent. In zone 6 the amphiboles decrease to 7 percent; epidote is 40 percent; garnet is 23 percent. In zone 7 amphi- boles are 4 percent; epidote increases to 51 per- cent; and garnet decreases to 15 percent. There is a marked change in heavy mineral content at the base of the Cannonball. Amphiboles in- crease to 55 percent in zone 9. J. S. Wiiurams: Principal fluorspar deposits of the United States. J. B. Mertre: Piezoelectricity, with special reference to quartz. 619TH MEETING The 619th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, February 9, 1944, Presi- dent GrorGE TUNELL presiding. Program.—G. D. Rosinson: The molybde- nite deposit at Shakan, Alaska. The molybdenite deposit near Shakan on Kosciusko Island, southeastern Alaska, is in a narrow, low-dip- ping fault zone, constituting a composite vein, in hornblende diorite. Breccia blocks of horn- blende diorite are the principal vein filling. The diorite fragments are separated and locally re- placed along the margins by bands and small irregular masses of igneous and hydrothermal materials, introduced at various times during repeated reopenings of the fault zone, and by silicified gouge. Included in the introduced matrix are granite pegmatite; quartz-adularia, quartz, and calcite veins; lamprophyre and aplite dikes; zeolite encrustations; and pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and molyb- denite. ‘ Inconclusive evidence indicates that the dis- tribution of molybdenite was controlled prin- cipally by openings developed in the steeper dipping parts of the fault zone as a consequence of small-scale normal faulting. Surface and underground workings expose one ore shoot of moderate tonnage containing about 1.5 percent MoS. Additional ore shoots may be present in other relatively steep dip- ping parts of the zone not now exposed. The introduced vein materials appear to have been deposited over a wide range of tem- perature but at relatively low pressure. Molyb- denite was deposited near the end of the miner- alization sequence. The deposit does not fit readily into the Lindgren classification; it is _ perhaps best grouped with the zenothermal type of Buddington. ‘W.H. Hass: Conodont morphology. Spectro- graphic and petrographic data on conodonts obtained through a study of collections from two Ordovician, seven Mississippian, and two Pennsylvanian formations permitted the fol- lowing conclusions: (a) the conodonts studied are composed of a fluorian dahllite, a member of the dahllite-francolite isomorphous series of apatite minerals; (b) each lamella of a cono- dont is composed of innumerable dahllite crys- tals; and (c) the c-axis of each dahllite crystal 196 . JuNE 15, 1945 is invariably oriented in the direction in which the main ontogenetic growth occurred at the place in the lamella where the crystal is located. The data will be described and published in an article entitled Orientation of the crystal units of conodonts, by WitBert H. Hass and Marin L. LINDBERG. P. B. Kine: Tectonics of northeasternmost Tennessee. The three northeasternmost Ten- nessee counties lie in the Appalachian province. Their rocks are strongly deformed, and the area is outstanding for its display of large-scale overthrusting in the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician rocks. This paper is an outgrowth of recent investi- gations of manganese deposits of the area. Part of the investigation consists of mapping ex- tensive areas, one product of which was a reasonably comprehensive new picture of the structural features of the region. This newer picture resembles that presented by Keith in folios of the Geological Survey, but there are modifications of the details. Move- ment along the Iron Mountain fault, which dips northwest, was interpreted in the folios as hav- ing been to the southeastward. However, dis- tribution of rock facies, the nature of minor structural features, and other evidence indi- cates that the movement was actually north- - westward. This implies much greater move- ment of thrust sheets to the northwest than was originally believed. The rocks to the north- west and above the Iron Mountain fault are now interpreted as belonging to the Shady Val- ley thrust sheet, and the rocks to the southeast and below it as belonging to the Mountain City window. Resting on the Shady Valley thrust sheet, as first recognized by Keith, is the still higher Bald Mountain thrust sheet. The pattern of the overthrust faults is com- plicated by many tear faults, some of great length and displacement, which had not been recognized before the present investigation. 620TH MEETING The 620th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, March 8, 1944, President GEORGE. TUNELL presiding. Program—L. A. WARNER: Magnetite de- posits of Kasaan Peninsula, southeastern Alaska. High-grade deposits of magnetite, containing some copper, on Kasaan Peninsula, Prince of Wales Island, southeastern Alaska, lie within PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 197 a mile of salt water at altitudes of less than 1,500 feet. The deposits have been worked intermit- tently since 1900, principally for their copper content, and have yielded more than 600,000 tons of ore valued at more than $6,000,000. The ore consists chiefly of magnetite with pyrite and chalcopyrite. The ratio of chaleopy- rite to magnetite ranges widely, and locally the deposits are chiefly copper ore with minor amounts of precious metals. The major re- serves, however, are in iron ore and in the bodies examined the reserves are estimated to exceed 5,000,000 tons. The average ore tenor is about 50 percent iron and 0.5 percent copper. Phosphorus and titanium are virtually ab- sent. The sulphur content ranges from a few hundredths of a percent to about 4 percent. -In 1942 the Geological Survey resumed a sys- tematic study of the deposits which is still in progress. Topographic, magnetic, and geologic surveys have been made at most of the de- posits which have been mined or prospected. Some trenching, sampling, and diamond drilling have been carried on by the Bureau of Mines. Much of the peninsula has been only superficially prospected and it is anticipated that further work will reveal additional ore bodies. . R. H. JaAuns: The Harding beryllium-tanta- lum-lithium pegmatites, Taos County, N. Mex. W. T. Tuom, Jr.: The structural evolution of the Big Horn Basin. 621sT MEETING The 621st meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, March 22, 1944, President GEORGE TUNELL presiding. Informal communications—L. HENBEST dis- cussed the lighting of specimens for photog- raphy. Program.—W. M. Capy: Stratigraphy and structure of west-central Vermont. G. T. Faust and E. CaLtuaGHan: Mineralogy and petrology of the Currant Creek magnesite dis- trict, Nevada. W. H. Brap.ey, K. E. Lonman, and A. H. FRAzIER: A machine for obtaining true perspec- tive diagrams from maps. 622D MEETING The 622d meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1944, President GEORGE TUNELL presiding. 198 Program.—V. T. ALLEN: Sedimentary and volcanic processes in the formation of high- alumina clays. Along the Pacific coast, where volcanic materials predominate, the impor- tance of sedimentary processes in the formation of high-alumina clays has not been fully appre- ciated. At Ione, Calif., Castle Rock, Wash., Whiteware, Mont., Hobart Butte and Molalla, Oreg., where the Geological Survey has been in- vestigating clays jointly with the U. 8. Bureau of Mines, sedimentary processes have been more important in the formation of high-alu- mina clays than have volcanic processes. Clays derived directly from volcanic materials are composed dominantly of montmorillonite; but these clays, with the exception of the beidellite- nontronite varieties, have relatively low per- centages of available alumina. In contrast, clays derived by thorough leaching of various aluminous rocks under conditions favoring thorough drainage are composed dominantly of kaolinite and when sorted by sedimentary processes form high-grade deposits; further- more, the depositional structures of these sedi- mentary clays have favored the derivation of gibbsite through weathering or the formation of dickite or kaolinite through hydrothermal action. Kaolinite, gibbsite, and dickite all have relatively high percentages of available alu- mina. The iron-bearing minerals in these de- posits, arranged in the order of their impor- tance, include: siderite, hematite, limonite, nontronite, pyrite, ilmenite, vivianite, celadon- ite, and scorodite. S. E. CiaspauGu: Paragenesis of the tungsten ore of the Ima mine, Idaho. The Ima mine in the Blue Wing district is the second most impor- tant producer of tungsten in Idaho, and the quartz veins of the district constitute the larg- est of the known huebnerite deposits of the Western States. Workings of the Ima mine ex- tend from Patterson Canyon northwestward for a distance of about half a mile, and the ex- tent of the Ima vein system is presumably much greater. The productive veins occupy normal faults of small displacement in quartz- ite and granite. The quartzite is metamor- phosed impure sandstone considered to be part of the Belt series. Granite is exposed onlv in the underground workings. Closely associated with the granite are ir- regular bodies of pegmatite and orthoclase- bearing veins which contain mica, pyrite, and molybdenite. The pegmatite and feldspar-bear- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 35, NO. 6 ing veins are cut by the more persistent main veins which contain the economically impor- tant tungsten, silver, copper, and lead minerals. Most of the ore shows prominent banding which is attributed to repeated fracturing or reopening of the veins during mineralization. Unbanded parts of the vein material near the granite contact contain large crystals of pyrite, fluorite, and huebnerite. Banded ore contains the same minerals plus rhodochrosite, tetra- hedrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite. The general sequence of minerals is as follows: orthoclase, quartz, and mica followed by pyrite and molybdenite in the early veins; quartz, fluorite, pyrite, and huebnerite in the unbanded ore, followed by quartz, rhodochrosite, hueb- nerite, sphalerite, and finally quartz, fluorite, tetrahedrite, galena, and chalcopyrite in the banded. Scheelite occurs in small seams along fractures and replaces shattered huebnerite. J. D. H. Donnay: Twinning, tsomorphism, and epitaxy. 623D MEETING The 623d meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, November 8, 1944, Presi- dent GrorGEe TUNELL presiding. A memorial to E. O. ULricH was read before the Society by J. B. Rexrsipz, Jr. (Published in this JOURNAL 34 (5): 168. 1944.) A memorial to ARTHUR KEITH was spoken by N. H. Darton. (Published in this JouRNAL 34 (7): 240. 1944.) A memorial to GrorcEr STEIGER was read by J. J. Fanny. (Published in this JouRNAL 34 — (10): 347. 1944.) A memorial to Roger C. WELLS was read by W. T. Schaller. (Published in this JouRNAL 34 (10): 348. 1944.) Program.—H. R. Gauxt: Geology and zinc deposits in the Groundhog and Glacier Basins, Wrangell district, southeastern Alaska. Ground- hog and Glacier Basins are on the mainland of southeastern Alaska about 13 miles east of Wrangell. The zine deposits are in a sequence of schists and gneisses which are part of a belt of meta- morphic rocks bordering the west side of the Coast Range batholith for many miles. The schists and gneisses in Groundhog and Glacier Basins are bounded on the west by a large sill- like mass of quartz diorite. Bedding and cleavage of the metamorphic rocks are about parallel. The regional strike is N. 25° W. and the general dip is 60° N.E. JuNE 15, 1945 Many quartz porphyry sills and dikes cut the metamorphic rocks and the sill-like quartz diorite. Quartz-fluorite breccia veins occupy many faults and fractures and are younger than the quartz porphyry sills. Basalt sills and dikes are widespread and are younger than the veins. Breccias, made up of fragments of metamor- phic rocks and quartz porphyry, occur as sills and dikes and as large irregular masses in the metamorphic rocks. The zine deposits are pyroxene granulite beds that have been replaced by sphalerite, galena, and pyrrhotite and minor amounts of other sulfide minerals. Two types of ore are recognized, a solid-sulphide type and a dis- seminated-sulphide type. Significant amounts of ore of the solid-sulphide type crop out only in Groundhog Basin. Ore beds containing only disseminated ore crop out on the north slope of Glacier Basin and at higher altitudes to the north toward Groundhog Basin grade into and are interbedded with barren pyroxene gneiss. The most westerly ore bed in Glacier Basin is correlated with the lowest bed in Groundhog Basin. The total known extent of zinc metallization in the pyroxene granulite beds is about three miles through a vertical range of about 3,000 feet. The best ore in both basins is exposed at the lowest altitudes. In a general way the best metallized portions in both basins also occur in those parts of the ore beds which are nearest the sill-like quartz diorite. H. J. Yacopa: Localization of chemical con- stituents by chemical patterns. A review of print- ing methods applicable to the study of mineral constituents in polished massive or thin sec- tions. Among the techniques covered are in- cluded luminescent phenomena (fluorescence, phosphorescence, and thermoluminescence), autoradiography, electrographic and contact printing. OBITUARIES 199 Material not previously published includes a method for recording an autoluminographic pattern by contacting the phosphorescing specimen against color sensitive film. The use of fine-grained alpha-ray emulsions is described as a means of recording the distribution of uranium and thorium minerals in the polished surface. These emulsions provide a highly selec- tive medium for obtaining a sharply defined autoradiographic pattern, capable of quantita- tive interpretation and which permits the reso- lution of fine detail. A modified contact printing procedure is de- scribed which involves the etching of the sur- face by vapors and the transfer of the corrosion film to a transparent gelatin coating moistened with specific reagents. The characteristic colors serve to localize heavy metals in the polished section. | 624TH MEETING The 624th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, December 13, 1944, Vice- president FRANK SHAIRER presiding. Program.—Presidential address by GEORGE TUNELL: Some thermodynamic and leptologic threads in the geologic tapestry. 52D ANNUAL MEETING The 52d Annual Meeting was held immedi- ately following the 624th regular meeting. The reports of the secretaries, treasurer, and audit- ing committee were read and approved. Officers for the year 1945 were then elected as follows: President: L. W. Currier; Vice-presidents: A. A. Baker, W. 8S. Burpank; Secretary: MarcareT D. Foster; Treasurer: R. E. STEVENS; Council: C. Mitron, W. M. Capy, J. J. Guass, E. F. Osporn, HELEN DuncaN. The Society nominated GrorGr TUNELL to be a Vice-president of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences for the year 1945. @Pbituartes GEORGE WHITELEY COGGESHALL, a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died on November 19, 1944. He was born at Des Moines, Iowa, on December 21, 1867. He took his B.S. degree at Iowa College in 1890 and a Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering at Leip- zig, Germany, in 1895. He attended the Har- vard University Graduate School in 1891-92. In 1900 he married Anna Torrey, by whom he had three daughters. From 1895 to 1897 he served as chemistry instructor at Harvard University. In 1898 he organized the Eastern Chemical Co., Boston, and was president of it to 1910, when he moved to Washington, D. C., to become head of the chemical engineering di- vision of the Institute of Industrial Research. In 1924 he accepted a position as head of the research laboratory with the S. D. Warren 200 Paper Co., Cumberland Mills, Maine, and was associated with that concern until his retire- ment. Dr. Coggeshall was an inventor of concen- trated fertilizers and several insecticides and fungicides. He developed processes for produc- ing chemical compounds of titanium from ru- tile, processes for producing potash salts from silicate rocks, and gasoline from heavy petro- leum oils. He also did much special work for clients. His publications included a thesis en- titled The constants of calomel electrodes, and papers on the use of titanium salts in dyeing and mordanting, on the production of potash salts from feldspathic rocks, and on the treat- ment of the surfaces of concrete vessels. During World War I he was connected with the Sec- tion on Concrete Vessel Construction, U. S. Shipping Board. He was a member of the American Chemical Society, Society of Chem- ical Industry, American Electrochemical Soci- ety, Société de Chimie Industrielle, and other scientific organizations. His clubs included the St. Botolph (Boston), Harvard and Chemists’ Clubs (New York), and Cosmos and Chevy Chase Clubs (Washington, D. C.). H. A. GARDNER LysTteR Hoxir Drewey, retired botanist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, died at Kenmore, N. Y., on November 27, 1944, after a long illness. Mr. Dewey was born at Cambridge, Mich., on March 14, 1865, the son of Francis A. and Harriet (Smith) Dewey. He was educated in the public schools of Michigan, graduating from the high school at Tecumseh in 1885 and from the Michigan Agricultural College _(now the Michigan State College) in 1888. He taught botany at the Michigan Agricultural College for two years, and in September 1890 he was appointed an assistant botanist in the U. S. Department of Agriculture. His earlier work in the department was with grasses and weeds, and from 1899 to the time of his retirement in 1935 he was in charge of investigation and re- search relating to plant fibers other than cotton. The regions in which Mr. Dewey worked in- cluded many different countries. His major in- vestigations in the United States were with flax and hemp, and his selections of these plants resulted in the development of improved strains, eliminating the necessity of importing seed of fiber flax from Europe, and hemp seed from China. In Puerto Rico he conducted ex- perimental work with sisal, henequén, and other tropical fiber plants in cooperation with JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ees Nig ME = the Federal Agricultural Experiment Station at Mayagiiez. In 1903 and again in 1907 he made field studies of the fiber plants of northern and central Mexico, and in 1911 he represented the U. S. Department of Agriculture at the World Fiber Congress held at Sourabaia, Java. Among the other countries which Mr. Dewey visited and in which he made fiber surveys were Cuba, the Bahama Islands, Al- geria, Ceylon, the Federated Malay States, Japan, and the Hawaiian Islands. In all his in- vestigational activities he was devoted to. pre- cise thinking and meticulous attention to accu- racy. These qualities were evidenced by his long-continued effort to establish a correct and uniform nomenclature for the plant fibers. For many years before his retirement from active service Mr. Dewey was widely recognized both in scientific and industrial circles as the leading American authority on the plant fibers. He was the author of numerous circulars, bulletins, and articles on grasses, weeds, and — plant fibers. After his retirement at the age of 70, in 1935, he prepared the section on fiber plants published in Standardized Plant Names, . and also a comprehensive series of articles which were published in Spanish by the Pan American Union in a pamphlet entitled Fibras Vegetales y su Produccién en América, and by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Mis- cellaneous Publication No. 518 entitled Fiber Production in the Western Hemisphere. Mr. Dewey held membership in a number of professional organizations, including the Bo- tanical Society of Washington, the Biological Society of Washington, the American Genetic Association, and the Washington Academy of Sciences. For more than 40 years he took an ac- tive part in the civic and religious activities of his community, and was a member of the Pet- worth Citizens Association. He was a member of the Gunton-Temple Memorial Presbyterian Church in Washington, and an elder in that church for 42 years, including 38 years as Clerk of Sessions. In 1889 Mr. Dewey married Miss Etta Con- kling, whom he survived. They had two chil- dren, Mary Genevieve, who died at the age of 17, and Grace Marguerite, who is now Mrs. Carl G. Frost, of Kenmore, N. Y. Mr. Dewey will long be remembered as a man who always rang true. His outstanding qualities were modesty, kindness, devotion to duty, and sterling integrity, and his entire life was characterized by an unselfish desire to be of service and usefulness to others. Harry T. EDWARDS. VoL. 35,N0.6 We re ey Are ; ie ie vy MO rt. Py I Miak Shs Ve Pale og Aw - A ¥ - ” : a Mort i. CONTENTS Eruno.tocy.—The mutual-aid and volunteer company of the eastern Cherokee: as recorded in a book of minutes in the Sequoyah sylla- bary, compared with mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois. BPiiGeSpack and ©. EOSCHABERER (7% i ayeiie os eee i ee PALEONTOLOGY.—Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Wississippian.. (| FUD WEN FOI (4760). Ya ah ee te ae Botany.—Notes on four eastern species of Gymnosporangium. W.H. TSG 8) eR hee re og REG BIDS oP ob dyin) ck Maes Sa ALC Ue cn aa Entromo.tocy.—Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway from Sin- gapore and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Y1ne- DOU EMO ee ee Oe ire EME NP a ine na ee ne PaRAsITOLOGY.—Localization of radioactive antimony following mul- tiple daily injections to a dog infected with Dirofilaria immitis. Dean B. Cowin, ALFRED H. Lawton, A. T. Nuss, FReEpERticK J. Brapy, and Giuen By OGDEN i ar Sik da ae eee ate PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY} ooh 2. 0 ee Oe ee a ae This Journal! is Indexed in the Internationa) Index to Periodicals. Page 169 180 182 189 “a8 cae J ~ We P » ~ Neha ae A ee 3 _ Ly .. & rey. tae aren *Hyg at eae « et, gill pete TS ) as pre oe ‘ : nee te ae tae Wares } i ¢ me be. * 7 Phen ~ ‘Soo A dts ae. seat % si mI > o ) oe - ~~ Jory 15, 1945 No. 7 JOURNAL Becton ACADEMY OF SCIENCES © ea ae all igs a a : ‘Ae aaaen BOARD OF EDITORS T, JUDSON — FE: - Haratp A. Reaper Wiiuiam N. Fenton U OF STANDARDS - U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ss ASSOCIATE EDITORS € : Finis C. Kracet. | “ ALAN STONE _ PRILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ‘ “Tra B. Hansen ~ Raura W. Inmay ns "BIOLOGICAL sociETY : GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Auperr E. Lone.ey T. Date Stewart | BOTANICAL SOCIETY hs ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY James I. 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Grar, Smithsonian Institution Secretary: FERDINAND G. BrickweEppz, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappers, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHan R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Industry. BS Cusiodian of Publications: FRANK M. SETzLER, Uz ise ‘National Museum. gee £ ual Fy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLuME 35 - PHYSICS.— The measurement of some thermal properties of water. National Bureau of Standards. At the end of the eighteenth century it was shown that heat was not a substance but a form of energy. In a report in 1798 Count Rumford described an experiment, made while boring a cannon, where suffi- cient heat was developed with a blunt tool in two and one-half hours to raise the tem- perature of 26.5 pounds of cold water to its boiling point, although in doing so less than 0.6 of a pound of metal was removed. This - evidence proved almost conclusively that heat was a form of energy. A more conclu- sive proof, however, was given in 1799 when Sir Humphry Davy described an experi- ment in which he melted ice by rubbing two blocks of it together. Since it was shown that heat was a form of energy, it was rather natural that the unit of heat energy was defined at first in terms of the properties of water. The unit of heat was taken as the energy necessary to heat a unit mass of water 1°. In the metric system the units were the energy necessary to raise a gram, or a kilogram, of water 1°C. and were called the gram calorie, and kilogram calorie, respectively. In the “English system the unit was the heat nec- essary to raise a pound of water 1°F. and was called the British thermal unit (BTU). The unit of heat defined in terms of water was very convenient because most calori- metric measurements were made in terms of the heat capacity of water, and also be- cause the specific heat of water changes lit- tle with temperature. When the precision of measurement had increased, and it was shown that the specific heat of water did vary with temperature, it became necessary 1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, delivered at the 1242d meeting of the Society, January 6, 1945. Received February 26, 1945. é JuLy 15, 1945 No. 7 H. F. Stimson, to define the heat unit more precisely. This led to the use of different calories, known as the 0° calorie, the 4°, 15°, 18°, 20° calorie and also the mean calorie, which was the mean between 0° and 100°C. About 1830 Sadi Carnot had estimated the heat unit to be equivalent to 370 kilo- gram meters, which is about 13 percent lower than the present accepted value. Carnot had planned to determine the heat unit experimentally, but his early death in 1836 stopped these experiments. James Prescott Joule (1)? appears to be the first to have made systematic measure- ments of the mechanical equivalent of heat. His experiments began about 1840 and con- tinued up to 1878. He made these experi- ments with different substances to show that heat was a form of energy quite inde- pendent of the substance which was heated. The mechanical equivalent of heat, or Joule’s equivalent, subsequently has been denoted by the letter ‘J.’ As a further tribute to Joule, all science now honors him by the use of his name for a unit of energy. Henry A. Rowland (2), in his painstaking way, made experiments on the mechanical equivalent with an apparatus similar in de- sign to Joule’s but with Rowland’s charac- teristic attention to detail. These experi- ments were made in the range from 5° to 35°C. in order to study the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature. At the conclusion of his paper, published in 1878, he modestly stated that “‘between the limits of 15° and 25°C., I feel almost certain that no subsequent experiments will change my values of the equivalent so much as two parts in 1,000.”’ This modest claim seems to be fullysubstantiated by recent experiments. 2 Italic numbers in parenthesis refer to litera- ture cited at the end of this paper. 201 8 16 'S5 . ' = 202 A classical determination of the mechan- ical equivalent of the mean thermal unit between 0° and 100°C. was published in 1897 by Osborne Reynolds and W. H. Moorby (3). Reynolds was the engineer, famous for his researches on fluid motions, with whose name is associated the dimen- sionless numbers which describe the states of fluid flow. These men used power from a 65 horsepower steam engine for heating a continuous flow of water in a hydraulic brake of Reynolds’s design. This short list of researches on the me- chanical equivalent of heat would be in- complete without mention of the relatively recent determination by Laby and Hercus (4), published in 1927. In their ingenious apparatus they made use of a flow calorim- eter in which heat was produced by electric currents induced by a rotating electromag- net. The energy was measured mechan- ically by determining the couple in much the same way that Joule and Rowland measured it. This was done by refined methods which justify their claim to ‘‘the highest precision attainable with the pres- ent developments of physical technique.” This research may well be the last classical experiment to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat dzrectly, because the in- direct method of measuring energy elec- trically not only is much more convenient ‘but is also more accurate. At present the ratio of the electric units of energy to the mechanical unit is known to a considerably greater accuracy than the ratio of the heat unit to the Joule. For this reason, present-day experiments in calo- rimetry are usually arranged to measure electric energy directly, as it is added to the calorimeter and its contents, rather than to determine the energy by exchanging heat with water. This development removes the need for a heat unit different from the mechanical unit but does not dispel interest in the thermal properties of water. During the period when the accuracy of the electric units was increasing, however, some pioneers made measurements of the heat unit by supplying the energy to water electrically. Notable among these pioneers are Dieterici, Griffiths, and Schuster and Gammon. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 39, NO. 7 These researches were followed by an- other, reported in 1902 by Callendar (5) and by Barnes (6), on measurements made with a continuous flow calorimeter ‘‘on the ca- pacity for heat of water between the freez- ing and boiling points.’’ These measure- ments of the heat caapcity of water were more comprehensive than any of the other measurements up to that time. In 1899 and 1900 Dr. Barnes, on 54 days, made measure- ments at mean temperatures ranging from 1.35° to 91.55°C. Four runs were usually made on each day at two rates of flow, one high rate and one low rate, in order to make corrections for the heat losses due to radia- tion and conduction. These rates were varied over a ratio of nearly 2 to 1, and the heat losses varied from a little over 1.5 per- cent for the large flow at the lowest temper- ature up to nearly 6 percent of the energy input for the small flow at the highest tem- perature. Dr. Barnes (7), in 1909, estimated an accuracy for his determinations of 1 part in 10,000 over the entire range, but recent measurements suggest the possibility of some unsuspected systematic errors in his results. In 1921 Jaeger and von Steinwehr (8) re- ported on ‘‘the heat capacity of water be- tween 5° and 50°C. in international watt seconds.’”’ They used an electric heating method at a time when the units and stand- ards were much better known than when Barnes made his measurements. An ac- curacy of 1 part in 5,000 was claimed for the heat capacity of water at 15°C. A new series of researches on the proper- ties of water was planned at a conference (9) of engineers and physicists held in Cam- bridge, Mass., on June 23, 1921. This con- ference was sponsored by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers for the purpose of obtaining accurate data on the properties of water, which would form the basis of more reliable steam tables with which the engineers could design their tur- bines. Prof. Harvey N. Davis at Harvard University agreed to complete measure-_ ments he had started on the Joule-Thomson coefficient of steam. Prof. Frederick G. Keyes at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) undertook measure- ments on the pressure-volume-temperature en Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER relations of steam. The first réquest to the National Bureau of Standards (N.B.S.) was to determine the mean heat unit. The late Nathan S. Osborne accepted this responsibility but proposed to go much further by determining not only the heat of the liquid but also the heat of vaporization of water over a wide range of temperature. It is to him that the principal part of this discussion is dedicated. His genius and vi- sion, coupled with his earlier experience in calorimetry, made the successful comple- tion of this work possible. His experience had taught him not to go ahead blindly with the design of a calorimeter which would merely be a copy of previous calorim- eters, but first to study the thermodynamics of the experiments that could be performed in the laboratory. This study proved to be a master stroke for it developed the principle of a systematic method of fluid calorimetry. The theory of this method was first pub- lished by Osborne (10) in April 1924 under the title of ‘‘Calorimetry of Saturated Fluids,” where the term saturated restricts the calorimetry to experiments in which both liquid and vapor are always present. The method makes use of a single calorimetric apparatus with which a system of measurements may be made to deter- mine some of the essential thermal proper- ties of a fluid, in particular the enthalpy H=U-++pv where U is the internal energy of the substance, p the pressure, and v the specific volume of the substance. The calorimeter is provided with two outlet tubes, one at the bottom for introducing or withdrawing liquid and the other at the top for withdrawing vapor. Valves are pro- vided, on these tubes, for sealing fluid in the calorimeter and for controlling the rate at which fluids are withdrawn. The calorimeter is surrounded with an envelope the temper- ature of which is controlled to prevent any net exchange of heat with the calorimeter. All experiments are made with both liquid and vapor in the calorimeter when the properties of saturated fluids are being in- vestigated. ‘The essentials of this method are as fol- lows. First consider two experiments (a) and (b) with the same calorimeter, (a) with a large amount of liquid and some vapor to 203 maintain the saturation state and (b) with a small amount of liquid. In these two ex- periments the calorimeter contains the masses of fluid M, and M,, respectively, and the quantities of energy Q, and Q, are found necessary to heat the calorimeter and its contents from the same initial tempera- ture, 4, to the same final temperature bt. The difference of the energies, Q,—Q,, is used to heat the difference of the masses of the fluid contents, M,—M,, from one tem- perature to the other. The quotient of these differences would be equal to the change in enthalpy, H, of the liquid, were it not for the extra vapor in experiment (b). This re- quires a correction term —L where L v’—v is the latent heat of vaporization and v and v’ are the specific volumes of the saturated liquid and vapor respectively. This gives the equation: v The quantity H—L in this equation v’—v is a specific energy function which Osborne called a. Notice that in getting a by the method of differences in the fillings, not only is the energy correction for the heat capacity of the empty calorimeter elimi- nated but also other energy corrections which are the same as long as both liquid and vapor are in the calorimeter. These a experiments are essentially liquid heat ca- pacity experiments. Now consider another type of experi- ment, which may be called a vaporization experiment, for getting the enthalpy of the saturated vapor. Consider a calorimeter nearly filled with liquid and let energy be supplied to evaporate liquid to vapor, most of which is withdrawu through a throttle valve at a rate so controlled as to keep the temperature of evaporation constant. The theory shows that the heat added, AQ, di- vided by the mass withdrawn, AM, is equal to the latent heat LZ plus the correction, L - This correction is the energy neces- vy’ —v sary to vaporize water to fill the space no 204 longer filled with liquid. This gives the equation: | The right-hand member of this equation is also a specific energy function, which Os- borne called y. Now consider a third type of experiment where liquid instead of vapor is withdrawn as heat is added. Here liquid is evaporated to fill the space which is emptied of water. This gives the equation: This is the same quantity that appears as a correction term in the preceding equations for the heat of the liquid and the heat: of vaporization. This function he called B. These three functions, which can be de- termined experimentally, may be used to calculate the more familiar functions H=a+8 L=y—B8=H’'—-H H'’=H+L=a+tyv. So far these derivations use only the first law of thermodynamics. If the second law with the Clapeyron relation is used, the fol- lowing equations result: see = =yl — B v'—v aid bs | Sti wiaage dp =L+L iy = y/T — é a y'—v vy’ —v ay where T is the absolute temperature and p the vapor pressure. These relations give a way of comparing the calorimetric data with the volumetric data such as has been obtained at the M.I.T., provided the vapor pressure slope and the absolute temperature are known. For water the a is nearly a linear function of temperature. The @ is very small at the freezing point but increases progressively until the slope is infinite at the critical point. The y is everywhere greater than the 6 by JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 the latent heat L. At the critical tempera- ture when L becomes zero the 6 and y curves meet. Both 6 and y can be measured with the same absolute accuracy; hence measured values of 8 can be subtracted from meas- ured values of y to get L without loss of ac- curacy. The Clapeyron relation in the equa- — tions above, however, provides a method of computing 8 with greater accuracy when B is small, provided v and dp/dT are known with a moderate accuracy. For the measurements of these properties, a calorimeter is used for containing a sample of water while its thermal behavior is ob- served. The thermal behavior is determined by three principal quantities that must be measured, namely: 1. Mass subjected to process. 2. Energy added to system. 3. Change of state produced. The measurement of mass is relatively sim- ple because the samples are sealed in tight containers with valves, and never opened to the outside when accounting for mass. The measurement of energy is not so simple, be- cause no way has yet been found to make calorimeters quite tight for heat. The meas- urement of the change of state involves the measurement of changes in temperature or pressure. The first calorimeter (11) for this work was made of a copper-nickel alloy, and was 3 inches in diameter, 6 inches high, with rounded ends. This calorimeter was silver- plated on the inside, to provide protection against contamination of the water, and on the outside, to present a bright surface to make radiation small. Small tubes at the top and bottom served both as supports for the calorimeter and as ducts for fluids. The tube at the bottom contained a hollow shaft for driving a centrifugal pump in the calo- rimeter which circulated a sheet of water over the entire inside wall for distribution of heat. This pump also supplied a flowing film of water over a sheathed heater which was covered with silver gauze. Here the electric energy was added to the calorimeter. The casings for circulating water were made of pure silver, the pump was made of gold-sil- ver and silver-palladium alloy, and the wstebndep nes Juuty 15, 1945 sTIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER pump bearings were made with osmium- iridium balls and races. The calorimeter was supported inside of a larger copper-nickel shell, called an enve- lope, which also was silver-plated on the in- side. The space between these shells was evacuated during the experiments to make negligible the heat exchange by gaseous con- duction and convection. The envelope was mounted in a circulating bath of oil whose temperature was controlled to keep the envelope temperature very close to the calorimeter temperature. The thermometric installation on this calorimeter and its successors was novel and characteristic of Osborne’s experimental methods. Temperatures were measured and controlled with a combination of platinum resistance thermometers and thermoele- ments mounted on a thick copper reference block directly above the envelope. The temperature of the reference block was de- termined accurately with resistance ther- mometers. The small temperature differ- ences between this reference block and vital parts of the apparatus were determined by differential thermoelements having refer- ence junctions on the reference block and principal junctions distributed at chosen places on the surface of the calorimeter and its envelope. These elements were used in groups to determine the small difference be- tween the integrated surface temperature of the calorimeter and the temperature of the reference block. The elements on the calorimeter were opposed to the elements on the envelope so that the envelope tempera- ture could be controlled close to that of the calorimeter in order to avoid any considera- ble heat exchange. The indications of these differential thermoelements were observed and recorded every minute during experi- ments, so that proper account could be made of the residual heat exchange with the envelope. The water used in these experiments was taken from laboratory stills and then redis- tilled in a special still, which removed all but about 0.1 percent of the dissolved gases. The water was then stored and weighed in silver containers sealed with diaphragm valves before it was introduced into the calorimeter. These diaphragm valves were 205 made entirely of metal and had no stuffing boxes. The masses introduced into the calorimeter ranged from about 275 grams up to nearly 500 grams. The electric power, added to the calorim- eter heater, was taken from storage bat- teries and measured with a five dial po- tentiometer, which determined both the current to the calorimeter and the potential drop across the leads. The power was then multiplied by the time to give the electric energy input. The circulating pump sup- plied less than 0.1 watt of power, but calorimetric determinations showed this power to be somewhat uncertain, and so it may have been one of the greater limita- tions to accurate accounting of energy in this calorimeter. These energies, together with the net energy added to the calorim- eter by conduction and radiation, inte- grated over the period of the experiments by means of the differential thermoelement readings, made up the total energy input. The a or heat-capacity experiments were made by first measuring the temperature of the calorimeter with the thermometers and thermoelements when the envelope tem- perature was adjusted and the circulating pump running. Power input was then started by means of a switch, which was ac- tivated by a spring but released by the sig- nals from a Riefler clock. At the end of a predetermined time (usually 10 minutes), when sufficient energy had been added to raise the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents by the desired amount (usually 10°), the power was switched off by the same switch. During this heating period the envelope temperature was kept near the calorimeter temperature so that the net heat transfer would be small. In general a few minutes after the end of the period of heating, a satisfactory temperature equi- librium had been attained so that this tem- perature could be determined and another experiment started. This process was con- tinued with both large and small masses in the calorimeter until 8 to 18 experiments had been made in each 10° temperature in- terval in successive steps over the entire range from about 1° up to 270°C. These measurements furnished the dat& for for- mulating a as a function of temperature. 206 The y experiments were performed at 8 nominal temperatures, from 100° up to 270°C. In these experiments the envelope bath was thermostated to keep the tem- perature constant. As power was supplied by the heater, vapor was withdrawn through a throttle valve continuously con- trolled by the operator to maintain a con- stant temperature on the surface of the calorimeter. The vapor was first condensed in one of the silver containers until proper temperature and flow conditions were at- tained. A series of temperature readings was then taken, and midway in this series the flow was shifted to another container by opening and closing valves operated by a spring and released by signals from the clock. The durations of these experiments varied from ten minutes to an hour, and sometimes aS many as eight experiments were made successively on one day. The rates of flow were varied from about half a gram per minute to 2 grams per minute for the purpose of detecting any systematic variation in the derived y. such as might be caused by the withdrawal of liquid droplets along with the vapor. The 8 experiments were performed in a manner somewhat similar to the y experi- ments, except that liquid was throttled out of the bottom of the calorimeter. Since it was desirable to remove most of the availa- ble liquid contents in one experiment the flow and power input were started and stopped, instead of being continuous as in the y experiments. All known corrections were applied to these measurements, and then adjustments were made to reduce the results to even temperatures for ease in formulating. When the formulation was completed a table was made which gave values of the enthalpies and H’, the latent heat L, and the entropy S and S’, of both the saturated liquid and saturated vapor at each integral 10°C. from 0° to 270°C. This was published (11) in 1930, and the engineers proceeded to in- corporate these results in steam tables. The engineers by this time were eager to have information about the properties of water and steam at still higher temperatures because, in striving for higher efficiency, turbines were being made to run at higher JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 pressures. The experiments up to 270°C. had proved the great value of Osborne’s method of calorimetry for attaining ac- curate values of the enthalpy of saturated liquid and saturated vapor but certain fea- tures of the first calorimeter were inade- quate for measurements at higher tempera- tures and pressures. Considerable difficulty had been experienced in maintaining con- stant temperature control with the oil bath at 270°C. Furthermore, the copper-nickel calorimeter was not strong enough to with- stand a fourfold increase in pressure at a 100° increase in temperature. In addition, it was not considered feasible to make a pump shaft stuffing box which would hold four times the pressure because the erosion of the shaft had already been excessive at the higher pressures. Again there was a strong suspicion that the pump power was not a single valued function of the pump speed *and that uncertainties in its power input existed. In the meantime metallurgists had been developing new stainless steels, and so it was decided to make a new calorimeter of a stainless steel made of a chromium-nickel- tungsten alloy, which had the property of low creep at high temperatures. This calorimeter (12) was 23 inches in J.D. and 53 inches high with hemispherical ends. The wall was only an eighth of an inch thick, yet it was strong enough to hold the critical pressure of water of over 218 atmospheres. It was machined out of a solid bar of steel that had been compressed axially in a hy- draulic press so as to give extra strength to the calorimeter by circumferential work- hardening. This calorimeter, like the first, was supported by tubes at the top and bot- tom for introducing and withdrawing fluid. The heater in this calorimeter was small and was concentrated near the bottom so that the energy would cause bubbles of vapor to form and rise near the axis of the calorim- eter and hence cause some stirring to accel- erate the distribution of heat. Heat was . distributed also by conduction in 30 flat plates of 0.5 mm silver, which were mounted radially from the axis to the shell to provide good thermal connection throughout the calorimeter. | It was decided not to provide for evacuat- JuLy 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ing the space around this calorimeter, partly because it simplified construction when highest precision was not demanded and partly because the proportionate saving in heat leak was not so great at the higher temperatures where radiation predomi- nates. The isothermal envelope around this calorimeter was a shell of pure silver 4 inches O.D. and a quarter of an inch thick, with quarter-inch silver plates in the ends. This in turn was surrounded with a 5-inch _ O.D. pure silver shell one-eighth inch thick with end plates. Silver was used because it is the best conductor of heat and because it also has the lowest emissivity for radiation. The function of the inner silver shell was to present a controlled isothermal surface to the calorimeter. The function of the outer shell was to withstand the brunt of the en- velope heat supply and to maintain its average temperature near the calorimeter temperature, while losing heat to the room. The outer silver shell was insulated with an inch of air partitioned with two thin con- centric aluminum radiation envelopes. This was all contained in a heavy brass casing of sufficient strength to hold the contents of ' the calorimeter in the event of a rupture while in service. A heater on the outer silver shell constantly supplied heat to keep its temperature up to the calorimeter tempera- ture. A heater on the inner shell was used only when the temperature was being raised such as in the a experiments. The reference block in this apparatus was located above the calorimeter inside the heavy silver shell and was made of two pieces of silver } by 14 by 2% inches held together horizontally and having a vertical hole in the center one-half inch in diameter for the vapor outlet tube. This block held two resistance thermometers and 31 ther- moelement reference junctions. More junc- tions were used on this calorimeter than on the first calorimeter to compensate partly for the lack of stirring in the calorimeter and also for the lack of vacuum insulation around it. It was decided to use the calorimeter first to measure the vapor pressure of water over the range from 100°C. up to the critical temperature. This decision was fortunate because the results of these measurements 207 inspired Professor Keyes (13), at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to remeasure the vapor pressure of water. These two determinations were then in sat- isfactory accord with the similar determina- tion just previously made in England by Prof. A. C. Egerton and G. 8S. Callendar (14), the latter being the son of the late Prof. Hugh Callendar, mentioned in con- nection with Barnes. The principal accessories to the calorim- eter that were needed for the measurements of vapor pressure were a pressure capsule and a precision pressure gauge. The pressure capsule was required to transmit the pres- sure to the outside of the calorimeter with- out loss or pollution of its fluid contents. It was made of a pair of stainless steel disks, each 2 inches in diameter and over one-half inch thick, clamping a 0.0025-inch silver diaphragm at the edge. The pair of disks were hollowed out to conform to the shape of the deflected diaphragm so that it would be supported without excessive strain when large pressure differences were applied, yet left free to balance small pressure differ- ences. The total volume displacement of the diaphragm between supports was only 0.04 cm.? Water extended from the outer side of the diaphragm to a water-air meniscus in a glass capillary indicator. A motion of the meniscus of 0.6 mm indicated a change of pressure of 0.001 atmosphere when the dia- phragm was near the center of the cell. The pressure was transmitted by the air to an air-oil meniscus in another capillary and from that through the oil to the pressure gage. The pressure gage was one of the rotat- ing dead-weight precision piston gages constructed at the N.B.S. and described by Meyers and Jessup (15). The piston of this gage could be loaded with weights to bal- ance the pressure to a precision of about 0.001 atmosphere. The oil not only sup- ported the rotating piston but lubricated it as well. The preparation for vapor-pressure de- terminations consisted in maintaining a constant temperature in the partly filled calorimeter for a sufficiently long time to be certain that the wall temperature of the calorimeter represented the temperature of © 208 the free liquid-vapor surface. The pressure in the piston gage was then brought into balance with the vapor pressure in the calorimeter and simultaneous determina- tions were made of the load on the piston, the resistance of the platinum thermometers in the reference block, and the e.m.f. of the differential thermoelements leading from the reference block to the calorimeter. At temperatures up to 350°C. the meas- urements were relatively simple and defi- nite. Above 350°C. the steady state was reached much more slowly and temperature gradients were larger over the calorimeter shell. Near the critical temperature, where the specific volume of the saturated water changes most rapidly, it was necessary to start measurements with the calorimeter full of water and then continue measure- ments at successively reduced fillings so that the liquid would be at the proper level for some filling. In 1934 Osborne and Meyers (16) pub- lished ‘‘A Formula and Tables for the Pressure of Saturated Water Vapor in the Range 0 to 374°C.”’ For the upper range of temperature, this formula was based on the three recent researches mentioned above and in the range below 100°C. upon the classic data which were obtained at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (17) before 1909. The form of equation was one that, in the judgment of the authors, closely represented the data, and was suitable for numerical calculation of the pressure and its derivative. This formula was used to compute tables of both the vapor pressure and its slope at intervals of 1°C. and 1°F. over the range. These intervals are small enough so that linear interpolations suffice to determine either the pressure or its de- rivative at nonintegral temperatures. When the measurements of the vapor pressure had been completed, a few extra accessory parts were installed in order to make the calorimetric measurements. Among these accessories (18) were two sen- sitive throttle valves, one for throttling the liquid, and the other for throttling the vapor. These valves were of the diaphragm type, which had no stuffing boxes. The mo- tion necessary to adjust the throttling was produced by a screw, acting on a long lever JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 supported on knife-edge bearings. Backlash was eliminated by a spring, acting on an- other similar lever which opposed the thrust of the screw. When the levers had been ad- justed to give approximately the correct flow, it was thereafter controlled by varying the tension of the springs to the backlash levers. This control proved to be very deli- cate and positive. It was adequate for the control of temperature and was free from the annoyances which had been caused by the pivoted bearings of the throttle valves used with the first calorimeter. The control of the temperature of vapori- zation was accomplished by controlling the vapor pressure at the free surface where evaporation was taking place. This method of control of the temperature of vaporiza- tion is nearest to the ideal because there is little question that the temperature of the free surface responds almost instantane- ously to changes in the pressure of the vapor above the liquid. Part of the same pressure line that had been used for the vapor pres- sure measurements was used for this con- trol, but in place of the piston gauge there was an air reservoir, which was kept im- mersed in an ice bath to maintain a constant reference pressure. The pressure in this reservoir was first adjusted to balance the pressure in the calorimeter when equilib- rium existed, then after the power was switched on, the flow of fluid out of the calorimeter was continuously adjusted to maintain this same pressure balance and hence the same temperature at the evaporat- ing surface. The B experiments were performed by starting and stopping the flow of liquid in the same manner as was done in experi- ments with the first calorimeter. The y ex- periments were performed by two methods, one by switching the flow of vapor from one receiver to another as with the first calorim- eter, and the other by the start and stop method used for the 6 experiments. This latter method of performing the y experi- ments was made more reliable by the tem- perature control of the free surface just de- scribed. The resulting values of y when compared with those obtained by the first method and with those obtained with the first calorimeter did not show any sig- H, F. Stimson, President, Philosophical Society of Washington, 1944 Juuy 15, 1945 nificant systematic differences resulting either from the method or the apparatus. As before, the a function was derived from repeated measurements with both high and low fillings. These covered each 10° interval from 100° to 370°C. with the addition of numerous measurements over 50° intervals from 100° to 350°C. The 8 function was derived from meas- -urements at temperatures from 200°C. up but at more closely spaced temperatures toward the critical temperature where the slope of the 6 function changes most rap- idly. The measured values of 8 were com- pared with values calculated from the M.1.T. (19) pressure-vclume-temperature measurements by means of the Clapeyron relation. At temperatures below 220°C. the derived 8 was undoubtedly more trust- worthy than the measured 8. Between 220° and 330°C. the precision of the measured 6 is comparable with that of the derived value but above 330°C. the measured values of 6 are more reliable and therefore were used in the formulation. Conversely, this means that the values of the specific volume of the liquid above 330°C. are more reliable ~ when derived from the vaporization experi- ments than when derived from the pressure- volume-temperature measurements. Measurements were also made on the y function at temperatures from 100°C. up to and including 374°C. As the critical tem- perature (N.B.S. estimate 374.15°C.) is ap- proached, the specific volume of both the liquid and the vapor approaches equality, and the liquid and vapor tend to mix owing to such causes as residual temperature gra- dients and thermal agitation. It is to be ex- pected that at some temperature near the eritical the mixing of phases will be so great that liquid will be withdrawn along with vapor in the y experiments and vapor with the liquid in 6 experiments. Provisions, such as baffles at the upper and lower ends of the calorimeter, were made to avoid this as far as possible. In the experimental program, the rates of withdrawal were varied in order to detect mixing. It appears, however, from the consistency of the results, that there was no positive evidence of mixing until the fluids were within 1° of the critical tem- perature. At 373.5°C. both the 8 and the y STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 209 experiments indicated indeterminate re- sults, whereas, at 373°C. and lower, there was little, if any, evidence of it. In the specific volume determinations made at M.I.T., however, isometric lines must be extrapolated to the saturation line from the compressed liquid or the super- heated vapor. As the critical temperature is approached, the curvature of these iso- metric lines increases toward the saturation line and the extrapolation becomes more un- certain. For these reasons, it appears that the thermal properties of saturated water and water vapor can be most reliably meas- ured with a saturation calorimeter, as the critical temperature is approached. Very close to the critical temperature, even these measurements become indeterminate. These measurements concluded the de- termination of the properties of saturated water and water vapor at high temperature but left the enthalpy of the saturated vapor below 100°C. almost untouched. In the meantime there had arisen a request for in- creased accuracy in the determination of the properties of saturated liquid below 100°C. where water is most frequently used for the exchange of energy in certain types of calorimetric experiments. It was there- fore decided to make a third apparatus (20) to measure the enthalpy of saturated liquid to an accuracy of 1 part in 5,000 and also to use this apparatus to complete the meas- urements of the heat of vaporization of wa- ter over the entire range down to the freez- ing point. Since 100°C. was set as the upper limit of temperature required, it was unnecessary for the calorimeter to withstand any pres- sure difference of more than one atmosphere and hence the calorimeter could be larger and of much lighter construction. This calorimeter was made of pure copper, 0.022 inch thick, spun into two hemispherical shells 5 inches in diameter and soldered to- gether with a narrow cylindrical copper band at the equatorial zone. Thesurfaces in- side and out were gold-plated and the out- side surfaces polished to make the emissiv- ity low. A circulating pump consisting of two screw propellers was provided to agi- tate and circulate the water, and guide vanes were provided to direct the flow. A 210 sheathed heater in a flat horizontal coil pro- vided the power for the experiments. As before, the calorimeter was supported by tubes at the poles. The lower tube was small and contained the pump shaft while the upper one was large to conduct large vol- umes of vapor out of the calorimeter in those y experiments where the specific volume was large. The envelope was a double-walled vapor bath, entirely surrounding the calorimeter. This bath always contained a small quan- tity of liquid water so that saturated vapor bathed the entire inner wall. Heat applied to the outside wall at the level of the water in this bath caused vapor to be formed which had access to all parts of the bath without any appreciable drop in pressure. Any portion of the entire inside surface, which chanced to be at a temperature lower than that corresponding to the vapor pressure, immediately received the latent heat from condensation on that portion. Provision was also made to keep the inner wall bathed with a film of liquid which could evaporate to cause cooling wherever necessary. The inside of the inner wall of this envelope was gold-plated and polished to make the emissivity low where it faced the calorimeter. The space between the calorimeter and the envelope was evacuated when thermal insulation was needed, but it was filled with helium when thermal con- nection to the envelope was desired, such as when refrigeration was needed to cool the calorimeter and its contents before starting a day’s run near 0°C. At such times a flow of ice water in a condenser at the top of the envelope vapor space caused con- densed water to run down over the inner wall where it evaporated and thus cooled the wall. The copper reference block for this calo- rimeter was inclosed in a cylindrical exten- sion of the double-walled envelope enclosure so that its temperature would be the same as that of the envelope around the calorim- eter. This copper reference block had axial sockets for the usual laboratory type of re- sistance thermometers and had 22 thermo- elements attached. Since higher accuracy was sought, special attention was directed both to the details JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 of the design and to the technique of meas- urement. The greater difference in the masses of water in the high and low fillings was one factor toward this end. Other fac- tors included the measurement of power and temperature. The potentiometer cali- bration was checked at least twice a day against saturated standard cells kept in a special temperature-controlled box. Many calorimetric measurements of the pump power showed some irregularities, as before, but since the total pump power was less than 0.005 watt, these irregularities were of little consequence. The heat leak correc- tions due to temperature differences be- tween the calorimeter and the envelope were taken into account although they sel- dom made an effect of as much as 1 part in 50,000. No 6 experiments were made with this calorimeter because 8 is small in this tem- perature range and it could be computed more accurately than it could be observed. The y experiments were made with a throt- tle very similar to the one in the second calorimeter, but larger. The steam throttled through this valve was collected in glass reservoirs through tubes and stopcocks, which were nowhere less than 1 cm in diam- eter. When in use the bottom of these re- ceivers was immersed in liquid air which maintained the vapor pressure at a negligi- bly low value. Vaporization experiments were made at temperatures as low as 0.13°C. where the specific volume of the vapor is over 200,000 cm? per gram. The results (20) obtained with this calo- rimeter were expressed in terms of enthalpy in the same manner that the earlier results had been, but in this temperature range there is also another important property, namely, the specific heat at constant pres- sure denoted by the symbol C,. To derive this quantity the values from the a@ experi- ments were reduced to weighted means of Aa/AT at the midtemperatures of all the intervals of the range. These were then sat A reduced to by means of the 6 func- 1 atm H 1 atm d » and finally to tion, then to which is the C’,. The weighted mean values Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 211 = = | LIB le $ SS IN D_ aS Se 4 Kl fm ea -] Oo 8) i a Fe scias aa SSS SZ, D “\s G . = YW Fig. 1.—Schematic diagram of precision manometer, with boiler for vapor pressure measurements: A, Base plate; B, column of Hoke gage blocks 1 inch square; C, mercury cell; D, mercury meniscus, 73 mm in diameter; E, arm of jointed tube } inch I.D. to connect mercury cells, dotted to indicate that it is back of plane of cells; Fi, F2, F3, tube joints, shoulder, elbow, and wrist; G, valve to shut off the mercury connection between cells; H, capacitance plate 35 mm in diameter, 0.2 mm above mer- cury; I, electric insulation, gas tight; J, fixed capacitance, equal to plate-mercury capacitance; K, pneumatic switch, connecting either to fixed capacitor or to plate-mercury capacitor; L, electro- static shield; M, helium line; N, helium supply valve; O, 7-milliliter volume for pressure adjustment; P, piston for micrometer adjustment of pressure; Q, thermometer boiler; R, thermometer well; §, heater for boiling water; T, liquid water; U, water vapor; V, vapor condenser with cold water; W, dry-ice cell for keeping helium line dry. 212 of C,, which may be considered as experi- mental values, were then formulated into an equation. All these mean experimental values of C, fell within one part in ten thou- sand of the formulation except for two at temperatures below 5°C., which had a very low weight. This accord contributes confi- dence to the formulation but should not be taken as an estimate of accuracy, however, because systematic errors could well be larger than the accidental. The results of this investigation cor- roborate the results of Rowland, of Laby and Hercus, and of Jaeger and von Stein- wehr, but differ from the results of Barnes in the upper part of the range by an amount somewhat greater than can be reconciled. The results obtained in this range with the first calorimeter, reported in 1930, were not so accurate as the later results and were not considered as entitled to inclusion in the formulation of values of specific heats. The latest determinations of the specific heat of water are of interest in comparing two artificially defined calories with the calories they were originally intended to represent. In 1929 the International Steam Table Conference defined a calorie, now known as the I T cal (International Table calorie) to be 1/860 international watt hour, which is equivalent to 4.1860 international joules. This calorie was originally selected to be the mean calorie, which is about equal to the 11.5° calorie although it now appears to be nearer to the 14° calorie. The other artificial calorie is the thermochemical calorie used in thermochemical research laboratories in the United States and de- fined equal to 4.1833 international joules. This calorie was taken over from the Inter- national Critical Tables where it was in- tended to be the 15° calorie but now appears to be nearer to the 17° calorie. This about completes the list of researches on water under the leadership of N. 8. Os- borne. It leaves one gap, however, which he had hoped to see filled, namely, the meas- urement of the vapor pressure of water at temperatures below 100°C. The Reichsan- stalt values (17) are still widely used but it is believed that more accurate values can be obtained with the present advances in the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. ré technique for measuring pressure and tem- perature. Pressure measurements can now be made with a precision mercury manometer, con- structed at the N.B.S. This manometer is one of the principal elements of a constant volume gas thermometer with which it is intended ultimately to determine the tem- perature of several fixed points on the abso- lute thermodynamic scale of temperature. The aim has been to make this manometer capable of yielding an accuracy of one part in a million, for the measurement of any pressure from nearly two atmospheres down to about a tenth of this pressure. In order to avoid errors due to the capil- lary depression of the two mercury menisci, these menisci were nearly 3 inches in diame- ter in rigid steel cells (Fig. 1). The capillary depression at the center of each cell was calculated to be less than a thousandth of a micron. The cells were inter-connected by a jointed steel tube in order to accommodate different levels of the upper cell, from 0 up to about 55 inches. The cells were mounted on columns of Hoke gage blocks, 1 inch square, set on a flat iron base plate. These gage blocks permit adjustments of height in steps of 0.0001 inch, the routine calibra- tion of the longer blocks is made to 2 parts in 1,000,000 and they may be wrung to- gether to about a hundredth of a micron. The height of the mercury surface in each cell, relative to its supporting gage blocks, is determined by measurements of the elec- trostatic capacitance between the mercury surface and a steel plate 35 mm in diameter about 0.2 mm above it. This capacitance can be compared in a few seconds with a stable dummy capacitor in a shielded space on top of the cell. Small ripples on the mer- cury surface, which are caused by almost continuous earth tremors, and which would exclude its use as one mirror of an optical interferometer, do not affect the capacitance measurements. The capacitance is meas- ured with a beat-frequency oscillator which is sensitive to a change in the height of the mercury surface of about a hundredth of a micron. . It was intended to give this manometer its first workout in making measurements of > Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER the vapor pressure of water at pressures within the capacity of the manometer. A few preliminary measurements have been made at 80°, 60°, 50°, and 25°C. with active boiling of water in a specially designed ther- mometer boiler. At the top of this boiler there was a condenser where the stream of water vapor condensed and transmitted its pressure to helium extending to the lower cell of the mercury manometer. It soon be- came evident, however, that the vapor pres- sure of water could be measured with a ‘much greater accuracy with this manometer than the corresponding accuracy to which temperature could be measured with ther- mometers calibrated by routine methods. For this reason further measurements were deferred until a few more refinements could be put on the calibration of the platinum re- sistance thermometers. This apparatus is suitable for providing and maintaining a pressure very precisely at one atmosphere for calibration of ther- mometers at 100°C. Pressures can be main- tained constant within one part in a million for periods of an hour or more at will. At 100°C. this corresponds to a temperature constancy of much better than 0.0001°C. The determination of the steam point in a closed system connected to this manometer is as much superior to determinations in ap- paratus open to the atmosphere, as deter- minations of specific and latent heat of wa- ter in closed calorimeters were superior to measurements where water samples were caught in open vessels for weighing. It had been recognized for a long time that individual steam-point determinations in open boilers are subject to uncertainties of a few thousandths of a degree, but it had not been fully appreciated that ice-point de- terminations, without special technique, are also subject to uncertainties of one or more thousandths of a degree. The ice point, or 0°C., is defined (27) as the “Temperature of equilibrium between ice and air-saturated water at normal atmospheric pressure.” When this definition was set up, the ice bath, made of finely divided pure ice and distilled water exposed to the atmosphere, was as- sumed to be sufficiently accurate to fix this temperature to 0.001°C. When an ac- 213 curacy of 0.0001°C. was desired there was some uneertainty in the precise realization of the conditions of the definition as will be seen. It was recognized that the tempera- ture of pure water at the triple point was the simpler to define precisely, but it was considered that the apparatus for using it was too complicated for routine testing. Since water expands on freezing, the temperature of equilibrium of ice and water is lowered by pressure. Using what are believed to be the best data now available, this lowering has been computed to be 0.00747°C. when the water is subjected to one atmosphere pressure. Foreign sub- stances in solution also lower the freezing temperature. There are uncertainties about the exact values for the solubilities of the constituents of air in water but computa- tions show that normal outdoor air con- taining 0.03 percent of CQO. lowers the freezing temperature by about 0.00244°C. when the ice bath is at one atmosphere pressure. The pressure and the dissolved air together lower the freezing temperature by about 0.00991°C., which means that the triple point is nearly 0.0100° above 0°C. This difference of temperature has been determined experimentally by four reliable experimenters, viz., H. Moser (22) at the Reichsanstalt, W. P. White (23) at the Geophysical Laboratory, J. L. Thomas (24) at the National Bureau of Standards, and J. A. Beattie (25) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. All four reported the triple-point temperature to be 0.0098°C. above the ice point. This temperature dif- ference is less than the theoretical, but it could be accounted for either by the pres- ence of foreign matter in solution in their triple-point cells or because the water in their ice baths was not fully saturated with air at the ice-water interfaces nearest their temperature measuring instruments. It is well known that the saturation concentra- tion of air in ice is much less than in water. For this reason water from newly melted ice will not be fully saturated with air until the necessary amount of air has had time to diffuse into it all the way from the surface of the ice bath. Since temperature is de- termined by the conditions at the ice-water 214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 Fig. 2.—Triple-point apparatus: A, triple-point cell; B, thermometer well; C, liquid water; D, water vapor; E, ice mantle; F, ice bath; G, vacuum vessel; H, flask for redistillation. Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER interfaces, it follows that complete satura- tion of air in water under normal atmos- pheric pressure must extend to the inter- faces nearest the thermometer to realize the defined temperature of 0°C. in water that is pure otherwise. It becomes a bit delicate, therefore, to get the water com- pletely polluted with air at the ice surface but with nothing else. White and Beattie provided means for washing the ice in the ice baths with successive changes of dis- tilled water saturated with air at 0°C. Melting ice, as suggested in the publication “The International Temperature Scale’ (21), almost certainly will prevent complete saturation of the water with air. After these considerations a triple-point apparatus for precise determinations of temperature did not seem as formidable to make and use as a precision ice-point ap- paratus. Several triple-point cells (Fig. 2) were prepared and a suitable technique was developed to use them effectively. When in use these cells were completely immersed in an ice bath. The cells were of Pyrex glass about 2 inches in diameter and about 16 inches long with one-half-inch reentrant co- axial wells for the thermometers. Each cell also had a tube extending out through the top of the ice bath to a spherical 1-liter flask at the side. Each cell was filled nearly to the top with ordinary distilled water, which had been air-freed, repurified, and then distilled into the cell before sealing off. When the water was sealed in the ap- paratus, any non-volatile contamination such as dissolved glass could be eliminated at will by pouring the liquid into the flask and allowing it to redistill quietly into the cell by keeping the cell in an ice bath for about a day. The cells were prepared for use by freez- ing a mantle of ice on the thermometer well with solid COs, commercially known as dry ice. Dry ice was dropped into a little ethanol in a glass tube which was like a long test tube, fitting freely into the well. The space between the tube and the well was filled with ethanol and the tube agitated up and down in order to cause the ice mantle to form uniformly on the outside of the well. Agitation was continued until the mantle of 215 ice was from 3 to 6 mm thick, and then the tube was let down for a while to thicken the mantle at the bottom. During the process of freezing, impurities tend to be excluded from the ice and therefore concentrate in the water at the surface of the ice where they exaggerate the lowering of the freezing temperature until after these impurities have had time to diffuse away from the sur- face throughout the water in the cell. Most of this lowering can be avoided by the sim- ple expedient, suggested by W. P. White (23), of heating the well just enough to melt ice to give a thin film of water next to the well, which is where the ice first was frozen and where the purest ice exists. This surface then surrounds the thermometer well and provides a simple means of almost completely enclosing the thermometer in a surface which is isothermal except for the small temperature gradient due to the in- crease of pressure with increasing depth of immersion. These cells take only a few minutes to prepare for use and can be kept for many hours in an ice bath. They are probably reliable to about ten times the precision of the usual ice bath and when available they do not require a much longer time to prepare for measurements. With the triple-point cells available, there arose the question of the precise tem- perature of the triple point, relative to the defined ice point. This meant that the de- fined ice-point temperature would have to be realized to compare it with the triple- point temperature. To do this, an ice-point cell (Fig. 3) was made which in principle resembled the triple-point cell but also had provisions for saturating the water sur- rounding the ice mantle with air. Extra care was taken during the distillation and purification of the water introduced into this cell so that it could be kept pure. Sev- eral days were required to prepare the water sample which was then sealed into the cell so that it could be used first like a triple-point cell. To prepare for the determination of the triple-point temperature, ice was frozen on the thermometer well of the ice-point cell and also on the walls of three triple-point cells. Triple-point temperatures were ob- 216 Fig. 3.—Ice-point apparatus: A, ice-point cell; B, thermometer well; C, liquid water; D, water vapor and air; E, ice mantle; F, ice bath; G, vacuum vessel; I, fritted disk; J, air bubbles; K, air inlet tube; L, air outlet tube; M, tip broken to admit air; N, bypass, sealed after air admission. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 served first in triple-point cells and then in the ice-point cell using the exterior surface of its ice mantle. When this had been done the ends of the two tubes that led to and from the cell were cut off. This admitted the pressure of the atmosphere to the liquid sur- face in the cell and lowered the temperature. The temperature was then observed as soon as possible, and temperature observations continued for some time, so that the tem- perature could be extrapolated back to the time of admitting the pressure. Since air could not diffuse immediately from the top surface of the water down to the ice surface surrounding the thermometer, the extra- polated temperature difference was as- sumed to be caused by the pressure of the atmosphere. Air, free of COs, was then forced into the cell through a fritted disk beneath the thermometer well, thus causing small bub- bles to rise past the ice mantle and to satu- rate the surrounding water with air. This process was continued for a long time until temperature equilibrium was established. This temperature was assumed to be the temperature of equilibrium between ice and air-saturated water free from CO, at stand- ard atmospheric pressure. The thermometer was then put into the triple-point cells again to check the thermometer and bridge for any drift during the day. With the observed temperature, cor- rected to the basis of standard atmospheric pressure and 0.03 percent of CO, in the air, the temperature determined for the triple point of water in this one experiment was 0.00997°C. (26), with no claim made for the reliability of the last decimal figure. Only one experiment was performed, however, because immediately afterward, in 1942, this research had to be set aside for work of higher priority. The result of this experiment indicates that the temperature of the triple point of water is near enough to 0.0100°C. for most purposes. It is consequently suggested that a future precise definition of the centigrade scale of temperature might define 0°C. as being 0.0100° below the triple point of water, instead of refining the present defini- tion to include a specification for the pre- cise composition of air. Such a change would make no significant difference in the present Juty 15, 1945 sTIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER temperature scale, but would make the definition simpler, more precise, and easier to realize when the highest precision is demanded. Moser (22), in 1928, recom- mended “the triple point of water as a fixed point of the temperature scale’’ and the experiments, described here, strengthen this recommendation. (1) (2) (3 ue (4) (5) (6 A (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) LITERATURE CITED JOULE, JAMES Prescotr. Joule’s Scien- tific Papers. Phys. Soc. (London) 1 and 2. 1884-87. ROWLAND, Henry A. On the mechanical equivalent of heat, with subsidiary re- searches on the variation of the mercurial from the air thermometer, and on the vari- ation of the specific heat of water. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 15: 75. 1879. REYNOLDS, OSBORNE, and Moorsy, W.H. On the mechanical equivalent of heat. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 190: 301.- 1897. Pany,- 1. H.. and Hercus, E..O0.: The mechanical equivalent of heat. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 227: 63... 1927. CaLLENDAR, HuceH L. Continuous elec- trical calorimetry. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 199: 55. 1902. Barnes, Howarp TuRNER. On the ca- pacity for heat of water between the freez- ing and bowling-points together with a de- termination of the mechanical equivalent of heat in terms of the international elec- tric units. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 199: 149. 1902. BarRNESs, Howarp T. The absolute value of the mechanical equivalent of heat in terms of the international electric units. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 82: 390. 1909. JAEGER, W. and voN STEINWEHR, H. Die Wdarmekapaztat des Wassers zwischen 5° und 50° in internationalen Wattsekunden. Ann. Physik. 369: 305. 1921. Conference on present state of knowledge of properties of steam. Mech. Eng. 43: 553. Aug. 1921. OssporNnE, Natuan S. Calorimetry of saturated fluids. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. and Rev. Sci. Inst. 8: 519. 1924. OsporneE, N. S.,'Stimson, H. F., and Fiock, E. F. A calorimetric determina- tion of thermal properties of saturated water and steam from 0° to 270°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 5: 411. 1930. RP 209. (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) 217 Osporne, N. §., Stimson, H. F., Frock, E. F,, and Ginnines, D.C. The pres- sure of saturated water vapor in the range 100° to 374°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. _ 10:155. 1933. RP 523. SMITH, LEIGHTON B,, Keyes, FrepERICK G., and Gerry, Harotp T. The vapor pressure of water. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 69: 137. 1984. Eeerton, A., and CaLienpar, G. S. On the saturation pressure of steam (170° to 374°C.). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) (A) 231: 147. 1932. Meyers, C. H., and Jessup, R. S. A multiple manometer and piston gages for preciston measurements. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 6: 1061. 1931. RP 324. OsBoRNE, NatuHan S., and Meyers, Cyrit H. A formula and tables for the pressure of saturated water vapor in the range O to 374°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 13:1. 1934. RP 691. Warmetabellen, Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, 1919. OsBorneE, N. 8., Stimson, H. F., and Ginninos, D.C. Calorimetric determi- nation of the thermodynamic properties of saturated water in both the liquid and gaseous states from 100° to 374°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 18: 389. 1937. RP 983. SMiTH, LercuTon B., and Keyss, Frep- BRICK G. The volumes of unit mass of liquid water and their correlation as a function of pressure and temperature. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 69: 285. 1934. OsporneE, NaTuan S., Stimson, Haroup F., and GiInnincs, Deror C. Meas- urements of heat capacity and heat of vaporization of water in the range 0° to 100°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 23: 197. LUSo RE 1228. Bureess, Grorce K. The international temperature scale. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 1:2°625.- 1928. Mossr, H. Der Tripelpunkt des Wassers als Fixpunkt der Temperaturskala. Ann. Physik (5) 1: 341. ‘1929. Wuire, W. P. Freezing points and triple points with water. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 56: 20. 1934. Tuomas, J. L. Reproducibility of the ice point. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 12: 323. 1934. Beatriz, James A., Tzu-Cuine, Huan, and BrnepicTt, Manson. The repro- ductubility of the ice point and the triple- pont of water. The temperature of the triple-point of water. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 72: 137. 1938. Techn. News Bull. Nat. Bur. Stand., No. 305: 71. 1942. 218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No.7 ARCHEOLOGY .— The significance of the fiber-tempered pottery of the St. Johns area in Florida States, Ann Arbor, Mich. Any discussion of fiber-tempered ware in the Southeast and more particularly in Florida must begin with the observations of Jeffries Wyman, who investigated the area in 1860, and again in 1867, and whose monograph on fresh-water shell mounds of the St. Johns, published in 1875, is still a significant contribution. He recognized that the pottery from the St. Johns shell heaps had little similarity to other Florida pot- tery and that cord-marked pottery did not ‘often occur there while it did occur in the marine shell heaps near St. Augustine and along the Atlantic coast to the south. He observed that the check stamp was fairly common at the coast and river sites. Part of the distinctiveness of the St. Johns pottery was the ware tempered with fiber. Wyman says (1875, pp. 55—-56)?: In several localities, as will be seen by the table, the natives added to the clay vegetable fibre de- rived from the palmetto tree. This appears to have been charred in the burning, thus making the vessel quite porous, each fibre leaving in its place, or around it as it shrunk from the heat, a small canal. In finishing the vessel, however, after it had been formed of fibre and clay, the surface within and without were covered with a thin layer or ‘‘skimming”’ of clay alone, thus counter- acting in a measure the porousness resulting from the burning of the fibre. The only places at which this use of vegetable fibre was noticed were Old Town, Old Enterprise, Watson’s Landing, as given in the table, and at Silver Spring on Lake George, and Palatka. This may, perhaps, be ex- plained by the fact that the different communities had their own makers, each adopting a more or less peculiar style. Wyman interpreted the absence of pot- tery from some of the mounds as evidence that they were earlier than the shell heaps that had pottery. This viewpoint was up- 1 This paper was read before the annual meet- ing of the Society for American Archaeology in Washington, D. C., in May 1944. The site at South Indian Fields was called to the attention of Dr. Irving Rouse, of the Peabody Museum of Yale University, who directed a field party which partially excavated the site in July and August 1944. A series of papers on these excavations and related Florida problems will be published by Yale University in the near future. Received March 5, 1945. 2 See Literature Cited at end of paper. JAMES B. GrirFin, Ceramic Repository for the Eastern United hold by Moore as a result of his excavations along the St. Johns, and he added the obser- vation that in some of the mounds pottery was found on the surface and part of the way toward a nonpottery basal layer. Holmes (1894) described the pottery from Moore’s (1892-1894) early excavations and called one of his ceramic divisions ‘“Midden Ware.” He subdivided the midden ware in- to two groups. ‘One variety is charac- _ terized by a rather fine-grained paste pre- serving the warm gray colors of the baked clay. The surfaces are finished with a rub- bing tool and are plain or have been rather carelessly embellished with patterns of incised straight and curved lines.” The other subunit of the midden ware was fiber- tempered. At the time of my earlier studies on southeastern fiber-tempered ware, I had not seen examples from the St. Johns sites, and this has now been happily remedied. While preparing a paper which inter- prets the cultural history of the eastern United States area, it appeared likely that the style and design of this pottery formed one of the component elements of the Tchefuncte ceramic complex of Louisiana and was hence at least as old as and prob- ably older than the pottery from that aspect (Griffin, n.d.). At that time (1941) I compared the design to Alexander In- cised of the early sand-tempered Alexander Series in the Southeast and after examining Wyman’s collections in the Peabody Mu- seum in Cambridge and Moore’s collections in the Heye Museum in December 1941, I referred to the rectilinear design on fiber- tempered pottery as resembling Alexander Incised. In March 1942 A. T. Anderson, of Mel- bourne, Fla., came to the Ceramic Reposi- tory for the Eastern United States at Ann Arbor and brought with him photographs of excavations and specimens from a site on his land, which is located almost due west of Melbourne on the St. Johns. From Anderson’s account of the excavation it was evident that he had uncovered a significant ee | Juty 15, 1945 site and that the lowest pottery bearing horizon was related to the incised fiber- tempered ware recovered by Wyman and Moore. The following description of Orange Incised and Orange Plain is based on An- derson’s collection, on the earlier published reports and my examination of material in Cambridge, New York, and Washington.° Type Name: Orange Incised. PASTE: Method of manufacture: No evidence. Temper: Fiber-tempered. Various propor- tions and sizes of a vegetal fiber almost en- tirely disintegrated in firing, presenting a vesicular appearance. There is no other nonplastic material visible in the clay. Texture: Honey-combed. Hardness: At least three-fourths of the sherds can be scratched by gypsum, while the others are 22.5. Color: The exterior surfaces vary from a light cream to a dark gray. The surface color penetrates but a short distance (1 to 2 mm) and the core is very dark gray to black. Surrace Finish: Both exterior and interior surfaces are fairly well smoothed. On some specimens this is sufficient to have formed a film over the fiber strands. On the majority of sherds the fiber tracks are visible on the outer or inner surface. DECORATION: Technique: Incising and punctating. The in- cising varies from lines made with a fine sharp point which are narrow (less than 2 mm) and medium deep, to medium wide (2-4 mm) and medium deep to deep: in- cisions made with a rounded point. There is considerable variation in the skill of execution. The punctates are small shallow circular indentations or ovoid-shaped gashes. Design: The designs are all rectilinear and are placed on the lip and outer rim or side wall of the vessel. The following patterns can be recognized. 1. Parallel vertical lines extending from the lip to the base of the wall. 2. Parallel horizontal lines extending from the lip to the vessel base. 3 The Department of Anthropology of the United States National Museum has kindly al- lowed me to reproduce a series of sherds from the Tick Island shell mound. GRIFFIN: FIBER-TEMPERED POTTERY OF ST. JOHNS AREA 219 3. Parallel left or right oblique lines extending from the lip to the basal angle. 4. Left and right oblique cross-hatched lines extending from the lip to the basal angle. Large triangular areas with oblique hatching. 6. Groups of four or more oblique lines separated by a parallel plain band. 7. Groups of lines forming chevrons or inverted chevrons separated by a plain area. 8. A series of nested squares. 9. Nested squares or diamonds with vertical oblique or horizontal in- tersecting lines running through the corners of the squares or diamonds. 10. Hatched oblique bands outlined by incised lines. 11. Hatched areas set off from plain bands by incised lines. 12. Horizontally hatched triangles with adjoining inverted triangle plain. 13. Circular punctates or ovoid gashes paralleling or at right angles to incised lines. 14. Groups of oblique lines or chevrons on lip surface sometimes bordered by punctates. 15. The use of horizontal lines along the upper rim to delimit the deco- rated zone. This is used particu- larly with patterns 8 to 11 in- clusive. on Form: Rim: Vertical, to slightly insloping in the upper segment of some specimens. There is no differentiation between a rim frag- ment and a side wall specimen. Lip: Narrowed and rounded and without decoration, or very wide and decorated with incised lines and punctates. There is a tendency for the first 6 decorative patterns to occur on rims with narrowed lips and for patterns 8 to 11 to have wide, decorated lips. The flat lip may be hori- zontal or slope toward the interior. Body: Rather shallow rimmed bowls or pans. Height from 7 to at least 15 cm. with the diameter varying from 20 cm. to vessels which were much larger. Base: Flat. Some sherds presumed to be basal fragments have incised decorations of pattern 13 on their interior surfaces. 220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Thickness: Considerable variation from ves- sel to vessel. Narrow lips are 6 to 8 mm; the wide lip from 1.5 to 2.7 em. Side walls from 8 mm to 1.8 em and basal section 8 mm to 15 em. The basal section often the thinnest part of the vessel. Appendages: None. Examples of crack lacing holes. Usuat Rance or Typs: In the St. Johns drainage from South Indian Field north at the following sites of Wyman and Moore: Mul- berry, Orange Mound, Huntingtons, Wat- son’s Landing, Black Hammock, Enterprise, Mound in Woods above Blue Springs, Old Town, Mound below Lake Dexter, Tick Island, Silver Spring, Murphys Island, Palatka. To the west specimens were ob- tained in Ocala National Forest by Marshall Newman. CHRONOLOGICAL PosITION OF TYPE IN RANGE: The earliest pottery found along the St. Johns. Is not found at all in some deep shell middens, on top layers of others and on bot- tom of still other shell middens which have later pottery types toward the top. The plain sherds which are quite similar to the incised specimens can be called Orange Plain and differ in a few particulars from the incised specimens. The surfaces are usually not so well smoothed and the pieces seem somewhat less well made. Both the narrowed lip and the wide flat lip are found and some of the latter have incised decorations on them. There is thus no reason to believe that the plain specimens are significantly older or that a similar succession of plain to decorated is found either at South Indian Field or farther north in the St. Johns drainage as has been re- ported from the Bilbo site. According to Anderson there also oc- curred in the lowest pottery zones an en- tirely different ware, which is an early form of the dominant temperless pottery along the St. Johns, and to this might be attached the appropriate name of St. Johns ware. A number of types can be recognized. One of these is incised (Fig. 1, S and T) and gives every indication of having developed, or evolved from the earlier Orange Incised. On it there is a strong use of the horizontal line just below the lip on the outer rim forming an upper border for the incised pat- tern. The designs include some obvious carry-overs, but they are not so varied as on the fiber-tempered ware. Another type is a large check stamp, which is on thick coarse appearing sherds. Plain sherds are, of course, found and can be considered St. Johns Plain. A number of interesting traits are present on some of. these dominantly plain sherds. One specimen has heavy scor- ing marks on the interior surface. Five specimens have fabric or mat impressions on the outer surface of flat circular bases (Fig. 1, U). The St. Johns ware forms a minority group in the earliest or third level at the South Indian Field site. In Anderson’s second level St. Johns Plain becomes the dominant ware with a continuation of the incised type and a few sherds of the check stamp. A newcomer is a plain sandy or gritty ware, which is prob- ably related to the Glades Gritty Ware of Stirling and Goggin (1940). One specimen may be a tubular pipe. At this level a red- filmed type appears on a bowl shape. Between the second level and third level Anderson recovered most of a short and rather wide-necked water bottle made of St. Johns paste. St. Johns Plain continues into the third level and there was also found a large amount of small check stamp which should be named St. Johns Check Stamp. From the surface have come a few speci- mens of an olive-green glazed ware, which may well be the fragments of Spanish olive jars. The sequence of pottery wares and types as reported by Anderson conforms very well with that from the sites excavated by Wyman and Moore and with other excava- tions in the Southeast. South Indian Fields should yield very important confirmation of the above suggested ceramic stratigraphy and in addition has a number of other in- teresting prospects. From the level in which the fiber-tempered ware was found, An- derson obtained the jaws of the West Indian seal (Monachus tropicalis), and he claims that horse and mammoth bones also occur there. An extinct beaver and ground sloth remains were obtained from levels below the earliest pottery horizon. Of much more limited distribution in the St. Johns drainage is a type found in the central part of the St. Johns, which is characterized by a curvilinear scroll design VOL. 35, NO. 7 | . 5 on fa a le ee JuLy 15, 1945 GRIFFIN: FIBER-TEMPERED POTTERY OF ST. JOHNS AREA 221 T Fig. 1.—Sherds from the Tick Island site in the U. S. National Museum collection: A—C, Orange Incised with U-shaped lines; D-I, Tick Island Incised; J-R, Orange Incised; S-T, St. Johns Incised; U, mat impressed sherd on St. Johns paste; V, fragment of small bowl or ladle. 