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MH oe ‘ Y ji rf w\efaiei: sae rt a nian Y Pkt inde betal i i ; botafetets Bates en oe ete taaaed > eh eee 3 pre oote een ae ‘ pe yore Sicaciotber ete pies Sacg pees it : Tester thw mere den Mimrers * earenih Sens ete =" iateld ae lee pen Wore geroweore " ° ep abebebeyed ete oor rhe tage fete Gebers eejee~s reyes f . pean cihars.rygs son “se ioe eddies bie we 3 ae 7 fe eateries yore! fete le ete wear tat nt Daan emer nnt” roa mere vie een t eye retMetece © ae hil < eee orale” - i ee ie woe ions ne snore “ ere - toymoperebeyeeeig E78 aoe nayiy weotere tay er a ce : siovgieewle soe ins FET ir om oc pa PUP Dye Het eye Pw wet " - * cote hecntetele eerie erence ore eT ede deaths Se umie a wee! ie ie So « ow : 7 ai de of -er > > 4 » » Ve eee * 8 nm cya hetwe — SS ely grey ws Ce es eo ee at 3 satya Spt — ee ° wy omer ea ave * ve ws e- amphi oa ere a utere a ‘at wste é 3. re! here eta veda we o > a reas J wer v fadave ie pienegt ae cid. . . mere . est : : A hie Wee "i de i: *y Sis ca »* ns eS Sacto mera? hs ett em ait he ; i t pa sent > Pi Leama P 50625 JOURNAL ov c> OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 38, 1948 BOARD OF EDITORS JAMES I. 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Scumitt, U.S. National Museum. Secretary: C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Museum. Treasurer: HowarRD S. Rappiereg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NaTHAN R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. Ye - Custodian of Publications: Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum. ih pease JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 38 and mathematical systems.* nance, Navy Department. Foreword——Many mathematicians as well as engineers and physicists sometimes fail to recognize the great principles un- derlying mathematical reasoning and meth- ods that permeate their particular fields. - Instead, they are apt to turn their attention solely to the formalism of the techniques - involved. This is a tendency to be guarded against and one to which professional people and educators should give continued attention, particularly in the teaching of mathematics, science, and engineering. This paper, therefore, urges wider consider- ation of mathematical principles and meth- ods by scientists and engineers, whether or not they are primarily interested in mathematics, and gives examples with reference to one well-known mathematical concept.’ 1. Introduction.—The concept of equiva- lence lies at the heart of nearly every trans- action, physical theory, and mathematical system. The literature abounds in such phrases as 1 This paper was prepared from the manuscripts of two addresses by the writer: The concept (and misconcept) of equivalence, presented to the Philosophical Society of Washington on January 18, 1947, and On the role of equivalence in pure and applied science and in practical and everyday ae, presented to the Oberlin Mathematics Club, nual Banquet Meeting, on May 17, 1946. The writer wishes to express his appreciation of the _ Many constructive suggestions and critical com- ments made during the preparation of the paper by his colleagues Dr. D May, Mrs. A. B. McCaleb Nazary, and Miss A. Madsen, of the Bureau of Ordnance. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and not necessarily Raa of the Navy Department. Received June 20, See also Burineton, RicHarp 6&., _ frontiers, Science 101: 313-320. Mar. 30, 1945, JANUARY 15, 1948 No. 1 MATHEMATICS.—The role of the concept of equivalence in the study of physical RICHARD STEVENS BURINGTON, Bureau of Ord- (P) which, unless properly defined, are often meaningless or misleading (e.g., ‘‘an elec- tric organ is equivalent to a pipe organ’”’; “one 1937 dollar is equivalent to 60 cents’’). When S is a physical system, the ele- ments A, B,... of the system are identi- fied with specific physical objects, quan- tities, ..., and the types of equivalence relations used must be carefully defined. Each such definition constitutes a separa- tion of A, B, . . . and the associated physical picture into classes. Such separation may be of considerable physical significance, each type of equivalence often having associated with it an extensive physical theory. Thus, in electrical theory are defined: ‘‘equiva- lent m-pole networks,” involving the ‘‘con- gruence”’ of certain matrices characterizing the physical system; ‘‘symmetric compo- nents,” involving the ‘‘similarity”’ of certain matrices; etc. In the study of physical systems, perfect, or approximate isomorphic (abstractly identical) systems play a fundamental role. Equivalent physical (or mathematical) models are integral parts of the methods used (e.g., as in hydrodynamic similitude theories, .. . ) Considerable progress has been made by mathematicians in extending the theory of equivalence relations. To what extent these abstractions will be of value in the applied fields remains to be seen. This much is clear. A consciousness of the con- cept of equivalence is of real value. It helps to clarify problems. It provides a means of attack. The involved details of the modern abstract theories of equivalence A is equivalent to B, 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES will be in themselves of little value in prac- tical problems unless a penetrating inquiry into the economic, physical, or other perti- nent background of the problem at hand is made. 2. The phrase (P) must be defined.—The phrase (P) to have a well-defined meaning, requires appropriate definitions of the entities A and B, as well as a precise statement as to the meaning to be attached to the phrase “‘is equivalent to” as used in relation to A and B. Thus, the use of the phrase (P) should be accompanied by adequate and proper definitions. For example, in the phrase “1937 dollar is equivalent to 60 cents” it is not known what a “1937 dollar’’ is, what ‘‘60 cents” is, or what “is equivalent to’? means. One would be at a loss to ex- plain what the phrase means. Likewise, the phrase ‘‘an electric organ is equivalent to a pipe organ”’ is questionable since there is nothing in the statement indicating in _ what sense the two organs are considered to be equivalent. Does the phrase mean that the two organs can generate the same level of noise as measured (in some manner or other) in decibels in a given auditorium; does it mean that each of the two instru- ments can be used to play church music; or does it mean that their tonal potentialities are comparable to each other, and so on? The list need not be extended further, for the reader can no doubt contribute hun- dreds of similar examples and queries. _ 3. Importance of such statements as (P).— The importance of such statements as (P) becomes evident when one realizes that the notion of equivalence lies at the very basis of nearly every transaction and of nearly every mathematical system or form- ulation of a physical theory. For example, in order that the statement ‘3 feet=1 yard” be understood, the concept of equiv- alent lengths must be thoroughly under- stood, and the fact that there exists stand- ards of length, such as 1 foot and 1 yard, must be appreciated. A proper understand- ing of such statements as ‘2X3=6”’ re- quires an accurate theory containing ade- A is equivalent to B, VOL. 38, NO. 1 quate definitions. Surely the operation of multiplying 2 by 3 is not “the same”’ as 6. If not “‘the same,” then what is meant by the statement that 2X3=6? A complete answer to such questions requires a rather extensive treatment of the foundation of the theory of numbers. This will not be attempted here. 4. Historical remarks on the definitions of equality—As man first attempted to dis- cover the reasons for things, he began using the concepts of equivalence and identity. The philosophical considerations of these concepts have been debated at length. This phase of the subject is too vast to enter into here. Leibnitz, in Opera philosophica (Erd- mann) gave the definition: ‘‘T'wo things are called equal if, in every expression, one may be replaced by the other.”’ This defini- tion is open to much criticism. Whitehead and Russell, in their Principia mathematica (1910), set forth a number of sets of postulates which an identity or an equality should satisfy. These postulates were developed over a period of time and were not original with Whitehead and Rus- sell. A certain set of these postulates is, es- sentially, as follows: I. Given any two elements A and B, either A=B or A+B. (Determinative property.) II..A =A. (Reflexivity property.) III. If A=B, then B=A. (Symmetrical prop- erty. IV. id “3 and B=C, then A =C. (Transitiv- ; ity property.) The critical student might well object to the use of these postulates as the basis for definitions of identity or equality. However, they are a great improvement over earlier definitions. As MacDuffee? has pointed out, the teleological concept of equality has been favored by many mathematicians—until recently by most of them. (Teleology: the philosophical study of evidence of a co- ordinated creative design in nature.) It should be noted that equality is some- times taken as one of the basic principles of logic and not subject to further definition or analysis. 3 MacDuFFEE, C. C., Different kinds of equality, The Mathematics Teacher, Jan. 1936: 10-13. Jan. 15, 1948 The newer approach to the subject is to define a new type of equality for the ele- ments of some system. When this is done, it must be shown that the equality relation as defined actually has the required pro- perties I, ..., IV. This removes the con- cept completely from philosophical study. 5. Abstract definition of the phrase (P).— The abstract formulation of the notion of equivalence has been carefully studied by mathematicians. A brief outline of one such formulation seems appropriate for the purpose of this discussion, the formulation given being one commonly used in defining equivalence in algebraic systems, and in many formulations of physical theories. One abstract formulation of this concept of equivalence may be embodied in the fol- lowing four postulates and associated de- finitions. | Let A, B, C, . . . be elements in the fixed system S being considered (such as abstract entities, quantities,...), and suppose a possible relationship that may occur be- tween these elements A, B, C,...1is de- fined in some manner or other. Suppose that when A and B are so related, the relation- ship is indicated by the symbol E, and the expression A E B is written; and that when A and B are not so related, the fact is indicated by the symbol A E B. Then the relationship expressed by the symbol A E B is known as the equivalence relation provided that it is defined to satisfy the following four properties: I. Determination. For any pair of elements A and B of S the relation A E B either holds or does not hold. II. Reflerivity. For any A one has AE A. Ill. Symmetry. When AE B, then BE E E A. IV. Transitivity, When AE Band BEC, then ALEC. A is said to be equivalent to Bif A E Bis an equivalence relation. [The symbol E is to be read ‘‘is equiva- Jent to”; the symbol F is to be read ‘‘is not equivalent to.’’] Every such definition of equivalence, which is ordinarily not unique for the given system, constitutes a division of the ele- ments A, B,C, ... into classes. The determinative property (I) suggests the existence of at most two cases for the BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 3 definition of equivalence used, and that the relation is determinative. The reflexive property (II) is an exten- sion of the earlier equivalence relation known as the zdentzty. The symmetric property (III) insures that the relation of equivalence is sym- metric. The transitive property (IV) is an ex- tension of the old concept ‘‘things equal to- the same thing are equal to each other.” The special equivalence relation A U B, which is defined to hold for any pair of elements A and B is called the universal relation. The equivalence relation A I B, which holds only when A and B are the same or ‘Identical elements,”’ is called the zdentzty or unit relation. A serious study of systems which satisfy these properties would be a large under- taking. It would include study of systems that do not satisfy all these—properties.. Such an undertaking would involve a great many fields of mathematics. This will not be attempted in the present paper. 6. Equality and equivalence—It should be remarked that the formulation given in paragraph 5 has been used to define the statement (E) For the purposes of this paper the fine points of reasoning which have led some scholars to use the above postulates to define ‘‘is equal to” and others to use them to define ‘‘is equivalent to,” and to dis- tinguish between ‘‘is equal to” and “1 A is equal to B. is equivalent to,”’ need not be discussed here. 7. Ordinary plane (Euclidean) geometry. —Ordinary plane geometry when viewed from the newer point of view is crudely as follows: (1) The elements of this geometry are points and lines forming geometric figures. (2) The concept of superposition is taken for granted in such an intuitional geometry. (3) Two geometric figures A and B are called congruent (equal) if one figure may be ro- tated and translated until it is brought into coincidence with the other figure. (4) Given any two geometric figures A and B: (a) Hither these figures can be made to co- incide (A E B), or they can not be made 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to coincide (A E B), Thus the property of determination holds for the geome- try under consideration. (b) Every figure can be superimposed upon itself. (A E A). Hence the property of reflexivity holds. (c) If one figure can be made to coincide with a second figure, (A E B), then the second can be made to coincide with the first, (B E A). Thus the property of symmetry holds. (d) If one figure can be made to coincide with a second figure, (A E B), and the ’ second figure can be made to coincide with a third figure, (B E C), then the first can be made to coincide with the third, (A E C). Hence, the property of transitivity holds. Therefore, ordinary plane (Euclidean) geometry satisfies the four required pro- perties of an equivalence relation as de- fined in paragraph 5. (5) In this type of geometry, the geometry of congruent figures is the study of those prop- erties relating to the figures which remain invariant under the equivalence relation of congruence. (Thus, if two triangles are con- gruent, their areas are equal.) 8. Other examples from elementary ge- ometry.—In addition to the example given above there are many other simple exam- ples of equivalence to be found in elemen- tary geometry. Thus, in Euclidean geo- metry, two polygons A and B may be equivalent in the sense that they have equal areas, but they may or may not be equivalent in the sense that they have the same number of sides or angles, and so on. Again, any two proper conics, A and B, are equivalent (that is A E B) in the sense that A may be transformed into B by means of a _ projective transformation, while on the other hand A may or may not be equivalent to B in the sense that A may be transformed into B by means of a trans- lation and rotation. In general, in geometry, whether two geometric quantities are equivalent can be determined by calculating certain numbers known as invariants, which are associated with the objects under study. In such cases, if certain relative invariants for an object A are identical, respectively, to the cor- responding invariants for the object B, the object A is equivalent to the object B. If these two sets of invariants are not VOL. 38, NO. 1 identical, respectively, A is not equivalent to B. For example, in ordinary translational geometry, two lines (1) ax+by+c=0, and (2) dx+ey+tf=0, are equivalent in the sense of being parallel if, and only if, the ratio a/b is equal to the ratio d/e. These ratios are invariants of the lines (1) and (2), respectively, for a trans- lational geometry. Ordinary plane similarity geometry. The geometry of similar figures is a geometry quite distinct from ordinary Euclidean geometry. In this geometry the relation of similarity is easily shown to satisfy all four properties of an equivalence relation. Other geometries. There are many other geometries, and the relationships of con- gruence used in them are examples of equivalence relations. Familiar examples of these types of geometries are projective, non-Euclidean, affine, and the like. 9. Example from transportation.—In order to show how these equivalence prob- lems come up in practical fields outside of mathematical subjects, an example may be noted in the field of railroading. In the transportation literature many types of equivalence are commonly used. An ex- ample of current discussion in the trans- portation literature’ is that of locomotive ratings, ‘‘equivalent locomotives.’’ A num- ber of methods of rating locomotives are commonly used, and much general con- fusion exists as the result of careless use of various types of equivalence relations. Under present conventional systems of rating, a steam, a Diesel, and an electric locomotive, each locomotive rated as hav- ing “a 6,000 h.p. output,” are actually only equivalent: in the sense that the number 6,000 used happens to be the same, since the method of calculating the horsepower number is totally different in each case (one is cylinder output; the second is Diesel-engine output; the third is continu- 4 Wynne, F. E., Comparable locomotive ratings, Railway Age 120 (6): 316-318. Feb. 9, 1946. JAN. 15, 1948 © ous output at rails; and each of them re- quires careful definitions). If three locomotives are equivalent in the sense that they can each deliver the same useful output to the rail, they are not neces- sarily equivalent in the sense of their ability to handle the same weight of cars at 100 m.p.h. on level tangent track. And, if three locomotives are equivalent in this latter sense, they are not necessarily equiv- alent in the sense that they can deliver the same useful horsepower continuously at the rails; nor are they necessarily equivalent in the sense of their earning power, avail- ability, reliability, etc. Actually under present conventional systems of ratings, three locomotives hav- ing an advertised 6,000 h.p. output, one steam, one Diesel, one electric, while equivalent in the sense that the number of 6,000 is the same for all, are not equivalent in the sense of the weight of cars that they can handle at 100 m.p.h. on level tangent track continuously, the values actually be- ing about 1,000 tons, 900 tons, 1,300 tons, respectively. Nor are they necessarily equivalent in their cost per ton mile hauled, availability ratio, etc. Furthermore, there are many other equivalence relations used in rating locomotives, all different, and many times badly misunderstood because of the lack, or omission, of good defini- tions. A general practical definition of “equivalent locomotives” has never been adequately given; and any such definition would doubtlessly involve the listing of many categories of equivalence and a scheme, or a set of schemes, for weighting these equivalences. A similar situation exists In many other fields. 10. Equivalence in the elementary theory of sets—In the elementary theory of sets, one of the basic notions is that of equiva- lence. If the elements in two sets, A and B, can be paired with each other in such a> manner that to each element of A there corresponds one and only one element of B, and to each element of B there corre- sponds one and only one element of A, then the correspondence is said to be bi-unique, and A and B are said to be equivalent. Two finite sets have the same number of elements if and only if the elements of the BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 5 two sets can be put into bi-unique corre- spondence. This is the idea of counting, for when one counts a finite set of objects one simply establishes a bi-unique correspond- ence between these objects and a set of number symbols 1, 2, 3,...., n. Thus, the notion of equivalence for finite sets corre- sponds to the ordinary notion of equality of numbers. The concept of equivalence has been extended to infinite sets. This was done to construct an arithmetic of infinities. In this sort of theory there are just as many points on a straight line as there are real num- bers. This means that the set of all real numbers and the set of all the points on a straight line are equivalent in the sense that, once an origin and a unit are chosen, a bi-unique correspondence between the real numbers and the points on the line can be made. With this understanding of equivalence, a finite set cannot be equiva- lent to any one of its proper subsets, for ~ if the finite set contains n elements and no more, any one of its proper subsets can contain at most n—1 elements. If a set contains infinitely many objects, it may be equivalent to a proper subset of itself. For example, there are just as many positive integers as there are positive even integers. This is easy to see from the bi- unique correspondence shown below. ioe 4.4505 n a ge A: 0 2 ARS ccr = 20 In fact, there are just as many rational fractions as there are integers. However, the set of all real numbers is not equivalent to the set of integers. For those who wish to pursue this sort of equivalence theory, much can be found concerning the subject in the theory of sets (begun by George Cantor at the end of the nineteenth century). 11. Algebra.—Algebra furnishes many illustrations of the appropriateness of the concept of equivalence. Thus, if real posi- tive numbers are assumed to be properly defined, then it is possible to introduce negative numbers in quite a logical manner by means of a certain definition for the equivalence of pairs of real positive num- 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bers. Such a treatment may be found in the literature’ and gives quite satisfactory an- swers to such questions as: Why does (—1)(—1)=1? A similar treatment based on the equality of pairs of real numbers can be formulated to give a logical introduction to complex numbers. 12. Klein’s definition of a geometry. Groups.—In order to illustrate the connec- tion between the theory of groups and the theory of equivalence further examples from geometry may be considered. Felix Klein (1871) defined geometry as the study of the invariants of a group of transforma- tions. A group of transformations is a set such that: 1. The resultant transformation of two trans- formations is a transformation of the set. 2. The associative law holds. 3. There exists an identity transformation. 4. Every transformation has an inverse. In ordinary Euclidean geometry, the transformations (of rotations and transla- tions) form a group. Likewise in similarity geometry, the similarity transformations form a group. Thus, the geometry of con- gruent figures and the geometry of similar figures are examples of geometries as de- fined above. 13. The resemblance between the definition of group and the definition of equivalence.— This resemblance is a fundamental one. In associating an equivalence relation with a set of transformations, one associates with a set A of elements the set 7 of trans- formations which operates on A transform- ing it into some set B of elements. One might make a definition of equivalence by saying that B is equivalent to A if there exists a tranformation in the set 7’ which transforms A into B, provided of course that the four properties of an equivalence relation are met. That this can be done, zf and only if the transformations 7 form a group, can be shown readily. It can be shown quite easily that: THEOREM. Equivalence relative to a group of transformations is an equivalence relation (satisfying properties I, II, III, IV). Something of what this theorem means may be illustrated by the following example: 5 See C. C. MacDurFes, loc. cit. VOL. 38, No. 1 Example. Consider the set of all real rotations T of the points in a plane about a fixed point O. This group may be represented by the equation CY) (42= —1). By this formula any point z in the plane having polar coordinates p and @ is rotated about the point O into a point w in the plane having polar coordinates p and (a+). That the set (7') of rotations form a group can be seen readily since: 1. The resultant of two rotations 6, and @ is a rotation 6 =6,+6, of the set (7). 