222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES with closely spaced punctates filling in areas between the scrolls (Fig. 1, D to H). This punctate treatment very rarely is used with a rectilinear design (Fig. 1, I). This type can be called Tick Island Incised. The in- cised lines are usually medium-wide (2-4 mm) and U-shaped in contrast to the nar- row (less than 2 mm) and V-shaped lines, which are more common on Orange In- cised (Fig. 1, J to R). At the Tick Island site the U-shaped lines are more in evidence on the rectilinear designs of the Orange Incised style (Fig. 1, A to C), than is true toward the headwaters of the St. Johns. There is a rather strong suggestion in this Tick Island Incised type of a relationship with part of the Weeden Island pottery complex. It is difficult to be certain of the exact nature of this relationship. It is pos- sible that the St. Johns potters copied one of the Weeden Island styles, in which case the two groups would be roughly contem- poraneous. Another possibility is that this decorative technique and design appeared first in the Southeast in the St Johns and became one of the concepts incorporated in the Weeden Island complex. It is known that Weeden Island types do appear in the St. Johns, and they are associated, not with the Orange Series, but with the St. Johns Series (Moore, 1896; pl. 75 is an example). On the basis of the distributional evidence it is suggested that the Tick Island type is later than Orange Incised. | The fiber-tempered ware on the St. Johns is the third major center of this earliest ceramic tradition in the Southeast. All the fiber-tempered groups in the Southeast have the use of fibrous tempering méeterial in common as well as the bowl-shaped vessel which is the only known shape. The appear- ance of other shapes and vessel appendages marks a significantly different and prob- ably later step in the ceramic development in the southeast. When the Orange fiber-tempered complex is considered in relation to the other fiber- tempered ceramic groups in the Southeast it is at once apparent that it is a remarkably homogeneous product and is limited to the area along the Florida east coast from the mouth of the St. Johns to its headwaters. It does not occur much farther north into the VOL. 35, NO. 7 area occupied by the Stallings Plain or Punctate types (Griffin, 1943), nor has it been reported from the area to the south. Willey failed to find evidence of the Orange Series along the Florida northwest coast (although some fiber-tempered sherds were reported), and Moore would hardly have failed to mention such specimens if he had recovered them in his excavation in the same area. The Wheeler Series of fiber- tempered types in northern Alabama and the contiguous area does not show decora- tive influences or connections with the St. Johns types. There is one other early pottery complex in the south that does show in some of its features a definite connection to the Orange types. In the Tchefuncte pottery complex one finds Tchefuncte Incised, Lake Borgne Incised, and Alexander Incised (Ford and Quimby, 1935), all of which show some con- nection to the incised fiber-tempered pot- tery of the St. Johns. The first two Tche- functe types are granular clay-tempered pottery, while sand was used to temper the Alexander type. Not all the designs or even the technique of the Tchefuncte and Lake Borgne types resemble Tick Island, but there are a number of sherds in both groups which are very close. The strong use of linear punctate decoration in Tchefuncte resembles such employment in the Stallings Punctate pottery, but some of the designs on the Tchefuncte sherds resemble the Orange designs. It is reasonable to suggest that the Tchefuncte pottery complex in these particulars was influenced from the two major fiber-tempered centers in the southeast rather than the reverse. It is rec- ognized that this is at present difficult to demonstrate. Tchefuncte ceramics are indeed a very interesting agglomeration of ceramic con- cepts from a wide area. Mandeville Stamped has its analogue in the early dentate stamp- ing of the rim in the Illinois Valley and throughout the Northeast. Tchefuncte Stamped is an inept expression of what Wil- loughby was wont to call the “hall-mark of the Algonquian potter.’’ The Alexander types are found to the east in Mississippi and Alabama and bear as one of their dis- tinguishing features the Woodland punched Jury 15, 1945 out boss along the upper rim. On the basis of the present evidence Tchefuncte could hardly be regarded as the origin of these various pottery practices. In my paper that will accompany the Yale University volume on Florida a more exhaustive comparative statement will be compiled for the ceramic and cultural se- quence in the East Florida area. At present the St. Johns fiber-tempered pottery can be recognized as one of the oldest types in the southeast; it contributed decorative tech- niques and designs to later ceramic levels in the area. LITERATURE CITED Forp, James A., and GreorGE IJ. QuimBy, JR. The Tchefuncte culture, an early occupation of the Lower Mississippi Valley. Amer. Antiq. 10 (3): pt. 2. 1945. GoaGin, JOHN M. The distribution of pottery ware in the Glades archaeological area of South Florida. New Mexico Anthrop. 4 (2): 22-34. 1940. GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS 223 GRIFFIN, JAMES B. An analysis and interpre- tation of the ceramic remains from two sites near Beaufort, South Carolina. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 183, Anthropol. Papers, No. 22: 155-168. 1943. . Culture change and continuity in eastern United States archaeology. Pap. Robert 5. Peabody Foundation for Archaeol. 3. An- dover, Mass., no date. Houtmes, WituiaAM H. Earthenware pottery of Florida: Collection of C. B. Moore. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, no. 10: 105— 129. 1894. Moore, CuarENcE B. Certain shell heaps of the St. John’s River, Florida, hitherto unex- plored. Amer. Nat. 26: 912. 1892. . (Continuation of the above.| Amer. Nat., 27:8, 113, 605, 708. 1893. . (Continuation of the above.] Amer. Nat. 28:15, 26. 1894. . Certain river mounds of Duval County, Florida. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- phia (ser. 2) 10 (pt. 4): 449-502. 1896. WYMAN, JEFFRIES. Fresh-water shellmounds of the St. John’s River, Florida. Mem. Pea- body Acad. Sci. 1 (4): 1-94. 1875. ZOOLOGY .—Four new species of North American crabs of the genus Petrolisthes.! Steve A. GLASSELL, San Diego Society of Natural History. “by Waxpo L. Scum.) This paper describes three new species of Petrolisthes Stimpson from the Pacific and one from the Atlantic Ocean. Two of the species are new to the California coast but are neither obscure, rare, nor hard to obtain within their geographical limits. The new species from Panama, however, differs in this respect, its habitat being considerably restricted and local. Petrolisthes manimaculis, n. sp. Fig. 1 Not Petrolisthes gracilis Stimpson, Schmitt, Univ. California Publ. Zool. 23: 181, pl. 32, fig. 4. 1921. Types.—Male, holotype, and female, allo- type, U.S.N.M. no. 79393, collected by the author from Morro Bay, Calif., at low tide, February 2, 1939. Diagnosis.—Carapace nude, or lightly pubes- cent, lightly punctate, lateral margins rough- ened, front triangular, postocular tooth short, obtuse, no epibranchial spine, regions defined. 1 Received March 14, 1945. (Communicated Antennal flagellum smooth, blue. Carpus with sides subparallel, upper surface nearly smooth, or slightly roughened. Hands _subsimilar, smooth, tuft of heavy pubescence in gape ex- tending nearly to end on dactyl, less than half- way on pollex. Ambulatory legs with pubes- cence on upper margin of meri; merus of third leg twice as long as wide. In life, palp of maxil- lipeds blue, inner base of dactyl of cheliped orange, a median longitudinal row of blue dots on upper surface of palm. Description—Carapace in male slightly wider than long, female wider than male, de- pressed, regions defined, surface lightly punc- tate, punctae with microscopic pubescence, lateral regions lightly striate, no epibranchial spine, shoulders high, protogastric ridges di- vided by a median sulcus which deepens ante- riorly, front triangular, slightly depressed, margins vertically sinuous, more than twice as wide as high, separated from upper orbital margin by a sulcus, upper margin roughened, tip blunt. Upper orbital margin elevated, no preocular tooth, postocular tooth obtuse, not 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES extending forward. First movable antennal peduncle armed with a cylindrical, tapered ridge, directed downward and outward, ex- tending past distal extremity and slightly past proximal end of the cylindrical, smooth, second peduncle; flagellum smooth, almost nude, and more than twice the carapace width, color in life blue. Chelipeds subsimilar, about three times the width of carapace in adult males, about two and a half times in females; merus with light transverse striae and a blunt, distal, inner lobe, not extending past inner margin of carpus; carpus nearly three times longer than wide in adult males, about two and a half times longer than wide in small specimens and females, mar- gins subparallel, upper surface lightly rough- ened, a submedian, longitudinal elevation, outer margin rugose, with a sharp-pointed dis- tal spine, some pubescence on the posterodistal half. Hands microscopically granular in adult males, more distinct in juveniles and females, inner margin an indistinct line of fine beading, outer margin blunt, sinuous, upper surface with a median, raised elevation, on which in ‘life is a row of turquoise-blue dots. Dactyli un- armed, nearly as long as upper margin of palm, curved, sinuous, tips crossing pollex; a heavy felt of pubescence in gape which extends two- thirds the length of the underside of dactyl, and one-third the length of pollex; pollex unarmed. Ambulatory legs with meri pubescent on up- per crest, no posterodistal spine; merus of third leg twice as long as wide, other joints sparingly setose. Sexual variation—Female carapace wider, more areolate, rougher; carpus of cheliped more granulous, shorter; second antennal pe- duncle rough, granulated; ambulatory legs more pubescent; females smaller than males. Color in life-—Ground color a rich brown, al- most a red-chocolate, with large and small blue dots, giving the effect of blue lines, although they are actually a series of blue dots running together, this same effect being on the carpus and fingers of the hand. Median longitudinal ridge of the palm with a row of turquoise-blue spots. Legs a tan spotted with bluish white. Palp of maxillipeds margined with blue, inner proximal base of dactyl orange (Kirk). Measurements—Male holotype, carapace length 15.3 mm, width 16 mm; orbital width 8.5 mm; rostral width 3.5 mm, height 1.5 mm; VOL. 35, NO. 7 antennal flagellum length 35 mm; major cheliped, length of carpus 16.5 mm, width 5.9 mm, length of hand 29 mm, width 11.5 mm; minor cheliped, carpus length 16 mm, width 5.5 mm, length of hand 29 mm, width 10 mm; merus of third ambulatory leg, length 8.5 mm, width 4.2 mm. Fingers nearly the length of palm. Range.—San Francisco to San Diego, Calif. Material examined.—The type series con- sists of several hundred specimens of both sexes, taken by the author at Morro Rock, Morro Bay, Calif., at low tide, on February 2, 1939. A series of about 50 specimens of both sexes, from Moss Beach, San Mateo County, Calif., taken in the latter part of May and the early part of June 1939 by R. Fields and E. Benton, under the direction of Dr. S. F. Light, of the University of California. Also a series of 30 specimens, both sexes, taken by the author at Spindrift Beach, La Jolla, Calif., at low tide, December 8, 1938. With the exception of dis- tributed material all these specimens are in the author’s collection. Habitat.—This species occupies the lower levels of the intertidal zone. Its vertical range may be assumed not to exceed the mean low- water level. It, like most members of the genus, demands the shelter of rocks and weeds, uninfluenced by drifting sands. North of Point Conception, Calif., this species occupies an ecological horizon between P. cinctipes (Ran- dall), which is above it, and P. eriomerus Stimpson, which is below. As neither P. cinctipes nor P. eriomerus is found south of Point Conception (except for the northernmost of the Channel Islands, San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz), the southern associa- tion is changed, and P. ertomerus is replaced by P. rathbunae Schmitt, 1921, and P. cabrilloa Glassell (described as new in this paper) sup- plants P. cinctipes, although not in the same abundance. Remarks.—This proposed species is allied to P. eriomerus Stimpson, 1871, but differs from that species in the following respects: (1) car- apace without tubercles, (2) carpus two and a half to three times as long as wide, (3) carpus with upper surface smooth or slightly rough- ened,(4)inner base of dactyl of chelipeds orange (in P. ertomerus blue). Stimpson’s description of P. gracilis, by its brevity, has caused considerable confusion; Juty 15, 1945 however, in the light of all the collections I have examined, it now appears to be a more or less localized species, restricted to the Gulf of Cali- fornia. Petrolisthes cabrilloa, n. sp. Fig. 4 Types.—Male, holotype, and female, allo- type, U.S.N.M. no. 79391, collected by W. A. Kirk from Anaheim Landing, Calif., at low tide on October 11, 1939. Diagnosis —Carapace punctate, with light pubescence in punctae, striate on lateral mar- gins; front triangular, obtuse, one-third as high as wide; postocular tooth short, obtuse, right- angled; no epibranchial spine; regions lightly indicated. Antennal flagellum ciliated, color ochre with purple edgings. Carpus about twice GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS 225 as long as wide, a proximal, inner marginal lobe, otherwise margins subparallel, upper sur- face pubescent, granulated. Hands subsimilar, granulated, a heavy tuft of pubescence in gape extending only halfway or less on both fingers. Ambulatory legs with pubescence and setae on meri. In life, palp of maxillipeds a brilliant orange, as is inner base of dactyli. Description.—Carapace transversely flat- tened, convex fore and aft, small punctae in median areas and anteriorly, laterally striate, punctae microscopically pubescent, more prominent on front; protogastric ridges low, no epibranchial spine, shoulders moderately high. Posterolateral margins parallel. Front triangu- lar, obtuse, three times as wide as high, slightly depressed, margins granulated, median sulcus, back to protogastric region, shallow. Upper Fia. 1.—Petrolisthes manimaculis, n. sp., width of carapace 16 mm. n. sp., width of carapace 11 mm. Fig. 3.—Petrolisthes robsonae, n. sp., width of carapace 8 mm. Fig. 4.—Petrolisthes cabrilloa, n. sp., width of carapace 11 mm. Fig. 2.—Petrolisthes tortugensis, Inserts, fourth thoracic sternite. 226 orbital margin slightly raised, no preorbital spine, postorbital tooth obtuse, right-angled. First movable antennal peduncle armed with a blunt lobe, second peduncle cylindrical, granu- lated, flagellum compressed, ciliated, twice as long as carapace. : Chelipeds subsimilar, about three times the width of carapace; merus distally armed on in- ner side with a short, subvertical lobe, not ex- tending forward past inner margin of carpus, surface lightly pubescent; carpus about twice the median width, inner proximal one-fourth with a lamellar lobe, rest of margins subparal- lel, upper surface granulated and pubescent, a strong posterodistal spine; hands granulated, but not rough, nude, inner margin not dis- tinctly crested or beaded, outer margin smooth, sinuous, undersurface of palm highly polished, lightly punctate; fingers with a tuft of pubes- cence in gape extending on both fingers for less than half their length. Ambulatory legs stout; merus of third leg twice as long as wide, pubescent on upper half of outer surface, setaceous on lower; joints of all legs setaceous, no posterodistal spine on meri. Sexual variation—Female carapace wider, slope of front more distinct; carpus of cheliped more granulated, inner proximal lobe less dis- tinct. Juveniles with longer pubescence on cara- pace. Color in life-—Ground color of carapace dull orange, with striations and numerous spots of very pale greenish white. Margins pale laven- der, which becomes darker toward and includ- ing the frontal region, where it is dark dusky purple. Antennal peduncles same color as cara- pace, flagellum ochre with purple edges. Rasal segments of maxilliped striated with dull orange and brilliant green; palp brilliant orange. Ground color of carpus green, numer- ous granulations reddish brown, almost ob- scuring ground color; hand and finger same color but slightly darker, underside of finger ‘pale, bright, turquoise blue; undersurface of hand much lighter, with green prominent. Merus and carpus of ambulatory legs with pat- terns and striations light tan to dark brown, propodus with a broad center band of yellow- ish tan; dactyl with center band of dark brown, tip bright purple, general appearance dark dusky green. Ventral side pale dull yellow with darker patterns on abdomen (Petersen). Measurements.—The measurements (in mil- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 7 limeters) are given for three specimens, respec- tively: the holotype male, the allotype female, and the largest female from Morro Bay. Length of carapace 11.4—-10.1-12.1, width 11-—10.5- 13.1; orbital width 6.5-6.3-7.2; rostral width 3-3-3, height 0.9-0.6-1; length of flagellum 24-18-25; of major cheliped, length of carpus 10.2—7.7—9.6, width, proximal 4.8-3.6-5, me- dian 4.2—3.6—4.3; length of hand 19—-14.5-17.8, width at base of dactyl 8-6.2—7.6; of minor cheliped, length of .carpus 9—7.1-9.5, width, proximal 4.2—3.5—4.8, median 4—3.3-4.3; length of hand 15.3-13-17.8, width 6.5—5.6—7.6; merus of third ambulatory leg, length 6.2—5.2-6.1, width 3.3-3.1-3.5. Range.—From Point Conception, Calif., to Punta Banda, Baja California, Mexico (ap- proximate). Material examined.—The type series was taken at Anaheim Landing, Calif., and consists of 10 males and 10 females, some ovigerous. A single female from Morro Bay, Calif. (see under Measurements), collected by the author at low water, February 2, 1939. A series of 50 males and 50 females, from Corona Del Mar, Calif., collected by the author December 9, 1938, low water. A series of 5 males and 5 fe- males, from Malaga Cove, Palo Verde Hills, Calif., collected by Dr. Olga Hartman, Febru- ary 2, 1939, low water. Also a number of small series of both sexes, taken by the author at the following localities: Point Dume, Calif., Janu- ary 5, 1939; Topango Canyon, Calif., February 16, 1939; Sesquit Canyon, Calif.; March 4, 1939. All the above contained more than 10 specimens of both sexes. A series of 8 males and 6 females, collected by Paul Rich from the Star and Crescent Pier at San Diego, Calif., Febru- ary 2, 1939. All the above material is in the author’s collection. Habitat.—Occupies the midtidal zone under shelter of rocks and is more tolerant of sand and muddy water than any of the other California species of this genus. Remarks.—This proposed species has an affinity with P. cinctipes (Randall), 1839, but differs from that species in the following re- spects: (1) the ambulatory legs have their meri pubescent and setose, instead of nude; (2) the carpus of the chelipeds is twice as long as wide, the proximal lobe small, the margins otherwise subparallel, instead of being one and one-half times as long as wide, margins converging dis- Juxiy 15, 1945 tally; (3) the carapace is pubescent in juve- niles, instead of nude. Named for Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, a Por- tuguese navigator in the service of the King of Spain, who in ill-fitted boats on an uncharted sea discovered a golden empire, and left his bones in an unmarked grave on the wind- swept island of San Miguel, anno 1542. Un hombre valiente, saludes. ' Petrolisthes robsonae, n. sp. Fig. 3 Types.—Male, holotype, and female, para- type, U.S.N.M. no. 79396, collected by Elinor D. Robson from Miraflores Locks, Pan- ama Canal, Canal Zone; March 26, 1937. Diagnosis.—Carapace lightly roughened, lightly pubescent; front broadly triangular, horizontal; an epibranchial spine. Chelipeds with inner margin of carpus armed with two spines; manus with outer margin concave, spined. Posterodistal end of meri of first and second ambulatories with two spines, upper distal end of carpi with one spine. Description.—Carapace slightly longer than wide, sides rounding, margin behind the single, sharp, epibranchial spine forming a sharp, in- distinctly beaded ridge. Surface very lightly rugose, with or without very light pubescence. Front subhorizontal, slightly advanced, broadly triangular, subentire, a median shallow sinus running back onto the gastric regions dividing the protogastric ridges. The upper ocular mar- gin is lightly beaded, the postorbital tooth a right-angle. First antennal peduncle with a horizontally compressed, distal lobe armed with a single large spine and several smaller spines, the distal end of this lobe rounded and extending past the articulation of the second peduncle, which has a crested ridge, the prox- imal end the highest. Flagellum nude, two and a half times the length of the carapace. Chelipeds subequal in the female, differing in the adult male, surfaces lightly roughened with short lines of rugae; merus with an inner distal lobe and a single marginal spine on the upper edge near the outer side; carpus nearly two and a half times as long as wide, subhorizontal on upper surface with a longitudinal median ridge, inner margin armed with two spines, the prox- imal the largest, the second located in a sub- median position, the margin microscopically serrate. In young specimens there is an indica- GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS 227 tion of a third tooth near the distal end, but this is obsolete even in half-grown specimens. Outer margin armed with a sharp, postero- distal spine, a single distal marginal spine, and one or two subdistal outer marginal spines. Manus triangular, rather flattened in the fe- male, rounded in the male, the inner margin revolute, the outer concave and armed with long, sharp-pointed spines extending onto the pollex in the female, ending before the pollex in the male. In addition to these spines there is a fringe of cilia and pubescence covering the outer half of the lower surface of the palm and a dense felt of pubescence extending half the length of the fingers. Major hand of the male. with the fingers gaping, blunt, tips not cross- ing. Minor hand in the male and both hands in the female with fingers approximated for their length, the tips crossing. Ambulatory legs with their meri lightly crested with pubescence, the remaining joints with sparse setae; a single, sharp, long, flat- lying spine on the upper crest, one-third the distance from the distal end; two spines, one above the other, at the posterodistal end of the meri of the first and second legs. A distal spine on the upper crest of the carpus in all three legs. Propodi in the first two pairs bent forward. Abdomen heavily fringed between the first four segments. Telson with seven plates, the terminal pair distally separated by a wide V¢ shaped commissure. Color in alcohol——In those specimens on which the pubescence remains the color is a dark brown; in rubbed specimens a distinct pink tone is noted. Measurements.—Male holotype: length of carapace 8.6 mm, width 8 mm, length of carpus 7.4 mm, width not including teeth 2.8 mm, length of major hand 12.6 mm, width at base of dactyl 5 mm, length of minor hand 12.1 mm, width 4.2 mm, length of major dactyl from joint to tip 4.5 mm, of minor dactyl 5 mm, length of antennal flagellum 21 mm. Range.—Known only from type locality. Material examined.—A series of 17 males and 20 females, some ovigerous, all collected at the same time and locality by Mrs. Robson. Habitat.—Mrs. Robson, after whom the spe- cies is named, informs me that it has so far been taken only inside the canal locks during one of their periodic cleanings. It is amazing to me to consider this location as suitable for 228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Petrolisthes, as I am informed that the water within these locks is continuously being changed, its saline content varying from al- most fresh to that of sea water. This change from salt to fresh water argues for an almost unbelievable tolerance on the part of this spe- cies to fresh water, a substance lethal to other species of the genus within a short period of time, usually half an hour or more, during which time the membranes are ruptured by osmosis. Exact information, however, as to the ecol- ogy and as to the salinity of the water at the place of capture is not yet available. _ Remarks.—This proposed species is allied to P. armatus (Gibbes), 1850, but differs from that species in the following respects: (1) by having only two carpal spines, (2) by having only one spine on the upper crest of the meri of the am- bulatory legs, (3) by the underside of the hands being half covered with hair, (4) and by the outer margin of the hands being concave and fringed with hair. This proposed species is dedicated to Mrs. Elinor D. Robson, who has shown a marked interest in the fauna of the Canal Zone. Petrolisthes tortugensis, n. sp. Fig. 2 Types.—Male, holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 79395, collected by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, at Tortugas, Fla., 8.5 fathoms, July 19, 1924. Three paratypes, 2 males and 1 female, in the author’s collection. All other paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum (see under Material examined). Diagnosis ——Carapace longer than wide, transversely striate, an epibranchial spine, a branchial spine, lateral margins spined, rostrum obtusely triangular, spined, depressed. Cheli- peds long and narrow; upper inner carpal mar- gin 4-spined, lower inner margin with one or two; hands narrow, with spinate outer margins; fingers distorted, with spooned apices, gaping. Ambulatory legs with propodi one-fifth shorter than meri; meri spine crested, numbers 1 and 2 with two posterodistal spines, number 3 with one. Antennal flagellum slender, nonciliate, more than three times carapace length. Description—Carapace longer than wide, transversely striate, transversely convex, with an epibranchial spine, a postocular spinule, VOL. 35, No. 7 three lateromarginal, forward- and upward- pointing spines and one on the carapace inside of these and nearer to the third or proximal marginal spine. Rostrum medially depressed, obtusely triangular, and armed on and upon its anterior margin with spines and spinules as fol- lows: an ocular spine, a preocular spine, then two marginal spines, followed by two inner marginal spines, then an upward- and inner- curving spine, and lastly one or two more smaller spines and spinules at the apex. A shal- low median sulcus running backward by the subobliterated protogastric lobes. Eyes large and black, their width about one-fifth the carapace length. First movable antennal seg- ment armed on its inner margin with a long, vertically compressed, median spine and a smaller distal spine, the second segment granu- lous, the third smooth, the flagellum nude, slender, hairlike, and over three times the carapace length. Chelipeds dissimilar, slender, striate both above and below, their length about three times that of the carapace; ischium armed on its inner ventral margin with a row of three or four spines, the proximal pair the largest; merus with a prominent, sharp spine at its dis- tal, inner, dorsal angle and another below this on the ventral margin, the upper, transverse margin armed with two well-spaced spines; carpus almost three times as long as wide, measured without the spines, its upper surface lightly convex and lacking a longitudinal me- dian ridge, the inner margin armed with four large, sharp-pointed teeth and a distal spinule, their proximal margins longer than their distal, the ventral inner margin armed with one or two spurlike spines on its distal two-thirds, the upper outer margin armed with a row of five short, upward- and forward-pointing spines; the hands dissimilar, that of the major one-third as wide as long, that of the minor one-fourth, their outer margins concave and armed with spinules, the inner margins with light beading, terminating over the base of the movable finger in a sharp spine, the pollices outwardly convex, their tips longitudinally truncate and spooned, the dactylus of the major hand ending in a curved tip that crosses an outer spine on the apex of the pollex, armed on its inner proximal half with two com- pressed, truncate teeth, which do not engage Ts Juuy 15, 1945 the pollex, as in both hands the fingers are widely gaping, the minor dactylus twisted, armed on its upper crest with a row of spinules ending in a falcate tip which crosses the spooned tip of its pollex, its prehensile edge unarmed and the widely spread gape setaceous. The spoon-shaped tips of the fingers with pectinate margins. Ambulatory legs relatively slender and nude except for a few scattered setae; meri crested with a row of short spines, the distal postero- angle of numbers 1 and 2 are armed with two spines, of number 3 with one spine, in length more than twice their width; the propodi cylin- drical, slightly bent, and one-fifth shorter than their meri; the dactyli corneous-tipped and one-half the length of their propodi. Telson composed of 7 segments, in the male apparently formed with 8, the proximal, median triangular portion being transversely divided by a ridge, these two parts, however, coalesced as in P. galathinus (Bosc), with which it is associated. Color in alcohol—Ground color cream, suf- fused with rose-pink, especially on all striations and squamae. Ambulatory legs rose-pink, with a median, transverse band of cream on meri and propodi; the distal ends of all segments tipped with cream. Measurements.—A male paratype, carapace length 6.8, width 6.5; major cheliped 23.5, carpus length 6.5, width without spines 2.4, manus length 10.5, width at base of finger 3.8; minor cheliped, carpus 6, width 2.3, manus 10, width 2.6; first ambulatory leg, length 11, merus 3.7, carpus 1.7, propodus 3.3, dactylus 2; width of eye 1.2; length of antennal flagel- lum 24 (all measurements in millimeters). Range.—Known only from type locality (see under Types). Materral examined.—A series of 23 speci- mens: 10 males, 11 females (mostly ovigerous), 2 juveniles. All collected in and around Tortu- gas, Fla., by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, and mostly during the month of June 1931. GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS 229 Sexual variation.—In the female the cheli- peds are much narrower than in the male and are more similar to each other, as in the juve- niles of both sexes; however, the dactylus of the major cheliped is the only one of the two which has teeth in the gape. Habitat—Taken from Porites clumps from extreme low water to a depth of 11 fathoms, mostly from 8 to 11 fathoms. Remarks.—This proposed species resembles in some respects those placed in the genus Petrocheles Miers, in that the lateral margins are spined, the chelipeds long and narrow, the fingers gaping, and rostrum spinate; however, it would seem that there is reason to believe that Petrocheles should not have been elevated to full generic standing but left as Miers in- tended it, as a subgenus of Petrolisthes, a course which, from lack of comparative material, I am inclined to follow. It is not allied to many of the American Petrolisthes, from all of which it differs in the peculiar spoon-shaped finger tips, reminiscent of-a number of forms among the Galatheidae, which in addition display the compressed, truncate teeth that arm _ the dactylus of the major chela, a character that few if any of the Petrolisthes possess. It is the Atlantic analogue of P. sanfelipensis Glassell (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 8 (21): 281. 1936) from the upper end of the Gulf of California. Both have slender chelipeds, spines on the lateral margins of the carapace, and a spinate rostrum, but the present species differs in that (1) the fingers are spoon-tipped, gaping, and twisted, instead of close-fitting, faleate-tipped, and unarmed in the major dactylus, (2) the line of the rostrum from the ocular spine to its apex is subentire instead of emarginate below the preocular tooth, (3) the inner ventral margin of the carpus of the chelipeds is armed with teeth, instead of being unarmed, and (4) the posterodistal angle of the merus of the third ambulatory leg is spined instead of being unarmed. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 47TH ANNUAL MEETING The 47th annual meeting of the Academy, held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, January 18, 1945, after the 330th meeting of the Academy, was called to order at 9:45 p.m. by the President, Capt. CLeEmENT L. GARNER, with 33 persons in attendance. The minutes of the 46th annual meeting were approved as published in the JouRNAL 34: 198-205. 1944. The reports of several officers and of the Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read and accepted. These reports are recorded at the end of the minutes. After the acceptance of the report of the Committee of Tellers, the President declared the following duly elected to the given offices: JouN E. GrarF, President F. G. BRICK WEDDE, Secretary Howarp 8. RApPpLeye, TJ'reasurer Henry B. Couns, Jr., and JAMES TAYLOR, Board of Managers to January 1948 The Secretary presented for the Affiliated Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents of the Academy as follows: Philosophical Society of Washington—GErOoRGE R. Wait Anthropological Society of Washington—T. DALE STEWART Biological Society of Washington—FRANK THONE Chemical Society of Washington—Horace S. ISBELL Entomological Society of Washington—CarL F. W. MurESEBECK National Geographic Society ALEXANDER WET- MORE Geological Society of Washington—GEOoRGE TUN- ELL Medical Society of the District of Columbia— FREDERICK O. CoE Columbia Historical Society—GiLBERT Gros- VENOR : Botanical Society of Washington—Franx P. CULLINAN Archaeological Society of Washington—Not functioning for the duration of the National Emergency Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters— WILLIAM A. DayToNn Washington Society of Engineers—FrAnx B. SCHEETZ Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers—FRancis B. SILSBEE Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers—WaALTER RAMBERG Helminthological Society of Washington— Mario Mo.uaRI Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists—Haroup R. CuRRAN Washington Post of the Society of American Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers—OweEn B. FRENCH The Secretary was instructed by the mem- bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for these nominees. The President, Capt. CLEMENT L. GARNER, announced the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1944 as follows: In the Biological Sciences to Norman H. Toppinc, National Institute of Health, in recognition of his outstanding work in identify- ing eastern and western types of Rocky Moun- tain spotted fever. In the Engineering Sciences, to GALEN B. ScHUBAUER, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his distinguished services in aeronautical engineering, particularly for fun- damental measurements of turbulence. In the Physical Sciences, to GEorGcE GAMow, George Washington University, in recognition of his distinguished service in theoretical physics, particularly in the pe os of atomic nuclei and of stars. The Retiring President, Capt. CLemEnT L. GARNER, appointed Past Presidents Harvey L. Curtis and LeLanp W. Parr to escort the in- coming President, Joun E. Grar, to the Chair. After a few brief remarks, Mr. GrarF adjourned the meeting at 10:30 P.M. The following reports were presented at the meeting: Report of the Secretary During the Academy year 43 persons (38 resident and 4 nonresident) were elected to membership. Of these, 25 resident and 1 non- resident qualified for membership, 3 resident and 1 nonresident accepted membership but have not yet qualified by payment of dues, 1 resident and 2 nonresident have not yet re- 230 7 fi ’ 4 , Juny 15, 1945 PROCEEDINGS plied to the Secretary’s notification of election, and 3 persons declined membership. Seven other persons of the 43 elected during the Academy year were elected so recently they have not had time to reply. Seven persons elected to resident membership in the preced- ing Academy year qualified during the present Academy year just ending. The new members were distributed among the various sciences as follows: 6 in anthropology; 4 in geophysics; 3 each in botany, chemistry and geology; 2 each in mathematics, mechanical engineering, min- eralogy, and physics; 1 each in bacteriology, chemical physics, hydrography, ichthyology, paleontology, and geography. Eight members of the Academy (6 resident and 2 nonresident) having retired from the ac- tive practice of their profession were placed on the retired list to enjoy all the privileges of ac- tive membership without further payment of dues. Three members (2 resident and 1 non- resident) resigned in good standing. Eight resi- dent members were dropped for nonpayment of dues. The deaths of the following 13 members (7 resident and 6 nonresident) were reported to the Secretary: Sorre A. Norpuorr-JuneG, Washington, D. C., June 6, 1943. J. McKeen CatTreE.t, Lancaster, Pa., January 20, 1944, Epwarp B. MarTruHews, Baitimore, Md., Febru- ary 4, 1944. ArtTHUR Keiru, Washington, D. C., February 7, 1944. Epwarp O. Utricu, Washington, D. C., Febru- ary 22, 1944. GEORGE SreicER, Washington, D. C., April 18, 1944. Rocer C. WELLS, Washington, D. C., April 19, 1944. WituraM M. Corset, Washington, D. C., June 3, 1944. Harry F. Rerp, Baltimore, Md., June 18, 1944. J. FRANKLIN MeEyeER, Washington, D. C., Octo- ber 29, 1944. Harry V. Haran, Sacaton, Ariz., November 6, 1944. GrorGeE W. CoGGESHALL, November 19, 1944. Lyster H. Dewey, Kenmore, N. Y., November 29, 1944. Of these, ARTHUR KeITH and LystrerR H. DEWEY were original members of the Acad- emy. On January 17, 1945, the status of member- ship was as follows: Cambridge, Mass., : THE ACADEMY Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total Resident. ..... 429 36 2 0 467 Nonresident. . . 142 26 16 1 185 TEtAl sedieaye 4 571 62 18 1 652 The net changes in membership during the past year are as follows: Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total Resident. ..... 0 +1 0 0 +1 Nonresident. . . +7 +1 0 0 +8 otal sw «tale +7 +2 0 0 +9 During the Academy year 1944 the Board of Managers held 7 meetings, with an average attendance of 20 persons. The following im- portant matters were considered by the Board: (1) The American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science made available to the Academy during the year a grant of $207.50 for assisting members of the Academy and its Affiliated Societies with research projects in need of funds. This added to the grant of $150 made available in the preceding year makes a total of $357.50 now available to the Acad- emy for assisting deserving research projects. The actual funds remain with the A.A.A.S. un- til these projects are selected. The Board of Managers voted to receive applications for grants in support of research. The Secretaries of the Affiliated Societies were notified and an announcement was published in the November 1944 issue of the JouRNAL. Applications will be received until February 1, 1945. Frank H. H. Roserts, JR., is chairman of the Committee on A.A.A.S. Grants. Other members of the Committee are: L. W. Parr, R. J. Srecer, and R. P. Trrrsier. (2) The Red Book was not published this year because of difficulties arising out of the present emergency. Progress, however, on the publication of the next issue of the Red Book is being made by the Treasurer who has initi- ated and is preparing a continuing up-to-date list of names with home and business addresses, when both are available, of the members of the Academy and its Affiliated Societies. During the Academy year, 7 meetings of the Academy were held as follows, beginning with the 324th meeting and ending with the 330th meeting: On February 17, 1944, LeLanp W. Parr, as retiring president, presented an address entitled 232 Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis. (This JOURNAL 34: 169-181. 1944.) On March 16, 1944, the 1943 Academy Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre- sented to Jason R. Swauuen, Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, for work in the biological sciences; to Luoyp V. BERKNER, commander, U.S.N.R., for work in the engineering sciences; and to LAWRENCE A. Woop, National Bureau of Standards, for work in the physical sciences. On April 20, 1944, Gpratp FiITzGERALD, lieutenant colonel, chief, Aeronautical Chart Service, Army Air Forces, addressed the Acad- emy on Reconnaissance mapping with trimetro- gon. On October 19, 1944, J. Epwarp RavtTu, associate professor of psychology, Catholic University of America, addressed the Academy on The erdetic wmage. On November 30, 1944, Ropert H. Monr- GOMERY, economic adviser, Foreign Economic Administration, addressed a joint meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington and the Academy’ on The impact of technology on community life. On December 21, 1944, Scorr B. RitTcuts, colonel, assistant chief of ordnance, U. S. Army, addressed the Academy on New de- velopments in ordnance. On January 18, 1945, HERBERT FRIEDMANN, curator, Division of Birds, U. 8. National Museum, addressed the Academy on A sym- bolic goldfinch, a study in medveval ornithology as expressed in art. All seven meetings were held in the Assem- bly Hall of the Cosmos Club. F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary. Report of the Treasurer CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS RECEIPTS From dues 1940...... $ 5.00 From dues 1941...... 10.00 From dues 1942...... 30.00 From dues 1943...... 71.67 From dues 1944...... 2 ,692 .06 From dues 1945...... 35.00 $2,848.73 From life memberships C2 A ee 126.85 From JOURNAL Sub- scriptions, 1940..... 5.40 From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1941..... 11.40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1942..... From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1943..... From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1944..... From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1945..... From JOURNAL, Sub- scriptions, 1946..... From sales of JOURNAL From payments for re- prints 194355 84.3 From payments for re- prints 1944........ From sales of direc- tory, prior to 1941.. From sales of direc- tory, 32d Edition... From interest on in- vestments: 544). dx. From check No. 170— “Outlaweo a .nc0g e From repayment of withholding on New York City Stock.... From refund of air- mail postage....... From overpayment by Shapovalov........ Total Receipts..... Cash balance, Jan. 1, 144 ee To be accounted for DISBURSEMENTS For Secretary’s Office TORS ee eet pee DOA sitet obs he aa For Custodian & Subs. Mgr. 1944......... For JOURNAL printing and mailing 1943... For JOURNAL printing and mailing 1944... For JOURNAL illustra- tions: 1943-2 2 hese 'c For Journau illustra- tions 1944......... 22.80 46.20 353.85 468 .90 4.05 912. 2271, 122.31 528.46 650. 1.05 0.25 1 1,017. 21 4 0 0 $5,807 3,028 $8 , 836 $ 200.90 87.59 $ 288 86. 62. 231.68 2,495.86 2,727. 10.94 223 .36 234 66.75 531.71 598. vou. 35, NO. 7 90 Th .30 25 .50 .60 70 .35 55 .64 .19 .49 31 83 04 .30 Juuy 15, 1945 For Journau office NE ey 40.00 For JourNau office (GR i aaa 220.00 260 For JouRNAL postage, binding & misc. 1943 4.35 For JouRNAL postage, binding & misc. 1944 22.60 26. For Directory 1943.... 19. For Meetings Committee Ss Gon resins +n 0's Seto For Meetings Commit- eS Cae 232 .20 284 For two $1,000 Series eS a 2,000 For debit memos, re- fends, C6C)5). 2... 2. Total disbursements $6,591. Cash balance, Dec. 31, i 2,244. Ue eee $8 ,836. RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE Balance as per cash book, 12-31-44... $2,244. Bank Balance, Am. Soc. & Tr. Co. as per state- ment 12-23-44........ $2 , 223 .86 Receipts not deposited. . 149 .67 $2 ,373 .53 Checks outstanding, not cashed No. 1018... $ 5.41 1028... 55.20 1020... 01 .50 i0a07 72’ 16°.62 128.73 $2,244 INVESTMENTS 409 Shares stock of Washington San- itary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share, cost..... $4 ,090 20 Shares stock Potomac Electric Power Co., 6% Pref., cost.... 2,247. 4 Certificates Corporate Stock of City of New York, 1 for $500, Pema MLO, COSG 4:0 engin ao < rlebernys 800 1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927, par value $1,000, less Reape s. NS ead aed 150. 2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Kor- mann et al., dated Oct. 5, 1938, renewed 1941 for 3 years (#7 of 37 for $500 and #8 of 37 for S500); Costin cts Sw se eS 1,000 2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500) Northwestern Fed- PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY .00 95 50 .35 .00 66 39 80 19 80 .80 .00 50 .00 00 .00 eral Savings & Loan Assn. Nos, 13680.and 1441... «..... 2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000) First Federal Sav- ings & Loan Assn. Nos. 914 & RRB POE IR SORA 7 U. 8S. Government Series G Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos. M332990G M332991G M332992G M332993G M1808741G M2226088G . I oe le re Ree 7,000 .00 Deposited in Savings Account, American Sec. & Trust Co.... 46.87 $25 934.37 Cash Book balance Dec. 31,1944 2,244.80 Ota ABBOT 5 Bowe aos sha ais $28,179.17 Total Assets Dec. $26 , 962.79 Total Assets Dec. Pay a 2 2: ie ee 28 ASOT Increase... 2s i. $ 1,216.38 The relatively large increase in the assets of the Academy is not actually as large as shown. It is impossible at the close of the fiscal year to know exactly what bills are outstanding. We can not even furnish an exact statement as to the relationship between expenditures and al- lotments, since, for example, we do not yet know exactly what the charge-to-authors in- crement of the JouRNAL allotment will be. The statement concerning the status of the various allotments will be submitted later as a supple- mental report. It is known, however, that, at the time this report is written, $236.77 has been paid out since January 1, 1945, on obliga- tions incurred in 1944 and chargeable to 1944 expenditures. Also, there are some of the George Banta Publishing Co. bills which have not yet been received. However, making due al- lowance for this feature, the report shows a healthy increase in the assets of the Academy, which is due, to a considerable extent at least, to the fact that various officers and officials of the Academy have exercised care to keep their expenditures well within their allotments. Perhaps one of the most important single reasons for the increase in assets shown in this report and in the report for the previous year is the fact that we have not issued a Red Book since 1941. The Treasurer’s Office is at present at work on a master list which should permit 234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the resumption of the publication of the Red Book by the latter part of this year or-the early part of 1946. It is believed that, under the new arrangements, which are being perfected to ex- pedite the publication of the Red Book, future Red Book costs will be even less than the cost of previous issues in spite of higher printing costs. Howarp 8. Rapp.Leye, Treasurer. Report of the Auditing Committee Your committee appointed to audit the ac- counts and records of the Treasurer for the calendar year 1944 performed that duty on January 11, 1945. Each item of disbursement was found to be duly authorized and supported by a cancelled check or debit memorandum ex- cept for the outstanding checks listed in his report. The Treasurer’s report, attached here- to, was found to agree in every respect with his records. The securities listed in his report were examined on January 11, 1945, and were found to be as listed. All unmatured coupons were found attached. The Treasurer deserves the hearty commen- -dation of the Academy for the careful, system- atic, and accurate records which he has kept. Francis A. Smitu, Chairman. WatTeR D. LAMBERT HARALD A. REHDER. Report of the Archivist The archives are stored in Room 118, Soils Building, U. 8. Plant Industry Station, Belts- ville, Md., in a steel safe, a metal file cabinet, a wooden file cabinet,-and two bookcases. The wooden file cabinet belongs to the Academy; the other furniture is borrowed for the dura- tion. No expense was incurred during the year No. No. Sciences papers pages 1944 1944 Biological cgi" Seventeen ee 40 198.2 Phy sian. ciwe sas, ooh eee ee 3 35.9 Anthropological. 2... ..... 56 12 105.6 Geologicalsiye 41s wis a 5 13.8 dus eye i Gis Lote Ma tte Sk Sena Pea AS 2 Ppt ICONOMICH ars Gielen cose ae ae 1 2.8 Generaliscc2e 4 SS Aas — — Obituaries and Proceedings.... —_ 33.2 Maye (ober aM er, ede Ra NE EN CE Rt ce Ae — 4.0 Rotalsak Bees site ae 63 416.0 and none is contemplated for the next year. NaTuan R. Smiru, Archivist. Report of the Board of Editors Volume 34 of the JouRNAL was somewhat larger than that of the preceding year and showed trends in different directions from those of previous years. Some of these trends are probably not normal or permanent but are connected with dislocations brought about by the war. Volume 34 consisted of 12 issues and > contained 416 pages distributed among the sciences and compared with 1943 as shown in the table below. This volume includes the addresses of the re- tiring presidents of the Academy and the Philosophical Society as well as an address de- livered before the Academy during the previous year. A total of 63 papers was published, which is a slight decline in the number of 65 for 1943. This small loss is offset by the greater length of some of the papers accepted for publication during this year. Of the 63 papers presented 35 or 56 percent were presented by members of the Academy. This represents a small de- crease in papers presented by Academy mem- bers, a condition that should be corrected. Volume 34 shows small increases in numbers of halftones and pages. Sixteen halftones and 36 line-cuts appear in the volume. The slight increase in the former was made possible by an increase in appropriation that permitted the Editors to drop the unfortunate ban on free halftones of the last two volumes. Volume 34 contains 28 more pages than appeared in volume 33. This is the most satisfactory trend shown during the year and if possible should be encouraged to continue. The downward trend in number of pages published in the Percentages No. No. Percentages by pages papers pages by pages 1944 1943 1943 1943 47.6 56 293.8 75.4 8.6 7 47.6 12.4 25.4 — — — 3.3 — —_ — 5.4 — — — 0.7 — — = _— 2 17.8 4.6 8.0 — 25.4 6.6 1.0 — 3.4 1.0 100.0 | 65 | 388.0 100.0 VoL. 35, NO. 7 . ee ea ae > JuLy 15, 1945 JOURNAL at present seems to have been ar- rested, but it is hoped that the future will see a still more substantial increase in number of pages published. As would be expected in these abnormal times the war has greatly affected the propor- tional representation of the sciences in the JourNAL. The Biological Sciences predominate as they did last year, but they are proportion- ally much less this year to the other sciences represented. Unlike last year when botanical papers were most numerous, zoological papers (12) are most frequent this year. Botany takes second place with 10 papers and entomological articles are third with 9. Other Biological Sci- ences represented are: Ichthyology, Mycology, Ornithology, Mammalogy, and Ecology. Because Chemistry and Physics are closely linked to the war effort, it is not surprising that these sciences are even less well repre- sented in Volume 34 than they were in Volume 33. Inasmuch as the physical scientist’s preoc- cupation with war problems will continue for at least another year, no increase in papers from these sciences can be expected. Five papers are attributed to the Geological Sciences but these could as well have been placed under the Biological Sciences because they all deal with fossils. Most of the efforts of our geologists in Washington are now directed along lines designed to facilitate the war effort. Consequently the decline in geologi- cal papers, which are usually fairly numerous, is understandable. During the past year an increase of consider- able proportions occurred in papers dealing with Man and his activities—Anthropology, Eth- nology, Economics, and Medicine. Fifteen papers in these fields constituted some of the most interesting items published during the year and occupied more than 31 percent of the pages published. It is to be hoped that this trend will continue to expand after the war. Preoccupation with war and generally re- stricted time account for a decline in published abstracts. The Geological and Botanical Soci- eties, both usually regular contributors, failed to submit their proceedings and abstracts, the latter for at least the third year. The Editors report the publication of 18 obituaries, the largest number to appear for several years. The year 1944 happily saw little change in editorial policy and what little occurred proved PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 235 highly advantageous to the JouRNAL and its contributors. A thoughtful increase in the ap- propriation for the year made it possible to offer authors a full page balftone or its equiva- lent. Lack of adequate facilities to reproduce illustrations proved a handicap in 1943; it dis- couraged authors who required halftone illus- tration. The economies instituted in 1942 con- tinued in force except for the changes relating to halftones and the distribution of 50 free re- prints to authors of signed obituaries. The Editors view with considerable satisfaction the fact that it was possible to issue the JouRNAL on a monthly basis, but papers are becoming increasingly fewer and it may be necessary in future to put the JouRNAL on a bimonthly basis on authority voted by the Board of Man- agers in 19438. This, the Editors believe, would be most unfortunate and they plead with Academy members to give their JourRNAL first consideration in placing their shorter papers. Why should more than 40 percent of the Jour- NAL’s pages be used by outsiders? The Board of Managers appropriated to the Board of Editors for printing, illustrating, and mailing the JouRNAL $3,000; for clerical assist- ance $240; and for postage and incidentals $60, a total of $3,300. Of this sum the total amount of $240 for clerical assistance was ex- pended; postage and incidentals (binding vol- ume 33 of the Editors’ set of the JouRNAL) re- quired $25.59. Printing, mailing, and illustrat- ing the JouRNAL cost $2,981.69. Reprints cost $592.70. Charges to authors were $746.51. This sum combined with the original allotment of $3,000 equals a total available sum of $3,746.51. Subtracting from this total the $3,574.39 paid ‘out, a favorable balance of $172.12 remains. This added to the balance of $34.41 remaining from postage and incidentals leaves a final favorable balance of $206.53. It gives the Editors much pleasure to acknowledge with thanks and appreciation the outstanding assistance to the JouRNAL of Mr. PauLt A. OxnsmrR, editorial assistant, whose broad knowledge and experience in editing scientific articles have greatly improved the quality of the Journau. Mr. Oehser has given much wise council and many hours of his own time. G. ARTHUR COOPER. Lewis V. JuDSON. Haraup A. REHDER. 236 Report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications SUBSCRIPTIONS: Nonmember subscriptions in the United States....... 107 Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries........ 35 Nonmember subscriptions in enemy-controlled areas (GA SEIVE er iesthrcle BON ITE atc Peace eT ak 25 Subscriptions, Geological Society of Washington....... 12 INVENTORY OF STOCKS AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1944: Reserve Sets of the JOURNAL: Bound Volumes 1—29 and unbound Volumes 30— 12.¥, ar meee Pea Oe YH th AAD Ne lana, A SER re a bed ae 1 set Mnbound Vielumesdt—34 14).cm ces cer = eo 4 sets Wnbound Volumes l= 34 kcnecs «eke ae eee meee 6 sets Unbound Volumes 16—34............ See att Meee eee 11 sets Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences: Volumes l= t3-inelusiv.e wn. ces oleae 50 sets In 1939 the Board of Managers directed the Custodian of Publications to set aside a spe- cific number of volumes of the JouRNAL to be sold only as complete sets. This order states: Eight (8) complete sets from Vol. 1 to current volumes (84); Six (6) additional sets from Vol. 11 to current volumes (34); Eleven (11) addi- tional sets from Vol. 16 to current volume (34). These volumes should constitute the reserve sets. Since 1939 five reserve sets from Vol. 1 to the current number have been sold. Three of these sets were sold in 1944. When disposing of back numbers of those of deceased members, some of our members have turned them over to the Custodian of Publications, which en- abled him to assemble two complete sets from Vol. 1 to the current number. During the com- ing year an effort will be made to obtain by gift or purchase some of the early numbers now missing from the miscellaneous series in order to assemble additional reserve sets. A miscellaneous series of volumes and sepa- rate numbers of the JouRNAL, consisting of ap- proximately 18,000 numbers, is maintained for sale. Complete sets of the Proceedings of the Academy Vols. 1-13 (1899-1911), together with Directories, are also available. Most of these volumes, including five reserve sets from Vols. 1-84, are stored without cost to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7 the Academy in the Smithsonian Institution and the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Some of the volumes from Vols. 23-34 are stored by the George Banta Publishing Co. at Menasha, Wis. | SALES AND EXPENDITURES: During the year 1944 three reserve sets were sold. These were purchased by libraries at the following universities: Notre Dame, New Mexico, and Mississippi. These were shipped via express, prepaid. 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RaPPLeYE, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ge ington “a Bann —The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other Si at Mies societies ieee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY | ag President: Joun E. Grar, Smithsonian Institution Secretary: FERDINAND G. " BRICK WEDDE, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappueye, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NatHan R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Ind U8 Na Sea ees _ Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. Serzier, U ational Museum, ia ig te JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLuME 35 Avueust 15, 1945 No. 8 ETHNOLOGY .—The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An outcasted group... Wi1- LIAM HARLEN GILBERT, Jr.,? Library of Congress. The Wesorts are a people of mixed racial origin who live in parts of southern Mary- land (Semmes, 1944, p. 6; Speck, 1922, p. 11; Weslager, 1943, pp. 156, 158). The origin of their name, as well as of the people themselves, is shrouded in mystery. It would appear that they are mainly of white and Indian blood with an occasional strong infusion of the Negro element. The distribution of these people is rather limited, being confined to Charles County and the adjacent parts of Prince Georges and St. Marys Counties. No accurate data have been secured on their numbers in the various communities and neighborhoods of this area. Because of their location in close proximity to Washington, D. C., a number of them have migrated in that city. No- where, either in Charles County or the other counties, do the Wesorts constitute more than a small fraction of the general popula- tion, which is almost evenly divided in numbers between the White and Negro races. The origin of the name ‘‘Wesort’”’ has been explained in several ways. The most simple and plausible theory attributes the origin to the phrase ‘‘we sorts are not the Same as you sorts,’ which was employed by them in speaking to the Negroes of the 1 Received May 10, 1945. 2 The helpful suggestions and communications from the following persons have been, among others, of the greatest assistance in the com- pilation of materials for this paper: Dr. Daniel S. Fisher, Maryland County Health Officer for Charles County at La Plata; H. Holland Haw- kins, resident of La Plata; Philip S. Proctor, of the U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Washington, D. C., a Piscataway Indian and former resident of Popes Creek in Charles County;:and the Rev. Herman I. Storck, of St. Ignatius Church, St. Thomas Manor, Chapel Point (Bel Alton P.O.), Charles County. area (White, 1939). This idea seems to ac- cord with the dominating motif of Wesort existence, namely, a desire to be held a dis- tinct race from the Negro. In this connec- tion it might be noted that the birth cer- tificates and marriage licenses issued to these people generally have the race indi- cated as ‘‘Colored-Wesort.” The name ‘‘Wesort” has been employed among these people as far back as 1900 and possibly for 10 to 20 years before that date, as we shall see. A second theory attributes the origin of the name to a corruption of an Algonquin term ‘‘witchott,’”’ which is said to mean an oval house of bark. No source is given for this word or any evidence for the change in- to Wesort (Maynard, 1941, p. 76). A third theory might be advanced with more credi- bility that the term is derived from the word ‘‘Wisoes,’”’ which was used to denote the peace councillors of the early Algonquin tribes in southern Maryland (Writers’ Program, 1940, p. 20). This view might be reinforced by the suggestion that the Indians who survived in this area were the friendly or peaceful tribes, who were later called Doeg Indians. On the other hand, when the early date of disappearance of Indian languages in Maryland is corgidered along with the comparative recency of the use of the term ‘‘Wesort,”’ it hardly seems possible that the aboriginal name should have survived without some notice. Concerning the origin of the Wesorts there are again several theories. All these admit the presence of an Indian element in the Wesorts, but they differ as to their explanation of the White or Negro ele- ments. One hypothesis attributes the White or non-Indian blood to escaped indentured 237 238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES servants who fled to the swamps and -frontier to live with the Indians during the earlier colonial period (communication from Dr. Daniel 8. Fisher). Another guess at- tributes the non-Indian blood to Spanish sailors wrecked on the shores of early Mary- land at an unknown date (Warner, 1939). It is worth while to note that dark com- plexion in several mixed groups of the east- ern states, the Melungeons of Tennessee, the Moors of Delaware, the Turks of South Carolina and the Cubans of North Carolina, is attributed by these people themselves to Latin or Mediterranean origins which helps to avoid what they consider the stigma of possible Negro crossing. A similar notion is represented in the theory that French- Canadian traders intermarried with the Indians of Port Tobacco in the seventeenth century and sired the Wesorts. This theory might explain the religion but hardly the English family names of these people. The origin of the Indian element in the Wesorts is explained by the great number of friendly Indians who were gradually con- verted to Roman Catholicism by Father White and his coworkers and who were settled in reservation areas in western Charles County during the colonial period (Semmes, 1937, p. 303; N. Y. Times, Mar. 19, 1940; Writers’ Program, 1940, p. 21). At the time of the earliest discovery in the seventeenth century there were, along the Potomac shores of Maryland, a number of small streams and swampy tracts that were the habitats of individual tribal groups bearing the same names as these water courses (Semmes, 1929, pp. 195-209). Thus we find in St. Marys County the Chapticon and the Wicomico (Secowocomoco) along the Chaptico and Wicomico Rivers; in Charles County the Zekiah (Za, Pangayo, or Saco) along the Zekiah Swamp, the Potopacs of Port Tobacco, the Nanjemoy of Nanjemoy Creek, the Chicamuxen and Pomonkey along creeks of the same name, and the Mattawoman of the upper Matta- woman Creek; in Prince Georges County the Piscataway of Piscataway Creek and the Patuxent along the middle course of the Patuxent River; and in the District of Columbia the Iroquoian Anacostans along the Anacostia River. Of these the Piscata- VOL. 35, NO. 8 ways held themselves to be the natural leaders and somewhat above the rest. In the course of colonial Indian wars the Piscataways were expelled from Maryland and only a few families survive in the State today, at Point of Rocks south of Frederick, and at one or two other points. The fate of the other tribes is not yet well known. The location of the early Indian groups in southern Maryland was naturally con- ditioned by the means of subsistence in terms of local topography. Communication was almost entirely by canoe and along the streams or bays which led inland from the sea. There may have been some use of the inland higher ridges for occasional hunting or for corn and tobacco raising. In the main, however, Indian settlements were in or near swamps and streams where game was easy to find and defense from northern marauders was more effective. Apparently each stream and swamp- constituted the hunting area of some particular Indian group which excluded outsiders. The still surviving early St. Ignatius Church at Chapel Point well illustrates in its location the importance of water travel in early Maryland for both Whites and Indians. This Church is situated on a prominent headland on the Potomac, easy of access by water from various parts but at a distance of two miles from the main axis of present- day settlement at Bel Alton. Today the communications in southern Maryland are primarily by land and the chief roads tend to follow the ridges or highest ground between streams. This in turn has affected the distribution of both White and Wesort farmsteads. The farms. are located along the main north and south highways and the branch roads from these. The main concrete road through Charles County today is United States Highway No. 301, and this seems to be the main axis of Wesort settlement from Upper Marl- boro, the county seat for Prince Georges County, in the north to Faulkner or Lothair in the southern part of Charles County. The roads of today, which mark out the ridges between streams, would serve as the boundaries of the ancient tribal areas which centered in the streams themselves. It has been said that some of the Wesorts of Ava. 15, 1945 Allen’s Fresh at the mouth of Zekiah Swamp still assert that they are of the Za tribe, while those to the west along Nan- jemoy Creek claim descent from the Nanjemoy Tribe. The Whites and Negroes of Charles County have their own neighborhood and community groups (Dodson and Woolley, 1943). The following community groups or neighborhoods may be said to include the chief Wesort locations in Southern Mary- land: (1) In Prince Georges County there are (a) ‘‘Proctorville”’ near Cedarville, (b) the Thompsons near Brandywine, and (c) the Swans near Croom; (2) in Charles County there are (a) Pomfret to the north- -west of Port Tobacco, (b) La Plata, the county seat, (c) Port Tobacco, southwest of La Plata, (d) Waldorf and White Plains, north of La Plata, (e) Glymont and Indian Head on the Potomac near the mouth of the Mattawoman Creek, (f) Pamonkey east of Indian Head, (g) Hill Top and Pisgah south of Indian Head, (h) Bel Alton and Chapel Point, south of La Plata, (i) Faulkner (Lothair), south of Bel Alton and including Diggs Crossing, (j) Popes Creek south of Faulkner, and (k) Allen’s Fresh at the mouth of Zekiah Swamp. The Wesort neighborhoods in the Chaptico Creek area of western St. Marys County are not yet as- certained. On the outskirts of the settlements such as those immediately south of Waldorf on Highway No. 301 one can pass both Negro and Wesort dwellings in driving through. In the District of Columbia one of the first parts to be reached by migrating Wesorts would be Anacostia where we find them interspersed with the Negro sections. Pos- sibly other centers of settlement are in the Negro sections of the northwest Washing- ton near Georgia Avenue. The present number of Wesorts in south- ern Maryland is open to free estimation. The United States Census classifies them as Negroes and makes no separate enumera- tion. According to one source there are several hundred members of this group, while a second ventures the more specific figures of anywhere between 750 to 3,000 persons (Semmes, 1937, p. 503; N. Y. Times, Mar. 19, 1940). The St. Ignatius Church at GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND 7 District of rs Colunbia . ry Suitland 4 Upper Marlbo Croom PRINCE GEORGES COUNTY 6Ta Croom Piscataway Creek Nofth 5 Piscataway : Bys Brandywine Cedarvil Pomfret CHARLES COUNTY { Pisgah La Plata - Tobacco } » Bel Alton Chapel |Point a Faullmer { Allen's Fresh f o / / °Popes Creek Fig. 1—Map showing the principal points in the Wesort country of southern Maryland. Bel Alton has a total congregation of over 850, and of these it is possible that Wesorts number 175 to 200. Since the total popula- tion of the Bel Alton area is around 1,000 persons, it is possible that the Wesorts may constitute as much as 20 percent of that number. An accurate census of the Wesort population by a house-to-house canvass would go far toward clearing up certain basic problems of identity and relative strength of numbers. It is to be hoped that the Census Bureau, with its keen apprecia- tion of statistical needs, will in the Census of 1950 tackle this problem on its own doorsteps, so to speak, as well as it has that of enumerating the Croatans in North Carolina. We shall have occasion to refer to the great value of even indirect Census data in a later connection in this paper. The physical traits of the Wesorts, as might be expected in a mixed group, are 240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quite variable. Within the same family one can see children who are blond and blue- eyed, children with the bronze skin and straight black hair of the Indian, and still darker children with the very curly or semi- frizzled hair of the Negro (Footner, 1942, p. 357; Graham, 1935, p. 10; Hodge, 1914, p. 17). The prevailing theory among the neighboring Whites is that mulatto blood is widespread among the Wesorts. Most of them agree, however, that for a long time the Wesorts have been marrying among themselves, with even first-cousin marriage being by no means rare. This would seem to place the introduction of Negro blood to occasional entries in the past or to recent mulatto or other mixed blood. At any rate, inbreeding, in the absence of any environ- mental or religious isolation, would seem to emphasize the racial-purity sentiment and demonstrate the existence of the fear of absorption by the Negro. The fact that the local Whites appear to be of Old American stock and quite preponderantly blond helps to indicate the source of mixture when it appears among Wesorts. It is thought by local White observers that the Wesorts have degenerated greatly in physical fitness because of their inbreed- ing. Among other traits said to have de- veloped among the Wesorts are albino skin and hair, early deafness, palsy and nervous- ness, epilepsy, bandy legs, near blindness, toothlessness, and stuttering speech. Idiocy and dull-wittedness are also said to occur all too frequently among them. Yet we have the contradictory observation of others that Wesorts are quite normal in mental faculties and even occasionally very bright. The Wesort young women are conceded by these observers to be very frequently rather pretty and attractive even from their own (i.e., the White) point of view. It is said that Wesorts prefer to marry out into the White group and that those who marry Negroes are ostracized from their ranks. Owing to the Maryland law against racial intermarriage between Whites and Negroes (and Negro cross breeds to the third gener- ation) it is doubtful whether legal unions can be contracted between Wesorts and Whites. Karly marriages are the rule among VoL. 35, No. 8 Wesorts, and large families of eight to ten children are frequent even today. In the absence of figures on infant mortality it is not possible to say that the population of this group is rapidly increasing, although it might be expected. The extent of the migration outward to Washington, D.C., Baltimore, and Pennsylvania must be a factor to be kept in mind also. The Wesorts are practically 100 percent Roman Catholics in religion; however, this does not mark them off from their neigh- bors since both the Whites and Negroes of this part of Maryland are mainly of the same faith. The school question is perhaps the great- est stumbling block for the Wesorts. II- literacy is. widespread among the older generation, and this is said to be due to their having refused to attend Negro schools in their youth. It is also said that a few years ago some of the younger genera- tion of Wesorts attempted to enter White schools but upon discovery were forced out. Some now attend the Negro schools, as for example at Bel Alton, but it is doubtful whether this constitutes a majority of the Wesort children. The local Whites assert that the older generation of Wesorts are honest, reliable, industrious, and good humored but that many of the younger generation have been ruined in their morals since the bootlegging period under the national Prohibition Law of 1919-1933. A number of these younger persons are said to be outlaws and ne’er-— do-wells. The occupation of 90 percent of the Wesorts is farming, farm labor, or domestic employment. They are also accounted able hunters, guides, and fishermen. Only a few, however, own their own farms. The vast majority are poor rural folk, but they are said never to apply for public relief even though they may be in the worst of straits. The local Whites account them as excellent farm tenants and farm workers but say that they are very proud and will not hire out where they are expected to mingle with the Negro help. In serving meals to the Wesort hired help separate tables must be used so that they do not sit down with Negroes. Se Ava. 15, 1945 GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND 241 Fic. 2.—Photographs of Wesort families and individuals showing divergent racial types. 242 The Wesorts are distinguished by certain family names which are more or less pecu- liar to them in the area in which they live. These names are Butler, Frazer, Gray, Harley, Hensley, Hollis, Holly or Hol- ley, Linkin or Lenkin, Marshall, Mason, Mathews, Newman, Neale, Penny, Perry, Proctor or Procter, Queen, Richmond, Savoy, Simmonds, Swann or Swan, and Thompson. As we have already stated, these names occur in public records of mar- riages, births, etc., with the race designa- tion ‘‘Colored-Wesort.’”? Some of these names may also be family names of nearby Whites and Negroes, but none of the Wesort families ever seem to stray from the fixed list mentioned above. In order to dis- tinguish the various families of the same name the qualifying word “set”? may be used. Thus the set of Proctors in Bel Alton is different from the set in Prince Georges County. There seems to be no aversion for a man to marry a girl of the same family name. Documentary evidence of the growth of the use of the term ‘‘Wesort”’ in connection with certain family names is afforded at the St. Ignatius Church at Bel Alton (com- munication from the Rev. H. I. Storck). The earliest practice during the 1880’s was to designate the race of persons baptized in the parish records as either ‘‘White” or “Colored.”’? Abbreviations for Latin terms such as ‘‘Nig.” (for Latin niger, black) and “Alb.” (for albus, white) were also used to the same purpose. The first occurrence of the term which designates a third race was in the case of a person baptized in August 1896, in which the race was designated as ‘“‘We-sort.”’? In the years 1899, 1901, and 1902 this term recurs with increasing fre- quency and always in connection with fam- ily names such as Butler, Harley, Linkin, Mason, Newman, Proctor, Savoy, Swann, and Thompson. Also in connection with these family cognomens it might be noted that the race of a person with a Wesort fam- ily name baptized in November 1889 was designated as ‘‘Yellow’’ and the same term recurs a few years later in a baptism of September 1896. Apparently each priest employed his own method of indicating the three different racial groups, as for example JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 8 in the case of one who employed the desig- nation ‘‘(Col) Wesort”’ or another who dis- tinguished ‘‘White,” ‘““Nig.,”’ and “‘Col.” and by the context of the family names doubt- less meaning Wesort by the latter term. Thus it seems a racial entity gradually creeps into recognition until at the present time Wesort has become an accepted term im the parish records for members of these family groups. What can be said concerning the origin of this distinct set of English patronymics in a mixed population? Some attempt has been made to connect them with pre- existing Indian names; e.g., Swann has been linked with Wannys, a name of several early chiefs in southern Maryland and even with Shawnee, which tribe had early repre- sentatives in Maryland. Probably, how- ever, these names are simply derived from the white men, whose union with Indian women gave rise to this mixed group. In addition, it is to be noted that the early Jesuit missionaries gave English names to their Indian converts. Each of the other mixed groups in the eastern States, the Croatans, Nanticokes, Cajans, etc., have distinct sets of family names peculiar to themselves and probably of similar manner of origin. In connection with their family names we have another line of evidence regarding the origin of the Wesorts. The first United States Census was taken in 1790 and in- cluded a list of the family names of heads of families in the various states and coun- ties together with indications as to whether they were Whites, free Negroes, mulattoes, or slaves (Heads of Families, 1790, Mary- land). The data are presented by counties and in the table for Charles County, Md. we find the “mulatto” heads of families bearing most of the family names which are found among the Wesorts today with other additional names as well. About 54 family names are to be found in this group includ- ing Butler, Harley, Linkin and Lenkin, Newman, Proctor, Penny, Swann, Savoy, and Thompson. All these family names, with the exception of Harley, appear also somewhat earlier among the White popula- “tion of Charles County in the Constable’s Census of that County of 1775-1778 (Brum- Aue. 15, 1945 baugh, vol. 1, pp. 297-312). So it is likely that the Wesort family names were derived from local White names sometime during the eighteenth century or possibly even earlier (Charles County was first settled in 1642) and were borne first by the ‘‘mul- atto”’ or free Negro population of Charles County. Up to the time of the Civil War the free Negro population of Charles County is listed separately in the census statistics from the White and slave groups. It is probable, then, that in the statistics of the growth of the free Negro group some idea may be gained of the relative growth of the early ancestral Wesort popu- lation. The total number of Charles County mulattoes listed under family name groups in 1790 was 357, although the census of 1790 officially tabulates 404 free Negroes in that county. The growth of the free Negro population in relation to the other elements of the population may be seen from the following table compiled from the census records. TABLE 1.—CHARLES County, Mp., PorpuLaTIon By Race, 1790-1860 Year Whites Nr dian Slaves | Total egroes 1790 10,124 404 10,085 20,613 1800 9,043 571 9,558 19 ,172 1810 7,398 412 12 ,435 20 ,245 1820 6,514 567 9,419 16,500 1830 6,789 851 10,129 17 ,769 1840 6,022 819 9,182 16,923 1850 5,665 913 9 584 16,162 1860 5,796 1,068 9,653 16 ,517 The Census of 1870, owing to the freeing of the slaves during that decade, shows a free Negro population of 9,318 and thus can no longer be said to include primarily the Wesort ancestral group. It would seem that the Civil War, by obliterating the distinc- tion between free Negro and slave in Charles County, stimulated the former group to invent a term to designate themselves as a distinct group, namely ‘‘Wesort.’’ Accord- ing to a tradition among these people, it was ‘“‘Aunt”’ Sallie Ann Thompson who in- vented the term Wesort by constantly using the expression “‘we sort of people” about 1882. This was taken up by her kinsmen and neighbors and gradually spread to the GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND 243 entire county and beyond. If the rate of growth of the numbers of the free Negroes as indicated here continued we should expect to find around 1,900 of these people in Charles County by 1940. The following table illustrates the growth of the White and Negro population of the county since 1860. TABLE 2.—CHARLES County, Mp., PopuLATION BY Race, 1870-1940 Year Whites Negroes Total 1870 6,418 9,318 15,738 1880 7,700 10 ,848 18 ,548 1890 7,054 8,137 15,191 1900 8,014 9 ,648 17 ,662 1910 7,813 8,572 16 ,386 1920 9,495 8,210 17 ,705 1930 8 674 7,492 16 , 166 1940 10 ,384 7,228 17 ,612 The variability of the figures in the above table is interesting. It would suggest the possibility, at least, of the Wesorts being included in some censuses as White and in others as Negro. The large rise in Negro population in 1880 and the rise of the Whites in 1940 are cases in point. Only a detailed examination of the family names in the census schedules would indicate if this were true or not. Turning now to the social status of the Wesorts we find a most interesting situa- tion. Their own opinion, backed to a con- siderable extent by that of the local Whites, is that they constitute an intermediate caste between the White and the Negro. This is so because they refuse to be identified with Negroes yet are unable to find acceptance as social equals by the Whites. They do not decry any union of members of their group with Whites as they do those unions with Negroes. The local Negroes are inclined to belittle the pretensions to superiority which | they feel are unwarranted in the Wesorts. The Whites look more favorably upon the Wesorts as reliable workers than they do upon the Negroes but are inclined to dis- like the Wesorts because of degenerate traits which they ascribe to inbreeding. The Wesorts would seem to indicate how it is possible for physical traits to result in a type of group consciousness. Keenly aware that their racial type is not that of the typi- 244 cal Negro they attempt to avoid those situations that classify them as Negro. ‘‘We are the Yellow People and we are different from the Negro” is the way H. §., of Bel Alton, one of the older and much respected members of the community, expresses the idea. To cite the words of another of the older and respected members of this group, L. T., of White Plains ‘‘I was born a Wesort and I am going to die a Wesort.’”’ Such a clear and simple confession of faith can hardly be disregarded by the social psy- chologist- because it so well illustrates the ‘““we-group” feeling so ably defined and discussed by such eminent sociologists as William Graham Sumner and Charles Horton Cooley. The Wesorts appear to have isolated themselves from the Negro in a variety of ways. They will not eat with them at the same table, or sleep at their homes, or per- mit Negroes to attend their dances. Yet they seem to regard it as proper to appear at Negro recreational affairs such as picnics and outings, participating in a kind of standoffish way. White people, on the other hand, may attend Wesort funerals, weddings, and dances. Patterns of triracial or three-way segre- gation are well illustrated at St. Ignatius Church at Chapel Point (Dodson and Woolley, 19438, p. 297). Here, for many years, the seats in the main body of the Church are reserved for White people, while there is a separate section in the back for the Wesort members. In addition there is a gallery running along the sides of the Church which is generally occupied by Negroes, although occasionally these people come down and sit in the Wesort section when it is not occupied. Negroes formerly used a separate door from that used by the Whites and Wesorts. Also illustrative of the segregation prin- ciple is the ancient cemetery located just outside the church on a scenic knoll over- looking the Potomac. The grave markers around the top of the bluff near the church and for some distance downward are those of White people. The lower part of the hill constitutes the Negro section of the ceme- tery in which Wesorts and Negroes are buried. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 It is said that formerly Wesorts were accustomed to occupying seats in busses and carriages behind the Whites but ahead of the Negroes. The same is asserted to have been true of seating in motion-picture houses. One informant tells of hunting and fishing parties made up of male members of the three races at which the whisky jug would be passed around first to the Whites, then to the Wesorts, and finally to the Negroes. As a buffer group Geemuen the Whites and the Negroes the Wesorts have absorbed some of the shocks of racial conflict and provided a cushion to soften the process of miscegenation. One gains the impression that we have here a basically Indian group that has been gradually getting whiter through greater and greater amounts of White blood yet presenting Mendelian segregations of physical traits that recall the original Indian type. Into this mixture have apparently been introduced mulatto, quadroon, or octoroon elements. Politically the Wesorts participate to a greater degree than the Negro in the local affairs. They vote freely and, like the tradi- tional Negro voters, are mainly Republican by party affiliation. Like the Negroes they do not hold public office in the county. The White people of this area are mainly Democratic in party affiliation. Two instances illustrative of the practical difficulties attending the triracial situation might be cited here. In the present World War the local draft boards have been hard put to it in classifying the Wesorts for service with the armed forces. Some have been sent into Negro battalions, while others, have been sent into White, and it is probable that some have not been in- ducted at all because of the difficulties at- tendant on their racial classification. Thus, as a result of their racially in-between position, the Wesorts have suffered an un- certainty of both present and future status. This is still further illustrated in the case of some Wesorts who located in Washing- ton, D. C., and in view of the housing shortage wanted to locate in a district from which they were barred by the owners because of color restrictions. These Wesorts sent back anxious inquiries to their parish Ava. 15, 1945 priest for records to be used as proof that they were not Negroes. We are not told how they finally came out in this search for status. What happens to the Wesorts who mi- grate to the city? The answer to this ques- tion would be of the greatest assistance in understanding the nature of the attitudes and barriers that interpose themselves to the absorption of the Wesorts into the general population. At present the question can not be answered but the following sug- gestions might be made. A study of the family names in the city directories of Bal- timore and Washington would be one clue. The Baltimore City Directory from 1812 to 1923 designates its Negro population sepa- rately from the White and we find Wesort family names beginning to occur among the Negro classification far back in the nine- teenth century. Similarly, the Washington, D. C., city directory indicates the Negro population separately from 1850 to 1873. During this period and after, the Wesort family names occur with increasing fre- quency. A follow-up study of the addresses within the cities mentioned of persons with Wesort family names and of their location with reference to White, Negro, and foreign-born areas would help still further to indicate what becomes of the urban Wesort. What then, for practical purposes, is a Wesort? This may be answered in a general definition as a person of mixed Indian and White and possibly Negro blood who has a Wesort family name and who lives in or derives from Charles, Prince Georges, or St. Marys Counties in southern Maryland. Admittance to the Wesort category may be by birth or, as an Indian, White, or light mulatto outsider, by marriage to a Wesort. Little remains today of the Indian heritage among these people. In fact, there seem to be no unifying cultural traits to bind them into a common unity distinct from Whites and Negroes. There are no clubs or organizations peculiar to Wesorts. They are said, however, to celebrate an annual feast day on August 15, the day of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which commemorates her death and mirac- ulous ascent into heaven. This date is said GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND 245 to be celebrated by feasting, visits, ball games, and dances. It is also asserted that the local White Catholics do not cele- brate this occasion with such emphasis. The date and seasonal timing recall the Green Corn Festival which is so widespread and important to all the Southeastern Indians and perhaps in this respect it might constitute a survival of that rite. Also peculiar to Wesorts were several base- ball teams which in former years were organized by neighborhood groups and played games in a Wesort league. Although nothing has been reported in the meager literature on the Wesorts it is quite possible that various elements of both material and nonmaterial culture, peculiar to themselves, may still survive. It is said that medicine men or native herbalists still survive at Allen’s Fresh and Pomonkey and that these individuals still make arrowheads and can recount Indian traditions. Survivals in groups of this type of fish and animal traps, basketry, gourd cups, and carved wooden objects are not in themselves of much significance insofar as Indian origin is concerned. Of greater value might be their ecological linkage with such local features as the Zekiah Swamp and the old hunting territories of the Algonquins. The survival of primitive racial groups where alien invaders have mostly displaced their neighboring kinfolk may quite fre- quently be attributed to isolating ecological peculiarities such as swamp economy or mountain habitat. In fact the position of the Wesorts is made much clearer if we consider them in the perspective of Indian survival groups generally on the Atlantic coast from New England to Louisiana. Many of these groups have Indian tribal names, while some like the Wesorts do not. To the north in the rugged Ramapo range between New Jersey and New York are the Jackson Whites, a mixed Indian-White-Negro group set off by topographic factors. Farther south in southern New Jersey and northern Delaware are the Moors, who, like the Wesorts, are possibly survivals of mixed Indian and white swamp dwellers of colonial times. Similar Coastal Plain swamp mixed groups occur in Virginia, North and South 246 Carolina, and Florida, whose names are numerous (Brass-ankles, Red-bones, Croa- tans, etc.) and whose separate identities have never yet been seriously studied. Like the Wesorts they do not know anything of their origin, yet hold themselves aloof from the Negro even while repulsed by the Whites. As in the case of the Wesorts they are often thought of by the White as mulattoes. Like the Wesorts again they are often thought by the Whites to be boot- leggers and possible outlaws as well as good farmers and hunters. To the westward of the Coastal Plain in the Appalachian Moun- tains are similar groups such as the Melun- geons of Tennessee and the nearly related if not identical Guineas of West Virginia. Since many of these racial islands are occasionally visited by the western Indians and recognized by them as their coracials it has been proposed that the degenerative inbreeding of such groups as the Wesorts be compensated for by bringing in fresh blood from the larger western groups. The Wesorts are part of this pattern of the partially assimilated aborigines not only in the United States but of the world over. In the Far East the Miao groups of south- ern China, and in India the pariah out- castes or untouchable groups and hill tribes all exemplify similar cases of nonassimila- tion and ethnic groups or minorities that have been discriminated against. A close study of the Wesorts as a type of the out- casted group should go far toward ex- plaining the factors that are part of the world-wide impact of Europeans and their culture upon the native colored peoples of an alien tradition. What practical policies have there been on the part of the White man in dealing with minorities of this type in the United States? It might be noted that the trend in recent years has been toward a recognition of such racial minorities in the form of separate schools and provision for cor- porate organization and community cooper- ation. Such triracial recognition has been granted the Croatans of North Carolina and to some extent to the Cajans of Ala- bama and Nanticokes of Delaware. Appar- ently such policies have been developed because of the relatively high birth rates of these groups and the localized nature of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 their problems and the corresponding loss of hope in the possibility of dispersion and absorption in the general population. In a democracy the choice as to its future course must be left mainly up to the in- dividual minority. Should the Wesorts de- sire to organize into a corporation or association for mutual aid, such a course is perfectly within their rights. If, on the other hand, they should desire to continue, as they have for decades, to raise themselves socially as individuals and families only, this too could only meet with the coopera- tion and good wishes of their fellow citizens, both White and Negro. It will be of interest to watch the effects of future contacts of the Wesorts with similar mixed groups in the eastern States. ) LITERATURE CITED Anonymous. Wesorts, strange clan in Mary- land. New York Times, March 19, 1940. BrRUuMBAUGH, G. M. , Maryland Records, 2 vols. Baltimore, 1915-1928. Dopson, LINDEN 8. .. and Woo.tey, Janu Community organization in Charles C ounty, Maryland. Maryland Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. A21. College Park, Md., Jan. 1943. FootTneR, HutBertT. Maryland main and the eastern shore. New York, 1942. GRAHAM, Wiuu1AM J. The Indians of Port Tobacco, Maryland, and their burial places. Washington, D. C., 1935. Hover, F. W. Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1913- 1914. Washington, D. C., 1921. MaynarpD, THEropore. The story of American Catholicism. New York, 1941. SemMMES, RapHaEt. Aboriginal Maryland, 1608-1689. Part 2: The western shore. Maryland Hist. Mag. 24: 195-209. 1929. . Review of ‘“Delaware’s Forgotten Folk,” by C. A. Weslager. Maryland Hist. Mag. 39:86. 1944. . Captains and mariners of Early Mary- land. Baltimore, 1937. Speck, Frank G. Indians of the eastern shore of Maryland. 1922. UniITED STaTES BUREAU OF THE Heads of families, 1790, Maryland. Washington, 1907. UNITED STaTEsS Writers’ ProGRAM, W.P.A. Maryland, a guide to the Old Line State. New York, 1940. WARNER, EUGENE. Upper Marlboro ts proud of its old charming homes. Washington Times-Herald, August 28, 1939. WestaGeR, C. A. Delaware’s forgotten folk. Philadelphia, 1943. Wuitr, Roxana. They stand alone: The We- sorts of Charles County. Baltimore Sun, Nov. 12, 1939. CENSUS. Ava. 15, 1945 HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH 247 ZOOLOGY.—The subspecies and intergrades of the Florida burrowing crayfish, Procambarus rogersi (Hobbs)... Horron H. Hoses, Jr., University of Florida. (Communicated by WALpDo L. ScuMIrTT.) The first record of the presence of bur- rowing crayfishes occurring in the State of Florida that has come to my attention was that of Roland M. Harper (1914, p. 248). In discussing the Apalachicola flatwoods he states, ““Much of the soil is too damp for ants, gophers, and salamanders, but craw- fish are common in some places, if one may judge from their ‘chimneys,’ which are usually closed at the top, instead of open like the more familiar ones in more clayey soils farther inland.’”’ These burrows were probably constructed by one or more of the following crayfishes: P. rogersi campes- tris, P. rogersi ochlocknensis, P. rogersi inter- grades, P. kilbyi,? P. apalachicolae,* and P. latipleurum,‘ all of which have been found in portions of the Apalachicola flatwoods. The subspecies of Procambarus rogersi— fr fogerst. Fr. campesiris, and P. r. ochlocknensis—are characterized by the structure of the first pleopod of the first form male. The mesial process is well de- veloped, spiniform, or slightly compressed; the cephalic process is either lacking or is present as a reduced spine on the cephalo- distal surface; the caudal process is large and thumblike, bent mesiad at a 15°-90° angle with the main shaft; the central pro- jection is large and platelike, directed across the cephalodistal surface or obliquely distad in a cephalomesial to caudolateral direction. Hooks are present on the ischiopodites of only the third pereiopods of the male. The subspecies are distinct, though form- ing at times unmistakable intergrades. Their ranges cover a considerable area in the eastern and central parts of the pan- handle of Florida. The extreme eastern and western limits of the ranges of this assem- blage are almost 100 miles apart, while the most northern and southern limits are sepa- rated by a distance of about 50 miles. Within these limits are portions of Bay, Gadsden, Gulf, Calhoun, Franklin, Leon, Liberty, and Wakulla Counties. Contribution from Department of Biology, University of Florida. Received February 27, 1945. 2 Hobbs, 1940, p. 410. ; ® Hobbs, 1942b, p. 55. 4 Hobbs, 1942b, p. 52. All three are primary burrowers,°® with presumably poor powers of dispersal. Their ranges extend through a monotonous flat- woods, broken only here and there by small, scattered areas unsuitable for habi- tation by them. If rogersi had a higher vagil- ity, such a range would seem to favor main- tenance of a homogeneous population over the entire area, but instead the region is in- habited by small, local, inbred populations. When specimens from several of these are compared, it becomes evident that the sub- species of P. rogers: and their intergrades form a very heterogeneous complex. The zone of intergradation consists of a large area in Franklin, Gulf, and Bay Counties and the southern parts of Liberty and Wakulla Counties. Toward the eastern side of this area, in eastern Franklin and western Wakulla Counties, specimens show a definite approach to rogersi campestris, which occurs in Leon and Wakulla Coun- ties; west of the Apalachicola River, in northern Gulf County, material is closer to rogerst rogerst; while in the southern part of Liberty County the intermediates in most characters more closely resemble rogersz ochlocknensis. In general, the nearer one ap- proaches the ranges of each of the three well-defined subspecies, the more nearly do the intermediates resemble typical mate- rial of the subspecies from that particular part of the range. The actual situation in respect to the intergrades is more complex than is here indicated and will be discussed more in detail following the descriptions of the subspecies. SYSTEMATIC DISCUSSION KEYS TO THE SUBSPECIES OF PROCAMBARUS ROGERSI® Males 1. Caudal process of first pleopod bent but not so much as at a right angle to the main shaft OL TE ACURA RE are ce a 8 de che 3; 0.6.5) ohh 2 5 Primary burrowers are those crayfish that spend practically their entire lives in their bur- rows. 6 It is not possible to construct a key to the intergrades of the several subspecies of P. rogersi. These are fully discussed on page 257. 248 Caudal process of first pleopod bent at a right angle to the main shaft of the appendage. . Ee Intel OSS es dee Ts iey 2 hea Re rogerst rogerst 2. Central projection of first pleopod directed laterad across the cephalic face of the APPEMEALS a fs eee ee rogerst campestris Central projection of first pleopod directed obliquely caudolaterad from the cephalo- distalsurface.< 70.4.2): rogerst ochlocknensis Females 1. Annulus ventralis only slightly if at all broader than long, usually longer than broad; cephalic margin cleft, with strongly developedtubercles..,.) 4. 3k oS. epose 2 Annulus ventralis much broader than long; cephalic margin entire, with or without very low, rounded tubercles....... rogerst rogerst 2. Annulus ventralis subcylindrical; caudal half not anywhere flattened; cephalic half STOVE DDK Oey pu alseosnn cee See rogerst campestris Annulus ventralis much longer than broad; caudal half flattened below with a single large, median, dome-shaped structure; ce- phalic half vatlike...... rogerst ochlocknensis Procambarus rogersi rogersi (Hobbs) Figs. 2, 14, 17, 22, 25 Cambarus rogerst Hobbs, 1938, pp. 61-65, figs. 1-11; 1940, p. 410. Procambarus rogerst Hobbs, 1942a, p. 344. Procambarus rogerst rogerst Hobbs, 1942b, p. 89, pl. 5, figs. 71-75, map 5. Diagnosis.—Hooks present on ischiopodites of third pereiopods only; rostrum without lat- eral spines, areola obliterated in middle, or al- most obliterated with a single row of puncta- tions along fusion line of branchiostegites. First pleopod of first form male with platelike central projection directed across cephalic sur- face, caudal process noncorneous, thumblike, and bent caudomesiad at a right angle to the main shaft. Annulus ventralis broader than long; cephalic margin entire. Description —PARATYPIC MALE, FORM I: Carapace subovate. Width of carapace in re- gion of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove greater than height (1.82-1.27 cm). Greatest width of carapace about midway between cervical groove and caudal margin of cephalo- thorax (1.45 em). Areola obliterated in middle, depressed, more than half as long as cephalic section of carapace (1.17—1.69 cm). Rostrum broad-lanceolate; apex not ening distal end of second joint of antennule peduncle; upper surface excavate, with a row of puncta- tions along raised margins; margins gradually tapering to apex; no lateral spines present. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 Apex of rostrum directed ventrad, extreme apex abruptly bent upward. Subrostral ridges evident in dorsal view for over half the distance between postorbital ridges and tip of rostrum. Rostral ridges extending forward to apex of rostrum. Postorbital ridges extending caudad more than half the distance between apex of rostrum and cervical groove. i Surface of carapace punctate dorsad; granu- late laterad. No lateral spines present. Subor- bital angle lacking. Branchiostegal spines small. Abdomen shorter and narrower than cara- pace. Anterior section of telson with one spine in the right and two in the left posterolateral angles. Epistome broadly sublanceolate with slightly undulant margins; terminating cephalad in a small cephalomedian tubercle. Antennules of the usual form; no spines pres- ent on ventral side of basal segment. Antennae hardly reaching caudal margin of carapace when bent caudad. Antennal scale small; extending almost to end of second joint of peduncle of antennule. Spine on outer mar- gin strong. First pereiopod very broad and flattened, triangulate, with sharp apex. Inner margin of -palm with a cristiform row of eight tubercles. Both surfaces of hand as well as fingers with setiferous punctations. Both fingers with two distinct ridges. Palm with a prominent ridge along articulation with movable finger. Mova- ble finger: Dorsal surface with a prominent submedian ridge extending from base almost to tip. Outer margin studded with four tubercles along proximal third; remaining distal two- thirds with about eight setiferous punctations. Opposable margin with excision slightly proxi- mad of midlength; margin broken by two major tubercles (one at point of excision, the other near base of finger) between which are two smaller ones; four small tubercles present distad of distal major tubercle beyond which is a row of minute denticles extending almost to tip of finger. Immovable finger: Outer margin, in the form of a distinct ridge, with deep setiferous punctations; a few small tubercles present at base. Dorsal surface of finger with a prominent submedian ridge which curves inward at base following the general curvature of opposable margin of finger. Opposable margin inter- rupted by five tubercles, the second from base the largest. Carpus longer than broad; longer © 4 = Ave. 15, 1945 than inner margin of palm of chela; a deep longitudinal groove above; inner surface with three large tubercles and a few scattered smaller ones. Two large, acute tubercles on distal ventromesial surface. A single large, ball- . like tubercle on distal ventrolateral margin fits into a socket on lower surface of chela. Merus smooth except on lower surface which has an inner row of ten small, spikelike tubercles and an outer row of nine rounded ones. Ischiopodite of third pereiopod hooked; hook strong, long. First pleopod of male extending cephalad to base of second pereiopod. Tip terminating in three distinct parts. The mesial process, heavy but terminating in a spiniform tip, is bent caudolaterad. The cephalic process is absent. The caudal process is noncorneous, thumblike, and directed caudomesiad at a right angle to the main shaft of the appendage. The central projection is thin, corneous, and platelike and is directed across the cephalic surface of the appendage. PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differs from the male of the first form chiefly in the reduction of the sexual and secondary sexual characters, a total absence of corneous parts in the first pleopod, and a reduction of the hooks on the third pereiopods. PARATYPIC FEMALE: Differs from the male of the first form in that the chelae are not so heavy, and there are slight variations in posi- tion and size of tubercles. Annulus ventralis broader than long with fossa disappearing below left caudal margin. Cephalic margin entire with only very low rounded tubercles. A deep pit present in dex- tral half with rather steep walls except on cephalic and sinistral sides; caudal wall defi- nitely overhanging. Sinus cutting caudal wall slightly sinistrad of midlength. Measurements —PARATYPIC MALE: Carapace, height 1.32, width 1.45, length 2.86 cm; areola, linear, length 1.17 cm; rostrum, length 0.28, width 0.35 cm; abdomen, length 2.40 em; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 0.66, width of palm 1.11, length of outer margin of hand 1.92, length of movable finger 1.36 cm. PARATYPIC FEMALE: Carapace, height 1.20, width 1.27, length 2.48 ecm; areola linear, length 0.96 cm; rostrum, length 0.33, width 0.33 em; abdomen, length 2.30 em; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 0.51, HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH 249 width of palm 0.88, length of outer margin of hand 1.57, length of movable finger 1.07 em. Type locality—‘‘Low pine flat-woods four miles north of Blountstown on State Highway no. 6”’ (Hobbs, 1938, p. 65). Distribution —Calhoun County, Fla. Procambarus rogersi rogerst is endemic to Florida, and its range seems to be confined to a relatively small area in the panhandle of the State west of the Apalachicola River. Here it. occupies a small area of flatwoods running north and south in the eastern part of Calhoun (and probably Gulf) County. Although no records of rogersi rogerst have been established in Gulf County, there are records of what I interpret as intergrades, P. r. rogerst Xcampes- tris, in the broad expanse of coastal flatwoods in the southern part of the county. The linear form of the range of this sub- species may be explained by the distribution of the available flatwoods and the presence of the Apalachicola River on the east and the elevated strip of loamy Norfolk sand that ex- tends on the east side of the River from Liberty County to the northern part of Franklin County. The combination of the two latter features certainly prevents migration east- ward. The northern and western boundaries of the range are determined by well-drained soils that appear to form an efficient barrier to migration. The western boundary extends as far southward as the central part of Gulf County, but the southern limit of the range cannot be definitely set since the intergrada- tion zone (rogerst Xcampestris X ochlocknensis) probably occurs in Gulf County. Variation.—Procambarus rogersi rogers seems to show little variation. In most of the specimens there is no spine present on the ventral surface of the basal joint of the an- tennule; however, occasionally there is a spine on one or both antennules. The cephalic process of the first pleopod of the male is gen- erally not even present as a vestige, though oc- casionally it is strongly developed. The areola is sometimes not quite obliterated in middle. The epistome varies in form from semicircular to subtriangular. Ecology.—Procambarus rogerst rogersi is a primary burrowing species and has been col- lected only in the flatwoods region around Blountstown. A definite plant association com- posed of pitcherplants (Sarracenia drummond1, 250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 S. flava, and S. psittacina), sundews (Drosera), club moss (Lycopodium), wiregrass, and hatpins (EHricaulon) is characteristic of the flatwoods flora where this crayfish has been taken. Gener- ally in a locality in which these plants were observed from the road, burrows of some mem- ber of the rogerst group were found to be pres- ent; only in a few instances have I found no crayfish burrows in a situation of this type. In many places the water table is only a few inches below the surface, in others as deep as 3 feet. The crayfish burrows are numerous in the Blountstown region, and since the chimneys range from 4 to 8 inches in height they are easily observed. The soil is a mixture of sand and clay underlain by clay, and the pellets com- posing the chimneys retain their rounded shape. Most of the chimneys are somewhat carefully constructed. P. rogersi constructs a very complex burrow, which often extends horizontally 4 or 5 feet. Usually there are several passages—some that end blindly and others that open to the out- side through chimneys. Generally, as in the case of the advena’ burrows, there is a single spiral passage that goes below the average water table. In some places the water is reached in less than a foot; in others it is about 2 feet below the surface. In any case, I have never had to dig more than 3 feet to reach the bottom of the passage. In digging out a specimen from its burrow it is best to locate the deep passage and stir the water in it vigorously; allow it to become still, and within a very short time the cray- fish will usually come to the surface. Occasion- ally it is necessary to dig to the bottom, or in 7 LeConte, 1856, p. 402. some instances to dig out the entire burrow. Although most of my specimens have been taken from the deepest passage of the burrow I havefound some clinging to the roots of wire- _grass or of some other plant in the roof of one of the horizontal passages. In one locality (about 8 miles north of Blountstown) the open, gently sloping flat- woods are essentially a large seepage area covering several acres. The ground is very spongy, and in spots, were it not for the heavy growth of grass, one would probably ‘‘bog down.”’ In this locality the burrows are ex- tremely numerous. As the water table is prob- ably at the surface most of the year, the cray- fish in their burrowing seem to expend their energy in constructing horizontal passages. In this locality the ground is so riddled with bur- rows that one can scarcely dig a spadeful of soil without exposing one of them. In the burrows just mentioned an amphipod (Crangonyx sp.), an albinistic isopod (Asellus hobbst Maloney), a beetle (Bidessus rogersi Young), and a copepod (Cyclops sp.) are abundant. On the crayfish were found some of the amphipods mentioned above, a branchiob- dellid [Cambarincola philadelphica (Leidy)], and an ostracod. Although I have taken no other crayfish from burrows in the same habitat with rogerst rogerst, P. kilbyt was collected in large num- bers from burrows and among the vegetation in a temporary stream close by. Material examined—CatHoun County: 4 miles north of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (4-1335-1, 1@I, 32 ¢), (4-1737-4, 27 AI, 2% WII, 12); 8 miles north of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (4-1737-2, 59 #1, 2¢7 AI, 32 9), (6-938-4, 27 FIT, 9 2 9); 9 miles north of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (4-738-11 Fiaes. 1-16.—1, Caudal view of first pleopod of male, form II, Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis; 2, annulus ventralis of P. r. rogerst from Calhoun County; 3, annulus ventralis of P. r. campestris from Leon County; 4, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. r. campestris; 5, annulus ventralis of an intergrade from Franklin County, west of the Apalachicola River; 6, annulus ventralis of an inte- grade from Franklin County, near the Franklin-Wakulla County line; 7, lateral view of carapace of P. r. campestris; 8, annulus ventralis of an intergrade from Franklin County 10 miles west of Carra- belle; 9, annulus ventralis of an intergrade from Franklin County 7 miles west of Carrabelle; 10, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis from Liberty County; 11, annulus ventralis of P. r. ochlocknensis from Gadsden County; 12, annulus ventralis of P. r. ochlocknensis from Liberty County; 13, Caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis from Gadsden County; 14, upper surface of chela of P. r. rogerst from Calhoun County; 15, upper surface of chela of P. r. ochlocknensis from Liberty County; 16, upper surface of chela of P. r. campestris from Leon County. The drawings of the chelae (Figs. 14-16) were made from paratypes, and so there are some discrepan- cies in the illustrations and text in the number and distribution of tubercles. Pubescence has been re- moved from all structures figured. = —- 251 THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH HOBBS Ava. 15, 1945 (See opposite page for legend.) Figs. 1-16. 252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 271, 19); 2.5 miles south of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (4-738-9, 1 I); 5.5 miles south of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (5-341-16, 1 @I,1 9). Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis Hobbs Figs. 1, 10, 11, 13, 15, 19, 20, 26 Procambarus rogerst ochlocknensts Hobbs, 1942b, p. 89, pl. 5, figs. 76-80, map 5. Diagnosis——Hooks present on ischiopodites of third pereiopods only; rostrum without lateral spines; areola obliterated in middle. First pleopod of first form male with fanlike central projection directed caudolaterad; cau- dal process noncorneous (somewhat swollen but not distinctly thumblike asin the other subspecies of rogersi) and directed at a 15°—40° angle to the main shaft. Annulus ventralis ovate with the greatest length in the longitu- dinal axis, the cephalic border deeply cleft. Description. HoLoryPic MALE, FoRM I: Dif- fers from P. rogersi rogersi in the following points: Ratio of height to width of carapace in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove 1.25:1.23. Areola 42.3 per cent of entire length of carapace; obliterated. Rostrum with margins slightly concave, deeply excavate above. Subrostral ridges evident in dorsal aspect to base of acumen. Lateral surface of carapace entirely granulate. Branchiostegal spines absent. Anterior section of telson with two spines in each of the posterolateral angles. Epistome subtriangular with a single gentle swelling on each cephalolateral margin. Inner margin of palm of first right pereiopod with a cristiform row of nine tubercles. Chela slightly narrower than in other two races (i.e., propor- tion of width of hand to length of inner margin of palm). (See Fig. 15.) Opposable margin of movable finger without deep excision in basal half; outer margin with two tubercles along proximal two-fifths. Opposable margin of im- movable finger with five tubercles ranging in size (numbering from base) from the largest 3, 5, 2, 4, 1; minute denticles crowded along distal half of Same margin interrupted by the VOL. 35, NO. 8 two more distal tubercles. Carpus with only two spines on distal portion of inner surface. First pleopod extending almost to base of second pereiopod; tip ending in four distinct parts. The mesial process, long and spiniform, is bent caudad and laterad. The cephalic process is a small spiculiform spine partially hidden, particularly in caudal view, by the cen- tral projection. It is hidden among the sub- terminal plumose setae. The caudal process is heavy, noncorneous, somewhat inflated, and is directed mesiodistad. The central projection is a corneous, thin, platelike structure directed obliquely caudolaterad from ae cephalodistal surface. PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differsfrom the first form male in the usual reduction of spiny and corneous parts. Epistome more elongate than in the first form male. Right rostral ridge not continuous to tip but similar to that of the holotype of rogersi campestris. ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Differs only in a few — minor points from the first form male. Spiny portions reduced. The number of tubercles on the inner margin of the chelae is nine and seven, left and right, respectively. The rostrum is similar to that of the second form male; mar- gins not as decidedly concave. Annulus ventralis differing from that of rogersi rogerst in the following points: Cephalic wall deeply cleft; opening ditchlike with high lateral walls (in some specimens walls over- hanging). Lateral walls with a few large rounded tubercles. These walls are directed caudolaterad, and just cephalad of midlength are suddenly bent mesiad and diminish in height to the level of the caudal part of the organ. Across the caudal face of the fossa the wall is somewhat pinched so that it is slightly contorted and folded. In the sinistral caudo- lateral portion there is an oval mound cut by the caudal portion of the sinus. The general outline is subovate with the greatest length in the longitudinal rather than in the transverse axis as in rogerst rogerst. Figs. 17-33.—17, Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, Procambarus rogerst rogersi; 18, mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. campestris; 19, mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis; 20, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis; 21, lateral view of first pleopod of ‘male, form I, P. r. campestris; 22, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form’ I, Fa rogerst; 23, mesial view of first ‘pleopod of male, form I, P. advena; 24, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. campestris; 25, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. rogersi; 26, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis; 27, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, Procambarus advena; 28-33, caudal views of the first pleopods of males from the region of inter grada- tion (28, Bay County; 29, Gulf County; 30-32, Franklin County; 33, 5 auee County). Pubescence has been removed from al ‘structures figured. | : Ava. 15, 1945 at ar a 2 phhoy sea heee “a 74g 3 4 Br 8 29 placa NA eae al alte 28. HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH _* 4%, .°% ‘ NET A ae Soon ae 4% Se.5te eR SS, ALIS TS 29 Figs. 17—33.—(See opposite page for legend.) 253 254 Measurements.—Ho.ortyPe: Carapace, height 1.25, width 1.23, length 2.65 cm; areola linear, length 1.12 cm; rostrum, length 0.30, width 0.35 em; abdomen, length 2.37 cm; right chela, inner margin of palm 0.55, width of palm 0.88, length of outer margin of hand 1.56, length of movable finger 1.05 cm. ALLOTYPE: Carapace, height 1.16, width 1.27, length 2.51 cm; areola linear, length 0.96 cm, rostrum, length 0.30, width 0.35 cm; abdomen, length 2.31 cm; left chela, inner mar- gin of palm 0.57, width of palm 0.95, length of outer margin of hand 1.50, length of movable finger 1.00 cm. Type locality —Seven and three-tenths miles west of Quincy on U. 8. Highway 90, Gadsden County, Fla. In this locality a narrow strip of grassy flatwoods borders a swampy area along Telogia Creek, a tributary to the Ochlocknee River. Pinus palustris, two Sarracenias (per- haps psittacina and flava), and grasses make up the more conspicuous vegetation of the area, while Pogonia, Aletris, Ascyrum, and Hypert- cum are common. Along the swamp margin are Cerothamnus, Magnolia virginiana, Hydrangea, and an evergreen shrub, possibly Nyssa biflora. Disposition of types—The holotypic male, the allotypic female, and a paratypic male, form II, are deposited in the United States National Museum (no. 79383). Of the remain- ing paratypes, one male, form I, one male, form IJ, and a female are deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology; one male, form I, five males, form II, and six females are in my personal collection. » Distribution—Gadsden and Liberty Coun- ties, Fla. This subspecies is probably confined to Gadsden and northern Liberty Counties and is perhaps restricted to areas adjacent to the Telogia River, a tributary of the Ochlocknee River. Thus to the north this subspecies is limited in its range by well-drained areas bor- dering Telogia Creek, which extends a little north of U. 8. Highway 90 between Quincy and River Junction. The eastern boundary seems to be clearly marked by the Ochlocknee River, while the western limit is terminated by a strip of high, well-drained soils east of the Apalachicola River in Liberty County. At the south there is no sharp demarcation line be- tween this subspecies, rogerst rogersi and rogerst campestris, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 35, NO. 8 Variation.—Few ‘variations have been ob- served among the specimens examined. The annulus ventralis and the first pleopod of the male show a few slight differences, and the number of tubercles along the inner margin of the palm of the chela is variable. Other slight variations occur in the rostrum, ae and in various spiny portions. Ecology.—P. rogersi ochlocknensis has been taken from two types of situations. The locali- ties in Gadsden County are fluctuating seepage areas along a small stream and in narrow strips of flatwoods bordering streams. The burrows here are typical of the rogers: group, and the soil from which they were dug is a coarse sandy clay in some places overlain by muck or sandy loam; the water table ranges from the surface to about two feet below it. In Liberty County most of the specimens were taken from burrows in the flatwoods. Here for the most part the soil is a sandy mixture, and in places clay is almost at the surface. The water table is 6 to 18 inches be- low the surface. The burrows are 1 to 2 feet deep and extremely rambling, many with several carefully built chimneys, which are of the same type described for P. rogersi rogerst. The plant associations in this locality are domi- nated by pines, ti-ti (Cliftonia monophylla), and Ascyrum linifolium; Drosera and other semi- aquatics are common. In another area of gently sloping pine flatwoods, the commoner plants consist of Pinus sp., Cliftonia mono- phylla, Ilex glaber, Pinguicula sp., Aronia arbu- tifolia, Cyanococcus spp., Drosera sp., and wire- grass. The soil is probably of the Plummer series. The crayfish were taken from complex burrows averaging 1 to 14 feet in depth. Pro- cambarus kilbyi was taken from adjacent bur- rows that are much simpler in structure. Ostracods and branchiobdellids (Cambarincola sp.) were found clinging to rogerst ochlocknen- sis. In general the habits of this crayfish seem to be similar to those of P. rogerst rogersv. In the type locality in Gadsden County Procambarus leonensis? was taken from bur- rows adjacent to those of ochlocknensis, and in the stream close by this same species was, along with P. spiculifer,® and Orconectes cly- peata.!° In Liberty County P. kilbyi was taken 8 Hobbs, 1942b, p. 114; 1942c, p. 49. ® LeConte, 1856, p. 401. 10 Hay, 1899, pp. 122-128. Aug. 15, 1945 from burrows interspaced among the burrows of ochlocknensis. Material examined.—GapsDEN County: 7.3 miles west of Quincy [U. 8S. Highway 90] (4-1437-1, 1 #I, 1 2), (3-1739-3, 19), (5-141- la, 2¢ @1, 27 AI, 22 2); 8.3 miles south- west of junction of State Highways 12 and 135 on Highway 135 (5-141-3, 1 @I, 1 2); 2.7 miles southwest of junction of U. 8. Highway 90 and State Highway 12 on Highway 12 (5-141-2, 1 #11). Liserty County: 4.5 miles north of Hosford [State Highway 135] (5-141-5, 3 7 #Il, 392 9). The remaining specimens from follow- ing localities are slightly atypical: Near Hosford (12-937-la, 1 I); 1.6 miles west of the Och- locknee River [State Highway 19] (3-1639-1a, 171, 1g, 82 2); 4 miles east of Hosford [State Highway 19] (8-1739-la, 2¢@aI, 27 All, 72 29, 22 2 with eggs, 1@# imm., 1 2 imm.); 9 miles west of Hosford [State High- way 19] (3-1739-Sa, 1 9); near Hosford (8-234- 1, 1 2); 3.5 miles east of Hosford [State High- way 19] (4-841-1, 27 II, 1 2 with eggs). Procambarus rogersi campestris Hobbs Figs. 3, 4, 7, 16, 18, 21, 24 Procambarus rogersi campestris Hobbs, 1942b, _ p. 90, pl. 6, figs. 81-85, map 5. Diagnosis—Hooks present on ischiopodites of third pereiopods only; rostrum without lateral spines; areola obliterated in middle. First pleopod of first form male with fanlike central projection directed across cephalic sur- face; caudal process thumblike and directed at a 45° angle to the main shaft. Annulus ventralis subeylindrical with cephalic border open; troughlike with high, multituberculate lateral ridges. Description—HoOLoTYPIc MALE, FORM I: Differing from one or the other subspecies in the following points: Width of carapace greater than height (1.65:1.45 cm). Areola 40.9 per cent of entire length of carapace. Areola oblit- erated; no punctations in fusion line of branchiostegites. Subrostral ridges prominent; rostral ridges do not extend to tip of rostrum. (See Fig. 7.) Cephalic region in lateral aspect not evenly rounded. Lateral surfaces of cara- pace granulate. Branchiostegal spines absent. Anterior section of telson with two spines in each of the posterolateral angles. Epistome broadly subovate with an acute cephalo- median projection. Antennules with a spine HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH 255 present on ventral side of basal segments. Inner margin of palm of first pereiopod with a cristi- form row of nine tubercles. Opposable margin of movable finger with deep excision in basal half. Outer margin with five tubercles on proximal half. Outer margin of immovable finger bearing a row of tubercles along proximal half and setiferous punctations on distal half. The one major tubercle on opposable margin lies somewhat distad of midway between the two major tubercles on movable finger. Two smaller tubercles proximad of the major tuber- cle. A single row of minute denticles along distal half is broken at intervals by five tu- bercles. First pleopod extending to base of second pereiopod, distinctly separated at tip; tip ending in four parts. The mesial process is heavy and sinuate (in mesial view), tapering to a point; bent obliquely and laterally, passing beneath the caudal process. The cephalic process is much reduced (can be seen only in mesial and cephalic views), and is closely ap- plied to the central projection at the base of the cephalomesial face. The caudal process is large and thumblike and extends at a 45° angle to the main shaft in a mesiodistal direction. The central projection forms a large corneous fan across the cephalic side of the tip and is also bent at about a 45° angle to the main shaft; however, directed laterodistad. PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differs from the first form male in only a few minor details, chiefly in the reduction of the sexual and secondary sexual parts (there being no corneous parts), and the number of tubercles and spines. The cephalic process of the first pleopod is much more conspicuous in the second form male than in the male of the first form. The rostral ridges extend to the tip of the acumen. Anterior section of telson with one spine in each posterolateral angle. ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Besides the sexual and secondary sexual characters, the female differs from the first form male in the following points: Spiny and tuberculate portions slightly dif- ferent; right rostral ridge as in holotype; left as in second form male paratype. Annulus ventralis differing from that of rogersi rogersi in the following points: Cephalic wall open, troughlike, with rather high lateral walls. Lateral walls tuberculate cephalad, and continuous with the caudal wall which is 256 lower, decidedly lower left of the midventral line. Whereas the annulus of rogersi rogersi is subovate and broader than long, the annulus of rogerst campestris is subeylindrical. Measurements —Ho.orype: Carapace, height 1.45, width 1.65, length 3.15 cm; areola linear, length 1.29 cm; rostrum, length 0.40, width 0.39 cm; abdomen, length 2.90 cm; right chela, inner margin of palm 0.74, width of palm 1.28, length of outer margin of hand 2.19, length of movable finger 1.46 cm. ALLoTYPE: Carapace, height 1.35, width 1.54, length 3.02 cm; areola, linear, length 1.15 cm; rostrum, length 0.36, width 0.39 em; abdomen, length 2.90 cm; right chela, inner margin of palm 0.65, width of palm 1.12, length of outer margin of hand 1.97, length of movable finger 1.34 cm. Type locality —A low, pine flatwoods about 12 miles south of Tallahassee, Leon County, Fla., along the east side of Horseshoe Bay (the exact location: Sec. 16-17, T. 25, R. 2 W.). This locality is a typical sour-gum and ti-ti bay region. The hammock is quite low, with very acid soil and water, and is subject to flooding in wet weather. The soil is largely muck and sand, and at the time of digging the water table was about 3 feet below the surface. Pines, wiregrass, palmetto, gallberry, and ti-ti shrubs are characteristic of the flora, and pitcherplants and sundews are common. Disposition of types.—The holotypic male, form I, the allotypic female, and a form II male paratype are deposited in the United States National Museum (no. 79384). Two fe- male paratypes are in the Museum of Com- parative Zoology. The remaining paratypes, one male, form I, one male, form II, and 13 females are in my personal collection. Distribution—Leon and Wakulla Counties. The typical forms of P. rogersi campestris are found in the southwestern part of Leon and northwestern part of Wakulla Counties. This subspecies is also a Florida endemic and prob- ably occupies the greater portion of the western half of Wakulla and the southwestern quarter of Leon Counties. The range of campestris is bounded on the west by the Ochlocknee River, which, together with the well-drained soils adjacent to it, serves as an effective barrier in Leon and the northern part of Wakulla Counties but is only a partial barrier in the southern part of Wakulla County; the eastern boundary is a region of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, NO. 8 high, well-drained soils extending through the middle of Wakulla County to the Gulf. The northern boundary lies in the southwestern part of Leon County where the flatwoods end in well-drained, rolling hills. Variation.—There is no indication of in- bred local populations among my specimens of P. rogersi campestris; the only differences ob- served seem to be individual ones, involving sizes and positions of spines and tubercles. Ecology Like the other members of this species, rogerst campestris is a primary bur- rower, apparently confined to flatwoods. The flatwoods east of the Ochlocknee River are not markedly different from those described in the discussion of the ecology of P. rogersi rogersi, except that the soil is underlain by hardpan rather than clay. There are pines, wiregrass, pitcherplants, sundews, etc., and the soil is much the same general type—that is, most of it is poorly drained and supports an abundant growth of semiaquatic plants. The burrows are very complex and often run horizontally for several feet; many of them reach the surface in several places. On one oc- casion I dug into one of these burrows and followed the spiral passage downward for 5 feet and still had not reached the bottom. This burrow was about a hundred yards from the border of a bayhead, and its unusual depth was probably explained by the fact that just prior to the time I collected here there had been an unusually long dry season. Several specimens of Crangonyx sp. were taken from the burrows, some of them clinging to the abdomens of the crayfish. Many ostra- cods and branchiobdellid worms (Cambarin- cola vitrea Ellis) were found clinging to the crayfish. In only two instances has another species been collected with rogerst campestris. P. kilbyt was taken from burrows adjacent to those of campestris. The burrows of the two species, however, are very distinct in that those of kilbyi are generally simple, while those of campestris are very complex. , Material examined.—Lron County: 12 miles southwest of Tallahassee (11-2736-1, 2¢ HI, 27 HII, 109 9). WaxkutLta County": 28 11 Perhaps some of the locality records from Wakulla County should be listed under the inter- grade localities, although most of the specimens taken here are scarcely to be distinguished from typical campestris. Aue. 15, 1945 miles north of Sopchoppy [State Highway 127] (6-538-6, 1@1); 2 miles south of Sopchoppy [U. S. Highway 319] (5-2940-8, 1@II, 42 9, 22 2 imm.);7.5 miles northwest of Sopchoppy [State Highway 127] (6-538-8b, 19); 7 miles north of Sopchoppy [State Highway 127] (6-538-9, 1 #II); 16 miles southwest of Talla- hassee (8-0436-2,6 9 9). INTERGRADES The characters in which the evidences of intergradation are most clearly seen are the structure of the first pleopod of the male and of the annulus ventralis of the female. The variations in these structures are gradual and essentially quantitative rather than discon- tinuous ones. In the male there is, from one extremity of the range to the other, a gradual change in the degree of bending of certain of the terminal processes and in the relative sizes of the various tips. (See Figs. 1, 4, 10, 13, and 17-33.) For example, the caudal process of the first pleopod of the males from Calhoun County (rogersi) is bent laterad at a right angle to the main shaft of the appendage. In specimens from Gulf and Franklin Coun- ties, west of the Apalachicola River (inter- grades), the process, while bent, forms less than a right angle with the main shaft. Specimens from Franklin County east of the Apalachi- cola River and from southern Liberty County (intergrades) have this process even more erect, and finally, in material from Wakulla and Leon Counties (campestris), and from northern Liberty and Gadsden Counties (ochlocknensis), the process is still more nearly straight. In the region of intergradation occasional specimens occur which are structurally out of place, but considering the series as a whole the gradation is quite evident. Similarly the annulus ventralis shows grad- ual changes in gross shape, in configuration of the fossa and sinus, and in surface contour. (See Figs. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, and 12.) In speci- mens from Calhoun County (rogersi) this structure is subelliptical, with the longest axis directed laterad and with only a few very small tubercles on the cephalic border, which is en- tire. In specimens from west of the Apalachi- cola River in Bay and Gulf Counties (inter- grades) the annulus is broader than long, but this characteristic is not so marked as in the Calhoun County females; the tubercles on HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH 257 the cephalic border are also more strongly developed. In specimens from east of the Apalachicola in Franklin and Liberty Counties (intergrades) the annulus ventralis is more elongate and the tubercles decidedly higher. The opposite extreme from the annulus ven- tralis of the Calhoun County specimens is seen in the females from Gadsden County (ochlock- nensis). Here it is much longer than broad, the cephalic margins strongly tuberculate and cleft. The campestris population in Wakulla and Leon Counties has the annulus ventralis more like the Franklin County intergrades. Additional similarly merging variations may be noted in the figures of these structures. While there are other differences between the three geographic races, they do not show so clearly the gradual blending exhibited by the first pleopod of the male and the annulus ven- tralis of the female. As shown by the accompanying map, the area inhabited by the intergrades is larger than the combined ranges of the three defined races, and extends considerably to the west along the coast. That the population of this area does not itself constitute a recognizable race distinct from the others, as might be sus- pected on geographical grounds, becomes evi- dent when the variation described above is further analyzed. In western Franklin County the crayfish are most nearly intermediate in characteristics between r. rogersi, r. campestris, and r. ochlocknensis, and at the same time are the most heterogeneous, showing the most vari- able admixtures of the characters of the three races. The farther east one goes in Franklin and southern Wakulla Counties the more nearly does the population approach campestris, while in northern Franklin and southern Liberty counties a similar approach occurs to typical ochlocknensis. Just west of the Apalachicola River the population is still highly variable, but shows a tendency toward rogersi, and prob- ably intergrades fully with that race in the north-central part of Gulf County. Farther west the population is still heterogeneous, though closer to rogersit than to either of the more eastern races; however, it can not even be called atypical rogersi, since features suggest- ing campestris and ochlocknensis, which are never present in typical rogersi, occur in in- dividual specimens. Two rather startling situations involving 258 specimens from local areas in Bay County de- serve further remarks. One of these peculiar situations arises in the peninsula, herein desig- nated as the San Blas Peninsula, between East Bay and the Gulf. The first pleopods of the males taken in this peninsula are almost typical of rogerst rogerst from Calhoun County, while the annulus ventralis in the females is not nearly so typical—being similar to that of the intergrades found in other sections of Bay County and in Gulf County. This condition is peculiar, since both males and females from the mainland to the north and east are defi- nitely of the intergrade types. Perhaps an ex- planation for this apparently local condition may be made by the further assumption that rogerst rogerst had already become differen- tiated by the end of the Pamlico submergence, and as the land emerged to the south, this species followed the retreating shore line, moving out into the area now constituting the San Blas Peninsula. Subsequent influx of the ochlocknensis and the campestris stocks from the east resulted in the intergradation (hybrid- ization) of these stocks in Gulf and Bay coun- ties, but at the same time establishing two semi-isolated areas of rogerst rogersi—one in Calhoun County, the range of typical rogersi, and the other in the San Blas Peninsula, the later perhaps being more subject to inter- gradation than the former because of its geo- graphical and less well isolated position. The other region that needs further remarks is the one seemingly isolated on the west side of West Bay. I have only three specimens from the West Bay region, a male, form I, taken 1.5 miles north of West Bay, and two females col- lected about 1 mile south of it. The pleopod of the male very closely approximates that of rogerst campestris, but the annuli ventralis, the rostra, and chelae are not typical of any of the subspecies. It has been supposed that there was a continuous area occupied by rogersi across the northern shore of both East and West Bay, but recently in attempting to collect this species in this area I drove north along State Highway 52 through the flatwoods section and west from Vicksburg to West Bay on State Highway 83 and was unable to locate.a single rogerst bur- row. This, of course, does not indicate the - absence of rogersi in the area, but the fact that I did not find it there at least opens the ques- tion as to what path of migration the stock JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 took to reach the western shore of West Bay. This might lead one to wonder whether or not the San Blas Peninsula and the adjacent peninsula to the west were at one time con- nected. The coastal area of intergradation appears, therefore, to be a zone in which tendencies characteristic of all three races are complexly intermingled. Whether the three named races have arisen through isolation from this stock of intergrades or whether the intergrading coastal population represents later mingling of three stocks that had earlier attained morpho- logical separation is a question. Evidence to be cited below suggests that the latter is the more likely hypothesis. There is little doubt that the rogersi stock was derived from the primitive advena stock, and it seems likely that r. ochlocknensis is the most primitive form of the complex. The first pleopod as well as the other morphological characters of r. ochlocknensis are very similar to those of P. advena of southwest-central Georgia. Further evidence to support the sup- position that the rogerst complex was derived from an ancestral advena stock lies in the fact that advena occurs in the region of the head- waters of the Ochlocknee, and r. ochlocknensis seems to be almost confined to its drainage system in Liberty and Gadsden Counties, Florida. From this stock the two other well- defined races probably arose through isolation, and the variable coastal population of inter- grades has probably arisen through later mingling of these once isolated groups. Such a history of isolation followed by remingling may be related to what is known of the geological history of this part of Florida during the Pleistocene. According to C. Wythe Cooke (1939) in his recent study of the Pleistocene terraces of Florida, Florida was even more emergent dur- ing the interval between the Talbot and Pam- lico stages than it is today. At this time it would have been possible for the ancestral ochlocknensis stock to have entered the present territories occupied by rogers: and campestris by way of the flat lands bordering the Gulf. This period was followed by the Pamlico sub- mergence, which pushed the coastline well in- land, and may well have been the isolating fac- tor responsible for the differentiation of the three races, which were then separated by well- Aug. 15, 1945 marked barriers on all sides. The emergence of recent times, with the reestablishment of broad areas of coastal flatwoods suitable for occu- pancy by the members of the rogerst complex, would then account for the remingling of the stocks and the production of the coastal “‘inter- grades” discussed above. Under present conditions it is evident that the Ochlocknee and Apalachicola Rivers are at least partial barriers to the dispersal of these crayfishes, particularly where there are belts of well-drained soils along their eastern banks. Where such soils intervene there is no evidence of intergradation across these barriers even where the ranges are quite close together. To the south, however, where suitable habitats exist on either side of the rivers, the streams themselves evidently still act as partial bar- riers, since there is a definite change in the char- acteristics of the intergrade populations at the rivers. Material examined.—My evidence of inter- gradation of the three subspecies of Procam- barus rogersit is based on approximately 220 specimens collected in Calhoun, Gulf, Bay, Franklin, Wakulla, Gadsden, and Leon Coun- ties, Fla. This listing constitutes a detailed record of the distribution of the intergrades. _ Bay County: 18 miles west of Port St. Joe [U. S. Highway 98] (6-638-8a, 1 7II); 17 miles west of Panama City [State Highway 10] (6- 638-9b, 1 2); 20.6 miles east of Panama City [U. S. Highway 98] (5-3040-7a, 1 II, 22 9); 6.3 miles west of Beacon Hill [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-341-2, 27 71, 27 All, 12 with eggs); 12 miles west of Beacon Hill [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-341-4a, 1 II); 16.8 miles west of Beacon Hill [U. S. Highway 98] (5-341-5a, 1¢I, 19 with eggs); 5.3 miles southeast of Panama City [U. S. Highway 98] (5-341-6, 49 9, 19 with eggs); 0.7 miles north of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-7a, 2 9 2); 2.4 miles north of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-8, 1 9,1 2 with eggs); 3 miles east of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-12, 29 9); 7.8 miles east of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-13a, 19); 13.1 miles east of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-l4a, 2a a7I, 1 7II, 22 9); 1 mile south of West Bay [State Highway 10] (10-1641-6a, 1I)!*; 1.5 miles 2 This was a second form male when caught on October 16, 1941, and molted to first form on December 20, 1941. HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH 259 north of West Bay [State Highway 10] (10- 1641-7, 19). FRANKLIN County: Franklin- Wakulla County line [U. 8. Highway 319] (6-538-11, 1 II, 1 9); 6.9 miles west of Car- rabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (6-638-2a, 2 7 @IlI, 32 9,19 with young); 9.9 miles west of Car- rabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (6-638-3, 1 @II, 19); 3.38 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (6-638-4, 1 @II, 3 9 9,192 imma- ture); 3.8 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (6-638-6, 1 #II); 23.3 miles east of Port St. Joe [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-3040-4a, 22 2);5 miles west of Carrabelle [U. 8. High- way 319] (5-3040-1, 37 @#II, 32 2); 12 miles west of Carrabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (5- 3040-2, 29 9); 4.2 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (5-3040-3, 1 9); 1.9 miles south of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-8, 30° FI, 22 9); 8.4 miles south of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-10a, 1 9 with eggs); 15.1 miles southeast of Sumatra [State High- way 12] (5-241-lla, 1 2); 20.9 miles southeast of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-12, 1 II); 25.5 miles south of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-13, 19); Intersection of State Highway 12 and U. 8S. Highway 319 (5- 241-14a, 3771, 1AII, 3 2 2); 3 miles south- west of intersection of State Highway 12 and U. S. Highway 319 (5-241-15, 19); 2.3 miles west of Apalachicola [U. 8. Highway 98] (5- 241-16, 1#I, 27 #II, 1 2); 6.9 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (5-241-17a, 2% HII); 11.5 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (5-241-18, 1 7imm., 19 with eggs). GuLtr County: 5.6 miles north of Port St. Joe [State Highway 6] (4-738-4, 1 @II, 12); 0.5 mile west of Wewahitchka [State Highway 52] (5-341-15, 1 #1); 17.6 miles west of Apalachicola [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-241-19, 17II, 19). Liperty County: Vilas (9- 1835-1, 1 II, 29 2); 2.6 miles south of Hos- ford [State Highway 135] (5-141-6, 27 @#Il, 19); 4.8 miles south of Telogia [State High- way 135] (5-241-la, 1 fI, 1 @II, 1 9); 12 miles south of Telogia [State Highway 135] (5-241-4, 2% II, 19); 2.6 miles southeast of Wilma [State Highway 135] (5-241-5a, 1 7II, 22 9); 6.9 miles southeast of Wilma [State Highway 135] (5-241-6a, 1 @I, 1 @II); 12.1 miles south of Wilma [State Highway 135] (5-241-7a Pe aS) LITERATURE CITED Cooks, C. Wyrue. Scenery of Florida. Flor- 260 ida Geol. Surv. Bull. 17: 1-118, 58 pls. 1939. Harper, Rotanp M. Geography and vegeta- tion of northern Florida. 6th Ann. Rep. Florida State Geol. Surv.: 163-437, figs. 41-90. 1914. Hay, W. P. Description of two new species of crayfish. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 22: 121- 123, 2 figs. 1899. Hosss, Horton H., Jr. A new crawfish from Florida. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 61-65, 11 figs. 19388. Seven new crayfishes of the genus Cambarus from Florida, with notes on other species. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 89: 387-423, figs. 14-22. 1940. . A generic revision of the crayfishes of the subfamily Cambarinae (Decapoda, Asta- cidae) with the description of a new genus and species. Amer. Midl. Nat. 28: 334-357, 3pls. 1942a. . The crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Flor- ida Publ., biol. ser., 3 (2): 1-179, 3 figs., 11 maps, 24 pls. 1942b. . Two new crayfishes from the Panhandle of Florida. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. 6: 49- 58,2 pls. 1942c. Walton Wt rogers! rogers! MT rogers! campestris == rogers! ochlocknee es sees cees FOgerst ‘ntergrades . WS advera JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 LeConteE, Joun. Descriptions of new species of Astacus from Georgia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 7: 400-402. 1856. NOTE This paper was originally accepted for pub- lication in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, and it was cited as “in press” in my Crayfishes of Florida (Hobbs, 1942). Wartime restrictions, however, so de- layed publication by the Museum that the manuscript was withdrawn and submitted to this JoURNAL in order that the full descriptions of the two new subspecies of Procambarus rogerst might appear more promptly. I wish to acknowledge the invaluable aid of the following persons who have contributed to my work on this paper, both through help in procuring specimens and in preparation of the manuscript and figures: Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, Profs. J. S. Rogers and T. H. Hubbell, Drs. Lewis Berner, F. N. Young, and A. M. Laessle, and Messrs. Lewis Marchand and W. L. Brudon. Dr. C. J. Goodnight kindly identified the branchiobdellids for me. NS Gulf of Mexico Fig. 34.—Distribution of Procambarus rogersi in Florida. The shaded areas indicate the extent of coastal flatwoods or low areas along streams, which seem to be available to the rogersi stock. The two localities lying outside of these areas in Gadsden and Liberty Counties are situated along streams that drain into the Telogia River system, thence into the Ochlocknee. The black spots represent the localities at which specimens were collected. Ava. 15, 1945 MOORE: TWO NEW LEECHES 261 ZOOLOGY.—Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collection of the United States National Museum. municated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.) The two leeches herein described are among lots submitted through the interest and kindness of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt from the collections of the U. 8S. National Mu- seum. The first, from Mexico, is of excep- tional interest. The other species occurs in China and Burma. Genus Diestecostoma Vaillant Diestecostoma magna, n. sp. Figs. 1-3 Material examined—Type, U.S.N.M. no. 20642, Rio de los Playas, head waters of Tonala River between Veracruz and Chiapas, March 1-8, 1944, collected by M. W. Stirling; para- type, labeled ‘‘Tehuantepec,” collected by F. E. Sumichrast.? Diagnosis.—Size large and form robust with external characters of the genus. Eyes probably normally four pairs on somites III to VI (an- nuli 3, 4-5, 6, and 9). Total number of annuli (not counting prostomium) 200 or 201. Com- plete somites 12-annulate, all annuli of nearly equal size. I, II, III each l-annulate, IV and V 2-annulate, VI 3-annulate, VII 4-annulate, VIII 7 or 8-annulate, IX and X 8-annulate, XI and XII 9-annulate, XIII 10- or 9-annulate XIV 1il-annulate, XV-XXII 12-annulate, XXIII probably 10-annulate but may be 12- annulate, XXIV—XXVII together of 19 or 17 annuli. Male pore XI b4/c9 (ann. 42/43 or 43/44), female pore XIII c9/c10 (ann. 62/63), separated by 20 or 19 annuli. Anus 194/195 followed by 5 or 6 postanal annuli. Nephropores not seen on VIII or IX, 14 pairs on X to XXIII, first four separated by 9 annuli, fourth and fifth by 10, and the next nine by 12 an- nuli; last pair (seventeenth) united in a median 4 1 Received March 15, 1945. 2In his day Dr. Sumichrast was one of the most valued correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution. For many years he occupied himself with a close and critical study of the natural his- tory of Mexico, and he collected there for the In- stitution from 1868 to 1876, giving special atten- tion to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, collecting principally in the states of Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, as well as Mexico and Puebla. As Dr. Sumichrast’s notebooks seem no longer to be available, it is not now possible to say where the paratype was actually collected. J. Percy Moors, University of Pennsylvania. (Com- ventral pore behind ann. 195. Color uniform dark slate above, paler below. Black in life (M. W. Stirling). The three known species of the genus, namely, D. octannulata, D. mexicana, and D. magna, have complete somites respectively of 8, 10, and 12 annuli. Customarily this would promote generic separation, but in this case nothing would be gained thereby. Description of type-—A stout leech (Fig. 1) of very firm texture and thick, muscular body walls; cylindroid throughout, little depressed but- with venter somewhat flattened, tapered at the ends; in general shaped much like an earthworm and evidently adapted for burrow- ing. Measurements in millimeters: length 103, to male pore 19; widths, buccal ring 3.5, male 8.5, maximum (XIII, X XI) 10.3, anus ca. 9; depths at same points, 2.3, 7, 7, ca 5; sucker diameter 6.7. Head region small; lip partially retracted into mouth but when drawn out arched and as seen from below rather wedge- shaped; its dorsum distinctly annulated and areolated; constituted of a prostomial apical lobe not separated by a distinct furrow from the first annulus which forms somite I, follow- ing which are four annuli constituting somites II, III, and IV. Venter of lip with margins con- verging into the buccal chamber, divided by a deep median sulcus and three pairs of shallower furrows into eight flat, smooth ridges. Peri- stomium or buccal ring formed by the union ventrally of the two annuli (6 and 7) of V, deeply crenate on the margin and with slightly extended small lateral lobes which partially embrace the lateral ends of somite IV. Eyes (Fig. 2) small, not forming a regular arch, the four pairs of distinct pigment cups in two groups on somites III and IV (annuli 3 and 4-5), and V (annulus 6) and VI (annulus 9); besides these are two minute pigment spots, one on the right side of II cephalad of the first definitive eye and the other on VI a2 mediad of the last right eye. Clitellar region somewhat thickened and at the anterior end of XIII forming one of the widest parts of the body, but its limits not defined externally. Male pore a minute opening in the furrow XI 64/c9, 262 Fie. 1.—Diestecostoma magna, n. sp., right lateral aspect of type; X13. ‘that is, between the fifth and sixth annuli of the somite or the total number of annuli 42/43; female pore at XIII c8/c9 (annuli 62/63) or 20 annuli caudad of the male, a large orifice cutting into c8, which is somewhat re- duced and at this point coalesced with c7. Anus a large opening with furrowed margins far forward (as in the Erpobdellidae) between annuli 194/195 (counted on left side or 192/193 on right) into which it cuts. Postanal annuli 6, making the total 201. Caudal sucker relatively small, directed ventrad, with a broad peduncle as in Erpobdella; the dorsum areolated as on the body in five irregular transverse rows; venter slightly cupped, finely granulated, more coarsely toward the periphery where the mar- gin is thick and crenulate, no radiating ridges or furrows. Nephropores, 15 pairs actually seen, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 8 the last belonging to somite XXIV carried caudad to the ventral face of the sucker pedun- cle, where they are united in a large median pore behind annulus 195, the last annulus de- veloped on the venter. Fourteen pairs are con- spicuous pores situated on the caudal border in the ventral intermediate line of 62 or the equivalent c4 of every somite from X to XXIII inclusive, that is, on annuli numbered 31, 40, 49, 58, 68, 80, 92, 104, 116, 128, 140, 152, 164 (on left, 163 right), 176 (on left, 174 on right). On somite VIII there is no trace of neph- ropores, and on IX, while there are small notches at the points where they would be ex- pected, no actual pores were detected. Proba- bly they are transferred to the buccal ring as in D. mexicana (Baird), but this can be defi- nitely determined only by means of sections. Annulation strongly developed, the furrows deep and on complete somites usually alter- nately deeper so that the annuli appear grouped in couples, presumably each of two tertiary annuli, but there is some irregularity. Each annulus divided on its dorsal half into usu- ally 24 (up to 28) more or less quadrate areas which are prominently convex, resulting in a conspicuously pebbled surface, finely rough- ened by numerous minute sensory papillae mostly aggregated in a central group which be- comes more elevated on annuli toward the caudal end. Areolae often arranged more or less regularly in longitudinal series continuing over several annuli but oftener staggered and inter- locking, especially in the median field. Meta- meric sensillae not distinguished. On the shorter span of ventral half-annuli an equal number of smaller, smoother, flatter areas. With only the eyes on the head and the nephro- pores in the middle body region to serve as metameric criteria, the following is a tentative determination of the probable composition of the somites: I, which is scarcely separated from the prostomium, II and II each uniannulate; IV incompletely and V fully biannulate, the latter united ventrally to form the buccal ring; VI 3-annulate (8-10) complete both dorsally and ventrally. Four pairs of eyes on III to VI, a minute supplementary eye on the right side of II and one on VI. VII 4-annulate (11-14), al slightly >a2=6b5 =b6. VIII 7-annulate (15- 21) probably 63 =b4 =b5 slightly >b1 =b2 =c11 =c12. IX 8-annulate (22-29) b1 to b4>c9 to c12, in four pairs, possible nephropores on b2 Ava. 15, 1945 (23). X 8-annulate (30-37), like IX but with first certain nephropores on 62 (31). XI 9- annulate (38—46), three larger annuli in middle preceded by two and followed by four small ones, 62 =b3 =b4 >cl =c2 =c9 to c12; nephro- pore b2 (40), male pore b4/c9 (42/43). XII 9- annulate (47-55) like XI but no male pore, nephropore b2 (49). XIIT 10-annulate (56-65) like XII except that b4 is apparently divided into c? and c8 making two slightly larger pre- ceded by two and followed by six smaller annuli; female pore c8/c9 (62/63), nephropore b2 (58). XIV doubtfully 11l-annulate (66-76) all tertiaries but 62, the third annulus; nephro- pore b2 (68). XV-XXI (77-160) each 12-an- nulate with all tertiaries (cl-c/2) developed and more or less distinctly arranged in pairs, nephropores on the fourth annulus, c4 (every 12th annulus from 80 to 152). XXII 12-annu- late (161-172) similar to foregoing except that owing to split, spiral, and conjoined annuli, especially in the region of a1, two large annuli on the right side replace four small ones on the left, resulting in asymmetry and a discrepancy in the count on the two sides for the remainder of the length; nephropore on left side normal, op fourth annulus (164), on right side far for- ward in the large third annulus (163). XXIII probably 10-annuate (173-182 left, 171-180 right), nephropore on fourth annulus (c4 176 or 174). Caudad of XXIII, counted as 10- annulate, are 19 annuli which constitute som- ites XXIV to XXVII inclusive, but there are no external criteria for determining their limits. Some annuli in the anal region are much larger dorsally and taper to little or behind 195 to nothing ventrally but this is due to the strong curvature ventrad. Color as preserved uni- form dark slate above, paler below; according to Mr. Stirling black in life. Description of the paratype—The paratype was collected by Dr. Sumichrast (see footnote, page 261). When living it was probably almost as large as the type, but now it is more con- tracted and artifically more flattened and somewhat distorted. It measures in millimeters: length 78.2, to male pore 16; widths, buccal 2.5, male 7.5, maximum (middle of length) 12.2, anus 7.2, depths at same points 2.5, 6.5, 8.6, 4.5; diameter of sucker 6. Annulation and other characters agree with the type, but the areolation is largely smoothed out as a result of softening and abrasion of the surface due to MOORE: TWO NEW LEECHES I 263 long preservation. There are some minor dif- ferences. Eyes four pairs, arranged as in the type on somites III to VI, none detected on II and no supplementary eyes on VI. Male pore at XI b4/c9 (annuli 43/44), the additional an- nulus being due to an extra pregenital one, ap- parently in VIII, which appears to have eight instead of seven as on the type, but this is com- pensated on XIII which is 9- instead of 10- annulate, with female pore at 62/63 (probably b4/c9) 19 annuli behind the male. Both genital pores are relaxed and large. Nephropores are Fig. 2.—D. magna: type, segmentation of cephalic region from dorsum, semidiagrammatic; annuli numbered on left, somites on right side; P, prostomial lobe; <5. Fic. 3.—D. magna, dissection of buccopharyn- gial region of paratype, from the venter; b, buccal chamber laid open; b7, buccal ring; 7, right lateral jaw; l, lip; p, dorsal papilla; ph, pharynx; pr, prostomium; v, velum; somites numbered in Roman; X6. spaced exactly as on the type. None found on VIII and very doubtfully on IX but from X to XXIII they are evident, the first four being each separated by nine annuli, the fourth and fifth by 10, and the remaining rine pairs by 12 annuli, the last pair belonging to XXIV being united in a median opening at the base of the sucker. Anus at 194/195 followed by five an- nuli, making the total number 200. Owing to strong contraction the annuli for the most part are very narrow and crowded but on the dor- sum are distinct and easily counted. In places, however, they are unequally contracted, and on the venter of the clitellar region are much split and interconnected. 264 Fig. 4.—Hirudinaria javanica similis, n. subsp., dorsal and ventral views of type specimen; X2. Anatomy.—Neither specimen is suitable for complete anatomical study, and any dissection that might result in mutilation is prohibited because the specimens are unique. The pharyn- gobuccal region of the cotvpe was cautiously opened (Fig. 3), bringing to light conditions quite like those described by Cabellero (1940) for his Hygrobdella pelaezt = Diestecostoma mex- icana (Baird, 1869) and in a forthcoming paper by the writer to be published by the Bishop Museum. The buccal chamber is spacious (Fig. 3b) and extends to the end of somite VII, where it is bounded by the velum (v). The inner sur- face is marked by a circular furrow, which de- limits the buccal ring internally, and in its cephalic part by longitudinal furrows, some of which are continuations of those on the ventral face of the lip. These fade out in the caudal half where they are replaced by a few irregular, more or less branched wrinkles. The velum (v) is a prominent curtainlike diaphragm with deeply scalloped border forming the boundary between the buccal and pharyngeal chambers at VII/VIII. Immediately cephalad of it in the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8 dorsomedian line is a soft triangular papilla (p) terminated by a short filiform process. The pharynx (ph) is a muscular organ lying in so- mite VIII and partly in 1X. The cephalic end terminated by three lobes projects freely into an introverted pharyngeal chamber lined by a thin flexible membrane and obviously capable of limited protrusion somewhat as in the rhynchobdellid leeches but much less, although much more than in haemadipsines which show some approach to this condition. The three pharyngeal lobes are median dorsal and right and left ventral and each bears a small but prominent toothed jaw (j). Each jaw bears on a median ridge a series of teeth the form and number of which were not ascertained. On the type two ganglia of the ventral chain in com- plete somites XVII and XVIII were exposed through a cut that had been conveniently made at the time of collection. Relatively to the size of the leech they are small. As they lie in the two annuli immediately succeeding that on which the nephropores open they agree with the latter in fixing the position of the primary al and a2 components of complete somites. This, however, while helpful, does not certainly fix the limits of the somites which was done for the middle body region on the additional evidence supplied by the tendency of every alternate furrow to be somewhat deeper, thus - uniting the tertiary annuli in pairs. The posi- tion of the nephropores in relation to the split annuli on somite X XII, as well as comparison of the 3 known species of the genus, also sup- port the interpretation adopted herein. There are, however, two less probable interpretations than the one adopted in this paper. Until ma- terial for a complete anatomical study is avail- able the exact interpretation of the annulation must remain uncertain. Little is known of the life and habits of this leech. Ina letter Mr. Stirling kindly writes that his specimen was found along with another of similar size in*fairly dry earth a few inches be- neath the surface while he was excavating a ball court in the forest. They impressed him as being black (probably dark slate color) and were dry and not covered with mucus, which is obviously true of the preserved specimen. The paratype must be at least 74 years old, as Fran- cis Sumichrast made his collections in Tehuan- tepec in the late 1860’s and early 1870’s. In D. mexicana (Baird), the genotype, the Ava. 15, 1945 first pair of nephropores, which in most leeches open on somite VIII, are carried forward by long ducts to open on the inner surface of the buceal ring, thus resembling the true land leeches (Haemadipsinae). In D. mexicana, also, there is evidence that the first and second pairs of nephridia are united and that the buccal out- let serves both. A similar condition in D. magna would explain the failure to find nephro- pores on both VIII and IX. Genus Hirudinaria Whitman Hirudinaria javanica similis, n. subsp. Fig. 4 Material examined.—Four specimens, in- eluding the type (U.S.N.M. no. 20644). Col- lected at Yun Hsien, Yunnan Province, China, by W. L. Jellison, March 16, 1948. One speci- men, labeled “‘Indian Museum, Z.E.V. 4871. Mainma Dist., N. Burma, Chinese frontier,” collected by T. Rennie, June 10, 1911, from pool of water in which buffaloes wallow. This specimen was taken with a large number of H. javanica javanica, some of which had gonopores in intermediate positions. Description.—Based. upon these five speci- mens, this form is distinguished from typical H. javanica Wahlberg by the separation of the gonopores by nine instead of seven annuli, the male pore being at XI a2/b5 (ann. 30/31) and the female at XIII 62/a2 (39/40). In size, form, color pattern, annulation, arrangement of areolae, and other external characters there is complete agreement with typical H. javanica, but in a few respects, as in the position of the gonopores, this form seems to pass beyond the limits of variation of typical javanica. Among these is the number of sucker rays as counted at the margin, which is 53 or 54 in the speci- mens of similis, while 40 to 48 is most usual in javanica. However, this has little significance as some rays are entirely undivided, whereas others bifurcate two or even three times, the last division often appearing close to the pe- riphery of the sucker. The sensillae appear to MILLER: A NEW ENGRAULID FISH FROM MEXICO 265 be relatively smaller but have the same dis- tribution, elliptical form, and angular devia- tion from the body axis as in javanica. Two specimens dissected differ in respect to the fe- male organs from those of H. javanica as de- scribed in Fauna of British India—Hirudinea (p. 217) in having much shorter oviducts and larger prostate glands. Other dissections of H. javanica, however, show variations in both re- spects partly bridging this gap. The salivary papillae on the jaws of one specimen studied are somewhat more numerous, there being on each side about 19 of the smaller size, mostly in a row close to the dentigerous ridge but a few on the jaw peduncle, and 15 of the larger scattered or in short irregular rows on the sides of the jaws. The former measure 0.029 to 0.037 mm and the latter 0.05 to 0.064 in a specimen of medium size. The difference in the number of annuli sepa- rating the gonopores involves not one but two characters, as the positions of the male and female pores vary independently. In the col- lection of the Indian Museum are specimens of H. javanica in which either of these is shifted from the furrow somewhat into the bounding annuli (Moore, 1922, p. 212), the female pore tending to move to a more caudal, the male to a cephalic position, resulting in intermediates between the two subspecies. Typical H. javanica is abundant in Assam and Burma, and present information indicates that in North Burma there is a tendency for the gonopores to separate more widely and that at the northward limit of the known distribu- tion of the species in the Burmo-Chinese fron- tier area there is a population in which nine full annuli intervene. The type of H. j.:similis is an individual of medium size measuring, in millimeters: length 61, to male pore 13; widths, buccal ring 4.4, male 7, maximum (ca. XV) 11, anus 3.5; depths at same points ca. 3, 2.8, 3.5, 2.3; caudal sucker 7. ICHTHYOLOGY.—Anchoviella analis, a new engraulid fish from the west coast of Mexico. During the World’s Columbian Exposi- tion in Chicago in 1893, the Mexican 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of a roman Institution. Received May 25, Rosert R. Miuuer, U.S. National Museum. Government exhibited representative fishes, mostly from the fresh waters of central and southern Mexico. The specimens were sub- sequently preserved and donated to the United States National Museum. Among 266 the many lots in this collection I found four engraulids which, because of a com- bination of very distinctive characters, are described below as new. 3 Genus Anchoviella Fowler Anchoviella analis, n. sp. Fig. 1 Generic reference.—In technical characters this species agrees with the genus Anchoviella and the subgenus Anchoviella as recently de- fined by Hildebrand.? Gill membranes narrowly attached anteriorly; teeth in jaws small and nearly equal in size; origin of anal fin nearly under that of dorsal fin; more than 165 gill rakers on lower limb of first gill arch; body deep and strongly compressed; anal fin base long; maxillary not reaching joint of mandible (but extending beyond posterior rim of orbit a dis- tance about equal to diameter of. pupil) and broadly rounded posteriorly, rather than pointed as in Anchovia and Anchoa. The size and shape of the maxillary form the principle character by which Anchoviella differs from Anchoa. Dr. 8. F. Hildebrand has kindly ex- amined the types and agrees that the species should be placed in Anchoviella. Holotype—U.S.N.M. No. 131168, a speci- men 82 mm. in standard length, collected in Laguna de Mexcaltitan, Nayarit (formerly Territory of Tepic), Mexico. . Paratypes—U.S.N.M. No. 1380857, three specimens 60 to 74 mm. long, secured with the holotype and bearing the same data. All the types are somewhat shrunken. The position of the type locality (shown on the American Geographic Society Map NF 18, Guadalajara, edition of 1940) is approximately 9 miles west-southwest of Tuxpan, which is nearly 39 miles northwest of Tepic. Mexcalti- tan is a small settlement near latitude 23° N.., longitude 105° 30’ W., on an arm of a lagoon which is connected to the Pacific by a mean- dering channel about 10 miles long. In 1893 this lagoon may have been called Laguna de Mexcaltitan; the original label with the fish read Laguna de Mezcaltitlan. Diagnosis.—A deep-bodied, compressed An- choviella, with a rather long maxillary (but not reaching to joint of mandible), and with a very long anal fin of 31 to 35 total rays (29 to 31 * Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 8 (2): 11-12, 108-109. 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, NO. 8 principal rays),? the origin of which is almost directly under that of the front of the dorsal fin. Description—In the following description the measurements and counts for the holotype are given first, followed by those for the three paratypes, in order of decreasing size. The method of presentation is essentially the same as that followed by Hildebrand (loc. cit.). The measurements were stepped off with a pair of fine dividers and are expressed as percentages of the various parts indicated, usually esti- mated to the nearest tenth and occasionally to the nearest hundredth. Standard length in mm 82 (74, 64, 60); head in standard length 4.3 (4.1, 4.2, 4.2); width of body in its depth (measurement approximate) 4.1 (3.9, 3.8, 4.0); depth of body in standard length (measurement approximate) 4.1 (4.0, 4.1, 4.1); eye in head 3.3 (8.4, 3.4, 3.2); eye in postorbital 1.6 (1.6, 1.7, 1.5); post-orbital in standard length 8.2 (7.9, 8.0, 8.05); snout in head 5.4 (5.3, 5.1, 5.38); mandible in standard length 7.4 (7.2, 7.3, 6.75); mandible in head 1.75 (1.75, 1.65, 1.6); maxillary in head 1.75 (1.75, 1.65, 1.6); dorsal base in head 2.5 (3.0, 2.6, 2.8); anal base in standard length 2.6 (2.7, 2.7, 2.85); pectoral in standard length 5.6 (5.1, 5.45, 5.1); pectoral in head 1.3 (1.2, 1.3, 1.2); pelvic in head 2.5 (2.35, 2.4, 2.3); axillary scale of pectoral in head 2.8 (2.7, 2.65, 2.6); dorsal rays 13 (12, 13, 12); anal rays 35 (33, 35, 31); pectoral rays 12-13 (12-12, 13-13, 12-12); pelvic rays invariably 7; scales (approximate) 40 (39, 40, 38); gill rakers (above and below angle of first arch) 19+24 (19423, 18424, 19 +424). . Body deep and strongly compressed, the thinness exaggerated by shrinkage. Ventral profile more curved than the dorsal. Head rather short and deep, its depth at joint of mandible about 1.38 to 1.4 in head length; snout short and bluntly pointed, projecting well beyond tip of mandible. Dorsal fin rather high and short, the anterior (longest) rays (broken in holotype) reaching far beyond tip of last ray when depressed, its origin equi- 3 In the enumeration of principal dorsal and anal fin rays, the first ray counted was the first long, unbranched ray, followed by branched rays; two rudimentary rays invariably precede this ray in both fins. In order to make the counts agree with those in the most recent review by Hilde- brand, the total count was used. Ava. 15, 1945 distant between caudal base and some point on pupil; anal fin base long, its origin almost di- rectly under that of dorsal origin and equi- distant between caudal base and middle to posterior of pupil; pelvics small, extending more than halfway to anal origin, inserted about equidistant between anal origin and pectoral base; pectorals long, extending slightly beyond insertion of pelvics. Color of specimens in alcohol dark brown, with a silvery band, which is rather wide an- tériorly but narrow between dorsal and anal origins and is very narrow on caudal peduncle; its ventral margin is not clear-cut, but the greatest width of the band is about two-thirds to three-fourths the eye diameter. Rather fine, dark pigment spots on tip of snout, along ridge of back, base of dorsal, and a few along base of anal. Sides of head silvery, with a metallic bluish luster. Relationships—Anchoviella analis_ differs from any known American species of the genus in the long, many-rayed anal fin and in the anterior position of this fin. In number of anal rays it is closest to nattererx (Steindachner), described from Pard, Brazil, which has 28 or 29 (possibly 30 to 31 total rays). The new species differs prominently from Hildebrand’s account of natterert (condensed from Steindachner’s de- scription) in the much more anterior insertion of the anal fin (origin of anal about under middle of base of dorsal in natterert), much shorter snout (5.1 to 5.3 rather than 4.0 in head), and in having the maxillary bluntly pointed (rather than nearly square) posteriorly. It is obvious that analis is not closely related to natterert. Superficial resemblance is seen be- MILLER: A NEW ENGRAULID FISH FROM MEXICO 267 tween analis and pallida (Starks), as figured by Hildebrand,‘ but analis has much fewer gill rakers (28 to 34+36 to 45 in pallida) and more anal rays. Anchoviella analis much more nearly re- sembles certain species of the closely related genus Anchoa, notably A. panamensis (Stein- dachner), known from Mazatlan to Peru. It agrees with panamensis in the number of anal rays, the origin of the anal fin, the shape of the head, the compressed body, and the length of the pectoral fin but disagrees on the important character of the length and shape of the maxil- lary which, in panamensis, is slender and pointed and is much longer, 1.2 to 1.4 rather than 1.6 to 1.75 in the head length. The rather remarkable resemblances between analis and panamensis may be more real than superficial, however, and analis might be considered an aberrant Anchoa, with an exceptionally short, blunt maxillary. If that view were adopted, however, the principal generic difference be- tween Anchoa and Anchoviella would fail and Anchoa would become a synonym of Ancho- viella. To base such a move on the few speci- mens before me seems entirely unwarranted. Differences judged to be of generic value often lose their sharpness in borderline species. Assoctates—The following species were found wrapped in the same lot with the new species: Anchovia macrolepidota (Kner and _ Stein- dachner), Anchoa lucida (Jordan and Gilbert), Diapterus peruvianus (Cuvier), and a species of Gobionellus. Etymology.—The new species is named analis because of the very long anal fin base. 4 Loc. cit., fig. 59, p. 134. Fic. 1.—Holotype of Anchoviella analis, n. sp., U.S.N.M. No. 131168, 82 mm in standard length. Drawn by Nancy Patton. Obituary Merton Benway Waits, retired member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died on June 5, 1945, after a short illness. He is sur- vived by his wife, Elizabeth Hurdle Waite, and his two sons, Merton and Malden, both of whom are captains in the Army. Dr. Waite was born near Oregon, Ill., on January 28, 1865, of sturdy pioneer stock and was himself a pioneer in the application of botanical knowl- edge to the art of horticulture. Waite entered the University of Illinois, pre- sumably to become trained as a civil engineer, but his love and knowledge of plants and the influence of Prof. T. J. Burrell soon turned his major interest to botany, an interest that con- tinued to the date of his last sickness. Follow- ing his graduation from the University of Illinois in 1887, he was assistant to Professor Burrell until November 1888 when he was in- duced to enter the old Division of Vegetable Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture. He continued in this Division and in the Bureau of Plant Industry that suceeded it until his retirement in 1935. In 1919 the Uni- versity of Maryland conferred on him the hon- orary degree doctor of agriculture. For many years he was in charge of the Office, later Division, of Fruit Disease Investigations and was an acknowledged authority on that sub- ject. His discovery that the bacterium causing blight of pomaceous fruits was disseminated by insects was epoch-making because it was the first proof that a plant disease could be disseminated by insects and possibly antedated similar discoveries for animal diseases. He also developed and put in practice methods for the control of this disease which are still in use, particularly in the Pacific Coast States. He also contributed greatly to the development of con- trol measures for many other destructive dis- eases of fruits. He discovered and by elaborate experiments showed conclusively that with certain varieties of pears and other fruits cross pollination is necessary for the setting of a full crop of fruit. This discovery resulted in changed planting plans of orchards throughout the world. He helped organize and was for 14 years a member of the Federal Insecticide and Fungi- cide Board that administered the Insecticide Act of 1910. In 1924 he became a member of the Federal Horticultural Board, continuing ~ until its quarantine functions were taken over by another agency. Waite belonged to many scientific societies, but his favorite was the Botanical Society of Washington, of which he was twice president. He rarely missed a meeting and usually had interesting observations, often supported by specimens, to report. He was deeply interested in the flora of the Washington area and in his later years gave special attention to mosses. He was also an enthusiastic member of the Cosmos Club, seldom missing the Monday “club nights’? even when living at his country place 25 miles away. Dr. Waite was a man of restless energy and enthusiasm throughout his career, even to the day of his final illness. His pleasant smile and sociable nature endeared him to his colleagues and he was always willing to devote his time to the giving out of his large fund of knowledge. He was so full of life and so interested in living that it does not seem possible he is dead. JoHn W. RoBERTS EARLY ISSUES OF JOURNAL WANTED During the past several years the Cus- todian and Subscription Manager of Pub- lications has received from various mem- bers of the Academy many numbers of the JOURNAL that were no longer needed by them. These contributions have made it possible to assemble several complete sets. At the present time there is urgent need for those issues of the JouRNAL in Volumes 1 to 10, inclusive. Accordingly, members who may have any such numbers that they no longer wish to keep are urged to send them to Frank M. Serzuter, Custodian and Subscription Manager, U. S. National Museum, Washington 25, D. C. CONTENTS | ErHNoLoGy.—The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An outcasted group. Wi.LiaM HaruEn GILBERT, JR..... 66.21 eee eee we, ZooLocy.—The subspecies and intergrades of the Florida burrowing crayfish, Procambarus rogerst (Hobbs). Horton H. Rhea at ZooLoGy.—Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collection of the United | States National Museum. J. Percy Moore................. IcHTHYOLOGY.—Anchoviella analis, a new biggies fish from the west coast of Mexico. RosBrert R. MIuER.................0eneee “Ouieuanet Mertol: Beagug Wee. Si rr r Hany Issues OF JOURNAL WANTED... 1.1... se ee eee eter teeta This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Vou, 35 SEPTEMBER 15, 1945 No. 9 ——e > ye AEONAN INST SS ‘ .\ a maa Ls -, x ' = 4 | a JOURNAL “ou. nal es ed OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Lewis V. JupSON Harautp A. REHDER Wiiuram N, Fenton NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLOGY ASSOCIATE EDITORS Frank C. Kracexk ALAN STONE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Ira B. HANSEN Raupu W. 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Single volumes, unbound, per volume. ..\.....5.c Remittances should be made payable to ‘“‘Washington Academy of Sciences” ‘and addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. Raprieyg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington 25, D.C. Exchanges. —The Academy does not exchange its runkees for sae oF other societies. ‘ oe . j =f OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY | PG President: Joun E. Grar, Smithsonian Institution Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKWEDDE, National Bureau of Standards Treasurer: Howarp S. Raprpierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NATHAN R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. Serzuer, U. §. National Museum. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoLuME 35 ETHNOLOGY.—Japanese folk belief concerning the cat.! OpteR, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, Calif. WiuuiaM N. FENTON.): In 1909, in a carefully documented paper, M. W. de Visser brought together all references to the cat which he could find in Japanese chronicles and classical writings.” His exhaustive review of the literature in- dicated that the small domestic house cat was imported from China during the reign of Emperor Ichijd (986-1011) though wild cats existed in Japan before this.* The possession of cats was at first a luxury which only the Imperial House and the wealthy nobility could afford, and a great deal of pomp and ceremony attended the crises in the lives of these pampered animals. Mem- bers of the court were ordered to serve them, and the rank of court lady was be- stowed on one female cat By the four- teenth century, however, cats were no longer a rarity and they were no longer treated with deference. Instead, the belief had grown up that cats, especially old fe- male cats, were capable of becoming monsters or demons (nekomata)> which harm or even kill men, and, to use De Visser’s words, ‘‘the Japanese nekomata is an exceedingly dangerous demon.’’® De Visser found first mention that old cats be- come monsters and kill human beings in a work written by a Buddhist monk about 1 Received June 25, 1945. 2 De Visser, The dog and cat in Japanese folk- é. 3 A well-informed young man who has lived and studied in Japan thinks otherwise and has as- serted: ‘‘The cat came into Japan from Korea during the Nara Era.”’ 4 Op. cit., p. 8; BrinkLEy, A history of the Japanese people, p. 277. >The word nekomata literally means “cat forked.” The ‘“‘forked”’ refers to the tail; a divided tail is a sign that a cat is supernatural and dan- gerous. 6 Der VISSER, p. 5. SEPTEMBER 15, 1945 No. 9 Morris EDWARD (Communicated by 1335.7 Unlike so many Japanese beliefs concerning the supernatural power of ani- mals, the basic idea of the extraordinary power of the cat is not Chinese, though associated elements of the complex show Chinese influences. As De Visser has said: “We do not read about cat-sorcery in the former country (China)...I have not found this anthropophagous monster with its forked tail in Chinese books, but the idea of old age giving it the power of chang- ing itself into an old woman is quite Chi- nese.’’® From this time on, and particularly in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, stories of old haunting cats are frequently found in the literature. In the nineteenth century, however, cats with extraordinary powers are sometimes repre- sented as playing a beneficent or protective role. Although he does not organize them into a unified picture, the tales and references which De Visser recovered suggest the fol- lowing body of beliefs: Cats can speak, that is, can become superanimal, at the age of ten. A cat that is a cross between a cat and a fox may have the capacity before it reaches this age. Some cats disappear mys- teriously immediately upon the death of their owners, thus indicating some unusual relation between them and their masters. Cats which become supernatural often re- veal themselves because they speak as human beings, because they are discovered acting like human beings (dancing, for ex- 7 Ibid., p. 21. 8 [bid., p. 5. 9 [bid., p. 77; Mirrorp, Tales of old Japan, p. 243. 269 seri 4°45 270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ample, with a towel tied around the head), because they have split tails, or because luminous balls or a peculiar light follows them when they move. Cats which are pink- ish or reddish-brown in color, “golden flower’ cats, are very likely to become monsters and must not be kept for any length of time. Those who are cursed by cats become ill, and a revengeful cat can drive mad a person it hates or the members of his family. Cats which wish to prey upon human beings often assume human guise. A favor- ite trick is to kill a person, usually (though not always) an old woman, and to assume her form and take her place. Further vic- tims are selected from this vantage point. The cat, whether in animal form or in ‘human guise, ordinarily eats its victims, and only the buried bones and clothes are discovered afterward. Monster cats which are masquerading in human form sometimes arouse suspicion or are discovered by feline characteristics which they thoughtlessly exhibit, or which they find it difficult to conceal. Sometimes they forget to display the characteristics of the one whom they are impersonating. Thus, a cat may ignore religious devotions, though its victim has been a devout Buddhist and in this way attract attention. Or it may want to remain in a dark corner and may plead trouble with its eyes. In sleep, it may show the broad mouth of the cat, and it finds it hard to hide its large teeth and its rolling, dis- tended eyes. It may be surprised eating on all fours or drinking oil from a lamp. It is always in danger of discovery despite its human appearance because dogs recognize its true nature. When a transformed cat is attacked and killed, it changes back to its original shape. Such slain cats invariably turn out to be very large, usually five shaku long (approximately five feet). De Visser apparently made no attempt to add to the published material he collated or systematically to investigate the beliefs centering around the cat in the Japan of his day. The only items he adds to his summary of the literature are that the Japanese, like the Chinese, fear that a corpse will revive and change into a demon if a cat walks over it and therefore lay edged tools on the VOL. 35, NO. 9 corpse or put a sword at its side,!° and that a 3-colored cat (white, black, and brown) is a favorite of sailors and is often found aboard ships because its presence is thought to prevent storms." A number of other writers and scholars have called attention to Japanese attitudes toward the cat. On the occasion when De Visser’s contribution was read, EK. W. Clement made some comments which have been published with the paper and which yield some additional information on the subject. According to Clement, when the Japanese bury a dead cat, they do not look back at the grave for fear that they will be possessed by the spirit of the cat. Clement had also heard of monster cats with 3-forked tails (mztsumata).’ He gave a number of illustrations of how fears or misgivings about the cat were reflected in Japanese expressions. He pointed out that the phrase “cat’s eyes” means ‘‘fickle’’ or ‘‘change- able,’’ that geisha girls, because of their role of shallow flatterers, are said to have “‘cat’s tongues,”’ and that insincerity in speech is referred to as the ‘‘cat’s voice.’’ Clement also pointed out that the term ‘‘cat’s tail’’ is used of something particularly useless. This was given by him as the reason cats’ tails are cut short. Even before De Visser wrote, A. B. Mitford had called attention to the im- portant place of the cat in Japanese tra- dition with the statement: “‘Cats, foxes, and badgers are regarded with superstitious awe by the Japanese, who attribute to them the power of assuming the human shape in order to bewitch mankind.’’'4 Mitford pub- lished a story of a monster with two tails, “the Vampire Cat of Nabéshima,” and an- other tale of an extraordinary but faithful and benign cat which saved the daughter of a household. All the elements in Mitford’s account and stories have already been men- tioned in our discussion of De Visser’s paper. Hearn, in his Glimpses of unfamiliar Japan, has a few interesting paragraphs 10 Dr VISSER, p. 77. TOV. ae ee 2 Thid., p. 79. 13 [bid. 14 Op. cit., p. 243. Supt. 15, 1945 about cats. Of a cat which roamed his grounds in Izumo he wrote: ‘Partly be- cause of the immorality of this cat, and partly because it happens to have a long tail, it has the evil reputation of being nekomata, or goblin cat. It is true that in Izumo some kittens are born with long tails, but it is seldom that they are suffered to grow up with long tails. For the natural tendency of cats is to hecome goblins; and this tendency to metamorphosis can be checked only by cutting off their tails in kittenhood. Cats are magicians, tails or no tails, and have the power of making corpses dance. Cats are ungrateful. ‘Feed a dog for three days,’ says a Japanese proverb, ‘and he will remember your kindness for three years; feed a cat for three years and she will forget your kindness in three days.’ . . . Cats are under a curse: only the cat and the venomous serpent wept not at the death of Buddha; and these shall never enter into the bliss of Gokuraku.’”’» Anesaki recounts some tales which in- volve the cat, but he draws largely from the same literary sources which De Visser utilized and so does not add significantly to what we already know. His discussion of the interpretation of color in cats contains some variant information however, and is worth citing: “The colours of the cat’s fur had much to do with popular ideas about the creature. The most dreaded cat was a red or pinkish brown animal which was called the ‘golden flower’ cat. Then came a cat in which the three colours, black, white and brown were mixed. The magical powers of black or white cats were believed to be less remark- able, but a totally black cat was thought to have the power of foretelling the weather, and sailors were always glad to have one about their ship.’ More recent investigation has added little to our knowledge of Japanese lore concerning the cat. Embree, in whose study of a Japanese village social organization 14 Pp. 368-69. Hearn apparently did not find out that the cutting off of the tail of a kitten was to prevent the tail from becoming forked and the grown cat from becoming a nekomata. Note the veiled warning in the Japanese proverb against keeping a cat longer than three years. 16 “Japanese mythology,” p. 327. OPLER: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT 271 rather than religion is emphasized, has this reference to the cat: “If a man has been bewitched, he visits a kildshi, who by prayer will drive out the possessing spirit. In Kuma this is mostly a dog’s spirit, though sometimes that of ‘a cat or a fox,’’!” Recently, while I was serving as com- munity analyst of the War Relocation Authority at the Manzanar, Calif., Center for persons of Japanese ancestry evacuated from the West Coast, I had occasion to dis- cuss some of the Japanese folk beliefs con- cerning animals with évacué friends and was able to secure a number of details and variant beliefs which, as far as I have been able to discover, have not been published, at least in English, before. The account which follows, which was given to me by a friend who wishes to remain anonymous, contains some of these details. “The Japanese believe that a cat should never be kept more than three years. This is because after three years it can change and become anything it wants to. One of the first signs that a cat is taking on super- natural power is the splitting of its ears. If you see a very old cat you will notice that its ears are split. By the end of its third year a cat’s ear is beginning to split. ‘“‘When a cat is brought into a Japanese house it is told, ‘You can stay here only three years.’ Therefore it goes away by it- self after three years. At the end of the third year the cat is gone. “The Japanese believe that the cat can bring good fortune or bad, depending upon its characteristics. The cat most highly prized for the house is one they call ‘‘three hair cat’’ (mike neko), a cat of three colors. It is a cat whose fur is black, whitish, and brown. Usually a cat has fur of only two colors. The cat of three colors is supposed.to bring good fortune, though I must say that our family never had good luck because of such cats we had. “Some people, mostly merchants, have a porcelain cat which is in a sitting position with the right paw lifted in a sort of beckon- ing gesture. They keep this right in the front part of their shops. It is supposed to bring in people, to draw trade. Therefore 17 Suye Mura, a Japanese village. p. 252. ZZ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a pretty girl clerk who brings in a great deal of trade is often called ‘“‘beckoning cat” (maneki neko). Of a shop which is very busy we often say, ‘They must have a good maneki neko in there.’ Because of the power of cats to draw trade many merchants have a pet cat, especially a mzke neko. It is believed that if the merchant has a good- luck cat the business will prosper and the owner will become very rich. “But the cat is also very much feared because it 1s revengeful. Even after death it will do harm. This spirit of revenge of the cat is paradoxical because the cat also brings in trade. I will illustrate the cat’s spirit of revenge by a story. “There was a family that had a cat. One day the cat stole a fish from the kitchen. In a fit of anger the master killed the cat. No one thought much about it. They just thought that it was a pity and forgot about it. The cat was buried out in the yard. The next year the man who had killed the cat planted pumpkins in this yard. One vine was a fine one; it had just one pumpkin on it but this one was an especially fine and large one. It was the best pumpkin in the village. People came to admire it. ‘‘After a while this man’s family ate the pumpkin. This was a big family of seven or eight and they all died right after that. Because they suffered so before they died, one of the neighbors was suspicious. He thought it must be food poisoning. He found out that the family had eaten this pumpkin. So he dug up the vine. He discovered that the seed from which the vine grew had been planted right in the skeleton of the face of the cat, at the place where the mouth of the cat had been. “There is another well-known story to illustrate how the cat takes revenge. This story is told about a: feudal lord named Nabeshima.'® This happened somewhere in 18 This tale is recorded also by Mitford in Tales of old Japan, pp. 245-52. Mitford’s version em- phasizes the theme of the loyalty of a humble re- tainer rather than that of a cat’s revenge. Ac- cording to Mitford’s account, a cat kills a beauti- ful concubine of a Daimyo and takes her place. The Daimyo falls seriously ill. Physicians can not discover the nature of his sickness. One hundred of his retainers resolve to keep watch over him but find that drowsiness overcomes them each night. A soldier of low rank but great devotion is found praying at a temple for the sick lord. Despite his low station, because of his piety he is allowed to VOL. 35, No. 9 southern Japan. It is a story about a cat which took revenge on the feudal lord be- cause his master was killed by Nabeshima. ‘“‘Nabeshima liked to play goh.1® He al- ways played the game with a blind man, a certain woman’s only son. This blind man had a pet cat. One time the feudal lord was in a bad humor. He lost several games to the blind man and then, getting very angry, decapitated him. When the news was brought to the mother of the dead man she told the cat, ‘Your master has been killed. You had better do something about it.’ “The cat disappeared. That’s all the mother knew about it. But shortly after- ward the lord began to get sick. He couldn’t sleep at night; he felt tortured; he was losing weight. ‘“‘A retainer who was very devoted to Nabeshima, who was always on guard be- fore his door, and who even slept outside the door of the feudal lord, noticed that every time his wife went in to be with him he would start moaning and groaning. This retainer became suspicious of the wife and of her influence on his lord. ; “Then, shortly after this, when the wife had just entered the room, the retainer noticed the shadow of a huge cat outlined against the sliding door. He struck at this shadow with a spear. The next day the wife didn’t come to her husband’s quarters. The explanation was given that she had slipped while taking a bath and had fallen in the tub and injured herself. The retainer began to think about it. He remembered that this woman had not cared for fish previously but that recently she wanted it three times a day. stand guard as one of the one hundred. When he becomes sleepy, he sticks his dirk in his thigh and turns it. He is the only one to remain awake and thwarts the cat in human guise when she appears. He confides his suspicion of the concubine to officials and gets permission to kill her. During the fight that follows she turns into a cat again and escapes to the mountains. A great hunt follows in which she is killed. In Suye Mura, pp. 276- 277, Embree gives two versions of this tale in outline. 19 Goh is a game played with white and black ‘“‘stones’”’ or counters on a board of 361 squares. Each player tries to control as much space as possible by surrounding the counters of his op- ponent with his own. The game ends when the whole board is in use, and the winner is the one who controls the greatest area of the playing surface, Serr. 15,1945 oOpLeR: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT “‘He decided to keep an eye on the feudal lord’s wife. This was hard to do because she had female retainers to take care of her and no men were allowed in her quarters. But one night he stole in these quarters and managed to get close to her without being discovered. He saw that she was licking the oil from the lamp. A cat’s favorite drink is mustard seed oil. When he saw this the re- tainer knew that she was not a human being and struck at her. She escaped in the form of a cat. Then they dug under the quarters of the women and found the body of the wife. The cat had killed her and had taken her place. The retainer and others pursued the cat. The cat ran into an old abandoned temple. The cat mewed and other cats came. The place was alive with cats, for this one was a leader of the cats and had called for help. But finally this cat was cornered and killed, and after this the feudal lord got well again.” A second general account of the place of the cat in Japanese thought which was given to me helps to fill in our information and adds explanatory detail to points al- ready mentioned.?° “They say a cat has great mental power (jintsuryoku). The way I have heard it, when a female cat becomes old, it can do evil things against man. Cats sometimes come out disguised as human beings. Since they have mental power equal to man’s they can talk and act like a human being. “These old cats seem to live in Buddhist temples. When they come out in disguised form it is always at night, according to the stories I have heard. When they are in a temple they don’t want anyone to take the temple away from them. If anyone tries to open and use the temple again, the cats will disguise themselves as ghosts or monsters and scare him away. They take over the temple then. Such a temple, though de- serted, is always kept clean. That is one way to tell a temple which has been taken over by cats. “The Japanese word for monster is bakemono. Literally this means ‘‘what has 20 This account was contributed by Robert Seido Hashima, who lived and studied in Japan for many years. Mr. Hashima has also been good enough to read this paper, to check the Japanese terms, and to make a number of helpful sugges- tions. 273 come out.” The Japanese word bakeru means ‘‘to turn into a monster.’’ You can use this word of a badger or a fox, but then it implies that the badger or fox has changed form to play tricks or to do mis- chief. It is not very serious. But when you say a cat changes to a monster (neko ga bakeru), that is really dangerous. “When the cat turns to a monster it may come out in the shape of a cat, but it is a huge cat. It has long nails and is fierce look- ing. It is ready to eat human beings. The ears of the monster cat are split. “Ordinary people believe it is dangerous to kiJl a cat. They wouldn’t take cats out and drown them as is done in this country. There is a saying, ‘A cat which is killed re- appears as a monster’ (neko o korosuto bakeru). When a mother sees a child abusing a cat, a little child of six who doesn’t know any better, she would say, ‘If you kill that cat it will come out and annoy you at night.’ “There are stories to show what happens when you kill a cat. According to one story, a cat did something and the man of the house killed the cat. The cat came out as a bakemono. It began to persecute the man who had killed it. The man would always hear the crying of the cat and this made him restless. He became a sick man and had a nervous breakdown. He went on like this for several years and then passed away. The cat’s spirit revenged itself on this man. Because of the man’s death, his family went through great hardship. “There are beliefs about cats of different colors. They say that the cat of three colors, white, black, and brown (mzke neko), is the tame cat. A cat of that color is always going to be a family cat. The stories about cats which bother people are always about white or black ones. They leave the mike out of these. White cats are supposed to be old and wise. A monster cat is usually described as white. They don’t like black cats in Japan either. They are considered evil and are said to bring bad luck. “The Japanese have a feeling that the cat is greedy. It wants more and more. That is why they don’t want it around after the third year. It tries to become a member of the house. There is a saying that goes some- thing like this, ‘After three years even a cat 274 becomes a member of the family.’ I don’t remember the exact words. “In Japan I saw a moving picture which brought in some of these beliefs about the cat. It had to do with an old lady who kept a black cat more than three years. This woman was a heartless, grasping person, a neko baba. She didn’t trust anyone but the cat. The way the cat cried would give the woman warning when she was in danger. The woman could understand the cat. The neighbors knew this woman was evil and hated the cat. They stayed away from the cat when they saw it; they were afraid something would happen if they went near it. This woman collected a great deal of money from the people by selling them things at high prices. They didn’t dare to refuse to buy. ‘“‘One time the cat cried. It was trying to tell her something. But the old lady mis- interpreted it. She struck the cat and didn’t feed it for a while. The cat went away. The old lady got into trouble at once. She lost her fortune and got killed. The people never saw the cat again. They did not know where it went. This cat had brought her good fortune. Then when she didn’t take care of it, it abandoned her and. faded away. “T have heard stories that tell how the farmers were harmed by cats. The cats would go out to farms and destroy vege- tables or would come to the farmhouse and, while in the form of a human being, take food. Sometimes they took small children away with them. Usually these cats were living in some temple. The farmers then appealed to some samurai and asked him to kill the monster living in the temple. He would go out there and kill the cat, but he would have a hard time doing it because the cat would have a mental power as great as that of the samurai. When the cat was dead it was usually seen to be white. “It is said that a person can be possessed by a cat. In such a case what happens seems to be tied up with the mental power of the cat. They say that the cat’s mental power is stronger than that of the person. The cat doesn’t get inside a person when it pos- sesses him as the fox does. It influences him from outside. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 ‘There are many beliefs about the cat in Kyoto and the area around Kyoto. I think this is because Kyoto is one of the oldest Japanese cities and has many temples con- nected with it. In ancient times Tokyo was one of the places that believed in cats strongly too. And there are other places where belief in cats is strong. “Certain types of merchants and busi- nessmen, I’m not sure what type, used to treat the cat well because they thought the eat brought them good luck in their busi- nesses. Also I have heard that if you dream of a cat it will bring you good fortune. “During the middle Tokugawas the dog was highly esteemed. Laws were even passed that anyone who killed a dog would be sentenced to prison for life. This kind- ness to domestic animals extended to the cat too. After this the cat became popular. But the treatment of the cat was not carried to extremes as in the case of the dog.” About this time the cat became the model of the woodcarvers. If a woodcarver carved a good cat he would be accepted as a real artist. It was a test. Any woodcarver who carried on his work would carve a cat. Skill in carving cats of wood was highly esteemed and a good example of this kind of carving brought a good price.”? Such carv- ings were bought by rich people. There is not much carving of cats out of wood now, but there is a good deal of photographing of cats recently. “One other thing about the cat. It is sup- posed to be very fierce in protecting its young. The Japanese say that a mother cat will eat her own kittens if she cannot pro- tect them any longer, rather than to let them fall into the hands of an enemy. ‘There are a number of common expres- sions which show how the cat is regarded. A wheedling, whining voice is called neko nade goe which literally means ‘cat brush against voice.’ An old lady who misuses or 21 For an account of these laws and the ‘‘dog mania” of the Shogun Tsunayoshi who began his term of office in 1680, see BRINKLEY, A history of the Japanese people, pp. 602-03. 2 The “sleeping cat” in the mortuary chapel of Ieyasu at Nikko by the Japanese artist Hidari Jingord is the most famous example of its kind. See CHAMBERLAIN, Things Japanese, pp. 63—64, 262, and Rein, The industries of Japan, p. 420. Sepr. 15, 1945 makes a profit on young people or who is in general unscrupulous and grasping is called ‘old lady cat’ (neko baba).** Of a person who is quiet and polite but who does evil behind people’s backs (a hypocrite), it is said, ‘he wears a cat’ (neko wo kaburu). ‘He’s like a cat’ (neko noydna hito) is said of a person who is not trusted. ‘To change like a cat’s eye’ (neko no me noydni kawaru) is to be fickle and untrustworthy and to change a thing to one’s own advantage. “T haven’t heard of cats doing harm to people in recent times. Most of these stories are told about former times.”’ On the basis of the research carried on at Manzanar and since, a number of elements have been found which may be added to what we already know concerning Japanese beliefs and folklore concerning the cat. These may be summarized briefly as fol- lows: Cats are in general greedy and over- reaching. They try to win their way into the family circle and dominate it. It is dangerous to keep a cat longer than three years. Even if a cat does no noticeable harm, after this period it will be so inde- pendent that it will render no service.*4 When a cat’s ears begin to split, it is a sign that it is beginning to take on supernatural characteristics.“ Supernatural cats tend to frequent and utilize abandoned temples. They are difficult to oust and are capable of possessing and deceiving man because of their unusual mental power. Though cats appear in human guise, their shadows, when seen through a sliding door, are al- ways feline. White color of the fur is a sign of age, power, and wisdom in a cat, and monster cats, when slain, are often found to be white.2° Concepts of hypocrisy, greed, 23 The proprietress of a house of ill fame is often called by this term. According to Clement, neko baba means “anything concealed,”’ literally “cat’s dung.” % On this point I was told, ‘‘You usually keep a cat to catch mice or rats. But after the third year a cat won’t catch any more mice. So from a practical point of view it is useless to keep it.”’ 25 This is probably a variation on the “forked tail” theme and may have only local distribution in Japan. The persistence of the belief concerning the animal form of the shadow and the associations of the color white are also found in connection with OPLER: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT 275 and fickleness are often expressed in the Japanese language through references to the cat or to cat-like qualities. There is evi- dently some difference of opinion or local variation concerning the color of the cat which is the favorite and helper of sailors. The attributes of the 3-colored or ‘‘calico”’ cat have been variously explained also. In spite of the fear that it has aroused, the cat is a benefactor of merchants, has had a prominent place in art, and has been pic- tured as a fearless defender of its young, even to the point of destroying them when it is unable to safeguard them longer. If this limited inquiry, carried on under unfavorable conditions and in spare time, has yielded so many additional details, it may be assumed that systematic and sus- tained research would contribute much more to our knowledge of Japanese folklore and folk belief concerning the cat. Prob- lems of local variation, according to ken or district, evidently require much more at- tention than has hitherto been given them. BIBLIOGRAPHY ANESAKI, Masauarvu. “Japanese Mythology,” The Mythology of All Races, 8: 205-387. 1928 BRINKLEY, FRANK. A history of the Japanese people. New York and London: The Encyclopedia Co., 1915. CHAMBERLAIN, Basi HALL. nese. London: Kegan Paul, Trubner and Co., Ltd., 1890. EMBREE, JoHN F. Suye Mura, a Japanese village. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939. Hearn, Larcapio. Glimpses of unfamiliar Japan. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1901. Mitrorp, A. B. Tales of Old Japan. don: Maemillan and Co., 1876. OpLter, Morris Epwarp. Japanese folk be- lief concerning the snake. Southwestern Journ. Anthrop. (in press). and Hasuima, Rospert Srrpo. The rice goddess and the fox in Japanese re- ligion and folk practice. Amer. Anthrop. (in press). Rein, J. J. The industries of Japan. New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1889. VisseR, M. W. pve. The dog and cat in Japanese Folklore. Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 37 (pt. 1): 1-84. 1909. other animals which are feared. Compare the data in other papers by Opler cited in the bibliography. Things Japa- Trench, Lon- 276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 9 BOTANY.—The vegetative characters of the bamboo genus Phyllostachys and de- scriptions of eight new species introduced from China.' F. A. McCuure. | Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations and Smithsonian Institution. INTRODUCTION This paper represents a portion of the re- sults of accumulated observations that were being correlated (under a Fellowship granted by the John Simon Guggenheim Founda- tion) in a comprehensive treatment of Phyllostachys and other Chinese bamboo genera. That study was interrupted shortly after the outbreak of hostilities in the Pa- cific area, and attention was turned to more urgent work on Western Hemisphere bam- boos on behalf of the United States Govern- ment. The occasion for hastening the publica- tion of this part of the study is the special emphasis that the present emergency has given to the importance and industrial promise of this genus for Western Hemi- sphere economy. The genus Phyllostachys supplies the bulk of all the industrial bam- boo culms and the edible bamboo shoots utilized in China and Japan and also prac- tically all the bamboo culms exported by Japan to this country in pre-war times. The young shoots of the bamboos of this genus are, without exception, edible. More- over, their full-grown culms are known to be an excellent source of paper pulp. It is estimated that 80 percent of all the paper consumed in China comes from this genus. Recent special experimental studies car- ried out in the United States indicate that bamboos of this genus are entirely suit- able, technologically, for the manufacture of Western types of paper by modern methods. Bamboos of this genus thrive in well- watered, warm-temperate areas such as comprise much of our west coast, our east coast south of Washington, D. C., and the Gulf States (excluding parts of Florida), and similar areas in Latin America, where bamboos of the more cold-sensitive tropical genera cannot be grown. Living plants of the principal species of Phyllostachys used in China and Japan are ~ already available in this country. Some of 1 Received April 10, 1945. these have been growing here for nearly 40 years without having been given a compre- hensive trial or special study. The U. 8S. Department of Agriculture has living plants of 21 species and 4 recognized forms or varieties in this genus. Of these, appar- ently only 11 species and 3 varieties have been formally described and given scien- tific names. It is assumed that making available a knowledge of the distinctive characters of the individual kinds for pur- poses of identification, and providing valid, documented names where these are lacking, will help to focus interest on the species of this genus, encourage experiments in their cultivation, and stimulate scientific investi- gations of their technological properties. Eight of the ten aforementioned species _ presumed to be new are here described. The available plants of the other two are as yet too young to show fully their distinctive characters. A more comprehensive treat- ment of the genus, embracing all the spe- cies under cultivation in this country,with keys for use in field identifications, is under preparation. The descriptions are based on field ob- servations of the living plants, and the characters used are drawn from the vegeta- tive organs. The characters of these struc- tures, particularly those of the nodes and internodes of the culm itself, and the culm sheaths, are quite as distinctive as the characters of the traditionally used repro- ductive organs (flowers and fruits) and have the advantage of being available for purposes of field identification. | The measurements of the parts of the culm sheath and the leaves are based on dry material. The Roman numerals appear- ing in the descriptions refer to the serial number (within the respective series) of the culm node, internode or sheath (as the case may be), counting as “‘T”’ the first one above the ground level in the series of a given structure. The P.I. number, under which the pedi- gree of each introduction is published in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Sept. 15, 1945 Exploration and Introduction, is given for each species. The reader is enjoined to caution, however, in the use of these num- bers as means of identifying bamboos in the field. In the course of time labels often be- come inadvertently transferred. Identifica- tions should always be verified by reference to published descriptions giving vegetative characters, or by having specimens (par- ticularly representative culm sheaths) com- pared with the types or authentically named reference specimens. The bamboos here described were all introduced into this country from China. They have been established and propagated at the field stations of the Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural En- gineering, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Most of them have also been grown by E. A. Mcllhenny in his bamboo garden at Avery Island, La. Much of the preliminary study of this genus was done in the Bamboo Garden established by the writer in 1925 at Ling- nan University, Canton, China. Invaluable assistance has been given through the years by R. A. Young, assistant horticulturist, Division of Plant Exploration and Intro- duction, and by David Bisset, chief scien- tific aid in charge of the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduction Garden, Savannah, Ga.., in making the permanent plantings at the Garden available for study. Through the courtesy of Dr. W. R. Maxon, curator of the U. S. National Herbarium, and Mrs. Agnes Chase, custodian of grasses, the writer has had not only the necessary stor- age and laboratory facilities but also access to the types and type collections of bam- boos preserved there. The types of the spe- cies here described will be deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium. The illustrations show inner and outer aspects of the apex and blade of repre- sentative culm sheaths from lower, middle, and upper levels of mature-sized culms. The scale is X1. My pencil sketches were inked by Agnes Chase. No effort has been spared to make the descriptions accurate and adequate, but it will not be surprising if, in describing such MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 277 extremely variable and inadequately known plants as these, some omissions have oc- curred or errors in detail have escaped de- tection. Notices of needed corrections will be gratefully received. The bamboo plant is a complex organism that, like most woody perennials, takes a: number of years to reach mature stature. During this developmental period the vegetative structures, particularly the culm sheaths, usually assume a more or less generalized form, and in most species it is only as the plant approaches mature sta- ture that these structures exhibit the char- acters by which the different kinds may be distinguished with confidence. The descriptions and figures here pre- sented are based on plants presumed to have reached their approximate mature stature. The reader is cautioned against trying to use them to identify plants of immature stature. It must be remembered, too, that there is a certain degree of varia- tion in any array of examples of a given structure, even where these are all taken from a single plant. Moreover, the inter- nodes, nodes, branch complements, and culm sheaths, from the different levels in the culm, show different forms. It should not be surprising, then, if it should prove difficult to identify specifically a single ex- ample taken at random from the series. Foliage specimens alone are usually of little or no value for purposes of specific identi- fication. The most useful single organ is the culm sheath. But an adequate specimen should include examples (from the same culm if possible) representing the basal, middle, ~ and upper part of the series, and so labelled. Next in importance for purposes of identi- fication (when used in conjunction with the culm sheaths) are specimens of the lower one or two meters of the mature culm itself. The branch complement, and internodes within the branched part of the culm, are principally useful for generic identifica- tions. Finally, the more completely the specimen represents the plant, and the more adequate the supplementary notes, the more reliable the identification may be. 278 VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS OF PHYLLOSTACHYS Clump habit dumetose (thicketlike), actively spreading, open to more or less densely crowded; rhizomes indeterminate (advancing indefinitely underground), slender, with short internodes and more or less ‘swollen nodes, every node gemmiferous (bearing a bud); culms arising from buds on the rhizome usually more or less distantly spaced, erect or sub- erect, never climbing; internodes of the culms hollow, cylindrical or nearly so above, the lower nodes, when these have no buds or branches, sulcate (with a broad groove) from base to tip above gemmiferous or branching nodes, usually with a narrow, more or less copiously farinose zone just below each node; the nodes of the culm all bearing branches in culms of very young plants (i.e., of juvenile stature), those in the lower half or so of the culm typically without buds or branches in culms arising from plants of mature stature, the nodes (at least the branch- or bud-bearing ones) double, i.e., with a distinct ridge encir- cling the culm just above the more or less promi- nent sheath scar; culm sheaths promptly deciduous, the ligules and blades progressively longer in sheaths at higher nodes of the culm; branch buds usually present at all of the nodes in small culms, especially those from young plants, lacking at the lower nodes (often half or more of the complete series) of culms of mature size from mature plants, but always present at all of the upper nodes, all usually developing very promptly, but one to several of the lower in the series very rarely (as, for example, in Phyl- lostachys propinqua) remaining dormant after the culm sheaths have fallen; branches often solitary in the lower part of the series, other- wise typically two at each node, the two usually more or less strongly unequal, with a third, usually very much smaller, sometimes developing between the two (atypically, and rarely, in exceptional culms, the branches clear- ly ternate, with the strongest one in the middle); leaf blades lanceolate to linear-lanceo- late, with clearly tessellate venation, i.e., with transverse veinlets clearly visible at least on the lower surface, the lower surface usually manifestly paler than the upper surface and often definitely glaucous. Phyllostachys angusta, sp. nov. Species staturae inferioris internodiis culmi JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 comparate elongatis, auriculis et setis oralibus in vaginis culmi haud evolutis, vaginis culmi et in apice et in ligula et in lamina angustissi- mis insignis. Species in notis nonnullis simu- lans Ph. flecuosam Riv. sed in characteribus saltem sequentibus distinguenda: culmorum in- ternodiis primo vix (dempta zona angusta in- fra nodos) farinosis, ligula vaginarum culmi longe fimbriata haud purpurata, auriculis setisque oralibus in vaginis foliorum saepe haud evolutis. Culmi usque ad 3.5 m alti et (int. V) 13 mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo viridia nitidaque, deinde sensim levissime fari- nosa, usque (no. IX) ad 191 mm (V: 163 mm) longa, ligno circ. 3 mm crasso; nodi prominuli; vaginae culmi oblongae vel lineares, apicem versus leniter angustatae, dorso vulgo omnino glabrae, saepe (demptis plantis immaturis) sparsim fusco-maculatae, omnes siccitate pal- lide stramineae, conferte nervosae et coriaceae; auriculae et setae orales haud evolutae; ligula longe exserta (haud decurrens) angusta, dorso subtiliter strigosa, apice (interdum plus min- usve oblique) truncata, margine vulgo un- dulata (in vaginis superioribus saepe lacerata) in vaginis inferioribus ciliata, in superioribus cum processibus scabris fimbriata, fragilis et vulgo mox diffracta; lamina anguste linearis, plerumque plus minusve patens (infimis raro valde reflexis), plana vel siccitate saltem plus minusve alveata, utrinque subtiliter scabra, secus margines antrorse scabra. Rami ramu- lique plerique 3-, raro 4-foliati, dempto inter- nodio ultimo glabri, vaginis ramorum ramu- lorumque saepe plus minusve valde scabris. Foltorum vaginae pleraeque hispidulae, infimae glabrescentes; auriculae et setae orales et in ramis primariis culmorum hornotinorum et in culmis humilibus vel praesertim robustis inter- dum plus minusve valde evolutae, alioquin saepe haud evolutae; ligula longe exserta, dorso subtiliter hispidula, apice arcuata, margine valde undulata, in ramis ramulisque culmorum hornotinorum vulgo dense ciliolata, alioquin vulgo vix vel haud ciliolata; petiolus in ramis ramulisque culmorum hornotinorum vulgo utrinque glaber vel supra subtiliter puberulus; laminae foliorum usque ad 1380 mm longae et usque ad 18 mm latae, lineari-lanceolatae, supra semper glabrae et nitidae, subtus vulgo ima basi hirsutae, alioquin secundum aetatem plantae pervariabiliter pubescentes, margini- Supt. 15, 1945 MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 279 — MIDDLE OUTER — SS | UPPER OUTER PH. ARCANA PLE TOOF7 1 HI} , | h y ue 5 TORTI | PRT fran hs rr | J MIDDLE LOWER INNER | INNER INNER PH. PROPINQUA PRI. 76649 | pu ie ii a LOWER mh MIDDLE OUTER | a GaN | | Zi \ MIDDLE MIDDLE INNER OUTER | JN Uh \ é ‘UPPER INNER “ LOWER INNER MIODLE INNER LOWER OUTER LOWER INNER PH. MEYERI PI. 116768 PH ANGUSTA PI. 23237 | | A Aa i o. y i | cee OUTER UPPER UPPER ae he tae Pagar SANS Fic. 1.—New species of Phyllostachys. 280 bus vel utrisque spinulosis vel altero ab initio glabro. Inflorescentva ignota. This rather small species is distinguished by the following characters: Unusual length of internodes in relation to the diameter of the culm, their almost complete lack of white powder, the very narrow apex, ligule, and blade of the culm sheath, the fimbriate margin of the ligule in the upper culm sheaths, and the lack of auricles and oral setae in the culm sheath. Species resembling Phyllostachys flexuosa Riv. in some characters but distinguished by the very narrow apex, ligule, and blade of the culm sheath, by the prominently fimbriate margin of the ligule in the upper-culm sheaths, and by the almost complete lack of white powder on the internodes of the culm. Culms up to 3.5 m tall and (int. V) 13 mm in diameter, glabrous throughout; znternodes bright green and shining at first, then very lightly, almost imperceptibly, farinose, up to (no. IX) 191 mm (V: 163 mm) long, the wood about 3 mm thick; nodes moderately promi- nent; culm sheaths oblong or linear, gently narrowed toward the apex, usually entirely glabrous on the back, sparsely maculate (ex- cept in very young plants), pale stramineous, thin, tough and rather prominently ribbed when dry; auricles and oral setae lacking; ligule long-exserted, not at all decurrent, very nar- row, obscurely strigose on the back, the apex (often more or less obliquely) truncate, the margin irregularly undulate (in the upper sheaths often lacerate), ciliate in the lower sheaths, fringed with scabrous processes in the upper ones, fragile and commonly soon broken; sheath blade narrow, linear, ascending (the lower ones rarely strongly reflexed), flat or, at least when dry, more or less trough-shaped, ob- scurely scabrous on both surfaces, scabrous along both margins. Branches and twigs usually 3-, rarely 4-foliate, glabrous with the excep- tion of the uppermast internode, the branch sheaths and twig sheaths often more or less scabrous to the touch. Leaf sheaths mostly hispidulous, the lower ones glabrescent; auricles and oral setae more or less well developed in culms of the current year or in small or es- pecially robust plants, otherwise often not developed at all; ligule long-exserted, obscurely hispidulous on the back, the apex arched, the margin strongly irregular, in leaves of branches and twigs of the current year usually densely JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 9 ciliolate, otherwise scarcely or not at all cilio- late; petiole in leaves of branches and twigs of the current year, usually densely puberulent on both the upper and the lower surface, otherwise glabrous on both surfaces or ob- scurely.puberulent on the upper surface; leaf blades up to 130 mm long and up to 18 mm broad, linear-lanceolate, always glabrous on the upper surface, commonly hirsute at the base, otherwise of variable pubescence on the upper surface, according to the age of the plant, both margins spinulose or one glabrous from the first. Inflorescence unknown. Type: McClure 21023, collected May 30—- August 3, 1942, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduction Garden near Savannah, Ga., from permanent plot no. 11 (section C). This bamboo was originally introduced into this country from China by Frank N. Meyer: It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Di- vision of Plant Exploration and Introduction under P.J. 23237, where the following facts concerning it are recorded from the original field notes: The propagating material was se- cured in the autumn of 1907 from the vicinity of Tangsi, Chekiang Province, where the plant is known by the name Sah Chu (Mandarin), i.e., Stone Bamboo, on account of the hardness of the stems. These are described as being used in China principally for the manufacture of fine furniture. The specific epithet alludes to the relatively narrow apex, ligule, and blade of the culm sheath. Phyllostachys arcana, sp. nov. Species insignis culmis omnino copiose farinosis glabrisque, nodis prominentibus, auri- culis et setis oralibus in vaginis culmi haud evolutis, ligula vaginarum culmi longa et valde arcuata, saepe longe et anguste decur- rens, lamina vaginarum culmi haud vel vix crispa. Species valde affinis Ph. nudae McClure sed ligula vaginarum culmi valde arcuata et in vaginis saltem inferioribus longe et anguste decurrente clare distinguenda. Culmi usque ad 7.5 m alti et (int. V) 29x31 mm diametro, omnino copiose farinosi, glabri; internodia tactu striata, usque (no. XVI) ad 305 mm (V: 265 mm) longa, ligno (int. V) 4 mm crasso; nodt valde prominentes; vaginae culmi apicem versus sensim angustatae, in plantis staturae maturae vulgo cum maculis “Sepr. 15, 1945 fuscis sparse obsitae, superioribus interdum fere immaculatis, saepe tactu omnino laeves sed interdum (saltem in parte superiore, in culmis humilibus fere omnino) inter nervos validos cum papillis vel unguellis antrorsis asperae, interdum in medio culmi apicem versus (circa basin laminae) pilis mollibus plus min- usve dense pubescentes; auriculae et setae orales haud evolutae; ligula dorso antrorse scabra (saepe dense et minute puberula) apice valde arcuata, secus marginem undulatam ciliolata fragilissima mox diffracta, alioquin pervariabilis: in vaginis inferioribus et in medianis, saepe infra basin et anguste et longe decurrens, in superioribus valde exserta; lam- ina patens, plus minusve alveata undu- lansque, in superficie abaxiale scabra, in adaxiale glabra vel subglabra, secus margines subtiliter scabra vel subscabra, eis in vaginis infimis brevibus plerisque subcordatis vel lanceolatis, interdum valde reflexis, superiori- bus lanceolata-linearibus, patentibus, glabris. Rami ramulique glabri, plerique 2-3-foliati. Foliorum vaginae (dempto ultimo pubescente) glabrae vel glabrescentes; auriculae et setae orales haud evolutae nisi forsitan in plantis juvenilibus; ligula longe exserta, dorso scabra, apice arcuata, margine fere glabra vel subtiliter ciliolata; petiolus supra versus basin vulgo puberulus, alioquin omnino glaber; foliorum laminae lanceolatae vei lineari-lanceolatae, usque ad 154 mm longae et usque ad 20 mm latae, plerumque multo breviores angustiores- que, utrinsecus glabrae (in culmis humilibus vel senescentibus interdum subtus setulosae) secus marginem alterem omnino glabrae, secus al- terem scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota. Species distinguished by the following char- acters: Culms glabrous throughout and copi- ously farinose, the nodes prominent, the long, strongly arched ligule of the culm sheath often long and narrowly decurrent in the lower sheaths and not at all or scarcely so in the upper ones. Species closely resembling Phyl- lostachys nuda McClure, from which it may be distinguished by its strongly convex culm sheath ligule which, in the lower sheaths, is often narrowly decurrent far below the base of the sheath blade. Culms up to 7.5 m tall and (int. V) about 29 X31 mm in diameter, entirely glabrous, con- spicuously farinose with loose white powder, especially immediately below the nodes; inter- MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 281 nodes up to (no. XVI) 305 mm (V: 265 mm) long, the surface perceptibly ribbed, the wood about 4 mm thick; nodes rather prominent; culm sheaths oblong to linear, gently rounded toward the apex, the lower ones commonly bearing some small dark spots, the upper ones often entirely immaculate, glabrous to the touch or often (at least in the upper part) scabrous between the crowded veins, those in the middle of the culm often pubescent at and near the base of the sheath blade, tough and husklike though easily split when dry, the veins then very prominent and close together; auricles and oral setae not at all developed; ligule scabrous on the back (often densely and finely pubescent) the apex strongly convex, ciliolate along the undulate margin, very fra- gile and soon more or less broken, otherwise quite variable: in the sheaths at the lower and median levels of the culm often narrowly de- current far below the base of the sheath blade, at the upper levels strongly exserted and usu- ally not markedly decurrent; sheath blade more or less patent, trough-shaped and un- dulate, scabrous on the abaxial surface, gla- brous or subglabrous on the adaxial surface, obscurely scabrous or subglabrous along the margins, those on the lower sheaths very short, cordate or lanceolate, sometimes strongly re- flexed, those on the upper sheaths lanceolate- linear. Branches and twigs glabrous, usually 2-3-foliate. Leaf sheaths (excepting the upper- most which is more or less pubescent) glabrous or glabrescent; auricles and oral setae not at all developed; ligule long exserted, scabrous on the back, convex at the apex, glabrous or obscurely ciliolate along the margin, very fragile and soon more or less broken; petiole puberulent on the upper surface near the base only, other- wise entirely glabrous; leaf blade up to 154 mm long and up to 20 mm broad, usually glabrous on both surfaces (sometimes setulose on the lower surface in old culms) entirely glabrous along one margin, scabrous on the other. Inflorescence unknown. Type: McClure 20980, collected April 29, 1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc- tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma- nent plot no. 32 (section C). This bamboo was originally introduced into this country from China in 1926 by the writer while acting as agricultural explorer for the U. S. Department of Agriculture. It appears 282 in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction under P.I. no. 77007, where the following facts concerning it are recorded from the original field notes: Propagating material, in the form of rhizomes with culms attached, was secured November 3, 1926, under the name Lao Chu (Mandarin) or Lo Chuk (Cantonese) at (Pe Ssz Kung) Chih- washan, Anhwei Province, where it was ob- served both in the wild and under cultivation. A height of 4-6 m and a diameter of 2—2.5 cm were recorded for the culms. The shoots are said to be edible, and the culms are used in weaving (for matting) and for making lan- terns. The specific epithet alludes to the obscurity of reliable characters which made it difficult at first to distinguish this from P. nuda. Phyllostachys aureosulcata, sp. nov. Species insignis internodiis culmi et ramorum hornotinorum (in plantis staturae maturae) ab initio scabris, sulcis cum colore aut lutea aut viridi-aureo omnino in striis tinctis; vaginis novellis culmi saepissime cum striis albidis, luteis, viridibus et vinaceis notatis, eisdem etiam in statu siccato ut striis dilute- et fusco- stramineis permanentibus; auriculis vaginarum culmi vulgo validissume evolutis excurrentibus, ligula ampla apice valide arcuata, lamina latius- cula vix crispa. Species in notis nonnullis simulans Ph. nidularcam Murro sed in charac- teribus sequentibus distinguenda: internodiis culmi ramique in sulco cum colore lutea vel viridiaureo tinctis; internodiis culmorum horno- tinorum (saltem staturae maturae) scabris; vaginis culmi vulgo omnino glabris, texturae tenuioris; ligulis vaginarum culmi longioribus; cicatricibus in nodis culmorum minus _ pro- minentibus et semper omnino glabris; inter- nodiis comparate brevioribus et nodis minus prominentibus. Culmi usque ad 7.8 m alti et (int. V) 29 mm _ diametro; internodia usque (no. XIII) ad 356 mm (V: 196 mm) longa, primo (praesertim in parte culmi inferiore} plus minusve copiose farinosa et retrorse scabra, in sulco colore aut lutea aut viridi-aureo (vel omnino vel in striis) tincta, alioquin primo viridia deinde sensim olivacea vel (saltem culmis valde insolatis) aurescentia; nod? glabri, prominuli; zona fari- nosa vulgo cicatricem superans; vaginae culmi oblongae, versus apicem plus minusve late JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 9 rotundatae, texturae tenuis lentaeque, colore variabilis, semper cum striis albidis, luteis et (praesertim versus basin culmi) vinaceis et (praesertim in parte culmi superiore) viridibus, (his et porro etiam in statu siccato cum striis et dilute- et fuscostramineis permanentibus) plus minusve valide notatae, primo copiose et laxe (in plantis staturae immaturae leviter) farinosae, infimis basi interdum (rarissime) retrorse scabris, alioquin omnibus omnino glabris; auriculae interdum in eodem culmo pervariabiles, in vaginis 4—5 infimis vulgo haud evolutae, alioquin vulgo valde evolutae, fal- catae vel ovatae, raro omnino debiliter vel haud evolutae, vulgo e basi laminae decur- rentes, interdum e basi laminae distinctae, saepissime plus minusve excurrentes, inter- dum reflexae, interdum novellis vinaceotinctis, in sicco tenues, fragiles, stramineae, plus min- usve crispae; setae orales paucae vel plures vel quum auriculis nullis tum haud evolutae, vulgo in margine exteriore auricularum con- fertae; ligula usque (in V) ad 3-4 mm longa, superioribus gradatim longioribus, dorso sub- glabra, apice valde convexa, margine undulata cum ciliolis minutis et setis crassis scabris fimbriata; lamina erecta vel (in vaginis in- fimis) interdum reflexa, anguste triangulata, ima basi utrinque latescens, plana vel revoluta, haud crispa superficie adaxiali subtiliter sca- bra, abaxiali valde scabra, marginibus spinu- losa. Rami omnino glabri vel in internodiis infimis plus minusve asperi, interdum plus minusve farinosi, 3—5-foliati, in culmis horno- tinis omnino glabri, in culmis annorum plurium internodiis supremis interdum in sulco puberuli. Foliorum vaginae glabrae vel raro sparsim setosae; auriculae et setae orales pervariabiles, in ramulis parce foliatis debiliter evolutae, in ramis ramulisque plurifoliatis vulgo valde evolutae; ligula usque ad 1.5 mm longa, dorso basin versus sparse puberula, apice valde arcuata, margine undulante sparse ciliolata; petiolus utrinque glaber vel subglaber; foliorwm laminae usque ad 155 mm longae et usque ad 19 mm latae, vulgo multo breviores et angus- tiores, supra glabrae, subtus ima basi dense pilosae vel hirsutae, in medio sparse pilosae, apicem versus obscure scabrae, spinulis mar- ginalibus eximie remotis et patentibus. Jn- florescentia ignota. | Species marked by the following conspicuous characters: The sulcus of the internodes of the Sepr. 15, 1945 MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 283 culms and branches at first tinted or striped more or less conspicuously (some would say obscurely) with yellow or greenish golden, es- pecially during the first year; the culm sheath always more or less conspicuously color-striate TR LOWER INNER | LOWER OUTER dl I da TAN UPPER INNER aa UPPER OUTER MIDDLE INNER. PH. NUDA MIDDLE OUTER PH. DULCIS Pl in varying degrees of intensity at various levels of the culm, with white, cream, green, and wine, while fresh, and retaining visible variegation in light and dark tints of straw when dry. In the shape and coloration of the culm sheaths and | ' UPPER OUTER pl wu ; ere “hg MIDDLE INNER P.l. 73452 LOWER INNER MIDDLE OUTER LOWER OUTER 103938 Fic. 2.—New species of Phyllostachys. 284 the relation of the auricles to the culm sheath blade, this species shows some resemblance to - Phyllostachys nidularia Munro, from which it differs clearly, however, in the yellowish or greenish-golden sulcus of the internodes of the young culms and branches; the thinner, more flexible, entirely glabrous culm sheaths, the longer ligules of the culm sheath, the scabrous- ness of the internodes in young culms of mature stature, and the glabrous, less prominent culm sheath scars, and the less prominent culm nodes. Culms up to 7.8 m tall and (int. V) 29 mm in - diameter; internodes up to (no. XIII) 356 mm (V: 196 mm) long, in culms of mature stature more or less copiously farinose, retrorsely scabrous, and tinted or striped with yellow or greenish golden on the sulcus, especially in the © first year; nodes glabrous, rather prominent but narrow; farinose zone usually extending both above and below the sheath scar; culm sheath oblong, rounded toward the apex, thin and flexible in texture, variable in color, always more or less conspicuously striped with white, yellow and (especially toward the base of the culm) wine and (especially toward the apex of the culm) green, and retaining, even in the dry state the variegation in the form of lighter and darker tints of straw, at first copiously and loosely (in plants of immature stature lightly) farinose, glabrous throughout, or the lower ones very rarely retrorse scabrous basally; auricles commonly not developed in the lower- most 4 or 5 sheaths, otherwise usually well developed, rarely all weak or lacking entirely, sometimes extremely variable in the same. culm, commonly decurrent from the base of the blade, sometimes entirely distinct from the base of the blade, usually falcate or ovate, more or less excurrent, sometimes reflexed, when dry very thin and fragile and moreor less crinkled; oral setae slender, flexuous, few to many, or (when the auricles are lacking) not at all developed, commonly crowded along the ex- terior (upper) margin of the auricles and fewer or none on the lower margin; ligule (in V) up to 3-4 mm long, progressively longer in the upper sheaths, subglabrous on the back, the apex strongly arched, the undulate margin ciliolate or fimbriate with coarse, scabrous processes; sheath blade erect or (in the lower sheaths) sometimes strongly reflexed, broadly to narrowly triangular, broadening abruptly JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 at the very base, flat or sometimes revolute, not at all crinkled, obscurely scabrous on the adaxial surface, strongly so on the abaxial, both margins spinulose. Branches 3—5-foliate, gla- brous throughout or the lower internodes more or less scabrous, sometimes somewhat farinose, the twigs commonly 1-2-leaved, glabrous throughout on culms of the current year, the uppermost internodes often puberulent in older culms. Leaf sheaths glabrous or rarely sparsely setose; auricles and oral setae extremely vari- able, weakly developed in few-leaved twigs, commonly more strongly developed in twigs and branches with more leaves; ligule up to 1.5 mm long, sparsely puberulent, the apex strong- ly arched, the uneven margin sparsely cilio- late; petiole glabrous or subglabrous on both surfaces; leaf blades up to 155 mm long and up to 19 mm broad, usually much shorter and nar- rower, glabrous on the upper surface, densely pilose or hirsute at the very base, sparsely pilose in the middle and scabrous toward the tip on the lower surface, the marginal spinules usually distant from each other and more or less spreading. Inflorescence unknown. Type: McClure 20971, collected April 29, 1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc- tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma- nent plot no. 31 (section C). This bamboo was originally introduced into the United States from China by Frank N. Meyer in 1908. It appears in the Plant Inven- tory of the Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction under P.I. 55713. It was carried for some years under the name of Phyllostachys nevinit Hance. Circumstantial evidence, how- ever, led to the suspicion that this name was not properly applied to the present species. The type specimen of P. nevinii, which is deposited at Kew, was examined by the writer in 1935, and later by C. E. Hubbard, with a view to determining whether any close resemblance could be detected between it and the present plant. The concurrence of opinion is that the two represent entirely distinct species. Signifi- cant support is given to this view by the fact that this species has not come to light in, or anywhere near, the type locality of P. nevinii | Hance, during the course of many years, dili- gent search. ; . An interesting characteristic of the species (at least of the plants grown in the United States)—one that detracts somewhat from the Sept. 15, 1945 value of many of the culms—is the rather fre- quent, but irregular, occurrence of one to several strongly geniculate nodes within the first meter from the ground. An experimental selection (P.I. 70741) was made by R. A. Young some years ago to ascertain if the oc- currence of this character could be made more regular or more frequent by such selection, but no difference in its subsequent incidence has been noted. The specific epithet alludes to the distinctive coloration of the sulcus of young culms and their branches. Phyllostachys dulcis, sp. nov. Species insignis culmis basin versus vulgo plus minusve curvatis, omnino glabris; inter- nodiis copiose farinosis, tactu plus minusve valide striatis, interdum cum striis aureis lineari- bus obscure notatis; nodis infimis plerisque plus minusve valde gibbose incrassatis; vaginis culmi omnino glabris, fuscomaculatis, sicca- tate pallidissime stramineis; auriculis valde evolutis crassis, saepe plus minusve excur- rentibus, novellis viridibus; lamina vaginarum culmi latiuscula, valde crispa. Species inter- nodiis culmi glabris et plus minusve valde elevato-striatis Phyllostachys vivacem McClure simulans, e qua tamen differt habitu culmorum frondisque, auriculis vaginae culmi valde evo- lutis, vaginis culmi texturae tenuioris et (novellis) plus minusve colorato-striatis, et forma ligulae vaginarum culmi. Culmi usque ad vel ultra 10 m alti et usque (int. V) ad 57X60 mm diametro, ab initio omnino glabri farinosique; internodia usque (no. XVIII) ad 255 mm (V: 210 mm) longa, tactu plus minusve valde striata et saepe striis tenuibus albidis vel pallido-luteis variegata, ligno 5-6 mm crasso; nodi prominuli, inferiori- bus saepe supra cicatricem gibbose incrassatis; zona farinosa angusta, caplose farinosa; vaginae culm oblongae, versus apicem late rotundatae, texturae tenuis lentaeque, facile fissae, omnino glabrae, sparse floccoso-farinosae, novellis (in plantis staturae maturae) tum striis latiusculis albidis vel pallido-luteis variegatis et maculis fuscis sparsim maculatis, siccatis pallidissime stramineis maculatisque sed haud colorato striatis; awriculae ovatae vel angusto-oblongae excurrentes, crassae, dense pubescentes; setae orales valide evolutae, auriculis et setis oralibus primo viridibus deinde fusco-stramineis; ligula MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 285 brevis, in vaginis superioribus vix vel paullum longior, dorso scabra, apice late arcuata, mar- gine subtiliter ciliolata; lamina vaginaruwm anguste triangulata vel linearis, valde alveata crispaque, vulgo adscendens raro reflexa, super- ficie adaxiale basin versus hispidula, alioquin glabra vel subglabra. Rami comparate breves subaequales, glabri, primo plus minusve fari- nosi, ramis ramulisque plerisque 2-—3-foliatis, ramis in surculis ex culmis decapitatis orienti- bus saepe 4—5-foliatis. Vaginae foliorum primo (dem pto supremo valde pubescente) glabrae vel glabrescentes; auriculae et setae orales per- variabiles, saepissime haud evolutae, interdum (praesertim in surculis ex culmis decapitatis orientibus) valde evolutae; ligula valde exserta, mox fissa, dorso basin versus plus minusve his- pidula, alioquin glabra, apice arcuata, mar- gine undulata glabra vel subtiliter ciliolata; petiolus utrinque omnino glaber vel supra basin versus scaberulus; laminae foliorum, usque ad 100 mm longae et usque ad 16 mm latae, supra glabrae, subtus variabiliter pubescentes, vulgo saltem versus basin pilosae. IJnflorescentia ignota. Species distinguished by the following com- bination of characters: Culms commonly more or less strongly curved at the base, glabrous throughout; the internodes copiously farinose, more or less striate to the touch, often visibly striped with narrow cream or pale yellow lines, the lower nodes usually more or less strongly thickened asymmetrically, culm sheaths glabrous throughout, maculate with dark spots, very pale straw colored when dry, auricles thick, often more or less excurrent, green when fresh, culm sheath blade very strongly crisped. In its entirely glabrous culms, ribbed internodes, and asymmetrically thick- ened culm nodes, this bamboo somewhat re- sembles Phyllostachys vivax McClure but is readily distinguishable from the latter by the sparser maculation of the culm sheaths, the well-developed auricles and oral setae, the dif- ferent shape of the culm sheath ligules, and the very pale straw color of the culm sheaths when dry. Culms up to or exceeding 10 m tall and (int. V) up to 57 X60 mm in diameter, glabrous and farinose throughout from the beginning; inter- nodes up to (no. XVIII) 255 mm (V: 210 mm) long, more or less strongly ribbed (in the lower part of the culm at least) and very often verti- 286 cally striped with a few whitish or cream lines, the wood 5-6 mm thick; nodes somewhat prominent, the lower ones often asymmetrically thickened above the sheath scar; farinose zone relatively narrow, copiously farinose; culm sheaths oblong, rounded toward the apex, thin and tough, easily split, glabrous throughout, sparsely floccose-farinose, sparsely maculate (in plants of mature stature at least) with dark spots and (in fresh shoots) variegated with stripes of white or cream and, when dry, very pale straw in color with sparse persistent dark maculations but devoid of all color striation; auricles narrowly oblong, excurrent; oral setae well developed (the auricles and oral setae bright green when fresh, turning dark straw when dry); ligule short, scarcely or slightly longer in the upper sheaths, scabrous on the back, the apex arcuate, the undulate margin obscurely ciliolate; sheath blade narrowly tri- angular or linear, strongly alveate and crinkled, commonly ascending, rarely reflexed, hispidu- lous basally on the adaxial surface, otherwise glabrous or subglabrous. Branches relatively short, subequal, glabrous, at first more or less visibly farinose, branches and twigs usually 2-3-foliate, branches from shoots originating at the base of decapitated culms often 4-5- foliate. Leaf sheaths at first glabrous or gla- brescent, excepting the uppermost persistently pubescent one; auricles and oral setae quite variable, often not at all developed, sometimes (particularly in shoots from decapitated culms) strongly developed; ligule strongly exserted, soon split, more or less hispidulous toward the base, otherwise glabrous, the apex convex, the undulate margin glabrous or obscurely cilio- late; petiole entirely glabrous on both sides or scaberulous basally on the upper surface; leaf blades up to 100mm long and up to 16 mm broad, mostly much shorter and narrower, glabrous on the upper surface, of variable vesture on the lower surface, commonly pilose toward the ais at least. Inflorescence unknown.) Type: McClure 20974, collected April 29, 1941, at the Barbour Tatheop Plant Tnieedne tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma- nent plot no. 70 (section C). This bamboo appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Exploration and In- troduction under P.I. 73452, where it is de- scribed as “the edible bamboo of central China.” The material under this number was JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 presented to the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture in April 1927 by E. A. MclIlhenny from plants cultivated in the bamboo garden at Avery Island, La. It represents one of the introductions of Frank N. Meyer that Mr. Mcllhenny had received from the Department some years earlier. The culms of this species, being generally rather strongly curved, with prominent, often asymmetrical thickened nodes, and culm walls of uneven thickness, are of little industrial promise. The shoots, however, have been pro- nounced, by both Dr. David Fairchild and Mr. Mcllhenny, as the best-flavored of any of the kinds that they have tested. Concerning this species, Mr. MclIlhenny says it is, in his opinion, the most rapid-growing and most pro- lific of the bamboos in his garden. This species has been carried in the records of the Division of Plant Exploration and In- troduction for many years under the name Phyllostachys henryi Rendle. There is no dis- cernible basis for this identification, however, and it seems desirable to give the plant a clearly documented scientific name based on the vegetative characters by which it is so well distinguished. P. henryz Rendle was based on flowering material only, collected by A. Henry (no. 6338) at Nanto, Hupeh. The leaf sheath is described as having a short, truncate ligule, a character clearly shown by the type. The leaf sheath in our plant has a long-exserted ligule with a rounded apex. In view of the very slight variability in the shape and dimensions of this structure in the 20-odd other species of the genus, living plants of which have been care- fully studied, it is considered sufficient to sepa- rate the two plants in question. The specific epithet alludes to the superior palatability of the young shoots. Phyllostachys meyeri, sp. nov. Species insignis culmis (demptis cicatricibus puberulis, vaginarum) glabris, modice farinosis, vaginis culmi ima basi in zona angustissima puberulis, alioquin glabris, auriculis et setis oralibus in vaginis culmi haud evolutis, ligula longitudinis mediocris, apice late arcuata, margine haud crasse fimbriata, lamina lineari, plana vulgo haud vel vix crispa. Species simu- lans Ph. auream (Carr.) Riv. sed in notis se- quentibus distinguenda: internodiis culmi ab- nomiter abbreviatis nullis; ligulis vaginarum Sept. 15, 1945 infimarum culmi longioribus et angustioribus; ligulis vaginarum superiorum culmi cum fim- briis marginalibus haud valde evolutis; ligula vaginarum foliorum valde exserta. Culmi usque ad 9.4 m alti et usque (int. V) 45x47 mm diametro; internodia usque (no. XIX) ad 352 mm (V: 185 mm) longo, moderate farinosa, omnino glabra, ligno (int. V) 6-6.5 mm crasso; modi prominuli, latiusculi, cica- trice primo pilis pallidis confertis in zona angustissima circumdata, mox glabrescente; zona farinosa angusta lente accrescens mox sordescens; vaginae culmi oblongae apice ro- tundatae, omnino glabrae vel raro marginibus sparsissime ciliatae, vix farinosae sed tactu ceratae, pleraque praecipue apicem versus cum maculis fuscis maculatae, in statu siccato len- tae, subrigide coriaceae cum nervis crassis moderate prominentibus; auriculae et setae - orales haud evolutae vel in culmis humilibus raro modice evolutae; ligula comparate brevis, haud valde exserta, dense hispidula, apice late arcuata, margine obscure ciliolata; lamina linearis vel sublinearis haud vel vix ad basin angustata, in vaginis inferioribus alveata, inter- dum plus minusve crispa, erecta, in vaginis saltem superioribus plana et plus minusve recurvata, utrinque obscure scabra, secus mar- gines scabra. Rami 3-5-foliati, ramulis 2-3- foliatis, omnibus in internodiis superioribus secus sulcum pilis retrorse uncinatis dense pu- bescentibus alioquin omnino glabris, eorum vaginis glabris. Vaginae foliorum vestitu per- variabiles—in plantis humilis vulgo plus min- usve pubescentes, sed in plantis staturae ma- turae saepissime omnino glabrae vel pro parte tantum sparse pubescentes; auriculae et setae orales in plantis humilibus valde evolutae sed in plantis staturae maturae haud vel vix evolutae; ligula valde exserta, fragilissima saepissime fissa, ima basi hispidula alioquin glabra, apice valde convexa, margine glabra vel sparsissime ciliolata; petiolus supra ima basi tantum pubescens, alioquin omnino glaber in plantis staturae maturae, sed in plantis humilibus utrinque praesertim in superficie inferiore dense pubescens; laminae foliorum lanceolatae vel oblongo-lanceolatae, usque ad 162 mm longae et 29 mm latae, supra glabrae, subtus ima basi dense pilosa apicem versus vel pilosae vel scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota. Species distinct in the following combina- tion of characters: Culms glabrous except the MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 287 sheath scars, moderately farinose, the culm sheaths with a very narrow puberulent band along the lower margin, otherwise entirely glabrous, lacking auricles and oral setae, the ligule of moderate length, the apex broadly arched, the margin not coarsely fimbriate, the sheath blade narrow, linear, usually not at all crinkled. Species closely resembling Phyl- lostachys aurea (Carr.) Riv. in superficial ap- pearance but differing in the following charac- ters: the complete lack of abnormally shortened internodes appearing so commonly in the culms of the latter species; the (vertically) longer and (transversely) narrower ligules of the lower culm sheaths; the not at all prominently fimbriate ligules of the upper culm sheaths; the strongly exserted ligule of the leaf sheaths. Culms up to 9.4 m tall and (int. V) 45 x47 mm in diameter; internodes up to (no. XIX) 352 mm (V: 185 mm) long, the surface moder- ately farinose, entirely glabrous, the wood (int. V) 6-6.5 mm thick; nodes only moder- ately prominent, rather broad, the sheath scar fringed at first with a dense, narrow band of very short, pale hairs, soon glabrescent, the farinose zone narrow, developing slowly and soon becoming gray to black; culm sheaths oblong, rather abruptly rounded at the apex, entirely glabrous or rarely with a few cilia along the margins, not noticeably farinose, but somewhat waxy to the touch, mostly somewhat maculate with smallish, smoky spots, especially toward the apex, tough, stiffly leathery, and with the coarse veins only moderately salient, when dry; auricles and oral setae not at all developed except rarely in very small culms where, in the upper sheaths a few slightly de- veloped ones may occasionally be found; ligule relatively short, only slightly wider than the base of the sheath blade, not conspicuously exserted, only slightly longer in the upper sheaths than in the lower, hispidulous on the back, the apex usually broadly arcuate, the margin slightly undulate, obscurely ciliolate; sheath blade sublinear to linear, erect or, in the upper part of the culm more or less drooping, alveate and often more or less crinkled in sheaths from the lower part of the culm when dry, flat in the upper ones, obscurely scabrous on both margins and on both surfaces, more strongly so toward the apex; branches 3-foliate, twigs 2-3 leaved, puberulent with minute retrorsely hooked hairs along the sulcus of the 288 uppermost internodes, otherwise glabrous throughout, the branch sheaths glabrous; leaf sheaths of variable vesture, in small plants typically more or less densely pubescent, in large plants often glabrous or sparsely pubes- cent in part only; auricles and oral setae appar- ently developed in inverse proportion to the size of the plant—well developed in small plants and not at all or only weakly so in large ones; ligule prominently exserted, delicate and very frequently split longitudinally, hispidulous basally, otherwise glabrous, the apex strongly convex, the margin glabrous or sparsely cilio- late; petiole puberulent at the base on the upper surface, otherwise glabrous throughout in all leaves on large plants, but pubescent on both surfaces (more densely so on the lower sur- face) in small plants; leaf blades up to 162 mm long and up to 29 mm broad, always glabrous © on the upper surface, densely pilose basally and decreasingly so toward the apex on the lower surface, more densely so in small, young plants, more weakly so in the first leaves of large plants. Inflorescence unknown. Type: McClure 20984, collected April 29, 1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc- tion Garden, near Savannah, Ga., from per- manent plot no. 32 (section C). This bamboo was introduced into the United States from China by Frank N. Meyer. It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction under P.I. 116768. The original records pertaining to this bamboo apparently were confused in the beginning with those belonging to other introductions, so that it is not possible to give any information as to the precise origin of this bamboo or the part it plays in the local Chinese economy. Some propagating material of this species has been distributed in this country. A thriving colony an acre or more in extent is to be found on the experimental farm of the Florida State Agricultural College at Gaines- ville, Fla. Phyllostachys nuda, sp. nov. Species insignis culmis glabris, tactu striatis, plus minusve copiose farinosis; vaginis culmi laxe farinosis, vulgo tactu glabris vel plerisque (pro parte saltem) inter nervos valde pro- minentes vel scabris vel cum unguellis an- trorsis munitis, manifeste fusco-maculatis, sic- catate conferte et crasse nervosis, fusco-stra- mineis; auriculis et setis oralibus haud evolutis, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 ligula valde exserta, apice truncata margine plus minus valde ciliolata, lamina vaginae lanceolato-lineari, plus minus patente, plerum- que haud valde reflexa, auriculis et setis orali- bus in vaginis foliorum haud evolutis. Species valde simulans Phyllostachys flecuosam Riv. sed distinguenda vaginis culmae inter nervos prominentes scabris, vaginis foliorum sine auriculis et setis oralibus. Species valde affinis Phyllostachys arcanae McClure sed conforma- tione apicis ligulae sat distincta. Culmi usque ad 5.5 m alti et (int. V) 30 mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo (praecipue sub nodis) plus minusve copiose farinosa, tactu striata, usque (no. XIV) 310 mm (V: 170 mm) longo, ligno 4 mm crasso; nodi prominuli; vagina oblonga, apice versus leniter angustata, saltem infimis fusco-macula- tis, tactu raro omnino glabra sed vulgo (saltem in parte superiore) inter nervos valde pro- minentes cum unguellis antrorsis aspera, in statu siccato subcoriacea fissilis; auriculae et setae orales:- haud evolutae; ligula longe ex- serta, dorso scabra, apice truncata, margine ciliata; lamina fere erecta, rare valde reflexa, infimis lanceolatis alveatis plus minusve un- dulantibus, superioribus lineari-lanceolatis pla- niusculis, omnibus utrinque et in marginibus antrorse scabris. Rami glabri, 3-4-foliati, ramulis vulgo 2-foliatis. Vaginae foliorum gla; brae vel suprema setis retrorsis setulosae- auriculae et. setae orales haud evolutae; ligula longe exserta, dorso scabra, apice convexa, margine primo ciliolata demum sensim dif- fracta; petiolus subtus glaber, supra versus basin hispidulus; laminae foliorum lanceolatae vel lineari-lanceolatae, usque ad 150 mm longae et 22 mm latae, supra glabrae et nitidae, secus marginem alteram omnino glabrae, secus alteram scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota. Species distinguished by the following com- bination of characters: Culms glabrous, striate to the touch, more or less copiously farinose; culm sheaths loosely farinose, sometimes glabrous to the touch but usually provided, in part at least, with minute antrorse hooks se- cluded between the coarse veins; irregularly maculate or stained with dark spots, dark straw in color and densely and coarsely nervose when dry; the auricles and oral setae not de- veloped; the ligule strongly exserted, truncate at the apex, ciliate along the margin; sheath blades lanceolate-linear, more or less spreading, usually not strongly reflexed; auricles and oral Sept. 15, 1945 setae not developed in leaf sheaths. Species strongly resembling Phyllostachys flexuosa Riv. from which it is readily distinguished by the scabrousness between the veins of the culm sheaths, and the complete lack of auricles and oral setae in the leaf sheaths. Closely related to Phyllostachys arcana McClure, from which it may be readily distinguished by the truncate ligule of its culm sheath. Culms up to 5.5 m tall and (int. V) 30 mm in diameter, entirely glabrous; internodes more or less copiously farinose at first, especially im- mediately below the nodes, the surface per- eeptibly ribbed, entirely glabrous, up to (no. XIV) 320 mm (V: 170 mm) long, the wood about 4 mm thick; nodes rather prominent; culm sheath oblong, gently narrowed toward the apex, the lower ones, especially, usually more or less conspicuously marked by diffuse _ purplish splotches of variable size and intensity of color, often copiously and loosely farinose at first, sometimes entirely smooth to the touch or, more commonly, perceptibly scabrous with antrorse prickles disposed in variable density between the veins, especially in the upper part, tough and husk-like, though easily split, when dry, the veins then very prominent and close together; auricles and oral setae not at all developed; ligule prominently exserted, scabrous on the back, the apex truncate, the margin irregular and ciliate; sheath blade usu- ally erect or strongly ascending, rarely more or less strongly reflexed in the lower sheaths, lanceolate, alveate and more or less perceptibly crinkled in the lower sheaths, to linear, lanceo- late and flat or nearly so in the upper ones, obscurely antrorse-scabrous on both surfaces and on both margins. Branches entirely gla- brous, usually 3—4-foliate, the twigs commonly 2-foliate. Leaf sheaths glabrous or the upper- most sometimes setulose with retrorse hairs; auricles and oral setae not developed; ligule in the lower sheath rather prominently exserted (that in the upper sheath obscure), scabrous on the back, the apex strongly convex, the margin minutely ciliolate at first, fragile, soon be- coming more or less broken; petiole glabrous on the lower surface, hispidulous basally on the upper surface; blades up to 150 mm long and 22 mm broad, glabrous and shining on the upper surface, paler and antrorsely scabrous through- out the lower surface and sparsely hirsute basally with pale antrorse hairs, glabrous from base to tip on one margin, scabrous on the MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 289 other. Inflorescence unknown. Tyre: McClure 20992, collected May 19, 1941, at the old Van Fleet residence, later the residence of P. H. Dorsett, near Glenn Dale, Md. According to the records, this bamboo was originally introduced into this country from China by Frank N. Meyer. It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Ex- ploration and Introduction under P.I. 103938, which represents material secured by the De- partment of Agriculture from Mr. Dorsett’s place. A large and flourishing colony of this bamboo is under cultivation in the garden of the resi- dence of Dr. George M. Darrow, near the Plant Introduction Garden at Bell, Md. The culms have been variously employed by Dr. Darrow about the premises for temporary structures such as arbors, trellises, fences, garden stakes, etc., while the shoots harvested to hold the colony in check find a welcome place in the family menu. From personal experience I know that the shoots of this bamboo, when small (4 to 6 inches long) are very palatable, among the best I ever ate. This species appears to be very hardy at this latitude, having been seri- ously injured by cold only a few times during the last fifteen years at the Darrow place. It de- serves to be more widely cultivated as a source of poles and shoots for home use. The specific epithet alludes to the absence - of auricles and oral setae in both the culm sheaths and the leaf sheaths. Phyllostachys propinqua, sp. nov. Species insignis culmis omnino glabris ad primo (dempto zona angusta infra nodos) fere haud farinosis, vaginis culmi omnino glabris cum lamina anguste lineari, auriculis et setis oralibus vaginis culmi haud evolutis, ligula vaginarum culmi in apice valde arcuata, in margine haud crasse fimbriata insignis. Species praesertim quoad surculos novellos arcte simu- lans Phyllostachys meyert McClure sed in notis saltem sequentibus distinguenda: cicatricibus in nodis culmorum glabris; lamina vaginarum culmi angustiore brevioreque; ligula praecipue in vaginis superioribus culmi valde arcuata; foliorum laminis plerumque (dempto basi hirsuto) subtus glabris. Culmi usque ad 7 m alti et (int. V) 30X31 mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo fere haud farinosa, usque (no. XI) ad 258 mm 290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (V: 171 mm) longa, ligno (int. V) cire. 5 mm crasso; nodi in cicatrice modice prominentes; zona farinosa angusta sed cicatricem superante, primo exiguua deinde sensim valida; vaginae culmz anguste oblongae vel lineares, apice leniter rotundatae, omnino glabrae, haud vel subtilissime farinosae, in siccitate tenuiter sub- coriaceae, plus minusve valde nervosae; auri- culae et setae orales haud evolutae; ligula dorso obscure scabra, apice plus minusve valde ar- cuata, margine minute ciliolata; lamina patens (infimis reflexis), angusta, linearis, haud vel vix crispa, in superficie adaxiali scabriuscula, in abaxiali subglabra, siccata plus minusve valde alveata. Rami 3-5-foliati, eis et vaginis suis glabris, ramulis plerisque 3—4-foliatis. Vaginae foliorum glabrae; auriculae et setae orales per- variabiles, interdum haud evolutae, interdum nonnullae modice evolutae, interdum etiam praecipue in culmis vel humilibus juvenilibus vel depauperatis vel senescentibus valde evo- lutae; ligula valde exserta, dorso hispidula, apice arcuata, margine undulante subtiliter ciliolata; petiolus vulgo supra basin versus his- pidulus, alioquin glaber; lamina vulgo usque ad 135 mm longa et usque ad 16 mm lata, sub- tus semper basin versus secus costam hirsuta, interdum in partibus vicinis pilosa, secus al- teram marginem spinosula, alteram glabra. Inflorescentia ignota. Species distinct in this combination of char- _ acters: Culms glabrous throughout and (ex- cepting the narrow zone just below the nodes) almost not at all farinose, the culm sheaths glabrous and without auricles and oral setae, the ligule strongly arched, especially in the upper sheaths, and not coarsely fimbriate, the sheath blade very narrow and not or scarcely crinkled. This bamboo is very similar to Phyllostachys meyert McClure in general ap- pearance—especially that of the young shoots —but is distinct in at least the following char- acters: the glabrousness of the culm sheath scar, the narrower culm sheath blades, the strongly convex apex of the ligule of the culm sheath, the leaf blades normally not pubescent on the lower surface except along the midrib at the base. A further difference, hardly to be desig- nated as more than a tendency, is the frequent occurrence, in P. propinqua, of culms with two or three more or less strongly geniculate nodes, usually within less than a meter of the base. In addition to the strong general re- Y VOL. 35, No. 9 semblance of the two species in their “‘normal” expression, they have in common this expres- sion which, under the circumstances described tends to obliterate differences normally shown in the pubescence of the leaf blades: In low, shrubby growth originating from decapitated or otherwise thwarted or stunted culms of both species, the leaf sheaths, petioles and lower surface of the leaf blades are densely pubescent, and the upper surface of the leaf blades is strongly scabrous throughout. Furthermore, in such plants there are often more leaves per twig than in the larger ones, and both the auricles and oral setae are more prominently developed on the leaf sheaths thereof. Culms up to 7 m tall and (int. V) 30 X31 mm in diameter, glabrous throughout; internodes up to (no. XI) 258 mm (V: 161 mm) long, the farinose zone rather narrow but extending slightly above the sheath scar, thin and indis- tinct at first, then gradually becoming distinct and more densely farinose (branch buds lack- ing at nodes 1-11 in the largest culm measured, the lower several in the series sometimes re- maining undeveloped, but viable, for more than a year, an occurrence very rare in the genus); culm sheaths narrowly oblong or linear, gently rounded above to a narrow apex, entirely glabrous throughout, more or less prominently ribbed, tough and thinly coriaceous when dry (the basal ones distinctly thicker and stiffer, with less prominent nerves than the upper ones), lightly and irregularly maculate with small dark spots; auricles and oral setae not at all developed; ligule obscurely scabrous on the back, the apex more or less strongly convex, the margin minutely ciliolate; sheath blade very narrow, linear, often more or less perceptibly crinkled, slightly scabrous on the adaxial sur- face, subglabrous on the abaxial, those on the lower sheaths reflexed, those on the upper ones recurved, and flat or nearly so, all becoming ~ more or less strongly alveate upon drying. Branches 3-5-foliate. Leaf sheath glabrous; auricles and oral setae of variable occurrence and development, sometimes lacking entirely, sometimes moderately well developed and sometimes, especially in the leaf sheaths of low shrubby growth originating from decapitated or otherwise thwarted or stunted culms, or from old culms, the auricles and oral setae very strongly developed; ligule strongly ex- serted, hispidulous on the back, the apex ——— a a Swpr. 15, 1945 strongly arched, the margin irregular, minutely ciliolate; petiole usually hispidulous basally on the upper surface, otherwise glabrous; leaf blades commonly up to 135 mm long and up to 16 mm broad, always hirsute along the midrib basally on the lower surface, and often more or less pilose nearby, otherwise glabrous through- out. Inflorescence unknown. VAN ay re s LN UPPER OUTER WY LOWER OUTER PH. VIVAX MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 291 Type: McClure 20976, collected April 29, 1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc- tion Garden, near Savannah, Ga., from perma- nent plot no. 10 (section C). This bamboo was introduced into the United States from China by the writer in 1926. It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction under MIDDLE OUTER ! pi UPPER INNER PH. AUREOSULCATA RI. 55713 H e - yy \ WY % i" ve Yyy |! WN Vy \ " % LOWER INNER Pl. 82047 Fic. 3.—New species of Phyllostachys. 292 P.I. 76649. In the notes given there, the com- parison between this species and P.I. 67398 (Phyllostachys rubromarginata McClure) quoted from a Chinese informant, does not apply, as the culm sheaths of both species are entirely glabrous. The specific epithet alludes to the close re- semblance between this species and P. meyert. Phyllostachys vivax, sp. nov. Species aspectu nobilis frondibus eleganti- bus subpendulis, culmis altis omnino glabris, internodiis copiose farinosis, tactu striatis, vaginis culmi omnino glabris fusco-macu- latisque, ligula vaginarum culmi_perbrevl, valde arcuata, latissima, longe utrinsecus de- currente, auriculis et setis oralibus (vaginarum culmi staturae maturae) haud evolutis in- signis. Species internodiis culmi glabris et tactu striatis, nodis saepe gibbose incrassatis simu- lans Phyllostachys dulcem McClure sed auricu- lis in vaginis culmi (plantae staturae maturae) numquam evolutis, earumdem ligula perbrevi utrinsecus longe decurrente distinguenda. Spe- cies notis nonnullis vaginae culmi simulans Phyllostachys sulphureae var. viridem Young et praeterea P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zuce. ex qui- bus distat characteribus saltem sequentibus inter alias: internodiis culmi tactu valde striatis, nodis plerisque supra cicatricem gib- bose incrassatis, vaginis culmi tenuioribus, ligula perbrevi, praesertim in vaginis inferiori- bus utrinsecus longe decurrente, habitu sub- pendula laminarum foliorum. Culmi usque ad 11.8 m alti et (int. V) 70 X75 mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia usque (no. XIX) ad 327 mm (V: 243 mm) longa, tactu. striata, ab initio copiose farinosa, supra nodos saepissime plus minusve gibbose incrassata, ligno 7-8 mm crasso; nodi in cicatrice crassa subito prominentes et supra cicatricem aperte incrassati; zona farinosa latiuscula copiose farinosa; culmi vaginae oblongae versus apicem convexum rotundatae, dorso marginibusque omnino glabrae, ab initio farinosae, maculis fuscis conferte macu- ulatae, siccatae crasse nervosae, tenuiter cori- aceae; auriculae et setae orales (demptis plantis juvenilibus) numquam evolutae; ligula per- brevis valde arcuata, utrinsecus longe decur- rens, dorso subglabra, margine ciliolata vel subglabra. Lamina vaginarum anguste tri- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 angulata vel sublinearis, valde alveata crista- que, erecta vel reflexa, utrinsecus subglabra. Rami comparate breves, internodiis glaucis vel supremis in sulco puberulis deinde sensim glabrescentibus, ramis ramulisque plerisque 2—4-foliatis. Foliorum vaginae dorso glabrae marginibus ciliolatae; auriculae in vaginis supremis saepe haud evolutae, alioquin de- biliter vel modice evolutae, ovatae, fragiles ~ vulgo sensim fugantes; setae orales saepe mox fugantes, in vaginis superioribus saepe paucae adpressaeque, in inferioribus plures radia- taeque; ligula brevis, dorso subtiliter scabra, apice arcuata mox fissa, margine undulata sub- tiliter ciliolata; petiolus supra basin versus vulgo puberulus vel scaber, subtus apicem ver- sus interdum pilosus, alioquin utrinque glaber; foliorum laminae usque ad 175 mm longae et usque ad 25 mm latae, supra glabrae nitidaeque, basin versus secus costam pilosae, alioquin subtilissime scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota. Species of striking appearance with elegant subpendent foliage, readily distinguishable from the other species by the following charac- ters: The glabrous culms, with copiously fari- nose, rather prominently ribbed or striate internodes, the culm sheaths thinnish, gla- brous, densely maculate with smoky spots, the ligule of the culm sheath very short, strongly arcuate, long decurrent on each side of the apex of the sheath especially in the lower sheaths, the sheath blade narrow and very much crinkled, the auricles and oral setae never developed in the sheaths of culms of mature stature. This species is perhaps at first sight most likely to be confused with Phyllostachys sul- phurea var. viridis Young, or P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zuce. From both of these, however, it may readily be distinguished by the striate internodes and peculiarly shaped nodes of the culms, the entire lack of any vestige of auricles on the culm sheaths (at least in plants of ma- ture stature) and the very short, decurrent culm sheath ligule. Once familiar, the habit of the foliage is sufficient to distinguish this spe- cies from the others even at a distance. In the ribbed surface and glaucousness of the internodes and the complete glabrousness of the culms, mature plants of this species re- semble those of P. dulcis McClure, but the latter is distinguishable by the well developed green auricles and oral setae on its more or less Swpr. 15, 1945 conspicuously color-striate fresh culm sheaths, and the less decurrent ligule of the lower culm sheaths. Culms up to 11.8 m tall and (int. V) 70 x75 mm in diameter; internodes up to (no. XIX) 327 mm (V: 243 mm) long, strongly striate to the touch, glabrous throughout, copiously farinose from the first, the part above the node commonly perceptibly larger in diameter than the part below the node and somewhat gib- bous, the wood 7-8 mm thick; nodes flaring rather abruptly at the sheath scar and thick- ened somewhat asymmetrically above it; farinose zone broadish, copiously farinose; culm sheaths entirely glabrous, farinose, densely maculate with dark spots, coarsely nervose and thinly coriaceous when dry; auricles and oral setae lacking entirely in plants of mature stature (more or less well developed in small plants); ligule short, subglabrous, the apex strongly arcuate, the margin ciliolate or sub- glabrous; sheath blade narrowly, triangular to sublinear, strongly crinkled, erect or re- flexed, subglabrous on both surfaces. Branches relatively short, glaucous, glabrous or several of the uppermost internodes pubescent at first then glabrescent, the branches and twigs 2—4- foliate. Leaf sheaths glabrous, the margins ciliolate; auricles sometimes slightly to moder- ately developed, ovate, all fragile and gradu- ally disappearing; oral setae fragile, fugaceous, few and appressed in the upper sheaths, more numerous and radiate in the lower sheaths; ligule short, usually splitting in the middle, dorsally obscurely scabrous, the apex arcuate, often more or less concave in the middle, the undulate margin obscurely ciliolate; petiole commonly puberulent at the base on the upper surface and often pilose toward the base of the leaf blade on the lower surface, otherwise glabrous on both surfaces; leaf blades up to 175 mm long and up to 25 mm broad, glabrous and shining above, the lower surface usually some- what pilose along the midrib at the base, otherwise obscurely scabrous. Inflorescence un- known. Type: McClure 21044, collected May- August 1942, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 293 Introduction Garden near Savannah, Ga., from permanent plot no. 72 (section C). This is one of Frank N. Meyer’s introduc- tions from China, but its precise origin is un- known. It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Exploration and Intro- duction under P.I. 82047, where the following information is given: “This bamboo, according to a statement of Nov. 19, 1929, from Mr. E. A. Mcllhenny, is one of two introductions sent to him from Chico, Calif., by the Department of Agriculture, April 3, 1914, under nos. 23242 and 23243.” Although he was at first of the opinion that it represented Phyllostachys mitis of authors (P. sulphurea var. viridis Young) the plant was later recognized by Mr. Mellhenny, in the course of his long experience in its cultivation, as distinct from that and all the other bamboos in his collection. The writer, upon seeing only smallish culm shoots of the plant for the first time in 1935 took them to represent P. bambusoides or some- thing very near to it. Mr. Mcllhenny rightly disagreed firmly, and later communicated his reasons for his view. The relevant statements in a letter of June 4, 1941, from Mr. Mcllhenny to Mr. R. A. Young, may be paraphrased as follows: “The new growth of P.I. 82047 averages ten days or two weeks earlier than that of P. bam- busoides. The plant is much more vigorous, reaches maturity much more quickly, and the culms have much thinner walls than those of P. bambusoides. The lower internodes of this plant are longer than those in P. bambusoides, and the sheath blade is not fluted or crinkled in the same manner as in P. bambusoides. The culms reach a much greater size in the same period of time when planted side by side with P. bambusoides. When the two were planted side by side P.I. 82047 completely shaded and killed the growth of P. bambusoides. I believe P.I. 82047 is distinct from P. bambusoides and much more valuable for culture in the United States.” The specific epithet alludes to the vigorous vegetative growth so vividly described by Mr. Mellhenny. 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 9 ZOOLOGY.—Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis and Varestrongylus sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats in China. G. Dixmans, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry. The nematodes described below were collected from sheep in China and sent to the United States by Drs. P. L. Liand F. J. Kwong, of the Northwest Epidemic Preven- tion Bureau, Lanchow, China. They were submitted to the Zoological Laboratory of the National Institute of Health. Dr. E. B. Cram, of that laboratory, subsequently re- ferred them to the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Protostrongylus gracilis, n. sp. Description——Male (one entire specimen available) 8.5 mm long and 0.065 to 0.07 mm wide in region immediately anterior to bursa. Bursal rays arranged in pattern characteristic of the genus, namely, ventral rays originating from a common stem, separated in their distal portions, ventroventral somewhat shorter than lateroventral. Anterolateral or externolateral ray, shortest of the bursal rays, separated from both ventral and other lateral rays. Medio- lateral and posterolateral rays close together, the former reaching the margin of the bursa. Externodorsal separate. Dorsal ray short, rounded, apparently provided with small papil- lae on the ventral surface as in other members of the genus. It is, however, impossible to de- termine their size and location in the material available for study. The usual chitinous are and telamon are present. Spicules 0.8325 mm long. Gubernaculum? consists of the usual three parts, capitulum, corpus and crura, or head, body, and legs. Capitulum or head is a light refracting, colorless body, consisting of three parts, two boat-shaped structures with keels directed dorsolaterally and a third part ventral to them with arms extended at right angles. Corpus or body supported distally by two laterally placed, sclerotized rods extending anteriorly from the crura or legs for a distance of 0.050 mm. Remainder of corpus is, like the head or capitulum, colorless. Crura or legs 0.030 to 0.035 mm long, moderately sclerotized, light brown; they are slightly curved ventrally 1 Received June 1, 1945. * For the purpose of describing this structure, the terminology of Schulz, Orlow, and Kutass (Zool. Anz. 102(11/12). 1933) has been adopted. in their distal portions and end in more or less blunt points. Female.—Length unknown (no entire speci- mens being available for study), width about 0.040 mm. Vagina about 0.450 mm long. Vulva located on rather prominent protruberance about 0.150 mm from tip of tail. Anus 0.050 mm from tail end. Tail bluntly rounded. Eggs in utero 0.090 mm long by 0.035 to 0.040 mm wide. Provagina absent. Hosts.—Sender (Dr. P. L. Li) reports nema- tode commonly present in sheep and goats in Lanchow, China. Specific identity of sheep and goats not stated. ° Location.—Terminal bronchioles and lung tissue. Distribution.—Lanchow, China. Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. 45104. Remarks.—Protostrongylus gracilis resembles P. skrjabini as described by Boev (1937), but that author presented no figures with his de- scription. It is, therefore, impossible, at the present time, to compare the two nematodes, especially with reference to those structures upon which species differentiation in the genus is based. Coll.” Neo. Varestrongylus sinicus, n. sp. Description—Male 12 to 15 mm long and 0.150 mm wide in region anterior to bursa. Tail sharply bent and rigidly supported so that it is almost impossible to flatten out the pos- terior part of the body in the ventrodorsal position. The ventral parts of both lobes of the bursa are folded inward so that the course and disposition of the terminal portions of the ventral rays are difficult to follow. The arrange- ment of the bursal rays is similar to that of other members of the subfamily Protostrongy- linae. The ventral rays arise from a common stem and are separated only in their distal por- tions. The ventroventral ray is much larger and longer than the ventrolateral. It follows the fold of the bursal lobe and reaches the margin of the bursa. At its termination there is a slight indentation or notch in the bursal margin. The ventrolateral ray is comparatively small. The anterolateral or externolateral ray is, as Sepr. 15, 1945 in other members of this group of nematodes, rather widely separated from both the ventral rays and from the other lateral rays. The mediolateral and externodorsal rays present no distinctive features, but the posterolateral is very small. The morphology of the dorsal ray, especially its termination, is difficult to de- termine because of its position in the sharply bent, rigid posterior end of the body. It has a fairly long stalk and appears to terminate in two or perhaps three processes. Spicules 0.350 mm long provided with the usual sclerotized combs or rods beginning about 0.2 mm from Fie. 1.—Protostrongylus gracilis, n. sp.: a, Pos- terior end of male, showing spicules; b, posterior end of male, showing gubernaculum and bursal rays; c, gubernaculum; d, parts of head of guber- naculum; e, telamon, diagrammatic; f, posterior end of female; g, posterior end of female, showing length of vagina; h, eggs. DIKMANS: TWO NEW LUNGWORMS FROM CHINA 295 Fig. 2.—Varestrongylus sinicus, n. sp.: a, Bursa of male, lateral view; b, posterior end of male, showing length of spicules; c, gubernaculum; d, ventral part of telamon, lateral view; e, dorsal ray; f, terminal part of gubernaculum, diagram- matic; g, distal end of spicule; h, posterior end of female. the proximal ends. Distal ends split for a dis- tance of 0.05 mm. Gubernaculum, 0.140—0.150 mm long, consists of proximal and terminal portions divided by a constriction located about 0.1-0.110 mm from the proximal end, terminal portion ending in a sharp point. On each side of the terminal portion, originating at about the level or slightly below the con- striction, is a more or less rectangular shaped sclerotized structure, its dorsally directed edge serrated. As in many other members of the subfamily there is a rather complicated telamon present. One of the striking features of this telemon is that it has two sharply pointed 296 prongs projecting into the dorsal parts of the lateral lobes of the bursa. On first view these prongs appear to originate from and to be part of the terminal portions of the dorsal ray, but closer study shows that they have no connec- tion with the dorsal ray but are a part of the telamon. Female.—22 to 24 mm long and 0.175 mm wide. Vagina 1.150 mm long. Lips of vulva swollen and prominent. Vulva about 0.125 mm from tip of tail. Body narrows abruptly immediately posterior to vulva. Anus 0.045- 0.050 mm from tip of tail. Well-developed provagina present. Hosts.—Sheep and goats. Specific identity of sheep and goats unknown. Location.—Small bronchioles and lung tis- sue. ZOOLOGY .—Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars. Marine Station, Pacific Grove, Calif. SCHMITT.) The following notes concern two species, Linckia columbiae Gray and Pisaster och- raceus segnis Fisher, which are characteris- tic of the fauna of southern California. Although I have examined sea-stars in al- most galactic numbers, I have never before encountered these deviations from the normal.” Linckia columbiae Gray® Figs. 1, 2. This species, which ranges from southern California to the Galapagos Islands, is characteristically asymmetrical. Most speci- mens have one or more rays in the process of regeneration, and it is possible for an autotomized ray to grow a new disk and four new rays. Such are known as comet forms. In the specimen under discussion (U.S.N.M. No. E. 6606) a new individual is being budded off from the dorsal surface of the shortest ray, to which it is attached 1 Received April 22, 1945. 2T am indebted to Mrs. Edward H. Anderson, formerly Miss A. E. Blagg of the Hopkins Marine Station staff, who found these specimens among miscellanea zoologica at the Compton, Calif., Junior College. They were probably taken not far from San Pedro, Calif. 3 W. K. Fisher, Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 76, pt. 1: 242, pl. 48, figs. 1-7. 1911. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 9 Distribution.—Lanchow, China. Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 45105, 45106. Remarks.—Varestrongylus sinicus differs from Varestrongylus pneumonicus Bhalerao, 1932, the only other member of the genus, principally in the shape of the gubernaculum and its appendages. LITERATURE CITED BHALERAO, G. On some nematode parasites of goats and sheep at Muktesar. Ind. Journ. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Husb. 2 (3): 242-254. 1982. Bory, S. N. Sintetokauliusy legkikh ovets Alma-Atinskow oblasti Kazakhstana [The nematodes of the genus Synthetocaulus para- sitic 1n Alma-Ata Territory, Kasakhstan]. Rabot. Gel’mintol. (Skrjabin) [Papers on Helminthology (Skrjabin)], 1937: 55-62. W. K. FisHer, Hopkins (Communicated by Watpo L. by a very short peduncle about 4 mm thick. The dorsal plates of the parent are in complete continuity with the plates of the young one, but in the latter all the normal categories of plates are perfectly differentiated. The young has two unequal madreporites, with a third in the process of separation from the larger. The parent has three madreporites. They vary from three to five in the species. The young has one papula to an area on the four rays but none on disk; the parent has a maximum of 10 or 11. There are four ambulacral furrows with their bordering granules Owing to dessication it is not possible to determine whether mouth and anus are present. Pisaster ochraceus segnis Fisher* Fig. 3. In the specimen shown in Fig. 3 (U.S.N.M. No. E 6607) the rays have fused nearly to tip along the lateral part of the abactinal surface. The dorsal surface of the fused rays has two series of carinal spines, the space between which is equal to about half width of the two other dorsolateral areas. The superomarginal plates of the fused halves as well as the inferomarginal, are — 4 Idem, pt. 3: 171, pl. 73, figs. 4, 8; pl. 75, fig. 6; pl. 84. 1930. Sept. 15, 1945 on the ventral surface and are in somewhat less regular alignment than normally. While on the outer halves of the fused rays there are three series of actinal plates, on the inner halves there are but two. Along the middle of the ventral surface between the two series of superomarginals is a narrow FISHER: UNUSUAL ABNORMALITIES IN SEA-STARS 297 area of irregular plates, carrying spines very similar to the superomarginal spines, which must be reckoned as a part of the abactinal system. The coelomic cavity of the two rays is in perfect continuity, and there is only one pair of hepatic caeca. Fig. 1.—Linckia columbiae Gray, X1.3, showing position of young. Fic. 2.—Same, 4, actinal surface of the bud. U.S.N.M. No. E. 6660. adventitious 298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 9 Fig. 3.—Pisaster ochraceus segnis Fisher, slightly larger than natural size. Actinal surface showing coalesced rays. U.S.N.M. No. E. 6607. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY NEW MEMBERS There follows a list of persons elected to membership in the Academy by vote of its Board of Managers, during the Academy year 1944, who have since qualified as members in accordance with the bylaws of the Academy. The bases for election are stated with the names of the new members. RESIDENT WILLIAM RicHarDs Buarr, technical ad- viser, Automatic Electric Co., Washington, D. C., in recognition of work in meteorology, especially in the field of upper-air observations and research, for having devised the radio- meteograph, and for numerous improvements in rapid communication equipment and tech- nique. AUBREY KerITH BREWER, physicist, Na- tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.;} in recognition of contributions to chemical physics and in particular researches on the photoelectric properties of catalytic surfaces, chemical action in the electric discharge, mass spectrographic analysis, and isotopes. CHARLES NILES Cuarre, U. 8. Coast and ee —— + ne ee a —— 2 Sept. 15, 1945 Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog- nition of contributions to geodesy and espe- cially researches in cooperation with Dr. Oscar S. Adams connected with the establishment of State plane coordinate systems and with spe- cial map projections. Louris WADE CurRIkgR, geologist, U. 8. Geo- logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recogni- tion of services in the science of geology. JEWELL JEANETTE Guass, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to mineralogy. CHARLES KeirH GREEN, chief, Division of Tides and Currents, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to physical hydrography, chart construction, and tide and current phenomena. MarTIN GREENSPAN, materials engineer, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on stress dis- tribution in engineering structures. Sam RutTHeRFoRD Hatt, histologist, Bureau of Dairy Industry, Beltsville, Md., in recogni- tion of work on the physiology of lactation and reproduction. JoHN PrAaBopy HarrineTon, ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C., in recognition of discoveries in lin- guistics. GeorGE WiLi1aAM Hunter, III, parasitolo- gist, U. S. Army Medical School, Washington, D. C., in recognition of extensive researches on parasites of game fishes, including a monograph on the North American Caryophyllaeidae. Puitie Burke Kin«, geologist, U. 8. Geo- logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog- nition of work in stratigraphy and structural geology in west Texas, New Mexico, Virginia, and Tennessee. SAMUEL Levy, physicist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to mechanics, with particular reference to the analysis of aircraft structures. Fioyp Atonzo McCuurg, research associ- ate, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., in recognition of botanical explorations in China and contributions to our taxonomic knowledge of the bamboos of the Orient and of South America. Harotrp Hatt McKinney, pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul- tural Engineering, Beltsville, Md., in recogni- tion of contributions to botany and plant PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 299 pathology and in particular for investigations with plant viruses. ALVIN GREENE McNisu, physicist and mag- netician, Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contribu- tions to geophysics, in particular to researches on the earth’s magnetic field and its variations. ATHERTON H. Mears, engineer, U. §S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., in recog- nition of work in developing new instruments, particularly meteorological instruments. ALFRED Métrravux, anthropologist, Bu- reau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the ethnology of South America and Polynesia. Rogsert RusH MItLieER, assistant curator of fishes, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., in recognition of original research made known in several scientific contributions on the ichthyological fauna of the western desert re- gions of North America. Maurice ALuison Mook, assistant profes- sor of sociology and anthropology, American University, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the historical ethnology of the southeastern Algonquin tribes of Tide- water Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Wiuii1am Warp Picman, chemist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of studies on the mechanism of ac- tion and specificity of the glycoside-hydrolyz- ing enzymes. MarGarReET Pitrrman, bacteriologist, Na- tional Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of contributions to the serological typing of Hemophilus influenzae which stimu- lated the use of type specific antiserum, and other studies of Hemophilus influenzae. LESLIE ADRIAN SANDHOLZER, bacteriologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and lecturer, University of Maryland, in recognition of con- tributions to bacteriology especially in regard to bacteriophage and enteric bacteria; also, contributions to knowledge in the field of en- vironmental sanitation and public-health as- pects of the fishery industry. KENNETH LEE SHERMAN, physicist, Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to atmospheric electricity, in particular to the design and de- velopment of instruments. Leo ALLEN SHINN, chemist, Bureau of 300 Dairy Industry, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of contributions to biochemistry and especially work on amino acids and proteins. Francis ALBERT SMITH, chemist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the physical chemistry of gases and flames and to knowledge of the properties of substances dissolved in liquid ammonia. Otis WILLIAM SwAINsON, chief, Division of Geomagnetism and Seismology, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the determina- tion of the velocity and ray paths of sound waves in sea water and to topographic survey- ing. : T. Ivan Taytor, chemist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recogni- tion of contributions to physical chemistry and in particular work on the separation of isotopes and their application to chemical research. Ernest Harry VESTINE, physicist, Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C.,in recognition of contributions to geomagnetism with particular reference to the analysis of magnetic disturbances. Harotp ERNEST VoKEs, geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on the Cretaceous and early Tertiary molluscan paleontology. Henry We tc, chief, Microanalytical Divi- sion, Food and Drug Administration, Wash- ington, D. C., in recognition of services to the science of biology, especially in immunology and in studying the effects of antiseptics, sulfonamides, irradiation, and penicillin on bac- terial infections. Harry WARREN WELLS, physicist, Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to ionospheric re- search; development of apparatus for multifre- quency ionospheric exploration extending our knowledge of worldwide characteristics and applying this information to theoretical analy- sis of the earth’s magnetic field, together with its practical applications to radio wave-propa- gation. CHARLES ARTHUR WHITTEN, mathematician, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 35, No. 9 D. C., in recognition of contributions to the science of geodesy and to practical astronomy. Wiuii1amM A. WILDHACK, physicist, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of work on aircraft instruments and in particular on research and development of corrugated diaphragms and on aircraft oxy- gen instruments. GORDON RANDOLPH WILLEY, anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C., in recognition of contributions to the prehistory of the southeastern United States and of Peru. WiuuiaAM Empry WRraTHER, director, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of his stimulating influence in ge- ology and the other sciences. NONRESIDENT JoHn Scotr ANDREWS, parasitologist, Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, Ga., in recognition of contributions to our knowl- edge of the injurious effects of nematode para- sites on sheep and cattle. James BENNETT GRIFFIN, curator, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., in recognition of research and publications on the ceramics of the aborigines of eastern America. Tuomas ForsytH McILuwraituH, professor of anthropology, University of Toronto and keeper of ethnological collections, Royal On- tario Museum of Archeology, Toronto, Can- ada, in recognition of studies of the ethnology of the Indians of the northwest coast of Can- ada, studies in the material culture of Ca- nadian Indians, annual lists of publications in anthropology of Canada, and of position as an outstanding Canadian anthropologist. Rozpert L. PIEMEISEL, plant physiologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul- tural Engineering, Twin Falls, Idaho, in recog- nition of outstanding research in plant ecology, especially ecology of desert and range areas of western United States. Curron ALFRED WESLAGER, DuPont Cor- poration, Wilmington, Del., in recognition of contributions to Delaware prehistory and folk- lore. F. G. BrRIcKWEDDE, Secretary " Yas bey a e ha » Botany.—The vegetative characters of the ‘ae 5 eae ; | ll R stachys and descriptions of eight new species ‘introduced from % oa + ae China. FL A‘ MoCiamm: 32. 7 ase ~ 1 iden ose eee ZooLoGy.—Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis ; and’ vy are- Ve strongylus sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats in China. G. DERMARE : te ee de j at ‘ ein ee a * 3 $ : ae ™ » sy 2 eu ~ ae Zootocy.—Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars. W. K. Fs HER ‘ cy PROCEEDINGS: Das Aeon coy: rae ol @ ae 7 o. es _ onl _ BOARD or EDITORS HaRaLp A. Wesuee | U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM ‘ _ Wiuuram N. Fenton BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY # ASSOCIATE } EDITORS ALAN STONE © ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Ira RH Aaa iyi ey | ‘Rares W. Imuay me sfoul ‘GEOLOGICAL socIETy ‘BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY hy Ti Daun Srewart } Avpert E. Lonouey Das We tae th ks ; 9, IAP ‘ ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY : } James I. 