2. The associative relation holds since for suc- w =ze*®, cessive rotations, 61, 62, 63, 6:+(62+63) = (6: +62) +43. 3. The rotation 6 =0 is the identity transforma- tion. 4, Every rotation 6 has the inverse rotation (—6). All points P in the plane at a fixed distance p from the point O could then be defined as equiv- alent with respect to the group of rotations (7) in the sense that any one point A of the points P can be transformed into any other point B of the set P by an appropriate rotation 9. Thus, in this sense, all points on a circle with radius p and center O are equivalent to each other. But points on this circle are not equivalent to points on a circle with center at O and radius r where rp. However, all points on the second circle are equivalent to each other in the sense defined. That this definition satisfies the four properties for an equivalence relation follows since: (A) Either two points in the plane fall on the same circle with center at O, or they do not. Thus property (I) is satisfied. Two coincident points lie on the same circle with center at O; hence property (II) is satisfied. When one point is equivalent to a second point they fall on the same circle with center at O; hence the second point is equivalent to the first point. Thus prop- erty (III) holds. . (D) When a point A is equivalent to a point B, they lie on a circle with center at O, and if B is equivalent to C they lie on a circle with center at O; hence A and C lie on the same circle since B lies on both circles with center at O. Thus property (IV) holds. (B) (C) This example serves to illustrate the resemblance between the definitions of group and equivalence. 14. Isomorphic systems.—Another math- ematical concept of considerable impor- tance in its own right as well as in its appli- cations is that known as isomorphic sys- tems. Consider two systems A and B each consisting of a set of elements and a set of ’ Jan. 15, 1948 operations on these elements. Suppose that each system is closed with respect to a given system of operations in the system. The two systems A and B are said to be 2s0- morphic or abstractly identical with respect to these operations if there exists a bi- unique one-to-one correspondence between the elements of A and B, such that any formal combination of, or operation on, the elements in A corresponds to the analo- gous construction with the corresponding elements in B. In mathematics (such as in algebra) two isomorphic systems are commonly considered as equivalent; and the subject matter of mathematics, in this sense, may be considered as dealing with those pro- perties of systems which are invariant (remain unchanged) for isomorphic sys- tems. 15. Applications to physical phenomena. —In any specific situation the elements a,b,c...ofasystem S are identified with specific physical objects, numbers, quanti- ties, entities, or the like, and the definitions of equivalence used must be carefully given in terms of these elements and the physical systems to which they belong. Each defini- tion of equivalence used constitutes a separation of the set of elements a, b,c,... and associated physical phenomena or systems into classes. This separation into classes is often of considerable physical significance, each type of equivalence often having associated with it an extensive physical theory. 16. Hxamples from circuit theory.—As in mathematical theories, so in physical theories, many non-isomorphic types of equality have been and can be defined, each type of equality often having associ- ated with it an extensive theory. Thus, in the theory of equivalent linear electrical circuits, two 2-pole networks may be equiv- alent® in the sense that for all frequencies they have identical driving-point admit- tances (or more generally, for 2N-pole net- _§ Burineton, Ricuarp S., Matrices in electric circuit theory, Journ. Math. and Phys. 14 (4): 325-349. Dec. 1935; A matric theory development of the Theory of Symmetric Components, Philos. Mag. (ser. 7) 27: 605. May 1939; On circavariant matrices and circa-equivalent networks, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 48 (3): 377-390. Nov. 1940. BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 7 works, that they have identical charac- teristic coefficient admittance matrices), yet they may not be equivalent in the sense that they have the same number of inde- pendent mesh circuits; or, are structurally the same; or, are equally economical to operate; or, are both readily physically realizable; and that if A and B respectively, are their network matrices, A and B may or may not be equivalent in the sense of matric congruence, . Again in the theory of symmetric com- ponents as used in electrical engineering, the equivalence relationship used may often involve that of matric similarity be- tween the matrices used to represent certain characteristics of the network in the various reference systems used in the theory. In this sort of equivalence the actual values of the voltages, currents, and impedances are left undisturbed, though the values of their representations in the various refer- ence systems may be greatly different. Here ~ the equivalence relation known as matric similarity is distinctly different from the equivalence relation known as matric con- gruence. Yet, both of these types of equi- valence happen to be examples of another type of equivalence known as ordinary matric equivalence. 17. Isomorphism as used 1n model stud- ves. Principles of similitude—In the design of structures, bridges, ships, dams, flood control projects, and the like, the engineer, naval architect, and others responsible for the design must make accurate predictions as to the characteristics, cost, and perform- ance of the various proposed designs. In such work the designers and planners can ill afford to make errors. Such projects are too expensive. Perhaps only one can ever be constructed. The final product must be right. It must do what it is designed to do, reliably, safely, and economically. Engineers and scientists, in such instan- ces, frequently take recourse to the con- struction and testing of models of the pro- posed structure. The results of the tests of the models are then used to predict the per- formance and characteristics of the pro- posed prototype. In order that a model test be of real use in predicting the properties of the prototype, great care must be exercised 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in its design. Furthermore, considerable care is necessary in interpreting the meas- ured and computed properties of the model test in terms of the prototype. Theoretically, in designing a model test and in constructing the models for the test, every physical parameter of impor- tance in the prototype must be considered and taken into account. It is not sufficient merely to make the dimensions of the model and prototype proportional. If a theory of similitude is not available, then one must be developed. Such a theory must serve as the basis for designing and constructing the model from its prototype dimensions. It must serve also as the guiding principle in interpreting the measurements made on the model in terms of the corresponding meas- urements as predicted for the prototype. If this theory of similitude is a perfect one, and the application of this theory is also perfect, then there is a one-to-one bi-unique correspondence between the various physi- cal parameters of the prototype and the corresponding ones of the model; and every operation on or with the prototype has a corresponding operation on the model. In other words, any characteristic of the model as predicted through the isomorphism thus stated must be a true characteristic of the prototype, and vice versa. (This is an ex- ample of the equivalence property, if A E B, then BE A.) In practice it is impossible to apply per- fectly such a theory and expect the results predicted through the model test to be completely true for the prototype. A meas- ure of this perfection lies in a comparison of the actual characteristics of the prototype with those predicted by the model studies. Consequently the aim in all such work is the construction of as near perfect an equiv- alent system of models as is humanly pos- sible. In other words, these models must be as nearly isomorphic with their correspond- ing prototypes as possible. An example where consideration is given to many physical parameters of importance may be found in hydrodynamics. In hydro- dynamic studies, lengths L, a, b, c,..., time 7’, velocity V, mass M, force F, pressure increment p, mass density , specific weight yy, viscosity wu, surface VOL. 38, No. 1 tension o, and elastic modulus e for the object and fluid must be considered. (For convenience, L, M, F may be taken as the three fundamental dimensions. ) A number of theories of similitude have been developed for use in aero- and hydro- dynamics. In one such theory, widely used, there is defined a certain set of dimension- less numbers a pV? V2/a Va Va Ve which must be kept unchanged if true similarity (i.e., isomorphism) is to exist between the flow about the prototype and the flow about the model. In other words, if true similarity is to exist, every dimen- sionless parameter z,, referring to condi- tions in the model, must have the same numerical value as the corresponding parameter for the prototype. This means, for one thing, that the model and prototype must be completely similar geometrically. To put the problem in another way, the set of dimensionless numbers 7m, ... for the prototype must be identical with the cor- responding set m,...for the model—if true similarity between prototype and — model exists, and if predictions made from model studies are to be valid for the actual prototype. A mathematician would say that the parameters 7,..., must be absolute invariants for the prototype and model systems. Because the quantities m,..., Tn,-..are invariant for these isomorphic systems, the model and prototype systems are said to be equivalent. Thus, if 7:=a/b is to be invariant, where a and 6 are any two linear dimensions of the prototype, the corresponding linear di- mensions a’ and 0’ of the model must be so related that 2:=a’/b’. The reader can, for himself, discover other requirements on the model by merely holding each of the other parameters ze,... fixed and interpreting the quantities in these parameters first, in terms of the prototype, and secondly, in terms of the model. From a practical standpoint it is usually Jan. 15, 1948 _ impossible to realize fluids and values of the _ physical parameters of these fluids to satisfy all the requirements implied when the absolute invariance of the set m, ... 1S demanded. This means that it is impossible to obtain a true model on any but the same scale using any but the same fluid as proto- type. Of course, in this case, the model and the prototype would be equivalent. (‘This is an example of the equivalence property A EA.) In spite of the difficulty and the knowledge that any practical model system cannot be made perfectly isomorphic with its prototype, much can be learned and reasonably reliable predictions can be ob- - tained from such model studies. In the testing of ship models and partly submerged objects, such as buoys and sea- planes, it has been found possible to make rather good predictions as to the behavior of the prototype by designing the model studies so as to keep the Froude number 75 invariant. This compromise places the emphasis on the dominant physical para- meters involved, namely, inertia and gra- vity forces, since z; is their ratio. In such work, 7, known as Newton’s number, can also be kept invariant. As a rule it is not possible to keep the remaining functions 12, 13, Ws,--. Invariant. This compromise means that the model system will be equiva- lent to the prototype system in the sense that the Froude and Newton’s numbers are identical, respectively, for both the proto- type and the model; but it does not mean that the prototype system and the model system are completely isomorphic other- wise. When other physical parameters different from mass and inertia are considered to be of greater importance, then some other dimensionless numbers become of prime interest, and the functions 7;, 7;, correspond- ing to the two most important physical parameters are made absolutely invariant. Thus, in aerodynamics, emphasis is often placed on Reynold’s number, ze, rather than the Froude number 7s, since skin fric- tion (viscosity) is then of prime importance. m, 1s the ratio of inertia and viscous forces. Where inertia force and compressibility predominate, emphasis is placed on the Mach number, 7, which is the ratio of the BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 9 velocity of flow to the velocity of sound in the fluid at the given temperature. 18. The use of equivalence principles in the design and testing of equipment.—Air- craft, railway cars, and the like must be able to withstand great stresses and strains and much rough handling and must not be too vulnerable to damage from a great variety of causes. In designing such equipment a great deal of attention must be given to strength, safety, reliability, and costs, while recognizing economical and _ utilitarian values. Such considerations commonly in- volve various types of testing procedures designed to indicate the strength, reliabili- ty, etc, of vital portions of the equipment, as well as of the structure as a whole. Thus, the wings of an airplane or the axles of a truck can be tested in various ways for strength, ability to withstand shock, etc; the vulnerability of the fuselage or body to fire can be studied; and so on. But the re- sults of such studies are only a partial indi- cation of the strength and vulnerability of the airplane or car as a whole. Conse- quently, when possible, tests of the equip- ment as a whole are sometimes set up and the results obtained compared with the results of the tests of specific parts of the equip- ment. Of course, the ultimate test lies in the experience gained with the equipment un- der actual service conditions for a long pe- riod of time under a great variety of cir- cumstances. The quantities involved in criteria de- veloped for use in testing may be quite different from the quantities available from over-all testing or from operational experi- ence. An adequate theory for correlating (a theory of equivalence) these measures obtained in tests of specific parts and in over-all testing and experience must be formulated. Thus in attempting to measure, say, the ability of a car to withstand colli- sion, controlled tests might be made in the laboratory, in which such parameters as energy, velocity, deformation, stress distri- bution, bending moments, momentum, pressure, and the like are used. Yet such parameters as these may not be available in examining the damage to such a car in collision; the only real information available being that which can be observed and de- 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES duced from the wreckage. The need for a theory for correlation (equivalence) is evi- dent in such a case. To summarize in connection with such test results there appears: (1) The problem of the formulation of criteria and methods for describing, defining, and measuring such things as strength, safety, vulnerability to damage, ...of the com- ponent parts of the equipment, as well as of the equipment as a whole. The problem of formulating principles for correlating these measures of strength, safety, damage, .... These measures may be observed in experiments— (a) with specific parts of the equipment, (b) with specific assemblies of the equip- ment, (c) with the equipment as a whole under test conditions, (d) with the equipment as used in actual operations. (2) In order that an adequate basis for reliably predicting the worth and safety of a design be realized, each of these major problems must be faced and an adequate solution obtained when at all possible. The construction of such a theory and mode of prediction, if it is to be a good one, must involve a careful use of the principles of equivalence. The importance of this pro- cedure is all the more important since ac- tual operational experience with a new de- sign of certain types of equipment may be, costly (or even dangerous to human life) and such experience cannot always be made available before production. Thus, in the field of design, testing, etc., there is a continuing need for the wise use of the principles of equivalence. 19. Recent mathematical developments’.— In recent years much progress has been made by such mathematicians as Ore, MacDuffee, Garrett Birkhoff, and others in extending the analysis of the theory of equivalence relations. ‘These extensions have served to connect rather diverse math- ematical fields and have gone deeply into 7 Wuitman, P. M., Lattices, equivalence rela- tions and subgroups, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 52 (6): 507-522. June 1946; Orz, OysTEIN, Theory of equivalence relations, Duke Math. Journ. 9 (3). Sept. 1942; BrrxkHorr, GARRETT, On the structure of abstract algebras, Proc. Cam- bridge Philos. Soc. 31: 433-454. 1935; Mac- DuFFEE, C. C., loc. cit. VOL. 38, NO. 1 various fields of abstract algebra, topology, and related fields and apparently are lead- ing to still a more general and abstract theory of mathematical relations. These investigations are of interest chiefly to workers in certain branches of pure mathe- matics. To what extent some of these ab- stractions will be of immediate value to workers in the applied fields remains to be seen. But this much seems clear, that: Consciousness of the concept of equivalence as outlined herein is of real value in many physical fields. It helps to clarify many problems. It provides a means of attack. It should be remarked, however, that the involved details in the development of the modern theory of equivalence relations will in themselves be of little value in prac- tical and scientific problems unless a pene- trating inquiry into the economic, physical, or other pertinent background of the prob- lem at hand is made. This last point is of great importance. To illustrate what is meant, consider the following well known mathematical results: A partition P of the set S is a decomposition of S into subsets Ci, - + -, Cn, > + - such that every element in S belongs to one and only one set Cn. The sets C, are called blocks of the partition P, and P=P(C,) is written to indicate this. | | | Turorem. Any partition P(C,) defines an equivalence relation E in the set S when one puts AEB whenever A and B belong to the same block Cn. Conversely, any equivalence relation E defines a partition P(C,) where the block C, consists of all elements equiva- lent to any given element A. This theorem tells us that there are many possible equivalence relations definable for a set S. Which particular equivalence rela- tions are worth studying seriously will de- pend on the set itself and what general problems are under consideration. Thus, if S is the set of all locomotives, many types of equivalance relations can be defined, such as equivalence in the sense of the same cylinder output; or continuous output at the rails; or equivalence in the sense that they have, or do not have, brass trimming around the edge of the headlight; or equivalence in the sense that they can reach a maximum speed of 100 miles per hour, or not; or equivalence in the sense that the locomo- | | | | | JAN. 15, 1948 HERMANN: MISCELLANEOUS MIDDLE AMERICAN LONCHOCARPI 11 tives are named after some one, or are not; etc. Now obviously, some of these types of equivalence have some reason for existence, while others are of course trivial or ridicu- lous. To repeat the point: Involved details in the theory of equivalence relations will in themselves be of little value in practical problems unless a penetrating inquiry into the economic, physical, or other pertinent background of the problem at hand is made. 20. Summary.—The present paper dis- cusses some of the meanings that may be attached to the phrase ‘“‘A is equivalent to B.” A glimpse of the mathematical prop- erties that must be possessed by an equivalence relation has been shown. Iso- lated examples of equivalences in geom- etry, set theory, number theory, algebra, electrical networks, hydrodynamics, and engineering have been cited. Some atten- tion has been given to the theories of modeling and similitude, which are so im- portant in hydro- and aerodynamics, theories in which a form of equivalence known as isomorphism plays a leading role. The use of either perfect or approximate isomorphic systems (or more general equiv- alent systems) appears as a fundamental process in almost all studies of physical phenomena. The method consists broadly of: (1) The extraction from the physical phe- nomena S of a nearly isomorphic (equiv- alent) physical model P. (2) Reduction of the physical model P to an isomorphic (equivalent) mathematical model M amenable to treatment. (3) A solution of this mathematical system M. (4) The interpretation of the solution found in (3) in terms of the mathematical model M. (5) The interpretation of the solution found in (4) in the physical model P. Finally, the interpretation of the result (5) in the original physical settings. (6 =Z Although at present it is not clear how much value the abstract extensions of the theory of equivalence relations will prove to be for use in the applied fields, it does appear that the theory will be beneficial in offering a background for the broad ap- proaches to practical problems. BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, II: Miscellaneous Middle American Lonchocarpi.' Agriculture. The most extensive and generally useful of the comparatively recent partial treat- ments of the genus Lonchocarpus is Henri Pittier’s The Middle American species of Lonchocarpus (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 37-93. 1917). This monographic account embraces the 40 species known from Mexico and Central America 30 years ago, to which are appended a list of six excluded or doubt- ful species and detailed descriptions of nine related South American and West Indian Lonchocarpi. One of the first tasks of a current review of the genus as.a whole is, therefore, to attempt to allocate within the framework of the classification proposed by the author of that work the miscellaneous _ species subsequently described by various other authors from the same area. In some cases the systematic position of a recently proposed species has been correctly indi- cated by its author and characteristics dis- 1 Received July 8, 1947. FREDERICK J. HmeRMANN, U. 8. Department of tinguishing it from its nearest allies may have been pointed out; in others lack of either flowering or fruiting material may have prevented this; in still others a misinterpre- tation, due either to faulty earlier descrip- tions or to the author’s lack of comprehen- sive familiarity with the group, may vitiate the supposed relationship and hence sec- tional position or taxonomic status; and, finally, in some instances no attempt what- ever has been made to indicate the rela- tionship of the new species. No discussion seems to be required here of such of these species as have been satis- factorily disposed of by other authors, such as Lonchocarpus caribaeus Urban (referred to the synonymy of L. benthamianus Pit- tier by Harms in Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 323. 1924), L. capensis M. E. Jones (shown to be actually Tamarindus indica L. by Morton in Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 29: 103. 1945), L. modestus Standl. & Steyerm. (transferred to Lennea by its authors in 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (5): 275. 1946), and L. trifoliolatus Stand]. (equated with L. phaseolifolius Benth. by Standley and Steyermark in Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (5): 282. 1946). Six additional names (L. argy- rotrichus Harms, L. calderona Standl., L. lindsayi Standl., L. obovatus Benth., L. salvinii Harms, and L. schiedeanus (Sch- lecht.) Harms) have been recently trans- ferred to Willardia by the writer (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 37: 427. 1947), to which genus Standley (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23: 483. 1922) had already referred L. eriophyllus Benth. It seems desirable to present the conclu- sions of the writer upon the following ad- ditional eight species, particularly since certain original misinterpretations are being perpetuated in recent important floristic works such as the Flora of Guate- mala. Lonchocarpus amarus Standl., Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 461: 63. 1935=Va- TAIREA LUNDELLII (Standl.) Killip ex Record (Tipuana lundellai Standl. l.c. 65). Since the original material of Tipuana lun- dellti lacked flowers and that of Lonchocarpus amarus is without fruit, the failure to realize the identity of the two is readily understand- able. The alternate leaflets, diadelphous sta- mens, wings of the corolla free from the keel, and the strikingly funnelform calyx of Loncho- carpus amarus definitely exclude it from that genus. Flowering specimens of Vatairea lun- dellit (collected since the publication of that species), kindly lent to the writer for study by the Chicago Natural History Museum, are identical with the type of L. amarus. Vatairea lundellit appears to be most nearly related to the Amazonian V. fusca Ducke, from which it is distinguishable by the appressed rather than spreading pubescence of the calyx, pedi- cels, and peduncles, by its broader wing petals (4.5 mm), by having the stamens definitely shorter than the pistil, and by the tendency of the calyx to split in the late-bud stage, be- tween the vexillar teeth. Lonchocarpus dumetorum Brandegee, Univ. California Publ. Bot. 10: 181. 1922=L. paRI- ENsIS Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 69. 1917. The type specimen of L. dumetorum (Purpus von. 38, No. 1 8591; this and other Brandegee types reviewed through the courtesy of the University of California Herbarium) is a good match with that of L. dariensis (Pittier 5615, U.S. National Herbarium). It has, in addition to flowers and leaves, nearly mature legumes, which are very closely similar to those of L. megalanthus Pittier, this similarity bearing out Dr. Pittier’s tentative alignment of it, in the absence of fruit, with the latter species. Both L. dariensis and L. megalanthus, however, as well as the closely related L. mexicanus Pittier, have leaflets conspicuously punctate, and so they could not be keyed out to his section Epunctati wherein he placed them. It seems probable that this is what led Brandegee to believe that he had an undescribed species in his L. dumetorum, and the same discrepancy may have been partly responsible for his proposal of L. purpusit. Lonchocarpus izabalanus Blake, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 7. 1922=L. LUTEOMACULA- Tus Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64. 1917. Lonchocarpus luteomaculatus is a highly vari- able species, almost as polymorphic in fact as its near ally L. latifolius (Willd.) HBK. The type of L. izabalanus is very similar to many recent collections of L. luteomaculatus. It was differentiated, in the original description, prin- cipally by the possession of a maroon banner with a green spot at the base instead of a purple banner with a basal yellow spot, but it seems likely that the flower color ascribed to L. luteemaculatus by its author was that of the dried plant and that in the fresh state it may be actually closer to the maroon-green pattern. At any rate, there now seems to be no dis- tinguishable difference between the corolla colors of the two type specimens (Blake 7841 and Pittier 4170, U.S. Nat. Herb.). Lonchocarpus kerberi Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 322. 1921=L. PENINSULARIS (Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917. A fragment of the type of L. kerberi (Kerber 35) is fortunately preserved in the herbarium of the Chicago Natural History Museum. This is sufficiently ample to show that it is not at all related to L. benthamianus Pittier, L. proteran- thus Pittier, and L. punctatus HBK., as sup- posed by Harms, and that it differs from the type of L. peninsularis (Tonduz s.n. (Inst. JAN. 15, 1948 HERMANN: MISCELLANEOUS MIDDLE AMERICAN LONCHOCARPI 13 Fis. Geogr. Costa Rica 13961), U.S. Nat. Herb.) only in the corolla being slightly less pubescent. It is not surprising that L. kerberz was regarded as a new species by its author and that its affinities were misinterpreted. Since it has leaflets that are not impressed-nerved and that are unmistakably punctate, its relation- ship with L. peninsularis would scarcely be suspected in view of the fact that the latter is placed by Pittier in his series Impressinervi and that his description includes no reference to the conspicuously punctate character of the leaflets mentioned by Donnell Smith in his original description of the species as Derris peninsularis (Bot. Gaz. 44: 111. 1907). Ac- tually, Lonchocarpus peninsularis and the likewise misplaced L. nicoyensis (Donn. Smith) Pittier and L. costaricensis (Donn. Smith) Pittier belong to the series Planinervi. Both L. peninsularis and L. nicoyensis fall into the section Punctati, the former being apparently most closely related to L. longistylis Pittier. It is doubtless due to the anomalous position in Pittier’s classification of the frequently col- lected L. peninsularis that still another syn- onym of this species was created—L. purpusti Brandegee. Lonchocarpus monospermus Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 4: 311. 1929=L. LuTEoMaAcu- LATuS Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64. 1917. The distinguishing feature (‘‘small one- seeded pods’’) attributed to L. monospermus is quite prevalent in L. luteomaculatus, the pods of the type specimen of L. luteomaculatus (Pitter 4170, U. S. Nat. Herb.) being pre- dominently l-seeded and 2.5 cm long. The type of L. monospermus (Standley 538716, Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus.) appears to differ in no tangible respect from this. Lonchocarpus purpusii Brandegee, Univ. California Publ. Bot. 6: 500. 1919=L. PpENtN- SULARIS (Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917. The type specimen of L. purpusit (Purpus 7849, Univ. Calif.) is a very close match with that of Derris peninsularis in the U. S. Na- tional Herbarium. For discussion see L. dume- torum and L. kerberi above. Lonchocarpus seleri Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 324. 1921=L. HoNDURENSIS Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 91. 1860. L. seleri was set off from L. hondurensis by _ Harms ‘durch fast sitzende Bliten auf lan- gerem gemeinsamen Stiele und wohl auch gréssere Vorblatten.”’ Examination of a large series of L. hondurensis, however, shows the relative length of peduncle and pedicel to be very unstable; for example, Mell 530 (U. S.) is L. selert in its peduncles but not in its pedi- cels whereas Wilson 706 (U. 8.) is L. seleri in its pedicels but not in its peduncles. No dif- ference was found between the bracts in the type fragment of L. selert in the Chicago Natural History Museum (Seler 5052) and those of L. hondurensis, which are exceedingly variable. Lonchocarpus xuul Lundell, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 69: 391. 1942. The reference of this species to the synon- ymy of L. guatemalensis Benth. in the recently ‘published Flora of Guatemala (Fieldiana, Botany, 24(5): 278-279. 1946) seems to be clearly erroneous. The long stipes (averaging 1 em) of the short, thick pods (generally 2.5—4 em long) of ZL. ruul and its much smaller flowers set it off at a glance from L. guatema- lensis with its sessile or subsessile, long, flat legumes (averaging 6-20 cm long). The author of L. xuul correctly indicated its close rela- tionship with L. constrictus Pittier among the Middle American species. Its nearest ally in the genus as a whole is the Venezuelan L. miran- dinus Pittier, with which it shows a striking similarity in its fruit but from which it differs in its few (5 to 9 rather than averaging 15), blunt leaflets and in its mainly green flowers. The disposition of the following 17 bino- mials, the remainder of those proposed from Middle America since 1917, must be postponed either because no specimens have yet been procurable for study or because the material so far available has not been sufficient for more than tentative conclusions: L. apricus Lundell, Lloydia 2: 90. 1939. Chiapas, Mexico. L. belizensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55. British Hon- duras. L. castillot Standl., Tropical Woods 32: 15. 1932. Guatemala; British Honduras. L. chiapensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 152. 1946. Chiapas, Mexico. L. cruentus Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55. 1945. To- basco, Mexico. L. fuscopurpureus Brandegee, Univ. California Publ. Bot. 10: 405. 1924. Veracruz, Mexico. 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES L. galleotianus Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 322. 1921. Oaxaca, Mexico. L. gillyi Lundell, Wrightia 1: 56. 1945. Chiapas, Mexico. L. hidalgensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 153. 1946. Hidalgo, Mexico. L. hintoni Sandwith, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1936: 4. 1936. Mexico and Guerrero, Mexico. L. malacotrichus Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 323. 1921. Mexico. L. monofoliaris Schery, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 30: 89. 1943. Panama. . VOL. 38, No. 1 L. nicaraguensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. 1946 Nicaragua. L. phlebophyllus Standl. & Steyerm., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 23 (2): 56. 1944. Guatemala. L. stenodon Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 324. 1921. Oaxaca, Mexico. L. whitet Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. 1946. Nica- ragua. L. yoroensis Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 9 (4): 296. 1940. Honduras. ZOOLOGY.—On the crayfishes of the Limosus section of the genus Orconectes (Decapoda: Astacidae).} University of Virginia. In the course of working over a series of crayfishes from the Nashville, Tenn., area collected for me by Dr. C. 8. Shoup, of Vanderbilt University, and Dr. Mike Wright, of Tusculum College, it was neces- sary to examine the type specimens of several of the species of the Limosus section. In making this study I arrived at certain conclusions, which are discussed below, concerning the affinities of the members of this section which are not in accord with the opinions of others. In addition to the de- scription of a new species I am including a key to the species of the Limosus section. The new species herein described was first reported by Fleming (1939) under the name Cambarus propinquus sanbornt Faxon. I have compared my specimens with Flem- ing’s description and figures which leave much to be desired. In addition, I have examined several crayfish he sent to the United States National Museum? from the only locality he cited for his C. propinquus sanbornt, and I am convinced that his specimens were members of the species I am.describing below. The only locality that Fleming recorded is ‘‘Mill creek, lo- cated about 4 miles south of Nashville where this creek crosses the Murfreesboro Road [U. 8. Hy. 41], studied on August 18, 1935”’ (Fleming, 1939, 13: 298).® 1Received July 17, 1947. 2 These are not the specimens mentioned by Fleming in his report of the higher Crustacea in the Nashville region, for he stated that Mill Creek was “studied on August 18, 1935,” and these were collected on August 15, 1936. 3 This peculiar citation is necessary because Horton H. Hoss, Jr., Miller School of Biology, (Communicated by FENNER A. CHACE, JR.) Genus Orconectes Cope 1872 Orconectes shoupl, n. sp.‘ Cambarus propinkuus Fleming, 1939, 14: 305 (in part). Cambarus propinquus sanborni Fleming (not Faxon), 19389, 14: 305, 306 (in part), 319, 320, and pl. 14. Diagnosis.—Rostrum with lateral spines, margins thickened and concave laterad; upper surface with or without a median carina. Fin- gers of chela with usual longitudinal ridges much reduced; whole hand resembling that of O. rusticus placidus (Hagen, 1870: 65). Epistome with a median carina (see Fig. 4). Areola ap- proximately 9 to 10 times longer than broad, with two or three punctations in narrowest part—length 34-36 percent of entire length of carapace; in male, hooks on ischiopodites of third pereiopods only. Terminal elements of first pleopod of first-form male short, reaching almost to coxopodite of second pereiopod. Two terminal elements separated for only a short distance near tip: mesial process recurved caudomesiad and shorter than central pro- jection. Annulus ventralis immovable. (See Fig. 5 for surface contour.) Holotypic male, form I.—Body subovate, Fleming’s paper was divided, and appeared in two volumes of the Proceedings of the Tennessee Academy of Sciences; an overlapping in page references causes a further complication. See “Literature Cited.” 4Dr. C. S. Shoup has made a definite and worth-while contribution toward a knowledge of the fauna of the State of Tennessee. In token of the interest he has shown in my work on the cray- fishes and the many specimens he has added to iy collection, I name this new species in his onor. JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 15 distinctly depressed. Abdomen narrower than thorax. Width of carapace greater than depth in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove (15.2-9.4 mm). Areola moderately narrow (9.6 times longer than broad), with two or three punctations in narrowest part; cephalic section of carapace about 1.8 times as long as areola (length of areola about 35.6 percent of entire length of carapace). Rostrum with thickened margins concave laterad. Upper surface concave, but bearing a weak median carina. Base of acumen set off by corneous knoblike tubercles directed cephalo- dorsad. Acumen long and terminating cephalad in a corneous knob similarly disposed as the tubercles at its base. Subrostral ridges promi- nent and visible in dorsal aspect to base of acumen. Raised lateral margins of rostrum flanked laterally and mesially by rows of prominent setiferous punctations. Postorbital ridges prominent, grooved dorsad and terminating cephalad in heavy acute tu- bercles. Suborbital angle absent. Branchio- stegal spine obtuse, very much reduced. Small lateral spine present on each side of carapace. Surface of carapace granulate laterally and bearing prominent punctations dorsally; small polished area in gastric region. Cephalic section of telson with two spines in each caudolateral corner. Epistome bell-shaped in profile with a me- dian longitudinal ridge; no cephalomedian pro- jection. Antennules of the usual form, with a small spine present on ventral surface of basal seg- ment. Antennae broken in holotype but extending caudad to cephalic margin of telson in other specimens. Antennal scale of moderate width with subparallel mesial and lateral margins; outer portion broad and swollen and terminat- ing distad in a heavy spine; lamellar portion broad (see Fig. 9). Chela somewhat depressed; palm inflated; prominent setiferous punctations present over most of chela. Inner margin of palm with three rows of squamous ciliated tubercles. Fingers widely gaping at base. Upper surface of im- movable finger with a narrow well-defined ridge along mesial margin; lateral and lower margins with prominent punctations; upper opposable margin with a row of 18 rounded corneous tubercles; an additional prominent tubercle present below this row at base of distal fifth of finger; minute denticles occurring in a single row on penultimate fifth of mesial sur- - face of immovable finger; mesial distal fifth with a broader zone of similar denticles; lower proximomesial surface bearded. Opposable margin of dactyl with 23 rounded corneous tubercles; distal half of mesial margin bearing minute denticles interspersed between the rounded tubercles. Otherwise dactyl similar to immovable finger. Carpus of first pereiopod longer than broad, with a prominent longitudinal furrow on upper surface; all surfaces with scattered punc- tations. Mesial surface with a heavy spinous tubercle; distal upper mesial margin with a prominent rounded tubercle; lower distal mar- gin with two heavy tubercles. Merus, viewed laterally, with a single promi- nent tubercle on upper distal surface (a some- what less prominent one lying mesiad of it but not evident in lateral aspect, nor is it present on sinistral merus). Lateral and mesial surfaces sparsely punctate. Lower surface with a lateral row of five small tubercles and a mesial row of eight (only the distal one in each row at all prominent). Hooks on ischiopodites of third pereiopods only; hooks strong with proximal surfaces sub- plane and bearing setae. First pleopod almost reaching coxopodite of second pereiopod when abdomen is flexed. Tip terminating in two distinct parts, which are separated for only a short distance. Central projection corneous, almost straight, and some- what bladelike, with tip slightly recurved. Mesial process extending distad for the proxi- mal half of its length, then bending somewhat sharply caudomesiad. Morphotypic male, form II.—The only sec- ond-form male collected from the type locality is immature. Most of the tubercles mentioned in the description of the first-form male are present in this specimen as acute spines. The lower surface of the carpus and the cephalo- mesial surface of the merus of the cheliped with tufts of long plumose setae. Rostrum without median carina. Hook on ischiopodite of third pereiopod very much reduced. See Figs. 16 and 19 for structure of first pleopod of a mature second-form male from Mill Creek. Allotypic female—Differs from the holo- 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 1 14 Figs. 1-14.—1, Dorsal view of carapace of Orconectes shoupt, n. sp.; 2, lateral view of same; 3, upper surface of chela of first-form male, O. shoupi; 4, epistome of O. shoupi; 5, annulus ventralis of O. shoupi; 6, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of O. pellucidus australis (Rhoades), from McFarlen Cave, SWi NWisec. 22, T. 3, R.3 E., near Garth, Jackson County, Ala.;7, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of O. pellucidus pelluicdus (Tellkampf), from Mammoth Cave, Roaring River, Ed- monson County, Ky.; 8, caudal view of first pleopods of first-form male, O. pellucidus packardi Rhoades (holotype), from Cumberland Crystal Cave at Alpine, Pulaski County, Ky.; 9, antennal scale of O. shoupz; 10, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male, of O. ¢znermzs Cope, from Seibert’s Well Cave near Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Ind.; 11, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of O. pelluctdus packardi Rhoades (holotype) (see explanation of Fig. 8); 12, caudal view of first pleopods ~ of first-form male of O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf) (see explanation of Fig. 7); 13, caudal view of first pleopods of first-form male of O. pelluctdus australis (Rhoades) (see explanation of Fig. 6); 14, caudal view of first pleopods of first-form male of O. inermis Cope (see explanation of Fig. 10). JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 17 pi 17 i ay 21 | 2 Fies, 15-28 (all figures except 15, 16, and 19 lateral views of the first pleopods of first-form males) .— 28 15, Mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of Orconectes shoupi, n. sp.; 16, same, second-form male: 17, O. harrisont (Faxon), from stream at Irondale, Washington County, Mo.; 18, O. sloant (Bundy), from Little Creek, Jefferson Township, Preble County, Ohio; 19, lateral view of first pleopod of second-form male of 0. shoupi; 20, O. shoupi; 21, O. rafinesquei Rhoades (holotype), from Rough River, at Falls-of-Rough, Grayson- Breckinridge Counties, Ky.; 22, O. lumosus (Rafinesque), from Le- man Place, Lancaster County, Pa.; 23, O. tricuspis Rhoades (holotype), from Pete Light’s arene, 3 miles east of Canton, Trigg County, Ky.; 24, O. indianensis (Hay), no locality given, U.S.N.M. n 44448; 25, O. propinquus propinquus (Girard), from Rocky Creek, Muncie County, III.; 26, O. di fiicilis (Faxon), from stream 1 mile south of Wilburton, Latimer County, Okla.; 27, O. kentuckiensis Rhoades (holotype), from Piney Creek, 3 miles west of Shady Grove, Crittenden County, Ky.; 28, O. sloana (Bundy), Indiana (probably from near New Albany), U.S.N.M. no. 58058. a 23 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES typic male in that the tubercles are for the most part more spiniform; epistome with a small cephalomedian spine; upper distal surface of merus of cheliped with two prominent tubercles evident in lateral aspect; extreme distal margin of merus emarginate; lower sur- face of merus and mesial surface of carpus with tufts of plumose setae. Annulus ventralis sub- spindle-shaped, with the greatest length in the transverse axis; cephalic margin evenly rounded and firmly fused with sternum; sinus originates near cephalomedian margin, extends caudad for a short distance, and turns gently caudodex- trad, then abruptly sinistrad to cross the me- dian line; here it turns caudad and slightly dex- trad to the median line and then caudad to the mideaudal margin of the annulus (see Fig. 5). Measurements.—Ho.LotyPic MALE: Cara- pace, height 9.4, width 15.2, length 26.9 mm; areola, width 1.0, length 9.6 mm; rostrum, width 3.8, length 6.4 mm; abdomen, length 27.7 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 7.5, width of palm 11.4, length of outer margin of hand 28.7, length of dactyl 19.3 mm. ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Carapace, height 8.0, width 11.6, length 22.6 mm; areola, width 0.70, length 7.8 mm; rostrum, width 3.2, length 5.9 mm; abdomen, length approx. 24 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 5.2, width of palm 7.3, length of outer margin of hand 17.2, length of dactyl 11.3 mm. Type locality—Mill Creek, tributary of Cumberland River, east of Oglesby near An- tioch Pike, 10 miles south of Nashville, David- son County, Tenn. Dr. Shoup has kindly fur- nished the following information: This creek is a hard-water stream flowing over sand and rubble and in its upper reaches over limestone ledges. The banks are silty and muddy, and shade is provided by reeds and trees along its banks. Much of its course is through pasture and cultivated lands. In riffle areas the water has a slightly greenish cast on cloudy days. (M. O. alkalinity—154.0 p.p.m. on January 24, 1947.) Disposition of types——The holotypic male, the allotypic female, and the morphotypic male, form IJ, are deposited in the United States National Museum (no. 84072), and in addition five second-form males and one fe- male, collected by R. 8. Fleming (U.S.N.M. no. 77908) are designated as paratypes. Of the remaining paratypes, one male, form I, and one VOL. 38, NO. 1 female are deposited in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology; one male, form I, and one female in the Museum of Compara- tive Zoology; and 11 males, form I, one male, form II, two females, five immature males, and one immature female are in my personal col- lection at the University of Virginia. Specimens examined.—TENNESSEE, David- son County: Seven Mile Creek, 5 miles south- east of Nashville, November 11, 1944, two males, form I, one male, form II, and two females—C. 8. Shoup, collector; Mill Creek, 10 miles south of Nashville, November 11, 1944, eight males, form I, one male, form II, and three females—C. §. Shoup, collector; Mill Creek at junction with U. 8S. Highway 41, about 8 or 4 miles south of Nashville, October 11, 1939, two males, form I—W. K. Smith, collector; same locality, August 15, 1936, five males, form II, and one female—R. S. Fleming, collector; Mill Creek at Antioch Pike, July 19, 1945, two males, form I, one male, form II (shed test), and four immature males— Mike Wright, collector. Fleming (1939, 14: 319) states: ‘‘All of these species (including C. propinquus sanborni Faxon) were present throughout the region studied ...”’; however, he cites only one lo- cality in which this species was taken. I strongly doubt that his statement is correct, for Drs. Shoup and Wright have collected in a large number of localities in the Nashville region and have taken O. shoupi (=Fleming’s C. propinguus sanbornt Faxon) from only the localities cited above. Variation—The rostrum may or may not bear a median carina. The bearded condition of the cheliped which is pointed out in the description of the morphotypic male, form II, is best developed in young specimens and may be reduced or obsolete in older ones. As in most species the spiniform condition is accentuated in the younger specimens, and in the older ones very much reduced; further, in some of the females mirrored images of.the annulus ven- tralis as described for the allotype occur. Relationships.