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N Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other : 7 societies. . } a ik Orricers oF THE ACADEMY President: JouN E. Grar, Smithsonian Institution Secretary: FERDINAND G. BRICKWEDDE, National Bureau of Staatast Treasurer: Howarp S. Rapriere, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. | Archivist: NatTHAN R. Smits, Bureau of Plant Industry. ; Cusiodion of Publications: FRANK M. Srerzusmr, U. S. National Museum. ‘ A Sas i VP Weis 7a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OcToBER 15, 1945 VoLuME 35 No. 10 ETHNOLOGY.—Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois condolence council.: 2 J. N. B. Hewirrt, late ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology, and WituiAM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology. The use of mnemonic pictographs by the Iroquois and cognate tribes has long been recognized by various writers, but hitherto the subject has not received the attention that its cultural importance merits. A thorough study, if properly done, should reveal the technique employed by the na- tives in adapting means to ends, showing how the Iroquois sought to obtain their needs by the readiest available methods. That the latter would change with time and place is obvious to anyone who con- siders even momentarily the long history of the Iroquois and their relations with Euro- peans. One might hope that such picto- graphs were drawn on bark or buckskin; he should not be disappointed to find them on paper. What is remarkable is that certain ideas persist, and they are expressed in changing media. Beyond brief references to 1 Published by permission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Received May 28, 1945. 2 This is the second of Mr. Hewitt’s manu- scripts relating to the Condolence Council of the Iroquois League to appear posthumously. The first, the Requickening Address of the Iroquois Condolence Council (this JoURNAL 34 (3): 65-85, 1944), introduces the subject and carries explana- tory notes on the Iroquois Confederacy and its social organization that need not be repeated. Mr. Hewitt’s original manuscript entitled ‘‘ Mnemonic Pictographs of the Iroquois,’’ much too broad a title for its contents, was never completed for pub- lication. The unfinished paper, with notes for the balance comprising MS. No. 3502 in the Bureau of American Ethnology Catalogue of Manu- scripts, has been entirely rewritten by the junior author, who began the work with the help of Simeon Gibson in the autumn of 1943 and com- pleted it in May 1945 at Ohsweken, Six Nations Reserve, with the assistance of Cayuga Chief Alex General and Howard Skye. The former field work derived support from a grant in aid from the American Council of Learned Societies, the latter from the Viking Fund and the Smithsonian Institution. its casual use in the works of early writers, very little of a descriptive or interpretive nature exists in printed sources accessible to the student concerning the picture writ- ing of the Iroquois Indians; its extent and the purposes it was made to serve are there- fore but little known. In the present brief study we do not aim to cover the entire subject of Iroquois pictography. Rather, this paper attempts to learn how the Iroquois adapted pictorial designs to form mnemonic records of what they deemed the distinctive features of two component rituals in the Condolence Coun- cil, which is a convocation of the confeder- ated Iroquois tribes for the purpose of condoling the relatives of deceased federal chieftains and filling the ranks with chosen candidates; the visiting unscathed tribes of the League conduct the ceremony, re- storing the minds of the mourning tribes. When the League was founded the law- givers decreed that no seat around the great council fire should remain vacant. Accordingly, the Condolence Council com- prises five rituals of condolence and instal- lation, among which the Roll Call of the Founders and the Requickening Address were remembered by the symbols that are discussed below. On one of his many field trips to the Six Nations of Grand River in Ontario, Canada, Mr. Hewitt in 1920? fortunately acquired a $ Since this paper is written from the viewpoint of the junior author, the third person denominates the senior author, who died in 1937, and the first person is reserved for the present writer. Opinions of the senior author I have labeled “J.N.B.H.,” interpretations of Simeon Gibson appear as “S Gibson,”’ those of Howard Skye as “H. Skye,”’ and comments of my own are initialed. “W. N. F.” Mr. Hewitt was in the field annually from 1916 301 : 302 small well-worn memorandum book of about a dozen pages, of a kind that country grocery stores commonly furnished gratis to customers as advertising. On previous oc- casions Mr. Hewitt had observed this note- book in the possession of old Chief Abram Charles. Chief Charles, then an emeritus chief of the Cayuga tribe, consulted it fre- quently while he was engaged in reciting either the Roll Call of the chiefs or the Re- quickening Address during sessions of the Condolence Council. The first of these rituals, the Roll Call of the Founders, is chanted; the other, the Requickening Ad- dress, is spoken, preferably in a rhythm which reminded Hewitt of blank verse. Chief Charles drew these arduous assign- ments because his contemporaries recog- nized that he knew the contents of these two rites and performed them accurately. Because the rites directly concern the dead and the living and because the origins of the League have acquired a holy aura, the Iroquois regard them as sacred, and per- forming the rituals publicly demands strict accuracy, since ancient custom enjoins that the celebrant must not err during the recita- tion; should he hesitate or stumble, another performer must be ready to continue; an error of this nature is construed as boding ill to all the people. Not only is it impera- tive to adhere strictly to the ordered se- quence, but not to follow the established sequence confuses and confounds well- known political relationships that are basic to the functioning of the League and its in- stitutions. It was thought that failure to follow the roll call of official titles, their grouping into classes, tribes, and moieties, and the political relationships of these groups as kin would vitiate the purposes of the chants. Well aware that Abram Charles had ereat difficulty to read or write the simplest matter in English, Mr.. Hewitt naturally was curious to know the contents of this small notebook to which Chief Charles constantly referred. So when a favoring op- to 1920, but he stayed in Washington throughout the fiscal year ended June 30, 1921. A letter en- velope containing the pages from Chief Charles’s notebook bears the legend: “‘Chief Abram Charles/ Books, /Ohsweken,/Ontario, Canada/1920.”’ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 portunity presented itself Chief Charles was ‘ consulted about the matter. Hewitt was no little amazed to learn that this unpreten- tious notebook contained sets of mnemonic symbols or characters which had been de- _vised ingeniously to indicate the number, the correct sequence of topics, and the roll call of federal titles comprising these two important chants. There are eight pages of drawings. The envelope, in which Hewitt kept the pages mounted on larger sheets of paper (see foot- note 3), contains pages from what appear to have been two notebooks. There are five pages on buff-lined paper measuring 8 by 14.5 cm and three pages on narrower coated stock, measuring 6.6 by 13.8 cm and bear- ing double pink lines at the top, of which one page (List No. 1) is dated “Srmpr—l_ 1913.’’ Apparently the latter drawings are of more recent date, to judge by the condi- tion of the paper, but they are possibly copies of older drawings. The eight pages are occupied by 13 sets of drawings, which largely depict the upper portion of the human body. Clearly, some of the 13 sets are merely revisions duplicating some one of the other sets. Nevertheless, the entire group of drawings constitutes notes or memoranda for two of the main chants in the Condolence Council. The first of the two chants or rituals in- volved here bears two titles since it has two aspects which the terms describe: Its first use is during the journey of the condolers from their home country toward the settle- ment of the tribe which mourns for its of- ficial dead; on the long journey representa- tives of the several condoling tribes intone the ritual as they slowly follow the path to the home of the stricken tribe, repeating the song day after day on the trail. This aspect of the ritual, therefore, in Onondaga was called atahinén’ge, ‘‘While journeying,” or, in modern reservation parlance, ‘“‘Going on the road.”’ Its second aspect derives from repeating the ritual on arrival inside the meeting place, the longhouse of the mourn- ing tribe, where the Condolence Council convenes. The term for the second aspect is ne’ ondathnonhsen’deddkhkwa’, ‘‘that by which one passes through the house’’ (i.e., through the institution of the League). of — ae , i. : . eS SS ae a a en eee F Ms this ee a. ee Pa oe Oct. 15, 1945 HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS Simeon Gibson rendered this term, ‘‘What a nation employs in calling at another nation’s house.’ In this part of the cere- mony the visiting singer leads the column of condoling chiefs into the longhouse of the mourning tribe, and then the singer alone paces to and fro reciting the Eulogy or Roll Call of the Founders of the League, which is the aspect of ‘Calling at the other tribe’s house.’”’ The Roll Call is the roster of the 49(50) founders of the League,‘ their blood ties, and their political relationships; hence its English title. Hewitt adopted the de- scriptive caption “The Eulogy of the Founders of the League” as being more ex- pressive of a ritual that lists the official names of its founders, with pertinent lauda- tory and historical comments interspersed after each of the names. The second ritual involved in the draw- ings is the Requickening Address, which has been published in this JouRNAL. One set of pictographs, therefore, comprises memoranda for the Fourteen (or Fifteen) Matters constituting the condolences. Each one of the 14 symbolic human figures in this set (Fig. 6) represents one of the 15 topical sections, except one, of the great requiem address for elevating the minds of the stricken federal chiefs who are addressed as an individual. The Fourteen Matters re- spectively describe the 14 hurts or wounds inflicted on mortals by ‘‘that demonic Being that is faceless, Death—the Great Destroyer.” Stricken in body and mind are the kindred who mourn. In the second place, with the 14 sections of the address the un- scathed phratry of tribes performs vicarious- ly acts of symbolic restoration to the facul- ties and bodies of the mourning phratry through the voice of their speaker. Since this part of the ceremony prescribes for the bodily and mental effects of death, it deals with affected organs and faculties. The Iroquois believe that bitter grief induced by death of kindred sets up in the mourner a 4 Hewitt contended with the Cayugas that there were but 13 titles on the Onondaga list, the last person, Skana’wati, having two names cor- relative with peace and war functions. Instead of 14 Onondaga chiefships, since one man occupied two statuses and performed two roles, this left but 49 chiefs on the federal roster, not 50 as the Onondagas contend and as there were in later times. 303 blood deficiency that debilitates the organs and enfeebles the mind. So by the loss of a chief his kindred are depressed in mind and their vitality is lowered. Before attempting to interpret the draw- ings of Chief Charles, one must understand some basic principles operative in the politi- cal structure of the League. One must also understand that the code of Condolence Law compels inflexible adherence to set forms in the two rites under discussion. Rather than repeat the exposition of these two sets of principles here, the reader is re- ferred to the 1944 edition of Mr. Hewitt’s paper on ‘The Requickening Address of the Iroquois Condolence Council,” to which are appended notes on the Iroquois Con- . federacy and its social organization. For the benefit of those who do not have access to that paper, we may state briefly that the principles of blood kindred, duality (with mutual service between reciprocating units of society), relative age, and sex, as they operated in society as it was lived by the village band, were projected beyond the local group to the level of the tribe, and from the tribe to the confederacy. Thus what individuals do in the band, whole tribes perform in the confederacy. Tribes apply kinship terms to other tribes: they are related as mothers or little mothers (i.e., mother’s sisters), daughters and sons, older sisters and younger sisters, elder brothers and younger brothers, and mother’s brothers (uncles), father and little father (i.e., father’s brother), father’s sister, in some tribes, and mother or little mother, in others.® Relations of consanguinity and affinity which the founders of the League ascribed to chiefs of the several tribes must be con- stantly kept in mind when reciting the chants. In performing the Eulogy or Roll Call the celebrant must remember three things: the song, the list of names, and the relationships between the names that fill out the verses of the chant. Therefore, the 5 The terms for aunt and uncle are found only among the Seneca and Tuscarora and do not occur in Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, and Onon- daga dialects; the reason for this is not known. —J.N.B.H. It is my impression that these findings do not accord with Goldenweiser’s data for the kinship of the Six Nations.—W.N.F. 304 chanter must observe carefully the correct sequence of terms in the ritual, Evidently the task was not an easy one for an unas- sisted memory, and gradually mnemonic aids like the pictographs which are the subject of this paper came into use. Chief Charles’s drawings are of the same order as the symbols in wampum belts, although the latter are perforce geometric; the practice of using drawings is like hold- ing a series of twigs or marked counters or sticking tallies upright in the ground; the drawings serve a similar purpose to tally sticks notched to indicate a period of days or points to be enumerated in speaking; and we are reminded of the series of wampum strings of graduated arrangement and dis- tinct color patterns that accompany bur- dens of the Requickening Address. More- over, the old chiefs carried canes. Some- times the chiefs carved memoranda on canes as on other sticks to remind them of stations in a long address involving a dozen or more points. Again, the chiefs commis- sioned craftsmen to make canes and adorn the surfaces with symbols appropriate to reminding celebrants of the significant sta- tions in a ritual. Thus, among the extant examples of such record canes, the Cayugas formerly had a Roll Call Cane, now in the Cranbrook Institute of Science, that the appointed Eulogy singer carried in the same ceremony as these drawings to denominate the 50 titles of the chiefs who founded the League.® With the sole exception of the one page of illustrative drawings as symbols for the Fourteen Matters of Requickening (Fig. 6), the remaining notebook pages of picto- graphs refer to the Roll Call of chiefs. Four sets of these (Figs. 1-3 and one set not il- lustrated), however, stand for the Mohawk and Oneida rosters of chiefs. The Onondaga roster appears clearly once on the same page as the Seneca roster (Fig. 4); the latter is not represented again in recognizable form; but the Onondaga characters appear again on List No. 2 (Fig. 5),7 but out of order. The 6 W. N. Fenton, A Cayuga condolence cane with pictographs denominating the founders of the Iroquois League (MS.). 7 List numbers derive from the original paper. To avoid confusion a correlation of List numbers and Figure numbers follows: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 10 Cayuga chiefs are not illustrated except by a series of dots (Fig. 5), to which we return in a moment; Abram Charles, being a Cayuga chief, could remember the roster of his own tribal council. In some respects the grouping of chiefs and their relationships to one another is more fundamental than their titles. At least the Iroquois ritualists have isolated the patterns of spatial arrangement which they illustrate in a number of ways. One page of Chief Charles’s notebook contains a series of dots, .. ... ...... (Fig. 5), spaced in the sequence 2-3-3-2, which is the grouping of Cayuga chiefs in council. Another page carries out similar sequences for all of Five Nations. On the latter sheet, Mohawk and Oneida appear at the right, one over the other in sequences of threes. On the left at the top are the Cayuga chiefs. Beneath them on a slant are the Seneca, four groups of two. The Onondaga list runs across the bottom of the page to the left of the Oneida, reading from right to left. (Cayuga) (Mohawk) fete Ta OS SAR (Seneca) he Ray) eat) Oo (Onondaga) (Oneida) Se Tee ee Knowing in part the sequence of chiefs from the Roll Call, and using these data, we can reconstruct the grouping of chiefs and their relationships, which, if Chief Charles’s notes are read from right to left, work out as follows: List No. 1. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 1). Older buff paper. List No. 1. Onondaga and Seneca titles (Fig. 4). Newer coated stock, and dated ‘“Srpr—l, 1913.” List No. 2. Onondaga titles (5-14; 1-6), and Cayuga groupings (Fig. 5). Older buff paper. List No. 2 ohawk and Oneida titles, with Seneca titles poorly drawn at bottom (not illus- trated). Newer coated stock. List No. 3. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 3). Newer coated stock. List No. 4. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 2). Older buff paper. Groupings of chiefs in five tribes (not illus- trated). Older buff paper. Ocr. 15, 1945 Mohawk: 3-3-3 Oneida: 3-3-3 Cayuga: 2-3-3-2 Seneca: 2-2-2-2 Onondaga: 6-1-2-3-2* * (Hewitt gives 1, making 13.) We find, therefore, 19 groups (classes) or committees of chiefs in the Conferederate Council. The arrangement of dots to repre- sent these groups in Chief Charles’s note- book, moreover, follows a design for laying down kernels of corn that he and other Iroquois ritualists employed when instruct- ing Eulogy singers in the Roll Call of chiefs and in teaching their relationships. Pre- cisely the same pattern is found in the grouping of pegs on the Cayuga Condolence Cane in Cranbrook Institute. Evidently when the ritual of Journeying on the path to visit the longhouse of the mourning chiefs took final form, the Roll Call contained 50 titles, represented by 49 chiefs, according to Hewitt and the Cayu- gas. Of these 50 titles, 9 belonged to the Mohawk, 8 to the Seneca, 14 to the Onondaga (represented by 13 chiefs), tribes on the Male or Father side (the Three Brothers side); and 9 to the Oneida and 10 to the Cayuga, tribes of the Female or Mother side (the Four Brothers side, later, including Tuscarora, Tutelo, and Delaware) of the council fire of the League. This means that one tribal phratry or moiety of the League council, that of the Father side (also called Elder Brothers), claimed 31 titles, represented by 30 federal chiefs; and only 19 titles belonged to the Mother side (also called Offspring, or Younger Brothers). Besides these two larger tribal moieties the great body of chiefs comprised 19 smaller, intratribal groupings (above), ex- pressing similar blood and political rela- tionships within the several tribes. At once these lesser groupings furnished the timber and the plan with which the founders erected the confederate structure. Within these lesser groupings no unit is larger than three; oftener the group includes two; one large committee of six comprises three units of two. Thus the tripartite grouping and the basic pattern of duality intersect in the social and political organization of the League of the Iroquois tribes as the warp HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS 305 and the woof of the Great White Mat of the Law, which spreads out beneath their political structure. Two men sit across the symbolic council fire from each other as cousins, or they sit together on the same side of the fire as brothers opposite a third who is their cousin. From the fireside council of the Mohawk Turtle clan, to the tribal council of the Mohawk Nation, to the confederate council of the League, the same patterns of tripartite grouping and reciprocity between moieties prevailed. By way of illustration Hewitt sum- marized the social and political organization of the Mohawk and Oneida tribes. Each tribe had three clans: Turtle, Wolf, and Bear. With the Oneida, the order was Wolf, Turtle, and Bear. With the Mohawk Turtle and Wolf are political brothers, forming a moiety, one side of the tribal duality, and Bear sits alone. But among the Oneida, Wolf and Turtle are _ political brothers, forming one moiety, and Bear the other. The Mohawk Turtle clan chiefs and the Oneida Wolf clan chiefs, in the councils of their respective tribes, functioned as chair- man or presiding officer, and as such they took no part in deliberations of the council beyond hearing and determining whether the proceedings of the session were legal and conformed to established custom; if so they confirmed the decision; otherwise they referred the matter back to the council for further deliberation and action, perhaps with pertinent corrective comment. Tribal councils, organized on this pattern and functioning as described, resemble, Hewitt thought, an American court composed of judges and jury. In confederating to form the federal council the founders of the League adopted this tripartite form of the dual tribal council, but they rearranged constructively the internal political structure of the Onondaga, whose duty it was to preside at the sessions of the federal council. From among the 14 Onondaga chief statuses the founders of the League appointed an executive committee of five who were called the Firekeepers. It was the function of the Firekeepers to decide what disposition should be made of the resolutions and de- 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cisions arising out of the deliberations of the 36 chiefs representing the four other tribes of the League, and accordingly to advise the presiding chief, Dehadoddho, leading Onondaga chief, what action he should take. In possessing the Firekeepers, theoretically the Onondagas as presiding tribe of the League council in no way controlled the deliberations of the body, no more than did the presiding clans in the tribal councils of the Mohawk and Oneida, on which the confederate structure was modeled. The re- port of the committee called Firekeepers constituted a judgment, and when the pre- siding chief Dehadodého pronounced a judgment the case was closed. The following diagrams illustrate spatial arrangement of clans and the functions of the chiefs in relation to the symbolic council fire. It will be seen at a glance that the same pattern obtains at the level of the tribe and of the League. We give the num- ber of chiefs for each grouping in the Mo- hawk and Oneida tribal councils. At the left is the Male of Father Side of the council fire, and the right is the Female of Mother Side. MonaAawk TRIBAL CoUNCIL Turtle Clan Three Chiefs Judge Wolf Clan Tribal Bear Clan Three Chiefs Council | Three Chiefs Legislative Fire Legislative These are Cousins to Turtles and Wolves across the fire. These are Brothers to Turtles above. ONEIDA TRIBAL COUNCIL Wolf Clan Three Chiefs Judge Turtle Clan Tribal Bear Clan Three Chiefs Council | Three Chiefs Legislative Fire Legislative These are Cousins to Wolves and Turtles across the fire. These are Brothers to olves. FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE Troquois LEAGUE The Onondaga Tribe Fourteen Chiefships, held by 13 chiefs Firekeepers Judge The Mohawk pee The Oneida : ouncil : Tribe Fire Tribe Nine Chiefs Nine Chiefs Legislative Legislative The Seneca The Cayuga Tribe Tribe Eight Chiefs Ten Chiefs Doorkeepers Legislative Legislative The Mohawk and Sen- The Oneida and Cay- VOL. 35, No. 10° eca tribes are Broth- ers to the Onondaga tribe. These three call the Oneida and Cayuga tribes ‘‘Off- spring’ or ‘‘Neph- ews.”’ uga tribes are Cous- ins to the _ three tribes across the fire. They are “Off- spring,”’ being on the Mother Side of the council fire. Includ- ing adopted tribes in later times they be- came the ‘Four Brothers Side.’”’ They call the three other tribes of the Three Brothers Side, “Fathers’ clansmen’’ or ‘‘Uncles.”’ In the old council of life chiefs on the Grand River, which held court until 1924 at Ohsweken on Six Nations Reserve, the above diagram would have been reversed, with Mohawk and Seneca sitting east of the ‘fire,’ the Onondaga as Firekeepers in the center, His Majesty’s agent to the north, and the Oneida and Cayuga with appended tribes sitting west of the fire: ONEIDA H.M.S. MovHAwk ONONDAGA CAYUGA SENECA Tuscarora Delaware and Tutelo Under the latter arrangement, which is the same as the first only turned about for true orientation, Onondaga-Mohawk- Seneca constituted the Three Brothers Side, “4 j 4 q 4 6 Ocr. 15, 1945 and the Four Brothers Side comprised On- ondaga-Cayuga-Tuscarora-Delaware (and Tutelo). The latter three, being dependent tribes, adopted by the Cayuga and the Oneida, had no voice in the federal council. The remnants of the Nanticoke were in- cluded among the Delaware. Now let us take up the lists of chiefs which Chief Charles illustrated with his notebook drawings. THE MOHAWK PICTOGRAPHS Four sets of drawings may be ascribed to this tribe: List No. 1 (Fig. 1), List No. 2 (not shown), List No. 3 (Fig. 3), and List No. 4 Fig. 2). Hewitt is responsible for numbering the lists (see footnote 7)—W.N.F. 1. Tekarthhékenh, “It separates or divides the matter.” The first name on the Roll Call, and the first name on the Mohawk tribal roster, is repre- sented on List No. 1 by a forked stick; on Lists Nos. 2 and 3 by a man’s head with a forked tongue protruding from the mouth, as if to illustrate the interpretation now current at Six Nations, “Of two opinions.’”’ Apparently, the symbol for this name is lacking on List No. 4. 2. Hayenhhwénhtha’’, ‘He sifts with a bark sieve.” —J.N.B.H., or “Early riser’? (S. Gib- son). On the Mohawk List No. 1, this chief is represented by three dots vertically arranged (Fig. 1), on List No. 3 by a man’s head and torso having five dots on the body to represent “the sieve” (J.N.B.H.) (Fig. 3); List No. 2 has a bisected oval figure, probably an error, taking the place of the third name; and the second Mohawk title appears first on List No. 3 as an irregular figure with dots “to depict the sieve”’ (Fig. 2). 3. Sha’tekarithhwdate’, ‘‘Matters of equal height, words of equal length.” Three vertical lines topped by a horizontal line depict this chief on Mohawk List No. 1 8 Hewitt did not comment on this new inter- pretation, which differs from that in his article Hiawatha (Handbook of American Indians, 1912 ed.). From Onondaga Chief John Buck of Six Nations Reserve, Mr. Hewitt had in 1931, ‘‘He who sifts with a woven bark sieve”’ in the following dialectical forms: HayenhhwAth’ha’ (Oa.), Ha- yénwathha’ (Hayewathha’) (S.), Hayenh’wathha’ (third syllable whispered) (C.), Rayénhwathha’ M.), La—(Oe.). HEWITT AND FENTON: [IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS 307 (Fig. 1), showing that the three items are of equal import. List No. 2 has a similar symbol of but two vertical lines with a horizontal line across the top. A man’s head topped by a heavy horizontal line represents this chief on List No. 3 (Fig. 3). List No. 4 is less clear; the drupe-shaped symbol is capped by a heavy horizontal line, defining a limit to its height (Fig. 2). A hiatus occurs here in all the lists, indicating that these three, the Turtle clan chiefs, stand together apart from the next three. 4. Sharenhhéowane’, “He the great tree trunk.” A tall trunk of a tree having three long roots stands for this name on List No. 1 (Fig. 1), and Fig. 1.—List No. 1: Mohawk and Oneida titles. in the same manner on the remaining lists, but with four roots. 5. Teyonhhéhkonh, “It lives by two life- givers,” or ‘‘Double Life.” The name of this title is represented by two V-shaped characterters on List No. 1 (Fig. 1), the one set above the other, enclosing two dots. The remaining lists show the head and torso of a man having two heart-shaped devices on the breast. ‘‘Double life’? was the idea that Chief Charles evidently intended. 6. Ohenhhe’géonah (Oa.) or Orenhre’koowah (M.), ‘‘Great White Eagle,” or, possibly, “Great Canada Goose.” On all four lists of pictographs, this chief is depicted by the figure of a bird, facing to the left. On these lists the character of the bird resembles a fowl; on the Cayuga Condolence Cane at Cranbrook Institute, however, its as- pect is that of a dove or hawk, facing the other way. Here a hiatus of vertical dots on all lists signifies completing the roll of the Wolf Clan chiefs, who are cousins to the next three. 308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 Fig. 2.—List No. 4: Mohawk and Oneida titles. 7. Tehenn@wkariine’, ‘‘His two horns are moving along,” or ‘Dragging Antlers.”’ The antlers figure prominently in the sym- bols of all four lists: on List No. 1 (Fig. 1) a human head with antlers over its forehead; on List No. 2, merely a small round object bearing deer’s antlers; on List No. 4, a poorly drawn human head with deer antlers. Chief Charles intended apparently to delineate a chief carry- ing his two antlers, the horns of office. 8. Hahstawen’seréntha’, ‘He attaches rattles to 1b.” This title is represented on List No. 1 by what appears to be an outline of a turtle shell rattle, held upright; the same is crudely drawn on List No. 2; on List No. 3, an outline of a rattle bears two dots on the shell; and on List No. 4 the attempt to draw such a rattle is crude, to say the least. The rattle is the key to this name. 9. Sosgohharéowane’, ‘He the great branch.” (Hewitt’s MS. gives ‘“‘He the great quantity of drift-wood”’ or, just as meaningful, ‘‘He has a large cadaver,’ but these interpretations make no sense.— W.N.F.) The outline of a tree branch appears clearly on all the lists. Surely this is what Chief Charles had in mind. This is the number of Mohawk chiefs, marked on all lists by a series of vertical dots. THE ONEIDA PICTOGRAPHS The following chiefs are the ‘‘Offspring”’ of the first. (The Roll Call continues, but we enumerate the chiefs of each succeeding tribe separately, e.g., 10/1, 19/1, 33/1, and 43/1.) 10/1. Ho’datchéhde’, ‘‘He bears a quiver (by a forehead strap)” or, with a slight change in pronunciation, ‘‘He bears a fawn (buckskin pouch) by a burden strap—J.N.B.H.° “He car- ries a quiver on his shoulder,’ or, simply, “Carries a quiver’ is the usual meaning— W.N.F. In all the drawings the quiver idea is promi- nent. What is possibly intended for a quiver with attachment for carrying appears on List No. 1 (Fig. 1). A human head and bust bearing a quiver on the shoulder occurs on List No. 2 (not illustrated); the same appears on Lists Nos. 3 (Fig. 3) and 4 (Fig. 2). 11/2. Kanonhkwen’yéoton’, ‘‘One has set up- right several ears of corn,’”’ ‘Standing ears of corn,” or ‘Standing corncobs.”’ The second Oneida title is depicted on the first three lists by a straight line inclined at its top to the left; on List No. 41s a drawing of an ear of corn, also inclined to the left at the top. 12/3. Teyohhd’kwente’, “It has a gullet” or “Difficult swallower.” “Between the openings (of the forest)’ —S. Gibson. In the Deganawii- dah legend, this chief passes without leaving an opening in the forest. On List No: 1 this title is depicted simply by a crude drawing representing the profile of a human face; a pronounced double chin appears on a head and torso of List No. 2; several dots 9 Quiver (gahéskaa’) gdd@’tthe’, buckskin pouch); but a new born deer is owiiye’, and deer (skenéndon’); ‘‘he carries the body’’ would be hoya’ dagéhde’. The quiver that this old Oneida chief carried was made evidently of buck or fawn skin—S. Gibson. Ocr. 15, 1945 direct attention to the neck, probably to de- note its opening, on the drawing of a head and body in List No. 3; and the double chin appears again on List No. 4. A hiatus occurs here in all the lists. This is the number of Wolf Clan chiefs. 13/4. Shonénhsese’, ‘His lodge is very long.” A drawing of a house with or without a door- Way appears on all four sets of drawings: a house (Fig. 1), a tall gable marked with a line for the doorway (List 2), two lines indicating doorway in gable (Fig. 3), and merely a house gable in List No. 4 (Fig. 2). 14/5. Tehone’okén’ah or Daona’rokén’ah, ‘He the small forked root.” In all four sets of drawings this chief is de- picted by a drawing of a fork. In Onondaga and Cayuga this name changes to “Two words (voices) meet,”’ (dwennaigén’a (Oa.), dodwen- naigén’ah(C.).—S. Gibson. 15/6. Hatya’tonnénhtha’, ‘He swallows an object (body)” or “He drugs his body.” The name is probably corrupted. In all the sets of drawings this chief is de- picted as swallowing an object: a small cross, an uprecognizable object protruding from the mouth of the figure (List No. 2), a 3-pronged object protruding from the mouth (Fig. 3), and List No. 4 (Fig. 2) shows the full figure of a man, and protruding from his mouth is an ob- ject which ends in a small loop. This ends the second group of Oneida chiefs, the chiefs of the Turtle clan, and a line or series of dots indicates the hiatus. 16/7. Tewatahonhténnyonk, “Pairs of ears hanging,” or ‘‘Pendulous vibrating ears (as if = = HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS 309 slit)’’ Dewatahenhdénnyonk (Oa.).—S. Gibson. The ear is the prominent feature in all four sets of drawings. An enormous ear appears on List No. 1; the remaining sets show a human head and neck, with a very large ear. Simeon Gibson, citing the Deganawfidah Legend of the founding of the League, referred to the first appearance of this chief as having enormous ears that were probably slit for insertion of feathers, leaves, and other decorations, which, once removed, left the helix and lope to hang vibrating. ‘‘Moving his ears” is the current interpretation. 17/8. Kaniya’taashdayen’, or Ronya’dashda- yonk (M.), Ganiya’dashdayen’ (Oa.), “A pouch (or bag) lying (resting),”’ or possibly a “fawn skin” (J.N.B.H.). In Onondaga, ga’dashd'yen’ is a “lying pouch.’’ But Simeon Gibson and a Mohawk matron independently gave “Slow swallower’ for their respective dialectical vari- ants of this name. The pouch or bag theory is supported by Chief Charles’s drawings. List No. 1 (Fig. 1) depicts the name by a lozenge-shaped object that Hewitt interpreted as a hanging pouch or skin; on List No. 2 the object resembles a quiver and is banded across the middle; List No. 3 (Fig. 3) has a similar design; and the character is a hanging pouch on List No. 4 (Fig. 2). 18/9. Honwatsaténhhonh, ‘‘One has covered him with fog.” Honwahtcadénhwi (Oa.), ‘‘He is covered with mist.’”’—S. Gibson. The head of a man shrouded in mist appears on all four lists. On List No. 4 it is a pot-bellied man. Y te ino avg oS Fiac. 3.—List No. 3: Mohawk and Oneida titles. 310 S 2 Big &( F = Be. Bee 43 C1 This group were the Bear clan chiefs. This was the roll of Oneida chiefs. [For some reason Hewitt omitted an analysis of the Onondaga and Cayuga lists of drawings, and his notes for this manuscript (B.A.E. No. 3502) do not contain the rosters of chiefs’ names for these two nations. However, Hewitt obtained from Chief Charles in 1917 a com- plete text in Onondaga for the Eulogy or Roll Call of the Founders of the League, together with independent lists of chiefs whose clan eponyms are differentiated (B.A.E. MS. No. 128la, 54 pp. 63X94 inches, 15 pp., 8X10 inches). Also, we find a typed, revised list (No. 3558, 3 pp. 8X10 inches—Charles, 1917) of ‘Federal Chiefships and their kinship eponyms.” From the latter sources, this paper has been completed.—W.N.F.] 19/1. Dehadoddhho’ (Oa.) or Thadoddahho’, ‘“‘Ensnarled.”’ Only one set of drawings depicts the Onon- daga chiefships (Fig. 4). Ragged lines cross over the head of a man to represent the leading Onondaga chief. 20/2. One’saéh'henh (Oa.) or Gane’sdéh’henh, ‘“‘A tied bundle.’”—S. Gibson; ‘‘In the center of a coil, circle,” or possibly of a ‘stretched hide’; but Onondaga opinion holds that the name means “on the middle of a field, gane’sdé hen.” —H. Skye. The character for this name is a circle with a dot at the center. Possibly it represents a Fic. 4.—List No. 1: Onondaga and Seneca titles. bundle. On the Condolence Cane of the Cayu- gas the symbol suggested to Howard Skye a hide stretched on a hoop. 21/3. Dehatgdéhdons (Oa.) or Thaatgdéhdons. ‘“‘He looks both ways (or around); On watch.” A drawing of a head in which the eye is prominent stands for this chief. 22/4. Honya’dadji'wak (Oa.) or Hoya’ dadjit’- wak, ‘‘His throat is sour (or black)’; or “His sour body.’’—H. Skye. Again we find the drawing of a chief’s head; four dots direct attention to his throat which apparently is inflamed or soured by gall. 23/5. Awe’génhhyat (Oa.), “On the surface of the water.” A line with a knob on top perhaps represents a plant. 24/6. Dehayatgwdae’ (Oa.), or Thayad- gwdae’, ‘‘On one side of its leaning body” (?); ‘“‘Both his wings are outspread.’’—H. Skye. A ladderlike figure leans to the right. This title is the last of the Firekeepers, and a line with dots along its left margin indicates a separation of this group from the next name. 25/7. Hononwiéhdth (Oa.), ‘“He conceals it’ or “Covers it’; “He causes it to sink.’”’— H. Skye. This chief has special responsibilities. He is keeper of the wampums for the confederacy, and since he is also called ne’ hogwaho’géonah, “He the Great Wolf,’’ he is represented by a miserable drawing of his eponym. This chief Oct. 15, 1945 stands alone; a line with a margin of dots sepa- rates him from the remaining Onondaga chiefs. 26/8. Gowennen’shéndonk (Oa.) or Gawanne’- séndonh, ‘“‘Her voice is hanging,”’ or ‘“‘Hanging strings.’’—S. Gibson. Whatever this title means, and it is impossi- ble to know what about one-quarter of the titles meant four centuries ago, it is depicted by a stepped character that leans to the right, composed of two leaning lines enclosing four oblique lines. 27/9. Hahhithhon’ (Oa.), “He spills it’ or ‘He tips it.”’ This name is also obscure and the character for it is not clear. The drawing is possibly in- tended for a vessel spilling over. The latter two names are grouped together separated by dots and a line from the next four. They belong to the Deer clan. 28/10. Hoyonnyénnith (Oa.), ‘“He was made to do it.””—H. Skye. The next four characters are crowded into a corner of the notebook page and one can not be certain in what order to read them. On the assumption that the top two and the first character at the bottom are meant to be fol- lowed by three dots to segregate them as a class apart from the last, then a man’s head atop an object drawn across the base of the neck may stand for this title. 29/11. Shodegwdasen’ (Oa.) or Shodegwdah- shon’, ‘‘He the bruiser,” or “He smashes it again.”—S. Gibson; ‘Bruised repeatedly.”— H. Skye. At the lower left there is a full-size figure of a man of gigantic proportions, but the figure at the upper right does not help. 30/12. Shagogénhhe’ (Oa.) or Shagogénhhee’, ‘“‘He saw the people.’’—S. Gibson; ‘‘He sees her (them) occasionally.’’—H. Skye. These three chiefs of the Eel clan comprise a group to themselves. 31/13. Ho’séhhéahwih (Oa.) or Ho’séhéh- hwth, ‘“‘He bears a aloft a torch.’’—S. Gibson; but possibly just a name, although the Onon- dagas sometimes discuss the possibility of Hoda skwishihwih, ‘“He bears a tomahawk in his belt.’”-—H. Skye. This is the name that determines whether there are 49 or 50 chiefs in the League. The name appears in the first writing of the Abram Charles text for the Eulogy (p. 16), but at the bottom of the same page occurs, “1923 He HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS 311 says again Ho’si'ha’‘hwi‘ is not a title of a Federal Chief.’’ Nevertheless, this name was recounted as part of the Roll Call, an Onon- daga chief was installed in this title, but in recent times a controversy arose between the Cayugas and the Onondagas as to whether this title belonged to a separate individual or to the next chief.!° The last character, a male head, must stand for two titles. 32/14. Sganawdadih, “Across the swamp,”’ “Over the river,” or ‘‘Across the rapid.” The text implies that the last two names were additions to the roster in later times. One was a great war chief whose body was riven in twain, being both ‘a warrior and a councilor; hence the argument that one man occupied both offices. The first is of the Turtle clan. Hale says that Skanawati was the divided per- sonality (p. 161). The Turtle clan claimed this name. THE CAYUGA PICTOGRAPHS 33/1. Degawényonh (Oa.) (C.), ‘“‘Wonderer.”’ Possibly because he was a Cayuga chief him- self, Abram Charles evidently did not feel the need to provide himself with a set of drawings for remembering the Cayuga list. His notebook contains merely a design of spaced dots to in- dicate the number and groupings of the Cayuga chiefs: .. 2... (2-3-3-2). The charac- ters across the top of the same notebook page (Fig. 5) are of the Onondaga titles, but out of order. Simeon Gibson held this opinion, which or Haga ényonh 10 On the question of the number of chiefs in the League, Mr. Hewitt left this note: “With the final amendment to the constitution of the Iroquois League, admitting and installing the last two chief warriors of the Seneca as federal chiefs, the final number of Rodiydnehr, Federal Chiefs, became 49, which is the only number recognized by the ritual of the Eulogy of the Founders. This number was never increased, not- withstanding the adoption of the Tuscarora, the Nanticoke, and the Tutelo with their chiefs with sittings in the Federal Council Chamber. The most probable reason for this failure to add these of- ficial titles to the said ritual seems to be because the newly adopted chiefships had nothing what- ever to do with the founding and institution of the League. “Every one of these 49 Federal officials be- longed to some one ohwachira or uterine family, which probably had its own peculiar tutelary name taken from some bird or animal. One or more of these ohwachira was organized into a higher unit—the clan. The three Oneida and the a Mohawk clans have three of these ohwa- CRT OE aia. 312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 Fig. 5.—List No. 2: Onondaga titles (5-14; 1-6) and Cayuga groupings. can be substantiated by comparing this set with the other Onondaga pictographs (Fig. 4). Taking the Onondaga list above, the order is: 5 6/7 /8 9/10 11 12/13* 14//1 2 3 4. Some difficulty is encountered in adjusting the char- acters to the first and the last titles. Further, it is evident that when Chief Charles made this set of drawings he then regarded the thirteenth title, that of the disputed Ho’sdéhdahwih as a separate office. Therefore, it may be that the list that we described in enumerating the Onondaga titles was of later composition. 34/2. Gadji’nondawéheh (Oa.), Gadjinon’da- wéhheh (C.), or Dji’nondawéeyah. The interpre- tation of this name is uncertain. ‘‘Coming on its knees”? (Hale), “Calls a summons’ (?).—S. Gibson, and ‘“‘Manipulating bugs.” —H. Skye. This and the previous title belong to the two leading chiefs of the Cayuga tribe, who are as father and son to each other. They preside as judges in the Cayuga council. The first is of the Bear clan, the second of the Hawk or ‘‘Ball’”’ clan. 35/3. Gadagwdaadjih (Oa.) or Gadagwédase’ (C.), “Mashed,” or ‘‘Softened.’’—S. Gibson. This title and the next two belong in a group who are related as “‘brothers.”’ 36/4. Shoyénwees (Oa.) or Shonydnwes (C.), “His guts are long.” “He has a long wampum belt’’ (Hale). 37/5. Hadya’sénhne’ (Oa.) or Hadydsénne’, ‘“‘He repeats (or rehearses) it.”’ “He puts one on another, piles it on’’ (Hale). These are a group to themselves. The first two belong to the Bear clan; the third to the Turtle clan. 38/6. Deyoenhhyéngoh (Oa.) or Thowenh- hyongoh or Deyoronhhydongoh (C.), “Reaches the sky.” 39/7. Deyothhowéhgwth (Oa.), “Doubly cold.” 40/8. Deyawenhethhon’ (Oa.), “Two things happen,” ‘Double event.’”? Thaonhweéthon’, ‘‘Mossy place”’ (Hale). This is the number of colleagues in this group, but the next one belongs in the same phratry, although they are called cousins to each other. Six and Seven are Wolf clan chiefs; Eight is of the Killdee, Small Plover, or Snipe clan. Hale ascribes it to Wolf. 41/9. Hadonhdahhéhha’, ‘“‘He shoulders a log (?).”"—H. Skye; ‘‘Crowding himself in” (Hale). This title belonging to the Large Plover lineage is in the same phratry as the preceding group, and his cousin across the fire is his col- league who follows. Hewitt’s notes say that the latter two are brothers, but the text declares them “‘Cousins.”’ The last chief isof the Bearclan. 42/10. Desgdahe’ (Oa.) or Desgdhhe’ (C.), ‘“‘He does something (?).”’ It is not clear what this chief does. The present holder of the title, Chief Alex General of the Upper Cayuga band at Sour Springs, Six Nations Reserve, holds that the name means ‘“‘More than Eleven.”’ This ends the Cayuga roster. THE SENECA PICTOGRAPHS [In turning to the last tribe of the League we once more return to Hewitt’s manuscript.] 43/1. Skanyaddiyo’ or Sganyaddiiyo’, “It is a beautiful lake (Handsome Lake)”’ or, literally, “Tt is a very large lake.” [As given these names are Onondaga or Cayuga, not Seneca forms.] ee here a: | ue Oct. 15, 1945 HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS There are two sets of Seneca pictographs. On Seneca List No. 1. (Fig. 4), this title is de- picted by a circular design having radial lines from its center to the perimeter. On List No. 2 the character is merely a circle. The Seneca councillors are linked in pairs of opposite moieties. As such they are cousins to each other. The first title belongs to the Turtle clan, the next to the Great Plover or Snipe. 44/2. Sha’tekdonhyes, or Tca’degaénhyes, “Two skies of equal length.” On both lists this title is represented by a character resembling the letter D; it is some- times represented by two arcs of the celestial sphere. A line having dots along its left margin appears on one list, a line on the other, to separate the first pair of titles from the second. 45/3. Shagen’djoowanenh or Shagen’djéo- wane’, ‘‘He of the large forehead.”’ This chief is depicted on both lists by a full face that accentuates the brow region over the eyes. This title belongs to the Hawk clan, being in the same moiety as the second title, and his colleague, who sits across the fire as cousin of the first two, is of the Bear clan. 46/4. Satyénowaht or Sadyénawat, ‘‘Do thou take hold of it’’; ““He grasps it.’”’-—S. Gibson. Hewitt placed this name fourth on the list, although it is sixth on the Seneca roster in the Eulogy or Roll Call text by Chief Abram 313 Charles and in a combined list of the same date (1917) attributed to Chief Charles and to the Mohawk chief Seth Newhouse. On List No. 1 (Fig. 4) the fourth title is represented by a character that neither Hewitt nor I could interpret. On the strength that the character stands for the name listed by Hewitt for it, Simeon Gibson ventured that the vertical line was a pole grasped by two hands. This idea gains some strength from List No. 2. An arrow, however, appears at this same place on the Cayuga Condolence Cane of Andrew Spragg, and the same object was possibly intended by Chief Charles. Since these two old Cayugas lived as neighbors on the Six Nations Reserve and used to collaborate in teaching the roll call to younger men, we may assume that they agreed on the order of Seneca chiefs. Moreover, Chief Charles was also a poor draftsman. In view of the texts, the verbal lists of the Chiefs, and the Cayuga Condolence Cane, we find also: 46/4. Ga’néogar’, a title for which neither of us has discovered a satisfactory translation. The title suggests the homophonie word gd’non (S.), “arrow,’’ which possibly helped the chiefs of recent years to remember the name. In Seneca the title is gd’nogav’, in contrast to the Onondaga above, which they translate as ‘““chewer, biter, or killer.””’ At least the name has this meaning to the Tonawanda Senecas. This title belongs to the Turtle clan. Fic. 6.—The Fourteen Matters of Requickening, 314 A line on both lists separates the second and third pair of Seneca chiefs. 47/5. Onishayenén’ ha’ or Nishaanyénen’t (?). Simeon Gibson interpreted the former as meaning, ‘‘A man leaning nearly over,’’ the latter as ‘‘Falling day,’”’ which it means to the Tonawanda Senecas. Small Plover or Snipe clan claims it. On the first list a long object inclines to the right; on the second set of drawings a simple line inclines to the right. In either case the verb in this name denotes something falling from an upright position. 48/6. Ka’néokai’ (J.N.B.H.). (Cf. 46/4). To Hewitt this character, the fifth on the Seneca List No. 1 (Fig. 4), suggested a stump having sprouts and two roots, but the design on the second set of drawings he found still less recognizable. The forty-eighth symbol on the Cayuga Condolence Cane of Andrew Spragg is similar in appearance to the character on Chief Charles first set of drawings (Fig. 4). It is a hand or bear paw or turtle foot having five claws or fingers. Both the Charles text for the Eulogy or Roll Call and a combined list of chiefs by Charles and Seth Newhouse would at- tribute this character to the name Sadyénawat (46/4), which we repeat here: 48/6. Sadyénawat, ‘‘Grasps it,’’ which is consistent with the drawing as interpreted. Bear clan. Another line segregates the latter pair of titles from the last two, which belong to the Doorkeepers of the Longhouse of the League. 49/7. Kanonhkarv’déhhwi’ or Ganonhger’ déawi’, “Its hair is singed,” or ‘It broils.”’ Snipe clan. Hewitt interpreted the drawings on both lists as representing a bed of live coals. 50/8. Teyoninhhokd’wenh, Deyoninhhogda’- wenh, “It keeps the doorway open’’; literally, “It holds up the door-flap,” referring to the ancient bark or skin door hinged at its top in the longhouse of the League. ‘“‘Open Door’ is the simpler rendering of Hale, and of Howard Skye. This official is symbolized by characters representing an open doorway. ‘‘This is the roll of the founders of the Great Peace; Hail Grandsires.”’ THE SYMBOLS OF THE FOURTEEN MATTERS There remains to describe, only the set of symbols for remembering the 14 Matters of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 Requickening, which are perhaps the most in- teresting of the lot (Fig. 6). The Requickening Address is already in print, so the task of col- - lating the drawings and the burdens of the address is not difficult. The list of burdens as given by Chief Charles faces a plate of the wampum strings that accompany the messages of condolence on pp. 78-79 of our previous article (this JourNaL 34). Chief Charles covered one page of his notebook with 14 drawings, mostly crude outlines of the human form in the same style as his drawings of the chiefs’ titles. Each of the drawings (Fig. 6) stands for one of the sections of the great requiem address for Condolence and Installa- tion of Chiefs in the League. Only one symbol is lacking. There is none to represent death of a chief by murder. Through the awful devastation of Death the phratry of the deceased chief have lost their faculties and their organs have been damaged; these are restored to them in the following stages: 1. Ogdhthri, ‘‘One’s eyes’—drawing of a man pointing to his eyes. 2. Hahondagéronde’, His ear openings: Hear- ing—drawing of a stoop-kneed man with large ear. 3. Dehanya’déogen, ‘‘Where is throat forks,” his throat is full: Speaking—drawing of a man with round object in his throat. Here three vertical lines indicate a hiatus; so many matters are recounted At the Wood’s Edge where the mourners meet the condoling phratry. 4. Kya’ dagénwah, ‘‘within his breast (body)”’ —drawing of a man with sketchy internal or- gans pointing to his mouth. 5. Ondyenddékkhwa’, ‘“‘One’s customary rest- ing place’’: The bloody husk mat bed—drawing of rectangular object. 6. Dayé’gaah, ‘“‘The deep darkness of grief”’ —drawing of man mu deep halo around his head. 70 Wa’ hodronhyéhdon’, ‘“‘He has lost sight of the Sky’”’: Loss of the Sky—drawing of long- necked man seeking the sky. 8. Wa hodrahgwéhdon’, ‘‘He has lost sight of the Sun’’—moon-faced figure seeking the Sun. 9. Heyo’dadgwdinda’, ‘At the Grave, at the mound of fresh earth’—drawing at lower left to represent dirt piled on grave. 10. or 11. Dewdhshen niyéihwaks, ‘Twenty Oct. 15, 1945 matters,’ the cost for homicide or (11), de- yonshdjisdadénhkwa’h, “Around the fire place,” at the hearth of the home: the Council Fire— an &-shaped character with what may be in- tended for 20 in the loop and three marks fol- lowing. [Double numbering arises if No. 10, Murder is omitted. | 12. Onthonwi' sas; hohsken’engéhda’, ‘Woman and Warrior.’”’ These are grouped together in the Requickening Address, but apparently the third figure with long hair in the lower set of drawings is the Matron; the next wearing a hat is Warrior. 13. Hoydaneh, latter, possibly. 14. Hydhden de’ aonhwendjana’géwas, ‘‘Any- thing can happen on earth’’—even suicide or in- “The Federal Chief’’—the MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES 315 sanity: the Mind’s loss of reason—the next to the last drawing seems to have been intended to represent dementia. 15. Gahashrahee’, “The Torch’’—the last figure may be intended for a torch of hickory rind such as was formerly used to illuminate night councils. But it may also be intended to represent a “‘short string.’”’ The name of the last string in Requickening is also gahdshee’, ‘light,’ being the short string at the end of the set. According to Howard Skye, at the end of the ceremony the short string is put over the pole for both tribal phratries to take up if any danger arises, when they say of it, ‘‘de- wakdd’a henganonhsékden’, very quickly the news of it passes through the house (League).”’ So ends the Condolence Council. PALEONTOLOGY.—Four new species of fossil cyprinodont fishes from eastern California.! The fossil fish fauna of the desert region of eastern California has hitherto received no serious attention. During my detailed studies of the living fishes of this area (Miller, 1943a, b; 1944) fossils were avail- able for comparison with the Recent forms. Although the material is rather fragmentary it contains at least three distinctive species and one other that, though incompletely preserved, is apparently without a living representative. A careful survey for fossil fish remains is needed and would no doubt reward the investigator with important finds. The material described below was lent by the Department of Paleontology of the California Institute of Technology, the Museum of Paleontology of the University of California, and the University of Michi- gan Museum of Paleontology. I am grate- ful to the authorities of these institutions for allowing me to examine and report upon their specimens. Dr. Carl L. Hubbs aided in the identifications and read the manuscript. J. R. Alcorn, of Fallon, Nev., kindly obtained comparative material of Fundulus nevadensis (Eastman) from the 1 Excerpt from a dissertation submitted in par- tial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the University of Michigan. Published by permission of the Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received April 20, 1945. RoBERT R. MIuueEr, U. S. National Museum. Lahontan beds in the vicinity of Hazen, Churchill County, Nev. Curtis J. Hesse, late curator of the Museum of the Agricul- tural and Mechanical College of Texas, kindly supplied advance information on the nature and disposition of the Death Valley material, on which he had done some pre- liminary work. Family CyprINoDONTIDAE: Killifishes This group is best represented by ma- terial from Death Valley. I also had for comparison good specimens of the cyprino- dont described as Parafundulus nevadensis from the Lahontan basin by Eastman (1917, p. 291, pl. 16, fig. 2; pl. 17; pl.-18, fig. 3), herein regarded as a species of Fundulus. Genus Fundulus Lacépéde Fundulus curryi, n. sp. Types.—The holotype (Fig. 1), a specimen approximately 44 mm in standard length, California Inst. Tech. no. 10239, Loc. 335, was collected by H. Donald Curry. It is a nearly perfect specimen except for the fact that the head end is crushed and represented chiefly by impression. Enough of the details are clear, however, to allow definite statements to be made concerning the size of the jaws, eye, etc. Nos. 10240, 10247 (smaller slab), and 10249, all from locality 335, are designated as para- 316 types. Nos. 10242 and 10246, from the same place, are also referred to curryt. Horizon and type locality.— Reportedly lower Oligocene beds of the Tertiary Titus Canyon formation; 3 miles southeast of Chloride Cliffs in the Funeral Mountains, T. 15 8., R. 1 E. (Furnace Creek quadrangle), on the east side of Death Valley National Monument, Inyo County, Calif. The assignment of these beds to the lower Oligocene is very questionable. Pre- served with the Fundulus is a single specimen referrable to Cyprinodon, a genus of recent origin previously unknown in fossil form.? This specimen is described in detail on following pages. The presence of a Cyprinodon in these beds strongly suggests that they are no earlier than Late Pliocene. In a letter dated Decem- ber 18, 1942, Edwin C. Alberts, naturalist of Death Valley National Monument, stated that the type locality of the Titus Canyon formation is definitely Oligocene. This determination is based on the skeletal remains of a titanothe- rium. However, Mr. Alberts wrote that the place where the fish remains were discovered is several miles distant from Titus Canyon proper and ‘“‘the dating of this site as Titus Canyon Formation was on purely lithologic grounds.” Diagnosis—A Fundulus with the dorsal fin inserted very slightly in advance of the anal and with both of these fins posterior in posi- tion, the dorsal with 14 to 15 rays, the anal with 15 to 16 rays. The body and caudal peduncle are short and deep. There are about 30 to 31 vertebrae including the hypural. Description.—The holotype has the dorsal inserted slightly in advance of the origin of the anal fin, with 14 or possibly 15 rays. A line connecting the point of origin of dorsal and anal fins makes an angle of about 85° with the body axis. The anal fin, with 16 rays, is rather long and rounded. Both of these fins are lo- cated far back on the body, well behind its midpoint. The small pelvics lie about midway between the tip of the snout and the caudal base, and consist of 6 (?) rays. The pectoral fins, both crushed, have at least 14 and prob- 2 Cyprinodon (?) primulus, based on scales only, was recently described by Cockerell (1936, pp. 3-4, fig. 1) from the Tertiary of northern Argentina. It seems unlikely that the scale figured by Cockerell even belonged to a cyprino- dont fish, and it very definitely is not to be re- ferred to Cyprinodon. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 ably 15 or 16 rays. The end of the caudal fin is missing, but enough of the rays are present to indicate a count of at least 19 and probably 20 principal rays (the branched rays plus 2). The length of the head enters the standard length about 3.6 times, and the body depth, over the origin of the dorsal fin, enters this distance 3.5 times. There are 10 or 11 precaudal and 20 caudal vertebrae, making a total of 30 to 31 vertebrae. The length of the base of the anal fin is about equal to the depth of the caudal peduncle, and enters the length of the peduncle about 1.5 times. The anal base is almost as long as the distance from the anal to the pelvic origin. The depth of the peduncle enters its length about 1.4 times. The lower jaw is strong and projecting, the eye large. No. 10240, a paratype of curry, has the posterior half of the body missing and the head crushed. The standard length, estimated by multiplying the head length by 3.5 (the ratio of head length to standard length in the holo- type), was about 65 mm. The dorsal fin is in- serted very slightly in advance of the anal, the line connecting the origins of these fins making an angle of about 87° with the body axis. The dorsal fin has 14 or 15 rays; the anal fin has approximately 16 rays; the pelvics are defi- nitely 6-rayed. The pectorals are badly crushed but probably have 15 or 16 rays. The body depth is 3.0 in the estimated standard length. This fish is very deep-bodied forward, like big males of Crenichthys, a living cyprinodont of eastern Nevada (Hubbs, 1932, pl. 1; Hubbs and Miller, 1941). No. 10249, also a paratype, has the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins irtact. The standard length of this specimen is estimated to have been approximately 66 mm (distance from anal to pelvic origins, 11 mm, times 5.5). The dorsal has 14 or 15 rays, the anal 15 or 16. A line connecting the origins of these two fins makes an angle of 85° or 86° with the body axis, as in other specimens of curry. The pelvics are 6- rayed. The depth of the body at the dorsal origin enters the estimated standard length 3.1 times. A few scale imprints, most prominent about the base of the dorsal fin in this specimen give information concerning the size, shape, and structure of the scales in curryi, and the age of this individual. This is the only specimen of curryt on which I was able to find any trace of Fig. 1.—Holotype of Fundulus curryi, California Inst. Tech. no. 10239, about 44 mm in standard length. Fie. 2—Holotype of Fundulus eulepis, United States National Museum no. 16883, estimated length 93 mm. Fic. 3.—Left half of holotype of Cyprinodon breviradius, California Inst. Tech. no. 10245, estimated length 33 mm., lying at an oblique angle on the matrix, the anterior end pointing downward toward the right lower corner and the posterior part terminating near the middle left cen- ter. Above the type are two well defined, partial specimens referred to Fundulus eulepis (see text) and. parts of others which may belong to that species. Fic. 4.—Right half of holotype of Cyprinodon breviradius, representing the mirrored image of the opposite half shown in Fig. 3. 318 squamation, and this was made possible only by the use of very bright light. These scales have 10 to 11 radii, are imbricated, and have numerous circuli—as in eulepis. The focus is near the scale center. One scale near the pos- terior end of the incomplete specimen has a single year mark, indicating that this fish was in its second year and that there were marked seasonal differences in temperature. The scales are similar in size to those of eulepis and davidae, described below. No. 10247 (smaller slab) is also designated a paratype of curryi. The pelvics, anal, and caudal are largely intact and enough of the body in the region of these fins is present to indicate that the specimen was deep-bodied. There are about 16 rays in the anal fin and six in each pelvic fin. The length of the anal fin base is a little difficult to discern but it appears to enter the length of the peduncle about 1.5 times, as in the holotype of curryi. The caudal vertebrae number 20 to 21. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, No. 10 The diagnostic differences between curry? and closely related fossil species of Fundulus in the West are given in Table 1. It differs from all of these in the greater number of anal fin rays and the correspondingly greater length of the anal fin base. Compared with the only living species of Fundulus on the Pacific coast, F. parvipinnis Girard, ranging from Morro Bay, Calif., to Magdalena Bay, Lower California, and F. lima Vaillant, inhabiting springs at San Ignacio, Lower California, the fossil species is seen to differ greatly in the position of the fins. Both the dorsal and anal fins are more posterior in curryt, particularly the anal, whereas the pelvic fins are located midway between the caudal base and the tip of the lower jaw, as in the living species. This posterior shift in the un- paired fins but not in the pelvics stands out very clearly in the fossil for the pelvic fins lie well in advance of the anal, whereas in parvi- pinnis and lama the pelvics reach or nearly TABLE 1.—D1AGnostTic DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Four SPECIES OF FossILu FUNDULUS FROM CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA nevadensis Character (Lahontan Basin) | ee Well in advance of a~al; nearly midway be- tween origins of pelvic and anal fins. Position of dorsal fin. . Dorsalehininays. - = 1 to 12 Anal fin rays......... 10 to 13 Amiel): fin vrei tere seca Lobate Base of anal into length of peduncle........ 1.7 to 1.9 Long and slender, its depth about 2.5 in its length. Caudal peduncle..... Long and slender its depth 6.5 to 8.0 in standard length. Very large and heavy, about 3.0 in standard length. Very small, circular, non- imbricated; about 4 radii and 5 circuli on largest; 65 or more in lateral series. eulepis (Death Valley) In advance of anal; about 4 distance from anal to pelvic origins. 13 to 14 13 to 14 Posterior rays elongated. Ea to-19 Moderately long and slender, its length about twice its depth. Moderately long andslen- der, its depth about 4.5 to 5.0 in standard length. Probably similar to cur- Ty. Moderately large, rec- tangular, rounded at apex, inbricated, with focus behind scale cen- ter; 8 to 12 radii, often exposed; many circu- li; probably about 45 to 50 in lateral series. curryt (Death Valley) Only slightly in ad- vance of anal fin; very much nearer analthan pelvie fins. 14 to 15 15 to 16 Broadly rounded. 1.4 to 1.5 Short and deep, its depth about 1.5 in its length. Short and deep, its depth 3.0 to 3.5 in standard length. Shorter, about 3.5 in standard length. Similar to ewlepis. davidae (Mohave Desert) Slightly behind anal fin. 11 or 12 It or 12 Broadly rounded. 2.3 Short and deep as in curryt. Rather deep, its depth 4.0 in standard length. As incurryt. Similar to eulepis. Ocr. 15, 1945 reach the base of the anal fin. Ff. curryi also differs from these Recent forms in having more rays in the-anal fin (10 to 13, usually 11 or 12, in parvipinnis and lima), and it appears to have been deeper-bodied than F. p. parvipinnis Girard, the northern subspecies of Fundulus parvipinnis. The southern subspecies, F. p. brevis Osburn and Nichols, and F. lima are about as deep-bodied as the fossil. In the several specimens at hand, there is nothing to indicate that the anal fin is elongated as it is in the males of F. parvipinnis (but not in F. lima). Etymology.—lIt is a pleasure to name this new species in honor of H. Donald Curry, former park naturalist of Death Valley National Monument, who was actively en- gaged in studying the geology and paleontology of Death Valley. Fundulus eulepis, n. sp. Types.—The holotype (Fig. 2), estimated to have been about 93 mm long, is U.S.N.M. No. 16883, found by H. Donald Curry on December 5, 1935. It is more than half missing, but the body is intact between the pelvic fins and the middle of the caudal peduncle. Horizon and type locality—Furnace Creek Tertiary section; approximately 6 miles south- east of Furnace Creek Ranch in the Black Mountains (Furnace Creek quadrangle), on the east side of Death Valley National Monu- ment, Inyo County, Calif. The original (U. S. Geological Survey) label reads, ‘“‘Fossils are from beds interstratified with the Furnace Creek Tertiary Section.” Diagnosis.—A large Fundulus with the dor- sal fin inserted well in advance of the anal, about one-third of the distance from the anal to pelvic origins, the dorsal and anal fins with the same number of rays (13 to 14), with a long, slender body, and with the anal rays elongated posteriorly. Description.—The dorsal fin of this species, unlike that of curryi, is well in advance of the anal. In the holotype a line connecting the origins of the dorsal and anal fins makes an angle of approximately 79° with the body axis. The estimated length of about 93 mm was derived by multiplying the distance between the origins of anal and pelvic fins by 5.5, as the standard length is 5.5 times this distance in curryt. On the assumption that the pelvics lie MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES eee eer 319 about midway between the snout and caudal base, and estimating the position of the end of the hypural, a value of 90 mm is attained. Presumably this is a rougher estimate than that of 93 mm, because it is based on two (rather than one) assumptions. The close agreement indicates that the fish was probably not less than 90 mm in standard length. The dorsal fin has 13 or 14 rays, the anal fin, ele- vated and pointed posteriorly, has about 13 rays. The length of the last anal ray is two- thirds or more the length of the anal base. The pelvic fins, one of which is complete, have 6 rays. The pectorals and caudal are missing. The body depth enters the standard length about 4.7 times, indicating a slender body. The length of the anal base is approximately 1.9 in the length of the peduncle and 1.5 in the depth of the peduncle. The specimen is covered with scales, which are moderately large, possess 8 to 10 radii and many circuli, and have the focus behind the scale center. The radii are com- monly exposed but the scales are imbricated, not separated by actual gaps as in nevadensis. A paratype (U.S.N.M. No. 16884) is repre- sented almost wholly by the head. There are strong teeth on the upper and lower jaws which, along with the broad, strong maxillary, massive mandible, and large size of the species, indicate a predatory type. These teeth are coni- eal, rather thick, and nearly straight or slightly curved toward their tips. The largest tooth in the upper jaw measured 0.9 mm in length, that of the lower jaw 1.0 mm. If the head length (here about 30 mm) was approximately one- third the standard length, this specimen was very similar to the holotype in size. A third specimen (U.S.N.M. No. 16885), designated as a paratype of eulepis, is repre- sented almost wholly by beautifully preserved scales. These are rectangular, rounded at the apex, with 8 to 12 radii and with the focus be- hind the scale center. The circuli are fine and numerous, 23 to 25 or more. At least one sharp annulus is clear, suggesting that winters were cold when eulepis lived. On several particu- larly well-preserved scales, two annuli are visible, much closer together than the distance from the focus to the first annulus. This indi- cates that growth was rapid in the first year, and suggests that the decreased growth rate at the end of the first year was correlated with the attainment of maturity. 320 Other specimens contained on two pieces, Calif. Inst. Tech. No. 10245, from the type locality of F. curryi, are referred to eulepis. These fish, of which half are on the one piece and half on the other (Figs. 3 and 4), are too slender to be assigned to curryi. The largest one has the dorsal fin well in advance of the anal, with about 13 rays; the anal has 13 or 14 rays, of which the posteriormost are elongated. The anal base is 1.7 in the length of the peduncle; the peduncle is slightly more than twice as long as deep. The depth of the body at the dorsal fin is only 1.7 in the length of the peduncle. In curryi, the depth of the body at this point is much greater than the length of the peduncle. It is not known whether the forma- tion containing this species and curry? is con- temporaneous with that containing eulepis, but since the slender form coexistent with curry appears to be indistinguishable from ewlepis, it seems best to tentatively refer it to ewlepis. Ktymology.—The name eulepis, meaning well-scaled, refers to the close-set, numerous scales found on the holotype. Fundulus davidae, n. sp. Types.—The holotype is the specimen repre- sented by the right and left halves of the two pieces of matrix marked California Inst. Tech. no. 10276. It was received by Dr. Lore David from a wildcat oil driller. Type locality—Mohave Desert near Black Mountain (U.8.G.8. Searles Lake quadrangle), about 40 miles northwest of Barstow and 25 miles southeast of Johannesburg, northwestern San Bernardino County, Calif. The horizon has not been determined, but the appearance of the matrix suggests that it may be of Pliocene or early Pleistocene age. Description.—The holotype, and only known specimen, is about 35 mm long. Its two halves represent a nearly complete fish. The dorsal fin is inserted slightly behind the origin of the anal, and has about 11 or 12 rays. The anal fin has 11 or 12 rays. Both of these fins are well behind the midpoint of the body. The pelvics, probably 6-rayed, reach about halfway to the anal origin and are more posterior in position than in the other fossil species. They definitely lie much nearer the caudal base than the tip of the snout. The pectorals are crushed, with 15 or 16 rays. The caudal fin is represented chiefly by impression and probably had as JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 many principal rays (20) as in the previously described fossil species. The length of the head is about 2.9 in the standard length, and the body depth at the dorsal origin is about 4.0 in this distance. The depth of the caudal peduncle approximately equals its length. The length of the anal base enters the peduncle length 2.3 times and is about 1.3 in the distance forward from anal to pelvic origins. There are approximately 30 vertebrae, 11 precaudal and 19 caudal. The scales are moderately large and im- bricated as in eulepis and curryi, with a few of the radii occasionally exposed. The circuli are much more numerous than in nevadensis but appear to be fewer than in eulepis. The scales on the opercle are large, as in many cyprino- donts, numbering about 15 in all. I estimate that there were 45 to 50 in the lateral series, as there probably were in curryi and eulepis. This is a greater number than in the living species of the Pacific slope (about 30 to 37), but much fewer than in the fine-scaled fossil species, Fundulus nevadensis. ? A cyprinodont described by Jordan (1924, pp. 45-47, pls. I-J) as Parafundulus erdisi from northern Los Angeles County* appears, from the figures, to resemble Fundulus parvi- pinnis more closely than it does any of the known fossil species of Fundulus except davidae. F. davidae has a somewhat deeper body and more posterior dorsal and anal fins. The dis- tance from the end of the hypural to the origin of the dorsal fin enters the standard length at least 3.5 times, rather than 2.8 to 3.1 times as measured from the figures of erdisz. The base of the anal fin in davidae enters the caudal peduncle about 2.3 rather than 1.3 to 1.6 times as in erdist. In that species the dorsal lies in ad- vance of the anal whereas in davidae it is be- hind the anal origin. This difference is not great, however, and may be related to sexual dimorphism. The larger specimen figured by Jordan may be a male, for the anterior rays of the anal fin appear to be elongated as in males of parvipinnis. Jordan (1925, p. 43) pointed out that Para- fundulus is probably not distinct from Fun- dulus and it is regarded herein as a synonym of Fundulus. 3 No definite age was assigned to these beds in the original account, but Jordan later wrote (1925, p. 43) that the genus Parafundulus was probably Pleistocene. ~ nal Ocr. 15, 1945 Etymology.—This species is named after Dr. Lore R. David, an eminent student of the fossil fish faunas of California, who recognized it as an undescribed form of Fundulus. Genus Cyprinodon Lacépéde Cyprinodon breviradius, n. sp. Types.—The holotype (Fig. 3) and only known specimen of this species is the individual represented by the right and left halves of the two pieces of matrix labeled No. 10245, Loe. 335, Calif. Inst. Tech. It was collected by H. Donald Curry and is nearly complete except that the head end is missing. However, the shape of the body, the position of the fins, the number of fin rays, and the small size of the hypural all strongly suggest that the fossil is a member of the genus Cyprinodon. Unfortu- nately it cannot be stated whether the teeth were tricuspid. Horizon and type locality—The horizon and type locality of C. breviradius have been de- seribed under the discussion of Fundulus curry. Description.—The holotype is estimated to have been about 33 mm long. The small fins suggest that it is a female. The dorsal fin, with 10 or 11 rays, is anterior in position as it is in C. macularius Baird and Girard, the species now living in the lower Colorado River Basin (Miller, 1943a, pp. 12-138, table I, pls. 1, 2). The origin of the dorsal fin lies almost over the origin of the pelvic fins. The anal fin has 10 or 11 rays and originates almost directly below the end of the second third of the base of the dorsal fin. The pelvics, composed of 6 or 7 rays, apparently do not reach more than half the distance to the origin of the anal fin. The pec- toral fins are missing, and only the basal part of the caudal fin is present. The depth of the body at the dorsal origin enters the distance between the insertion of the pelvic fins and the caudal base about 1.5 times. The distance between the last dorsal ray and the end of the hypural approximately equals the body depth. Both the dorsal and anal fins, particularly the anal, appear to have been small, even smaller than in Cyprinodon salinus MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES 321 Miller, the Recent species of Salt Creek, Death Valley (Miller, 19430, pl. 1). There are about 20 caudal vertebrae, which is a greater number than in most of the living species of the region. Cyprinodon breviradius resembles C. macu- larius in the position of the dorsal and pelvic fins, but is more slender-bodied. In that feature it is similar to C. salinus. Etymology.—The name breviradius, meaning short-rayed, refers to the short rays of the dorsal and anal fins. LITERATURE CITED CockERELL, T. D. A. The fauna of the Sun- chal (or Margas Verdes) formation, nor- thern Argentina. Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 886: 1-9, figs. 1-19. 1936. EASTMAN, CHARLES R. Fossil fishes in the col- lection of the United States National Mu- seum. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 52: 235- 304, figs. 1-9, pls. 1-23. 1917. Husss, Cart L. Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprinodontes. XII. A new genus related to Empetrichthys. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 252: 1-5, pl. 1. 1932. Husss, Cart L., and Miuuer, Roser R. Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprino- dontes. XVII. Genera and species of the Colorado River system. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 433: 1-9. 1941. JORDAN, Davip Starr. Miocene fishes from southern California. Bull. Southern Cali- fornia Acad. Sci. 23: 42-50, pls. F-L. 1924. The fossil fishes of the Miocene of southern California. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Sei. 4(1): 1-51, pls. 1-21. 1925. Miter, RospertR. The status of Cyprinodon macularius and Cyprinodon nevadensis, two desert fishes of western North America. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 473: 1-25, 1 fig., pls. 1-7. 1943a. . Cyprinodon salinus, a new species of fish from Death Valley, California. Copeia, 1943 (2): 69-78, fig. 1, pl. 1. 19430. . The fishes of the relict waters of the Pleistocene Death Valley stream system. Doctorate dissertation (typewritten), Uni- versity of Michigan, pp. 1-326, figs. 1-33, pls. 1-22, maps1-6. 1944. 322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 BOTAN Y.—Two new species of Scleria from the Upper Amazon Valley Earu L. CoreE, West Virginia University. Among specimens of Scleria recently col- lected by J. T. Baldwin in the state of Ama- zonas, Brazil, and by José Cuatrecasas in the commissaries of Vaupés and Caqueta, Colombia, were the following two new spe- cies. Types are in the U. S. National Herbarium. Scleria scandens, n. sp. Culmo alto scandente, acute triquetro, retrorsim scaberrimo, 5 mm crasso; foliis 5-8 mm latis, rigidis, glabris, costa subtus et mar- ginibus retrorsim scabris; vaginis exalatis, pilosis, ligula brevissima, rigida; paniculis numerosis, purpurascentibus, pedunculis gra- cilibus; spiculis numerosis; squamis glabris; hypogynio stipitiforme, 1 mm longo, quam achenio angustiore, apice trilobo, lobis rotun- datis; achenio albo vel purpureo-maculato, 1 mm longo, 2 mm lato, glabro, apice truncato umbonato. Rhizome not seen; culms climbing, several feet long, 5 mm thick, sharply triquetrous, retrorsely scabrous, leaves numerous, 5-8 mm wide, rigid, glabrous, the midrib beneath and the margins very retrorsely scabrous; sheaths wingless, pilose; ligule short, rigid; panicles numerous, axillary and terminal, purplish, the peduncles slender, flattened; spikelets numer- ous in each group; scales purple, glabrous or nearly so; hypogynium stipelike, 1 mm long, narrower than the achene, 3-lobed at the apex, the lobes rounded; achene white, purplish black where exposed, 1 mm high, 2 mm broad, essentially glabrous, the apex truncate, um- bonate. Braziu: Ilha Nova Vida, upper Rio Negro, Amazonas, February 12, 1944. Baldwin 3285, Type in U. 8. National Herbarium. This species is closely related to S. splitger- beriana Henrard, of Surinam, but differs in its more robust habit, larger panicles, and smaller, glabrous achenes. Scleria grandis, n. sp. Rhizomate ligneo, squamis atro-rubris in- tecto; culmo 1-2 m alto, triquetro; foliis 5 dm longis, 18-45 mm latis, in marginibus scabris; vaginis ampliatis, alatis; ligula abbreviata, ro- 1 Contribution No. 34 from the Herbarium of West Virginia University. Received July 5, 1945. (Communicated by E. P. Kiu.ip.) tundata, rigida; panicula terminali, solitaria, densa, conica, straminea, 5-15 cm longa; brac- teis foliaceis, 20 cm longis; spiculis masculis longe pedicellatis, numerosis; spiculis foemineis paucis, in ramorum basi subsessilibus; squamis masculis anguste mucronatis; squamis foemi- neis ovato-lanceolatis; hypogynio trilobo, lobis ovatis; achenio 3 mm longo laevi triangulari, albo vel interdum griseo, hirtello. Scleriae cypertnae proxime affinis. Rhizome thick, hard, covered with red- brown scales; culms 1-2 meters tall, robust, sharply triangular; leaves about 5 dm long, 18-45 mm wide, somewhat scabrous on the margins and midrib beneath; sheaths winged, often conspicuously so, the wing-margins slightly scabrous; ligule rotund, the margins rigid, without an appendage; inflorescence soli- tary, terminal, conic, dense, straw-colored, 5— 15 cm long; bracts foliaceous, mostly 3, 20 em long or longer, 18-35 mm wide; bractlets fili- form, minute; staminate spikelets long-pedi- celled, linear, very numerous; pistillate spike- lets subsessile, few; staminate scales narrow, straw-colored or purplish-tinged, the upper long-mucronate, the lower acute; pistillate scales ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, stramineous or purplish-tinged, hypogynium 3-lobed, the lobes ovate; achene 3 mm long, shorter than the scales, not tuberculate or rugulose, ovoid, sharply trigonous, white or discolored, mi- nutely white-pubescent. Co.ompsia: Selva del Tui-Igarape, 200 m alt., cerca de Mitu, Vaupés, September 17, 1939, Cuatrecasas 6870. Type in U. 8. National Her- barium, nos. 1795819, 1795820. Cerro de La Sardina, 500 malt., bosque, Florencia, Caquetd, March 30, 1940, Cwatrecasas 8890. Braziu: Santa Isabel, Rio Negro, Amazonas, February 15-16, 1944, Baldwin 3421. This very distinctive species, a member of the section Hymenolytrum, is clearly distin- guished from its nearest relative, S. cyperina, by its more robust habit, its much broader leaves, and its smooth achenes. S. grandis and S. cyperina are the only known members of the section lacking the large, conspicuous, scarious appendage to the ligule found in S. st¢pularis, S. ramosa, S. violacea, S. macrogyne, S. comosa, and S. cyperinoides. Oct. 15, 1945 BLAKE: SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEETLES 323 ENTOMOLOGY .—Six new species of beetles of a eumolpid genus new to the West Indies! Doris H. BLAKE. The genus Alethaxius (Coleoptera: Eu- molpidae), under which I herein tentatively place six new West Indian species, was originally described by Chapuis? as Aletes, a preoccupied name later changed by Lefévre® to Alethaxrius. These West Indian species do not entirely correspond with Chapuis’s description drawn up from a single species from Colombia but seem closer to four species later described by Lefévre,* also from Colombia. According to Chapuis, Aletes (=Alethaxius) is closely related to Colaspis, but in Aletes the an- tennae are somewhat more compressed (in the West Indian group the distal joints are shorter and thicker), the eyes are more developed (in the West Indian species the eyes are very prominent), and the form of the pronotum is different (in the West Indian group the prothorax is large, the sides varying from undulate and even prominently toothed to simply arcuate-and entire). Moreover, in both West Indian species and those described by Lefévre there is a marked difference between the sexes, the females having a peculiar elytral development in the form of nodules or ridges below the humeri. In another respect some of the West Indian species resemble two species later described by Lefévre, i.e., the femora are toothed. In Lefévre’s species the posterior femora alone are de- scribed as toothed. This character appears to be a variable one, since while the teeth are prominent on all femora in three of the West Indian species, in one they are only weakly developed and in another appear only in the posterior femora. In one species the teeth are entirely lacking. Since Lefévre, Jacoby has contributed most of the remaining species to the genus, describ- ing numerous Central and South American species that more or less doubtfully he has assigned to Alethaxius. Bowditch has added 1 Received April 30, 1945. 2 Genera des coléoptéres . . . 10: 250-251. 1874. 3 Eumolpidarum ...Catalogus. Mem. Soc. Liege, ser. 2, 11(16): 42. 1885. ee Miinchener Ent. Ver. 2: 124-126. (Communicated by 8. F. BLAKn.) three from South America. The present group may eventually prove too distinct to be included in this genus. It appears to be common to the West Indies, occurring so far as is already known in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and is singularly constant in general characteristics. In fact, the males of a species collected on the sum- mit of Pico Turquino in eastern Cuba are not readily distinguishable from the males of two species found in the mountains of central Dominican Republic except by their quite different genitalia. The females, on the other hand, have distinctly different elytral nodulation. The females are so un- like the males in this group that it is prob- able that future entomologists may describe each as specifically distinct unless the sexes are collected together. Alethaxius hispaniolae, n. sp. Fig. 1 Female about 4 mm long, robust, dark bronze shining with aeneous or coppery lights, legs, mouthparts, and undersurface reddish brown, basal joints of antennae pale, apices of last five joints dark; densely punctate; pro- thorax with undulate or obtusely toothed mar- gin; elytra with small raised tubercles below the humeri; femora sharply toothed. Male about 3.3 mm long, above bright shin- ing green, elytra entirely lacking tubercles. Head with prominent, widely separated eyes; a tumidity about base of antennal sockets; median area on vertex polished and with a slightly impressed line, from this area radiating lines of punctures producing a wrinkled effect over occiput and about eyes. Antennae extending below humeri, first two joints swollen, 3-6 slender, 7-11 thickened and with dark apices. Prothorax a third wider than long, densely punctate except in middle along the anterior margin, the punctures appearing coarser and more crowded on sides, lateral margin obtusely bitoothed, in some specimens almost undulate, an acute tooth at anterior and posterior angles, and a slight depression across the anterior part of disk over the occiput of head. Elytra in female densely and along sides 324 in basal half even rugosely punctate, with a group of raised warts or tubercles extending down from the humerus, gradually diminishing toward the middle, these rugosities varying in degree in various individuals. Humeri capped with an additional swelling. Punctures in basal half of elytra dense and confused, in apical half the punctures at first with a suggestion of geminate arrangement gradually straightening out into striate, single-lined punctation, finer and not so dense as in basal half. In the male the rugosities and tubercles entirely lacking and the punctation more regular. Body be- neath reddish brown, finely pubescent, coxae well separated, anterior coxal cavities closed; prosternum not produced to conceal lower part of head but concave; legs with all the femora prominently and sharply toothed, punctate towards the apex; claws appendiculate. Length 3.9-4.8 mm in female: 3.3-3.4 mm in male; width 2—2.2 mm in female; 1.6 mm in male. Type material—Type male and 9 para- types (7 female, 2 male), Museum of Com- parative Zoology No. 27330; a pair in the U. S. National Museum, No. 57298. Type locality —Loma Vieja, ca. 6,000 feet altitude, south of Constanza, Dominican Re- public, collected in August 1938 by P. J. Darlington, Jr. Alethaxius darlingtoni, n. sp. Fig. 6 Female 3-4 mm in length, elongate oblong, shining bronze with greenish luster above and with reddish brown antennae having the apices of distal joints darker, pale mouthparts, legs, and undersurface; densely punctate, prothorax with a smooth area in lower corner and with undulate margin; elytra with numerous tuber- cles on sides and more finely punctate toward apex; all femora with a prominent tooth. Male 2.8-3.5 mm long, more greenish in luster, elytra without tubercles. Head with prominent, nearly entire, widely separated eyes, interocular space more than half width of head, area about antennal sockets swollen, otherwise the front flat and broad, the central part being smoothly polished with ra- diating lines of punctures going up occiput and about eyes; mouthparts paler and _ heavy. Antennae at least half the length of body, longer in male, first two joints swollen, 3-6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 10 slender and entirely pale, 7-11 thickened, the apices usually darker. Prothorax not twice as wide as long, with lateral margin undulate, an acute tooth at anterior and posterior angles, disk with a depression anteriorly, densely and coarsely punctate except near middle of an- terior margin and near the sides at base, the punctures coarser and more crowded on sides. Elytra in female with many nodules along the sides, extending from the humeri to apical narrowing; at base punctures coarse, dense and confused; from the middle, striate, at first geminate, then in a single line to the apex and much finer. In male, no trace of tubercles, but as in female the humeri conspicuously swollen, the basal punctation coarse but not so dense as in female, and finely striate in apical half; not so costate toward apex as in other species. Body beneath deep reddish brown, legs paler, finely pubescent, all femora conspicuously toothed; tibiae grooved, first tarsal joint not much longer than second. Length of female 3.2-4.2 mm, width 1.6-1.9 mm. Length of male 2.8-3.5 mm, width 1.4-1.7 mm. Type material.—Type male and 16 male and 17 female paratypes, Museum of Comparative Zoology No. 27331; a pair in the U. 8. National Museum, No. 57299. Type locality —Loma Rucilla and mountains north, 5,000-8,000 feet altitude, Dominican Republic, collected in June 1938 by P. J. Dar- lington, Jr. Remarks.—This species bears a close re- semblance to A. hispaniolae. There are, how- ever, on the elytra more nodules which extend farther down on the sides, and the prothorax has a smooth impunctate area on the sides. The male genitalia are quite unlike those of A. hispaniolae. Alethaxius integer, n. sp. Fig. 3 No females examined. Male 3 mm in length, oblong-oval, shining a2neous with pale yellow- brown antennae, legs, and undersurface, dense- ly punctate, prothorax with rounded sides, all femora toothed. Head with interocular space more than half width of head, polished, rather finely and not so densely punctate as in other species, a double row of punctures above the swollen areas around antennal sockets, a short median line on vertex, lower front mostly impunctate, and Ps) TLE 7 _ SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEE ve +e BLAKE Ocr. 15, 1945 20h F Zz. A. meliae Os 1. Alethaxius h ispaniolae NQ 4. A. puertoricensis Seah ISS i . SN eereet 4 Y a d A 4x 5. A. turduinensi Fics. 1-6.—New species of Alethazius from the West Indies. 326 losing its aeneous luster; eyes nearly entire and prominent. Antennae yellow-brown, not more than half the length of body, first two joints swollen, 3-6 slender, 7—11 thickened. Prothorax not twice as wide as long, moderately densely punctate, the punctures on sides becoming coarser, explanate margin not undulate or angulate with no suggestion of median tooth- ing, but rounded, a tooth at the basal angle. Elytra more coarsely punctate than pronotum, punctures very dense in basal half and some- what coarser below humeri, in apical half be- coming striate. Body beneath paler with light pubescence; femora all toothed, tibiae chan- neled, first tarsal joint not much longer than second, claws appendiculate. Length 3 mm; width 1.6 mm. Type.—Male, Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy No. 2738382. Type locality—Mount Diego de Ocampo, Dominican Republic, 3,000—4,000 feet altitude, collected in July 1938 by P. J. Darlington, Jr. Remarks.—I have examined only one speci- men, a male, but have little doubt that the female will prove to be larger and probably with nodules or ridges along the sides. These are indicated in the male by the coarser, denser punctures in that area. Unlike any of the rest of the species here described, the prothorax has no sign of toothing or angularity but is simply arcuate. This exception to the general rule so far observed in the genus is proof that the toothing of the thorax as well as of the femora is a variable character. Otherwise the species is closely related to the two already described from the Dominican Republic. The aedeagus bears a strong resemblance to that of A. his- paniolae. Alethaxius turquinensis, n. sp. Fig. 5 Female 3.5-4 mm in length, bronzy or cop- pery with faint green or purple luster, mouth- parts, antennae, legs, and undersurface pale reddish or yellowish brown; densely punctate, margin of prothorax undulate, elytra rugose, usually with raised tubercles along sides and at the apex costae between the striate puncta- tion. Male 3-4 mm in length, more brightly aeneous or purplish, elytra less rugose, lacking tubercles. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 10 Head with interocular space half the width of head, eyes prominent, almost entire, area about antennal sockets swollen, front otherwise flat and broad with fewer punctures than on top and sides, the punctures becoming. striate. Antennae at least half the length of body, basal joints paler, apices of distal joints tending to be dark, distal joints thickened. Prothorax about a third wider than long with undulate and some- times angulate lateral margin, usually with two undulations and an acute tooth at anterior and posterior angle; punctation fine and very dense except along anterior and posterior margins. Elytra in female rugose with irregular trans- verse ridges, on outer half below the humeri elevated to form warty tubercles in many specimens, punctation denser and coarser than on pronotum, and toward apex becoming striate, the intervals between somewhat cos- tate; humeri polished and prominent; in the male the elytra not so rugose but still with a suggestion of transverse ridging. Body beneath yellowish or reddish brown, lightly pubescent, a small but distinct tooth on all femora. Length, female, 3.6-4.8 mm; width 1.8-2.1 mm. Length, male, 2.9-4.1 mm; width 1.6—2 mm. Type material.—Type male and 19 paratypes (12 male and 7 female), Museum of Compara- tive Zoology No. 27333; a pair in U.S. National Museum, No. 57300. Type localityi—Pico Turquino, 5,000—6,000 feet altitude, collected by P. J. Darlington, Jr., in June 1936. Remarks.—If we do not consider the tuber- cles in the females, this species is the most rugose of any of the West Indian group; like- wise it is the dullest, the specimens showing little of the shining aeneous-green of the others, even in the males which are only slightly more lustrous. The punctures on the prothorax are the densest and finest found in any of the species. Alethaxius meliae, n. sp. Fig. 2 Female about 3.5 mm in length, elongate oblong, shining green or coppery, legs, some of undersurface, and six basal antennal joints pale yellow-brown, distal joints dark; densely punctate above; prothorax with two distinct median teeth on margin; elytra with a short —— Oct. 15, 1945 ridging or nodules below humeri and swollen costae at apex. Hind femora weakly toothed. Male 3-3.5 mm in length, lacking ridges or nodules below humeri, the apical costation not so developed. Head with prominent, widely separated eyes, interocular space a little more than half the width of head, eyes very little emarginate; area about antennal sockets swollen, otherwise the front flat, a short median line on vertex, this median space less punctate than about eyes and on occiput, the punctation becoming some- what striate about eyes. Mouthparts pale brownish. Antennae at least half length of body in male, shorter in female; distal joints thick- ened and dark. Prothorax a third or less wider than long, densely punctate, the punctures on the sides becoming coarser, a little depression below anterior margin; sides with two acute teeth between the acute tooth on anterior and posterior angles. Elytra densely punctate in basal half, and finer and less densely in apical half, towards apex becoming striate with the interstices costate at apex, particularly swollen at the tip in the female and forming an apical tumidity; in the single female specimen ex- amined a broken ridge or series of nodules running down below the humerus a short dis- tance, this nodulation entirely lacking in male. Body beneath reddish or yellowish brown, with the sides of the prosternum and metasternum aeneous, the latter punctate; legs pale with punctures on femora becoming coarser and more apparent at apex; a distinct tooth on posterior femora; tibiae grooved. Length, fe- male 3.6 mm; width 1.7 mm; length, male 3-3.5 mm; width 1.3-1.4 mm. Type material—Type male and 11 male and 1 female paratypes, U. S. National Museum No. 57301; 2 male paratypes in Museum of Comparative Zoology. Type locality Villalba, Puerto Rico, col- lected on Melia sp. by R. G. Oakley, June 18, 1934. Remarks.—This is the slenderest and the most densely punctate of the group from the West Indies. It is the only one with sharply produced teeth on the prothorax. The single female examined had only a short broken ridge or tubercles, not very conspicuous, on the elytra. Only the posterior femora are toothed. It is the most golden-green of the species here described and very lustrous. BLAKE: SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEETLES 327 Alethaxius puertoricensis, n. sp. Fig. 4 Female between 2.5-3 mm in length, oval, shining, yellow-brown, the distal joints of antennae and undersurface deep reddish brown; densely and coarsely punctate, the punctures of the elytra more or less striate, the inter- stices being somewhat costate, and on the sides several rows of warty elevations along costae, the humeri unusually prominent; thorax acutely angulate; femora not toothed. Male unknown. Head polished with numerous but not dense punctures, a line of them slightly above anten- nal sockets; interantennal area smooth, broad; front with a faint median vertical line; eyes widely separate, interocular space half width of head. Antennae reaching the middle of the elytra, first two joints swollen, 3-6 slender, 7-11 thickened and with darkened apices. Prothorax not twice as broad as long, de- pressed below the middle, margin with almost toothed angles near the middle, and a distinct basal tooth; disk densely and coarsely punc- tate. Elytra tending to be costate between the rows of punctures, the punctures at base some- what confused, possibly geminate, becoming single striae at middle, on the sides the costae becoming warty, 4 or 5 rows of warts, and an enlarged hump on the humerus. Body beneath deep reddish brown, shining, lightly pubescent. Legs paler, femora not toothed, tibiae grooved on one side; first tarsal joint not much longer than second, claws appendiculate. Length 2.6— 2.9 mm.; width 1.4 mm. Type material—Type female, Museum of Comparative Zoology No. 27334; 1 paratype, a female, in U. 8S. National Museum, No. 57302. Type locality—El Yunque, ca. 3,000 feet altitude, Puerto Rico, collected in May 1938 by P. J. Darlington, Jr. Remarks.—This species is unlike the others described in this paper in coloration, being simply yellow-brown without any metallic luster, in being much smaller in size, and in lack- ing altogether any toothing of the femora. The general aspect of the head is unlike the rest. There are no swollen areas about the antennal sockets; the front of the face is smoother and not so punctate. Furthermore, the antennae are longer. In the pattern of its elytral punctation and wartiness it is very similar to the rest. Unfortunately, no male has been examined. 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 10 ENTOMOLOGY .