—Orconectes shoupi is a mem- ber of the Limosus section; it possesses short gonopods, the tips of which are separated for only a short distance. Its closest affinities are with O. sloanit (Bundy) (1876:24), O. tricus- pis Rhoades (1944:117), and O. rafinesquer Rhoades (1944:116). O. showpi may readily be JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 19 distinguished from any other species of the Limosus section by the rostrum with thickened ridges and the long-fingered chelae—both of which resemble those of O. rusticus placidus. (see further remarks below.) Limosus SECTION Ortmann (1931:64) defined the section of Orconectes limosus as follows: ‘‘Gonopods of male, short, rather thick up to near the tips, reaching to the coxopodites of the third peraeo- pod. Tips separated for a short distance only, each tapering to a point. Males with hooks on third, or on third and fourth peraeopods.” In this section he included O. harrisoni, O. sloant, - O. indianensis, O. limosus, O. pellucidus pel- lucidus pellucidus, and O. pellucidus testit. Since 1931 Rhoades has described several additional species and subspecies belonging to the Limosus section, and in his Crayfishes of Kentucky (1944:117) recognized two groups of the section, and listed under them the spe- cies indicated below: Limosus group—‘‘characterized by strongly di- verging tips of the gonopods.” Species: O. limosus (Rafinesque), O. sloani (Bundy), and O. indian- ensis (Hay). Rafinesquei group—‘‘the tips of the first pleo- pod are both recurved in the same direction.”’ Species: O. rafinesquet Rhoades, O. tricuspis Rhoades, O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf), O. pellucidus testia (Hay), O. pellucitdus australis (Rhoades), O. pellucidus packardt Rhoades, O. kentuckiensis Rhoades, and O. harrisonz (Faxon) It is questionable that the above subdivision of the section into the Limosus and Rafinesquet groups is based on true affinities: e.g., if the pleopod of O. kentuckiensis is compared with that of O. sloani and O. tricuspis, certainly it is more like that of the former. This relationship is seen not only in the first pleopod but also in the annuli ventralis of the two. It also seems to me that O. harrisoni is more nearly related to O. sloani than it is to O. tricuspis or O. rafinesquet. Except for the fact that the ter- minal elements of the first pleopods of the several subspecies of O. pellucidus are “‘re- curved in the same direction” (and I might indicate that among the specimens I have examined of pellucidus pellucidus the terminal elements are straight), I can see no indication of closer affinities of these forms with the mem- bers of the Rafinesquei group than with those _ of the Limosus group—in fact, if any division ‘andianensis. of the Limosus section is made then it would seem that O. inermis and the various sub- species of O. pellucidus would constitute a natural group that should receive a status equivalent to that of the other subdivisions. The problem of the status of O. inermis re- mains unsolved. Though I have seen relatively few specimens or the several subspecies of O. pellucidus I have examined several belonging to all of them, and none are like O. inermis. Perhaps it will be shown to be a subspecies of O. pellucidus; however, until future work will indicate intergradation between the two, it seems advisable to retain its specific status. As might be expected, with the discovery of additional species the Limosus section has become decidedly less clear cut, and certain species exhibit characters transitional between the more typical members of the Limosus section and members of other sections of the genus. Even in Ortmann’s diagnosis of the Limosus section quoted above the best charac- ter is stated on a relative basis, and a worker not already familiar with an over-all picture of the genus would have difficulty in deciding whether a given specimen belonged to the Limosus or Propinquus sections (Ortmann, 1931: 64, 65). The difficulty at the time that Ortmann diagnosed the section was not so great as it has been since the somewhat “atypical” O. tricuspis, O. rafinesquei, and O. shoupt have been added to the list of described species belonging to the section. In these spe- cies the terminal elements of the first pleopod are almost as slender and long as are those of some of the members of the Propinquus section (see Figs. 21, 23, 25). These obvious resem- blances as well as the similarities of the annuli ventralis and other anatomical features be- tween O. propinquus propinquus (Girard, 1852: 88) and O. tricuspis make the distinction between the two sections seem somewhat unnatural—i.e., there seem to me to be about as many resemblances between O. tricuspis and the subspecies of O. propinquus as between O. tricuspis and O. sloani, O. limosus, and O. Furthermore, considering the pleopods alone, O. kentuckiensis is transitional between O. limosus and O. sloant on one side and O. difficilis (Faxon, 1898: 656) on the other—the latter at present being relegated to the Virilis section (Ortmann, 1931: 90). Rhoades (1944: 123) states in reference to the 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES affinities of O. kentuckiensis that it “represents a more advanced stage in the series of the ‘Group rafinesquei’. The tips are stouter and more differentiated and the annulus is more depressed as in sloani and other members of the ‘Group limosus’. In this character it resembles closely O. immunis immunits. Furthermore, it is not difficult to see a possible affinity to the ‘Section of C. virilis’ [=O. virilis] even in the gonopods of the male.” Whether these similarities are results of convergence or whether they indicate actual close relationships can hardly be determined until a more exhaustive study of the group (which will necessarily mean extensive collect- ing) is made. On the basis of the evidence at hand I find it difficult to consider these re- semblances arising independently in the three sections. The taxonomists working with the cray- fishes of the Cambarinae have for a long time found it convenient to recognize “‘sections,”’ “sroups,”’ and ‘‘subgroups,”’ and even though there are certain species that on the bases of the diagnostic characters appear to be intermedi- ate between two sections or groups, at least a temporary retention of their usage seems de- sirable. Whereas the limits of variation in the three sections of the subgenus Orconectes are not decidedly marked, and almost impossible to define in words, recourse to determined specimens or figures should alleviate difficulty in determining to which section or group any specimen in question belongs. For this reason I am including a sketch of the pleopods of all the species and subspecies (except O. pel- lucidus testit, of which I do not havea first form male) belonging to the Limosus section, and in addition, for comparative purposes, the pleo- pods of O. propinquus propinquus and O. difficilis. KEY TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE LIMOSUS SECTION OF ORCONECTES (BASED ON THE First-ForM MALE) 1. Body pigmented, eyes well developed...... 2 Body not pigmented, eyes reduced......... 9 2. Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal in length and distinctly divergent (central projection directed cephalodistad and me- sial process caudodistad)............... 3 Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal or not subequal in length, but central pro- jection never bent cephalodistad—either straight, directed caudad, or caudodistad. .4 VOL. 38, No. 1 3. Lateral surface of carapace with only one BR oss ahi ech 5 ae, O. tndianensis (Hay) Lateral surface of carapace with more than one spine...... O. limosus (Rafinesque) 4. Central projection bent caudad at an angle greater than 45°....O. harrisoni (Faxon) Central projection directed distad or bent caudad at an angle less than 45°.......... 5 5. Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal in length or mesial process slightly longer than central projection... ..5.../.....6.5 bs tty i Beek Sh RS O. tricuspis Rhoades Mesial process never extending quite so far distad as central projection.......:.... 6 6. Central projection recurved (caudodistad) throughout its length; no median carina on rostrum....O. kentuckiensis Rhoades Central projection not recurved caudodistad throughout its length; median carina on rostrum present or absebtzcu. «a. .e eee 7 7. Margins of rostrum thickened and concave laterad Fie 2S? ee O. shoupt Hobbs Margins of rostrum not thickened, and sub- parallel or convergent up to base of lateral SPINES... j...2 wa 2% «fs. os eer 8 8. Terminal elements of first pleopod widely separated and thick (heavy); tip of mesial process caudomesiad of central projection Sn cue get ee nae See: Se O. sloani (Bundy) Terminal elements of first pleopod not widely separated, and slender and tapering; tip of mesial process caudolaterad of central projection...... O. rafinesquei Rhoades 9. Margins of rostrum uninterrupted; acumen not distinctly set off from rest of rostrum SAPS corto ae a ae O. pellucidus testit (Hay) Margins of rostrum interrupted; acumen dis- tinctly set off from rest of rostrum......10 10. Cephalic margin of pleopod without a shoul- der at base of central projection; however, either straight or curved.............. 11 Cephalic margin of pleopod with an angular or. rounded shoulder... .... .....; .55eeee 12 11. Cephalic surface of first pleopod in region of central projection straight; mesial process directed distad and extending distad be- yond. central projection... .. ..:2.s/2esnee ...O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf) Cephalic surface of first pleopod in region of central projection curved; mesial process directed caudodistad and somewhat lat- erad, and not extending distad beyond central projection..... O. BA James §. WILLIAMS ap ra WS an * GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY FN gat Gas ea i Warpo R. 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JOURN AL, OF THE Vou. 38 PHYSICS.—The measurement of high voltage.' Bureau of Standards. INTRODUCTION This paper presents an outline of the basic principles used in measuring high voltages. It appraises the accuracies at- tained by some of the methods and devices currently in use, rather than attempts to 4 give historical credit for discovery and in- vention, although numerous references are cited which should prove useful to one inter- ested in tracing such matters. The expres- sion “‘high voltage,” in the title of this paper, will be construed to include voltages of the order of 100 kilovolts and higher. It will be convenient to leave out of consideration many voltage measuring devices useful in the neighborhood of 100 kv and lower but of doubtful value in extending the range to much higher voltage by increasing the pro- portions of the device. This demarcation also serves to exclude from this discussion the methods of measurement of voltage at extremely high frequencies because voltages of this magnitude are nonexistent at those frequencies. The first portion of this paper will logically be devoted to a discussion of certain reliable methods of extension in range from low voltage standards. It is proper to ask why one should be in- terested in the accurate measurement of high voltage. One must be interested be- cause many phenomena depend on voltage. For instance, the hardness limit of X-radia- tion emitted by an X-ray tube depends upon the maximum value of the voltage across the tube including the ripple or any ‘Superposed surge. Similarly the sparkover voltage of a sphere gap and the a-c flash- + Address of the Retiring President of the Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at the 1274th meeting of the Society on January 4, 1947. Received July 28, 1947. FEBRUARY 15, 1948 33 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES No. 2 F. M. Derranporr, National over values for a string of line insulators depend upon the crest of the alternating voltage applied to the gap or string. In those cases it is the maximum voltage aris- ing from the combination of all voltage components in which we are interested. In the surge-voltage breakdown test of a light- ning arrester it is the crest of the applied surge that is fundamental, although the form of the surge, if it rises very rapidly, may be important. This is because with surges of increasingly steep wave front the © crest breakdown voltage actually increases because it requires an appreciable though short time to establish the mechanism of breakdown. On the other hand, in the com- mercial sale of energy it is the effective value of the voltage and its phase with respect to the current that is important. Thus the measurement of high voltage in the cases just mentioned presupposes some knowl- edge not only of the magnitude of voltage, say from thousands to several millions of volts, but also a knowledge of the variation of the voltage with time. This variation of voltage with time, which may have the form of a wave, pulse, ripple, or some other shape in no way resembling our everyday conception of a wave, is called wave form. From the foregoing discussion one may conclude that the significant characteristics of voltage to be measured, illustrated in Fig. 1, may be listed as: 1. Direct voltage (d-c voltage). 2. Effective alternating voltage (effective a-c voltage). 3. Average alternating voltage (average a-c voltage). 4. Crest or maximum voltage of a rippled d-c-, alternating-, or surge-voltage. 5. The wave form of a surge- or alternating- voltage. 34 For the measurement of voltage it has been found convenient to adopt as a pri- mary standard, the vcltage of the standard cell. The unsaturated standard cell, the voltage of which is approximately 1.0186 + volts, is almost universally used as a lab- oratory reference standard for voltage measurements. When kept in a thermo- stated enclosure and used under favorable conditions, it exhibits a remarkable con- stancy of voltage. The small differences that may arise in a thermostated group of cells from year to year are of the order of micro- volts. Unfortunately, similar electrochem- ical devices having 100, 1,000, or 1,000,000 times the voltage of a standard cell do not exist. Therefore, in the usual measurement of higher voltages, it has been necessary to develop devices which ultimately refer back to the standard cell. Resistance methods of extending the range of voltage upward from the value of the voltage of the standard cell make use of the fact that by selecting suitable alloys and heat treating them properly resistors can be constructed to have a resistance, or a ratio of resistance, that remains constant to within a few parts in 100,000 over a satis- V DCG VOLTAGE Time 60 CYCLE SINE WAVE JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 factory temperature range. The use of a ; potentiometer or of a tap resistor (volt box) is the simplest method for extending the range of measurements of direct voltages by reference to the standard cell. If r is the resistance from one end to the tap point and R is the total resistance including r, then the voltage e across r can be measured with — reference to a standard cell by using a potentiometer and the voltage V across R — is then V =e-R/r. “q hee te —* me Although this simple resistance method © is adequate for small steady direct voltages it requires modification for the precise measurement of the high varying direct-, © alternating-, surge-, and pulse-voltages that _ one encounters in practice. The manner in which the voltage at any instant varies — with the time is a fundamental factor in the © problem of measurement. It is necessary to — express alternating voltage in terms of di- © rect voltage which can be evaluated by ~ reference to the standard cell. Instruments designed to read the same on the effective value of alternating voltage as on direct — voltage are called “‘transfer instruments.” — As transfer instruments, electrostatic in- — struments (1) are favored in Great Britain, © Vg: SOR ts soe m --Vm ! | ALF CREST ‘ | | | 1 i a Scars Ae Cian 2 A Sec Time I-5 AWS SURGE PULSE Time RIPPLED VOLTAGE Fig. 1.—Wave forms. Fes. 15, 1948 while electrodynamic instruments (2) find favor in this country. An electrostatic volt- meter, for instance, should give the same indication for a direct voltage V as it does in the case of an alternating voltage of pure sine-wave form for which the crest or maxi- mum voltage Vn=vV/2 V. If rectified alternating voltage is applied to a direct current voltmeter the instru- ment will read the average value of voltage applied to it, i.e., Vare= (1/t)/, vdt. - If, however, completely rectified alter- nating voltage is applied to a good electro- static voltmeter the voltmeter will read the crest voltage. Crest voltage can also be de- termined from the length of a spark gap across which it will just cause a discharge, or it can be readily evaluated from the wave form determined by use of a calibrated os- cillograph. A more detailed knowledge of the varia- tion of the voltage with time such as is given by an oscillograph becomes of special interest in the case of pulse and surge volt- ages. Thus it would seem appropriate to ap- praise the value of the several devices used in the delineation of wave form, and to men- tion each type under the particular voltage divider or device with which it is generally associated. A consideration of high-voltage measur- ing devices appears to lend itself better for discussion under a classification of methods of measurement or types of devices rather than under the classification of character- istics of voltage previously outlined. The devices which are useful in measuring high voltage may be conveniently classified as to type by considering whether the method of measurement employs: 1. A high series impedance with a low-imped- ance instrument to indicate current through the impedance. 2. A potential divider in which a fraction of the total voltage is measured across tap points of the impedance. 3. A voltage transformer that permits measure- ment of a low voltage having a direct ratio to the high voltage. 4. A generating voltmeter in which a voltage proportional to the field intensity in the region of the instrument is indicated. 5. A spark discharge in which the length of the spark gives a measure of the voltage. 6. The cooling effect of an “electric wind”’ as in the ionic wind voltmeter. DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 35 7. Force arising from the attraction or repul- sion of electrostatic charges on electrodes. 8. The deflection of a stream of charged par- ticles by means of a known field, either electro- static or magnetic, after their acceleration in vacuo by the voltage to be measured. The devices used in measuring high volt- age will be considered in accordance with the above classification and in the order listed. SERIES IMPEDANCE METHOD The simplest method of measuring high voltage would appear to be to connect a high impedance in series with a sufficiently sensitive current measuring instrument hav- ing a negligible impedance compared to the value of the high series impedance, Z. Val- ues of the indicated current, 2, would then give the high voltage, V=7Z. The imped- ance Z may, of course, be primarily resis- tive, inductive, or capacitive or combina- tions of these elements. Series resistors —This basically simple method has been widely used in nuclear dis- integration work for direct voltage measure- ments, wherein the impedance Z is built: of many high resistance units in series (dia- gram at A in Fig. 2), care being taken to insure that the current entering at the high voltage end of the resistor is the same as that leaving through the deflecting instru- ment at the low voltage end. For reliable measurements it is necessary to be sure that the electrical leakage across insulating sup- ports of the resistor and from section to sec- tion is negligible and that there is negligible corona current from the units. Changes arising from self-heating must be made negligibly small or must be allowed for. The design of such a series resistor should be substantially the same as for the potential divider type to be discussed later in detail. Series reactors.—For alternating voltage measurements, series reactors have been used as the series impedance (3). They have the drawback, however, of requiring iron cores at lower frequencies if the inductive reactance is to be made large in comparison with the resistance of the windings. Stray and distributed capacitance effects raise additional objections so that series reactors have been little used in high voltage meas- urements. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES saa < VOL. 38, NO. 2 m. Am. Fig. 2.—Diagrams of series impedors. Series capacitors —For the measurement of high alternating voltage, capacitance may be used in series with the low voltage indicating instrument, as indicated at B and C in Fig. 2. The capacitor, which must be relatively free from losses, corona, and brush discharges, magnifies the effect of harmonics present in the voltage wave form unless the low voltage instrument is of the capacitance type.? However, if harmonics are present, corrections can be applied. This device in a form for measuring high- crest voltage was originally described by Chubb (4) who employed the two spheres of a sphere gap as the capacitor, the lower and grounded sphere being insulated to permit rectification of the capacitance cur- rent to it. Such devices (5, 6, 7) appear to have been used more generally in foreign laboratories than in this country. The ar- rangement is indicated at C in Fig. 2. Hae- fely & Co. patented (7) such a device which employs as one electrode of the high-volt- age capacitor, a large insulated circular segment of the lower sphere. The remainder of the sphere serves as the grounded guard for this segmental electrode. The upper sphere serves as the high-voltage electrode. 2 Here the combination serves as a potential divider and a low voltage electrostatic voltmeter across a large capacitance gives effective values of voltage independent of wave form. These devices generally permit only a rough computation of capacitance and therefore need to be calibrated against some other voltage standard, but they have the advantage over the sphere spark gap of giv- ing a continuous rather than transient indi- cation of voltage when used with an elec- trostatic voltmeter or rectifier-milliam- meter combination. Although the early de- vice of Chubb gave the crest value’ of volt- age, later similar arrangements (9) were devised that permit the determination of both crest- and effective-values of voltage, and when supplemented with a cathode ray oscillograph or synchronous commutator (8) give the high voltage wave form as well. For relative measurements, this series ca- pacitance method should be good to a few tenths of one percent. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS The potential divider is essentially some form of impedance with one or more tap points permitting the measurement of the voltage drop between tap points by a method which preferably does not change appreciably the current flowing through the divider. The potential divider is connected across the voltage to be measured. The 3 Except in the case of alternating voltages of unusual wave form in which there are several maxima (8). io) s (op) re & o) ~_ LY 0) A ple} DM fas} bh —_ a) Fy ao Rm (e) a= A 3S A ee ae A Ss a fe| — oF ma 6 » M mS aa Quy r and 1/2xfC.>n7 and if the impedance used in the measuring circuit shunting 7, is >rn, the voltage division by resistance will be trustworthy. As a result of the increase in shunting effect of the stray capacitances with frequency, these inequalities grow less until the division of the applied voltage is no longer proportional to resistance. The shielded a-c resistor (12) minimizes the effects of the unavoidable ground ca- pacitances at the cost of additional energy dissipation, by employing a second or guard resistor in parallel with the first or “‘work- ing’ resistor. This guard resistor is so con- nected to the shields that it supplies current to the ground capacitances that otherwise would have to be charged through and along portions of the working resistor. In an a-c shielded resistor the working, or shielded resistor, is composed of sections of value r each contained within a metal shield or box as indicated at B in Fig. 4. Each shield is maintained at a potential corresponding to the midpoint of its en- closed resistor by connecting it to a tap point on the proper section R,, of the guard Fes. 15, 1948 resistor. Thus this arrangement makes the value of each shunting capacitance definite and supplies the ground capacitance cur- rent from the guard circuit. This is ac- complished at the cost of a slight increase in the shunting capacitance of the indi- vidual resistors because of the capacitance to the shield in which they are located, since one end of the enclosed resistor is above and the other below the potential of the shield. However, because the potential difference across the capacitance of either end of the resistor element to its shield is only one-half the voltage drop in this sec- tion of resistance r, the shunting effect need not be excessive at low frequencies, say 25 or 60 cycles. Such a resistor, com- posed of about 25 shielded sections, is used in a voltage transformer testing setup for phase-angle measurements and ratio meas- urements to 0.01 percent at the National Bureau of Standards. This resistor is rated at 0.05 amperes in each of the two (working and guard) 500,000-ohm circuits. In this device, which at 25 kv absorbs 2.5 kw, the individual sections of the working resistor are enclosed in metal shield boxes, which DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 39 are filled with oil in order to improve ther- mal characteristics. This resistor is ar- ranged in tiers, each tier consisting of four working resistor boxes with corresponding sections of the guard resistor supported on a mahogany framework. Tiers are as- sembled one above the other by means of porcelain bus-type insulators, which serve to provide additional insulation and to permit bolting together of the resistor- supporting frameworks to form a mechan- ically stable assembly. Each box contains 20 flat mica cards wound unifilarly with manganin wire. It is not feasible to extend the range of a-c shielded resistors and retain the same order of accuracy (0.01 percent) by this procedure much above 30 kv because of the effects of the capacitances which shunt the guard resistances. The resulting error increases as the fourth power of the voltage. An a-c shielded resistor of this type is also satisfactory for use as a series resistor: in conjunction with an indicating volt- meter or sensitive oscillograph. It may be used equally well on direct current but would ordinarily not be used because its Fig. 4.—A-C shielded resistor. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4 VOL. 38, NO. 2 Fig. 5.—Surge resistor. load on the source is greater than that for the simpler corona shielded resistor. Weller (13) devised a shielded a-c resistor for use in transformer testing up to 132 kv in which the shield current was supplied by auto-transformers rated at 75 kva, instead of by a tapped resistor. Surge resistors.—In surge voltage testing equipment used for studies of surge effects on electric power and transmission equip- ment, the fundamental component of volt- age in a 14X40 microsecond wave’ is of the order of 10° cycles per second. Hence components as high in frequency as 10’ cycles per second are of significance in fixing the wave form. The cathode ray oscillograph used to delineate such surge wave forms in conjunction with a potential- dividing resistor is generally located at some distance from the resistor and main dis- charge circuit in order to avoid induction effects from the large surge currents. Fig. 5 indicates the common method used for connecting the resistor tap point through a coaxial cable to the deflecting plates of the oscillograph. The resistor is composed of a series of resistance cards. Each card has two similar windings wound in opposite direc- tions and connected in parallel to reduce 4JT.e., one that rises to crest in 1} micro- seconds and falls again to one-half crest value in 40 microseconds. inductance. The cable connection to the cathode ray oscillograph has a surge im- pedance usually of the order of 50 ohms, whereas the full-scale sensitivity of the cathode ray oscillograph is of the order of 2,000 volts for a cold cathode-type and 200 volts for a hot cathode-type cathode-ray oscillograph. Thus for full-scale deflection the currents to a cable considered as a resistance would be of the order of 40 or 4 amperes, respectively. Resistance dividers for high-voltage surge measurements are not provided with corona shields because they would add excessive stray capacitance but are often so located adjacent to the surge generator — itself that some degree of shielding and field grading along the divider is secured. Since a resistor for a 2,000,000-volt surge measurement must be at least 700 cm. long to provide adequate longitudinal insulations and avoid flashover troubles in air, its distributed and stray capacitances intro- duce disturbing effects unless the resistance is held proportionately low. Thus a divider resistor for a 2,000,000-volt surge may have a resistance as low as 5,000 ohms and, if wire-wound, the wire must be of sufficient diameter to carry high momentary currents without damage. As a rule, accuracies of the order of one percent are all that are required. If it is desired to study surge com- Fes. 15, 1948 ponents of the order of 10° or 10° cycles per second the residual inductance of each ele- ment and the distributed and particularly the non-uniform stray capacitance effects, assume especial significance in surge resis- tor dividers. For those frequencies, sup- plementary capacitance elements (14) may be added to the resistance elements of the divider in such a manner as to make uniform the capacitance shunting effect on each element and thus insure proper division of the surge voltage and its correct delineation by the oscillograph. The present interest in better voltage measurements of surge wave- fronts of duration less than one microsecond should lead to improved designs of surge- voltage resistor dividers. The cathode ray oscillograph plays such an important role in the field of surge- voltage (and surge-current) measurements that its contribution should be mentioned at this point. Although its value for use at lower frequencies should not be underesti- mated, it stands alone in versatility for use in high-frequency, surge, and pulse meas- urements. It owes this versatility to the small inertia of its electron beam, which serves at the same time as the moving ele- ment and pointer. The cathode-ray oscillo- graph, with a suitable sweep circuit, am- plifiers, shunts, and potential dividers, has been developed into one of the most useful pieces of electrical laboratory equipment and covers a range from a few cycles per second to frequencies of millions of cycles per second. Developments in electron optics and of new phosphors are constantly en- larging the place of the cathode-ray oscillo- graph as a useful precision device in spite of the complication of its accessory equip- ment. In the future an order of accuracy better than 1 percent may be expected. For most measurements, and especially those of high voltage surges, its high effec- tive impedance results from the low capaci- tance between its deflection plates. The energy loss, arising largely from stray ions and electrons within the tube, is so small as to be of little concern. Thus in the visual or photographic delineation of wave, surge, and pulse shape the starting point now seems to be a calibrated cathode-ray oscillo- graph except in very special instances in the DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 41 low frequency range where a higher order of accuracy is required. Capacitor dividers.—Because residual in- ductance and residual capacitance effects in a resistance divider are unavoidable, not only in the resistance elements themselves but also in their electrical connections, it is natural to turn to the use of capacitance elements for alternating voltage division. The capacitance divider generally consists of a single high-voltage guarded-electrode capacitor in series with a low-voltage capac- itor of very much higher capacitance. The is Lh hhh hhh wt AN. COAXIAL CABLE in finned copper sleeving WS ~ \ t Qe hi oo rr fi Fic. 6.—Compressed-gas capacitor. Diagram of Bousman and Ten Broeck capacitor altered to include complete shielding of the working elec- trode. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES residual inductance effects in capacitors are minimized by properly shaping their sizable conducting parts. The residual resistance effects are minimized (1) by using high grade solid insulation for the electrode sup- ports in order to keep electrical leakage through and across the surface of the insu- lation low; (2) by using free-air or com- pressed gases (15, 16) as the dielectric because of their low dielectric loss; and (3) by using electrodes with well-rounded contours and smooth surfaces to insure freedom from corona discharge. It is cus- tomary to support the guard electrode on its own insulation opposite the high-voltage electrode and in turn to support the guarded low-voltage electrode on the guard. The insulation between the guard and the guarded electrode is arranged to lie outside the high electrostatic field so that dielectric losses as well as surface and volume leak- age to the working capacitance are mini- mized. The range of various types in free air is limited by the breakdown voltage of air to a practical value of about 15,000 v/cem gradient. Churcher (17) has described a capacitor for use at 300 kv, cylindrical in form, with an over-all diameter of 2 meters and a height of 7 meters. This unit is to some extent an absolute standard as it permits computation of its capacitance from dimensions measured under normal working conditions. To that extent it is preferable to a smaller compressed gas type (16) shown in Fig. 6° for use up to 300 ky, having an outside diameter of less than 1 meter and height over the bushing of 3 meters, and a shielded capacitance to the high-voltage electrode of 50 micromicro- farads. However, when the space available is limited, the compressed-gas equipment may be built to occupy about one-fourth the space of a free air unit of the same rating. The one advantage, which may be in part psychological, of constructing a capacitor whose capacitance can be calculated from its dimensions lies in the care and precision demanded in its design and manufacture. § In this figure the original design of Bousman and Ten Broeck has been modified to show com- plete shielding of the outer guarded cylindrical section by the guard. VOL. 38, No. 2 A rather recent and desirable circuit ar- rangement using a compressed-gas shielded capacitor for testing potential transformers is described by Bousman and Ten Broeck (16). Their circuit arrangement is similar to a Schering bridge, i.e., a bridge in which the A and X arms are capacitances instead of resistances. The difference lies primarily in the mode of supplying the voltage to the bridge, the high-voltage arm (A) being supplied by connection to the ungrounded end of the high-voltage winding of the transformer, and the low-voltage arm (X) being connected to the ungrounded end of the low-voltage winding. Thusif this bridge is balanced when supplying power to one winding of the transformer, one may de- termine from the settings of the bridge arms both the voltage ratio and phase angle of the transformer. A simple reconnection of the bridge arms to a suitable supply per- mits quickly checking the constancy of the bridge arm components before and after ratio and phase angle measurements. Thus in this bridge reliance for the ratio measure- ment is placed primarily not on capacitanc- es but on the -constancy of resistance coils which are more suitable as reference standards because of their stability, while the phase angles are based on the air ca- pacitors. An extension in range to higher voltages might logically follow the arrange- ment of Bousman and Ten Broeck without serious reduction in the accuracy of 0.1 percent claimed for their equipment. The subject of high-voltage wave form should also be considered in connection with capacitance dividers. Offhand, capaci- tance dividers would appear to be ideal for use with the cathode-ray oscillograph, as its impedance is essentially capacitive reac- tance. In surge measurements, however, it is usually both desirable and convenient to locate the cathode-ray oscillograph at some distance from the surge circuit in order to minimize inductive effects. This involves the use of a fairly long high-quality cable (preferably coaxial) con- necting the divider to the oscillograph so that the surge impedance of the cable, primarily resistive, rather than the capaci- tive impedance of the oscillograph plates assumes the major role in the measurement Fes. 15, 1948 circuit. Thus, as suggested earlier, a surge resistor is to be preferred although surge capacitor dividers (18) have been used. For lower-frequency measurements this objec- tion does not exist to the same extent and capacitor dividers with cathode-ray oscillo- graphs as well as with amplifiers supplying electromagnetic oscillographs (string or loop in use up to several thousand cycles per second) have been found useful in delineating wave form with an accuracy of a few percent. A eapacitance-divider method yielding a high order of precision in delineating low- frequency wave form is due to Silsbee (19) who, in line with the early work of Rosa, used a point-by-point method. In his device a potentiometric balance by means of a quadrant electrometer is obtained across the low voltage portion of a capacitance po- tential divider for as many points in a repeated voltage wave as may be desired, thus permitting the evaluation of crest-, average-, and effective-values of the wave form. This method requires a synchro- nously driven contactor which may be. set accurately for each balance point selected for delineating the wave. The accuracy of measurement is very high and appears to be limited primarily by the steadiness of the alternating voltage source, say to a few parts in ten thousand. TRANSFORMER METHODS Voltage transformer—The method of measuring high alternating voltage in com- mon use in the United States employs a step-down transformer termed a voltage or ‘notential’”’ transformer by the manufac- turer in order to designate its intended use in voltage and power measurement. The high-voltage winding is connected across the terminals of the voltage source to be measured, a voltmeter is connected across the low-voltage winding and its reading is multiplied by the ratio of transformation to obtain the value of the high voltage. The ratio of voltage of the high-voltage winding to that of the low-voltage winding of a well-designed transformer remains nearly constant over a wide range of voltage. The measured values of ratio of well-built transformers kept under normal laboratory DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 43 conditions have been found to remain re- markably constant over long periods of time, variations in ratio requiring for their detection measurements having an accuracy of the order of 0.01 percent. Departures from nominal ratio have been determined by resistance bridge methods (20) up to 30 ky with a precision of 0.01 percent and by capacitance bridge methods up to 132 kv with a precision of 0.1 percent or better (16). Where symmetrical multiple high-voltage windings are provided in a voltage trans- former the following “‘series-parallel prin- ciple’ has been found valid for extrapolat- ing measurements of ratio factor at low voltage to permit their use at higher volt- age. Within the voltage limits of a high- voltage shielded resistor or capacitor, and with the high-voltage windings in parallel, measurements of ratio factor are made to cover the voltage per coil range of the low- voltage winding. The nominal ratio for series connection is then multiplied by the measured ratio factor at the same volts per coil for the parallel connection. Reliable measurements of effective alternating volt- age by this method can be made to better than 0.1 percent (20) and are in use up to 250 kv. The cost of transformers with such symmetrical multiple windings increases rapidly with voltage. Other less expensive and less accurate (1 percent to 0.5 percent) transforming devices such as (1) a number of small chain-connected or cascaded trans- formers (21, 22) and (2) a high-voltage resistor (23), reactor (24), or capacitor (25) in series with a small transformer, have been introduced in Europe for measuring high voltage but have not met with general favor in the United States. Supply transformer with high-voltage wind- ing tap or with voltmeter coil Although the use of a voltage transformer with only an instrument connected as the burden on the low-voltage winding represents the ideal arrangement, it should be mentioned that adequately precise values of high voltage may often be deduced from voltage meas- urements made on the low-voltage input windings. This is particularly true if the resistance and leakage reactance of the high-voltage winding are low and the cur- 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rent drawn by the load on the high-voltage winding is small. Better still, an instrument connected between ground and a tap point on the high-voltage winding (26) near its erounded end may serve for measuring a relatively low voltage which will be pro- portional to the high voltage except in so far as the voltage across the tapped section of winding is affected by distributed and stray capacitance currents which flow through it from the rest of the high-voltage winding. Fig. 7 shows three such 350 kv 60 c/s 1,000 kva transformers in the High Voltage Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. These units are shown con- nected in cascade to give 1,000,000 volts. Each unit has a high-voltage winding tap VOL. 38, NO. 2 connection giving an accuracy of voltage measurement of about 2 percent at full load and correspondingly better accuracy at lighter loads. Still another arrangement consists in providing a third winding or voltmeter coil (27) so located relative to the low- and high-voltage windings that the magnetic flux linked by it automatically takes into account any voltage drop in the high voltage winding arising from the load connected to it. An accuracy of one-half of 1 percent at full-load leading current and better accuracy at smaller loads is claimed for a good design. These latter arrange- ments are not considered to be as trust- worthy as the use of a separate voltage transformer. Fic. 7.—Three transformers connected in cascade to give 1,000,000 volts. / Furs. 15, 1948 A DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 45 B Fic. 8.—Bipolar generating voltmeter. GENERATING VOLTMETER The generating (rotary) voltmeter (28) first described by Kirkpatrick has been useful in estimating local potential gradi- ents and as an auxiliary control device. It has been likened to a d-c generator, but instead of currents induced by moving Wires in a magnetic field it employs a configuration of electrodes which permits the commutation of charges induced on plates alternately exposed to and shielded from an electrostatic field. Fig. 8 shows the diagram of a bipolar generating voltmeter. Fig. 9 shows a ceiling-mounted type de- signed by Behr that employs a sector disk as the rotating element. The fundamental idea has been incor- porated in many designs. Because of the necessity of alternately exposing and shield- ing the active plates (electrodes) the gen- Sed erating voltmeter appears to offer greater promise for use in relative measurements than in absolute measurements. Thus it is usually first calibrated in terms of other satisfactory low-voltage standards, prior to use at higher voltage, but it may be used in those cases not requiring a high order of accuracy and thus amenable to simplifying assumptions for the purpose of computing the high voltage from dimensions. By so shaping the high voltage electrodes that discharges and consequent space charges are avoided it may be used by extrapolation techniques to extremely high voltages both on direct and alternating voltage. Without an incorporated high-voltage electrode it is essentially a gradient measuring device. It has been useful in a study of atmospheric electric charge and field phenomena re- sponsible for lightning (29), and as a voltage Fic. 9.—Rotating segments of Behr generating voltmeter. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES measuring device associated with high- voltage generators of the Van de Graaff type. When the generating voltmeter is used as a voltage measuring component (i.e., as an instrument for determining a value of gradient to be multiplied by a constant factor in order to obtain the total voltage difference) it is not sufficient that the fields in the immediate neighborhood of the in- strument shall be below corona or dis- charge-forming values, but it is equally necessary that the gradients at surfaces in the neighborhood of the sample field as well as those at the high-voltage electrode be below discharge-forming values and that there be no nearby relatively large sources of air ionization or dust. The effect of dust and charged particles may indirectly pro- duce serious distortions in high fields by being deposited and aligned on otherwise smooth polished metal surfaces so as to form the necessary points for initiating discharges and consequent space charges that would otherwise not exist. If the charge on the surface of the segments al- ternately exposed to the electric field is to be in definite ratio to the total field, then at no place in the field may the gradient exceed the approximate breakdown gradi- ent, 30 kv crest/cm, in air at NPT. The practical limit is actually much lower. For instance, the value of average gradient at which self-propagating discharges occur in the case of thunderstorms appears to be about 10 kv/cem. In the ease of the Brooks electrometer (30) discharges have been known to occur between the parallel faces of the electrometer plates when the voltage applied divided by the spacing had a value of 5 kv eff/ecm. Thus in air at NPT it is doubtful that for a generating voltmeter an average value of gradient exceeding 7 kv max/em with an upper limit of 20 kv/em at the electrode surfaces can be employed con- tinuously without some error in measure- ment arising from the above causes. Pre- sumably this practical limit arises from the almost ever-present small particles of dust (insulating or semi-conducting) which when deposited on the surface upset the ideal condition of pointless smooth surfaces one wishes to assume after the instrument VOL. 38, NO. 2 maker has done his best to produce them. With reasonable care and cleanliness in assembly, dust has not been found to be a problem in generating voltmeters operating within a pressure chamber at higher gradi- ents (31). When used with suitable precautions, the generating voltmeter offers a means of ob- taining information not readily available in other ways. For instance when its com- mutating device is provided with a phase- shifting mechanism and the rotor is syn- chronously driven it provides a means of determining wave form (32) at high voltage with practically no load on the source being investigated. It is effective on a rippled direct voltage as well as on alternating voltage. When used for determining wave form it may be located in an undisturbed and readily accessible portion of the high voltage field. The generating voltmeter method of determining wave form should be good to a few tenths of 1 percent. AIR SPARK-GAP BREAKDOWN Sphere and rod gaps.