—A new larvaevorid parasite of the social butterfly EKucheira so- cialis Westwood (Diptera). and Plant Quarantine. The larvaevorid described in this paper was submitted to me for identification by A. C. Baker, of the Mexico City laboratory of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Being unable to place it as to genus, I requested that specimens be sent to H. J. Reinhard, of the Texas Agricul- tural Experiment Station, who, in turn, referred one of them to A. R. Brooks of the Department of Agriculture of Canada. Neither of these workers could do more than to place it in the Ernestiini, near Mesembrierigone ‘Townsend, the genus to which it traces in Townsend’s keys.” Since a name is desired for a report of its host re- lationships, I am referring it to a new genus and species of Ernestiini. Eucheirophaga, n. gen. Head slightly wider than high, its length at base of antennae approximately equal to that at oral margin and about three-fifths head height. Front flat in lateral profile, equal to face in length; vertex one-sixth head width in male, almost one-quarter in female. Face in lateral profile concave, the epistoma being rather strongly though gradually warped for- ward; clypeus transversely convex, its sides but slightly sunken, its middle distinctly elevated over facials; no facial carina; epistoma trans- versely convex, fully as broad and half as long as clypeus. Parafacials bare; each facial with several bristles and a few short hairs near vibrissa, otherwise bare. Cheek about one-half to three-fifths eye height. Eyes thickly and uni- formly long-pilose. Antenna reaching to upper margin of epistoma; first segment short, por- rect; second moderately long; third 14 length of second and rather broad; arista bare, its first two segments each twice as long as thick, its third segment thickened on basal half, thence tapering to a sharp point. Palpi well developed, clavate, reaching to or beyond epistoma; pro- 1 Received June 20, 1945. 2 TOWNSEND, C. H. T., Manual of myiology, pt. 3: 8-15, 20-27, 205-206, 1936, Itaquaquecetuba, Sao Paulo, Brazil. In order to make this genus (and Mesembrierigone as well) run through the tribal key, pp. 20-27, the word “‘or’’ must be in- serted between the two parts of the second alter- native of couplet 4. Maurice T. JAMEs, U.S. Bureau of Entomology boscis short, labella fleshy. Outer verticals well differentiated in female, poorly so or not at all in male; inner verticals strong, cruciate; post- verticals small; ocellars small, weaker than frontals, proclinate; frontals strong, extending 3 to 5 on each side below antennal base but not extending below base of arista; frontoorbitals 2 strong proclinate and 2 strong reclinate in fe- male, none in male; gnathoorbitals 3 to 4 on each side. Transverse suture distinct, dividing mesono- tum into two approximately equal parts. Prosternum fine-haired laterally; propleura bare; no infrasquamal setulae. Acrosticals 3-3, hind presutural pair very close to suture; dorso- centrals 3-3; intraalars 1-3; supraalars 1-3; sternopleurals 3, almost in a row; pteropleural 1, strong, reaching practically to apex of squama; lateroscutellars 3, strong; no apico- scutellar; discoscutellars 1 strong pair and 2 or 3 weaker pairs. Legs not elongated; tarsi sub- equal in length to tibiae. Wings slender, rather pointed, especially in male; apical cell open and ending a distance equal to length of r-m before wing tip; cubitulus rectangular, with a very short stump; last section of vein Cu; about one- — fifth previous section; veins R; and Cu, bare; vein R, with about 3 to 5 setulae at its base. Squamae bare above. Abdomen ovate, nearly as deep as wide, with four pregenital segments; genitalia apicoven- tral, not concealed in a slit. Marginals lacking on segment 1; a strong median pair, extended laterally into a weak row, on segment 2; strong marginal rows each on segments 3 and 4; seg- ments 2 to 4 each with 2 median discal pairs arranged one in front of the other, and with several unpaired weaker bristles or strong bris- tlelike setulae at each side of the median series; on segment 4, because of the narrowness of the segment, these bristles may appear to be ar- ranged in rather a haphazard fashion. Sternates of pregenital segments almost wholly concealed. Genotype, Euchetrophaga lugubris, n. sp. In Curran’s key ,* Euchetrophaga will trace to Hineomyia Townsend, couplet 208 (p. 444), but in that genus, among other differences, the 3 CurRAN, C. H. The families and genera of North American Diptera, 512 pp. New York, 1934. Oct. 15, 1945 face is distinctly receding, the epistoma is short, the third antennal segment is sharply truncated apically, only two presutural acros- ticals, the hind one remote from the suture, are present, vein Mz is continued far beyond the cubitulus, and the sternites (at least in the female) are broadly exposed and bristled. The closest relationship of Huchetrophaga to any known genus is probably to Mesembrierigone, but in that genus, among other differences, the basal two aristal segments are each but little longer than wide, the third antennal segment is twice as long as the second, the ocellars are strong, cruciate apicoscutellars are present, the second and third abdominal segments have each but one pair of median discals, and the cubitulus is bent to an acute angle without a stump. Eucheirophaga lugubris, n. sp. Male.—Predominantly black and_ black- haired, with a yellow face and with cinereous- pollinose areas on the abdomen. Relative head measurements in micrometer units (from holo- type): Head width, 65; head height, 62; vertex, 11; length of head at base of antenna, 36, at oral margin, 35; length of front, 37, of face, 37; cheek width, 20; eye height, 40; minimum width of parafacial, 8; maximum width of fa- cial, 6; width of epistoma at vibrissa, 16; maxi- mum width of clypeus, 17; length of first, sec- ond, and third antennal segments and arista, 3, 11, 16, 24, respectively. Corneous part of haus- tellum about one-third head height. Frontalia brown; parafrontals and occiput black; face yellow; antenna black, extreme apex of second and base of third segment reddish; arista blackish, tending to become brownish on the thickened part; proboscis brown; palpi black. Head covered with yellowish pollen, thickly so on lower parts of occiput and face, thinly so on parafrontals. Pile of occiput and lower parts of cheeks bushy yellow; that of eyes yellow; that of head otherwise black. Thorax and legs, including all hairs and bris- tles, black; mesonotum lightly cinereous-polli- nose, with four longitudinal vittae of brownish pollen; scutellum with brownish pollen which becomes cinereous apically. Pleura with scant cinereous pollen. Squamae infuscated. Wings grayish subhyaline, the veins except on the apex and posterior third of the wing broadly bordered with fuscous, the clouding tending to JAMES: A NEW LARVAEVORID PARASITE 329 run together so that a large part of the anterior basal half or more of the wing is infuscated. Abdomen, including its hairs and bristles, black; dorsal surface of tergites thinly brownish-pol- linose with a prominent transverse lateral cinereous marking on each side of the second, Fie. 1.—Eucheirophaga lugubris, n. sp., male: a, Genitalia; b, side view of head. Drawings by Arthur Cushman. third, and fourth segments, these markings ap- pearing conspicuous from a posterior view; sides and ventral surface of fourth segment largely cinereous-pollinose. Genitalia blackish dorsally, becoming red- dish ventrally. Anal forceps united, beaklike, rather small, broad basally and tapering to a blunt point; outer clasper twice as long as wide, parallel-sided for most of its length, the apical margin oblique and ending in an angle of about 330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 60°; inner clasper slender, bladelike, arcuate with a small hook at the apex; penis simple, tubular. Female.—Differs in sexual characters and in those indicated in the generic description. Holotype-—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 57286, 63 km from Mexico City in the State of Morelos, January 1944 (J. G. Shaw), from Kucheira VOL. 35, NO. 10 socialis Westwood, on Arbutussp., Shawno. 5047. Described also from the allotype, female, and paratypes, 1 male and 1 female, same data, and from a series of specimens, mostly in poor con- dition, only 1 male and 1 female being consid- ered paratypes, from Morelos, Mexico, Febru- ary 1944 (J. G. Shaw), from Eucheira socialis on Arbutus sp., Shaw no. 5049. ICHTHYOLOGY .—The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of the genus Oligoplites Gill, inhabiting American waters.) tional Museum. This study was undertaken in an attempt to determine the valid scientific name for the leatherjacket, or palometa, inhabiting the brackish and fresh waters of Lago de Maracaibo, Venezuela, and also to try to straighten out some of the confusion center- ing around the other species of the Western Atlantic Ocean. I have examined nearly all the specimens of this genus in the U. 8. Na- tional Museum, and they form the basis for my conclusions. Although not all the rec- ords in the literature are included in the synonymy for each species, most of the im- portant ones are listed except for saurus along the Atlantic coast of the United States, where it is not confused with any related species. I do not see how one is jus- tified in recognizing the subgenus Lepto- oligoplites Fowler (Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia Monogr. 6: 223. 1944; genotype, Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks) on the basis of a few more gill rakers and elon- gate form. The differences in dental struc- tures would be a much better characteristic on which to establish subgenera if such were needed, but I do not think it necessary in this otherwise distinct group. Dr. T. Gill (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, 1863: 166) proposed the genus Oligoplites with Oligoplites inornatus Gill as genotype, thus separating the Eastern Atlantic and African species with a few more dorsal spines from related species in American waters. The genus is easily recog- nized by the ‘‘mackerel form” of the com- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of on Smithsonian Institution. Received July 16, 45. LEONARD P. ScHuuttTz, United States Na- pressed body; the two free anal spines at the front of the anal fin; lunate-shaped caudal fin; long anal and dorsal fin with all of the soft rays connected by membrane so that no free finlets occur; skin without external scales, although covered with fine ridges, representing minute embedded scales that extend at slightly different angles; lateral line unarmed, running along the middle or lengthwise axis of the body, and a little arched over the pectoral fin; dorsal profile anteriorly with alow keel; head short, com- pressed, somewhat pointed; the greatest depth of body near origin of second dorsal; mouth oblique, large, the lower jaw pro- jecting slightly; premaxillaries not protrac- tile, the premaxillary groove not continuous across tip of snout; maxillary narrow, long, reaching to under rear of orbit or past it, without supplemental bone; teeth present on premaxillaries, vomer, palatines, dentary and tongue; those on dentary in the young and half grown with an outer row that flares outward, curving dorsally so that the band of teeth in the upper jaw fits into the trough made by these numerous curved teeth, but these appear to be lost so that the adult has a row of much less closely spaced teeth that are less curved and coarser; gill rakers long; dorsal spines usually IV or V, rarely III or VI, connected at base by a low membrane; anterior rays of soft dorsal and anal fins somewhat elevated anteriorly, but with deep notches between the rays posteriorly; pectoral fins short; gill membranes extend- ing far forward with a small delicate mem- brane connecting across the isthmus an- teriorly; pelvics fitting into a groove, in-. a | enn meet cece 4 , re > Ocr. 15, 1945 SCHULTZ: THE LEATHERNECKS INHABITING AMERICAN WATERS 331 serted under the pectoral fin bases. Numerous counts were made on the vari- ous species studied and these are recorded in Table 1. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF OLIGOPLITES la. Number of gill rakers, including rudiments, on first gill arch, 5 to 7-+1+16 to 21; dorsal surface of head without a network of tubes opening through numerous pores on surface of skin; mucous pores however, appear to develop more numerously on adults with increase in size. 2a. Premaxillary with a single row of short conical teeth along its entire length, ex- cept in young about 85 mm and shorter this row irregular or nearly in 2 rows an- teriorly at front of snout; toothed portion of vomer a patch, usually a trifle longer than wide and somewhat bluntly pointed posteriorly; teeth on dentary in 2 dis- tinct rows; dorsal rays IV—I, 20 or 21; depth 3 to 3.4; head 1.3 in young, 1.4 to 1.6 in adults; posterior margin of maxil- lary more or less truncate; Central Amer- ica and West Indies to Montevideo, Uru- ae Oligoplites saliens (Bloch) 2b. Premaxillary teeth (65 mm in standard length and shorter) in 1 or 2 rows pos- teriorly, becoming a narrow band an- teriorly; toothed portion of vomer much longer than wide, with a short, somewhat pointed, posterior projection; teeth on dentary in 2 rows; dorsal rays usually V-I, 19 to 21, rarely IV spines; depth 3.9 to 4.6; head 0.85 to 1.0; posterior part of maxillary angularly rounded; Pacific Ocean from Panama Bay to Guayaquil, Ecuador. Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks 1b. Number of gill rakers, including rudiments, on first gill arch 3 to6+1-+410 to 15. 3a. Dorsal surface of head without an underly- ing network of tubes, opening to surface through numerous pores. 4a. Premaxillary with a band of villiform teeth along its entire length, poste- riorly narrow, but anteriorly wide, consisting of several rows; toothed portion of vomer usually a little longer than wide, more or less pointed pos- teriorly; teeth on dentary becoming a band anteriorly; dorsal rays IV-I, 19 to 21, rarely V free spines; depth 3.4 to 3.8; head in greatest depth 1.2 to 1.4; posterior tip of maxillary rounded, reaching past orbits in adults; Nica- ragua to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in Lake Yzabal, Guatemala, and in Lake 4b. Premaxillary teeth essentially in 2 dis- tinct rows along its entire length ex- cept far posteriorly where it may be- come an irregular row, and far ante- riorly near tip of snout where a minute row of teeth may occur between the two distinct rows; toothed portions of vomer on half-grown and adults much longer than wide, posterior projection more or less tapering to a point behind; teeth on dentary in 2 rows; dorsal rays V-I, 18 to 21, rarely IV or VI free spines; depth 3.4 to 4.1; head in great- est depth 1.0 to 1.6; posterior edge of maxillary rounded, usually not reach- ing past orbit. 5a. Premaxillary with 2 distinct rows of teeth, seldom with a few minute ones between them far anteriorly; gill rakers on lower limb of first arch usually 13 or 14 (11 to 14), counting rudiments; Woods Hole, Mass., southward in Gulf of Mexico and West Indies to Montevideo, Uru- guay. Oligoplites saurus saurus (Bloch) 56. Premaxillary with 2 distinct rows of teeth and usually with some minute teeth between them anteriorly; gill rakers on lower limb of first arch usually 14 or 15 (138 to 16), counting rudiments; southern California and Gulf of California to Bay of Sta. Elena, Ecuador. Oligoplites saurus inornatus Gill 3b. Dorsal surface of head with a network of tubes in skin opening to surface through numerous pores, these best developed in adults, scarcely so in young; premaxil- lary with a band of teeth, wider ante- riorly, outer and inner rows a little en- larged; dentary with some teeth ante- riorly between two outer rows; gill rakers 3 to 5+1+10 to 12; anal rays II-I, 19 to 21; greatest depth 2.7 to 3.2 in standard length. 6a. Tip of snout to rear edge of maxillary 1.7 to 1.8 in head, the latter 4.2 to 4.3 in standard length; length of pec- toral fin a little longer than length of maxillaries; Panama to Guayaquil, Ecuador . . . Oligoplites altus (Gunther) 6b. 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Smits, Bureau of Plant U8 Ne Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Sprzimr, U. ational ae JOURNAL OF THE - WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES NovEMBER 15, 1945 VoLuME 35 No. 11 BIOLOGY .—Suggested terms for the interpretation of speciation phenomena. S. Ditton Riprtey, U. 8. National Museum. FRIEDMANN.) In the present state of systematic usage, there is a well-established tendency to re- vise nomenclature in order to fit in with the new concepts emanating from the labora- tory and the field. However, the multitude of speciation phenomena emerging from these studies makes a simple trinomial sys- tem seem totally inadequate. Huxley’s sug- gestion (1942, p. 410) about subsidiary terminologies which can be introduced to define “‘the cytogenetic and ecological data of systematics, and the facts concerning ac- tual or potential interfertility,’’ while still not interfering with the taxonomic con- venience of the main terminology, seems a very wise one. A brief discussion of some of these terms follows here, with particular reference to current usage in ornithology. I am grateful to Dr. Herbert Friedmann for several valuable suggestions. GENUS The genus as a taxonomic term still lacks reality in genetic expression. We accept it as a valid category, however, realizing that it has reality in nature. The genus is being affected at the present time by speciation work on species problems. Wherever possi- ble species are being combined and reduced in number. As a reflection of this, genera tend to follow suit. Generic names are being used nowadays to express degrees of rela- tionship, a reversion to the Linnaean con- cept, rather than to express degrees of dif- _ ference. The introduction of subspecies en- & ables the species category to absorb part of the function previously held by the genus. As wellas this the better understanding of the 1 Received June 5, 1945. (Communicated by HERBERT genetic basis for morphological differences tends to reduce the degree of importance formerly attached to obvious structural characters. As species become polytypic, so genera become increasingly polytypic in taxonomic usage, in order to maintain proportion. In ornithology the process of “tidying up” the arrangement of the genera of birds is now proceeding apace. A definition of the genus as presently un- derstood by speciation-minded ornitholo- gists might read somewhat as follows: a ‘natural catch basket which can be deter- mined on morphological criteria but which so far eludes precise genetic analysis. This catch basket includes a group of species oc- cupying different stages of relationship each to the other, but still apparently akin. SUBGENUS In the increasing cases where genera con- tain a large number of species some effort is usually made, by systematists of every hue, to provide subdivisions, higher than the spe- cies level, to define groups of species. Many systematists favor the use of a subgenus category. This is an orthodox category and should be adhered to if possible for conven- ience’s sake. But what does it mean? Ridg- way (1886) defines a subgenus as ‘‘a sub- division of a genus, of indefinite value, and frequently not recognized by name except in the grouping of species.”’ In other words a subgenus can mean pretty much anything at all. If an author then is to use the term he should specifically define his use of it. Mayr (1942, p. 290) suggests that sub- genus if used in combination with genus, spe- cies, and subspecies amounts practically to 337 WOV:30 %. 308 a quadrinomial system as well as burdening the memory with an extra name to be re- membered. He adds that the subgenus is used in ornithology either when an author does not quite dare to create a new genus in the face of growing opposition to such a pro- cedure, or when he does not quite dare to sink an old well-established and well-known generic name. Another comment by Dunn (1943) is that since subgeneric names are in- distinguishable from generic ones, there is a tendency for later authors to elevate them to generic rank. These remarks are possi- bly somewhat facetious, but they emphasize one aspect of the problem, that of the dif- ficulty of the personal equation in authors. It is certainly true that the grouping of species into subgenera with their attendant lists of morphologic criteria, often irrelevant in plastic groups, seems a somewhat static way to list cognate species which are under- going a dynamic process. I would urge then that plain subgenera not be used unless the particular category to which they be- long is strictly defined. OTHER TERMS Several terms have arisen recently, some as a result of earlier theoretical work, for example, Kleinschmidt’s ‘‘Formenkreis” carried further by Rensch, others in re- sponse to experimental evidence. Most of these terms are concerned with defining a natural monophyletic group lying some- where between a species and a genus. Start- ing with that category most closely ap- proaching the genus and listing them in de- scending order toward a straight species, we have the following: (1) Cenospecies. Clausen, Keck, and Hie- sey (1939) have tried hybridizing many plants belonging to the Compositae. They define cenospecies as those groups of species in which there is an absolute genetic barrier, although the ranges are similar or overlap- ping. This condition has not been well ex- amined in animals except in Drosophila and may not be particularly common. Most closely related animal species seem to be able to produce viable and presumably re- producing hybrids, at least under artificial conditions. (2) Interspecies.2 I propose the use of the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES © VOL. 35, No. ll term interspecies to define a species group or sympatric subgenus, containing a closely related group of geographically overlapping species which have attained physiological iso- lation in nature. Such species may be mono- typic or not. It does not affect the definition whether the species overlap only on the margins. of their respective ranges, or whether one species is contained wholly within the range of another, i.e., double invasions of islands. This condition has pre- viously been designated informally as a species group (Dice, 1940) for the deer mice, Peromyscus, where two species leu- copus and gossypinus live side by side in part of their range without interbreeding although interfertile in the laboratory. Birckhead and myself (1942) used the term to describe the fruit pigeons of the Ptzlino- pus purpuratus assemblage on the Pacific islands. Similarly Mayr and myself (1941) used species group in discussing the Poly- nesian triller, Lalage, wherein two cases oc- curred of sympatric species obviously most closely related to each other. Diver (1940) discusses several such cases among plants, invertebrates, and insects. In the great ma- jority of cases, it is at present impossible to prove whether two closely related animal species may be cenospecies or interspecies but this in no way invalidates the theory behind the terms. I can not think of two closely related bird species ever having been proved intersterile. (3) Superspecies. Mayr (1931, p. 2) has proposed the term superspecies (instead of Rensch’s ‘‘Artenkreis’) for a systematic unit containing geographically representa- tive species that have developed characters too distinct to permit the birds to be re- garded as subspecies. This term symbolizes the next step but one above a simple poly- typic species, containing units which have attained a degree of morphological differ- ence implying reproductive isolation. I feel that Huxley (1942, pp. 179, 407) has con- fused the terminology somewhat by defin- ing ‘‘Artenkreis” as equal to a geographical subgenus and restricting the use of super- species (or supraspecies as it is sometimes mistakenly called) to intermediate situa- tions in which the majority of forms of a 2 Inter-species, species living among each other. 7 4 Nov. 15, 1945 RIPLEY: SUGGESTED TERMS FOR SPECIATION PHENOMENA wT oA wee ee a ee ee Se ee ee ee eS! LL LULU a” Pe eee Oe ae ee ee ee pe eee ; “Kreis” of allopatric groups are clearly subspecies of a polytypic species; “‘but a few have diverged further until they are probably or certainly regarded as separate monotypic species.’’ This all seems to be an unnecessary complication, the necessity for which is eliminated by Mayr’s amplifi- eation of his superspecies definition (1942, p. 169), to include both monotypic and polytypic members which are allopatric and are members of a monophyletic group. Thus - geographical subgenus, allopatric subgenus, supraspecies, and the two terms of Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey (l.c.) for examples in plants, namely ecospecies and_ species complex, may be considered as names for a similar phenomenon as that expressed by superspecies. In the case of the last two terms, the difference between them is whether the species concerned show rela- tive or absolute intersterility. As in the case of cenospecies this is a criterion which has not been proved to apply in the majority of closely related animal species. Possible mechanisms for the successful maintenance of interspecies in contrast to simple geographical isolation in the case of superspecies have been suggested by several authors. Lack (1941) points out that habi- tat preferences may serve as a barrier once forms have remet after speciation has oc- curred. Diver (l.c.) concludes that as complete overlap in an ecological sense is presumably hardly ever present, ‘‘drift”’ or random differentiation in small par- tially isolated populations may be respon- sible. Actual psychological or physiological mating barriers are discussed by Dice (l.c.) and Diver (l.c., p. 326). Their rela- tive importance in order to produce drift phenomena is probably great. Muller (1940) indicates the importance of isola- tion, even in partial degree, in producing effects of reduced fertility and viability after crossing. The development of such a process is sug- gested by Huxley (l.c., p. 251) to be oc- curring among the grackles (Quiscalus) where a zone of hybridization between two subspecies increases steadily in area from southwest to northeast. This has a parallel in time, for the original hybridi- zation must have occurred in the southwest 339 and has spread to the northeast. Huxley suggests that the restriction of the hybrid zone at the original point of contact indi- cates a developing stabilization of the con- dition of selective disadvantage of the hy- brid form. This may eventually be carried to the final stage of elimination of inter- breeding, leading to the formation of an in- terspecies. With the greater degree of speciation study now being applied in systematic groups, it seems likely that there will be an increasing discovery of cases of partially sympatric or even totally sympatric forms which for one reason or another have suc- ceeded in evolving in spite of being most closely related to each other. It is likely also that in the world of the future with the breaking down, principally by the agency of man, of ecological barriers, more and more species will be thrown in direct con- tact with each other which previously were spatially isolated. An example of this occurs today -on the island of Ceylon, where the extensive foresting and the wide spread of tea plantations with the development of new biotic conditions have disrupted the ranges of many species. Two closely related forms of the genera Dicrurus and Gracula, which Whistler (1944) calls in each case subspecies believing that they occur in separate ecological zones, have been found by me to occur in the same area without evidence of interbreeding. This is appar- ently a recent development as Whistler was depending on the early literature for his evidence rather than on newly collected material. As classification and arrangement of forms in check lists, generic revisions, etc., proceed, it seems important to attain some method of indicating relationships. Some recent authors in ornithology (e.g., Mayr, 1941, and Delacour and Mayr, 1945) have introduced the superspecies concept into formal taxonomic lists. I feel that this pro- cedure is welcome, but that in view of the present state of our knowledge it does not go far enough. It is obvious that geo- graphical isolation is the cornerstone of much of the speciation process, but it is also obvious that physiological isolation as postulated by Dobzhansky (1940) is in 340 many cases a subsequent development which can result in allowing closely related species to live side by side. Thus to list only superspecies is to fail to give the com- plete picture of relationship. As an example, Mayr (1941, pp. 91-92) lists several species of kingfisher, including Tanysiptera hy- drocharis and T. galatea. T. galatea is com- bined with several other species into a su- perspecies, but 7. hydrocharis is left out because its range overlaps with T. galatea in southern New Guinea. Actually T. hy- drocharis is most closely related to the lat- ter species but has succeeded in attaining physiological isolation allowing it to live in the same area without hybridizing. Another example is the group of kingfisher species, Halcyon chloris, sancta, cinnamomina, sau- rophaga, veneratus, etc., figured by Mayr (1942, p. 181). Several examples in Delacour and Mayyr’s revision of the duck family (l.c., pp. 37-42) are also pertinent. Thus in the large genus Dendrocygna, javanica, bi- color, and arcuata are all intimately related, but bicolor and arcuata alone are bracketed as a superspecies. In the genus Anas, berniert and gibberifrons are listed as one superspecies, castanea and aucklandica as another. And yet castanea and gibberifrons are so closely related from the morphologi- cal and distributional evidence available that were it not for an apparent overlap in their ranges they would be included as races of the same species. These two forms hybridize easily in captivity but apparently not in nature. Finally, in the genus Aythya the three species valisneria, ferina, and americana are all obviously of close relation- ship. However, geographical overlap pre- vents their being bracketed as a superspe- cies. In these cases I would include all the species in one interpsecies. (4) Emergent interspecies. By this term I would define a species group containing a closely related group of geographically overlapping species with a marginal fringe of hybridization. Such a species group would normally include forms, one member of which at least tends to break up into geographical subspecies. Examples of this condition in birds are the woodpeckers Colaptes auratus and cafer (Huxley, l.c., p. 250), the crows Corvus corone and cornix JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 11 (Meise, 1928), and the kingfishers Ceyzx erithacus and rufidorsus (Ripley, 1942). Sim- ilar phenomena have been indicated among mammals (Banks, 1929, and Dice, l.c.), rep- tiles (Stull, 1940), fishes (Hubbs e¢ al., 1943), and insects (Carothers, 1941; Swead- ner, 1937). A special group of emergent interspecies are the cases where the terminal links in a chain of species or subspecies meet. A classic case is that of the gulls, Larus argentatus and ‘‘fuscus’ figured by Mayr (1942, p. 180). Apparently there is a certain amount of interbreeding between the terminal links (vide Huxley l.c., p. 244). Another variation occurs in the creepers Certhia familiaris and brachydactyla, which behave like an inter- species except in the Caucasus where hy- bridization occurs. A further case of this sort occurs in the tits Parus major and minor as described by Rensch (1933), where hybridization occurs at certain zones of overlap, not at others. Possibly the term semispecies of Mayr (1940) could be used to characterize cases such as those listed above. However, as de- fined by Mayr hybridization was not a cri- terion. Rather he used it to denote forms which ‘‘can be deduced to be geographical representatives of some other species, but have during isolation developed morpho- logical differences of the order of magnitude to be seen between undoubted species.” I believe that it would have been far more satisfactory to have defined semispecies with regard to the degree of interfertility rather than with regard to morphological difference by degree. Every taxonomist will have his own standard of degrees of mor- phological difference as between the cate- gory species or subspecies. Semispecies has thus been defined on the basis of a sliding scale. SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES Below these categories are species and subspecies which have been frequently and well defined in recent times. However, round the margins of species and subspecies hover cases which seem to be in statu nas- - cend:. An example of a species in which two waves have met and hybridized so com- pletely in nature that only one species can - Nov. 15, 1945 RIPLEY: SUGGESTED TERMS FOR SPECIATION PHENOMENA be considered is Pachycephala pectoralis in the Solomon and Fiji Islands (Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit. nos. 522, 531. 1932). This spe- cies contains two color forms: (a) with yel- low underparts and (b) with white throat, which apparently represent two closely re- lated waves of immigrants. If these waves had not been coextensive, but had remained representative, they would have been con- sidered two well-marked species forming a superspecies. If, on the other hand, some of these forms had been discovered on the same islands without (due to the vagaries of field collecting) any evidence of hybridiza- tion, then there would have been no re- course but to consider them an interspecies. A small degree of interbreeding on the fringe of their ranges would have indicated a ter- minal condition serving to define the forms as an emergent interspecies. In this case, however, hybrizidation is too complete. Hybrid populations have been named and the apparent phenotypic differences have been proved to have little if any genotypic parallel. A somewhat similar example is found in the juncos (Miller, 1941). It is to be hoped that all cases of this sort will in the future be fully discussed by biolo- gists in order to emphasize the importance of studying these phenomena, both by laboratory and field workers. Only in this way will it be possible to define the specia- tion process. SUMMARY A number of terms are discussed by which various types of speciation may be described. It is suggested that these terms -be used as an auxiliary to the main nomen- clature of genus, species, and subspecies. It is further suggested that all evidence of un- usual cases of speciation phenomena be pointed out and described by scientific writ- ers in order to widen and extend the litera- ture, and thus promote further study. LITERATURE CITED Banks, E. Interbreeding among some Bornean leaf-monkeys of the genus Pithecus. Proc. Zool. Soc. Loncon 1929: 693. CaroTHers, E. E. Interspecific grasshopper hybrids. Proc. VII Int. Genet. Congr. (Edinburgh, 1939): 84. 1941. CiausEen, Jens, Kecx, D. D., and Hissry, W.-M. The concept of species based on ex- 341 periment. Amer. Journ. Bot. 26: 103. 1939. Dextacour, J., and Mayr, E. The family Anatidae. Wilson Bull. 57 (1):3. March 1945. Dict, Lee R. Speciation in Peromyscus. Amer. Nat. 74: 289. 1940. Diver, C. The problem of closely related spe- cies living in the same area. ‘“‘The New Systematics’: 303. Oxford, 1940. DoszHANSKY, T. Speciation as a stage in evolutionary divergence. Amer. Nat. 74: 312. 1940. Dunn, E. R. Lower categories in herpetology. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 44:131. 1943. Husss, C. L., Huspss, L. C., and JoHNnson, R. E. Hybridization in nature between species of catostomid fishes. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol. Univ. Michigan no. 22. July, 1943. Huxuey, J. Evolution, the modern synthesis. New York, 1942. Lack, D. Some aspects of instinctive behavior and display in birds. Ibis 1941: 407. Mayr, EK. Notes on Halcyon chloris and some of its subspecies. Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 469. 1931. . Speciation phenomena in birds. Amer. Nat. 74: 249. 1940. . List of New Guinea birds. American Museum of Natural History, New York. 1941. . Systematics and the origin of species. Columbia Univ. Press. 1942. Mayr, EK., and Riptrey, 8. D. Notes on the genus Lalage Bote. Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 1116. 1941. Meise, W. Die Verbreitung der Aaskrahe (Formenkreis Corvus corone L.). Journ. fir Orn. 76. 1928. Miuuer, A. H. Speciation in the genus Junco. Univ. California Publ. Zool. 44, no. 3, 1941. Mutuer, H. J. Bearings of the Drosophila work on systematics. ‘The New System- atics’”: 185. Oxford, 1940. Renscu, B. . Zoologische Systematik und Art- bildungsproblem. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Ges. 1933: 19. Ripeway, R. A nomenclature of colors for naturalists, and compendium of useful knowledge for ornithologists. Boston, 1886. Riptey, 8. D. A revision of the kingfishers, Ceyx erithacus and rufidorsus. Zoologica 27 (2): 55. 1942. Riptey, 8. D., and BirckHEeap, H. On the fruit pigeons of the Ptilinopus purpuratus group. Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 1192. 1942. Stutut, O. G. Variations and relationships in the snakes of the genus Pituophis. U.S Nat. Mus. Bull. 175. 1940. SWEADNER, W. R. AHybridization and the phylogeny of the genus Platysamia. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 25: 163. 1937. Wuistuier, H. The avifaunal survey of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica 23 (pts. 3 and 4): 119. 1944. 342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 11 ETHNOLOGY .—Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of wild turkeys and passenger pigeons.} ErRNEst S. Dopar, Peabody Museum of Salem. (Communicated by WitL1AM N. FENTON.) During the course of a field trip to Six Nations Reserve on Grand River, Ontario, in October 1944, most of the time was de- voted to ethnozoological inquiries.2 The following notes collected on the taking of wild turkeys [Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot] and passenger pigeons [Ectopistes migratoritus (Linnaeus)] may be of some value, as the turkeys have been extirpated from the area for many years, and the pigeons, of course, are extinct. The data on - the pigeons also supplement in a small way the recent study by Fenton and Deardorff. There are few persons living on the reserve old enough to remember the turkeys and pigeons. Because of lack of time and op- portunity, inquiry could be made only among the Cayuga and the Munsee-Dela- ware, also residing on the reserve. This, however, resulted in some interesting con- trasts between Iroquois and Algonkian hunting and trapping techniques. Jerry Aaron, whose Cayuga name is Sadego’hes, ‘Tall like the Trees,” 78 years old, remembered that wild turkeys were hunted with the bow and arrow. Another Cayuga, Chief Alexander General or Desga’‘heh, ‘‘More than Eleven,”’ corrobo- rated this statement and said also that the Cayuga hunted them to the westward of the reserve before his parents’ time. Sadegg’hes told us of a hunting medicine used for approaching turkeys and other game. This medicine was made from a root of a plant, about as long as a man’s finger, which the Cayuga call wutunda’st, but he could not remember the English name. The end of the root was burned and the resulting smut rubbed on the eyebrows, upper: lip, inside of mouth, and on the palms of the hands of the hunter. The huntsman, thus equipped, could approach the turkeys close- ly as the powerful medicine caused them to stand still. 1 Received May 28, 1945. 2>T am indebted to the Peabody Museum of Salem for supporting me on this field trip and to Dr. Frank G. Speck, whom I accompanied, and who has aided me in many ways. It is significant that neither of the Cayuga informants had ever heard of using any kind of a trap for catching turkeys. Quite different from the Cayuga hunting was the Delaware trapping method recalled by Old Jessie Moses, about 80 years of age. He related that in the old days turkeys, called pele’u in Munsee, were caught in a trap made of poles driven into the ground with other poles fastened across the top and sides. It formed an enclosure or pen about 3 feet high and 6 or more feet square. The top was disguised with a sprinkling of dry leaves. One end had a low opening beneath the poles into which a trench led, excavated for a distance of about a rod, and sloping sufficiently to allow the birds to enter the pen beneath the lowest pole above the opening. The trench was made like a ramp. Leaves were spread bountifully in the run- way and inside the pen. A small sprinkling of corn was put out leading from the woods to the ramp into the trap, and plenty of corn was put among the leaves inside the trap. The turkeys would come along feeding with their heads down and feed right into the trap. When they were through eating they would put their heads up and were imprisoned because they did not know enough to put them down again and find their way out at the place where they entered. Inevitably, in scratching for the corn among the leaves inside the pen, a deep litter of leaves would be backed around the palings and walls and cover the entrance.® Young Jessie Moses, nephew of Old Jessie, said they also caught them with a pole at night when they were roosting. As the birds slept on the limb of a tree, the hunter with the end of a pole kept poking their feet. The disturbed birds would even- tually step onto the pole and they could then be lowered to the ground and caught. The spurs of the old gobblers, he had heard, 3 Dr. Speck found the knowledge of a similar pen type of trap surviving among the Delawares of Oklahoma, among the Cherokee of North Caro- lina, and the Powhatan (Rappahannock) bands of Tidewater Virginia. eT Te - | | : Nov. 15, 1945 were used for arrow points by the Dela- wares. Additional Algonkian data from a dif- ferent area were furnished by Chief Abe Spencer, age 81, a Chippewa, residing at the adjacent Missisauga Reserve. Like the Cayuga, he said that turkeys were shot with bows and arrows and later with guns, but he did not remember hearing of pen traps being used. Few memories of pigeon hunting exist at Six Nations. The name for the bird, how- ever, was readily recalled by the Cayuga as tcahko'wa, and by the Mohawk as orz’’te. Desga’heh* had vivid memories of stories heard from his grandmother about Cayuga passenger pigeon hunts. In his grand- mother’s time there was a district, about 10 miles west of the Reserve in the vicinity of the present Newtown (Kana’tase) (Ca.), where the pigeons nested in great numbers. At that time the district was covered with pines and white cedars, but it has long since been converted to farmland. According to Desga’heh the Cayuga took the pigeons at night by climbing the trees and removing the young from the nests. Adults were never taken and the white man’s method of netting was never used.® After each night of hunting the squabs collected were split and hung in the sun to dry. Thus cured, they were taken back to the reserve where they made superior eat- ing, sometimes well into the winter months. These dried birds were always cooked, be- fore being eaten, in one of several different 4 Mitchell (1935, p. 62) writing on the pigeon in Ontario, gives the Potawatomi, Chippewa, and Cree names for the pigeon but does not refer to the Iroquois names in the Province. 5 Fenton and Deardorff (19438, p. 290) cite a Cayuga netting device from Grand River re- corded by Waugh in 1918, but it was unknown to the informants we questioned. DODGE: NOTES FROM SIX NATIONS 343 ways—fried, roasted, or made into soup— and were considered excellent. The Cayuga did not salt birds and pack them in barrels until shown how by the whites, after which time they began to take the adult birds as well as the nestlings, and market them in barrels, but despite these changes the white man’s custom of netting was never adopted. It was thought that they were sometimes salted down in elm bark containers for the Indians own use. The hunts were conducted by large parties and during the evenings there were social times and dances, but Desga’'heh could not remember any of the details about these; nor gould he recall hearing that Pigeon Dance was performed. Among the Munsee-Delaware there was but little remembrance of the wild pigeon. Old Jessie Moses could give no details of hunting methods but recalled that only the young were taken and remembered catching a wild pigeon once himself at the age of eight. Chief Abe Spencer, of the Missisauga Reserve, remembered that the Chippewa shot adult wild pigeons with bows and arrows, and also took the young from the nests. He also remembered seeing and hunt- ing pigeons as a boy but could not recall the details. °® LITERATURE CITED FrentTon, WILiIAM N., and DrEarporrr, MERLE H. The last passenger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanter Senecas. Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sei. 33 (10): 289-315. 1943. MitcHEett, Marcaret H. The _ passenger pigeon in Ontario. Contr. Royal Ontario Mus. Zool. No. 7. Toronto, 1945. § Mitchell (1935, p. 113) cites a correspondent to Forest and Stream who described New York State Indians shooting pigeons with bows and arrows rather than guns in 1823. (This reference reprinted from the original by Fenton and Dear- dorff. 1943, pp. 293-294. ) 344 BOTANY.—Scab of Cinchona in South America caused 'by Elsinoé.! JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 ANNA E. JENKINS, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. The U. 8S. Board of Economic Warfare, later the Foreign Economic Administra- tion, in charge of collecting strategic mate- rials for the war effort, sent a group of botanists to Central and South America to examine existent stands of Cinchona and to determine which species would be suitable for harvest. Herbarium specimens were preserved as vouchers for bark samples analyzed and for future botanical work. On a survey in Colombia, obviously diseased fruits of C. pubescens Vahl were found on February 11, 19438, at Lavaderos, near San Agustin, Dept. de Huila, by Dr. F. R. Fosberg. The same capsule deformation was again observed in the Department of Narifo in October 1943. On this occasion Fosberg was accompanied by W. C. Davis, plant pathologist, then on an official mission of the Office of Foreign Agricultural Rela- tions to Colombia. Representative speci- mens from three different trees (Davis 28, 29, and 30, corresponding to Fosberg 21255, 21283, and 21281), were referred to the writer for examination upon Davis’s return to the United States late in 1948. Labora- tory study revealed that capsules, leaves, and young stems were abundantly infected by a fungus of the genus Elsinoé. Following Fosberg’s recent return to the United States and the receipt of his specimens here, he placed his ample gathering from the tree at Lavaderos (Fosberg 20065) at the writer’s disposal for study and also permitted her to select part of it for mycological herbarium record (Fosberg 20065a). The symptoms of the disease herein de- scribed.and the diagnosis of the pathogen as a new species of Elsinoé are based par- ticularly on the Davis and Fosberg dry herbarium specimens just mentioned. Based on his observations during botani- cal surveys for Cinchona in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, Fosberg has furnished a general statement relative to the range of the scab in this part of South America, as follows: “The disease is distributed practically throughout the range of C. pubescens in 1 Received August 29, 1945. Colombia, i.e., throughout the three Cor- dilleras of the western half of the country; moreover, a collection of C. pubescens and one of C. delessertiana Standley from Peru show the same symptoms. Although symp- toms of the scab have been looked for on C. officinalis L., they have been noticed only on trees of this species in the Coro- moro area, east of Charal& and near Florian, both in the Department of San- tander, Colombia. In the nursery at Po- payan, Cauca, situated among trees af- fected with the disease, seedlings of the succirubra form of C. pubescens were un- affected. In Ecuador the disease was not noted on wild plants of this variety, nor on half a million seedlings growing under nursery conditions.” Typical lesions of the disease are present on botanial specimens collected by Pennell and Killip in the Department of Cauca, Colombia, in 1922 (cf. ‘‘Specimens exam- ined,” p. 350). The disease under discussion, being hy- perplastic in nature, is here termed ‘“‘scab of Cinchona.” This is in accordance with the nomenclature suggested elsewhere (12) for diseases of this type caused by Elsznoé, or by Sphaceloma De Bary (1, 17) in which form genus they are classified when only the conidial stage is known (ef. 16, p. 307, and 17). : It is impossible at this time to make a statement relative to the actual or potential economic importance of scab of Cinchona. Since leaves and young stems are affected (Fig. 2), it is possible that the disease might prove destructive if it were present in the nursery under conditions favorable for its development. Leaf spot.—On leaves the spots are com- paratively few to extremely numerous and may be scattered over a greater or less area of the blade or concentrated on or near the veins; occasionally they are aggregated near the leaf margin (Fig. 1, A; Fig. 2, A, HE, and F). They are often circular to subcircular but may be elliptical to oblong or irregular, particularly when involving the veins (Fig. 2, B and G; Fig. 3, D). = Soe ae Nov. 15, 1945 Lesions are raised, dome-shaped, or flat- tened (Fig. 2, A and B); in some cases the central part of the spot is marked by an apiculus (Fig. 2, B, b, and C). Where spots are closely grouped, a few may coalesce (Fig. 3, D). Abundant infection on veins and midrib results in crowded or extensive coalesced lesions along these structures (Fig. 2, HE, F, and G). In general the spots are 0.5 to 1.5 mm, rarely 2 mm, in diameter. Lesions prominent on the upper leaf sur- face are often ‘‘cinnamon-drab.’? Where mostly covered by fructifications of the fungus as in Fig. 2, A, a, they are ‘dark vinaceous-brown.” The coloration of the particular lesion shown in Fig. 2, A, b, en- larged in B, b, and C, is as follows: Light area around the central apiculus “ecru drab,” this surrounded by a “blackish brown” zone constituting a palisade of conidiophores of the pathogen (Elsinoé), rim of the platformlike spot where not fungus covered “light brownish drab’; finally, narrow discolored zone surrounding the elevation ‘dark vinaceous-brown.”’ Where lesions are almost too small to be detected without magnification, the dark surrounding zone assists in marking their position (Fig. 1, A). Spots originating on the upper leaf surface are apparent on the pubescent lower side of the blade chiefly as faint vinaceous discolorations. Lesions orig- inating below often are ‘‘vinaceous to brown.” In this case the lesions form short conical to flattened elevations not uncom- monly apiculate; on the upper side of the blade they appear merely as pocklike de- pressions. Occasionally spots fall away leav- ing the leaf perforated or with only a trans- parent network of tissue. The pathological histology of the lesion, which is hyper- plastic in nature (see Fig. 3, E), corre- sponds closely to that of sour orange scab, caused by Elsinoé fawcetts Bitancourt and Jenkins (4) as carefully depicted by Cun- ningham (9). Stem cankers.—Cankers on young stems, - as well as on rachis and branches of the in- florescence, may be present in greater or less numbers over a given area, being dis- 2 Names of colors in quotation marks are from ‘Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,” by Robert Ridgway (1912). JENKINS: SCAB OF CINCHONA IN SOUTH AMERICA 345 tributed over all or only part of the circum- ference. On Davis 28 stem cankers are mostly elliptical, or irregularly so, reaching 4 by 5 mm in diameter. Those in close proximity may coalesce, although ordinar- ily the outline of the original lesion may be followed. Cankers are raised, with rounded to flattened surfaces usually accented by a small central apiculus, smooth as though polished. The main surface of the canker may be longitudinally or concentrically roughened; also, there may be fissures, par- ticularly at the upper and lower margins. The cankers just described (Fig. 2, D) are “cinnamon-drab”’ as compared with the “dark vinaceous-brown”’ of the stem. Scale- like cankers on a rachis of Fosberg 20065 (Fig. 3, A, a, and B) are concolorous with the healthy stem. Capsule lestons.—Practically all the many fruits on a single inflorescence may be af- fected by the scab as exemplified by the several complete inflorescences of Fosberg 20065 (Fig. 1, A-C; Fig. 3, A) and by the Pennell and Killip botanical specimens al- ready mentioned. As alluded to previously, it was during the gathering of his no. 20065 that Fosberg’s attention was attracted to the diseased condition of the capsules. The striking symptom noted in the field was that, instead of being straight or nearly so, capsules were abnormally curved, at times forming a crescent or practically a circle (Fig. 1, B, a, and C, a; Fig. 3, A,a and b) or were otherwise bent and distorted. Such severely affected fruit also may be dwarfed as the specimens show. It is probable that young capsules severely attacked fail to de- velop or soon fall away. On capsules, lesions are often particu- larly numerous as well as generally more conspicuous than on leaves and stems. They are circular to elliptical, ranging from 1 mm or less to 3 mm in diameter, or elongate. Because of their large numbers or extensive ‘coalescence they may occupy much of the capsule surface (Fig. 1, A-C; Fig. 3, A, a and b). On this substrate the spots are, as usual, raised, short conic or flattened; the apiculation already described in the case of leaf and stem lesions may be present. On the dry capsules of Fosberg 20065, spots appear as “‘wood brown” encrustations contrasting Fie. 1.—Seab on Cinchona pubescens, Lavaderos, Colombia, February 11, 1943, F. R. Fosberg 20065a: A, Part of panicle with numerous cankers on capsules; also leaf with many spots, the greater number clustered on or near midrib and veins and practically all too small to be viewed adequately without magnification, 1; B, C, terminal parts of another inflorescence showing abundantly infected fruits; a, capsules curved out of normal position; b, open capsules showing healthy endocarp; c, pericarp of open capsule roughened by the numerous small, in part confluent, lesions covering most of the sur- face; X1. Photograph by R. L. Taylor. Fic. 2.—Leaf spots and stem cankers of the scab on Cinchona pubescens, A—E, vic. Chachagui, Co- lombia, October 16, 1943, W. C. Davis 28; F and G, La Unién, Colombia, October 21, 1943, W. C. Davis 29; A, a, b, Spotting prominent on upper side of the leaf; c, on lower surface of another blade, <1; B, several raised spots from A, a, mostly darkened by the palisade of conidiophores of the pathogen (Elsinoé) over their surfaces (cf. Fig. 3, Z), only outer zone covered inaand b, X9; C, still greater detail of A, b, X14; D, prominent cankers on young stem, X1; EZ, F, continual vein infection on (2) lower surface of a comparatively young leaf, and (Ff) on upper surface of an older leaf, both X1; G, detail of F, in the region of a; in the original specimen, dark, punctate masses, fructifications of the pathogen, scat- tered over the surface of the lesion, are best seen in the region of G,a, X6. Photographs by M. L. F. Fou- bert (A—E£) and by Taylor (F and G). 348 sharply with the “sorghum brown” of the smooth unaffected surface. In some cases capsule lesions are not distinguished by their color and, where of small size, would ordinarily be overlooked. Prominent signs of the scab, visible as seen through a hand lens, are the dark more or less even covering over the entire or outer zone (see Fig. 2, A and B) of leaf spots, composed of a palisade layer of conidiophores of the pathogen (Elsinoé) (Fig. 2, B and C; Fig. 3, H and F) and dark pulvinate masses often occupying the cen- tral area of the leaf spot, these being as- comata of the pathogen (Fig. 3, D, and in- set). Less conspicuous signs are smaller dark pulvinate masses, fructifications of the pathogen, on midrib lesions (cf. Fig. 2, G, legend for a), on stem cankers (Fig. 3, B, a), and on capsule lesions (Fig. 3, C, a). Etiology.—On the basis of its morphology the pathogen of Cinchona scab belongs to the genus LHlsinoé Raciborski (17, 20) of the my- riangiaceous family Elsinoaceae. Historical sketches of this genus and family are avail- able elsewhere (for example, cf. 10, pp. 5- 8; 16, pp. 306-308). So far as can be deter- mined at present the species on Cinchona has not been described hitherto; a diagnosis under a new name is therefore here pre- sented as follows: Elsinoé cinchonae, n. sp. Producing few to numerous spots scattered over leaves, stems, and fruit; leaf spots occur- ring singly or in small groups, sometimes con- fluent, particularly along veins circular to subcircular, sometimes elliptical to oblong or irregular, raised with rounded or flattened sur- face, occasionally with a central apiculus, mi- nute to 1.5 mm, rarely 2 mm, in diameter, those originating on the upper leaf surface often ‘‘cin- namon-drab”’ and not uncommonly surrounded by a narrow or comparatively broad ‘‘dark vinaceous-brown”’ zone, those originating on the lower side of the leaf often ‘‘vinaceous- brown’; stem cankers mostly elliptical or nearly so, reaching 4 by 5 mm in diameter, sometimes crowded or coalescent, raised with rounded to flattened often roughened surfaces, at times with a central smooth apiculus, occa- sionally fissured, particularly at upper and lower margins, ‘“‘cinnamon-drab,” or concolor- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, No. 11 ous with the stem; spots on capsules circular to elliptical or elongate, up to 3 mm or so in di- ameter, or elongate, sometimes confluent over large areas, raised, short conical or flattened, “wood brown” or sometimes concolorous with the healthy capsule surface; entire fruit may be variously deformed, often circular or crescent- shaped; ascomata scattered over the lesions as small raised dark to black punctate areas, most conspicuous as grouped on central area or mar- gin of the leaf spot, round to elliptical, pulvi- nate, reaching as many as 300y in diameter by 754 in thickness, although usually much smaller, erumpent superficial, stroma light colored, dark epithecium, which may become ruptured as the ascoma develops, up to 10 in thickness, fructification crowded with asci; asci spherical to ellipsoid, 18 to 28u, with character- istically thickened wall, in upper part reaching Su in thickness; ascospores hyaline, 1- to 3-sep- tate, reaching 15 by 15u; conidial stage (Sphace- loma) well developed on leaf spot, there con- sisting of a more or less continuous layer of dark conidiophores arising from a light-colored stroma covering all or only the bordering zone of the lesion, at the margin raised to form a sporodochium, up to 50y thick, marginal sporodochium sometimes tilted owing to the development of an ascoma beneath; conidio- phores dark, cyclindrical, apex pointed, often l-septate, 3.5-5 by 8-15; the few conidia seen, brown, elliptical or spiculate at one end, 4-5 by 8-10p. Maculae plerumque numerosissimae, con- spersae, circulares, subcirculares, usque ellip- ticae, interdum elongatae, elevatae, centro saepe plus minusve apiculiformi, interdum ag- gregatae vel confluentes, in foliis amphigenae, interdum nervisequentibus, usque 1.5 mm, rare 2 mm, superne conspicuores et saepe cinna- monea-griseae, margine nigro-vinaceo-brunneo circumdatae, inferne vinaceo-brunneae; cancri in caulibus generaliter elliptici, usque 4X5 mm, avellanei, vel discolores, in capsulis usque 3 mm diameter, avellanei vel discolores; as- comata plus minusve numerosa, in maculis foliorum epigena conspicuoria, rotunda usque elliptica, pulvinata, exposita, usque 300 di- ameter, 75u crassa, superficialiter nigro-brun- nea; epithecium fuscum, 10u crassum; asci numerosi, sub-epithecio in regione stromatica hyaline distributi, globosi usque ellipsoidei, apice incrassati, 18—20u diameter; ascosporae Fig. 3.—A-D, additional illustrations of the scab from Fosberg 20065 and 20065a: A, a, part of an inflorescence, with scalelike cankers on rachis; b, capsule abnormally crescent-shape, surface mostly covered with confluent lesions; c, leaf spots grouped near midrib, 1; B, rachis cankers from A, a, fructifications of the EHlsinoé on them barely visible as minute dark punctate masses (a); C, a, dark fructifications of the pathogen clearly distinguishable on lesions from capsule shown in A, b; D (ex- clusive of inset), leaf spots from A, c, with dark ascomata prominent on their surfaces; individual as- comata distinguishable on a. B—D, X1; D (inset), photomicrograph showing part of an ascoma pro- duced on margin of a lesion from D; b, epithecium; c, two asci with clear, thickened walls, ascospores, dark in photograph, stained red with erythrosin, d, epidermis of leaf. HZ, tangential section (unstained) through a leaf spot from Fig. 2, A, a, showing disorganized hyperplastic tissue of lesion and (a to b) conidiophore palisade over surface (cf. Fig. 2, B and C), K125; F, a, sporodochium from another sec- tion,in comparable position to E, b, individual conidiophores distinguishable at right, X 225. Photographs by Taylor (A—D), Lilian Guernsey (D, inset), and by Foubert (# and F). 300 immaturae, 1—3-septatae, hyalinae, 15—5y; sta- tus conidiophorus (Sphaceloma) in maculis foliorum epigenus prominens; condiophora in palum compactum, expositum superficialiter nigro-brunneum, plus minusve continuum, ex stromate hyaline oriundum, fructificatione tota 30u crassa, vel marginem maculae versus usque 50u; conidiophora cylindrica apice acu- minato, generaliter continua vel uniseptata, 3.5-5 by 5-15u; conidia rare visa, brunnea, el- liptica, 4-5 by 8-10un. Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘scab of Cinchona’”’ on leaves, stems, and fruits of Cinchona pubescens Vahl, rarely on C. officinalis L., in Colombia, Peru, and possibly Ecuador and on C. delessertiana in Peru. Cinchona is a genus of the family Rubiaceae. Specimens examined:' ON CINCHONA PUBESCENS VAHL Cuatro Esquinas to Rio Piendamo, Cauca Valley, Dept. de Cauca, Colombia, from tree in thicket growth (‘‘machimbi’’), alt. 1,700—1,900 meters, June 6, 1922, F. W. Pennell and E. P. Killip 6380 (US). Infection on capsules. “El Ramal” to Rfo Sucio, west of Popaydn, Dept. de Cauca, Colombia, woodland, alt. 2,000—2,200 meters. July 3, 1922, F. W. Pennell and £. P. Killip 8088 (US; also in NY). Abundant infection on the many capsules. Barbosa, 22 km south, on road to Chiquin- quira, Dept. de Santander, Colombia, road- side tree 6 meters high, January 4, 1943, W. C. Steere 7066 (US). Typical spotting on leaves, inflorescence branches, and on capsules. Lavaderos, on ridge between Rio Naranjo and Rio Granadilla, 15 km south of San Agus- tin, Dept. de Huila, Colombia, in clearing be- tween patches of moist woods, alt. 2,000 meters, February 11, 1943, F. R. Fosberg 20065a. Type (USM 90159, IB). This specimen is part of Fosberg 20065 (USNA). It was through his 3 The herbaria in which are filed the specimens examined during this study are indicated by sym- bols as follows: IB, Secc4o de Fitopatologia, In- stituto Biologico de Sao Paulo, Brazil; NY, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York, N. Y.; US, United States National Herbarium, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.; USM, Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer- ing, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.; USNA, United States National Arboretum, United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. The US, NY, and USNA specimens were collected as phanero- gamic material and are so deposited. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES observation of the strikingly deformed fruits on this specimen that Fosberg discovered the disease ‘‘scab of Cinchona’’ in Colombia. Vic. Chachagui, 18 km north of Pasto, Dept. de Narifio, Colombia, steep slope, alt. 2,100 meters, October 16, 1943, W. C. Davis 28 (U SM, IB). - La Unién, about 6 km above, toward Pasto, along road, Dept. de Narifio, Colombia, alt. 2,010 meters, October 21, 1943, W. C. Davis 29 (USM). San Bernardo, on trail to La Cruz, alt. about 2,200 meters, Dept. de Narifio, Colombia, Oc- tober 21, 19438, W. C. Davis 30 (USM). (The Davis labels indicate that his nos. 28, 29, and 30 were collected in company with Fos- berg whose corresponding botanical numbers are 21255, 21283, and 21281 (USNA). Urubamba River, near the beginning of trail, up to Machu Picchu, Prov. de Quillabamha, Dept. de Cuzco, Peru, June 19438, Hernan © Augusto (Hodge 6201) (USNA). ON CINCHONA DELESSERTIANA STANDLEY Quebrada Pajonal, above Tabaconas, Prov. de Jaen, Dept. de Cajamarca, Peru, November 14, 1943, Earl Rogers s.n. (USNA). ON CINCHONA OFFICINALIS L. La Belleza, 10 km north of Florian, Dept. de Santander, Colombia, September 20, 1944, N.C. Fassett 25773 (USM). Fassett’s regular botanical specimen from the tree bears his num- ber 25772 (USNA). Discussion.—Elsinoé species character- istically infect young growth of their suscepts. From the four species originally described (20), the group has grown, es- pecially in recent years, until it is now admittedly large (cf. 3, pp. 512-513; 8, pp. 150-151; 16, table 1; 18, pp. 165-166), with suscepts ranging from the ferns to the composites. So far as has been determined by inoculation tests, a particular species of Elsinoé does not infect unrelated plants (for example, cf. 14); instead, individual species are limited in their pathogenicity to closely related plants or even to a single species in a genus (for example, cf. 13). The example just cited describes inoculation tests on species of different legume genera with a culture of EH. phaseoli Jenkins (13) from Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus Benth. Three of the legume genera of the VOL. 35, No. 11 > Ea ae ek Te a ee ieee a alltel Alaa -” ' ’ “ i a fi A = = Nov. 15, 1945 experiment, other than Phaseolus, were known suscepts of other species of Elsinoé. In this series of inoculations, which in- cluded several commercial varieties of P. vulgaris L., only P. lunatus var. macro- carpus became infected. Parallel cultural comparisons may serve to demonstrate a close genetic relationship among species of Hlsznoé from suscept gen- era within the same family. An example of this is afforded by two species from rosa- ceous suscepts, i.e., H. veneta (Burk.) Jenkins on Rubus and Sphaceloma rosarum (Pass.). Jenkins on Rosa. It is here inferred, of course, that the perfect stage of S. rosarum, when and if found, will be referable to El- sinoé. As described and illustrated (11, p. 332, pl. 7, A and C), these two organisms were strikingly similar when cultured under like conditions, although they were also separable. In inoculation experiments on the same set of plants of Rosa, S. rosarum gave positive results, E. veneta negative (11, p. 334). With such results as these as a back- ground, it would seem that E. cinchonae may be limited to genera within the tribe to which Cinchona belongs, or even to the genus alone. Among the Rubiaceae we find Sphaceloma gentpae Bitancourt (2) described on Genipa americana L. and Elsinoé puertoricensis Jenkins and Bitancourt (19) on Randia spp. including R. mitis L. Both Genipa and Randia belong to another tribe of this fam- ily than does Cinchona. E. cinchonae in its conidial stage is probably to be distin- guished morphologically from S. genipae. To compare the two critically, however, would require strictly comparable growth of each. For example, small hyaline conidia, such as are described for S. genipae, should be compared with similar hyaline conidia of E. cinchonae; these latter doubtless exist, although they were not seen during the present study. Conidia from cultures may be required for such a comparison, and after cultures are available still further special culturing (ef. 15, pp. 25-28, figs. 1-9) may be necessary to obtain conidia. It must be borne in mind also that conidia of Elsinoé may begin to swell as soon as formed and that this feature presents a real hazard in JENKINS: SCAB OF CINCHONA IN SOUTH AMERICA 351 making species comparisons on the basis of conidial measurements. The diversity of characters in species referable to the form genus Sphaceloma has led to difficulties in their taxonomy, as has already been dis- cussed (16, p. 307; 17). The general similar- ity of growth of these fungi in culture, to- gether with the possibility of separating them by this means, has proved a valuable asset. Colored plates illustrating parallel cultural comparisons of this group are avail- able elsewhere (6, pl. 22; 7, pl. 15; 15, pl. 3); a method of making original isolations by means of microtechnique also has been de- lineated in another connection (5, p. 134, pl. 18, H-M),. Fructifications of the perfect stage of spe- cies of Elstnoé may be sufficiently distinc- tive to differentiate them, although care must be exercised in making comparisons. It is not rare, for example, to find only imma- ture ascospores, as in the case of the speci- mens of H. conchonae examined. Naturally, under all the circumstances, the descrip- tion of a newly discovered fungus of the genus Hlsinoé as new, or its identification as a Species previously described, may be more or less provisional. In this way it is possible to record taxonomically more of the new suscepts of Elsinoé and Sphaceloma that are constantly being discovered in various parts of the world than would otherwise be the case. As additional pertinent data are ob- tained appropriate revisions may be made. As at present described, EL. cinchonae and E. puertoricensis appear to be distinct spe- cies. EL. puertoricensis has pulvinate as well as applanate ascomata, with an indefinite epithecium. Asci, not particularly crowded in the fertile stroma, are often distributed in one horizontal plane. In E. cinchonae only pulvinate or practically hemispherical as- comata have been seen; this more regular form may be accounted for by the better-de- veloped epithecium, which in one instance had ruptured, exposing the underlying hy- aline ascigerous stroma. In this species on Cinchona the fertile stroma is extremely crowded with asci, which are oriented in dif- ferent planes. LITERATURE CITED (1) Bary, A. pg. Ueber den sogenannten 302 Brenner (Pech) der Reben. Ann. Aenol. 4: 165-167. 1874. (2) Brrancourt, A. A. Novas especies de Sphaceloma sobre Terminalia e Genipa. Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 8: 197-200. 1937. (3) Variations in fructifications of Elsinoé, including descriptions of new species. In Report of Proceedings, 3d International Congress for Microbiol- ogy, New York, Sept. 2-9, 1939, 883 pp. 1940. , and JENKINS, ANNA E. Elsinoé fawcetti, the perfect stage of the citrus scab fungus. Phytopathology 26: 393- 396. 1936. (5) ———————... Ciclo evolutivo de Elsinoé australis Bitancourt e Jenkins, agente da verrugose da laranja doce. Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 10: 129-146. 1939. (6) ———————. Novas especies de Elsinoé e Sphaceloma sobre hospedes de impor- tancia economica. Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 11: 44-58. 1940. (7) ——_—_—_—.. Treze novas especies de Elsinoé do Brasil. Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 12: 1-20. 1941. (8) ———————_. New discoveries of My- riangiales in the Americas. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Congress, Washington, 1940, 3: 149-172. 1942. (9) CunntincHAM, H. 8. The histology of le- sions produced by Sphaceloma faweettii Jenkins on leaves of Citrus. Phytopa- thology 18: 539-545. 1928. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 (10) Jenkins, A. E. Scab of Canavalia caused by Elinsoé canavaliae. Journ. Agr. Res. 42: 1-12. 1931. ; Rose anthracnose Sphaceloma. Journ. Agr. 321-337. 19382. Application of the terms “an- thracnose’’ and ‘‘scab”’ to diseases caused by Sphaceloma and Gloeosporium. Phy- topathology 23: 389-395. 1933. Identity and host relations of the Elsinoé of lima bean. Journ. Agr. Res. 47: 783-789. 1933. Sphaceloma perseae, the cause of avocado scab. Journ. Agr. Res. 49: 859-869. 1934. Comparacées culturaes e inocu- locdes em videira com os fungos Elsinoé fawcetti e E. ampelina e E. veneta. Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 7: 23-32. 1936. caused by (11) Res. 45: (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) das plantas causadas por fungos das generos Elsinoé e Sphaceloma. Rod- riguésia 2 (num. esp.): 305-313. 1936. —__—___———.. Fevised descrzvptions “of the genera Elinsoé and Sphaceloma. Mycologia 33: 338-340. 1941. ——— —. Myriangiales select. ex- siccatt. Bol. Soc. Bras. Agr. 7: 153-166. 1944. Elsinoé on Randia. My- cologia (in press). (20) Racrporsk1, M. Parasitische Algen und Pilze Java's. 1: 39 pp. Batavia, 1900. (19) BOTANY.—Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. (Rutaceae: Aurantiordeae).} FRANK D. VENNING, University of Miami. (Communicated by WALTER T. SWINGLE.) From time to time plant anatomists have reported the presence of ‘‘accessory,”’ ‘‘free”’ or ‘‘unattached”’ vascular bundles in vari- ous floral parts of several plant families. Varying amounts of significance have been given them by investigators. Unattached bundles, which are amphiphloic, or con- centric, are described by Arber (1) as oc- curring in the genera Lunaria, Sisymbrium, and Raphanus and are figured in petals of Lunaria, stamens of Sisymbrium, and ovule of Raphanus. These bundles are described as passing through an amphiphloic stage, finally becoming collateral by the time the petals are free. 1 Received October 1, 1945. Grateful acknowl- edgment is made to Dr. Walter T. Swingle for his suggestions in preparing this paper and to the Science Research Council of the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla., under whose sponsor- ship the work was conducted. Considerable study has been given the various members of the subfamily Auran- tioideae in regard to the vascular systems of their flowers. Tillson and Bamford (2) stud- ied the floral vascular anatomy of 94 spe- cies belonging to 29 genera of the Auranti- oideae. They make no mention of accessory bundles in any of the genera or species they studied. Their observations showed that in the genus Murraya, including M. koenzgii, the vascular bundles supplying the various floral parts arose individually from the cen- tral cylinder of vascular tissue in the pedi- cel and that there was no exchange of lateral branch bundles between floral parts. Accessory bundles were mentioned as oc- curring in the flowers of the Eureka Lemon, a cultivated variety of Citrus limon, by Ford (3), and are described as several groups of small vascular traces below the sepals. , and Brrancourt, A. A. Doencas ~ rar) od Nov. 15, 1945 “Some of these are not attached below, but others diverge from the vascular cylinder about 3 mm below the bases of the sepals.” Ford found that all these bundles extended into the lateral part of the sepals and called them accessory sepal traces. He noted that the provascular elements for these accessory traces are present as early in ontogeny as those of the other bundles of the receptacle and that those attached to the main dorsal sepal traces diverge from them while they are yet a part of the stele. In connection with an anatomical study of the two commonly cultivated species of Murraya, M. koenigii and M. paniculata, it was found that one of the species, M. panic- ulata, had no accessory bundles, but both loose and attached accessory bundles were found in M. koenigii, as shown in this paper. MATERIALS AND METHODS The flowers of M. koenigii are small and white and are borne in terminal corymbs; sepals free, five in number, about 1 mm long; petals 4-6 mm long, five in number; ten stamens, the alternate ones shorter; the ovary, borne on a short cylindrical disk, is 2- or 3-celled. Flower buds, flowers, and young and mature fruits were collected principally from a large heavily flowering tree growing in Dr. David Fairchild’s Kampong in Coconut Grove, Fla. This tree is described and figured by Swingle (4). The material was fixed in Formalin-Aceto-Alco- hol and imbedded in paraffin. Cross and longitudinal serial sections were cut 10 mi- crons thick and stained with a safranine and fast green staining combination. OBSERVATIONS In the pedicel below the base of the sepals, the vascular elements form a con- tinuous cylinder of tissue enclosing the pith. As is the case with many woody stems, the xylem borders the pith on the inside of the stele, and the phloem elements are on the outside; these two tissues are separated by the vascular cambium. On the outside of the phloem a cylinder of elongated parenchyma cells, several cells in thickness, makes up the pericycle. Before and during flowering no lignification of the pericycle occurs, but during the development of the fruit many of these cells become sclerenchy- matous fibers, VENNING: VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MURRAYA KOENIGII 353 In the receptacle, bundles of vascular tis- sue diverge from the stele to supply the var- ious floral parts. The five sepal bundles are the first of such bundles to diverge. These gradually ascend upward and outward away from the stele across the receptacle and then follow a lateral course at the base of the sepals, eventually forming the sepal midribs. As these five relatively large midrib bundles diverge, five bundle trace gaps are apparent in the stele. Just above the point where the sepal midribs begin to sepa- rate from the stele, and outside of the peri- cycle in the cortical parenchyma, the basal limits of loose accessory bundles may ap- pear (Fig. 1), usually as one or two vertical annular vessels in the cortical parenchyma. These vessels are much smaller in diameter than the surrounding cortical parenchyma cells and are spaced approximately halfway between any two diverging sepal midrib bundles. When present their basal ends are always in this relative position in the re- ceptacle. The course of the unattached bundles is parallel to that of the main sepal bundles across the receptacle, extending upward and gradually outward about halfway across the cortex until on a level with the sepal base. Here they show a lateral course, and extend out into the sepal after branching one or more times. Some branches terminate in the receptacle near the sepal base; others ex- tend to the lower outer edge of the sepal, these usually terminate near an oil gland (Fig. 2). In mature flowers the largest number of xylem elements occurs in the bundles just as they begin to extend laterally from near the center of the cortex to the sepals. The elements at this point consist of two to four annular vessels and eight to ten spiral ves- sels, which are identical in appearance with the annular and spiral vessels of the pri- mary xylem in the stele. From here down- ward the number diminishes rather rapidly, until at the lower end only one or two ves- sels can be observed; these are always an- nular in nature, spiral vessels appear higher up in the bundle. Directly below the lowest xylem a few elongated parenchy- ma cells are sometimes present; these ex- tend downward directly beneath the last lignified vessel for 10 or 20 microns. Under- 354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. II neath these there are no evidences of pro- In the portion of the bundle extending vascular parenchyma, only the large, iso- laterally the width in every case gradually diametric cortical parenchyma cells. diminished as the sepal base was ap- Fig. 1.—Diagram of cross section of the base of a flower at the point of origin of the accessory bun- dles: aa, attached accessory bundle; s, sepal midrib bundle; Ja, loose accessory bundle. Fie. 2.—Dia- grammatic longitudinal view of base of a flower, showing position of a loose accessory bundle in relation to the main vascular system and floral parts: s, sepal midrib bundle; 0, oil gland; la, loose accessory bundle. Fie. 3.—Arrangement of parenchyma cells 10u beneath the lower limit of the loose accessory bundle shown in Fig. 4; cells A and B are elongated parenchyma cells beneath the two xylem elements shown in Fig. 4. Fias. 4-6.—Three successive sections 10y apart of the basal portion of a loose acces- sory bundle. Figs. 7-12.—Six successive sections 10u apart of the basal portion of a loose accessory bundle, showing the progressive increase in the number of xylem elements as the bundle ascends. (Fig. 1, X30; Fig. 2, X12; Figs. 3-12, X550. Fuias. 4-6 are from slides S. & V. 57 B, Figs. 7-12 from slides S. & V. 57 I, in Univ. Miami Tropical Botany Histological Research Collection.) oe oes” oe —s we ang oe oy Nov. 15, 1945 proached. At this extremity not all the cells composing the bundles had become ligni- fied, but these proxylem cells were easily distinguished from those of the cortical parenchyma, as they had very small diame- ters, dense cytoplasm, and were more elon- gate. The average length of 23 such bundles from their first appearance in the cortex to their ultimate termination was 0.475 mm. Although xylem was well differentiated in the loose accessory bundles, no phloem or phloem parenchyma was observed in con- nection with them in Murraya koenigit. It is true that a few small parenchyma cells often exist in conjunction with the xylem in the large portion of the loose bundles, but near the basal portion of the bundles these cells were often lacking, and they were never numerous. Although smaller than most cells of the cortical parenchyma, they do not show the cell shape or elongation of the protophloem and metaphloem parenchyma of the stele, and of course they have no sieve plates. Rather, they seem to be small, ir- regularly isodiametric cortical parenchyma cells. , In addition to the loose accessory bundles some flowers have accessory bundles at- tached to the main vascular system. These appear in the receptacle at the same level as the lower limits of the loose bundles, but are connected with the vascular elements of the stele which form the petal midribs higher up in the receptacle. These attached bundles extend laterally across the cortex to the sepal bases, but describe a much shorter, flatter arc than the loose bundles, their average length being only 0.220 mm, or about half that of the loose bundles. Structurally they are similar to the loose accessory bundles, being composed of annu- lar and spiral vessels, and apparently also lack phloem. The greatest number of ele- ments in any one bundle occurs at a point about equidistant from the ends, and dimin- ishes to only a few xylem elements at each end. At the base only three or four xylem elements are attached to the petal midrib. Attached accessory bundles are not al- ways present in any given flower, and no more than two attached accessory bundles were observed in any one of 22 flowers stud- ied. Data concerning these flowers are listed VENNING: VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MURRAYA KOENIGII 355 in Table 1. It has not been determined whether the attached accessory bundles are branches of the petal midrib or bundles that arise independently and later continue to differentiate downward, ultimately con- necting with the xylem of the stele. Studies of these bundles in young flower buds sug- gest this latter concept. TABLE 1.—OccURRENCE OF ACCESSORY BUNDLES IN 22 FLoweprs OF MuURRAYA KOENIGII Number of attached accessory Number of loose accessory Total accessory bundles per flower bundles bundles 0 oo me 0 at eet 1 1 ee 1 1 a 1 1 Es 2 —— 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 — ee 2 ‘al 2 2 — 2 2 — 2 2 — 2 7 - 2 ay “= 3 z 1 3 a its -- 3 3 -— 4 | 3 1 4 4 — 5 | 5 oo The calyx is persistent after abscission of the petals and stamens and remains fresh and green during the development of the fruit. The calyx has reached its maturity when the petals and stamens are abscissed from the flower, as sections of the basal por- tions of mature fruits show its dimensions are no larger than they were in mature flow- ers. The loose and attached accessory bun- dles were no larger in these sections than in those of mature flowers; evidently they reach their maximum growth at the same time as the calyx. - The irregular occurrence of both the loose and attached accessory bundles in any given flower can not as yet be explained. It seems to have no relation to the position of the flower on the large much-branched terminal corymb, and no other features of the floral anatomy seem to be correlated with their occurrence or nonoccurrence. 306 Preliminary studies of serial microtome sections of flowers of other species of the Aurantioideae have shown that loose or attached accessory bundles or both occur in 16 species in both of the tribes 4 of the 6 subtribes, and 8 genera. These bundles show great diversity in structure, course, and branching from those described for M. koenigit. On the other hand, a very thor- ough study of several other species of the Aurantioideae has not disclosed a single accessory bundle. SUMMARY Although the vascular anatomy of the or- ange subfamily has been under study for over three-quarters of a century, Ford (3) was the first person to mention the presence of accessory bundles, which he described in the lemon. The present paper describes loose and attached accessory bundles which JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 11 occur in the receptacle and calyx of Mur- raya koentgit and discusses their histology and relation to the main vascular system. It is pointed out that accessory vascular bundles are of widespread occurrence in the flowers of many other members of the sub- family Aurantioideae. LITERATURE CITED (1) ArBer, A. Studies in floral morphology I: On some structural features of the cruciferous flower. New Phytologist 30 (1): 1-41, figs. 1-10. 1930. (2) Tittson, A. H., and Bamrorp, R. The floral anatomy of the Aurantioideae. Amer. Journ. Bot. 25 (10): 780-798. 1938. (3) Forp, E. 8. Anatomy and histology of the Eureka Lemon. Bot. Gaz. 104 (2): 288- 305. , 1942. (4) Swincte, Water T. The botany of Citrus and its wild relatives of the orange subfamily. The Citrus Industry 1: Chap. 4, pp. 200-201, fig. 30. Univ. California Press, 1943. ~ ENTOMOLOGY.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C. J. DRAKE and E. J. HAMBLETON. The present paper contains notes on 57 species of Neotropical Tingitidae, including the descriptions of two new genera and 22 new species. The types are in the Drake collection. The collections were made by E. J. Hambleton. Family PIESMIDAE Piesma cinerea (Say) Los Cerritos, Guatemala, 18 specimens, taken on Amaranthus, July 5, 1944. This species is widely distributed, ranging from Canada south into Argentina. Family TINGITIDAE Subfamily CANTACADERINAE Phatnoma annulipes Champion Turrialba, Costa Rica, 2 specimens, on Vernonia sp., August 138, 1944. Subfamily TINGITINAE Monanthia c-nigrum Champion Kl Porvenir, Guatemala, 7 specimens, July 9, 1944, Monanthia loricata Distant Villavicencio, Colombia, 50 specimens, No- vember 3, 1944. 1 Received May 15, 1945. Monanthia berryi Drake Machala, Ecuador, 14 specimens, Sept. 27, 1944. Recorded in the literature from Peru. Monanthia monotropidia Stal Tingo Maria, Peru, 3 specimens, September 14, 1944. Villavicencio, Colombia, 5 specimens, November 3, 1944, and San Andrés, El Salvador, 1 specimen, July 21, 1944. Monanthia senta Drake and Hambleton Salinas, Ecuador, 12 specimens, October 14, 1944; Machala, Ecuador, 6 specimens, Septem- ber 27, 1944. Monanthia pucallpana, n. sp. Head black, shining, with five rather short, forward-directed, testaceous spines; eyes black. Antennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose; segment I short, slightly thickened, reddish brown; II slightly slenderer, reddish; III very slender, testaceous, about two and one-half times as long as IV; IV clavate, hairy. Bucculae broad, reticulated, closed in front. Rostrum moderately long, yellowish brown, extending to middle coxae. Legs moderately long, ferru- gineous, the tibiae testaceous, the tarsi dark. Body beneath black. a 3 3 oe a Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON Pronotum dark ferrugineous, moderately convex, coarsely pitted, tricarinate, lateral earinae short, present only on triangular proc- ess, slightly divaricating posteriorly; median carina more elevated, uniseriate, except pos- teriorly on triangular process; paranota moder- ately broad, completely reflexed, testaceous, not touching median carina, with three raised nervures; collar raised, reticulated, testaceous. Elytra ferrugineous, costal area mostly uni- seriate, biseriate in widest part, testaceous, with some of the nervures infuscate, the areolae large and hyaline; discoidal area mod- erately large, with the posterior part of nervure separating it from subcostal strongly curved so as to form a C-shaped expansion in sub- costal area, there with an oblique, raised line closing opening. Length, 3.85 mm; width, 1.25 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 14 para- types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944. This species is most closely related to M. c-nigrum Champion and M. loricata Distant but is easily separated from them by the wider paranota (roughened with raised, longitudinal lines) and the much wider costal area (biseriate in widest part). Teleonemia quechua Monte Aguaytia, Peru, September 10, 1944, 10 examples. Numerous other specimens are also at hand from Satipo, Cafiete, Tingo Marfa, Callauga, and Vilcanota, Peru. The many speci- mens exhibit some variation in size and color, and the male tends to be a little smaller than the female. Teleonemia lanceolata (Walker) Tingo Maria, Peru, 1 male, September 10, 1944. T. albomarginata Champion is a synonym of this species. It is widely distributed in Central and South America. Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal Villavicencio, Colombia, 1 male, November 3, 1944. The lantana lace bug is common in tropical America. Teleonemia prolixa Stal Pichilingue, Ecuador, 1 example, October 1- 2, 1944. Nyctotingis osborni Drake Tingo Maria, Peru, 2 examples, from bam- boo, September 10, 1944. These specimens are : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 357 larger than the type and other specimens from Brazil, but there seems to be no structural differences. Tingis abundans, n. sp. Head brown, convex, with five testaceous spines; median spine moderately long, porrect; hind pair adpressed, long, the tips extending nearly to the base of antennae; front pair moderately long, directed forward; eyes large, black. Antennae very long, moderately slender, indistinctly pilose, testaceous, the terminal segment mostly black; segment I rather stout, moderately long, about three times as long as II; II slenderer, short; III very long, slender, straight, nearly three times as long as IV; IV moderately long, slightly thickened. Rostrum extending to intermediate coxae, the laminae more widely separated and convex within on metasternum. Body beneath brown. Legs moderately slender, testaceous. Bucculae broad, closed in front. Orifice present. Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, yel- lowish brown, tricarinate, each carina com- posed of one row of tiny areolae; median carina more elevated on collar; lateral carinae almost parallel; paranota narrow, uniseriate, the margin finely serrate, calli distinct, brown. Elytra yellowish brown, a transverse band in front of middle fuscous, the nervures of sutural area more or less infuscate; costal area moder- ately broad, mostly uniseriate, in the widest part irregularly biseriate; subcostal area finely reticulated, mostly triseriate, quadriseriate in widest part; discoidal area narrow, extending to middle of elytra, widest behind middle, there four areolae deep. Wings longer than abdomen. Length, 2.90 mm; width, 1.00 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 11 para- types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944. Simi- lar to 7. oliveirai Drake and Hambleton and T. sauert Drake and Hambleton and separated from them by the higher carinae, longer cephalic spines, and more distinctly serrate margins of elytra. Tingis gamboana, n. sp. Differs from T. abundans, n. sp., by the bi- seriate costal area and narrower paranota. Pronotum brownish, becoming lighter poste- riorly, finely pitted, tricarinate, moderately, transversely convex; lateral carinae low, dis- 398 tinct, nonareolated, median carina more raised, indistinctly reticulated; collar distinct, areo-. lated; paranota very narrow, slightly wider in front. Head reddish fuscous, with five testa- ceous spines; median spine very short; front pair longer, directed forward, their tips touch- ing; hind pair much longer, adpressed, extend- ing a little beyond anterior margins of eyes. Antennae testaceous, indistinctly pilose, mod- erately long; segment I moderately thick, short, about twice as long as II; II slenderer, very short; III straight, about two and one-half times as long as IV; IV moderately long, most- ly black. Elytra testaceous, with a moderately broad, transverse, fuscous band near base; costal area rather broad, regularly biseriate; subcostal area wide, mostly quadriseriate; discoidal area reaching middle of elytra, widest a little before apex, there four areolae deep; sutural area with a spot (veinlet) near base and another before apex fuscous. Legs testaceous, the tips of tarsi dark. Rostrum extending a little be- yond mesosternum. Wings almost as long as elytra. Body beneath black, shiny. Length, 2.90 mm; width, 1.10 mm. Type (female) and allotype (male), Gamboa, Canal Zone, Panama, on elm, November 16, 1944. The more strongly convex pronotum, much narrower paranota, and the distinct, transverse band of elytra separate this species from TJ. sauert Drake and Hambleton and T. oliveirat Drake and Hambleton. The lateral carinae are also lower and the margins of elytra and paranota indistinctly serrate. Amblystira fuscitarsis Champion Guatemala City, Guatemala, November 23, 1944, 85 specimens, from Derris_ elliptica. Known also from Panama, Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, and Brazil. Amblystira pallipes Stal Tingo Maria, Peru, September 7, 1944, 1 specimen, taken sweeping vegetation. Speci- mens are also at hand from Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. Sphaerocysta nosella, n. sp. Small, testaceous, the cysts dark fuscous, the pronotum dark ferrugineous. Pronotum moderately convex, finely pitted, tricarinate; carinae distinct, low, the lateral pair parallel, the median terminating behind in a small sub- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 conal cyst. Hood moderately large, narrowed anteriorly, wider than high, its greatest width and length about equal, some of the areolae subhyaline, paranota moderately wide, uni- seriate, the areolae hyaline. Elytra widest at base, thence moderately narrowed posteriorly. The outer margin broad- ly rounded; costal area wide, biseriate, the areolae clear, large, not arranged in very regu- lar rows; sutural area with moderately large, clear areolae; cyst moderately large, inflated, — very dark. Body beneath brown. Legs testa- ceous, rather slender, the tarsi dark. Rostrum extending on metasternum. Antennae testa- ceous, the terminal segment mostly brownish black; segment I moderately swollen, nearly twice as long as II, the latter short; III long. slender, indistinctly pilose, three times as long as IV, the latter thickened apically. Length, 2.10 mm; width, 1.00 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 9 para- types, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. It resembles S. inflata Drake but is much smaller with narrower and uniseriate paranota, black- ish cysts, and slenderer legs and antennae. This is the smallest member of the genus, and the nervures are much more delicate. Phaeochila, n. gen. Pronotum moderately convex, narrowed an- teriorly, clothed with fine, long hairs, pitted, tricarinate; collar distinct, raised at middle so as to form a small hood, there slightly project- ing in front; paranota narrow, uniseriate; head smooth, with spines absent or greatly atro- phied. Bucculae short, reticulated, contiguous in front. Rostral channel wide; rostrum moder- ately long. Orifice present. Hypocostal ridge uniseriate. Antennae rather long, moderately stout, pilose; segment I rather short, stouter and longer than II; III longest; IV slightly thicker than III, moderately long. Legs mod- erately long. Elytra divided in the usual di- visions, with a distinct, inflated area a little behind middle of nervure separating discoidal and subcostal areas, indistinctly clothed with fine, very short hairs; discoidal area not reach- ing middle of elytra. Type of genus, Phaeochila hirta (Monte) = Amblystira hirta Monte. This genus is allied to the genus Acantho- cheila Stal and may be separated from it by the tricarinate pronotum, absence of spines on Nel eee a os 2 Beisce r) erry: fee! Le ee —s ee eS ee 7 ’ q ; > 5 y S Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON the margins of paranota and elytra. Separated from Amblystira Stal by the hood and tumid elevation of elytra; from Sphaerocysta Stal by the lack of pronotal cysts and shorter lateral carinae. Phaeochila hirta (Monte) Amblystira hirta Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 2: 284, fig. 5. 1940. Pucallpa, Peru, 7 specimens, September 5, 1944. This is the first record of this interesting species in Peru. Leptocysta sexnebulosa Stal Villavicencio, Colombia, 1 female, November 3, 1944. Acanthocheila dira, n. sp. Similar to A. armigera Stal in size and gen- eral appearance. Head black, with a long, median, erect, testaceous spine; hind pair of spines long, testaceous, adpressed; extending beyond eyes; segment I brown, thick, narrowed at base, three times as long as II, II short, brownish, slender; III long, testaceous, slightly bent, three times as long as IV; IV moderately thickened, blackish, testaceous at base. Legs rather slender, pale stramineous, moderately hairy, the tips of tarsi dark. Rostrum brownish, dark at tip, reaching hind margin of meso- sternum. Body beneath black, shiny; abdomen in female wide, broadly expanded, wings a little longer than abdomen. Hemelytra much more sharply expanded near base than in A. armi- gera, testaceous, considerably embrowned at base; costal area mostly biseriate, with brown- ish band near base; discoidal area short, mostly four areolae deep; subcostal area broad, closely reticulated within opposite discoidal area. Pronotum unicarinate, transversely convex, pitted, brown; paranota very narrow, uniseri- ate, the outer margin armed with much longer spines than in A. armigera, the second, third and fourth spines sharply reflexed. Apex of hind triangular projection truncate. Length, 3.25 mm; width, 1.75 mm. Type (female), E] Porvenir, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. Separated from A. armigera Stal by the very long, erect, median spine of head, very long marginal spines of paranota and the more sharply widened basal portion of elytra. Acanthocheila armigera Stal Many specimens, the commonest member of : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 359 the genus; Tingo Marfa, Peru, September 14, 1944, and Machala, Ecuador, September 27, 1944; Villavicencio, Colombia, November 3, 1944; El Porvenir, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. Leptopharsa dapsilis, n. sp. Elongate, rather broad, testaceous, the head and pronotum (except hind process) black. Head short, the spines greatly reduced; median and anterior pair represented by small tuber- cules; hind pair very slender, adpressed, testa- ceous. Antennae long, brown-fuscous, distinctly hairy; segment I moderately long, moderately thick, not quite three times as long as II; II short, slenderer; III straight, very slender, clothed with moderately long hairs, slightly more than three times as long as IV; IV moder- ately long, clothed with longer hairs, slightly thickened, black. Legs long, slender, dark brown; rostrum yellowish brown, dark at apex, extending a little beyond end of sulcus; rostral channel very wide, the laminae low. Bucculae testaeeous, closed in front. Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, tri- carinate; median carina testaceous foliaceous, uniserlate, distinctly higher than lateral, the areolae moderately large; lateral carinae testa- ceous, rather short, terminating anteriorly at middle of disc, subparallel, uniseriate, the aero- lae small. Hood subglobose, moderately large, testaceous, slightly projecting in front. Para- nota testaceous, moderately large, moderately reflexed, the outer margin rounded, mostly biseriate, the areolae moderately large. Elytra moderately broad, testaceous; costal area broad, biseriate along basal portion, triseriate ‘in widest part, the areolae large and hyaline; subcostal area narrow, mostly triseriate, the areolae small; discoidal area small, not reaching middle of elytra, considerably embrowned, nar- rowed at base and apex, widest behind middle, there four areolae deep; sutural area closely reticulated at base, there considerably em- browned. Wings extending a little beyond apex of abdomen. Length, 3.95 mm; width, 1.55 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 86 para- types, from Olmediella betschleriana (Goepp.), Guatemala City, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. The shorter lateral carinae separate this species from all other members of the genus. Leptopharsa deca, n. sp. Differs from L. usingert Drake in the biseri- 360 ate paranota, low carinae, differently formed hood, and fuscous apical portion of elytra. An- tennae moderately long, slender, testaceous; segment I strongly incrassate, brownish, short, twice as long as IJ; II slender, slightly thicker than III, testaceous; III slenderest, about three times as long as IV; IV mostly brownish black, slightly thickened. Bucculae broad, meeting in front, testaceous, becoming brownish above. Rostrum extending beyond middle of meso- sternum. Rostral laminae strongly foliaceous on mesosternum, narrowed posteriorly, the ends meeting behind; laminae lower on meta- sternum, cordate. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi darker. Head with moderately long, tes- -taceous spines. Hood rather large, a little longer in female than male, covering most of head, inflated, highest (crest) in front of center, slightly longer than high, higher than broad, the nervures embrowned. Paranota testaceous, bi- seriate, the areolae rather large, hyaline. Pro- notum moderately convex, brown; carinae dis- tinct, uniseriate, the areolae small, the lateral carinae slightly divaricating anteriorly. Elytra moderately broad, slightly constricted beyond middle, widest before apex, the tips separated in repose; costal area broad, mostly triseriate, quadriseriate in widest part, testaceous, the areolae large, clear; subcostal area finely areo- lated, brown, five areolae deep; discoidal area brown, not quite reaching middle of elytra; widest beyond middle, there five areolae deep, with a black-fuscous mark near middle of outer boundary; sutural area mostly clouded with fuscous, some of the apical areolae partly hya- line. Length, 3.10 mm; width, 1.40 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 3 para- types, Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2, 1944. The hood is much smaller, the first an- tennal segment much shorter and thicker, and the carinae much lower than in L. praestantis Drake. The meeting of the tips of the meso- sternal laminae closes the rostral channel, but in a much different way structurally than in the genus Gargaphia Stal. Leptopharsa ovantis, n. sp. Differs from L. furculata (Champion) in hav- ing biseriate paranota, black-fuscous first an- tennal segment and slightly smaller hood. Color marking very similar to L. furculata. Antennae JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 35, No. 11 rather long, indistinctly pilose; segment I mod- erately long, moderately incrassate; three times as long as II; II short, slenderer, tes- taceous; III long, straight, testaceous, slightly more than twice as long as IV; IV rather long, mostly black, beset with long hairs. Legs slender, testaceous, other characters very sim- ilar to L. furculata. Length, 3.75 mm; width, 1.75 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 3 para- types, Tingo Marfa, Peru, September 7, 1944. Leptopharsa angustata (Champion) Barcena, Guatemala, many specimens, Nov- ember 28, 1944. Leptopharsa tenuis (Champion) Barcena, Guatemala, many specimens, on Ichthyomethia grandtfolia (Donn. Smith), No- vember 28, 1944. Leptopharsa laureata, n. sp. Small, moderately elongate; body beneath brown to black. Rostrum long, extending to end of sulcus, testaceous, black at tip; rostral laminae testaceous, concave within on meta- sternum. Antennae rather long, slender, indis- tinctly pilose; segment I black-fuscous, moder- ately thick, about three times as long as II; II short, testaceous, slightly enlarged; III long, slender, testaceous, about two and one-half times as long as IV; IV mostly dark fuscous, moderately long. Legs long, slender, testaceous. Eyes black. Head black, with five moderately long spines; hind pair testaceous, adpressed; median spine brownish to black, turned down- ward. | Pronotum black, moderately, transversely convex, pitted; carinae testaceous, low indis- tinctly areolate, the lateral carinae slightly con- cave within on disc; paranota testaceous, bi- seriate, the outer margin rounded; hood small, inflated, slightly projecting in front. Elytra moderately broad, indistinctly serrate along outer margins; costal area testaceous, moder- ately wide, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae clear and moderately large; subcostal area narrow, biseriate, the veins black-fuscous; discoidal area extending to mid- dle of elytra, narrow, narrowed at base and apex, four areolae deep in widest part, the veins fuscous-black; sutural area more widely reticu- lated; the veins infuscate. ~ Length, 2.20 mm; width, 1.00 mm. Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON Type (male), allotype (female) and 11 para- types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944. Allied to ZL. bondari Drake and Poor from Brazil but separated from it by the longer ros- trum, triseriate costal area in widest part and lower carinae, especially median. The lateral margins of the elytra also are more rounded. Leptopharsa jubaris, n. sp. Small, ovate, testaceous, the pronotum brownish. Head black, with rather short, tes- taceous spines; hind pair adpressed, the three frontal spines shorter, directed forward, some- times adpressed. Rostrum brownish, extending to metasternum; metasternal laminae cordate. Orifice distinct. Bucculae infuscate, closed in front. Antennae moderately long, slender, tes- taceous; segment I short, moderately thick, twice as long as II; III very slender, straight, indistinctly pilose, nearly three times as long as IV; IV brownish, moderately thickened, be- set with longer hairs. Pronotum moderately transversely convex, finely pitted, truncate in front, tricarinate; median carina uniseriate, the areolae tiny; lateral carinae less elevated, subparallel; collar raised, with tiny hood; paranota moderately broad, reflexed, testaceous, biseriate in front, uniseriate behind, the outer margin rounded; triangular process testaceous, reticulated. Ely- tra with tips only slightly separated in repose; costal area rather broad, testaceous, mostly bi- seriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae rather small; subcostal area narrow, brownish, mostly biseriate; discoidal area grayish brown to brown, extending to middle of elytra, widest beyond middle, there five areolae deep; sutural area more widely reticulated, the nervures con- siderably embrowned; wings fumose, longer than abdomen. Body beneath black. Length, 2.70e«mm; width, 1.00 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 12 para- types, Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2, 1944; 1 paratype, El Topo, Ecuador, October 5, 1944. Separated from L. distantis Drake in having the costal area triseriate in widest part, narrower subcostal area, and discoidal area narrower apically. Leptopharsa lauta, n. sp. Small, whitish testaceous, the veins in su- tural area considerably embrowned, the areo- lae hyaline, iridescent. Head black, with five long, slender, testaceous spines. Rostrum >: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 361 brown, black at tip, extending beyond middle of mesosternum; laminae low, whitish, tes- taceous, uniseriate. Antennae moderately long, slender; indistinctly pilose; segment I brown- ish black, moderately long, moderately thick, nearly three times as long as IJ; II slenderer, short, brown; III long, very slender, about three times as long as IV; IV moderately thickened, brown, clothed with pale hairs. Body beneath black. Legs very slender, long, yellowish brown, the tarsi dark. Pronotum moderately convex, black, finely pitted, tricarinate; median carina foliaceous, distinctly more elevated than lateral, composed of one row of high, rectangular areolae; lateral carinae low, each composed of one row of elon- gate areolae. Hood rather small, slightly com- pressed laterally, subequal in height and length. Paranota moderately broad, distinctly reflexed, biseriate, the areolae moderately large, the outer margin rounded, beset with moderately long, bristly hairs. Triangular process of pro- notum reticulated, whitish testaceous. Elytra distinctly constricted slightly beyond middle, the outer margins armed with rather long, very slender spines; costal area wide, biseriate along basal half, triseriate in widest part, the areolae rather large and not arranged in definite rows; subcostal area moderately wide, biseriate; dis- coidal area rather short, not reaching middle of elytra, the boundary raised, highest a little be- hind middle. Length, 2.30 mm; width, 0.90 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 11 para- types, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. This species may be separated from L. setigera (Champion) by its smaller size, narrower para- nota and smaller hood. L. fimbriata (Champion) is a distinctly larger species. Leptopharsa luxa, n. sp. Very small, testaceous, the pronotum, collar, carinae, and discoidal, subcostal, and sutural areas brown; areolae hyaline, the areolae in sutural area infuscate with clear centers. An- tennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose, testaceous; segment I brown, short, about twice as long as II; III long, about three times as long as IV; IV mostly black, slightly thickened. Head black; posterior spines testaceous, rather long, adpressed, median spine brown, shorter, directed obliquely upward. Rostrum brownish, black at tip, not quite reaching base of meso- 362 sternum; laminae widely separated, low, tes- taceous. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi dark. Abdomen beneath black, the sternum brown. Pronotum moderately convex, finely pitted, tricarinate; carinae sharply raised, uniseriate, the areolae tiny; lateral carinae slightly di- varicating anteriorly; collar raised anteriorly, finely areolate; paranota long, narrow, sub- angularly projecting in front, testaceous, bi- seriate, the areolae moderately large, hyaline. Elytra widening at base, widest a little beyond base, thence moderately narrowing posteriorly, slightly constricted beyond middle, the apices not overlapping in repose; costal area wide, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae moderately large; subcostal area nar- row, mostly biseriate; discoidal area very nar- row, pointed at base and apex, biseriate or tri- seriate in widest part, not reaching middle of elytra, the areolae small, with whitish opaque centers; areolae of sutural area larger. Length, 2.00 mm; width, 0.80 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 1 para- type, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. This tiny species is not easily confused with other species of the genus. The size, color pat- tern of elytra, and rectangular paranota are distinguished characters. In general aspect it resembles somewhat members of the genus Atheas Champion. Leptopharsa divisa (Champion) Barcena, Guatemala, 1 specimen, November 22, 1944. Phymacysta tumida (Champion) Tingo Maria, Peru, 4 specimens, September 10, 1944; Machala, Ecuador, 2 specimens, September 27, 1944. These specimens tend to be a little larger than most specimens before us from Venezuela, Panama, Trinidad, Haiti, and Brazil. L. malpighae Drake from Cuba belongs to the genus Phymacysta Monte. Leptopharsa cubana Drake is a synonym of L. malpighae Drake. Leptodictya bambusae Drake Many examples taken on _ sugarcane, Machala, Ecuador, September 27, 1944; on Bambusa vulgaris, San Andrés, El Salvador, July 21, 1944, and El Porvenir, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. This species ranges from Texas to Peru and is recorded from the West Indies. It is also recorded as a pest of maize. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 Leptodictya fraterna Monte San José, Costa Rica, many specimens from bamboo, August 20, 1944. This species is closely _ related to L. cretata Champion from which it differs largely in having the basal antennal seg- ment slightly longer and fuscous-black. The second segment is concolorous with the first. Leptodictya ecuadoris, n. sp. Small, black-fuscous, the antennae, paranota and legs testaceous, the pronotum, discoidal and subcostal areas brownish, the areolae of costal area within, the centers of marginal areo- lae, some of the areolae of subcostal area and paranota hyaline. Head with five, testaceous, very long, slender, porrect spines. The median spine longest. Antennae long, slender, indis- tinctly pilose; segment I short, a little stouter and about twice as long as II; III slightly more than three times as long as IV; IV slightly thickened, light fuscous, moderately long. Legs long, slender, testaceous. Rostrum extending on metasternum, yellowish brown; laminae tes- taceous, not widely separated. Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, distinctly pitted, sharply tricarinate; carinae testaceous, each uniseriate, the lateral carinae parallel; hood sharply raised, highest in front, low behind, compressed laterally; paranota bi- seriate above (overlapping part). Elytra broad, the tips separated in repose; outer margins broadly rounded, widest before apex; costal area wide, six areolae deep in widest part, the areolae large; subcostal area uniseriate; dis- coidal area elongate, extending to middle of elytra, narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, there four areolae deep. Male tending to be a little smaller than female. Length, 3.00 mm; width, 1.75 mm—-1.95 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 35 para- types, from bamboo, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. Differs from L. nota Drake in having elytra much broader at base and of different color pattern. In L. nota the elytra are gradually widened posteriorly. Leptodictya laidis, n. sp. Head dark reddish brown, convex above, with five long, slender spines; anterior pair shortest, fuscous, not quite reaching apex of first antennal segments; median spine longest, fuscous, pale at base, extending beyond middle of second segment; hind pair long, ‘a little Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON shorter than median, fuscous, pale at base, di- rected forward, slightly divaricating ante- riorly. Antennae rather long, indistinctly pi- lose; segment I moderately swollen, dark fus- cous, about two and one-half times as long as II; II slightly slenderer, short, dark fuscous; III yellowish brown, long, slightly more than twice as long as IV; IV blackish, long, slightly thickened, slightly bowed. Bucculae wide, blackish; rostral channel deep, rather wide, the laminae brown; rostrum brown, black at tip, reaching middle of mesosternum. Abdomen brown beneath. Legs yellowish brown, the tarsi dark. Pronotum slightly, transversely convex, coarsely pitted, tricarinate, each carina finely uniseriate, the lateral pair parallel, the median slightly more raised in front. Hood low, slightly produced in front, the areolae small, whitish, the nervelets infuscate. Paranota white-tes- taceous, uniseriate behind, biseriate in front. Elytra broad, roundly expanded at base, the tips separated; costal area very wide, rather widely reticulated, five or six areolae deep in widest part, the nervures mostly dark fuscous, the areolae at base and a transverse band (three areolae deep) clear, the rest of the areolae largely infuscate; discoidal area elongate, ex- _ tending beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at base and apex, the areolae clear, the veins dark fuscous; sutural area, widely reticulated, the nervures dark fuscous, some of the areolae clear or not entirely infuscate. Wings smoky, nearly as long as abdomen. Length, 3.80 mm; width, 2.10 mm—2.25 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 40 para- types, from bamboo, Villavicencio, Colombia, November 3, 1944. This species is very pretty, and the color of the elytra is difficult to de- scribe because of the variation in fuscous color of areolae. Leptodictya nigrosis, n. sp. Broad, closely reticulated, dark fuscous, with a large pale spot in costal area opposite apex of discoidal area, the areolae of paranota clear. Head black, with five rather long, brownish spines. Legs slender, brownish. Rostrum brown- ish, reaching beyond mesosternum. Antennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose; segment I short, dark fuscous, nearly twice as long as IT; II slender, yellowish brown; III long, yellow- ish brown, three times as long as IV; IV black- : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 363 ish, slightly enlarged, clothed with long hair. Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, closely pitted; carinae foliaceous, each uniseri- ate, the areolae small; lateral carinae slightly convex within in front, the median a little more elevated. Hood rather small, scarcely produced in front, tentiform, the areolae whitish opaque. Paranota moderately broad, the reflexed part biseriate. Elytra very broad, rounded at base; costal area very wide, with four or five trans- verse nervures slightly enlarged, the areolae small, whitish or fuscous opaque; subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area large, extend- ing beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, the areolae con- fused in arrangement and several deep in wid- est part; sutural area more widely reticulated, the areolae subopaque. Body beneath blackish. Length, 4.15 mm; width, 2.10 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 4 para- types, from bamboo, Tingo Maria, Peru, September 7, 1944. This species is longer than the other dark-colored members of the genus, and more closely reticulated. Leptodictya parilis, n. sp. Moderately large, grayish to dark-fuscous, the areolae hyaline. Head black, with five moderately long, brown spines. The median and front pair erect. Eyes large, dark reddish. Rostrum extending beyond middle of meta- sternum. Antennae rather long, indistinctly pilose; segment I black-fuscous, moderately long, thicker and three times as long as IJ; II brown, short; III very long, brown; IV dark. Pronotum moderately, longly transversely convex, grayish fuscous, tricarinate, the carinae indistinctly areolate, moderately large, inflated, slightly produced in front. Elytra moderately wide, becoming slightly wider posteriorly. The outer margin distinctly, finely serrate; costal area moderately broad, rather closely reticu- lated, with three, transverse, slightly thickened nervures, the areolae not arranged in definite rows, ranging from five deep at base to seven or eight in widest part; subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area elongate, narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, there five areolae deep; sutural area large, becoming more widely reticulated posteriorly. Wings not reaching apex of abdomen, smoky. Length, 3.40 mm; width, 1.60 mm. Type (male), from bamboo, San Andrés, El 364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Salvador, July 21-26, 1944. This species with dark fuscous nervures and clear areolae is probably most closely akin to L. olyrae Drake but readily separated by the longer hood, longer first antennal segment, lower carinae, more longly convex pronotum and differently shaped elytra. In addition to other characters, the hyaline areolae separate it from other dark- colored species with more or less clouded areo- lae. Leptodictya lucida, n. sp. Large, stramineous, the paranota pale, the areolae hyaline, iridescent. Head brown, with five long spines; anterior pair shortest, directed forward, extending a little beyond middle of first antennal segments; median spine very long, extending to tip of first antennal seg- ments; hind pair long, divaricating toward tips. Antennae indistinctly pilose, moderately long; segment I moderately long, thick, about two and one-half times as long as II; III long, slen- der, slightly more than twice as long as IV, the latter dark fuscous. Legs slender, yellowish brown, the tarsi dark. Rostrum reaching a lit- tle beyond mesosternum. Body beneath brown. Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, tricarinate, the carinae indistinctly areolate, the median slightly more elevated in front; lateral carinae slightly divaricating anteriorly; paranota moderately wide, wider in front, mostly biseriate. Elytra very broad, divaricat- ing posteriorly, the tips separated in repose, the outer margin broadly rounded; costal area very wide, with three, transverse, slightly thickened nervures, the areolae not arranged in definite rows, about eight or nine deep in widest part, those within along discoidal area smaller; sub- costal area very narrow, uniseriate; discoidal area long, narrow, widest near middle, there five areolae deep. Length, 3.55 mm; width, 2.20 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 1 para- type; from bamboo, Tingo Maria, Peru, Sep- tember 7, 1944. Separated from L. sodalatis Drake by the shortly pilose antennae, much narrower paranota, differently shaped elytra with smooth lateral margins. Leptodictya decoris, n. sp. Moderately large, broad, rather widely re- ticulated. Head black, convex above, with five brownish spines; front pair extending a little VOL. 35, No. 11 beyond middle of first antennal segments; me- dian and hind pair extremely long, directed obliquely forward. Antennae testaceous, indis- tinctly pilose, the last segment dark fuscous; segment I rather short, thicker and about twice as long as IV; IV slightly thickened, long, clothed with longer hairs. Rostrum brownish, dark at tip, extending between intermediate coxae. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi dark. Body beneath brown to black. Orifice distinct. Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, closely pitted, polished, the paranota, carinae, collar and hood whitish, the hind triangular process of pronotum testaceous to whitish; paranota moderately wide, with single row of transverse, rectangular areolae; hood small, narrow, slightly projecting anteriorly; carinae low, indistinctly areolate, the median slightly higher in front; lateral carinae faintly diverg- ing anteriorly. Elytra broad, broadly rounded at base white-testaceous, the outer nervure thickened and infuscate, the areolae clear, the veinlets along the outer margins sometimes partly infuscate; costal area broad, with six to seven irregular rows of areolae in greater part; subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area elongate, narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, there four areolae deep; sutural area widely areolated. Length, 3.85 mm; width, 2.00 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 14 para- types, from bamboo, Tingo Marfa, Peru, Sep- tember 7, 1944. This very pretty species may be separated from congeners by color, low carinae and broad elytra. The tips of the elytra are moderately separated in repose, the outer mar- gins finely serrate and the areolae somewhat iridescent. : Ulocysta, n. gen. Distinctly lacy, the areolae large and hyaline. Hood very large, covering base of head and ex- tending posteriorly so as to conceal most of hind process of pronotum, united beneath on triangular process with median carina; median carina foliaceous, arising behind disc and ex- tending a little beyond hind margin of hood. Lateral carinae absent. Paranota moderately wide, foliaceous, moderately reflexed. Head short, armed with five spines. Antennae long, slender; segment I very long, stoutest; II very short; III longest, slenderest; IV very long, half the length of III, slightly thickened. Buc- Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON culae rather short, reticulated, closed in front. Rostral channel wide; laminal low; rostrum long. Legs slender, rather long. Orifice atro- phied. Elytra long, divaricating posteriorly, apices widely separated in repose; discoidal area short, not extending to apex of abdomen. Marginal nervure of elytra and median longi- tudinal nervure of hood thickened. Genotype, Ulocysta praestabilis, n. sp. This genus may be separated from Amby- cysta Drake and Hurd by the much larger hood, unicarinate pronotum, long first and fourth antennal segments and short discoidal area of elytra; and from Megalocysta Champion by the long first and fourth antennal segments, raised posterior portion of hood, slender legs and an- tennae, thinner nervures of reticulations and short discoidal area. The genus Alloithucha Drake has much shorter antennal segments and differently formed hood and triangular process of pronotum. Ulocysta praestabilis, n. sp. Moderately large, the areolae hyaline, the elytra strongly divaricating posteriorly, yellow- ish brown, some of the veins darker, head black, the spines testaceous, the median distinctly longer than others. Rostrum brown, extending beyond middle of mesosternum. Body beneath brown. Legs long, very slender, brownish. An- tennae long, very slender; segment I brown, about twice as long as the width of head across eyes; II short, brown, slenderer; III yellowish brown, indistinctly pilose, less than twice the length of IV; IV very long, slightly thicker, clothed with longer hairs, distinctly longer than I, becoming black apically. Hood extremely large, somewhat pyriform, twice as long as high, inflated, widely reticulated, testaceous, the areolae hyaline, the median nervure straight, thick and dark; median carina clouded behind, there two areolae high; two very elon- gate areolae beneath hood. Paranota biseriate, the areolae moderately large, elytra strongly divaricating posteriorly, with marginal and some of the oblique nervures somewhat dark- ened, the areolae large and hyaline; discoidal area scarcely extending beyond apex of hind pronotal process, mostly biseriate, widest a little in front of apex; costal area mostly biseri- ate, triseriate in widest part; subcostal area narrower, mostly biseriate; sutural area widely reticulated. : NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 365 Length, 3.20 mm; width (behind hood), 1.90 mm. Type (female) and allotype (male), San José, Colombia, November 11, 1944. Dicysta hollandi Drake Pucallpa, Peru, 17 specimens, September 5, 1944. Dicysta vitrea Champion Tingo Marfa, Peru, 10 specimens, Septem- ber 10, 1944. Gargaphia nigrinervis Stal Tingo Marfa, Peru, 19 specimens, September 10, 1944; San José, and Villavicencio, Colom- bia, many specimens, November 1944. Gargaphia seorsa, n. sp. Very similar in size, color marking and ap- pearance to G. serjaniae Drake and Hambleton and differs in having longer spines on head, the elytra broadly ovate, and the paranota ex- panded laterally at anterior end, there two or three areolae deep. Rostrum reaching beyond middle of mesosternum. Head with five very long, slender spines, the median spines reach- ing beyond apex of first antennal segment, the front pair a little shorter, the hind pair very long. Paranota rather broad, mostly triseriate, the outer margin rounded, the front margin ob- liquely expanded. Hood moderately large, slightly smaller than in G. serjaniae. Body. be- neath brown. Elytra broad, the outer margin broadly rounded, widest in front of middle; costal area broad, mostly triseriate, quadriseri- ate in widest part. Margins of paranota and elytra finely serrate. Other characters very similar to G. serjantae. Length, 4.25 mm; width, 1.65 mm. Type (male), allotype (female) and 18 para- types, Aguaytia, Peru, Sept. 6, 1944, and 13 paratypes, Pucallpa, Peru, Sept. 6, 1944. The paranota are roundly expanded and without distinct anterior margin; the elytra are widest a little before the apices in repose. Gargaphia neivai Drake and Poor Pichilingue, Ecuador, 6 specimens, October 15, 1944. Known heretofore from Paraguay. Gargaphia opima Drake Numerous examples, Aguaytia and Tingo Maria, Peru, taken on Canavalia ensiformis; 1 366 specimen, Villavicencio, Colombia, November 3, 1944. Gargaphia inca Monte, Rev. Brazil. Biol. 3 (1): 105, fig. 1, 1943, is suppressed as a synonym of M. opima. Gargaphia paula Drake and Hambleton Tingo Maria, Peru, 18 specimens, September 10, 1944. Known heretofore pul from the Canal Zone, Panama. Gargaphia acmonis, n. sp. Moderately elongate, distinctly widening posteriorly. Head black, with five long, testa- ceous spines, the anterior pair shortest. An- tennae long, indistinctly pilose; segment I mod- erately long, rather stout, fuscous-black, three times as long as II; II short, testaceous, slenderer; III slender, testaceous, approx- imately three times as long as IV; IV largely fuscous-black, moderately long, clothed with longer hairs. Rostrum extending to middle of mesosternum. Bucculae closed in front. Ori- fice prominent. Legs long, slender, testaceous, the tarsi dark. Elytra gradually widening posteriorly, the tips somewhat separated in repose; costal area moderately wide, gradually widening poste- riorly, testaceous, uniseriate along basal half, biseriate in widest part, the areolae clear and moderately large. Other characters of elytra and pronotum very similar to G. lunulata (Mayr). Length, 3.30 mm; width, 1.30 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 10 para- types, Tingo Maria, Peru, September 10, 1944; also 5 paratypes, San José, Colombia, Novem- ber 11, 1944; and 1 paratype, Rio Rimac, Peru. The shape of the elytra and uniseriate basal half of costal area separate this species from G. lunulata (Mayr), its nearest relative. Corythaica costata Gibson Many examples, Salinas and Machala, Ecua- dor, September and October 1944; several specimens, Villavicencio, Colombia, November 13, 1944. Corythaica cyanthicollis (Costa) Tingis cyanthicollis Costa, Ann. Mus. Zool. Nap. 1864 (2): 146, fig. 2. Leptopharsa passiflorae Berg, Hemip. Arg. Add. Emend. 1884: 102. Corythaica cyanthicollis Drake and Poor, Inst. Mus. Univ. La Plata 3: 108. 1938. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 11 Corythaica passifloriae Monte, Sao Paulo 1942: 110. San José, Colombia, many specimens, No- vember 11, 1944. This species is one of the commonest and most widely distributed tingi- tids in Neotropical America and one of the most confused species in the literature. Monte, loc. cit., has greatly added to this confusion, and most of his remarks are inept because he has failed to study carefully Costa’s figure of Tingis cyanthicollis. Papeis Avulsos Corythucha gossypii (Fabricius) Barcena, Guatemala, many examples, No- vember 22, 1944; also many specimens from San Andrés, El Salvador, July 21-26, 1944; Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2, 1944; and Managua, Nicaragua, August 1944. This insect is a pest of the cotton plant, eggplant, and pigeon pea. Corythucha decens Stal Los Cerritos, Guatemala; many specimens, July 5, 1944. Corythucha nocentis Drake and Hambleton Machala, Ecuador, tember 27, 1944. many specimens, Sep- Corythucha deceptiva Drake Santa Maria de Jests, Guatemala, many specimens, November 14, 1944. Corythucha seguyi Drake Tingo Maria, Peru, 5 specimens, September 7, 1944. Corythucha serta, n. sp. Moderately large, testaceous, some spots on paranota, hood, tumid elevation of elytra and a transverse band near base of costal area brown to black-fuscous, the areolae hyaline. Hood moderately large, constricted near the middle, narrowed in front, inflated behind, the hind portion about as high as wide. Median carina foliaceous, slightly higher in front, mostly uniseriate; lateral carinae not very high, gradually elevated anteriorly, terminat- ing some distance from hood. Paranota moder- ately large, the outer margin and some of the veinlets beset with short spines. Elytra slightly constricted beyond middle, with rather large tumid elevation; costal area wide, with three rows of rather large areolae, the areolae in transverse band much smaller (except outer ND ae a) NO ee ee ee ean oa eee c ok eee ee el _.- Nov. 15, 1945 row) and more numerous. Antennae testaceous, moderately long, beset with very long, stiff hairs, the fourth segment embrowned. Buc- culae, rostral laminae and body beneath black. Rostrum brown, extending to middle of meso- sternum. Legs brownish, the tibiae testaceous. Length, 3.85 mm; width, 2.25 mm. Type (male), allotype (female), and 40 para- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 367 types, from an unidentified ornamental tree, Lake Atitlén, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. Re- lated to C. decepta Drake and C. setosa Cham- pion but with larger tumid area of elytra and with hood fully twice as large. The hood is much smaller than in C. globigera Breddin or C. untfasciata Champion. In general aspect C. serta resembles more closely wnifasciata. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1236TH MEETING The 1236th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 14, 1944, President STIMSON presiding. Program: GrEorGE A. Gamow, George Wash- ington University: Weizsacker’s planetary theory. —lIt was pointed out that, although this theory had been published in Germany, the speaker’s copy was one of few that had probably been received in this country because of the war. Although the published theory was incomplete in details and possibly open to certain criti- cisms, the speaker considered it worthy of con- sideration and perhaps of further development. (Secretary’s abstract.) Mr. A. J. ScHNEIDEROV presented an in- formal communication on his planetary theory. 1237TH MEETING The 1237th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 28, 1944, President STIMSON presiding. Program: J. BARKLEY Rosser, Cornell Uni- versity: Many-valued logics —The ‘‘Law of the Excluded Middle” to the effect that every exact statement is necessarily either true or false is not an absolute law of nature which cannot be transgressed. On the contrary, it is merely a habit of thought of the human race. There exist orderly systems of reasoning which flatly deny this principle. Such a system was discussed with some illustrative examples. Al- though this system is violently contradictory to accepted tenets of logic, it is quite consistent in itself, and could presumably be used as a basis for scientific thought. It appears to con- tain a mathematics of a most unfamiliar sort, which nevertheless contains certain of the standard features of the familiar mathematics. In a certain sense, one can say that this new mathematics lacks the “sharp edges’ of the old, and this suggests the possibility that, when more is known of the new mathematics, it may be a useful instrument for the treatment of quantum mechanics, which seems to be a sort of physics without “sharp edges.’ (Author’s abstract.) J. ALLEN HYneEk, Perkins Observatory, Ohio Wesleyan University: The ‘‘science’’ of astrol- ogy.—From an astronomer’s viewpoint, the relatively widespread recognition of popular acceptance of belief in astrological precepts is disturbing and out of keeping with the scientific enlightenment characteristic of the present day. Recognizing the possible need for an ob- jective demonstration of the fallacy of certain concepts held by a large part of the astrological- ly inclined, the writer has in his paper presented a statistical analysis of several thousand cases taken from the ‘“‘American Men of Science.” An analysis of the birth date frequency and the “‘aspects’’ of the planet Mercury to all other planets demonstrates by standard statistical techniques that the probability of favorable zodiacal positions of Mercury (astrologically denotes superior mental abilities) in the horo- scopes of ‘‘Men of Science”’ is that given by the ordinary laws of chance. It is hoped that such an objective test might be useful as a classroom example. (Author’s abstract.) 1238TH MEETING The 1238th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 11, 1944, Presi- dent STIMSON presiding. Program: H. A. Marner, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey: Mean sea level——The level of the sea at any point is subject to the dis- turbing influence of various agencies, but 368 principally of tide, wind, and weather. Since the rise and fall of the tide is periodic, with a period of approximately 24 hours, the effect of the tide is practically eliminated by averaging the hourly heights of sea level throughout a day. When this is done, it is found that sea level varies from day to day, month to month, and year to year. Roughly it may be said that from day to day the variations are measured in feet, from month to month in tenths of a foot, and from year to year in hundredths of a foot. From theoretical considerations, sea level should show a periodic variation dependent on the longitude of the moon’s node which has a period of 18.6 years. Hence a determination of mean sea level as the average of the hourly measurements over a period of 19 years may be taken as constituting mean sea level. But for precision it is necessary to specify the period of 19 years, for the observations show a slow secular change. Along the Atlantic coast of the United States, for example, sea level for the past 20 years has been rising at the rate of about one one-hundredth of a foot per year. (Author’s abstract.) 1239TH MEETING The 1239th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 25, 1944, Vice- President Walt presiding. Program: E. O. Hutsert, Naval Research Laboratory: Optics of distilled water and sea water—By means of a spherical scattering flask and a 12-foot absorption tube the scatter- ing and absorption coefficients throughout the visible spectrum were measured in the labora- tory of samples of distilled water, of Chesa- peake Bay, and of the Atlantic Ocean. Subtracting the absorption of pure water from that of the Bay water left a residual blue absorption due to the plankton content of the Bay. The plankton color would therefore be termed ‘‘yellow”’ or ‘“‘amber.”’ This com- bined with the red absorption of pure water caused the Bay to be green, as observed. The result supported the conclusion that the deep blue of tropical ocean areas far from land and the dark gray or green gray of high latitude sea areas far from land are due to the known scarcity and abundance of pelagic planktonic material in the respective areas. The laboratory optical coefficients were in- troduced into the theoretical equations of a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 former paper (Journ. Optical Soc. Amer. 33: 42-45. 1943) and the amount of daylight emerging upward from the Bay and the sea were calculated for various states of the sky ranging from clear to overcast. The theoretical values of the reflectivity of a calm surface of the sea and the Bay increased from about 0.025 to 0.055 as the cloudiness increased from zero to completely overcast. In approximate agreement with theory, values of the reflec- tivity of the sea and the Bay, observed in moderate weather from a boat and an airplane, were 0.02 to 0.03 for a cloudless sky and 0.05 to 0.06 for a cloudy sky. (Author’s abstract.) — 1240TH MEETING - The 1240th meeting, a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences, was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 30, 1944. Program: Rosert H. Monteomery, Foreign Economic Administration: The impact of tech- nology on community life. 1241st MEETING The 1241st meeting, constituting the 74th annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 9, 1944, President STIMSON presiding. The Treasurer reported that the income from dues and interest on investments was $1,483.90 and that the expenditures exclusive of investments was $1,126.88, leaving a net surplus of $357.02 on ordinary expenses. The ordinary expenses were at the rate of $3.30 per member. The total estimated assets of the So- ciety as of December 1, 1944, were $15,721.21. The Secretaries’ joint report showed an ac- tive membership as of December 1, 1944, of 339, of whom the following 29 were new mem- bers: Haroutp V. Arco, Mary Frances ArGo, Pau F. Bartunex, E. H. BRAMHALL, JOSEPH S. Brocx, Epwin Louis Crow, GiLBerT H. CurL, HaskeLu B. Curry, Norman Davips, CHarLes A. Dovuauas, Jacques DvuTKA, RussELL H. Gorr, Laurence B. HEILPRIN, Frep Ke.uer, Jr., E. H. Kennarp, Myron Kirstein, Lours LANDWEBER, SAMUEL LEvy, Jean SytvE Menpovusse, Maruin L. Miter, Martua G. Morrow, Franz H. RaTHMANN, EpGar O. Seaquist, WILLIAM J. SETTE, ALAN H. SHaptey, RaupH R. SHaw, BENJAMIN Nov. 15, 1945 . SussHoutz, CHARLES A. WHITTEN, and M. L. ZIMMER. The Secretaries reported the deaths of J. FRANKLIN MEYER and JESSE PAWLING. Following the report of the Committee on Elections, the following officers were declared elected for the year 1945: President, GrorGE R. Wait; Vice-Presidents, C. L. GARNER and Francis M. Deranporr; Treasurer, FRANCIS E. Jonnston; Recording Secretary, KENNETH L. SHERMAN; Members-at-Large of the General Committee, Wa.tTER L. CHENEY, JOHN W. McBurney, and G. B. ScHuUBAUER. Program: NicHouas P. SeTcukKin, National Bureau of Standards: The ignition temperature of liquids—The self-ignition temperature of a combustible mixture can be defined as the low- est initial temperature from which, under given conditions, the exothermic~ reaction within the mixture will raise the temperature to a point where ignition, evidenced by flame or explosion, will occur. In our tests made at atmospheric pressure, an optimum charge of the liquid, as determined by trial, was injected into a flask raised to a constant uniform tem- perature, the course of the reaction being in- dicated by temperature changes within the re- sulting gas-air mixture. Depending on whether ignition was obtained, tests were made at higher or lower initial temperatures until the lowest ignition threshold was determined. The lag between the introduction of the charge and moment of ignition increased with decrease in initial temperature and, at the level of the self-ignition temperature, varied as between different liquids from a few seconds to 20 minutes. Ignition flasks of 15,000, 1,000, and 200 ml capacity were applied in the tests with varia- tions in details of heating and insulation. Most of the tests were made in the 1,000 ml equip- ment with which temperature uniformity with- in 1°C. was attained. Sharp distinction between ignition and non-ignition within a few degrees C. difference in initial flask temperature was observed for most liquids. Being that only the part of the heat from the ignition reaction not lost to the flask wall and surroundings is available for raising the temperature of the reacting mixture, there should be expected an increase in ignition temperature with decrease in size of ignition chamber, but this effect was not indicated as very marked for the range in PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 369 size indicated above. Thus, for a sample of motor gasoline, respective self-ignition tem- peratures of 240°, 243°, and 248°C. were ob- tained in these chambers, having corresponding surface-to-volume ratios of 0.20, 0.48, and 0.83. (Author’s abstract.) 1242p MEETING The 1242d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 6, 1945, President WalT presiding. The retiring President, H. F. Stimson, of the National Bureau of Standards, delivered his presidential address on the subject The meas- urement of some thermal properties of water. This address was published in this JourNaAL (35: 201-217. 1945). 1243p MEETING The 1243d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 20, 1945, President Walt presiding. Program: JonHN K. Boosaupa, Naval Ord- nance Laboratory: Plastics—today and tomor- row.—A general survey of the plastics industry was presented. A brief discussion of its growth, of types of materials available, and of the methods of processing was followed by a mo- tion picture on molding. The most prolific period in the commercial development oc- curred in the last decade although the first commercial application of a plastics material dates back 75 years. Plastics were discussed under two main types, depending on the nature of the change undergone when exposed to heat: the thermosetting which undergo a chemical change and the thermoplastic which undergo a physical change. Thermosetting resins include the phenolics, the aminoplasts, and the more recent polyesters. The thermo- plastic resins include the cellulosics, the vinyls, acrylics, polystyrene, and polyamides. The former are amenable to compression and trans- fer molding and to laminating and casting; the latter may be continuously molded by in- jection and extrusion. Owing to the intense development in recent years, tomorrow will bring many materials for wide use. A very interesting exhibit of plastics materials and products and an informal discussion period followed adjournment. (Secretary’s abstract.) 370 1244TH MEETING The 1244th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 3, 1945, President WalIT presiding. Program: E. H. Vestine, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington: The geographical distribution of aurora.—A new derivation of the frequency of aurora in days per year in various geographic positions was described, as found on the basis of a revision of earlier data of Fritz, and inclusion of subsequent data of the past 70 years, for the Northern Hemisphere. Isochasms for the Southern Hemisphere were also estimated. Maps showing lines of average equal hourly frequency of aurora were found in good general correspondence with expectations indicated for average current-lines in the atmosphere during geomagnetic bays. (Author’s abstract.) Mr. A. J. SCHNEIDEROV presented an in- formal communication on the gravitational constant. 1245TH MEETING The 1245th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 17, 1945, President Walt presiding. Program: Donatp H. ANDREws, Johns Hopkins University: Explorations near absolute zero.—Recent developments in the technique of adiabatic cooling through demagnetization, as first applied by Giaque, have pushed the limit of attainable temperature to within 0.005° of absolute zero. The thermodynamic signifi- cance of the low temperature region is illus- trated in the fact that the calculated vapor pressures of all known substances drop far be- low the negative hundredth power of ten atmospheres. One might expect this to be a region where no equilibrium of any kind could be attained, a graveyard of thwarted free energy. Paradoxically, in the region within a few degrees of absolute zero, there have been discovered two of the most mobile phenomena ever found, superconductivity and the super- fluidity of helium. In superconductivity and its resultant persistent currents, we have one of the nearest approaches to ordered macro- scopic perpetual motion, occurring, strangely enough, in what might have been expected to be the region of perpetual rest. In superfluidity, we have an example of almost a hundredfold abnormally large thermal-conductivity and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11 ¢ small viscosity in a fluid which appears to have the ordered structure of a solid. These effects appear to be related to the quantization of energy and the resultant enhancing of phe- nomena especially dependent on the character of the statistics controlling the behavior of the particles. The possible use of these phenomena to provide supersensitive instrumental analy- sis of other phenomena at both low and high temperatures has been illustrated by the con- struction of a bolometer employing a super- conducting filament as the radiation receiver. By using radiation sources at temperatures in the neighborhood of 25° K, it has been shown that such a bolometer will detect increments of energy of the order of 5X10~ ergs per second and evidence has been obtained for the validity of the fourth power radiation law for wave lengths in the neighborhood of 100 microns. (Author’s abstract.) Mr. MicuarL GoLpBERG presented an in- formal communication concerning the diameter | of cylinders and spheres, using models in a demonstration. 1246TH MEETING The 1246th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 3, 1945, President Walt presiding. Program: Douauas F. WinnEx, The Winnek Laboratories, Mount Vernon: Trivision—a direct-vision color stereograph.—The method being developed in this laboratory uses stand- ard photographic film, the back of which is processed, in effect forming many small cylin- drical lenses. For exposure the emulsion side of the film is turned away from the camera lens. The problems and progress of development were outlined and some of the possibilities and | probable uses were indicated. Sample photo- graphs of various subjects created considerable interest and indicated real accomplishment. (Secretary’s abstract.) 12477TH MEETING The 1247th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 17, 1945, President WAIT presiding. Program: A. G. McNisx, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington: The odograph.—The vehicular odograph is an instrument for automatically making a map of the course followed by a ~~ a Nov. 15, 1945 vehicle. It was developed in its experimental stages at the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton under a contract with the Office of Scien- tific Research and Development in accordance with a directive from the Office of Chief of Engineers. Engineering the device for produc- tion was accomplished by the Monroe Calcu- lating Machine Co. and by the International Business Machines Co., which companies later manufactured it for the Army. The device consists of a magnetic compass, which is “‘followed”’ by a photoelectric system, and an integrating unit. Information regarding heading of the vehicle and information regard- ing distance traveled are fed into the integrat- ing unit from the compass and the speedometer cable, respectively. Motion of the vehicle is mechanically resolved into north-south and east-west components by the integrator. Move- ments proportional to the distance travelled in each of these directions is brought up to a pair of perpendicular lead screws which drive a stylus on a map paper. In this way the course followed by the vehicle is accurately portrayed. Experimental tests show that under normal conditions an accuracy of from one to two per cent can be expected from the device, better results not being infrequent, and even under severe operating conditions the errors remain small enough that the instrument serves many useful functions. (Author’s abstract.) 1248TH MEETING The 1248th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 31, 1945, President Walt presiding. Program: A. H. Stons, Geophysical Labora- tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington: Elec- trical networks and “squaring the square.’’—This talk summarized a paper by R. L. Brooks, C. A. B. Smirn, A. H. Srone, and W. T. Tutte (‘‘On the dissection of rectangles into squares’), which appeared in the Duke Mathe- matical Journal, vol. 7, 1940. The problem considered is this: Can a square be dissected into a finite number of smaller square pieces, no two of which are equal? More generally, what kinds of rectangles can be dissected into unequal squares (‘‘squared’’)? Rather unex- pectedly, the complete solution follows from - considerations of classical applied mathematics. Any “squaring” ofa rectangle can be repre- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 371 sented by a steady flow of electricity in a net- work, the currents being proportional to the sides of the squares. Considerations of sym- metry in the network enable one to construct different ‘‘squarings’’ of the same rectangle, and thus to “‘square’’ a square in infinitely many different ways. It follows that a rectangle can be “squared”’ if and only if its sides are commensurable. ‘Squared’ rectangles can have as few as 9 square pieces, but no fewer. A square can be dissected into 26 unequal squares, possibly fewer. (Author’s abstract.) Mr. L. B. TuckerRMAN presented an informal communication on adding strength to struc- tural parts by cutting away material. 1249TH MEETING The 1249th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 14, 1945, President WalrT presiding. Mr. SiusBex, Chairman of the Joseph Henry Lecture Committee, introduced JOHN VON NEUMANN, of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, who delivered the fourteenth Joseph Henry lecture, Causality, statistics, and quantum mechanics. It is expected that this lecture will be published in this JourNAL. 1250TH MEETING The 1250th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 28, 1945, President Walt presiding. Program: Wiuu1amM F. Brown, JR., Naval Ordnance Laboratory: Ferromagnetic domains. —The Weiss “‘molecular field’”’ theory explained the large magnetization of ferromagnetic ma- terials but predicted spontaneous magnetiza- tion even in zero field. To overcome this difficulty, Weiss postulated that the material really is spontaneously magnetized over micro- scopic regions or ‘‘domains,’’ which in zero field are magnetized in different directions. Despite quantum-theory improvements on Weiss’s theory, domains must still be postu- lated. At small fields, the domains are magnetized along “‘directions of easy magnetization’ de- termined by crystalline anisotropy; the field causes a larger volume to be magnetized in some of these directions and a smaller volume in others. At large fields, the spontaneous mag- netization rotates toward the field direction. The second stage is reversible and therefore 372 easily handled theoretically. The first stage is more difficult to interpret. Experiments on the Barkhausen effect, powder patterns, and alloys under tension suggest that one domain grows at the expense of another by displacement of the ‘‘wall’’ between them. A theoretical study of the ‘‘wall” supports this idea. Walls undergo small displacements reversibly, but ultimately they reach unstable positions and move ir- reversibly through finite distances; this is the mechanism of the Barkhausen effect and hysteresis. (Author’s abstract.) Mr. A. H. Mears presented an informal communication on an instrument developed for obtaining data for statistical study and its use in connection with a wind turbine for generating power. 1251st MEETING The 1251st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 12, 1945, President WalIT presiding. Program: STERLING B. HeNpRIcKs, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering: Photoperiodic flowering response of plants —Floral development in plants as in- fluenced by length of day was discussed in de- tail and illustrated by examples within the experience of the audience. Results recently obtained by H. A. Bortuwick, M. W. ParKeEr, N. J. Scuuiy, and the speaker were presented. Spectroscopic equipment used to determine the action spectrum for floral initiation in Biloxi soybean was described. The following theory consistent with past observations was advanced: A material form- ing in the chloroplasts during the dark period diffuses from the leaf to the growing point and, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES between certain concentration limits, causes floral development. Light absorbed by chloro-— phyll partially destroys this material at its source by sensitized oxidation. At high concen- trations, such as produced in long-day plants under short-day conditions, the material in- hibits flowering. Continuous illumination of a long-day plant reduces the concentration of the material to the critical range. This range is at- tained in short-day plants only when the night _ is adequately long. (Author’s abstract.) 1252p MEETING The 1252d meeting was held in the Cosmos — Club Auditorium, May 26, 1945, President WalIT presiding. Program: WILLIAM B. KoUWENHAVEN, Johns Hopkins University: Electric shock—physiologi- cal manifestations and treatment.—The speaker outlined the problems relating to electric shock, discussed the effects of electric currents passing through the body, and described methods of resuscitation. The importance of immediate ap- plication of artificial respiration methods and their uninterrupted and continued use was stressed. The method of applying artificial. respiration atop the poles of power lines was given and illustrated in some detail. Results were given of comparisons between this method VOL. 35, No. 11 a is + bia “<= | and the normal method by which the patient | is first brought down the pole and placed prone on the ground. (Secretary’s abstract.) . Mr. L. B. TucKkerRMaN presented an informal communication relating to the equation of a curve like that at the seams of the cover of a baseball. KENNETH L. SHERMAN, Recording Secretary. \ LAV Se ae BACK ISSUES OF JOURNAL WANTED . During the past several years the Cus- todian and Subscription Manager of Pub- lications has received from various members of the Academy many numbers of the JOURNAL that were no longer needed by them. These contributions have made it possible to assemble several complete sets. At the present time there is urgent need for those issues of the JourRNaL in Volumes 1 to 10, inclusive. Accordingly, members who may have any such numbers that they no longer wish to keep are urged to send them to Frank M. Serrzuer, Custodian and Subscription Manager, U.S. National Mu- seum, Washington 25, D.C. CONTENTS BroLtocy.—Suggested terms for the interpretation of speciation phe- nomena: : S. DmLON RIPLEY. £0) SoC POR ae ee | ErHNoLocy.—Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of wild turkeysand passenger pigeons. ERnrestS. Dopan......... Botany.—Scab of Cinchona in South America caused by Elsinoé. Anwa E, JENKINS. 3050 od be oh ee Botrany.—Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. (Rutaceae: Aurantioideae). FRANK D. VENNING....... EntromoLoey.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C. J. Draxe and. E. J. HaMBunron..”. 602), 0.0 ee Cok ee ce PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY... ......... ccc ewevccunces Bacx Issurs oF JOURNAL WANTED...) 2.203. 320777. 42 ee This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 337 342 344 356 Bere ee hh ee ae Th aa by pele x hei nite Lea 4, f . 7 Wy: 4 ain ba a eT" ; ¥ DECEMBER 15, 1945 ' No, 12 4 r 4 SO JOURNAL : Bia. ACADEMY SCIENCES ae “s BOARD OF EDITORS ” ) } iE BSc Haraxp A, Retper Wittram N, Fenton i ARDS _, U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ; aae9 / : ; 4 a ASSOCIATE EDITORS . Kracex © Ls / ALAN Stonn bh PHICAL SOCIETY oy ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ght Tating SB i : | | Ira B. HANSEN © s Rapa W. Imuay . .L SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY : . E. Lone.ey »%- ~ “Dane Srawart |. y Oe BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY =~ . : 4 alae tle Y., “ i ‘. — amide ee ~ James I. Horrman a | CHEMICAL SOCIETY ’ 4 ; : ; oh (* » Say Fs ae pore *; - Pa ® _ PUBLISHED MONTHLY ra . te BY THE g tae 2 | WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES . Pray | 450 Aunarr Sr, aut Vike: | , ¥ aT MENASHA, WISCONSIN _ Bee we Ma | a aus 74 A bi 4 ? Ayr * . 2 ‘Bauer as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: 1 ri =k cM, for x mailing at epecial rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28 .1925 ya aN E Authorized January 21, 1933. BE 5 on - f2 x hat ‘ “ Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences E Son This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Borcaabe cibhiohon: ne (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the ne emy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. 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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other <3 Re societies. Ns 1 ee OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY et Re President: Joun E, Grar, Smithsonian Institution PS alt ae aes Secretary: FERDINAND G. BRICK WEDDD, National Bureau of Standards. Miige ee N Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappers, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. sy, 4 a Archivist: NatHan R. Situ, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Sutzimr, U.S - National Museum. - ‘ f poke JOURNAL OF THE VouLuME 35 LINGUISTICS.—Siz common Navajo nouns accounted for “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DrcEMBER 15, 1945 No. 12 JOHN P. HARRING- TON, Bureau of American Ethnology. The Navajo Indians are North America’s largest tribe and occupy the biggest Indian reservation in the United States, which is situated in the States of Arizona and New Mexico. A half dozen of some of the very most widely known words of the Navajo language, each with a new derivation or connection, are here presented. The Navajo word for bean of any kind, Phaseolus vulgaris L. and other spp., is naa’oli. To one conversant with the far- swung forms of Spanish frijoles, beans, singular frijol, bean, in several Indian - languages, the source of this Navajo word as Spanish frijoles seems likely. If we accept this postulation, another word for bean must have obtained in Navajo in pre- Spanish times. The name of bean in all the languages surrounding the Navajo has been looked into. The common Navajo term for blanket is _ péeltléi, sometimes pronounced péeltlati. This term not only is used by the Navajo for blanket but is the common term for the famous Navajo blanket, which in English is sometimes called a blanket and sometimes a rug, and for the making of which the Navajo Indian tribe is known all over the world. This word is nothing short of Span- ish fresada, blanket, which is the ordinary Spanish word for blanket, in corrupted form, péeltlati even retaining the three syl- lables of the Spanish. This brings out the interesting fact that not only is the Navajo blanket largely due to Spanish accultura- tion but also that its name is derivative to Spanish. The Navajo call a white man Pilik4ana. This is from Spanish Americano, American, -- with a twist in meaning. United States American is mostly meant, a Mexican being termed apart. Several other terms for 1 Received September 21, 1945. United States American based on soldier dubbings are still more or less in use, while calling United States American by the word meaning enemy, as is done in several Apache languages, is not the practice in the Navajo language of today and may never have been. The center of Navajo craftsmanship is the blanket; the supply for this center is tipé, sheep. Codescendant languages show clearly that this is in origin the name of the wild sheep now extended in meaning to apply to the tame one. The original mean- ing was Clearly the bleater. Navajo kat, juniper, Juniperus mono- sperma (Engelm.) Sarg., is also a very com- mon word as regards its designation. All the Navajo country of lower levels is dotted with kat, juniper trees, and occasionally one sees a juniper tree which has been struck by lightning. This Navajo word is ‘patently the same as the neighboring La- > R guna Keresan k’a’ni, juniper. Since the Navajo are well known to have come from the north, the transmission of the name may well have been in the direction from the Lagunefio to the Navajo. One should distinguish Navajo k’at, now, also of grave intonation, which has the same start as the Laguna Keresan word. In Navajo ka’niJii, white spruce, literally pull-out juniper (referring to the needles being easy to pull out), an earlier *katnijii has had its ¢t smothered, turned into alif. Navajo xd6oGan refers to the native- style house, hogan, while khin means a rectangular house. Sometimes one hears what might be written x¥O60Gan. The word x0oGan means in etymology a dwelling- place, being composed of x6o-, referring to area, and -Gan, a stereotyped verb meaning to dwell. Chiricahua khooGa, native house, is absolutely the same word with the same meaning as the Navajo has. 373 374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12 BOTAN Y.—Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghar Province, China.' Chungking, China. In the summer of 1944 the authors had an opportunity to undertake an expedition to the northwestern part of China. They went to Lake Kokonor in Tsinghai Prov- ince and to Labrang in Kansu Province with a view to investigating the grazing lands and the forage plants of these regions for the National Research Bureau of Ani- mal Industry, China. During this survey they collected nearly a thousand numbers of botanical specimens, which are now de- posited in the herbarium of the National Central University. Naturally there were many novelties found in these two botani- cally very little known regions. One of these specimens represents a new genus of Planta- ginaceae, described herewith. Although the study of the whole collection is far from complete, it seems desirable to publish this new genus at the present time. The authors wish to express here their gratitude to Dr. Vougi Tsai and Prof. Tieh-tsai Chang, the director and vice-di- rector, respectively, of the Bureau, through whose zealous recommendation, kind as- sistance, and financial maintenance the authors were able to conduct the expedition successfully. Kokonoria? Keng & Keng f., gen. nov. Flores hermaphroditi, zygomorphi, trimeres, receptaculo brevissime cupulari, juventate tenuiusculo; calyx gamosepalus, persistens, bilobatus, lobis membranaceis, lateraliter po- sitis, saepissime antice vix conjunctis; corolla sympetala, ad maturitatum subcoriacea sed decidua, breviter trilobata, lobis deorsum im- bricatus, duobus anticis minoribus, tubo quam limbo multo longiore, interdum ad fauces con- stricto, arcte ad marginem receptaculi cu- pularis affixo; stamina 2 (tertium anticum absens), inclusa vel vix exposita, ad vel infra incisiones duas laterales inter corollae lobis in- serta; antherae ad maturitatem inversum V- formae, subsessiles vel a filamentis brevissimis fultae, thecis duabus divergentibus, longitu- 1 Received October 26, 1945. 2 From ‘‘Kokonor,” which means in Mongolian the “‘blue sea.” Yi-t1 Kene and Kwan-Hovu Kene, National Central University, (Communicated by Ecprrt H. WALKER.) dinaliter dehiscentibus, distinctis vel apice confluentibus; pollen ellipsoideum, longitu- dinaliter 3-suleatum; discus perigynus, an- nularis sed serius utrimque lobis duobus elevatis accrescentibus appendiculatus; ovari- um liberum, breviter stipitatum, biloculare, loculis 1-ovulatis; stylus unicus, terminalis, di- morphus, aut brevis inclususque aut longior exsertusque, stigmate terminali, paulum bi- lobulato; ovula linearis, anatropa, ex apice loculi ovarii pendula; fructus drupaceus, brac- tea atque lobis duobus calycis subtentus, bi- seminalis, mesocarpio textura spongiusculo; semina dorsaliter compressa, anguste oblongi- lanceolata, exalbuminosa, in sectione semicir- cularia, testa tenui, laevi; embryo rectus, ra- dicula brevissima, superiore, cotyledonibus ob- longis, subcarnosis. Herbae perennes, humiles, stoloniferae; rhizomata crassa, foliorum basibus emarcidis fibrillosis vestita; folia radicalia, al- ternata, simplicia, integra, inferne attenuata sed basi in structuras membranaceas vaginis similes dilatata; flores parvi, bracteati, desic- catione nigri, in scapis axillaribus quam foliis brevioribus spicati, bracteis magnis, in anthesi praeter eas margines liberas lateri antico re- ceptaculi cupularis inferne plus minusve ad- natis. Species unica, provinciam ‘Tsinghail, prope mare conclusum Kokonoris habitans. Flowers hermaphrodite (always so?), zygo- morphic, trimerous, the receptacle shortly cupular, rather thin in texture when young (as also the calyx); calyx gamosepalous but usually much less united in front, persistent, laterally 2-lobed, the anterior lobe entirely wanting but replaced in the corresponding position by a large bract adnate below to the cupular recep- tacle but with free margins; corolla sympetal- ous, thickened in anthesis but deciduous in fruit, shortly 3-lobed, the posterior lobe larger, descending-imbricate, the tube much longer than the limb, firmly attached to the margin of the receptacle, sometimes constricted at the throat; stamens 2 (the anterior stamen want- ing), included or scarcely exposed, inserted at or just below the two lateral notches between the corolla lobes; anthers inverted V-shaped at maturity, subsessile or with short filaments, Dec. 15, 1945 the two cells divergent, dehiscing lengthwise, distinct or confluent at apex; pollen grains el- lipsoidal, longitudinally 3-furrowed; disk perig- ynous (its attachment seen in a young flower a little below that of the corolla tube), annular but later appendaged on both sides with two prominent elevated lobes; ovary superior, shortly stipitate, bilocular, each locule 1- ovuled; style 1, terminal, dimorphic (either short and included or slender and exserted) with a terminal slightly 2-lobed stigma; ovule linear, anatropous, pendulous from the apex of the ovary cell; fruit drupaceous, subtended by a bract and two calyx lobes, 2-seeded, the mesocarp somewhat spongy in texture; seeds dorsally compressed, narrowly oblong, exal- buminous, semicircular in section; testa thin, smooth; embryo straight, with a short superior radicle and two somewhat fleshy cotyledons. Perennial stoloniferous low herbs with simple stout rhizomes, which are covered with emarcid fibrillose leaf bases; leaves radical, alternate, simple, entire, attenuate below but broadened at base into membranous sheathlike struc- tures; flowers small, bracteate, spicate on axil- lary scapes shorter than the leaves. One species endemic near Lake Kokonor, Tsinghai Prov- ince, China. Heretofore only three not closely related gen- era, Plantago, Littorella, and Bougueria, were known in the Plantaginaceae, all acaulescent herbs with radical leaves and axillary scapes. The genus here described is an isolated one, differing from the others in having (1) perigy- nous flowers with an annular disk giving off two lateral accrescent lobes, (2) subsessile anthers with divergent anther sacs, (3) solitary linear ovules pendulous from the tip of the ovary cells, (4) drupaceous fruits with a 2-celled pyrene, and (5) dorsally compressed but not peltate seeds without endosperm. Comparatively it shows an affinity to the génus Bougueria, which is polygamous, monotypic, and endemic on the high Andes. The 3-merous corolla and the 2-membered androecium of Kokonoria is also found in Bougueria, but Kokonoria differs from that in the 2-lobed calyx, bilocular ovary, and the straight embryo, Bougueria having a calyx of four linear sepals, an ovary unilocular, and an embryo curved around the albumen. According to Dr. 8. Ting, professor of ge- ography at National Central University and a specialist on pollen grains, the ellipsoid, 3- KENG AND KENG: A NEW GENUS OF PLANTAGINACEAE 375 furrowed pollen of this genus is of a common type found in several families, such as Scro- phulariaceae and Umbelliferae. He says it is quite different from that of Plantago, which has rounded many-pored pollen grains. It seems also very worth while to compare the pollen of Kokonoria with that of Littorella and Bougueria, but, unfortunately, the material and literature now available here are inadequate for study of this kind. It seems very probable that the 4-merous flower of the cosmopolitan genus Plantago is formed through the reduction of the posterior odd sepal and the union of the posterior two corolla lobes from a 5-merous sympetalous type such as the Scrophulariaceae. A comparison of the floral structure of Plantago with that of Veronica indicates this conception to be cor- rect. As a result of this reduction, the four sepals are placed diagonally and the four corolla lobes crosswise. When the anterior two sepals of this 4-merous flower are further completely united and the anterior petal suppressed, a 3- merous flower is evolved such as is found in Kokonoria. There is, however, in Kokonoria a tendency toward reduction to a 2-merous struc- ture, for the anterior sepal and anterior stamen are entirely reduced. A further reduction in the union of its anterior two corolla lobes into a single segment would bring the flower to a complete dimerous state. Hence, the genus Kokonoria is evidently much more advanced than Plantago is the reduction of its floral structure. Furthermore, the development of a perigynous flower, annular disk, and exalbumi- nous seeds also shows an advancement of Kokonoria over the other three genera of Pla- taginaceae in the evolutionary scale. But the evolutionary development of Plantaginaceae apparently culminates in the production of a dimerous flower with inferior or half-inferior ovary. A plant with such a floral structure has been found in Circaea, which reaches the cli- max of development in Onagraceae, but it is still to be discovered in the plantain family. Kokonoria stolonifera Keng & Keng f., sp. nov. Herbae perennes, glabrae; rhizomata erecta, 1.5-3 cm alta, 1 cm crassa (foliorum basibus persistentibus fibrillosis includentibus); stol- ones axillares, graciles, cire. 20-30 cm longi, foliis squameis reductis instructi, in plantas juveniles parvas terminantes; folia rosulata, ‘SIQMOP, IOUUTY} WoT ole ,g pus G “7 ‘s1amoy redun{d wo UMBIP ore g pure “G “F “UTeIS uaT[od B JO SMOTA OMY ‘QT /9U04S B JO SMOTA (MOTO) BDBI pus (aA0q®e) OpIs ‘J ] ‘WBISVIP [VIO] ‘QT -UdUIe4S JO SMOIA ro1zeysod pue 1o1eqyue ‘CT {[4std Jo UOTZ0VS [VUIPNyISUOT pue sso1o ‘FT ‘1eMOoy reduinjd woz yn04s J9Y}O OY} ‘LaMOP IOUUTY} B VIO IopUdTS ou oY} ‘s[IysId OM} “ET ‘SUOPa[A}OD OMY PUB oOIPCI Io1oedns yuoys Sutmoys OAIQUIO ‘ZI ‘pods JO SMOIA IOTIOJUV pue szo1seysod ‘{] !4imaj JO UOTZOOS ssoro pure [vUIPNysuo] ‘OT “6 :yUBUUTEI-9[AYs puB ‘xATBo “Qoviq JUO4STSIOd YALM yINIy ‘g SefoyM & sv opovydeoor epndno UO PoPOSUI BI[oIOD SuLMOYS ‘poaoures xA[Bo puB youl YIM Jomoy soduinyd “7, ‘gjoeydooos rvjndno 0} Sulsuojeq out] paz30p MoTeq yaed ‘saBepuodde s4t Y{IM YsIp Ivjnuu pUB SUSTIGIS SUIMOYS S¥I[OI0D popuBdxo JO SMOIA IOII04UT “9 ‘g ‘a]o110 poqyjgop Mojeq opoeydeoor rvpndno yy sedATBO ‘,G¢ ‘Gg’ Saqny xAjeo pue opovydooos repndno 04 sdue1eype jo voldop Zurmoys yred popeysuN IOMO] ‘sy0B1q JO SMOIA IOTIOJUI ‘fF ‘Ff SIOMOP JOUUTYY B JO MOTIA [BV194R] “E ‘qures JO MOTIA [e104R] ‘g ‘1oMoy r9duinjd v Jo MorA sOl1aysod ‘Z ‘y1qey ‘T :edé} ory UMBIP “J SUSY P Susy Diaf1UW070)1s D1LOUOYOY.—"[-| “SDA VOL. 35, NO. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 376 i ak ier Dec. 15, 1945 obscure viridula, plus minusve carnosa, an- guste lanceolata, 15-55 mm longa, 5-6 mm lata, inferne attenuata et petiolis similia, costa media infra prominenti, supra depressa; pedunculi compressiusculi, circ. 1.5 em longi, 1 mm lati sed sursum versus apicem paulum dilatati; spicae pauci- vel pluri-florae, 1-2 em longae, circ. 1 em crassae, erectae vel ad maturitatem pendulae; bractea straminea, membranacea sed dorso firmula, oblongi-lanceolata, 7-8 mm longa, 2-3 mm lata, integra, acutiuscula vel obtusa; flores subsessiles, conferti vel inferiores remoti; calycis tubus saepissime altitudine in- aequalis, in latere antico cire. 1.5 mm altus et in postico 2.5 mm, lobis ovatis, in anthesi late patentibus, 3-3.5 mm longis, 3 mm latis, mar- gine late scariosis sed costa media viridulis, prope apicem crispe ciliolatis; corolla juvenilis membranacea albidaque, aetate subcoriacea puniceaque, tubo circ. 5 mm longo, 3 mm in diametro, extus glabro sed intus ad fauces puberulenti, desiccatione nigro, irregulariter _ rugoso, posteriore plus minusve inflato, lobis erectis, obtusis, ovatis vel subrotundis, colore quam tubo siccano clarioribus, uno postico quam duobus anticis longiore sed multo lati- ore, interdum emarginato, 1-1.5 mm longo, 1.5 mm lato; disci lobi oblongi, cuneati, vel quad- rangulares, 1.5-3 mm longi, 1-2 mm lati, ad maturitatem subcoriacei, irregulariter divisi vel erosi, fusci-brunnei, super ovarii stipitem in- cumbentes; staminis filamentum brevissimum, usque ad 1 mm longum; antherae flavidi-brun- neae, thecis circ. 1 mm longis; pollen 30—40u longum, 13—23u latum, sulcis 3 profundis longi- tudinalibus pervagatum, tenuissime sed_ir- regulariter granulare; ovarium juvenile late- raliter compressum, ellipticum glabrumque, serius lineari-oblongum vel fusiforme, circ. 3.5 mm longum (stipite glabro includente), 1-2 mm crassum, superne puberulum et irregula- riter rugosum; stylus sive crassus cire. 0.5 mm sive gracilis usque ad 5 mm longus, stig- mate capitulato, laevi, minute bilobulato; fructus globularis, 5-7 mm longus, 3-5 mm in diametro, glaber, fusci-brunneus, stylo vel eius residuo persistente superatus, pericarpio sic- cano, circ. 1.5 mm crasso, pyrena lignosa, ni- grescente, tereti sed leviterlateraliter compressa, 4-5 mm longa, 2 mm lata (in latere latiore), basi breviter constricta, apice crescente (in aspectu laterali), in margine antero-posteriore fibris erectis lignosis fimbriata; semen albidem, ~ KENG AND KENG: A NEW GENUS OF PLANTAGINACEAE 377 4mm longum, | mm latum, extrinsecus canali- culo tenui longitudinali medio suleatum; em- bryo semine paulum brevior, cotyledonibus plano-convexis, ultra 3 mm longis. Perennial glabrous herbs; rhizomes upright, 1.5-3 em tall, about 1 em thick ineluding the straw-colored fibrillose leaf bases; stolons slen- der with scalelike leaves, about 20-30 cm long, terminating in small plantlets; leaves several in a rosette, dark green, more or less fleshy, nar- rowly lanceolate, 1.5—-5.5 em long, 0.5-0.6 em wide, acute, attenuate and petiolelike below, the midrib prominent beneath, depressed above; peduncle 2-edged, about 1.5 em long, 1 mm wide but somewhat broadened toward the apex; spikes several- to many-flowered, 1—2 em long, about 1 cm. thick, erect or pendulous at maturity; bract stramineous, membranous but somewhat firm dorsally, oblong-lanceolate, 7-8 mm long, 2-3 mm wide, entire, acutish or obtuse; flowers subsessile, crowded or the lower ones somewhat remote; calyx tube (including the cuplike receptacle) usually asymmetric, about 1.5 mm on the anterior and 2.5 mm long on the posterior side, the lobes ovate, wide open in anthesis, 3-3.5 mm long, 3 mm _ wide, broadly scarious with prominent green mid- ribs, crinkled-ciliolate near the apex; corolla membranous and whitish when young, sub- coriaceous and pinkish when mature, the tube about 5 mm long, 3 mm across, glabrous out- side, puberulent at the throat within, irregu- larly wrinkled when dry, dorsally more or less inflated, the lobes erect, obtuse, ovate or some- what rounded, lighter in color than the tube (seen in dry specimens), the anterior two slightly shorter but much narrower than the posterior one, which is sometimes emarginate, 1-1.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; disk lobes ob- long, cuneate or quadrangular, 1.5-3 mm long, 1-2 mm wide, irregularly cleft, subcoriaceous at maturity, dark brown, pressed against the stipe of the ovary; filaments from very short to 1 mm long; anthers yellowish brown, with sacs about 1 mm long; pollen 30—40y long, 13- 23u wide, longitudinally traversed with three deep furrows, the exine finely but irregularly granular; ovary laterally compressed, ellip- tic and glabrous when young, later becom- ing linear-oblong to fusiform, about 3.5 mm long (including the glabrous stipe), 1-2 mm thick, puberulent and irregularly wrinkled; style either stout, about 0.5 mm long, or slender 378 and up to 5 mm long; stigma capitulate, smooth, bilobed; fruit globular, 5-7 mm long, 3-5 mm across, glabrous, dark brown, sur- mounted by the persistent style or its remnant, the pericarp dry, about 1.5 mm thick; stone (pyrene) woody, nigrescent, terete but some- what compressed laterally, 4-5 mm long, 2 mm wide (the broader side), shortly constricted at base, crescent at apex (in side view) with erect wood fibers on the anterior-posterior mar- gins; seed whitish, 4 mm long, 1 mm wide, out- wardly sulcate with a fine longitudinal median groove; embryo slightly shorter than the seed, with planoconvex Gotyledons over 3 mm long. Type in the Herbarium of the Department of Biology, National Central University, Chungking, China, collected on the exposed bare ground of the steppe, near the ruined city Ch’a-han-chéng, (#€7F4K), about 30 miles east of Lake Kokonor, Huan-yiian-hsien ({2 A #¥), formerly known as Tan-ké-erh (F}3 ff), Tsinghai Province, August 10, 1944, by Y. L. Keng and son (no. 5286). There are two kinds of flowers (see Figs. 3 and 3’) in this species, one near the base of the spike having plumper corollas, subsessile an- thers, and short included styles, the other on the upper part with rather slender corollas constricted at the throat, very short but dis- tinct stamen filaments, and longer exserted styles. Though each flower form possesses two well-developed stamens and a pistil, all the fruits seen are found to have a rather long style or its remnant at the apex. Therefore, further examination is needed to decide whether the flower with a short included style is fertile. It JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12 is quite certain, however, that the flowers are all entomophilous, since the anthers never ex- ceed the erect corolla-lobes which would be necessary for wind pollination. The zygomor- phy of the flower is shown not only by the corol- la with three unequal lobes ‘but also by the calyx, which usually has an unequal union of the two laterally placed sepals. The bract of a rather young flower is dor- sally more or less adherent below to the ante- rior side of the very short cupular receptacle including the calyx tube. But the short calyx tube is sometimes also found to be distinctly exposed in front beyond the adnate portion of the bract. No matter how much the adherence of the bract, the margins are always quite free from either the receptacle or the calyx. If there were no such free margins present, the bract would be easily mistaken in morphology for an anterior lobe of the calyx, which, like the an- terior stamen, is entirely suppressed in this species. The corolla is at first distinctly perig- yhous and very thin in texture but becomes much thicker or even coriaceous at maturity and appears to have increased its size and thickness downward so much that it seems thenceforth to be hypogynous. The deciduous- ness of the corolla is perhaps caused by the protrusion of the enlarged fruit, which ruptures the corolla and causes it eventually to fall off. Another peculiarity is that the annular disk, which is also perigynous with an attachment a little below the corolla, gives off on both sides two large thick and variously shaped append- ages during its development from youth to maturity. ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cyclocephalini.} LAWRENCE W. SAYLor, Research Associate, California Academy of Sciences. The important subfamily Dynastinae has for some time been relatively neglected, taxonomically speaking, and only in the past few years have new species been de- scribed or the larval characters of many species better characterized. In all collec- tions I have seen, numerous United States Species are grossly misidentified, and it is hoped that the present papers will help to rectify this condition. 1 Received August 13, 1945. Ritcher’s paper (1944) is an excellent contribution to the immature stages of these insects. His title, however, Dynastinae of the United States, is very misleading, because this paper includes only a small proportion of the described United States species, and only those adults are mentioned of which he had larvae; thus, of the 18 described genera and 119 United States species listed as valid in Arrow’s latest catalogue (1937), Ritcher treats the larvae and adults of but 12 genera and 20 species. Even though a Dec. 15, 1945 number of these 119 names are not valid, many of them are important and _ well- known species and must be considered. Also, two generic and three specific names that Ritcher uses have been changed; regardless of these taxonomic errors, the paper is very important from an economic standpoint. Casey’s studies in this group have greatly enlarged our synonymy because of his prac- tice of naming trifling variants, but at the same time his Memoirs (1915) gave more detailed information and pointed out more new characters and relationships than had any of his predecessors or contemporaries, including Horn and LeConte; it is indeed too bad that Colonel Casey’s idea of a “‘species’’ was not exactly that of the vast majority of coleopterists; otherwise his work in this family would have stood for some time. I have had the privilege of studying and dissecting all of Casey’s scarab types through the courtesy of Dr. A. Wetmore and Dr. E. A. Chapin, of the U.S. National Museum, to both of whom I am indebted for many favors in the past. The Dynastinae in most instances possess well-chitinized genitalia, and the characters of those of the male are very helpful in specific determination, and wider use should be made of them. Indeed, in such difficult genera as Cyclocephala, it is necessary to dissect and compare the male genitalia in order properly to place many of the trouble- some variants. Dynastine bibliography is now so long and detailed in most genera that very little is to be gained by citing every unimportant reference, as this has already been donein Arrow’s catalogue of world Dynastinae. Thus, in the present series of papers, of which this is the first of four, only the im- portant bibliographical references have been selected and a list of those cited is given at the end of each paper. Keys to all tribes and genera will be given in the last paper of the series. KEY TO THE GENERA 1. Ligula strongly convex, apex very deeply in- cised and declivous; clypeus long and para- bolic, without front angles, and very ob- tusely angulate at midapex; mandibles very long and slender and exposed beyond clypeal apex; male front claw enlarged. Ancognatha Erichson SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 379 Ligula variable, but never more than slightly emarginate, never incised; clypeus of differ- ent shape; claws variable............... 2 2. Color black, mandibles broad, rounded ex- ternally and either exposed beyond or hidden beneath clypeus; clypeus either trapezoidal and short with apex not reflexed or clypeus longer and strongly reflexed, with clypeal suture entirely obsolete and front coarsely GRIDEALG ANG CORWER «4:45 ala sp'e Sie Hodes 3 Color testaceous, often mottled with brown cloudings (only very rarely blackish); clypeal suture always strongly indicated; mandibles extended beyond clypeal apex and MOT VORPORGE Heke li is'wl FOUN hale Bae, Bien 4 3. Clypeus very strongly reflexed apically and faintly emarginate; clypeal suture entirely lacking; base of ligula very deeply and tri- angularly emarginate, apex very narrow; all claws both sexes simple; first segment of hind tarsus longer than next two combined; Pamir bn ESR ig Gi Ei": Coscinocephalus Prell Clypeus faintly emarginate apically and not reflexed; clypeal suture strong; ligula flat- tened at base, apex very broad; front claws of male enlarged; first segment of hind tarsus a little longer than second. Dyscinetus Harold 4. Head very broad, nearly three-fourths width of thorax, clypeus very long and flat, sides parallel and apex subrounded; Central America and ?Texas..... Aspidolea Bates Head definitely less than half as wide as thorax; clypeus variable but never exactly as above (if long, no longer than front). Cyclocephala Latreille Genus Ancognatha Erichson Ancognatha Erichson, 1847, p. 97; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 398; Bates, 1888, p. 297; Casey, 1915, p. 124. Only a single species occurs in the United States, but it is quite variable in color, especial- ly the Mexican examples. Ancognatha manca LeConte A. manca LeConte, 1866, p. 382; Bates, 1888, p. 335; Arrow, 1911, p. 169; Casey, 1915, p. 127. A. aequata Bates, 1888, p. 297, pl. 17, fig. 12. A. perspicua Casey, 1915, p. 126. A. zuniella Casey, 1915, p. 127. A. durangoana Casey, 1915, p. 125. (New syn.) A. laevigata Bates, 1888, p. 297. (New synonymy.) I have examined specimens from central Mexico to Arizona and New Mexico. Varies in color from deepest black, to black with rufo- castaneous elytra and legs, to castaneopiceous with testaceous legs, scutellum, and thoracic margins; most Arizona specimens are the last phase. The length varies from 15 to 19 mm. The very tumid, deeply cleft ligula will readily place the species. 380 Genus Coscinocephalus Prell Coscinocephalus Prell, 1936, p. 145. Anoplocephalus Schaeffer, 1906, p. 259. (Preocc.) Our single species from Arizona is the sole representative of this genus. Coscinocephalus cribrifons (Schaeffer) Anoplocephalus cribrifons Schaeffer, 1906, p. 260; Casey, 1915, p. 124. The maxilla of this uncommon species is en- tirely unarmed (no teeth), and the mentum (ligula) is very strongly acuminate apically as in Cyclocephala hirta, but differs in the base in Coscinocephalus being deeply and triangularly depressed at base. The long and coarsely cribrate clypeus, which is strongly reflexed and faintly emarginate apically, also distinguishes the genus. Genus Dyscinetus Harold Dyscinetus Harold, 1869, p. 123; Casey, 1915, p. 165; Prell, 1936, p. 147. Chalepus Macleay, 1819, p. 149; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 408. Palechus Casey, 1915, p. 174. Arrow lists 20 species of this purely American genus, which ranges throughout the Americas and the West Indies, and many of them are of considerable economic importance. KEY TO THE SPECIES Pygidium entirely and coarsely cribrate; clypeus finely punctured and smooth; eastern United States, west to Texas....morator (Fabricius) Pygidium coarsely to somewhat coarsely but not densely punctured; spaces between punctures highly polished and smooth; clypeus coarsely and transversely rugose; California and east to New Mexico and south to Mexico and West icles Byes ga ty ne Nas picipes (Burmeister) Dyscinetus morator (Fabricius) Scarabaeus morator Fabricius, 1799, p. 24; Arrow, 1937, p. 17. (Dyscinetus.) Dyscinetus trachypygus Burmeister, 1847, p. 79; Bates, 1888, p. 312; Casey, 1915, p. 171; Ritcher, 1944, p. 21 (larva). Dyscinetus discedens Casey, 1915, p. 171. Dyscinetus borealis Casey, 1915, p. 171. This is the common rice beetle which ranges through the mid-eastern States and southern States west to Texas and Kansas. The larvae feed beneath the sod and occur also in compost heaps or near pigpens (Phillips and Fox). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 Dyscinetus picipes (Burmeister) Chalepus picipes Burmeister, 1847, p. 79. Chalepus obsoletus LeConte, 1854, p. 222. (New synonymy.) Chalepus geminatus Jacquelin du Val, 1856, p. 127: Dyscinetus ebeninus Casey, 1915, p. 169. D. subquadratus Casey, 1915, p. 166. D. gilianus Casey, 1915, p. 168. D. laevissitmus Casey, 1915, p. 167. D. puncticauda Casey, 1909, p. 282; Casey, 1915, p. 169. (New synonymy.) D. punctipes Bates, 1888, p. 312. Specimens have been examined from Cali- fornia, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Kansas, as well as from Mexico and the West Indies (Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guadeloupe, and Dominican Republic). The pygidial punctura- tion is highly variable and is usually coarser and sparser in the male, with the female often rather finely and sparsely punctured. In some New Mexican males the pygidium is very cribrately and contiguously punctured at the sides, as is similar in some Mexican males where the pygidium is entirely, coarsely, cribrately, and contiguously punctate over the entire disc; the male genitalia and all other specific char- acters are identical, thus showing how unre- liable the pygidial puncturation (on which many species have been based in the past) really is. The pygidial disc is usually glabrous with long hairs along the apical margin. Genus Cyclocephala Latreille Cyclocephala Latreille, 1829, p. 552; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 398; Bates, 1888, p. 299; Casey, 1915, p. 112, 134; Arrow, 1937, p. 7 (lists additional subgenera). Spilosota Casey, 1915, p. 112. Ochrosidia Casey, 1915, p. 112. Dichromina Casey, 1915, p. 112. This truly American genus contains over 200 described species, as well as many undescribed forms. The species are very difficult to separate by means of the older descriptions, and even present-day descriptions must be very long and exceptionally detailed properly to place the species. Many species feed on pollen in the flowers of Arums and become imbedded in the viscous pollen at the bottoms of the spathes; so far as I know, C. dimidiata Burmeister is our only species possessing this habit, and it occurs commonly in the flowers of the jimsonweed (Datura) in California (Van Dyke and Saylor). One Central American species (prolongata Dec. 15, 1945 Arrow) has the head and thorax very long and exceptionally narrowed anteriorly, apparently an adaptation for feeding in the blossoms of a narrow flower. Our American (United States) species have been worked over by Casey in great detail, who described many variants, so that we have 39 names for what I consider to be only 10 valid species. In this study I have examined nearly 3,000 specimens in many collections during the past eight years. The male tarsi are always enlarged in this genus and the female claws are small and sim- ple. The male genital characters are good, if carefully studied and compared. KEY TO THE MALES (Check male genitalia in doubtful specimens) 1. Front tibia unidentate (smooth behind apical tooth); dorsally with fine sparse hairs; clypeus parabolic and angles not indicated; Peete. 22 UP. knobelae (Brown) Front tibia always bidentate or tridentate or if apparently unidentate then the head black and clypeus narrow and nearly impunctate re an yc ae ox wove oo bins act 2 2. Front tibia peculiarly bisinuate externally (Fig. 1, n); head black; clypeus very narrow and rather long, apical half smooth and im- punctate, apex strongly reflexed and sub- rounded, angles narrowly rounded; appar- ently glabrous above; thorax with two large piceous spots before midapex and a small piceous spot each side of disc; Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia. .settdiosa LeConte Front tibia bidentate or tridentate; other char- BGUS NOL AS ADOVEs ... «6 .cbeeccnneis, tp se ee 3 3. Clypeus trapezoidal, apex subrounded and re- flexed, angles very broadly rounded; disc very smooth and very sparsely and exceed- ingly finely punctured, to nearly impunctate; thorax and elytra with sparse erect hair, that of pygidium much longer; upper tooth of front tibia obsolete; Georgia, Alabama, ti ae eg ie eel aa puberula LeConte Clypeus variable but always strongly sculp- RS Oe ert FE Fe ko a) 4, Large claw front tarsus very strongly and widely cleft and upper tooth nearly as wide as apical one but much shorter in most cases (Fig. 1, 1); tarsi subequal to or shorter than tibia; head black and elytra testaceous, otherwise rufous; antennal club ovate, only as long as segments 3-7 of stem; Mississippi west to California, south to South America. dimidiata Burmeister Large claw always much more narrowly cleft ar chy emu, 22 Pe US. ORS ONe: FBI 5 SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 381 5. Clypeus very strongly narrowed apically, apex narrowly reflexed; clypeal suture’ very strongly bisinuate, entire disc very grossly scabrose and entirely punctured; antennal club shorter than stem; fresh specimens with moderate to dense dorsal hairs; ligula strongly narrowed apically and apex pointed (Fig. 1, w); California to Texas. hirta LeConte Clypeus not as above; ligula variable but never actually pointed apically.............6+.- 6 6. Clypeus fairly long, sides often nearly straight behind and only faintly convergent apically, apex subtruncate and very strongly and highly reflexed; dise very coarsely and trans- versely, rugosely wrinkled; antennal club large and longer than the stem; California, Lower California, and Arizona. longula LeConte Clypeus not as above and dise never coarsely and transversely’wrinkled............... 7 7. Color usually dark castaneopiceous, the thorax lighter; above densely hairy; clypeus long and flat, hardly narrowed at front, apex only faintly reflexed; thorax with a broad, longi- tudinal impunctate band at middle; scutel- lum entirely and densely hairy; Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas..... robusta LeConte Color usually testaceous or rufocastaneous, often with castaneous cloudings; clypeus definitely narrowed apically; thorax without road impunetate Dand.4)5 =. Sea a ects. o's 8 8. Scutellum strongly punctate; pygidium finely and entirely scabrous in basal two-thirds or more (and rarely even to apex), apical area usually densely punctate but polished and smooth between punctures; common Cali- fornia and Arizona, rare New Mexico and Peas. SUPT. MOA pasadenae (Casey) Scutellum punctate or not; pygidium usually not alutaceous or cribrose in more than basal third or fourth; eastern species, rarely west COAPORRS IO A LO SAR Ut et. 9 9. Pygidium very sparsely and finely punctate the punctures of center disc hard to see, disc usually surface smooth and hairy (frequently hairs nearly entirely worn off); scutellum coarsely and usually densely and setiger- ously punctate (genitalia Fig. 1, ¢g through u); Arkansas and eastern United States. borealis Arrow Pygidium minutely cribrate at least near base the punctures of center disc coarse and ob- vious; disc denser punctured than borealis; scutellum impunctate or very sparsely punc- tured with apical half usually smooth (genitalia Fig. 1, y and z); North Carolina and Georgia, west to Kansas and Texas. immaculata Oliver KEY TO THE FEMALES (Females of knobelae and setidiosa not included) 1. Hind tarsus much shorter than tibia, or at least definitely shorter; head with the front 382 coarsely, moderately densely punctured, not rugose; clypeus long and subtruncate, apex reflexed, disc coarsely transversely cribrate; pygidium entirely and cribrately punctate. 2 Hind tarsus subequal to or longer than tibia. .3 2. Antennal club ovate and short, length of club 2-3 times as long as width through middle of leaves; elytra testaceous and thorax almost always red (very rarely black); western United States and Central America. dimidiata Burmeister Antennal club long and slender, length of club 4—5 times as long as width through middle of leaves; color always testaceous with thorax a little rufous; Arizona, California, Lower California. 3h) 200 ore longula LeConte 3. Clypeus highly polished and smooth, hardly punctate or very finely punctured; front tibia bidentate with an obsolete upper tooth; pygidium very finely and sparsely punctured and polished; Georgia, Alabama, and Flor- WC sdcers «Ca eage es mee puberula LeConte Clypeus always densely punctured......... 4 4. Body very robust; clypeal disc uneven, sud- denly depressed at and on the strongly bi- sinuate suture, the disc very coarsely and entirely rugosely punctate; clypeus strongly narrowed in apical entirely rugosely punc- tate; clypeus strongly narrowed in apical half; ligula narrowed to a broad but sharp point; California and Nevada east to Texas. hirta LeConte Body smaller and much less robust; clypeus and head not as above; ligula never exactly Pontes * aj AMeX. ceo. ke ea ie ee eit 5 5. Elytra at middle of lateral margin with a slight to strong, but very discernible, explanate and lobate callus, especially noticeable, when not well developed, in ventral-lateral view, and here the sudden widening of mar- Pins distinels cnkiees covey oe Hiebece 6 Elytra without a lateral callus or enlargement. 7 6. Lateral swelling of elytra usually rather large and quite noticeable; sides and basal corners of pygidium very coarsely cribrate; mentum usually definitely flat; eastern States west to Wexas (Ara? > SU Sas emmaculata Oliver Lateral swelling of elytra usually narrow though obvious if looked for; mentum and part of ligula usually rather strongly convex or at least noticeably convex; Arkansas and eastern United States...... borealis Arrow 7. Color dark castaneous, thorax rufous, usually strongly pilose above, especially the elytra (hairs often abraded); clypeus strongly nar- rowed from the base; uncommon in Louisi- ana and Arkansas........ robusta LeConte Color testaceous to rufotestaceous, with cas- taneous cloudings; glabrous above; clypeus narrowed from about the middle; common in California, Lower California, and Arizona, east to’ Texas :. si7sucis pasadenae (Casey) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12 Cyclocephala knobelae (Brown) Ochrosidia knobelae Brown, p. 23; Sanderson, 1940, p. 380. I have not seen this species, and the notes are taken from Sanderson. Described from Hope, Ark., and not taken since to my knowl- edge. The small size (9 mm) and the singly toothed (apical tooth only present) front male tibia should readily separate the species. The genitalia as pictured by Sanderson are allied to those of hirta, but the paramere base is nar- rower here and the sides are evenly rounded near base. Cyclocephala dimidiata Burmeister Cyclocephala dimidiata Burmeister, 1847, p. 57; Sanderson, 1940, p. 379; Casey, 1915, p. 161 (Dichromina); Saylor, 1937, p. 70 (Dichromina). Ochrosidia ocularis Casey, 1915, p. 162. (New synonymy.) Cyclocephala elegans Horn, 1871, p. 337; Casey, 1915, p. 162 (Dichromina). (New synonymy.) This common species ranges from Arkansas and through the southwestern United States, to Mexico and Central America and South America. Damages green fruits and leaves of fruit trees; roses and walnuts in California are frequently damaged or defoliated. The grass roots of lawns or golf greens are commonly at- tacked. Closely related to longula in the male genitalia (a little longer parameres there), this species differs mainly in the constant coloration as well as the ovate antennal club, the same being very well developed in longula. Cyclocephala puberula LeConte Cyclocephala puberula LeConte, 18638, p. 80; Casey, 1915, p. 147 (Ochrosidia). I have seen specimens of this relatively un- common species from Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. The male genitalia are near those of hirta, but externally the species are very dif- ferent. Cyclocephala setidiosa LeConte Cyclocephala settdiosa LeConte, 1856, p. 79; Casey, 1915, p. 158 (Ochrosidia). An uncommon species from Mississippi, Ala- bama, and Georgia. The male genitalia are ex- actly the same as longula, but externally the species are quite different: in longula the mid- apical thoracic margin is definitely but ob- Dec. 15, 1945 SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 383 q T S t u v Ww x ? rd Fig. 1.—a, Male genitalia of Cyclocephala hirta; b, ligula of Coscinocephalus cribrifons; c, ligula of Ancognatha manca; d, maxilla of Coscinocephalus cribrifons; e, male genitalia of Cyclocephala pasa- denae ; f, male genitalia of C. robusta; g, male genitalia of C. longula; h, male genitalia of C. dimidiata; t,male genitalia of Ancognatha manca; j, male genitalia of Cyclocephala puberula; k, male genitalia of Dyscinetus morator; l, front male claw of Cyclocephala dimidiata; m, head and clypeus of male C. longula; n, front tibia of male C. setidiosa; o, front claw of male C. longula; p, male genitalia of Coscino- cephalus cribrifons; q, male genitalia of Cyclocephala borealis (typical form, from Pennsylvania); 7, same, from Malcolm, Nebr.;s, same, from Egypt, Ga.; t, same from Egypt, Ga.; u, same, from Orlando, Fla.; v, male genitalia of Dyscinetus picipes; w, male ligula of Cyclocephala hirta; x, male lingula of Ancognatha manca; y, male genitalia of Cyclocephala immaculata (commonest form, from Georgia), z, same, from Texas. 