—If an accuracy of the order of 3 percent in determining crest voltage is sufficient, as in the case of insu- lator testing, the sphere spark gap in air is useful as a crest voltage measuring device. For voltages above 17 kv spheres of 6.25 em diameter and larger (up to 2 meter diameter for approximately 2,000,000 volts) operated under controlled conditions serve as voltage standards for electrical break- down measurements of dielectrics (33). Earlier theories of breakdown of sphere gaps assumed that pure air, as well as other gases, has a definite breakdown strength or breakdown gradient at normal pressure and temperature. Paschen’s law relating the length of the breakdown gap with air den- sity permits correction for usual tempera- ture and pressure variations. Russel, Dean, Peek, and others have given empirical re- lationships based in part on electrostatic field theory for both sphere and cylindrical gaps, which, although they fit well in a limited domain of pressure and tempera- ture, are not so satisfying as relations (34) developed at a later date on the basis of the newer atom-physical background. The de- tailed work on discharges in gases by Loeb ey Dep Fes. 15, 1948 (35) and his collaborators as well as much other valuable work in this field has pro- vided a fairly satisfactory explanation of some of the scattering of breakdown values of spark gaps. Meek (36) suggests that in the case of the shorter gaps the electron avalanche initiated at the cathode con- stitutes the usual initial process whereas in the case of larger gaps the mechanism is more akin to the positive streamer dis- charge of lightning and originates within the gap at some distance from the electrode. For gaps of intermediate length there lies a domain in which the initiation may be of either variety and such gaps show a larger scattering of breakdown values. The prob- ability of a free electron existing in the right location to initiate a discharge is, of course, an important factor in the scattering of the initial breakdown voltage when the time of application of voltage is extremely short. Irradiation (37) of small electrodes of the gap with radium or with ultraviolet light to produce photoelectrons is helpful in reduc- ing this type of scattering but appears not to be necessary in the case of large spheres because of the much higher probability, in the larger volume of air between the spheres of the presence of an initiating ion or elec- tron. An idea of the effectiveness of ultraviolet irradiation in reducing scattering may be cited in the case of 12.5 em diameter brass spheres. Irradiation of the spheres by an open carbon arc reduced the scattering of individual 60-cycle sparkover values by a factor of 5 as compared with the results obtained without irradiation. On the other hand the average values of sparkover volt- age were lower by from two to five percent in the irradiated case, the amount of lower- ing being dependent on the intensity of radiation. Basing his work on the detailed informa- tion now available on the mechanism of spark formation Ver Planck (38) appears to have successfully correlated the enormous amount of data on sphere spark gaps. From the very nature of the spark be- tween spheres and of corona on cylinders, voltage measurements based on sphere gaps and corona cylinders (34), because of their dependence on surface shape, cleanli- DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 47 ness of the surface, and cleanliness of the air, appear to be limited to a rather low and questionable accuracy, say from 1 to 3 percent. When extreme precautions are used by following a ritual of cleansing, the use of ultraviolet irradiation of the spheres, limitation by resistance of surface pitting by the spark current, and by insuring “cleanup” of the sparking surfaces of the sphere gap through preliminary sparking, a series of 10 or more sparkover values often may be observed to agree to within +0.1 percent. However, this apparent high pre- cision, equal to that of the high-grade indi- cating voltmeter employed as part of the equipment in making such observations, is deceptive. Painstaking observations made the following day under seemingly identical conditions may agree among themselves to the same precision but their average value will almost invariably differ by several tenths of one percent, and sometimes by more than 1 percent from those made on the previous day. In spite of its low order of accuracy the sphere gap serves as a com- mercial standard (33) for high alternating- and surge-voltage measurements appar- ently because of its basic simplicity. In larger sizes it gives a useful measurement of the maximum value of surge voltage and essentially serves as a voltage limiter when it is used in parallel with a device under- going voltage-withstand tests. Simple needle gaps, as a matter of his- torical interest, were once accepted as al- ternative standard voltage measuring gaps, but as a result of the inherently high scat- tering of values of sparkover voltage, varia- tion in sparkover values with changes in humidity, and large scattering in sparkover voltage when used for measuring surge voltage, they have been discarded as stand- ards. Rod gaps (39) in which the elec- trodes are used repeatedly as contrasted with the formerly prescribed use of new #00 needles for each sparkover of the needle gap, have sparkover values which are also affected by humidity to about the same extent as the flashover of porcelain insula- tion and appear to have replaced needle (or point) gaps for those uses where gaps are desired for correlating the flashover voltage of insulators. 48 IONIC WIND VOLTMETER The Ionic Wind Voltmeter described by Thornton, Waters, and Thompson (40) merits some mention because it represents a unique application of a thermal method to the measurement of high alternating voltage. Use is made of the cooling effect on a heated filament arising from ‘‘elec- tric wind.”’ (See Fig. 10.) The heated fila- ment, with a suitable grounded shield, is located at a distance from the high-voltage electrode in such a position that, although in the electric field, it will always be below corona-forming voltage. Ions that may be present move back and forth as a result of the alternating electric field and in striking neutral molecules increase the general molecular motion. This results in an in- crease in cooling effect on the heated fila- ment proportional to the electric field. A filament that has a high temperature co- efficient of resistance is connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge out-of-balance indicator is then calibrated in terms of the high voltage applied to the Ionic Wind Voltmeter. Although this de- vice may be constructed to have good sensitivity and is useful as a control device or relay, its indications are affected by change in wave form and an accuracy of only +2 percent is claimed for it. ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETERS AND ELECTROMETERS Electrostatic voltmeters and electrom- eters basically depend for their indication on a measurement of the force of attraction between charges on the movable portion of one electrode surface and charges of opposite sign on another fixed electrode surface. By arranging the movable portion of the electrode to be part of a suitable geometric surface—sphere, ellipsoid, or plane—it is possible to devise an instrument in which the voltage applied can be com- puted theoretically from measured dimen- sions and the measured force of attraction. An electrometer designed to approximate quite closely the theoretical assumptions as to the conductor shape and relative di- mensions required for simple theoretical computations, and thus to permit computa- tion of the value of applied voltage from JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 dimensions and the resulting force, is termed an absolute electrometer. This is in contradistinction to the term electrostatic voltmeter, which signifies an instrument that may be used for relative measurements but that requires calibration by means of some other standard of voltage measure- ment. A number of designs of high-voltage electrostatic voltmeters (47-51) have been constructed. Such instruments require much less electrical energy for their opera- tion than an electrodynamic instrument with a series resistor. Corners rounded suf- ficiently to avoid electric discharges, high- quality insulation, and electrode spacing adequate to prevent discharges are pre- requisites in the construction of both elec- trostatic voltmeters and electrometers. Electrostatic voltmeters —With a few ex- ceptions (46, 47, 49) the high voltage elec- trostatic voltmeters follow the pattern of the Kelvin (52) guard-ring electrometer by having a guard ring for the attracted disk or movable electrode while placing less emphasis on the flatness of the movable electrode. Provision is usually made for ---- Fig. 10.~~Ionic wind voltmeter. Fes. 15, 1948 change in range by adjusting the spacing between the high-voltage electrode and grounded electrode of which the moving element usually forms a part. It is interest- ing to consider the developments in these. instruments over a few years as shown in Figs. 11, 12, and 13. In the early design of Abraham and Villard (47) (1911), Fig. 11, the curvature of the disk and guard is Fig. 11.—Abraham and Villard electrostatic voltmeter. DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 49 nearly spherical. The moving system is rather massive with a separate damping chamber within the guard. The Imhof (44) (1926) design, Fig. 12, provides a flattened guard ring and fits the light-weight at- tracted electrode into its own damping chamber. Starke and Schroeder (43) (1928) in one model, Fig. 13, employed a relatively larger flat-guarded electrode and a flat- strip suspension for the movable rectangu- lar flat electrode, P, providing it with a mirror instead of a mechanical pointer, as well as with a balanced damping chamber arrangement. Nearby objects would be increasingly less effective in producing de- flection errors at equivalent spacings in the later voltmeters. These voltmeters may be read to closer than 1 percent but unless calibrated in place, especially when used at large spacings at maximum rated voltage, are likely to be affected by nearby objects. Ellipsoidal voltmeter.—The _ ellipsoidal voltmeter of Thornton and Thompson (58), illustrated in Fig. 14, is of the nature of an electrometer and satisfactory theoret- ical equations have been developed for it. It, like the electrometer, depends on a relatively undistorted axial field if it is to be used as an absolute instrument. The moving element consists of a metallic ellipsoid of revolution carried on a bifilar silk suspension and is provided at its lower end with a reflecting mirror and damping Fig. 12.—Imhof electrostatic voltmeter. Pos oe tee Ses: 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES eenwaes as ees CY eta f Sy LP Ph rh Be | SSSA aaa * VOL. 38, NO. 2 ee ong at Fig. 13.—Starke and Schroeder electrostatic voltmeter. vane. The ellipsoid is suspended with its long axis horizontal and is centrally located between two vertical circular plates facing each other and at an adjustable distance apart. Polarization of the ellipsoid by the electric field established between the plates by the source of voltage to be measured, gives rise to a mechanical couple tending to align the ellipsoid, which is initially set at an angle to the horizontal axis perpendicu- lar to both plates. Although the change in the angular deflection of the ellipsoid may be used as a measure of the voltage applied, a more sensitive and rather interesting method of voltage indication has been con- trived which involves measuring the in- crease in frequency of its swings when volt- age 1s applied. Thus: E=k(n?—n,?)'? (1) where £ is the electric field strength, kis a constant found from dimensions, 7 is the number of swings per second with the volt- age on, and n, is the number of swings per second with the voltage off. Sufficiently large plates are used and at such a separation that the electric gradient FE throughout a considerable volume along the axis would be substantially uniform if the ellipsoid were not present. Since the disturbance effected by the ellipsoid is small, the voltage applied to the plates is V = Ea, | (2) where d is the plate separation. The instrument described was designed for measurements up to 200 kv. As shown schematically in Fig. 14 the plates were 140 cm in diameter and were spaced as much as 100 cm apart (1.e., average gradi- ent of 2 kv per cm). An exploration of the field indicated that it was quite uniform at the midpoint between the plates within a radial distance of 25 cm; however, no study of its longitudinal variation appears to have been made. Great care was taken to insure that the ellipsoids of revolution were ac- curately shaped so that the theoretical relationships would apply. One ellipsoid of duralumin was 3.9692 cm long and 0.5970 cm in diameter and weighed 2.0496 grams. The electric gradients at the tips of the ellipsoids are considerably higher than the average gradient between the plates. These gradients must be kept well below corona- forming values if disturbing effects from electric wind are to be avoided. In its prac- tical form where it is to be used as a de- flection instrument for laboratory or shop measurements an insulating enclosure is provided for the suspension, ellipsoid, mir- ror, and damping mechanism to shield them against wind and dust. At the bottom end of the moving-system assembly the damping vane is suspended in a damping chamber attached to a tube whose upper end is cemented to the bottom of a hollow glass sphere in which the ellipsoid is cen- tered. The upper end of the sphere is ce- mented to a second tube housing the bifilar - Fes. 15, 1948 suspension and an adjustable suspension control for changing the period of swing. The control mechanism and the torsion head are mounted at the supported upper end of the tube. A spherical shape was used for the hollow glass sphere enclosure for the ellipsoid so as to permit a theoretical eval- uation of the effect of the dielectric of the sphere on the electric field H at the ellip- solid. The theoretical correction derived for this spherical glass enclosure agreed well with experimental results when the relative humidity was not high enough to cause electrical surface leakage. The ellipsoidal voltmeter is said to be accurate to 0.1 percent and to be only slightly affected by humidity. Because of low average gradient, 2 kv eff/cm, it ap- pears to be more bulky than other electro- static voltmeters and is of interest mainly because it is a unique arrangement per- mitting absolute measurements. Sparkless sphere-gap _ voltmeter.—Large spheres ordinarily used as sphere spark-gap voltmeters in measuring high crest-voltage have been modified to permit their use as electrostatic voltmeters for measuring the effective value of voltage at spacings slightly in excess of sparking distances. This arrangement has been called a spark- less sphere-gap voltmeter (47). Hueter (46) employed a vertical ar- rangement of 1-meter spheres. The upper high-voltage sphere was supported on a spring whose additional extension as a result of the electrostatic force was magni- fied by a lamp-mirror-scale arrangement. The spring and the mirror optical-lever »arrangement were mounted within the sphere shank which was provided with a small window. An external arc-lamp and scale were mounted on an adjacent wall in the laboratory and gave satisfactory readings in daylight. The vertically adjust- able lower sphere was grounded and its driving screw mechanism was arranged to indicate the gap length. The weight of the upper one-meter sphere was 60 kg and for a 75 cm gap the electrostatic attraction was approximately 800 grams at 1,000,000 volts. In order to minimize effects of changing gap length, only small displace- ments (less than 0.5 percent of the gap length) of the spring-suspended sphere were cA. BES px lax i lax Gamesy las cy C) Draught = shield ro) peeeOy H.T. ee plate H.T. eo busbar ~—— DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 51 used. An oil-cup damper made the sphere motion nearly aperiodic. An accuracy of 1 percent was claimed. Sorensen (47, 48) employed a horizontal arrangement of l-meter spheres with rather long slender shanks presumably in order to reduce effects of attraction arising from the shanks. The electrostatic attraction of the grounded sphere could be readily meas- ured as it was supported by suspending its shank by four ropes tied to the shank at the apices of the two thus-formed V-sus- pensions. The upper ends of the ropes were attached to ceiling members. This laterally stable suspension possessed only a small longitudinal stability so that differences in longitudinal electrostatic forces of several hundred grams could be measured to better than one gram. A small wire in line with and attached to the end of the grounded sphere shaft ran over the rim of a bicycle wheel thus insuring low friction. A small weight pan attached to the end of the wire per- mitted weighing the force of attraction. These two sphere-electrometer devices represent useful laboratory tools for they can be calibrated and used as voltmeters for measuring effective voltage. They can Mirror & dashpot Fia. 14.—Ellipsoidal voltmeter. i also be employed in the usual manner as sphere spark-gaps for the measurement of crest voltage. If one is satisfied with the accuracy of the sphere spark-gap as a high-voltage standard, measurement of the voltage wave form permits calibration of these devices as electrometers for the meas- urement of effective voltage without re- course to other methods. To a very limited extent they may be considered to be abso- lute electrometers, particularly if adequate relative clearances to the floor, walls, leads and other conductors and insulators are maintained so that approximate corrections can be made for the presence of these ob- jects. Simple theoretical calculations of the force of attraction can be made by the method of image charges in the case of two insulated or one grounded and one insulated sphere. For a 25-cm spacing of his 1-meter spheres Sorensen considered that no cor- rection was necessary, and at 35 cm the effect of shanks and other nearby objects was sald not to exceed 1.5 percent. One may hope for an accuracy approach- ing 0.5 percent with the design of Hueter in making relative measurements up to one million volts. This would involve ample clearance for the spheres and first calibrat- ing by an accurate lower voltage method using a separation of the spheres adequate for one million volts and making certain that corona-free electric field conditions exist in the neighborhood. Disk electrometers—About 1880 Lord Kelvin made an outstanding contribution by incorporating a guard ring for the disk of the attracted disk electrometer. The guard ring not only validified the use of the simplifying mathematical assumptions in computing the electrostatic force of attrac- tion of the disk but it established the basis for a design whose readings were less ef- fected by nearby objects. When coplanar with the guard ring the force V2A eae (3) where V, the voltage is in electrostatic units, A is the area of the disk, and d the sep- aration from the opposite grounded plate. For deflections of a guarded disk away 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 from coplanarity, Snow (54) has developed a mathematical solution which takes into account the change in force arising from change in position of the disk. This change in force might at first appear only to vary inversely with the separation d (shown by a simple differentiation of equation (3)). However, Snow has evaluated the addi- tional change in force arising from the redistribution of the charges, which in the case of a protruding disk results in an increase in concentration of charge at the edge of the disk at the expense of the charge on the adjacent edge of the guard plate and vice versa in the case of a retracted disk. Troublesome instability in disk elec- trometers arising from this latter com- ponent of force has for a long time been recognized as a weakness in electrometers designed to cover a wide range of voltage measurement by adjusting the spacing d. One may either elect to provide a linear restoring force adequate for all spacings d at a considerable sacrifice in sensitivity at large spacings or provide for some adjust- ment of the restoring force with change in spacings at nearly constant maximum al- lowable gradient. The restoring force re- quired to balance the electrostatic attrac- tion in high voltage electrostatic volt- meters and electrometers has been pro- vided by the following devices: (1) Suspension of the moving electrode on one arm of a gravity balance, 1.e., change of restoring force secured by adjustment of e.g. of balance relative to central knife edges (52, 30). (2) Suspension of moving electrode on a coiled spring (46, 61). (3) Pendulous suspension of electrode (49). (4) Suspension of disk electrode assembly on a® flat-strip (torsion) suspension (43, 58). (5) Suspension of the disk from a metallic membrane (50, 81). (6) By combining the torque provided by a flat-strip supporting suspension with that pro- duced in a current-balance arrangement of coils which permits adjustment of the restoring force (55) by change in current. The last three types merit special men- tion because of the novelty of their ar- rangement. Fig. 13 illustrates the flat-strip suspension arrangement of Starke and Schroeder. The sixth of the above arrange- ments, used by Nacken (55), employs two pairs of “current balance”’ coils in a con- Fes. 15, 1948 nection that permits adjustment of sta- bility as well as of sensitivity. The restoring force arises in part from the vertical strip suspension which carries the disk with its plane vertical as well as the two similarly mounted astatically connected current bal- ance coils. One pair of field coils with cur- rent 2; is connected in series aiding one moving coil and provides a torque propor- tional to 7; for balancing the electrostatic force on the disk; the other pair of coils with current 7» 1s connected in series op- posing so that by reversing 27,, and adjusting its value relative to the current in the mov- ing coil the restoring force of the strip suspension toward the null or coplanar position of the disk may be either opposed or aided thus altering the stability of this system by the simple adjustment of the current in this pair of coils. Thus this ar- rangement permits a desirable adjustment toward higher sensitivity at large spacings of the electrodes where the deflecting force decreases. The fifth of the above arrangements is exemplified in the devices of Rogowski and Boécker (50, 51) (illustrated in Fig. 15) in which an elastic diaphragm D provides the restoring force for the attracted disk. The diaphragm supports an iron-cored coil (above) which is actually part of a current transformer (‘‘Messdose’’) constructed with two air gaps in its iron core. The fixed coil with its core form the other part of the current transformer which is supplied from a voltage-regulated alternating-current sup- ply. Very small changes in the air gap (moving coil position) suffice to produce full scale deflections of an ammeter con- nected across the moving coil and this am- meter is calibrated to read the high voltage. As part of this particular moving system, arranged for use in a compressed gas en- closure, a force coil (Druckspiile) K is sus- pended below in an iron-clad solenoid es- pecially constructed to permit a measure- ment of force in terms of solenoid current. This arrangement permits, prior to assem- bly of the unit in the compressed gas cham- ber, a direct calibration with known weights on the disk for current in the solenoid against deflections of the diaphragm as in- dicated by the ammeter. This preliminary DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 55) calibration with known weights against current is made in order to permit subse- quent checking of the calibration of the electrometer by means of the current in- stead of weights after it has been filled with compressed gas. Brooks absolute electrometer—The ab- solute high voltage electrometer of Brooks (30) (Figs. 16 and 17) is illustrative of what can be accomplished in the way of precision when the attracted disk is supported on one arm of a gravity-type balance. Brooks’s modification of the Kelvin electrostatic attracted disk electrometer with guard ring was designed for use in free air up to 275 kv on alternating voltage and was arranged to allow a step by step experimental evalua- tion of errors not readily calculable. In ad- dition to a guard ring, it employed guard (©) (©) (2) [eM Fie. 15.—Rogowski and Bécker compressed- gas electrostatic voltmeter. 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 hoops equally spaced between the guarded and grounded electrodes. These guard hoops, spaced 2 cm apart, are connected to tap points on a potential dividing capacitor also across the voltage source. Thus the equally spaced hoops are maintained at equally spaced potentials corresponding to the voltage applied between the high-volt- age (upper) and grounded (lower) plates of the electrometer. The hoops not only screen oN | =. | PID E I PPI oi SS sae peoeenerte ea NN) Goes SS NN EERO a Q Bal Cay iN ny) \\ NN N F&LLA, 38 S “ULL b, ZLikb me) i S PO SPDR ee oe Se oa a So es Diag \ Visa yAl ic E 2. ES Bee CAS ee a eS - & . se « . 36 4 3ST Bled habe SS ee = ys S SS hike DSSSSASSASAS Se So obo Fic. 16.—Brooks attracted disk electrometer (schematic). Fes. 15, 1948 the disk from external fields, but by their potential distribution tend to correct, within their diameter, electric field distor- tion that would otherwise arise from edge effects at the upper guard ring and lower plate. A mathematical solution of the con- tribution to force on the disk arising from these hoops has been carried through by Snow (54) and Silsbee (30) and has been demonstrated to be adequate by suitable experimental tests. For instance by omit- ting hoops, or electrically shorting various sets of hoops, their potential distribution was changed drastically. For such condi- tions when the corresponding corrections were applied based on the mathematical solution and experimentally measured po- tential distribution, very good agreement in the measured values of voltages was ob- tained. As a result of the work on the Brooks Absolute Electrometer, which was com- pared with the transformer voltmeter method of measuring voltage, it was con- cluded that this instrument is reliable for absolute determinations to about 0.01 per- cent. This work was limited to 100,000 volts—approximately one-third its rated voltage—because the clearances in the space in which the equipment was housed were inadequate. Results up to full rated value, 275 kv, are not yet available. (With the cessation of the war it is expected to extend the measurements to higher values of voltage in the modern High Voltage Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. ) 6 The simple equation (3) may be rearranged V.=2dV2F/A. This equation may be thought of as being satisfactory for measurements yield- ing an accuracy of 1 per cent. If an accuracy of 0.01 per cent is desired, correspondingly refined experimental techniques must be employed and additional physical measurements must be made as indicated by the larger number of terms in the complete equation for the voltage in electro- magnetic units of the Brooks electrometer, y,, sole the) ae A,—A, o (ro +14) 2M rg Y f(Sv—Sm) fhm its (S»—So) ci 2¢ =P 9 Ree —1 h —-> CC eee, (=) +¢2 (=) |. k=1 2 Td Th DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 55 Compressed gas electrometer.—A consider- ation of the compressed gas electrometers of Tschernyscheff (56), Palm (57), Rogow- ski, Bécker (50, 51), and others who at- tained accuracies approaching 0.1 percent leads one to consider whether additional design features might be incorporated in the compressed gas type in order to give an accuracy approaching that of the Brooks electrometer in free air. Actually the matter of precise weighing of the forces (less than 2.5 grams) on a 16-cm diameter disk, involved in the Brooks electrometer offers no serious problem in free air aside from the necessity of providing a carefully thermostated enclosure to avoid air currents. The possibility of having correspondingly higher forces to measure has its appeal. In the Rogowski and Boécker voltmeter the maximum force of attraction of the disk may reach 250 grams and is measured to 0.2 grams. Thus the forces employed in measurements are one hundred times as large as in the Brooks electrom- eter, however, the relative accuracy of measurement of this larger force is less in their device. At the outset one would have to provide a force-measuring device approaching the accuracy and repeatability of a high-grade gravity balance, i.e., something better than that incorporated in the Rogowski and Bocker electrometer. Smaller-scale length measurement would have to be made with about the same relative accuracy and the flat metal surfaces of the plates would re- quire a high quality optical finish. The greatest loss involved in the use of com- pressed gas rather than free air, as in the Brooks electrometer, lies in the relative difficulty of making and checking mechani- cal measurements under pressure before and after voltage observations. The immediate gain from the use of compressed air (15) or other gases (51B) is to increase sparkover voltages nearly in proportion to pressure. For instance in the design for use to 400 kv alternating, Bocker used carbon dioxide at 15 atmospheres pressure which permits a gradient of 100 kv eff/em as compared with 2.5 kv eff/cem in the Brooks electrometer as limited by the present potential dividing capacitor con- Ke nected to the hoops. Gaseous ‘‘freon’’ (48) (dichlorodifluoromethane) has between smooth electrodes about 2.3 times the breakdown strength of air at pressures up to six atmospheres where it still remains gaseous. In the case of points or sharp edges the relative breakdown strength of freon is still higher. Freon has the disad- vantage of breaking down into highly corrosive products if corona or other dis- charges actually take place in it, making it less desirable than carbon dioxide on that account. Sulfurhexafluoride (S8C) appears to offer some advantages over freon be- cause of its greater chemical stability and higher equilibrium pressure at normal temperatures. The greater size of the “free air’ as compared with the “compressed gas’’ elec- trometer appears to be its chief drawback, making it too cumbersome at the highest voltages. DEFLECTION OF FREE-MOVING CHARGED PARTICLES AND THE HIGH VOLTAGE SCALE The cathode ray oscillograph and electro- static (and magnetic) analyzers are ex- amples of devices that employ the deflection of free-moving charged particles. Employ- ing for this discussion the relations given by Hanson and Benedict (59), if a slowly moving stream of charged particles is accelerated in vacuo along an electrostatic field of total voltage V, then V.e=smv? (4) where m is the mass of the particle, v its velocity, and e the charge on the particle. When a stream of particles with the velocity v is directed between parallel plates perpen- dicular to the electric field established by the voltage Vz between the plates then for the idealized arrangement of plates at the far edge the deflection d= V gel?/2Smv? (5) where / is the length and S is separation of the plates. For nonrelativistic velocities if L is the distance to and D the deflection at the screen or receiver D=Ld/(1/2)=VaeLl/Sme? (6) 506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 so that Va/Va=Ll/2SD, (7) and if the relativistic velocities are taken into account (59) Vue ye a eee / ( 2(E,+V.e) )-Ly/2sp, (8) where the rest energy L,=m,c? and m, is the rest mass and c the velocity of light. For relation (8) it may be shown that the relativistic correction is about 1 percent for electrons accelerated by a voltage V.= 10.5 kv and increases to about 14 percent at 200 kv. The existence of a relativistic correction of such magnitudes on account of high electron velocity may be looked on as somewhat of a nuisance and as a limita- tion of the cathode-ray oscillograph when used for the direct measurement of high voltages. Applications of the cathode-ray oscillograph therefore seem to have been limited to the measurement of lower volt- ages. As is well known, the beam-accelerat- ing voltage source for V, is generally main- tained as constant as possible in order to preserve the sharpness of the cathode spot. The voltage to be measured (or a fraction of it from the voltage divider) is applied as the voltage Vz to the deflecting plates. Va is kept sufficiently low to leave the deflection D materially unaffected by the relativistic mass correction for velocity of the electrons. At first thought the fundamental simplic- ity of this method of measuring voltage is decidedly appealing. It applies the accel- erating voltage field directly to the elemen- tary charge of the electron unhampered by additional matter. As indicated above and by equation (8) there is a disadvantage because the resulting high electron veloci- ties even for relatively low-voltage accel- erating fields become so large that relativ- istic corrections for moving charges must be introduced. Thus on second thought, the method involving the acceleration of elec- trons appears far from ideal but an exami- nation of equation (5) indicates the ad- vantage to be gained by using charged par- ticles of greater mass than the electron be- cause of the resulting lower velocity. Al- though what one might consider a practical Fes. 15, 1948 device for everyday use in the measurement of high voltage by deflecting a stream of free-moving positively charged particles has not been developed, the nuclear phys- icist has used such a device in his work for a number of years. To help him on his way in measuring high voltages he has estab- DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE ov lished the High Voltage Scale. A short di- gression in explanation of how this was accomplished seems in order prior to a presentation of the contribution of the free-moving charged-particle deflection- method in this work. The study of atom physical phenomena + e og: - Fig. 17.—Brooks attracted disk electrometer. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES led to the physicists’ need for a voltage reference standard of the order of 1,000,000 times the voltage of the standard cell. Historically, one may go back to Planck’s equation hy=Ve wherein fh is Planck’s constant, v is the maximum frequency cor- responding to the maximum accelerating voltage V, and e is the value of the ele- mentary charge. Duane and Hunt (60) used a steady high-voltage storage battery in order to evaluate A from a careful meas- urement of the accelerating voltage V and the corresponding maximum frequency limit of the continuous X-ray spectrum produced. Since those measurements were made the value of h has been well estab- lished by other methods. Thus this relation affords a method of determining V by a measurement of the maximum frequency of emitted continuous X-radiation. Little use has been made of this method as a high- voltage reference standard largely because of the accuracy required in evaluating the frequency. With the advent of work on nuclear disintegration a pressing need for high voltage reference standards became apparent as the usual extrapolation meth- ods of measuring V, the particle accelerat- ing voltage, were both cumbersome and none too reliable. In early bombardment work it was found that resonance radiation of gamma rays occurred within a rather narrow range of the voltage used in accel- erating the protons. The early careful measurements by Tuve, Hafstad, and Hey- denburg (11) of the voltage at which these radiations occurred provided the basis for their adoption of certain values of voltage corresponding to the resonance gamma ra- diation for selected elements as fixed points on the High Voltage Scale. The measurement process for establishing values for the fixed points on the High Volt- age Scale consists in: (1) Providing a source of protons which are ac- celerated by a carefully measured adjustable volt- age V. (2) Directing this beam of protons on a target of a selected element such as lithium or one of its salts. (8) Measuring the gamma-ray resonance radia- tion effects by means of Geiger-Mueller counters or similar devices which permit a quantitative measurement of this radiation as a function of the accelerating voltage. VOL. 38, No. 2 From plotted curves of gamma radiation against accelerating voltage (proton en- ergy) the rather sharp maximum of gamma ray effect fixes the value of voltage chosen as the resonance voltage. By selecting elements for these reactions in which a single sharp maximum occurs and by care- fully determining the corresponding volt- ages in terms of the standard cell, the volt- ages at which particular reactions occur were established as reference points on the High Voltage Scale. In a similar manner but using a boron fluoride ionization cham- ber (paraffin surrounding the target tube and nearby chamber) instead of the Geiger- Mueller counter, neutron counts may be made for similar reactions In which neu- trons are ejected from the bombarded tar- get by voltage accelerated protons. In this case points for the scale are determined by gradually reducing the accelerating voltage V and choosing that voltage at which there is an abrupt decrease in ionization chamber current as the limiting voltage for ejection of neutrons is reached. Early experimental values of voltage cor- responding to the resonant radiation in the bombardment of lithium by protons was fixed at 440 kv for Li (py) with a probable error of 2 percent and a relative accuracy of 1 percent by Tuve, Hafstad, and Hey- denburg (11) of the Carnegie Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. A redetermina- tion of voltage values for some of the fixed points was reported in 1944 by Hanson and | Benedict (59), of the University of Wiscon- . _ sin. Their electrostatic analyzer (a device for determining the value of the electro- static field at right angles to a beam of charged particles that will deflect the beam a given amount) was carefully constructed so that its deflection constant could be computed from dimensions as a check on values determined experimentally. Their experimental method employed an elec- tron beam in place of the proton beam used later in their evaluation of the fixed points. The use of a low-voltage electron beam (accelerating voltages of 8 to 20 kv) and of small deflecting voltages (150 tc 360 volts) permitted precise voltage measurements and higher precision for de- — termining the deflection constant of their ‘Fup. 15, 1948 analyzer than the absolute method consist- ing of a computation of the deflection con- stant using carefully measured dimensions. Various refinements including the use of a highly stabilized source for the deflecting voltage and automatic regulation of the ion-accelerating voltage reduced fluctua- tions and contributed to highly precise measurements of the fixed points on the High Voltage Scale. Hanson and Benedict consider the following values expressed in terms of the Million Electron Volt scale to be accurate to 0.3 percent: L1(py) 0.4465, F(py) 0.877, Li(pn) 1.883, Be(pn) 2.058. Their apparatus gave relative values agreeing to better than 0.1 percent. Their values are seen to agree within the toler- ances given for the values of Tuve, Haf- stad, and Heydenburg although they are approximately 1.5 percent higher. The establishment of the High Voltage Scale based on a phenomenon unaffected by temperature, pressure, and humidity except as their abnormalities plague the collateral work of the investigator, thus represents a distinct step forward in the process of better measurements and standards for high volt- ages. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The principal methods in use for measur- ing high voltages have been outlined through the discussion of a number of devices. Mention was first made of the correlation of different methods of high- voltage measurements through extrapola- tion techniques in which the standard cell was used as the primary standard of volt- age. Absolute high-voltage electrometers were later discussed and the good agree- ment between their independently deter- mined values when compared with a stand- ard-cell voltage-extrapolation method was noted. Concluding remarks cited the use of both the standard-cell voltage extrapola- tion-technique and a less precise absolute method in establishing the voltage values for certain fixed points on the High Voltage Scale. At the moment it appears that high voltages as we know them in the laboratory stop with values of the order of 10,000,000 volts. On the other hand, charged particles DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 59 come to us from space or may be accelerated in the laboratory by resonance techniques to have electron velocity equivalents ap- proaching one hundred times that value. Presumably the future holds in store some new insulating arrangement for the col- lector of the high energy particles that man is able to produce—an arrangement that will permit the collector to build up to the unbelievable potentials we think of when we hear of a new machine in the rumor or blueprint stage that will produce 1,000 million electron-volt particles. Just what such voltages will be used for and how they will be measured I wish to leave as part of your field of conjecture. REFERENCES (1) Rayner. Journ. Inst. Electr. Eng. 59: 138.,, 1921. GYDA. -Rosscos Bulls ~Bures Stand: = 3° = 43. 1906 ib Harris. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 3: 445. 1929. (3) KernatH. Dve Technik elektrischer Mess- gerdte 2:17. 1928. (4) Cuuss. Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng. 35: 121. 1916. (5) Patm. Elektrotechn. Zeitschr. 47: 873, 904. 1926. (6) Konic. Helv. Phys. Acta 1929: 357. (7) Haefely et Cie, Basle. German Patent No. 394014. © 1923. (8) VAN CAUWENBERGHE and LANDSBERG. Bull. Techn. Assoc. Ing. 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Rev. 6: 166. 1915. WINKELBRANDT. Arch. fiir Elektr. 31: 6724-31938: Frs. 15, 1948 CHEMISTRY.—Standardization of the pH scale. BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE PDH SCALE 61 RoGcer G. Bates and EDGAR REYNOLDS Smi1TH, National Bureau of Standards. The pH is not a definite thermodynamic quantity, and the lack of a universally accepted definition of the pH scale has led to an unfortunate state of confusion. The two scales of pHin common use at the pres- ent time differ by 0.04 unit. Some workers are using one definition for computations and measuring a different quantity. To correct this situation it is of primary impor- tance that a single scale be generally adopted (1). Commercial pH meters of the glass-elec- trode type are now found in nearly every laboratory where chemical analyses and tests are performed. These instruments must be calibrated from time to time with buffer solutions of assigned pH. Two difficul- ties are encountered in any attempt to measure pH accurately. First, neither the concentration nor the activity of hydrogen ion in a buffer solution can be exactly and uniquely determined. In the second place, the potentials at the liquid junctions be- tween the various standard and unknown solutions and the bridge solution of the reference electrode can never be perfectly matched or eliminated. Measured pH values will still be uncertain for this reason, even when exact standards are available. Nevertheless, the larger differences due to lack of agreement on a fundamental defini- tion and on a method of calculation can be avoided by the co-operation of all who determine pH. As a means to this end, the National Bureau of Standards proposes the adoption of a standard scale of pH having reference points based upon certain repro- ducible buffers. In this discussion, the ad- vantages and limitations of the several common pH scales will be considered, and the nature of the problems involved in an evaluation of the hydrogen-ion activity of the standard buffer solutions from electro- motive-force measurements will be indi- cated. S. P. L. Sgrensen first proposed the use of the hydrogen-ion exponent (Potenz) to facilitate the designation of the extremely 1 Received September 2, 1947. small concentrations of hydrogen ion of physiological significance (2). This unit of acidity will be called pcH. Its definition is formulated pcH = —log cy; ppeH=—log mz, (1) where c represents volume concentration (molarity or normality) and m is molality. The hydrogen-ion concentration, it was supposed, could be obtained experimentally by measurement of the electromotive force (emf, E) of a suitable galvanic cell. Sgrensen chose the cell, : 3.5-M | 0.1-M Pt; H2(g), Solution | KCl Res Hg.Cl, (s); Hg, (2) for the practical determination of pcH. The vertical lines represent liquid junctions. Ion transfer across these boundaries gives rise to an unknown liquid-junction potential, E;, which was partially eliminated by the ex- trapolation procedure suggested by Bjer- rum (3). With the aid of standard solutions com- posed of hydrochloric acid with and without sodium or potassium chloride, Sgrensen determined H°, the ‘“‘standard potential”’ or ‘normal potential’’ of cell (2). The hydro- gen-ion concentration of these standard solutions was taken to be the product of the concentration of hydrochloric acid and the classical degree of dissociation derived from measurements of electrolytic conductance. By definition, E° is the potential of cell (2) when the hydrogen-ion concentration of the solution is 1 normal. Sgrensen’s value of H° 0.5050 at 182 C (2 4.5, 6)« At. 25° C, the standard potential is 0.3376 (6). It was in- tended that the pH at 25° C of ‘‘unknown”’ solutions should be computed by the simple equation, _ E-0.3376 ae 3 8 0.0591 8) where F is corrected insofar as possible for the undesired potential at the liquid junc- tion between the solution and 3.5-/V/ potas- 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sium chloride. This experimental pH value defined by Sgrensen’s value of #° is not, as he intended, pcH. It is designated psH in equation (3). The constant 0.0591 in the denominator is the value of 2.303 RT'/F at 25° C, where R, 7’, and F represent the gas constant, absolute temperature, and fara- day, respectively. In the light of modern concepts, it is clear that the laws of ideal solutions can not justifiably be employed in this way. Nor will the classical degree of dissociation yield, as Sgrensen assumed, the hydrogen- ion concentration of mixtures of strong electrolytes. Activity now replaces concen- tration in the equations for the emf. Indeed, at a temperature of 25° C, E—E’'—E; (4) a2 So Seon where a represents activity. The standard potential, H”, is referred to unit activity instead of normality and includes the constant chloride-ion activity in the vicin- ity of the calomel electrode. The activity, a, is the product of concentration, c or m, and an activity coefficient, f. If H; could be evaluated, the exact hydrogen-ion activity would be forthcoming. Unfortunately, the eile oe no) Q PH NUMBER no) wn fais Tee MnaAdc Fic. 1.—pH of acetate buffer solutions at 25°C on four different seales as a function of concen- tration. VOL. 38, NO. 2 liquid-junction potential can not be caleu- lated without a knowledge not only of fx and other activity coefficients but also of the compositions of the multitude of transi- tion layers of which the boundary is com- posed. For this reason, the activity of a single ionic species is without physical reality (7). The new concept of the thermodynamics of cell (2) led to the definition of paH by S¢grensen and Linderstrgm-Lang (4): paH = —log ax. (5) Although paH can not be determined by thermodynamic methods, its character can be simply and unequivocally defined in terms of measurable mean activity coeffi- cients. The paH scale has likewise been defined in terms of the thermodynamic ionization constants of weak acids in dilute buffer solutions (8, 9, 10, 11). The pH values, on these three scales, of buffer solutions composed of equal molar- ities of acetic acid and sodium acetate are compared in Fig. 1. At infinite dilution, paH and pcH are equal, for the activity coefficient becomes unity by definition in that limit. However, the Sgrensen value, psH, remains lower by about 0.04 unit than paH at all concentrations. The pwH, defined as —log (agfci), changes but little with dilu- ‘tion. This unit will receive further mention. When it is desired to convert psH to paH, the following relationship will serve with an uncertainty probably less than 0.02 unit: paH = psH+ 0.04. (6) The Sgrensen scale, or psH, is probably the scale most widely used today. The pH values given in the well-known monograph of Clark (6) correspond to this scale. Yet psH is neither —log ay nor—log cg. It usually lies, in fact, between these. When a pH meter is standardized on this scale, all measured values must be corrected to yield a quantity that can be employed in equilib- rium computations, if they are to have quantitative significance. The hydrogen- ion concentration possesses the physical reality that the activity lacks. A knowledge of the hydrogen-ion concentration would be useful, but this quantity can not readily be determined by an emf measurement with Fup. 15, 1948 the pH meter. For this reason, the activity scale has been chosen as the most practical for general use. We shall now consider the assignment of paH values to the buffer solutions that will serve as fixed reference points on this scale. Cells without liquid junction are not only somewhat more advantageous from a theo- retical standpoint than are cells with liquid junction, but they are also more reproduci- ble and can readily be measured at different temperatures. They are, however, usually impractical for routine measurements. Efforts have been made at the National Bureau of Standards to use emf measure- ments of cells without liquid junction to establish standards of hydrogen-ion activity with which to calibrate the pH meter. Each emf measurement of the hydrogen-silver chloride cell, Pt; H.