384 tusely prolonged anteriorly, the clypeal disc is coarsely and entirely punctate, and the fore tibia is tridentate; in setzdiosa the fore thoracic margin is not prolonged, the clypeal disc is im- punctate in apical half, and the fore tibia is different (Fig. 1, n). Cyclocephala hirta LeConte Cyclocephala hirta LeConte, 1861, p. 346; Casey, 1915, p. 1382 (Spilosota); Saylor, 1937, p. 69. Spilosota palidissima Casey, 1815, p. 1383; Saylor, 1937, p. 69. S. magister Casey, 1915, p. 132. S. anconspicua Casey, 1915, p. 133. S. nubeculina Casey, 1915, p. 131. (New synon- ymy.) S. lurida Bland, 1863, p. 354. (New Synonymy.) Subspecies: Cyc. (Spilosota) hirta pilosicollis Say- lor, 1936, p. 2; Saylor, 1937, p. 69. The mentum is very strongly acuminate and pointed, with the maxilla emerging from the sides of the point. The maxilla have only three minute, hardly discernible teeth. A widely dis- tributed species, and I have seen very large series from California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona Texas, and Lower California. The species is usually testaceous, with castaneous and irregu- lar cloudings on thorax and elytra; most of the Arizona and Texas forms are entirely testa- ceous. The subspecies pilosicollis Saylor ranges from Sacramento and Davis in central California to Burbank and Pasadena in California. It is dis- tinguished from the typical form by the light testaceous color and the very long hairs over the front, thorax, elytra, and pygidium. Cyclocephala longula LeConte Cyclocephala longula LeConte, 1863, p. 79; Casey, 1915, p. 158 (Ochrosidia); Saylor, 1937, p. 69. Cyclocephala californica Arrow, 1937, p. 9 (n. n. for rustica). (New synonymy.) Ochrosidia abrupta Casey, 1915, p. 152; Saylor, 1937, p. 69. (New synonymy.) . phasma Casey, 1815, p. 153. . obesula Casey, 1915, p. 156. . oblongula Casey, 1915, p. 156. . rustica Casey, 1915, p. 157 (not Ol. 1789). . reflexa Casey, 1915, p. 1538. . marcida Casey, 1915, p. 155. (New synonymy.) . rugultfrons Casey, 1915, p. 154. (New synon- ymy.) O. prona Casey, 1915, p. 157. (New synonymy.) O. ambiens Casey, 1915, p. 155. (New synonymy.) O. modulata Casey, 1915, p. 154. (New synon- SSeS 0S ymy.) Cyclocephala abrupta Casey, Ritcher, 1944, p. 17, (larva). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, NO. 12 This widely distributed species, known from Oregon, Arizona, Lower California, Utah, and all parts of California is extremely common in the last state during most of the summer nights and is commonly attracted to light. The color varies very little, and the elongate form and sharply reflexed clypeus will readily place the species. I expressed the opinion in 1937 that abrupta Casey would probably prove to be the same as the earlier-described longula LeConte and the recent study of long series from the Ross and Michelbacher trip to all parts of Lower California has proved the two synony- mous. Very close to dimidiata in male genital and most other characters but especially dif- ferent in the much longer antennal club of both sexes, and the forked front claw in the male of dimidiata being here at most finely cleft, or entire. Cyclocephala robusta LeConte Cyclocephala robusta LeConte, 1863, p. 79; San- derson, 1940, p. 380. C. nigricollis Burmeister, 1847, p. 54; Horn, 1871, p. 336. Ochrosidia nigricollis Burmeister; Buchanan, 1927, p. 167. O. subvittata Brown, 1930, p. 5; Sanderson, 1940, p. 380. Sanderson (1940) has pointed out his belief that robusta and nigrocollis were not the same species, basing his opinion on the examination of the female type of Burmeister’s. Horn in 1871 examined the types of both species and considered them identical and Buchanan did likewise in 1927, following Horn. Sanderson separates the two on the shape of the front thoracic angles, length and shape of hind spurs, distance apart of the front tibial teeth, and the presence or absence of a dilation at middle of lateral elytral margin; considering these char- acters, all are highly variable in this large genus, with the exception of the last one, namely the swollen margin of the elytra, and so far as I have experienced this varies but little; therefore the two species may be different, but it will be necessary to secure series and males to be really sure. The species is known from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. A single male recently collected on cotton at Lavaca, Tex., is this species, although appearing quite different in color: entirely testaceorufous above with a broad castaneous stripe adjoining the elytral suture, and also coloring the apical eighth of Dec. 15, 1945 the elytra, and with a small dark posthumeral umbo spot. Cyclocephala pasadenae (Casey) Ochrosidia pasadenae Casey, 1915, p. 148; Say- lor, 1937, p. 70 (Cyclocephala). O. arizonica Casey, 1915, p. 149 (New synon- ymy.) O. melina Casey, 1915, p. 149. (New synonymy.) O. pusilla Casey, 1915, p. 150. (New synonymy.) O. facilis Casey, 1915, p. 150. (New synonymy.) O. validiceps Casey, 1915, p. 148. (New synon- ymy.) O. ovatula Casey, 1915, p. 151. (New synonymy.) I have examined great series of this common species, which ranges from Lower Calfornia, throughout California, and west through Ari- zona, New Mexico, and Texas. It is not very variable. Cyclocephala borealis Arrow Cyclocephala borealis Arrow, 1937, p. 172 (n. n. for villosa Burmeister). Cyclocephala villosa Burmeister, 1847, p. 54 (non Blanchard, 1846); LeConte, 1863, p. 79; Saylor, 1937, p. 69; Sanderson, 1940, p. 382. Ochrosidia villosa Burmeister, Casey, 1915, p. 147; Hayes, 1918, p. 135 (biology); Ritcher, 1944, p. 18 (larva). O. parallela Casey, 1915, p. 144. (New synonymy.) Distributed from Arkansas and east, rather common along the eastern coast. The pygidium and apical areas of the elytra are usually cov- ered with long and erect hair, but this is very frequently entirely abraded. The male genitalia appear to be more variable in this species than in any other United States species; the Nebras- ka specimen figured (Fig. 1, r) has the male genitalia somewhat similar to those of immacu- lata, but the small lateral toothlike angulation is not sinuate apically at its base, as is the lat- eral tooth in immaculata. The male genitalia of parallela specimens from Georgia and Florida look superficially a little different owing to the more rounded lateral process of the para- meres, but the slight variations as shown in the two figures of the Georgia specimens (Fig. 1 sand), plus the figure of the Florida specimens (Fig. 1, uw) show how the small notch between the small submedian tooth (or toothlike dila- tion) and the more basal dilation is filled in, and how the resulting rounder and less-incised genitalia is that of an entirely different-appear- ‘ing species. SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 385 Cyclocephala immaculata Olivier Cyclocephala immaculata Olivier, 1789, p. 29; Bates, 1888, p. 334; Sanderson, 1940, p. 384: Saylor, 1937, p. 70. C. frontalis Sturm, 1843, p. 116. Ochrosidia rufifrons Casey, 1915, p. 145. O. tenuicutis Casey, 1915, p. 146. (New synon- ymy.) O. pagana Casey, 1915, p. 148. (New synonymy.) O. protenta Casey, 1915, p. 144. (New synonymy.) A common species in the eastern United States; I have seen specimens from Missouri, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Arkansas, and from North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia in the southeast. Recorded in litera- ture from New Mexico and Guadeloupe, but possibly these may refer to other species. The larvae were described by Forbes in 1894 and Ritcher in 1944. I have seen a male specimen from Thomasville, Ga., that is entirely black above, with the legs and abdomen testaceo- rufous to castaneous; the male genitalia are ex- actly similar with the typical form. As the fig- ures indicate (Fig. 1, y and z), the small lateral tooth of the male genitalia varies in position and is more apical in position in the more east- ern specimens, but this is an individual varia- tion and all intermediates occur so that it is not of even varietal import. Aspidolea texana Hohne Aspidolea texana Hohne, 1912, p. 84. This is very probably based on a wrongly- labeled specimen from Texas, as I do not be- lieve that the genus occurs here: if it should, the key characters to the genus, plus the ex- tremely broad and very flat ligula and men- tum (which is wider at apex than at base) should readily place the species. All other 13 described species of this genus occur in Central America and South America. Male front claws are enlarged and the maxilla is unarmed. A. texana was described from San Antonio, Tex., and was a unique female 15 mm long and red- dish brown, with the forehead and vertex black. LITERATURE CITED Arrow, G. J. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 8: 169. 1911. . Coleopterorum catalogus, pars 156, 21: 5-18. 1937. Bates, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana, 386 Coleoptera, 2 (2): 297, pl. 17, fig. 12. 1888. BLACKWELDER, R. E. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 185, pt. 2: 250-253. 1944. Buanp, J. H. B. Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia 1: 354. 1963. Brown, W.J. Can. Ent. 66:23. 1934. Bucuanan, L. L. Ent. News 38: 167. 1927. BurRMEISTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie 5: 54-57, 79. 1847. Casny, T. L. Can. Ent. 41: 282. 1909. . Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6: 109- 176, 229-232. 1915. Ericuson, W. F. Arch. fiir Naturg. 13 (pt. 1): 97. 1847. Fazsricius, J. C. Entomologia systematica, Suppl.: 24. 1798. Haroutp, E. von. Coleopterologische Hefte 5: E239) 18 69! Hayes, W. P. Journ. Econ. Ent. 21: 135. 1918. Houne, W. Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr. 1922: 84. Horn, \G.. He. Trans, “Amer, Bi... 0c. .3.: 336-337. 1871. JACQUELIN DU VAL, P. N. C. Coleoptera. In Sagra’s Historie...de Cuba 7: 127. 1856. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 LacorpDairR&, J. T. Genera des coléoptéres 3: 398, 403. 1856. LeConte, J. L. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia 1854: 222. . Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1856: 79. . Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia _ 1861: 346. . New species of Coleoptera 1: 79-80. 1863. Macuteay, W. S. Horae entomologicae 1: 149. 1819. Oxivier, G. A. Entomologie 1 (pars 5): 29. 1789. Pret, H. Ent. Blatter 32: 145-147. 19386. Ritcuer, P. O. Kentucky Exp. Stat. Bull. 147: 17-21. 1944. SANDERSON, M. W. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 33: 379-384. 1940. Sartor, L. W. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 38:2. March 1936. . Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 39: 69-70. September 1937. ScHAEFFER, C. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1906: 259-260. Sturm, J. Deutschlande Fauna: 116. 1848. ENTOMOLOGY.—Scheloribates chauhani, a new species of oribatid mite from India (Acarina: Ceratozetidae).' ment of Agriculture. The discovery that Zetes emarginatus (Banks),? family Galumnidae, is an inter- mediate host of the sheep tapeworm, Moniezia expansa (Rudolphi), has aroused much interest in the oribatid mites during the past few years. This species, which lives on grass in sheep pastures, was found to be infected with the cysticercoidal stage of the parasite. B. 8. Chauhan, of the Zoological Survey of India, while conducting studies on the sheep tapeworm, has collected oribatid mites from grass. However, these mites belong to the genus Scheloribates, family Ceratozetidae, and appear to represent a new species. Scheloribates chauhani, n. sp. Female——Abdomen round-oval; all cephalo- thoracic bristles barbed, the interlamellar setae inserted nearer to edge of notogaster than to lamellae and longer than others; lamellae 1 Received October 9, 1945. 2H. W. StunKarp, Science 86: 312. 1937; W. H. Kruut, Proc. Helminth. Soc. Washington 6.@)) 10). 11,1939: Epwarp W. Baker, United States Depart- (Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.) tapering distally, not undulate externally, and sides of cephalothorax not or barely visible from above; translamellar lines short; lamello- rostral ridge well developed and embracing base of rostral bristle; each pseudostigma with rim usually slightly surpassing edge of ptero- morpha, pseudostigmatic organs with head equal to length of pedicel, ‘‘oil globules” present, barbs small but distinct. Abdomen with anterior edge of notogaster mildly bowed, its sides merging into pteromorphae; dorsum of abdomen equally arched when viewed from side; pteromorphae with a bristle on antero- dorsal area, and with radial combings or fine corrugations on shoulders; dorsal setal pits as figured (body setae apparently knocked off); anal plates wider than long, sides almost paral- lel, posterior cover bristles closer to inner edge than are anterior bristles, and bristles sub- equally spaced from anterior and posterior edges; genital plates slightly wider than long, broadly rounded anteriorly, and only slightly concave posteriorly, setae arranged as figured, lateral margins longer than anterior margins. Tarsus I with ventral ciliate setae, dorsal sim- ple setae, and a short rodlike dorsal setae as Dec. 15, 1945 figured; femur II as figured, all setae barbed, the posterior dorsal seta barely reaching past base of median seta; the dorsal posterior angle of femur rather abrupt; tectopodium III notched but not strongly so; sides of tecto- podia II mildly converging toward rostrum. Length of body 533u, width 393y. BAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF ORIBATID MITE 387 Scheloribater chauhani differs from S. indica Oudemans, which is from Ceylon, in having pectinate cephalothoracic setae and in having an elongate pseudostigmatic organ that is dis- tinctly barbed. It differs from S. mwiri Jacot, a Hawaiian species, in having all cephalo- thoracic setae pectinate, in having a rounded = xS60 Fias. 1-6.—Scheloribates chauhani, adult female: 1, Dorsal view of body; 2, pseudostigmatic organ, 3, genital plates; 4, anal plates, 5, tarsus and tibia I; 6, femur II. —— 388 rather than a pointed genital opening, in hav- ing the lateral margins of the genital plate longer than the anterior margins, in the setal arrangement of the anal plates, in that the posterior dorsal setae of femur II does not reach the base of the anterior seta, and in femur II ZOOLOGY.—The West Pacific species BartscuH, U. 8. National Museum. In the preparation of a monograph on the East Pacific mollusks, recent and fossil, of the family Turridae, it became necessary to examine the congeneric elements dwelling in the western Bering Sea and the cold inshore waters of the Asiatic side of the Pacific. In the case of the genus Aforza I find that a much greater degree of specialization and differentiation has taken place in the Asiatic fauna than in American waters, as demon- strated by the present little monograph. Genus Aforia Dall 1889. Aforia, Dall, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 18: 99. 1908. Aforza, Dall, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 43: 251 « Shell large, turreted, covered by a thin perios- tracum when perfect. Last whorl longer than the spire preceding it. Nucleus slender, multi- spiral, with the surface worn in all our speci- mens. A strong median keel is present on the middle of the postnuclear whorls. The deep anal notch falls halfway between the keel and the summit of the turns. The surface is marked by spiral lirations and fine incremental lines. Part of the adult shells bear a second fold, which begins on the middle of the last turn and gradually develops into a clawlike channel pos- terior to the anterior termination of the base. This is probably a sexual character. Columella long, attenuated, concave on the left side. Aperture large, elongate pear-shaped with the anterior half narrowed into a moderately wide channel; outer lip thin; inner lip sigmoid, form- ing a thin callus on the columella and parietal wall. Operculum narrow, thin, corneous, claw- like with lateral subapical nucleus marked by 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 17, 1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 having an abrupt rather than a gentle posterior dorsal angle. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 1515, and 10 para- types, which were sent in by B.S. Chauhan and named for him, were collected from grass, Izatnagar (Bareilly), U. P., India. of the molluscan genus Aforia.t PAuL low, concentric threads. Radula with rather large rachidian and Y-shaped marginals. On the Asiatic side we find Aforta insignis (Jeffreys) south of St. Lawrence Island; from there the genus extends southward along the ~ coast of Sakhalin Island in the Okhotsk Sea to the outside of Hokkaido and Honshu, and one species has been taken off the coast of Chosen. KEY TO THE WEST PACIFIC SPECIES OF OOFRIA Spiral cords on columella more than 50. .japonica Spiral cords on columella less than 35. Spiral cords on columella more than 30. diomedea Spiral cords on columella less than 20. Spiral cords of penultimate whorl anterior to keel 18. Spiral cords on keel very strong. hondoana Spiral cords on keel not very strong. insignis Spiral cords of penultimate whorl anterior to keel, less than 16. Adult shell large, more than 60 mm. Base with 4 strong spiral cords. okhotsensis Base with 9 weak spiral cords. — sakhalinensis Adult shell small, less than 46 mm. chosensis Aforia japonica (Dall) Figs. 5, 6 1925. Turricula japonica Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 66: 29, pl. 26, fig. 11. Shell of medium size, covered with a thin pale gray periostracum. The whorls bear a strong, slightly upturned, median keel, which is frequently split. Posterior to the keel the shell bears mere indications of microscopic spiral striations. Anterior to the keel, on all but the last whorl, there is no indication of spiral sculpture. On the last whorl, however, anterior =e i A Dec. 15, 1945 to the keel, numerous, feebly incised, spiral lines are present, of which about 24 appear on the base and more than 50 on the columella. On the anterior fourth of the columella they disappear altogether. In addition to this, the base and columella are marked by strong incre- mental lines, which give to the surface a some- what clothlike texture. Aperture extremely elongate-pyriform. Outer lip with a deeply incised sinus, having its greatest depth a little anterior to the middle between the keel and the summit. Anterior to the sinus the outer lip is protracted. Inner lip very elongate-sigmoid. The columella and parietal wall rendered smooth by resorption at the inner lip. The left outline of the base and columella is concavely slightly sigmoid. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205041, was dredged by the Albatross at station 5088 off Joka Sima Light in Sagami Bay, Honshu, Japan, in 369 fathoms; bottom temperature, 41.8°F., on green mud bottom. It has 8 whorls and meas- ures: Height, 53 mm; greater diameter, 18.1 mm; length of last whorl, 34.3 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 205038 contains a young speci- men dredged by the Albatross at station 5093 off Joka Sima Light in 302 fathoms; bottom temperature, 43.9°F., on black sand and broken shell bottom. This species can readily be distinguished from all the others by its extremely feeble sculpture of the base and columella. Aforia diomedea, n. sp. Figs. 11, 12 Shell very large, rather narrow, elongate- turreted, covered with a pale gray, putty- colored periostracum. The whorls are encircled by a strong, up turned median keel. Posterior to the keel are 2 spiral threads and more micro- scopic spiral lines. The keel itself bears closely spaced spiral threads. Anterior to the keel 7 strong, rounded spiral cords are present be- tween the summit of the last turn and the keel. These are a little broader than the spaces that separate them. Anterior to this the rest of the base and columella are marked by 40 incised grooves which separate rather flattened spaces of about the same width or a little wider than the grooves. Some of these bear one to three fine incised lines. In addition to this the entire base and columella are marked by incremental lines. Aperture elongate pear-shaped. Outer lip BARTSCH: WEST PACIFIC AFORIA 389 with a deep sinus a little anterior to the middle between the summit and keel, protracted anteriorly to the keel. The inner lip is decidedly sinuous and by resorption causes the columella and parietal wall to appear as a glazed surface. The left side of the base and columella is de- cidedly concave. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205039, was dredged by the Albatross at station 5044 off Yerimo Zaki, southeast Hokkaido, in 309 fathoms; bottom temperature, 32.1°F., on gray sand, coral and sand bottom. It has 8.5 whorls re- maining and measures: Height, 92 mm; greater diameter, 30.6 mm; length of last whorl, 51.1 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 205036 contains 2 specimens dredged by the Albatross at station 5050 off Kinka San Light east of Sakhalin Island, in 266 fathoms; bottom temperature, 37.9°F., on dark gray sand and broken shell and Foramini- fera bottom. U.S.N.M. no. 205040 contains 1 specimen dredged by the Albatross at station 5045 off Yerimo Zaki southeast Hokkaido, in 359 fathoms; bottom temperature, 38°F., on brown mud and fine broken shell and coral sand bot- tom. U.S.N.M. no. 205037 contains 1 specimen dredged by the Albatross at station 5051 off Kinka San Light, east of Sakhalin Island, in 399 fathoms; bottom temperature, 38.1°F., on dark gray sand and broken shell and Foraminif- era bottom. U.S.N.M. no. 342737 contains 1 specimen from the Hirasé collection (1402) taken at Rikuzen northeast of Honshu, Japan. This species can readily be distinguished from all the others by its large size, gray colora- tion, and perfection of sculpture. Aforia hondoana (Dall) Figs. 7, 8 1925. Turricula (Surcula) hondoana Dall, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 66: 29-30, pl. 31, fig. 6. Shell of medium size, turreted, covered by a gray periostracum. Interior of the aperture yellowish white. Nuclear whorls decollated. The postnuclear whorls bear a strong median keel, anterior to which the whorls are slopingly shouldered and marked by obsolete micro- scopic spiral striations. The keel bears 3 rather strong spiral threads. Anterior to the keel the whorls are marked by 6 very strong spiral Figs. 1-14.—West Pacific species of the genus Aforza. 1, 2, A. okhotskensis, n. sp.; 3, 4, A. sak- halinensis, n. sp.; 5, 6, A. japonica (Dall); 7, 8, A. hondoana (Dall); 9, 10, A. chosenensis, n. sp.; 11, 12, A. diomedea, n. sp.; 13, 14, A, insignis (Jeffreys). All about X14. Dec. 15, 1945 cords which are separated by deep grooves not quite as wide as the cords. The base is well rounded and bears 7 very strong spiral cords also separated by deeply incised grooves. The columella is moderately long and bears 18 spiral cords which become progressively finer anteriorly. Aperture pear-shaped. The posterior sinus falls on the shoulder and is deep, broad, and rounded at base. Anterior to the keel the outer lip is protracted and rendered sinuous by the external sculpture. The inner lip is covered with a thick callus which somewhat covers the parietal wall. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 111052, was dredged by the Albatross at station 5087 in Sagami Bay off Hondo, Japan, in 614 fathoms on mud bot- tom; bottom temperature 37.5°F. It has 6.5 whorls remaining and measures: Height, 56.2 mm; greater diameter, 21.5 mm; length of last whorl, 31.4 mm. This species in general shape and sculpture most nearly resembles A. insignis from which its much smaller size and much stronger spiral sculpture will readily distinguish it. Aforia insignis (Jeffreys) Figs. 13, 14 1883. Pleurotoma insignis Jeffreys, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1883: 119-120. Shell large, turreted..The patches of perios- tracum remaining show this to have been reddish brown. The interior of the aperture is ochre yellow. Nuclear whorls decollated. The postnuclear whorls are marked by a strong median keel which bears 5 fine spiral threads. Anterior to this keel the whorls are well rounded and marked by decidedly sinuous in- cremental lines which show that the posterior sinus is deep and broad. Anterior to the keel are 2 slender spiral threads equaling those on . the keel in strength. This area is impressed and forms a slight groove. Anterior to this the whorls are marked by 7 spiral cords which are of somewhat varying strength and which are separated by deeply impressed narrow grooves. The base is well rounded and also bears 7 spiral cords equaling those of the spire in strength. Some of these are marked medially by a fine incised spiral line. The columella is long and bears 18 spiral cords which are of subequal strength. The axial sculpture consists of incre- mental lines only which are rendered decidedly sigmoid due to the deep posterior sinus. In the BARTSCH: WEST PACIFIC AFORIA 391 specimen described, the last portion of the last whorl embracing the anterior 4 spiral cords, becomes somewhat folded and projects at the peristome as a slight claw. Aperture pear-shaped. Outer lip with a deep broad sinus on the shoulder, protracted anterior to the keel, and rendered somewhat sinuous by the external sculpture. The inner lip is covered with a thick callus, which extends over the parietal wall. The specimen described and figured, U.S. N.M. no. 190815, comes from the Jeffreys collection and is one of 10 collected on the Vega Expedition in the Icy Sea of Siberia. It was used as the basis for Jeffreys’ description and may therefore be considered the type of the species. It has 7.5 whorls remaining and meas- ures: Height, 72.4 mm; greater diameter, 27.8 mm; length of last whorl, 41.5 mm. In the elements of sculpture it most nearly resembles A. hondoana, from which, however, its larger size and less strong spiral sculpture will readily distinguish it. Aforia okhotskensis, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2 Shell large, turreted, interior pale buff, ex- terior covered by a thin gray periostracum, which is eroded in most part. A strong median spiral keel almost midway between summit and suture is present. Posterior to this keel the surface is marked by incremental lines and spiral lirations about as strong as the incre- mental lines. The anal sinus falls a little nearer the keel than the summit. Anterior to the keel the last whorl is rough and marked by deeply incised grooves which leave broad, rather rough, flattened spaces between them. Of these grooves, 8 are present between the keel and the insertion of the columella, the one bordering the keel being the deepest. On some of the spaces between these deep grooves there are indications of a median, secondary, less strong groove, while the keel itself is marked by finer spiral threads. The rather protracted columella is marked by 8 deeply impressed, spiral grooves which separate spaces about as wide as those on the base. In the anterior portion of the columella they seem to disappear. In addition to this, the columella and base are marked by strong incremental lines. In the type there is a secondary spiral ridge about as far anterior to the keel as that is from the summit, which cor- responds to a secondary notch in the outer lip. 392 Aperture very elongate pear-shaped with the anal sinus deeply incised. Anterior to this the outer lip is protracted; the inner lip is decidedly sigmoid, while the left outline of the base and columella is decidedly concave. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205042, was dredged by the Albatross at station 5020 off the east coast of Sakhalin Island near Cape Patience, Okhotsk Sea, in 73 fathoms; bottom tempera- ture, 30.9°F., on green mud, sand, and pebbly bottom. It has 7.5 whorls remaining and meas- ures: Height, 73.8 mm; greater diameter, 28.5 mm; length of last whorl, 43 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 205044 contains a young speci- men dredged by the Albatross at station 5005 in Aniwa Bay on the east side of Sakhalin Island, Okhotsk Sea, in 42 fathoms; bottom temperature, 42°F., on green mud and fine gray sand bottom. This species most nearly resembles A. in- signis from which it can be distinguished by its much coarser spiral sculpture. Aforia sakhalinensis, n. sp. Figs. 3, 4 Shell turreted, covered with a thin pale buff periostracum. Interior of aperture with an ochre flush. The whorls bear a strong median keel, anterior to which they are covered by fine microscopic hair lines and strongly sigmoid in- cremental lines of about the same strength, which follow the outline of the ana! sinus. The anterior termination of the keel consists of a deeply impressed groove. The keel itself is crossed by fine spiral lines. Anterior to this groove the whorls are crossed by 14 incised grooves, which vary from mere lines to rather broad flat channels. The grooves and flattened spaces between them are crossed by rather strong incremental lines, which in the broad grooves assume the strength of hair lines. The columella is also marked by spiral grooves, of which 15 are present. The spaces enclosed by these are more rounded than those on the base, the axial incremental lines being of the same strength. On the extreme tip of the columella the spiral sculpture gradually fades out. Aper- ture elongate-pyriform; outer lip with a deep sinus whose greatest depth is a little nearer the keel than the summit of the whorls. The outer lip is protracted anteriorly to the keel. The inner lip is decidedly sinuous and covers the columella and parietal wall as a smooth re- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 sorption area. The left outline of the base and columella is decidedly concave. The type, U.S.N.M. no. 573613, was dredged by the Albatross at station 5051 off Kinka San Light east of Sakhalin Island in 399 fathoms; bottom temperature, 38.1°F., on dark gray sand and broken shell and Foraminifera bottom. It has 7.5 whorls remaining and measures: Height, 63.8 mm; greater diameter, 24 mm; _ length of last whorl, 36.3 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 573614 contains a young speci- men dredged by the Albatross at station 5050 off Kinka San Light east of Sakhalin Island, in 266 fathoms; bottom temperature, 37.9°F., on dark gray sand and broken shell and Fora- minifera bottom. This species most nearly resembles A. chosenensis but can readily be distinguished from that by its less strong basal sculpture and larger size. Aforia chosenensis, n. sp. Figs. 9, 10 Shell small, turreted, the exterior covered with a grayish buff, thin periostracum. Interior of the aperture pale buff. The whorls bear a strong, decidedly elevated, median keel, pos- terior to which the slightly concave surface is marked by decidedly sigmoid lines of growth and microscopic spiral striations. Anterior to the keel the shell and the base and columella are marked by deeply incised, rather broad grooves which are a little more distantly spaced immediately below the keel than on the rest of the shell. These grooves enclose almost flattened areas which are a little narrower near the keel than on the rest of the surface. Eleven of these are present between the keel and the insertion of the columella, and 12 more on the columella where they gradually grow weaker anteriorly. In addition to this, the entire sur- face is marked by fine microscopic spiral stria- tions and lines of growth. The latter appear almost as hair lines in the deep grooves. The keel itself is marked by fine spiral threads. The base of the last whorl and columella are de- cidedly concave on the left side. Aperture rather narrow, very elongate pear-shaped with a deep sinus a little anterior to the middle above the shoulder. The outer lip is protracted anterior to the keel and rendered somewhat sinuous by the external sculpture. The inner ae SD ee Dec. 15, 1945 lip is elongate-sigmoid. The columella is exca- vated into a smooth surface which also extends over the parietal wall. The type, U.S.N.M. 205043, was col- lected by the Albatross at station 4860 off Cape Clonard, southeast coast of Chosen, Japan Sea, in 122 fathoms on gray mud bottom; bottom GATES: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS 393 temperature 34.1°F. It has 6 whorls remaining and measures: Height, 45.5 mm; greater diame- ter, 18 mm; length of last whorl, 27.8 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 573615 contains another speci- men from the same station. The small size will readily distinguish this from the other Japanese members. ZOOLOGY .—On the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus and its taxonomic relation- ships.’ by Wa.po L. ScuMIrTT.) The oligochaete Syngenodrilus lamuensis Smith and Green, 1919, from Mkonumbi near Lamu on the coast of British East Africa, is known only from the original description of a single specimen. This “‘re- markable’”’ species is of especial interest because of a peculiar combination of char- acteristics: septa 9/10-10/11 combined, 11/12 united either with 9/10-10/11 or 12/13; pregonadic gizzards, intestinal origin in region of xii—xiii; paired testis sacs (con- taining hearts and nephridia) in x-xi, numerous small seminal vesicles, one pair of larger, elongated seminal vesicles extending posteriorly within the ovisacs to xx, three pairs of prostates none of which are as- sociated with the male genital ducts. Syngenodrilus was placed by its authors in the Asiatic family Moniligastridae pri- marily ‘‘because of the various important characteristics in which it is allied with Desmogaster’’ but probably as much because of the one-cell-layered clitellum and yolky ova supposedly characteristic of the Monili- gastridae alone among Megadrili. Differ- ences from other Moniligastridae were 1In the collections of the U. S. National Museum is the unique type of an earthworm col- lected near Lamu on the eastern coast of British East Africa by William Astor Chanler in 1892 and described by Frank Smith and Bessie R. Green in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, vol. 55, pp. 145-153, 1919, as a new genus and new species. Its taxonomic relationships have long intrigued students of the oligochaetes and as a result the type material has been critically re- examined in recent years by two specialists. The results of their observations are set forth in two papers, this one by Dr. G. E. Gates of Judson College, Rangoon, Burma, and the one immedi- ately following by Dr. Grace E. Pickford, of the Osborn Zoological and Bingham Oceanographic Laboratories, Yale University.—W. L. Scumirt. Received October 24, 1945. G. E. Garss, Judson College, Rangoon, Burma. (Communicated recognized as sufficient to require division of the family into two subfamilies, the Moniligastrinae and Syngenodrilinae, the latter containing only Syngenodrilus. This classification was accepted by Michaelsen? © and Stephenson, apparently without really critical examination. The necessity for such examination was recognized several years ago and a discussion of the problem was prepared for publication. There was, how- ever, so much uncertainty with regard to a number of structures of taxonomic impor- tance that it seemed advisable to postpone consideration of the problem until the type material could be studied. Although a sab- batical leave has permitted study of the original material, a considerable proportion of the uncertainty can not yet be resolved except as regards moniligastrid relation- ships. The author’s thanks are due to Prof. R. C. Osburn and the authorities of the Ohio State University for the courtesies of the Department of Zoology during the winter of 1940-41, and also to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the United States National Museum, for the opportunity afforded of examining the type material of Syngeno- drilus. Syngenodrilus lamuensis Smith and Green 1919. Syngenodrilus lamuensis F. Smith and B. R. Green, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 145- 153, figs. 1-8. 1930. Syngenodrilus lamuensis, J. Stephenson, The Oligochaeta, p. 813 (vide also pp. 339, 671, 688, 696-697, 716, and 808- 811). 2 Michaelsen (1928) placed Syngenodrilus in a separate family, the Syngenodrilidae, distinct from but supposedly closely related to the Moni- ligastridae. 394 Material examined.—The type material com- prises a single specimen from which the right half of the anterior end to the region of seg- ment xxlll was removed and serial sections of the right half, cut sagittally, on 10 slides. Observations on the type specimen.—EXTER- NAL CHARACTERISTICS: The prostomium appears to be protruded, but it and the first segment are softened and damaged. Because of the pro- trusion, recognition of a characteristic monili- gastrid prolobous condition is impossible. Pig- mentation and clitellar coloration as well as clitellar thickening are unrecognizable. Setae of segments xi, xii, and xiii are in part or wholly lacking. Close to approximate sites of ventral setae there is on each of segments xi— xill a porelike marking that might be the aper- | ture of a setal follicle but possibly is the open- ing of a prostate. Spermathecal apertures are minute, apparently immediately in front of 7/8 and 8/9, in region of cd. There is a minute, porelike marking on 12/13, about on cd, which may be the male pore, but a similar marking is present farther laterally on the anterior margin of xill (nephropore or another male pore?). The female pore is a transversely placed slit on a, midway vetween the setal are of xiv and 13/14. INTERNAL ANATOMY: In the left half of the anterior portion remaining on the type is in- cluded the ventral nerve cord, all of one ovisac and most of another, two spermathecae, and (probably) two male funnels. Most of the di- gestive system behind 7/8 is lacking and blood vessels are broken. The gizzards and portions of the vascular system have been lost. Behind the posteriormost prostate and about at level of 13/14 is a bit of membrane that presumably is 12/13. Coelomic cavity of xiii reduced to an ovarian chamber (?). Segment of intestinal origin not determinable. No typhlo- sole. Structures that look somewhat like monili- gastrid enterosegmental organs are present on the intestine but may be only branches of ves- sels to the dorsal trunk from the intestine. “Hearts” of vi and vii connect the dorsal and ventral trunks to a longitudinal vessel that ap- pears to be an extra-esophageal. Location of last heart not determinable. The intact ovisac bends upward in the region of the prostate of xiii and in the upper half of the coelomic cavity bears at its anterior end a rosette-shaped, iridescent mass, presumably a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 male funnel. This funnel looks more like a megascolecid funnel than that of a monili- gastrid worm. Sticky coagulum such as is al- ways present in a moniligastrid testis sac around the male funnel is entirely lacking here. The anterior (?) male funnel is attached to a membrane that presumably represents the posterior wall of a testis sac. Both (?) testis sacs are open as a result of removal of median portions in halving. Testes, vasa deferentia, and seminal vesicles are unrecognizable. Strings of round bodies, presumably eggs, are in front of the anterior male funnel and are continuous, beneath and around the posterior face of the membrane bearing the funnel, with other egg strings. A small female funnel is present on the anterior face of 13/14 ventrally and a cord representing or containing the female duct passes from the posterior face of 138/14 into the parietes of xiv. Ovisacs are firm and apparently shrunken but at the posterior ends are several small, reddish to yellowish knobs or lobes. In a moniligastrid worm a similar collapsed condi- tion of the ovisac, with but little yellowish material is evidence for a late postsexual condi- tion. Spermathecal ampullae are shrunken and irregular, widest entally, not attached to the posterior faces of their septa as in the Monili- gastridae. A short ectal portion of each sperma- theca (duct) appears to be circular in cross sec- tion, with a thicker wall than the ampulla. There are no atria or diverticula recognizable. The prostates appear to be short tubular glands, shortly looped, with the loops pressed into contact, the glands bent posteriorly. The duct is probably confined almost entirely to the parietes. The sections.—Portions of sections figured by Smith and Green are readily recognizable However, critical parts of the most important sections are lacking, and in remaining portions of these, as well as in other sections, delicate septa (or portions of septa) have been broken or lost. Accordingly any attempt at reconstruc- tion scarcely seems feasible. A 4-day study of this portion of the material warrants only a few miscellaneous observations and suggestions. Slight tension on delicate septa, in certain earthworms at least, is sufficient to rupture the membranes so that they are unrecognizable in dissections even when made with consider- able care. It is quite possible then, even if if there had been no damage or loss during Dec. 15, 1945 sectioning, that strains incident to halving the type and washing dirt out from the gut might have been sufficient to disrupt if not destroy delicate membranes including some of the most important septa. Delicate septa might also have been ruptured in a process of sudden killing. In the moniligastrid genus Drawida, septal herniations permit one or both testis sacs to have an apparent location behind the ovarian segment, occasionally with a longi- tudinal deformation of a testis sac. Whether a similar sort of herniation is responsible for some of the peculiar appearances in sections of S. lamuensis, including that of seminal vesicles within the ovisacs, can not be determined from the material available. In any case, location of most of the right ovisac as well as one gizzard and part of another in the left half of the type, shows that some organs at least are distorted and not in a normally symmetrical condition. Just how extensive the distortion is can not be determined until normal specimens are avail- able for comparison. In view of admitted possibilities of “im- perfectly developed” septa, of damage to sec- tions, and the obvious presence of ‘‘evidence of more septa among the organs”’ it is difficult to imagine the reasons for an assumption of septal fusions by Smith and Green, and es- pecially of the extensive type mentioned above. Presence of hearts and nephridia in x and xi would have prevented complete fusion, even in case of apposition of peripheral portions of certain septa. For a peripheral apposition of septa, as for instance in Drawida or Hoplo- chaetella, no evidence was recognized in the sections. Determination of segmental location of the posterior hearts appears to be impossible. In some sections at least hearts appear to be present in xi and xii but lacking in x (as in certain species of Pheretima). Intrasegmental location of testes and rela- tionship of the male gonads to the anterior walls of the testis sacs, according to Smith and Green and so far as is determinable from the sections, appear to be of the sort normal to most Microdrili and Megadrili® and certainly 3 The terms Microdrili and Megadrili are used in this article in a loose sense, merely to refer col- lectively to the families Aeolosomatidiae to Hap- lotaxidae or Alluroididae and Moniligastridae to Lumbricidae respectively. (Vide Stephenson, 1930, p. 721.) GATES: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS 395 are not of the moniligastrid type. (Note attach- ment of testes to anterior walls of testis sacs some distance in front of the male funnels and above the floors of the sacs, in fig. 3, Smith and Green, 1919, p. 149.) The position of the pos- terior male funnel in the sections is most peculiar. The ental-most portion of the as- sociated male duct is dorsal to the funnel and runs posteriorly. The male funnel is horizon- tally elongated and faces ventrally with the back (closed face) of the funnel and duct at- tached dorsally. In most Megadrili the back of the funnel is directed posteriorly, while in the Moniligastridae the back is directed ventrally. In certain sections the posterior male funnel appears to be in xii. A definite statement as to paired or unpaired characterization of the testis sacs appears to be impossible though ap- pearances seem to indicate that sacs are un- paired, i.e., there are only two sacs, one belong- ing to x and one to xi. Attention is also directed to the fact that in some species of Pheretima gonad septa may be herniated in such a way that testis sacs at first appear to bein xi and xii rather than x and xi. Essential portions of sacs of S. lamuensis, those containing male funnels and testes (or perhaps whole sacs?), are certainly subesophageal. In view of the condi- tion of the sections little of value can be said regarding the segmental location of the testis sacs, except that no reason for questioning the location given by Smith and Green was recog- nized. If the posterior testes belong to xii (ex- tremely improbable) as suggested by Stephen- son, it would seem to be necessary to refer the anterior gonads to xi. The numerous small seminal vesicles probably are nothing more than aggregations of spermatozoa between folds of the male funnel. Seminal vesicles, if present, are of the posteriorly elongated, microdrilid type* as figured by Stephenson, 1930, pp. 728 and 741), rather than the verti- cally elongated megadrilid type (Stephenson, 1930, p. 329). Remarks on the relationships of Syngenodrilus. —Comparison of Syngenodrilus with the Moni- ligastridae shows a number of similarities, but nearly all these are shared with other families or even larger groups: lumbricine setae (Kudri- lidae, Lumbricidae, Ocnerodrilidae, Alluroidi- 4 Not to be confused with a secondary type of posterior elongation in certain megascolecid species. 396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 dae, Haplotaxidae), meganephric excretory system (Eudrilidae, Lumbricidae, Ocnerodrili- dae, Glossoscolecidae, Microdrili), location of last hearts two segments in front of ovarian metamere (Ocnerodrilidae®), lateral hearts (Lumbricidae), location of male pores in front of female pores, elongate, posteriorly directed seminal vesicles and ovisacs, yolky ova and a one-cell-layered clitellum (Microdrili). Dis- similarities, on the contrary, are significant and as important as those which mark off Asiatic moniligastrids from other earthworms. In these circumstances common location of extra- esophageal trunks lateral to the hearts and the presence of a relatively thick layer of non- fibrous material between circular and longi- tudinal muscles, can scarcely be regarded as evidence for any close relationships to Asiatic moniligastrids. Resemblances to Desmogaster, in location of spermathecal, male, and female pores, are superficial and of no significance. What then are the affinities of Syngenodrilus? Yolky ova, a one-cell-layered clitellum, and posteriorly elongated seminal vesicles neces- sitate consideration of relationships with the Microdrili. Evidence from distribution and morphology (note especially segmental loca- tion of male and female pores and of sperma- thecae in vill and 1x) point to the Alluroididae as deserving of most consideration. This family 1s Mmonogeneric and hence recognition of family characteristics (apart from those merely of generic significance) is difficult. There is, how- ever, no necessity for regarding absence of nephridia in a few anterior segments and presence of a gizzard as of sufficient importance to warrant exclusion of Syngenodrilus. Similar- ly proandry need not be regarded as of more than (if even of) generic value. After inclusion of Syngenodrilus the Alluroididae can still be defined as follows: Setae lumbricine. Male pores on or just behind 12/138, female pores on xiv, spermathecal pores on or close to 7/8 and (or) 8/9. Digestive system without appendages (or typhlosole?). Meganephric. Metagynous,® ma- 5 Other similarities to the Ocnerodrilidae, ab- sence of typhlosole, dorsal pores (?) and sperma- thecal diverticula, an anterior intestinal origin in xii (?), and possibly tubular prostates. . 6 Stephenson, 1930, p. 806, locates the female pores on xiv but the ovaries in xii. Possibly the latter is a misprint for xiii, since length of ovi- ture ova large and yolky, clitellum one-cell- layered. Spermathecae simple, without divertic- ula. A decision as to the necessity for retention of the subfamily Syngenodrilinae, of course, must be left to the future although some justi- fication for recognition of two subfamilies at present appears to be provided by the male genital terminalia and possibly gizzards; Al- luroidinae, male ducts opening to exterior through atria, no gizzards; Syngenodrilinae, male ducts opening to exterior independent of prostates, gizzards present. The author, be- cause of lack of literature and material, is not in a position to determine whether similarities between Syngenodrilus and Alluroides are as unimportant as those between Syngenodrilus and Desmogaster and the suggestions advanced above must be left for consideration by those who are not so handicapped. When further syngenodrilin material be- comes available the histology of the ‘“‘prostates”’ should be investigated. Superficially these structures resemble the tubular prostates of certain megascolecid genera. It should be noted that the ‘‘prostates’’ of Syngenodrilus are not united with the male deferent ducts as in Plutellus and other megascolecids, are not closely associated with the male deferent ducts as in certain diplotremids, acanthodrilids, and ocnerodrilids, nor do they open into seminal grooves as in other acanthodrilids and ocnero- drilids. Similarity appears to be rather with the ‘‘prostatelike’’ glands of Sparganophilus where the glands may be present in some species and not in others, with even some intraspecific variation as to presence and absence. Presence in Syngenodrilus of struc- tures similar to the prostatelike glands of Sparganophilus need not then be an argument against inclusion of Syngenodrilus in the Al- luroididae. More important seems to be the question as to whether absence of the alluroidid type of ‘‘atrial prostate’’ (apparently more like the capsular prostates of the Moniligastridae and the euprostates of the Eudrilidae) is suf- ficient reason for exclusion of the genus. This type of prostate has been regarded as an en- larged and modified ectal portion of the vas deferens. ducts, as a rule, is less than that of a single seg- ment. Dec. 15, 1945 PICKFORD: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS 397 ZOOLOGY.—Additional observations on the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus.' GracE E. Pickrorp, Osborn Zoological Laboratory and Bingham Oceano- graphic Laboratory, Yale University. ScHMITT. ) In the spring of 1945, in ignorance of the fact that Dr. G. E. Gates had included observations on the type of Syngenodrilus in an unpublished article entitled On the Moniligastridae and phylogeny of the Oligo- chaeta, the present author made an inde- pendent study of the specimen. Meanwhile, through correspondence with Dr. Gates, it was discovered that his article had been pre- pared for publication and that a carbon copy was available in the United States, although the original had been lost at the time of the Japanese invasion of Burma. After consultation with Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, to whom my best thanks are due for his cooperation, and with the permission -of Dr. Gates, it was decided to arrange for immediate publication of the first part of his article, that dealing with Syngenodrilus, in slightly condensed form together with some additional observations. The latter are presented herewith, in the form of a separate article, since there are certain dis- crepancies between the two accounts and the author did not feel that it would be right to introduce qualifications or cor- rections, based on his own opinion, into the text of Dr. Gates’s account. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS (1) The sections. The sections are mounted on 10 slides, labeled a to 7, and except on four of these (g to 7), where the gizzard region caused trouble, the series is reasonably complete and in good condition. The original description of Smith and Green, based largely on these sec- tions, is remarkably accurate. Several of the original drawings- are composite, but it is always possible to identify the actual sections from which they were made. No mistakes were discovered. On the other hand, as Gates has pointed out, no further light could be obtained regarding some of the points that were left unsettled in the original description; in particu- lar, the relations of the septa in the region of 1 Received October 24, 1945. See note to Dr. Gates’s companion paper herein, p. 393. (Communicated by Watpo L. the testis sacs must remain obscure until new material can be examined. The relationships of the genital pores to the setae can be recon- structed without difficulty, and there is no doubt that the original account is essentially correct. The male pore appears on slide a, on the sixteenth and seventeenth sections from the beginning; the spermathecal pores are on the second row on slide b; the prostates are on slide d; the female pore is on slide e. The gizzard has a cuticular lining which ceases in the dilated, thin-walled, croplike re- gion which follows. The position of the first intestinal segment cannot be determined. (2) The specumen. Dorsal pores could not be seen either on the specimen or on the sec- tions. The clitellum does not include the ante- rior third of segment xi but extends from 2/3 xi to xvi inclusive and is ring-shaped, as stated by Smith and Green. The male pore is clearly visible with good illumination and is situated in intersegmental furrow 12/13, about 3/5 bc lat- eral to setal line b; this observation conflicts with that of Gates but is in accordance with the evidence of the sections. The female pore is less conspicuous but can be seen lateral to seta b of segment xiv; this statement is not in agree- ment with that of Gates who found the female pores in front of seta a; on the sections, the ovi- duct is seen to open lateral to the b seta. The prostatic pores cannot be identified with cer- tainty on the specimen, although clearly visi- ble on the sections. Gates has described the position of the spermathecal pores, also very difficult to see, and their location is in agree- ment with that expected from a study of the sections. A rectangular area resembling a copulatory band, which was not observed by Smith and Green or by Gates, occupies a region of the cli- tellum that is bounded above and below by setal lines cd and ab, respectively; this area is delimited anteriorly by intersegmental furrow 11/12 and posteriorly by the ab setae of seg- ment xiv. The setae of the clitellar segments, difficult to see on the specimen, can readily be identified on the sections. 398 Several attempts were made to obtain a sig- moid seta for examination, but unfortunately all that were removed proved to be broken at the distal extremity, no doubt as the result of much handling of the specimen. On the sections the ventral setae of segments xiv, xv, and xvi are preserved unbroken and in a favorable position for study; however, examination, even with an oil immersion apochromat, failed to reveal any definite evidence of ornamentation, although some faint surface markings of an obscure nature were observed. The refractive index of damar is unsuitable for the study of delicate setal ornamentation and the matter cannot be considered settled. Confirming statements of Gates, the giz- zards, shown in Smith and Green’s fig. 2, have dropped out of the specimen and could not be found; there is no trace of calciferous glands either on the specimen or on the sections, and the intestine is without typhlosole. Syngeno- drilus is holonephric; nephridia from segments xlii and xliii were removed and mounted, the terminal duct has a pear-shaped dilation at its ectal end. DISCUSSION Gates’s observations are, with minor excep- tions, in close agreement with those of the present author, and there is no doubt that the general pattern of his conclusions must be sup- ported. Two points may be added to his discus- sion of the problem: On the one hand, the nephridia are quite unlike those of the monili- gastrid genus Drawida, in which there is a re- markable blind sac extending dorsally from the ectal duct. On the other hand, the suspicions raised in his footnote 6 regarding the position of the ovaries in Allurozvdes are fully justified. In the original description of A. pordagei Bed- dard? stated that the ovaries were in segment xiii but later in the same article, in the formal diagnosis of the new genus, the ovaries are said to be in segment xii. Evidently subsequent diagnoses by Michaelsen** and Stephenson’ have perpetrated this error, which stemmed from a misprint in the original article, although 2 F. Bepparp, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 36: 244-252. 1894. a a MICHAELSEN, Das Tverretch, Oligochaeta. 4, W. MIcHAELSEN, Oligochaeta, in Kiikenthal and Krumbach’s ‘‘Handbuch der Zoologie.”’ 1928. 5 J, STEPHENSON, The Oligochaeta. Oxford, 1930. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 Beddard® himself corrected the generic descrip- tion. Stephenson attempted an interpretation of the Syngenodrilus testis sacs as condensed segments and obtained, by a process of theo- retical expansion, the following arrangement of the gonads: testes in x and xii, ovaries in xiv. Gates has pointed out that this interpreta- tion is very improbable and reexamination of the material gives no support to such a theory. Syngenodrilus can not be included in the Moniligastridae, and it is clear that it has strong affinities with the Alluroididae. Gates has suggested that it might even be placed within the latter family, but there are impor- tant differences that would appear to necessi- tate the recognition of two distinct subfamilies, Alluroidinae and Syngenodrilinae. In view of the inadequacy of our present knowledge of the Alluroididae,’ a family whose characters will probably be clarified by the discovery of new species and genera, it seems preferable to retain the family Syngenodrilidae, while recog- nizing that future discoveries may bridge the gap that appears to exist at the present time. Michaelsen* proposed that the families Phre- oryctidae, Alluroididae, Syngenodrilidae, and Moniligastridae should be placed together in the family-group Phreoryctina. It seems to the writer that there is much to be said in favor of such an arrangement; however, the Alluroididae and Syngenodrilidae differ from Haplotaxidae (= Phreoryctidae) on the one hand, and from Moniligastridae on the other hand, in a num- ber of important respects, of which the most significant is the backward migration of the male duct which opens to the exterior.at 12/13 or on segment xiii. As Gates has pointed out, the Syngenodrilidae differ from the Alluroi- didae in the possession of a well-developed, double, esophageal gizzard, in having simple Sparganophilus-like prostatic glands which are not related to the male opening, and in the absence of a moniligastrid-like atrium at the ectal end of the vas deferens. 6 F. Bepparp, A monograph of the order Oli- gochaeta. Oxford, 1895. 7 The Alluroididae have hitherto been consid- ered to be a purely African family, but the exist- ence of an undescribed species in the Argentine was noted by L. Cernosvitov (Mem. Soc. Zool. Tchecoslovaque Prague 3, 1936). Dr. Cernosvitov informs me, 7n litt., that this form is very close to the already known species but has enormous penial setae. a a ae rf ¥ é Dec. 15, 1945 A formal redefinition of the family follows; of necessity it includes some characters which may, with the discovery of new forms, prove to be of less than family significance. Family SYNGENODRILIDAE Michaelsen (1928) Sigmoid setae single-pointed, eight per seg- ment, in two ventral and two lateral bundles. Dorsal pores wanting. Clitellum in a single layer of cells, in the region of the male and fe- male pores. One pair of male pores at 12/13; one pair of female pores on xiv; two pairs of spermathecal pores in 7/8 and 8/9. Two esophageal gizzards in viii and ix; no calcifer- ous glands; intestine without typhlosole. Six HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA 399 pairs of lateral hearts in vi to xi (?), those of vi and vii communicating with lateral “‘extra- esophageal”’ vessels. One pair of holonephridia per segment; ectal nephridial duct with a di- lated vesicle. Holandric, two pairs of testes and spermiducal funnels in x and xi, respectively, enclosed in testis sacs; paired seminal vesicles depending backward from 10/11, enclosed within the ovisacs. One pair of ovaries in xiii; ovisacs depending backwards from 13/14 into xx; eggs yolky. Three pairs of simple prostatic glands opening on xi, xii, and xiii just lateral to the b setae, not associated with the male pores. Penial and genital setae lacking. Spermathecae without diverticula. One genus: Syngenodrilus; monotypic, S. lamuensis Smith and Green. ICHTHYOLOGY .—WNotes on fishes in the Zoological Museum of Stanford Univer- sity: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus, and a new Indian record.) by HeRBERT FRIEDMANN.) This paper terminates a series begun in 1934. The first paper was a brief account of the fishes of my 1931 Philippine expedition and was published by me in Hong Kong. The series continued with accounts of new or rare fishes collected by me in various parts of the world and was published in various journals in this country. South China abounds with a great variety of fishes, both marine and fresh water, which even yet are imperfectly known. This is particularly true of the region from Hong Kong southward, which has never been ex- plored by an ichthyologist. Ten days were spent in Hong Kong during March 1941, and many rare cold-blooded vertebrates were secured. Two trips were made to the New Territory to study the fish-pond in- dustry and to do a little collecting. A new species of Vaimosa was obtained and is here presented. This genus is rich in species in the regions bordering on the South China Sea, including the adjacent islands. The coastal waters of India have never been adequately explored for littoral fishes; this is true alike for the coral reefs of the ex- treme south and the long reaches of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts. Investiga- tion of the coastal waters, including brack- 1 Received July 2, 1945. ALBERT W. C. T. Herre, Stanford University. (Communicated ish lagoons and the river mouths, should give us a greatly extended knowledge of fish distribution, as well as add many fishes to the known Indian fauna, some new spe- cies, and others known only from more or less remote regions. In this paper is re- corded a fish hitherto known only from a single Philippine example, but really com- mon in the Bay of Bengal. In addition, two gobies, an eleotrid, and a scorpaenid are presented as new. I have no doubt that collecting in the Andaman Islands would add 200 species to the known Indian fish fauna. The labors of the competent staff of the Indian Zoological Survey, particularly of Dr. 8S. L. Hora, have added greatly to our knowledge of the fresh-water fishes of India, and as a result those of northern and central India are fairly well known. Much less has been done on the fishes of the streams of south India, and it is to be ex- pected that new fishes should be found in that region, particularly in the hill streams. I have already described a new catfish from the Anamallai Hills, and now present a member of the genus Homaloptera from the same locality. Dr. Hora has already described two homalopterid fishes from Travancore and Mysore. One of them, Bhavania australis, was described by Jerdon 400 in 1848 under the name of Platycara aus- tralis. Because of its peculiarities Dr. Hora created the genus Bhavania for it and ex- tended our knowledge of the fish. The other homalopterid, Travancoria jonest, was first described by Dr. Hora. The Puthutotam Estate in the Anamallai Hills, where I collected the new Homalop- tera, is not far from the region in Travan- core where both Bhavania australis and Travancoria jonesit occur, although sep- arated by forest-clad mountains. That the fauna of the two areas is much the same is shown by the fishes common to their streams; one of them, Tvravancoria jonest, which I also collected at the Puthutotam Estate, is of special interest as showing that it is not confined to the streams at the foot of the Travancore mountains. The members of the genus Homaloptera occur in the East Indies, Malaya, and Bur- ma, and apparently this is the first time that a member of the genus has been found in South India. The earlier accounts of Homaloptera from south India all refer to Bhavania australis. Burma is the nearest region to south India from which Homalop- tera has been known hitherto. It is therefore a matter of much interest to students of geographical distribution to ffnd a species of Homaloptera in the mountain streams of south India. It has been known for a good while that many of the fishes of south In- dian streams have their closest relatives in, or are identical with, species in the streams of Malaya. Dr. Hora has paid much atten- tion to the problems involved, and I agree with his theory that the homalopterid fishes and other torrential dwellers reached south India by migrating along the Satpura Trend. Lengths given are always the standard length. Family HOMALOPTERIDAE Genus Homaloptera Van Hasselt Homaloptera montana, n. sp. Dorsal II-6; anal I-5; pectoral VI-8; ven- tral, II-7 on one side, IIJ—6 on the other side; lateral line about 72; transverse series of scales 16-112. ) The depth is 9.6, the head 4.8, the pectoral 3.8 times in the length; the caudal and ventral JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, NO. 12 equal the head. The eye is 4.3, the snout 2, the postorbital length of the head 2.5 times in the head; the flat interorbital is a little more than the eye; the least depth of the caudal peduncle is twice in its own length. The form is slender, the posterior half lat- erally compressed, the dorsal profile little ele- vated,.the eyes dorsolateral; the snout de- scends steeply, with rather flat tip; the arched mouth is small, the barbels small and incon- spicuous. The dorsal origin is well behind the ventral origin and behind the middle of the length, the distance from the tip of the snout to the dorsal being 52 percent, to the ventral ori- gin 43 percent, of the total length; stated dif- ferently, the ventral origin is opposite the nine- teenth tubule of the lateral line, the dorsal ori- gin opposite the twenty-sixth. The tip of the pectoral touches the ventral origin when de- pressed, but the ventral falls short of the anus, which is noticeably in advance of the anal ori- gin. The caudal is nearly truncate, the corners little projecting. The head and entire lower sur- face back to a little behind the ventral base are naked. The color in alcohol is brown, the underside yellowish; 10 short dark brown bars across the back, but not extending down to the lateral line; a poorly defined dark longitudinal stripe below the lateral line from the eye to the caudal base; top of the head very dark brown; a black- ish-brown spot on the ventral base; caudal with a blackish blotch on its base and another near its tip; other fins all clear. Described from the type and only specimen, 48 mm long, which I took from a brook on the Puthutotam Estate in the Anamallai Hills at about 3,600 feet altitude, Valaparai Postoffice, Madras Presidency, South India. Family ScoRPAENIDAE Genus Scorpaena Linnaeus Scorpaena lacto-maculata, n. sp. . Dorsal XI-I-9; anal III-—5; about 60 scales in a longitudinal row above the lateral line; 25 tubulated scales in lateral line; about 38 scales in transverse series, 8 from the sixth dorsal spine to the lateral line. Depth 5.5, caudal 6.9, head 4.18, pectoral 5.8, ventral 7.4 times in the length. The eye is 5.5 times in the head and is a little more than the interorbital breadth; snout 3.4 times in Dec. 15, 1945 head. The longest dorsal spine is approximately a third of the head; the longest dorsal rays equal the second anal spine, 2.6 times in the head; the third anal spine is as long as the sec- ond but is much slenderer; longest anal ray is half as long as the head. The 6 upper pectoral rays are divided, the 12 lower ones simple. Interorbital deeply concave, the prominent supraorbital ridge with 3 spines, followed by a large spine behind the ridge; a spine on each side of the prominent hump on the snout; 2 spines, very close together, on each side of the nuchal area; behind the middle of the eye is a group of small spines, followed by a row of 3 rather widely spaced spines; 2 opercular spines; 4 spines on the bony stay below the eye and a row of spines on the hind margin of the preopercle; a spine on the shoulder girdle above the pectoral base. Head scaleless or with a very few small scales on the opercular flap; many tentacles, often large and fringed, on the head, between or on spines, on the broad maxilla and overhanging it, on the chin and along the rami of the lower jaw, on the cheeks, and 2 or 3 small ones on the upper part of the eye ball; simple flaps along the lateral line and on numerous scales on the sides of the body. The large mouth is oblique, the maxilla extending beyond the hind margin of the eye; no palatine teeth. The color in alcohol is freckled reddish brown, with 2 or 3 bands of darker brown ex- tending across fins and body; just above the lateral line and beneath the ninth dorsal spine is a circular milky spot, larger than the pupil; beneath the eye is a similar but much smaller spot; at the hind end of the soft dorsal base is a larger milky spot, partly on the fin but mostly on the body; the numerous tentacles or flaps below the lateral line are also milky white; these spots and tentacles were probably opalescent in life. The pectorals, dorsal, and caudal have broad pale or white, but not milky-white, cross bands. Described from two specimens taken from “Shallow water near Bombay,’ India, each of them 222 mm in length. The type is in the In- dian Museum, the paratype in the Natural History Museum of Stanford University. Genus Brachypterois Fowler Brachypterois serrulifer Fowler Brachypterots serrulifer Fowler, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 85: 79, fig. 35. 1938. HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA 401 This fine scorpaenid was described from a single specimen, dredged 8.4 miles off San Fer- nando Point, on the west coast of Luzon, Phil- ippine Islands. To Fowler’s description I can add that the pectorals are black and that the ventral rays are also black except basally. This species must be rather common in the northern end of the Bay of Bengal. One speci- men, 73 mm long, was taken by the Bengal Fisheries Department on the Arakan coast. Another of 65 mm was caught off Gopalpur, Orissa. Fifteen examples from 43 to 80 mm in length were dredged at the mouth of the Hugli River by the Lady Fraser. Dorsal XIT—I—10; anal III—5; pectoral 16. Family ELEOTRIDAE Genus Hypseleotris Gill Hypseleotris raji, n. sp. Dorsal VI-I-8; anal I-7; scales ctenoid, 28 in lateral series plus 2 on caudal base, 9 in trans- verse series; 12 predorsal scales. The body is moderately plump and stout, the dorsal profile well arched, descending steeply from the dorsal origin to the tip of the snout; the depth and caudal are equal, 4%, the head 3 times in the length; the large eye is in the an- terior half of the head, dorsolateral, scarcely larger than the broad snout, 4 times in the head; the interorbital is 1.35 times in the eye; the postorbital is slightly more than half the head. The fins are all low, the longest dorsal spine 3.14 times in the head or 9.4 in the length; the last ray of the second dorsal is longest, 2.44 in the bead or 7.33 times in the length; the ulti- mate and penultimate anal rays are longest, 2.2 in the head or 6.6 in the length; the pectoral ex- tends above the anal, 3.66 in the length; the ventrals reach the anal, four and an eighth in the length. All scales are ctenoid, those on the cheeks very small; anal papilla thin, slender, blunt, inconspicuous. The ground color in alcohol is pale tan, with 4 double cross bands of dark brown, the first over the nape, the last on the caudal sbduntie the ground color appears as pale bands and rows of spots through the cross bands; a black- ish-brown cross bar on the caudal base; dark brown bands from the eye on the snout and across the cheek, at least two of them continu- ing on the under side of the head to meet simi- lar bands from the other eye. The first dorsal is largely black; the second dorsal has a blackish 402 band basally, then a clear band, the outer third or half blackish; the anal and ventrals have black rays with dark or blackish membranes; the pectoral base has a large dark brown spot, the fin clear; the caudal has 4 circular black spots on its base. The type and only specimen is a male 33 mm long, taken from the Adyar River, Madras. Named for Dr. B. Sundara Raj, former director of fisheries for the Madras Presidency, who did so much to make my visit to Madras successful. Family GoBIIDAE Orissagobius, n. gen. Dorsal VI-I-8 or 9; anal I-8 or 9; scales large, finely ctenoid, 22 to 24 in longitudinal, 6 in transverse series; a narrow naked predorsal strip, the nape otherwise covered with cycloid scales almost to the eyes; preopercle covered with large deciduous cycloid scales; opercle naked except for one or two cycloid scales at the upper inner corner. Eye large, in anterior half of head, interorbital very narrow; snout short, two-thirds or less of eye; mouth strongly oblique, each jaw with an outer row of stout, enlarged, sharp-pointed and curved teeth, fol- lowed by 3 rows of minute teeth, at least the outer rows of teeth visible when the mouth is closed; tongue large, fleshy, truncate or slightly notched; gill opening extending forward to be- neath the hind margin of the preoperculum. Fins all elongate, the upper rays of the caudal greatly extended, some specimens with the caudal half the standard length; the antepenul- timate ray of the second dorsal longest, equal to or longer than the head, the same ray in the anal nearly as long; pectoral about four-fifths of the head, its base long and fleshy; no free pec- toral rays; ventrals large, with a well developed frenum, free from abdomen. Tissues of this fish fragile, showing that it lives in rather deep water. Type of genus: Orissagobius cometes (Al- cock). Known only from the Ganjam coast, Orissa, India. Dredged from depths of a little more or less than 100 fathoms, by the S.8. In- vestigator, of the Indian Marine Survey. Eight specimens, 61 to 73 mm in length, were ex- amined. Genus Macgregorella Seale Macgregorella indica, n. sp. Dorsal VI-I—9; anal I-8; predorsal scales 4; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12 about 50 longitudinal scales, 14 in transverse series; the head is entirely naked. The depth equals the rounded caudal, 6 times in the length; the large broad flat head is 3.47 in the length, its depth 1.6 times in its breadth, which is 1.28 in its own length; the broad blunt snout is 3.95 times in the head; the small eyes are dorsolateral and in the anterior half of the head, 7.3 in the head and 1.38 times in the broad interorbital; the teeth are typical of the genus. The snout, sides, and underparts of the head are marked by numerous rows of sensory papillae, some of them elongated and some- what resembling barbels, especially on the chin and underside of the head. A large pore before the inner margin of each eye, and a transverse row of 4 large pores behind the eyes and inter- orbital space. The dorsals are low, the height of the first 4.75 in the head; the posterior rays of the second dorsal and anal are longest, 8.25 times in the length or 2.375 in the head; the broad pectoral is eight-ninths of the head, 3.88 in the length; the ventrals are typical goby ven- trals with a strong and well developed frenum, and are contained a trifle over 5 times in the length or 1.46 in the head. The color in alcohol is pale reddish brown with 4 broad conspicuous dark reddish-brown cross bands on the trunk and a narrow stripe of the same color on the caudal base; the first band extends upon the pectoral on both its in- ner and outer faces; between the cross bands are blotches and streaks of reddish brown; the second cross band extends upon the first dorsal, the third and fourth upon the second dorsal; the anal and caudal are obscurely barred by brown. Described from the type and only specimen, 33 mm long, taken from coral at Krusadai Is- land in the Gulf of Manaar, Pamban District, Madras Presidency, South India. Such speci- mens as this show the fallacy of placing all gobies with ridges of papillae on the head, and the body barred with brown, in the genus Cal- logobius, which is marked by weak ventrals with a very slight fragile frenum. In spite of Kouman’s assertion, Macgregorella is a good genus. Genus Vaimosa Jordan and Seale Vaimosa adyari, n. sp. Dorsal VI-I-7; anal I-7; scales in lateral se- Dec. 15, 1945 ries 26, plus 3 on the caudal base, in transverse series 8; predorsal scales 7, the anterior one much enlarged and projecting forward between posterior part of the eyes; opercular scales 6. The compact body is little compressed, the dorsal profile almost horizontal, the ventral profile slightly curved; the depth is 5 to 5.25, the head 3.8, the caudal 2.8, the pectoral 3.33 to 3.8, the ventral 4.2 times in the length. The snout is broad, blunt, convex, 5.2 to 5.5 times in the head; the eye is moderately large, lateral, in the anterior half of the head, in which it goes 3.4 times; the postorbital is slightly longer than the eye and snout together; the narrow inter- orbital is not more than a fourth of the eye; the oblique mouth is subterminal, the lower jaw weak, the maxillary extending beneath the an- _terior margin of the eye, or a little beyond; the vertical fins are small, the dorsals rather far apart, the second and third spines of the first dorsal longest, 2.1 or 2.2 in the head, 8 times or a little more in the length; the second dorsal and anal are of equal height, both falling far short of the caudal base when depressed, six and two-thirds or 7 times in the length; the pectoral equals or slightly exceeds the head, 3.5 to 3.8 in the length; the ventrals are broadly pointed, with strong well developed frenum, 1.1 in the head; the least depth of the caudal pe- duncle is about 1.7 times in its own length; the small inconspicuous anal papilla is slender and pointed in males. The color in alcohol is very pale yellowish, with 5 short-brown dorsal cross bands, the first predorsal, the second under the first dorsal, the next two under the second dorsal, and the fifth on the caudal peduncle; along the middle of the side are 5 oblong brown spots, the last on the caudal base, with another spot below it; on the sides are also scattered flecks of brown; a spot on the pectoral base, one on the opercle, and one below the eye; the posterior half of the first dorsal is black; the second dorsal has 3 cross rows of black or brown spots, the caudal 56 ir- regular cross rows of brown spots; some of the rays of the anal and ventrals are dotted with black and there are 3 to 5 black spots on the median line of the body between the anal origin and the caudal base. Described from 2 male specimens, the type 21 mm long and paratype 20 mm, and a juve- nile specimen 15.5 mm in length. They were taken by me on January 4, 1941, from the Ad- HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA 403 yar River, opposite ‘‘The Anchorage,”’ the resi- dence of Dr. B. Sundara Raj, former director of fisheries of the Madras Presidency. This is not far from the Bay of Bengal, and the Adyar River is more or less brackish at this point. Vaimosa crassa, N. sp. Dorsal VI-I-7; anal I-8; scales in longi- tudinal series 36, plus 3 or more on the caudal base, 12 in transverse series; predorsal scales 15, extending through the interorbital space to the front margin of the eyes; preopercular scales 9 or 10. Body thick, plump, only the posterior third being laterally compressed; dorsal outline very slightly arched, nearly horizontal; ventral pro- file gently arched; the head is contained 3.7 to 3.8, the depth 4.55 to 4.7, the short rounded caudal 4.85 to 5.14 times in the length; the large eye equals or exceeds slightly the length of the snout, 3.8 times in the head; the post- orbital is a trifle less than the eye and snout together; the broad interorbital equals or slightly exceeds the eye; the wide mouth is in- ferior, the maxillary extending beneath the front third of the eye, or almost to its middle; in males the maxillary probably extends be- yond the eye. The fins are all small, the vertical fins low, the second spine of the first dorsal 2.2 to 2.6 in the head or 8.3 to 9.5 times in the length, the dorsals far apart; the height of the second dorsal is approximately 2 to 2.4 times in the head or 7.5 to 8.9 in the length; the longest anal ray is 2.3 to 2.4 in the head or 8.9 to 9 times in the length; the anal and second dorsal fall far short of the caudal base when depressed; the short rounded pectoral is 1.3 to 1.4 in the head or 4.85 to 5.5 times in the length; the ven- tral extends but half way to the anal papilla, 1.85 or 1.9 in the head and 6.8 to 7.2 in the length; the least depth of the caudal peduncle is 1.4 times in its own length. Females have a short, broad, bluntly rounded, and inconspicu- ous anal papilla. Alcoholic specimens are marked by broad dark brown diagonal bands inclined forward and downward, with narrow and very pale tan stripes between; one specimen has the head and body before the first dorsal all brown, mottled with dusky. On the middle of the front margin of the opercle is a blackish spot, with a dark stripe descending from it to the underside of the head; a black spot near the upper end of the 404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12 caudal base; the first dorsal is blackish, the sec- the type 34 mm long. and paratype 36 mm long ond dorsal and anal more or less dusky; the They were taken from a brook near Un Long, other fins are colorless. New Territory, Hong Kong. No other speci- Here described from two female specimens, mens were secured. APPEAL TO AMERICAN SCIENTISTS Many scientists and their families are enduring severe hardships in occupied countries. We, the undersigned, wives of American scientists, want to help these innocent victims of the Axis. We suggest the desirability of supplementing the work of the established relief agencies by sending gift packages of clothing and food directly to individual scien- tists and their families. Some of us have already sent packages to friends whose present addresses are known, and the acknowledgments we have received leave no doubt of the urgent need which these packages are helping to meet. Used clothing and shoes are genuinely appreciated. ) American scientists who would like to send packages to colleagues in the occupied countries may obtain names and present addresses from the Secretary of this group. It is suggested that you indicate the country of your greatest interest and the ages of the chil- dren for which you can supply clothing. A package sent now is worth six sent next spring. LANGHORNE H. BricKWEDDE LovisE McD. Browne EmitigE H. Conpon Loua 8. DEMING Epitu O. HENDRICKS Miuprep R. Masi Grace H. RuarkK GrRacE H. Situ, Secretary National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D.C. ten: Mee — oo ea 7 INDEX TO VOLUME 35 An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washington. 103. Botanical Society of Washington. 167. Chemical Society of Washington. 102. Geological Society of Washington. 196. Philosophical Society of Washington. Washington Academy of Sciences. 97, 367. 164, 230, 298. AUTHOR INDEX Aserc, Ewrrt, and Wiess, G. A. Irregular barley, Hordeum tirregulare, sp. nov. 161. ALLARD, H. A. A new form of the moonvine Calonyction aculeatum with divided corolla limb, and length-of-day behavior and flower- ing of the common form. 33. ALLEN, V. T. *Sedimentary and volcanic proc- esses in the formation of high-alumina clays. 198. ANDREws, DONALD H. lute zero. 370. BAKER, Epwarp W. Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mexico. 16. Scheloribates chauhant, a new species of oribatid mite from India (Acarina: Cerato- *Explorations near abso- -zetidae). 386. BartscuH, Paut. New urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. 92. The West Pacific species of the mol- luscan genus Aforza. 388. Berry, Epwarp W. Harry Fielding Reid (obituary). 31. . The Lower Eocene flora of southeastern North America. 87. BuAKE, Doris H. Five new flea beetles from the West Indies. 89. Six new species of beetles of a eumolpid genus new to the West Indies. 323. BuakE, S. F. Dipterocypsela, a new genus of Vernonieae from Colombia. 36. BoosaupA, JOHN K. *Plastics—today and to- morrow. 369. Bovine, ApAmM H. Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha min- danaona (Brenske). 13. Brapy, FREDERICK J. See DEAN B. Cowrr. 192. Brown, WiiuiaM F., Jr. *Ferromagnetic do- mains. 371. BuURINGTON, RicHARDS. *Invariance in science. 99. CHANDRASEKHAR, 8. *Galactic evidences for the time scale of the universe. 98. CLaBAuGH, S. E. *Paragenesis of the tungsten ore of the Ima mine, Idaho. 198. Cuiarxk, Austin H. A new starfish of the genus _ Luidia from the coast of Georgia. 19. Cor, WresLEY R. Malacobdella minuta, a new commensal nemertean. 65. Core, Eart L. Two new species of Scleria from the Upper Amazon Valley. 322. Cowi18, Dean B. *The 60-inch cyclotron at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. 102. ,,uAWTON, ALFRED H., Ness, A. T., Brapy, FREDERICK J., and OGDEN, GLEN E. Localization of radioactive antimony follow- ing multiple daily injections to a dog infected with Dirofilaria immitis. 192. CRITTENDEN, E. C. John Franklin (obituary). 168. DARNELL, RICHARD C. craft fire control. 100. Dixmans, G. Two new lungworms, Proto- strongylus gracilis and Varestrongylus sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats in China. 294. Dopegs, Ernest 8. Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of wild turkeys and passenger pigeons. 342. DorsEy, HERBERT G. *Radio applied to ocean current observations. 100. DrRaKkE, C. J., and HAMBLETON, E. J. ing Neotropical Tingitidae 356. Epwarps, Harry T. Lyster (obituary). 200. FENTON, WILLIAMN. SeeJ. N. B. Hewitt. 301. FisHerR, W. K. Unusual abnormalities in sea- stars. 296. Fraser, C. McLean. Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United States Na- tional Museum, with descriptions of three new species. 21. GAMOwW, GEORGE A. Meyer *The problem of antiair- Concern- (Hemiptera). Hoxie Dewey *Weizsacker’s planetary theory. 367. GaRDNER, H. A. George Whiteley Coggeshall (obituary). 199. GARNER, CLEMENT L. The utility of geodetic control surveys. 137. Gates, G. E. On the oligochaete genus Syngeno- drilus and its taxonomic relationships. 393. Gautt, H. R. *Geology and zinc deposits in the Groundhog and Glacier Basins, Wrangell district, southeastern Alaska. 198. GILBERT, WiLLIAM H., Jr. The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon. 69, 105. The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An outcasted group. 237. GLASSELL, STEVE A. Four new species of North American crabs of the genus Petrolisthes. 223. 405 406 GRIFFIN, JAMES B. The significance of the fiber- tempered pottery of the St. Johns area in Florida. 218. HAMBLETON, HE. J. See C.J. DRAKE. 356. HARRINGTON, JoHN P. Origin of the word ‘““maize.’’ 68. Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Na- vajo of the North. 1. Six common Navajo nouns accounted for. Sto: Hass, W. H. *Conodont morphology. 196. HENDRICKS, STERLING B. *Photoperiodic flow- ering response of plants. 372. Herre, ALBERT W.C.T. Notes on fishes in the Zoological Museum of Stanford University: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus, and a new Indian record. 399. Hewitt, J. N. B., and Fenton, WiLrram N. Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois condolence council. 301. Hosss, Horton H., JR. The subspecies and in- tergrades of the Florida burrowing crayfish Procambarus rogerst (Hobbs). 247. HuuBert, E. O. *Optics of distilled water and sea water. 368. HyneEk, J. ALLEN. 367. INSLEY, HERBERT. Contact deposits in an arti- ficial silicate magma. 156. JAMES, Maurice T. A new larvaevorid parasite of the social butterfly Huchetra soczalis Westwood (Diptera). 328. JENKINS, ANNA E. Scab of Cinchona in South America caused by Elsinoé. 344. KARMAN, THEODORE VON. Faster than sound. 144. KENG, Kwan-HOv. See Yi-LI KENG. 374. Kene, Yi-t1, and Kenge, Kwan-Hov. Koko- noria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghai Province, China. 374. KENNARD, E. H., and Taytor, Davin. be scientific? 99. Kine, P. B. *Tectonics of northeasternmost Tennessee. 197. Kirk, Epwin. Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Mississippian. 180. KirkKwoop, JoHN G. *The structure of liquids. 101. KOUWENHAVEN, WiuuiaAmM B, *Electric shock— physiological manifestations and treatment. 372. Lawton, ALFRED H. See Dran B. Cowig, 192. LINDBERG, Marig L. *Heavy mineral correla- tion of the Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and Can- nonball sediments, North Dakota. 196. Lone, W. H. Notes on four eastern species of Gymnosporangium. 182. Mao, Yine-Tov. Three new species of Lamini- tarsus Fullaway from Singapore and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 189. Marmer, H. A. *Meansealevel. 367. McCuvre, F. A. The vegetative characters of the bamboo genus Phyllostachys and descrip- tions of eight new species introduced from China. 276. *The ‘“‘science”’ of astrology. *Whyvy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12 McNisu, A. G. *The odograph. 370. MILLER, Rosert R. Anchoviella analis, a new engraulid fish from the west coast of Mexico. 265. Four new species of fossil cyprinodont fishes from eastern California. 315. Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside chub of the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western United States. 28. Moore, J. Percy. Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collection of the United States Na- tional Museum. 261. Morrison, Haroup. The mealybug genus Het- erococcus Ferris and some of its relatives (Homoptera: Coccoidea). 38. Morton, C. V. Seven new species of Gesneri- aceae from Peru and Colombia. 126. Ness, A. T. See Dean B. Cowie. 192. Oak EY, R. G. Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). 7. OcpEN, GLEN E. See DrEaAn B. Cowie. OrLeER, Morris Epwarp. Japanese folk belief concerning the cat. 269. PickForRD, Grace E. Additional observations on the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus. 397. Rawpon, H.S. William Malcolm Corse (obitu- ary). 32 RIpLEY, 8. Ditton. Suggested terms for the in- terpretation of speciation phenomena. 337. Rivas, Luis Rent. The discovery and rede- scription of the types of Rivulus marmoratus Poey, a cyprinodont fish from Cuba. 95. 192. Rogserts, JoHN W. Merton Benway Waite - (obituary). 268. Roginson, G. D. *The molybdenite deposit at Shakan, Alaska. 196. RossER, J. BARKLEY. *Many-valued logics. 367. RvussELL, LovisE M. A new genus and twelve new species of Neotropical whiteflies (Ho- moptera: Aleyrodidae). 55.: SayLor, LAWRENCE W. Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the sub- family Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cycloce- phalini. 378. ScHAEFFER, C. E. See F. G. Speck. 169. Scuuttz, Leonarp P. Emmelichthyops atlanti- cus, a new genus and species of fish (family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, with akey torelated genera. 132. Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Venezuela. 29. The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of the genus Oligoplites Gill, inhabiting Ameri- can waters. 330. SETCHKIN, NicHouas P. *The ignition tempera- ture of liquids. 369. SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Notes on the am- phipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with descrip- tion of a new species. 24. Simua, Roperr. *Elasticity and flow in high polymers. 97. Speck, F. G., and ScHAEFFER, C. E. The mu- tual-aid and volunteer company of the east- ee eee Se aa ee ae _ ° 3 _. : Dec. 15, 1945 ern Cherokee: as recorded in a book of min- utes in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared with mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois. 169. Stimson, H. F. The measurement of some ther- mal properties of water. 201. Strong, A. H. *Electrical networks and ‘“‘squar- ing the square.”’ 371. Srurz, Groree F. A. *Luminescent pigments. 101. Tayutor, Davip. See E. H. KENNARD. 99. TucCKERMAN, L. B. *Mathematics as she are taught: Fit the second. 97, INDEX 407 VENNING, FRANK D. Accessory vascular bun- dles in Murraya koenigiit (Linn.) Spreng. (Rutaceae: Aurantioideae). 352. VesTINE, E. H. *The geographical distribution of aurora. 370. Warner, L. A. *Magnetite deposits of Kasaan Peninsula, southeastern Alaska. 197. WieBE, G. A. See Ewerr ABERT. 161. WiInNEK, Dovuauas F. *Trivision—a direct-vi- sion color stereograph. 370. YaGcopa, H. J. *Localization of chemical con- stituents by chemical patterns. 199. SUBJECT INDEX Archeology. The significance of the fiber-tem- pered pottery of the St. Johns area in Florida. James B. GRIFFIN. 218. Astronomy. *Galactic evidences for the time scale of the universe. S. CHANDRASEK- HAR. 98, *The ‘‘science”’ of astrology. J. ALLEN HyYNEK. 367. Biology. Suggested terms for the interpretation of speciation phenomena. S. DILLoNn RIPLEY. 337. Biophysics. *Photoperiodic flowering response of plants. Sreriine B. HENDRIcKs. 372. Botany. Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya koenigit (Linn.) Spreng. (Rutaceae: Au- rantioideae). FRANK D. VENNING. 352. A new form of the moonvine Calonyction aculeatum with divided corolla limb, and length-of-day behavior and flowering of the commonform. H.A. ALLARD. 33. Dipterocypsela, a new genus of Vernonieae from Colombia. S. F. BuaKke. 36. Irregular barley, Hordeum irregulare, sp. nov. Ewert ABERG and G. A. WIEBE. 161. Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghai Province, China. YI-.I Kene and Kwan-Hovu Kena. 374. Notes on four eastern species of Gymno- sporangium. W.H. Lone. 182. Seab of Cinchona in South America caused Elsinoé. ANNA E. JENKINS. 344. Seven new species of Gesneriaceae from Peru and Colombia. C. V. Morton. 126. The vegetative characters of the bamboo genus Phyllostachys and descriptions of eight new species introduced from China. F. A. McCuiure. 276. Two new species of Scleria from the Upper Amazon Valley. Earut L. Core. 322. Chemistry. *The ignition temperature of liquids. NicHouas P. SETCHKIN. 369. Entomology. A new genus and twelve new spe- : cies of Neotropical whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Louise M. RussEuu. 55. A new larvaevorid parasite of the social but- terfly Hucheira socialis Westwood (Dip- tera). Maurice T. JAMEs. 328. Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemip- tera). C. J. Drake and E. J. HAMBLE- TON, 356. Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). Apam G. Bovina. 13. Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mexico. Epwarp W. Baker. 16. Five new flea beetles from the West Indies. Doris H. BLAKE. 89. Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). R. G. OaAKuEy. 7. Scheloribates chauhani, a new species of ori- batid mite from India (Acarina: Cerato- zetidae). Epwarp W. Baker. 386. Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cyclocephalini. LAwrencE W. Sayitor. 378. The mealybug genus Heterococcus Ferris and some of its relatives (Homoptera: Coc- coidea). Harotp Morrison. 38. Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway from Singapore and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Y1ne-Tou Mao. 189. Ethnology. Japanese folk belief concerning the cat. Morris Epwarp OPLER. 269. Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of wild turkeys and passenger pigeons. Ernest 8. DopGe. 342. Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois condolence: council. J. N. B. HewimtT and Wiuu1AM N. Fenton. 301. The mutual-aid and volunteer company of the eastern Cherokee: as recorded in a book of minutes in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared with mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois. F. G. Speck and C. E. ScHAEFFER. 169. The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon. Wrii1amM H. GILBERT, Jr. 69, 105. The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An out- casted group. Wi.i1aAM H. GILBERT, JR. 237. General Science. *Why be scientific? KENNARD and Davip Taytor. 99, B,. A. 408 Geochemistry. Contact deposits in an artificial silicate magma. HERBERT INSLEY. 156. Geodesy. *Mean sea level. H. A. MARMER. 367. The utility of geodetic control surveys. CiLEMENT L. GARNER. 137. Ichthyology. Anchoviella analis, a new engraulid fish from the west coast of Mexico. RoBERT R. MILER. 265. Emmelichthyops atlanticus, a new genus and species of fish (family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, with a key to related genera. LEONARD P.ScuuuitTz. 132. Notes on fishes in the Zoological Museum of Stanford University: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus, and a new Indian record. ALBERT W. C. T. HERRE. 399. Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Vene- zuela. LEONARD P. ScHuuLtTz. 29. Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside chub of the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western United States. Rosert R. MiuuEerR. 28. The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of the genus Oligophites Gill, inhabiting Ameri- can waters. Lronarp P. Scuutrz. 330. The discovery and redescription of the types of Rivulus marmoratus Poey, a eyprinidont fish from Cuba. Luis REN#& Rivas. 965. Linguistics. Origin of the word ‘maize.’ JOHN P. HARRINGTON. 68. Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Navajo of the North. Joun P. Harrineron. 1. Six common Navajo nouns accounted for. JoHN P. HARRINGTON. 373. Logic. *Many-valued logics. J. BARKLEY Ros- SER. 367. Mathematics. *Electrical networks and ‘‘squar- ing the square.” A. H. Stone. 371. *Mathematics as she are taught: Fit the Second. L. B. TucKERMAN. 97. Obituaries. COGGESHALL, GEORGE WHITELEY. 199. Corse, Winti1am Matco.im. 31. Dewey, LysterR Hoxie. 200. Meyer, JoHN FRANKLIN. 168. ReErp, Harry Fretping. 31. Waitt, Merton BEn- WAy. 268. Paleobotany. The Lower Eocene flora of south- eastern North America. Epwarp W. BERRY. 87. Paleontology. Four new species of fossil cyprino- dont fishes from eastern California. Ropert R. Miuuer. 315. Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Mississippian. Epwin Kirk. 180. ‘Parasitology. Localization of radioactive an- timony following multiple injections to a dog infected with Dvurofilaria immitis. Dean B. Cowi1z, ALFRED H. Lawron, A. T. Ness, Freprerick J. Brapy, and GLEN E. OapEn. 192. Physics. *Electric shock—physiological mani- festations and treatment. WiLiiaAm B. KOUWENHAVEN. 372. *Elasticity and flow in high polymers. ROBERT SIMHA. 97. *Explorations near absolute zero. DoNaLp JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 12) H. ANDREWws. 370. Faster than sound. THEODORE von KAr- MAN. 144. *Ferromagnetic domains. Wuiiiiam PF, Brown, Jr. 371. *Invariance in science. RicHarp S. Bur- INGTON. 99. *Luminescent pigments. Grorce F. A. Sr ras Lhe *Optics of distilled water and sea water. E. O. Huiperr. 368. . *Plastics—today and tomorrow. Joun K. BoosaHpDA. 369. *Radio applied to ocean current observa- tions. Hrrsert G. Dorsry. 100. *The geographical distribution of the aurora. E. H. Vestine.\ 370. The measurement of some thermal proper- ties of water. H.F.Sirmson. 201. *The odograph. A. G. McNisu. 370. *The problem of antiaircraft fire control. RicHARD C. DARNELL. 100. *The 60-inch cyclotron at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Dran_ B. Cowie. 102. *The structure of liquids. JoHn G. Kirx- woop. 101. *Trivision—a ___ direct-vision _stereograph. Dovaeias F. WInNEK. 370. *Weizsacker’s planetary theory. GrorGE A. Gamow. 367. Zoology. Additional observations on the oligo- chaete genus Syngenodrilus. Grace E. PicKForRD. 397. A new starfish of the genus Luidia from the coast of Georgia. AusTIN H. CuarK. 19. Four new species of North American crabs of the genus Petrolisthes. StTmvE A. Guas- SELL. 223. Malacobdella minuta, a new commensal nemertean. WESLEY R.:Con. 65. New urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. Pau BartscH. 92. Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United States National Museum, with descriptions of three new species. C. Mc- LEAN FRASER. 21. Notes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with description of a new species. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 24. On the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus and its taxonomic relationships. G. E. GATEs. 393. The West Pacific species of the molluscan genus Aforia. Paun BartscH. 388. The subspecies and intergrades of the Flor- ida burrowing crayfish, Procambarus roger- st (Hobbs). Horton H. Hosss, Jr. 247. Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collec- tion of the United States National Mu- seum. J. Percy Moore. 261. Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis and Varestrongylus sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats in China. G. Dixmans. 294. Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars. W. K. FIisHer. 296. FY at Diag Pc ised a Y y ae | fe / Bt at ac Lineuistics. ix common Navajo nouns Mgrs: for. JOHN PL ea ae Hanntnoran ith. il -2S pont oe uate a Rake Abode “Bm ae Be iy Se Botany.—Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghai | pe / Province, China. YI-Li Kene and Kwan-Hovu KEne...... Saal Tk HS ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States aol papiien: * ee al ia of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cyclocephalini. ae Re isis LAWRENCE W. SaYLoR...... ome ul Shas oe cee ~ oe peg ae 3B EntToMoLoGy.—WScheloribates chauhani, a new species of oubelad: mite” Of < ae, from India (Acayina: Ceratozetidae). Epwarp W. BAKER. te tg SS ee ZooLocy.—The West Pacific species of the mollusean genus Aforia. YS Senay ae PauL BaRTSCH)....-.....-. AG BOLT RTL: ee ha aes, ZooLoay.—On the oligochaete genus Syngenodritus bind its taxonomic ; ie ‘ relationships. G. E. GaTES eee, £ Tt eer ea 52 Se ee "393 ba . ce SMES gis gi 9 Zoo.ocy.—Additional observations on the Se es genus Syn- Naar 2: seal genodrilus. Grace E. PICKFORD...............+.. Peet sage Cn ye oer. eee | IcutHyoLocy.—Notes on fishes in the Zoological een ts Stanford — iy University: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus plats and a new Indian record. ALBERT W. C. is HEnRe: iN ea ee ee APPEAL TO AMERICAN SCIENTISTS. .......0-6.0eseeeecseee ees INDEX TO VOLUME 35..............- siteae Wh ey Mites uh Aine This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Po Rete f a ~ ~ Be N\ ae - ‘ ~ ‘ i ; *—. j . y pis 4 \ / L ~ a i “ ws he: : ya’. = A nal 4 m Py = -" % he =. a ae: wh ihe ( o 12 ‘i . . - . : s ‘ ' - ‘ . ‘ . ’ . ’ ‘ . . 4 \ 3 9088 01303 1893 WAT