(g, 1 atm), Buffer solution, Cl-(m), AgCl(s); Ag, yields a value of —log (fufcimn), if the standard potential, #°, and the molality, ‘m, of chloride ion in the solution are known, by the following equation: (E—E)F 2.303RT If the buffer solution is composed of a weak acid, HA, and its salt, where HA is either a —log (fafcimn) = +log mc. (8) BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE DH SCALE 63 monobasic acid or an acid anion, and pK for the dissociation equilibrium is known, f, is also obtained unequivocally: log f. Digg tlon A MHA = pK —log a +log (fufcimn). (9) A The quantity —log (fafcymu) will be termed pwH. Inasmuch as pwH is thermo- dynamically exact, its use as a unit of acid- ity has been suggested (12, 13). The pwH of a buffer solution composed of a weak mono- basic acid, such as acetic acid, and its salt, however, changes but slightly with rela- tively large variations in hydrogen-ion con- centration, as shown in Fig. 1. For this reason, —log (fafcimx) is often not a useful unit of acidity in spite of the fact that it retains its significance at all ionic strengths. The paH is derived from pwH by adding the logarithm of an ionic activity coefficient: paH = pwH+log fei MHA = pK —log —log f,+log fei. (10) Ma Thermodynamics can offer no help in estimating the activity coefficient of chloride ion in equation (10). For this reason it 1s usually necessary to resort to theoretical equations or to assumed relationships TABLE 1—paH or BUFFER SOLUTIONS WITHOUT CHLORIDE AT 25° C. COMPUTED FROM THE EMF orf CELLt (7) Molality Toke mii for— paH, cells Buffer system* of each pH p3H ps psH with liquid strength 5 5 component +—4 a; =6 junction Acetic acid + f 0.01 0.01 4.714 4.717 4.716 — — — 4.700; 4.714 sodium acetate.......... \ 0.1 0.1 4.648 4.663 4.663 = — — 4.640; 4.645 Acid potassium phthalate.} 0.05 0.053 4.002 4.011 4.010 — — 4.005 4.000; 4.010 : : 0.01 0.04 5.169 Sailr if 5.174 5.170 5.164 5.168 Acid pot — 0.02 0.08 5.098 | 5.111 | 5.109 | 5.100 | 5.089 | 5.096 phthalate +dipotassium _ 0.05 0.2 4.991 5.013 5.019 4.996 4.969 4.987 le Oe t! 0.4 4.907 4.940 4.960 4.919 4.867 4.902 ( 0.005 0.02 GeO, 7.022 7.020 7.018 7.019 7.018 7.026 Potassium dihydrogen 0.01 0.04 6.956 6.964 6.961 6.958 6.961 6.959 6.963 phosphate+disodium — 0.025 0.1 6.856 6.871 6.873 6.858 6.865 6.860 6.858 hydrogen phosphate..... 0.05 0.2 6.767 6.789 6.796 6.767 6.783 6.772 0.1 0.4 6.663 6.696 6.716 6.660 6.693 6.671 ] Se 0.01 0.02 9.177 9.182 9.180 — — — 9.178 0.025 0.05 9.172 9.181 9.179 — a --- 9.167 * When two components are present, their concentrations are equal. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES among the ionic activity coefficients in com- binations that can be experimentally deter- mined, such as mean activity coefficients or f, of equation (9). These methods give equivalent results in very dilute solutions. Some of these assumptions will now be con- sidered. The equations of Debye and Hiickel (74, 15) represent observed values of the mean activity coefficients of strong electrolytes with considerable success. Thus the Hiickel formula, Azer/p 1+ Bai/p might be employed to evaluate the activity coefficient of an ion 2 of valence z;. In this equation, A and B are constants at a par- ticular temperature for the water medium, whereas a; and 8; are parameters character- istic of the mixture of ions. At ionic strengths, u, below 0.1, the linear term can _ often be compensated by a small change in a; and the logarithm of the activity coeffi- cient expressed satisfactorily by the first term on the right alone. The magnitude of a; 1s of the same order as the ionic diameter in angstroms. Although the numerical value of this parameter lies between 3.5 and 6.5 for many strong electrolytes, there is no known basis for selecting the correct value of a; for a single ionic species. Inasmuch as cell (7) is reversible to hy- drogen and chloride ions, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the activity coefhicient of chloride ion is about equal to the mean activity coefficient of hydrochloric acid in the buffer solution or in a mixture of strong electrolytes of the same _ ionic strength and composition with respect to cations. Unfortunately, these mean activity coefficients are often unknown. The mean activity coefficient of hydrochloric acid in its pure aqueous solution is well established, however, over a wide range of concen- trations (16, 17, 18). A practical scale of paH can be defined by assuming the equal- ity of fc, in the buffer mixture and fgo) in a solution of hydrochloric acid of the same ionic strength. Another possible approach is the sepa- ration of the measured f, into fo:and fra/fa. —log fi= = Bip; (11) Practical considerations limit this compu- tation to buffer systems in which HA is an anion, that is, to systems where A bears a charge different from Cl. The partition of f, might reasonably be based upon valence relationships valid in very dilute solutions, namely, fa=fa—=fa—-—'? =f, where A~, A~~, and A~—~ represent anions with 1, 2, and 3 negative charges. Two other separation formulas are most readily described in terms of the parameters of equation (11). When the acid, HA, is a singly charged anion, it has been found that ,’, the limit of f, in chloride-free solutions, can be expressed by AvV/u 14+ Bay One method of obtaining fc; assumes that a° and 6° can be identified with a; and £; for the computation of foi by equation (11). The other method identifies a° with a; of equation (11) and drops the linear or “‘salt- effect’? term in computing fo; in a buffer solution that contains no chloride. These five assumptions lead to five differ- ent paH scales (19). When —log fc) is com- puted by the first term on the right of equa- tion (11) with a value of a; not derived from experimental data, the scale will be called mili. The poH is that unit obtained by set- ting fc; equal to fac; in a solution of the same ionic strength as the buffer solution. Partition of f, according to the relationships assumed in equation (12) yields p3H. Iden- tification of a° and 6° with a; and B; leads to the unit designated psH, whereas omission of the salt-effect term gives p;sH. The paH of buffer solutions without added chloride is thus expressed in terms of experimentally defined quantities by the following equations: (12) log fiP= + Bp. (13) pill =(pwH)*—Av/u/(1+Ban/u). (14) poH = (pwH )?+log faci. (15) p3H = (pwH)°— 1/2 log f,°. (16) psH = (pwH)°—1/2 log f,°+3/2 6%. (17) psH = (pwH)°— 1/2 log f,9+1/2 Bm. (18) The relationship among these last three VOL. 38, NO. 2 3 Fes. 15, 1948 paH scales is evidently given by pal =p;H + 6u=p3H+3/2 Bu. (19) In each of these equations the superscript zero indicates that the effect of chloride has been removed by extrapolation to a pure buffer solution without chloride. The paH at 25° C of several buffer solu- tions on these five scales is listed in Table 1 and compared, where possible, with the paH derived from measurements of cells with liquid junction reported by Hitchcock and Taylor (9) and by MacInnes, Belcher, and Shedlovsky (11). Inasmuch as the choice of a; in equation (14) is partially arbitrary, two piH values, calculated with 4 and 6 for a;, are given. When the ionic strength is 0.01, these differ by only 0.003 unit. The pwH of the acetate, phthalate, phosphate, and borax solutions was derived from pub- lished emf data (19, 20, 21, 22). It must be emphasized that thermody- - namics offers as much, or as little, support for the choice of one paH scale as another. One cannot state categorically that a partic- ular method of computation is wrong and another right. The assumptions can only be compared with respect to their reasonable- ness. Chloride ion evidently plays a unique role in these pH equations. None of these formulas can qualify as adequate unless it furnishes the same paH for a given buffer solution in the absence of sodium bromide or sodium iodide, for example, as it gives in the limit of zero concentration of sodium chloride. Electromotive-force measurements of hydrogen-silver halide cells containing phosphate buffer solutions with added sodium chloride, sodium bromide, and so- dium iodide (23) offer an interesting, though not exhaustive, test of the adequacy of these five methods of computation (19). Both pwH and log f, were obtained for varying ratios of halide to phosphate. The limiting values in the phosphate buffer so- lutions without halide were found by extra- polation. By fitting f,° to equation (13), a° and 8° were determined as well. The paH of equimolal phosphate buffer solutions on the poeH, p3H, psH, and p;H scales was computed by equations (15), (16), (17), and (18). The values on the last four scales are shown in Fig. 2 as a function BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE DH SCALE 65 of ionic strength. The lines representing these scales are labeled 2, 3, 4, and 5. The results derived from bromide cells are marked with a single prime and those from iodide cells with a double prime. Lines un- marked save for the identifying figure repre- sent data from the chloride cells. The dots (curve 5) are the values of the NBS scale. The upper and lower dashed lines locate the pili curve when a; is arbitrarily assigned the extreme values of 8 and 3 for the computa- tion. The molality of each phosphate salt is one quarter of the ionic strength. The three sets of p2H values computed by equations of the form of equation (15) from —log (fufxmu), where X represents halide, and the activity coefficient of the correspond- ing halogen acids agree well among them- selves but are from 0.01 to 0.03 unit higher than curve 5 at ionic strengths between 0.1 and 0.2. It is noteworthy, however, that all methods of calculation give essentially the same paH at low ionic strengths. The course of the true —log aq curve can never be ascer- tained. Nevertheless, at ionic strengths of 0 0.04 0.08 O12 IONIC. STRENGTH Fic. 2.—p.H, p3H, psH, and p;H of phosphate buffer solutions as a function of ionic strength. Curves representing the four scales are labeled 2, 3, 4, and 5. The values were derived from the emf of cells with silver-silver chloride electrodes (unprimed), silver-silver bromide electrodes (sin- gle prime), and silver-silver iodide electrodes (double prime). The dashed lines indicate the course of the curve of piH for a; values of 8 (upper line) and 3 (lower line). The dots (curve 5) are the NBS values. 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 0.01 or below, where all of these reasonable assumptions give practically identical re- sults, the paH can be said to possess some measure of thermodynamic significance. It is evident that the paH is markedly affected at high or even moderate ionic strengths by the assumption used in its evaluation. For this reason, primary stand- ards of hydrogen-ion activity should be solutions of low salt concentration. Al- though the true activity is unknown at the higher ionic strengths, the NBS pH stand- ards are consistent with one another over the pH range 4 to 9.2 at all concentrations to which the pH has been assigned. The NBS scale is a true scale of activity at low concentrations. At the higher ionic strengths it is best regarded as a self-consistent scale which, though based upon activity, per- force embraces an assumption not subject to experimental proof. This scale of pH ap- pears to be the most convenient and useful to adopt as standard. LITERATURE CITED (1) Smiru, E. R., and Batzs, R. G. Comptes rendus de la reprise de contact du bureau, du consetl, et des commissions, a issue de la seconde guerre mondiale, p. 63. International Union of Chemistry, London, July 1946. (2) SéRENSEN, 8. P. L. Compt. Rend. Lab. Carlsberg 8: 1. 1909. (3) BspRruM, N. Zeitschr. Physik. Chem. 53: 428. 1905. (4) SdrensEN, 8. P. L. Ergeb. Physiol. 12: 393. 1912. (5) Sdrensen, S. P. L., and LinpERSTR¢M- VOL. 38, NO. 2 Lane, K. Compt. Rend. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg 15, No. 6. 1924. (6) CLARK, M. The determination of hydrogen ions, ed. 3. Baltimore, 1928. (7) Taytor, P. B. Journ. Phys. Chem. 31: 1478. 1927. (8) Coun, E. J., Heyrorn, F. F., and Mren- Kin, M. F. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 50: 696. 1928. (9) Hircucockx, D. I., and Tayrtor, A. C. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe. 59: 1812. 1937; 60: 2710. 1938. Kauxo, Y., and Arroua, A. Zeitschr. Physik. Chem. A178: 437. 1937. MacInnss, D. A., BeLcuer, D., and SHEDLOVSKY, T. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 60: 1094. 1938. GuGcGENHEIM, E. A. Journ. Phys. Chem. 34: 1758. 1930. Hitcucock, D. I. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 58: 855. 1936; 59: 2753. 1937. Desyre, P., and Hticxent, E. Physik. Zeitschr. 24: 185. 1923. Htcxet, E. Physik. Zeitschr. 26: 93. 1925. Harnep, H. 8., and Enters, R. W. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 55: 2179. 1933. SHEDLOVSKY, T., and MacInnss, D. A. Journ. Amér. Chem. Soc. 58: 1970. > 1936. AKERLOF, G., and TEAaRE, J. W. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 59: 1855. 1937. Batrs, R. G. Chem. Rev., in press. Hamer, W. J., and Acres, S. F. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 32: 215. 1944; 35: 381. 1945. Batss, R. G., and Acres, 8. F. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 34: 373. 1945. Manov, G. G., DeLouus, N. J., Linp- VALL, P. W., and Acrrz, S. F. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 36: 543. 1946. Bates, R. G. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 39: 411. 1947. (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) ANTHROPOLOGY.—The true form of the cranial deformity originally described under the name “‘téte trilobée.”! T. D. Stewart, U. S. National Museum. Among the earliest accounts of deformed skulls from America is one by Louis-André Gosse, a Swiss physician-anthropologist, published in 1855. Included in this essay, which is concerned primarily with the classi- fication of deformity types, is the first de- scription of a skull from Isla de los Sacri- ficios, a tiny island 5.5 km southeast of the port of Veracruz, Mexico. Gosse’s descrip- tion of this skull is of historical importance 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 9, 1947. because the artificial distortion which it exhibited which he characterized as “téte trilobée”’ has influenced all subsequent gen- eralizations regarding the distribution of de- formity types in Middle America. Thus in Dingwall’s book on cranial deformity (1931, p. 154) it is stated that— The skulls from Isla de los Sacrificios, near Veracruz, where the Spaniards first saw the gory remains of human sacrifice are unusually dis- torted, and Salas [1921, quoting Gosse] describes them as trilobed on account of the depressions doubtless left by the constricting bandages. This again suggests that at least two important forms Gosse (1855, Paris ed., p. 40) states that Prof. Serres gave him permission to examine the speci- mens in the anthropological museum. STEWART: THE TRUE FORM OF THE “TETE TRILOBEE”’ 69 French naval officer by that name living at that time, whereas Gosse gives this officer’s name as ‘‘Reymond,” for which there is no corresponding biographical record, it seems likely that Gosse misspelled the name. Such misspelling is understandable because in longhand a’s may look like 0o’s, u’s like n’s, and m’s like n’s. What is still not explained is the later confusion as to the provenience of this col- lection. It seems to have been well estab- lished in 1855 that Reynaud obtained it from Sacrificios. And yet in 1891 Hamy reports the old label as reading “‘cranes de Sabine, gulfe du Mexique.”’ In view of the improbability that a French naval officer would have an opportunity just prior to 1855 to carry out archeological excavations in the region of Sabine Lake (Texas- Louisiana) and in view of the subsequent failure to recover other skulls thus deformed from either Texas or Louisiana, I believe that Hamy was wrong in attributing the Reynaud collection to the Sabine. There- fore, I regard these skulls not only as ex- hibiting a type of deformity characteristic of Sacrificios, as Hamy admits, but as actually coming from that place. Fic. 2.—Two views of deformed skull no. 5 from the Reynaud collection believed by Hamy to have come from Sabine Lake on the Texas-Louisiana boundary. Redrawn and reoriented from Hamy’s illustrations of 1884-91 (pl. 10, figs. 1 and 5). 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEFINITION OF TYPE Taking into account this decision, let us now summarize what is known about the skulls from Sacrificios. All these, except for the new finds of du Solier, seem to be in Paris and to total at least 15. The early collectors, who visited the island around the years 1838-1841, were Dumanoir, Fuzier, and Reynaud. The only firsthand descrip- tions of the deformity are by Gosse (1855) and Hamy (1884-1891). These descriptions seem to be based upon extreme cases, for both Gosse and Hamy admit that the arti- VOL. 38, NO. 2 ficial characteristics are less pronounced in the majority of cases than they have de- scribed them. Thus there is good reason to believe that the skull shown in Fig. 2, which was illustrated originally only be- cause it was believed to come from Sabine rather than from Sacrificios, is more typi- cally deformed. So far as I can discover from the descriptions, only one skull has the curious projection of the upper part of the frontal bone illustrated by Gosse (Fig. 1). This one specimen seems to have fur- nished the excuse for the name “téte tri- Fic. 3.—Two views of a deformed skull collected by du Solier in 1943 on Isla de los Sacrificios, Mexico. (Photographs supplied by the Museo Nacional of Mexico.) Fes. 15, 1948 lobée”’ under which this deformity is gen- erally known. If we ignore this extreme case, the de- formity can be recognized by the following characteristics: (1) When the skull is held in the Frankfort position the vertex or highest point is at or near bregma; (2) looked at from above, the skull is very broad, sometimes broader than long; (3) the posterior parietals are pressed down- ward and forward, sometimes with ac- companying compression of the frontal and/or occiput (the latter tending to as- sume a vertical plane); and (4) there may be more or less of a depression along the sagittal suture and behind the coronal su- ture. A skull deformed in this manner sug- gests that it has had its growth restricted along the midline of the vault and conse- quently that expansion took place laterally, Also, when compression is high upon the parietals the skull appears to have a low vault. The skulls recovered by du Solier are not markedly distorted. Indeed, the lateral view of the skull shown in Fig. 3 looks un-. deformed. This is due to the fact that the flattening of the posterior parietals in this case 1s asymmetrical (see vertical view) and the least involved side has been presented to the camera. As a matter of fact, this skull illustrates, if not ideally, the really significant element of the Sacrificios de- _ formity type; namely, the inclined compres- sion plane involving the posterior parietals and the upper part of the occipital. In ac- cordance with current custom I am calling this element of the deformity “lambdoid” flattening, although it might with more ac- curacy be called ‘‘obelionic’”’ (Stewart, 1939). As I have shown elsewhere (Stewart, 1947; in press), lambdoid flattening, with or without frontal and/or occipital compres- sion, made its appearance in late prehis- toric times throughout a large part of Mexi- co. Having seen numerous skulls with lamb- doid deformity from other late sites in this region, I have no doubt that this is the true and significant form of the Sacrificios de- formity type. The so-called lobation (double or triple) which is present in extreme cases of the de- _ formity and which Gosse stressed, appears STEWART: THE TRUE FORM OF THE “TETE TRILOBER”’ 71 to be a secondary feature. Owing perhaps to the pattern of cranial growth under arti- ficial restraint there is present sometimes a postcoronal depression and a depression along the sagittal suture. The opposite con- dition, an expansion, usually characterizes the midparietal parts in these cases. Thus the effect is that of lobation. Because some lobation can be found in all classes of de- formity and wherever deformity was prac- ticed, I attribute it to altered growth proc- esses rather than to direct pressure from longitudinal and transverse constricting bands. In view of what is here pointed out, gen- eralizations regarding the distribution of deformity types, such as that of Imbelloni, are misleading where they have to rely upon early descriptions of atypical speci- mens and where the chronological sequences have not been worked out. LITERATURE CITED DINGWALL, Eric JoHn. Artificial cranial de- formation; a contribution to the study of ethnic mutilations xvi+313, pp. London, 1931. Du Souter, WILFRIDO. A reconnaissance on Isla de Sacrificios, Veracruz, Mexico. Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology, Carnegie Inst. Washing- ton, Div. Hist. Res., no. 14: 63-80 (mimeo- graphed). 1943. Gossz, L.-A. Essai sur les déformations arti- ficielles dw crane. Ann. Hygiéne Publ. et Méd. Légale, ser. 2, 3: 317-393; 4: 1- 83. (Also published separately in Paris, 159 pp.+7 pls.) 1855. . Présentation d’un crane deformé de Nahoa trouvé dans la vallée de Chovel (Mexique). Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris 2: 567-577. 1861. Hamy, E.-T. Anthropologie du Mexique. Mis- sion scientifique au Mexique et dans l Amér- ique Centrale. Recherches zoologiques pub- liées sous la direction de M. Milne Ed- wards. Pt. 1, 148 pp.+pls. 1-17, 19-21. Paris, 1884-1891. IMBELLONI, J. América; cuartel general de las deformaciones craneanas. Actas XXVe Congr. Internac. Americanistas (La Plata, 1932) 1: 59-68. Buenos Aires, 1934. LAROUSSE, PreRRE. Grand dictionnaire uni- versel du XIX siécle, vol. 3. Paris, 1875. Mayer, Brantz. Mevico as it was and as it is, x1i+390 pp. New York, 1844. Serres, A.-E.-R.-A. Note sur deux Micro- céphales vivants, attribués a une race amér- icaine. Compt. Rend. Hebdomadaires Séances Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 43-47. 1855. 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Stewart, T.D. A new type of artificial cranial deformation from Florida. Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 29: 460-465. 1939. . The cultural significance of lambdoid deformity in Mexico. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 5: 233-234, abst. 10. 1947. ——. Distribution of the type of cranial de- VOL. 38, NO. 2 formity originally described under the name “téte trilobée.”’ El Occidente de México. 4e Reunidn de Mesa Redonda sobre Problemas antropolégicos de México y Centro América, 23 a 28 de septiembre de 1946, Sociedad Mexicana de Antro- pologia. (In press.) BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humboldtiella and Callistylon.} Next to Willardia the two plants most frequently confused with Lonchocarpus in America are Humboldtiella ferruginea (HBK.) Harms and Callistylon arboreum (Grieseb.) Pittier. Belonging as they do to the tribe Galegeae, both of these shrubs or small trees of arid open or sparsely wooded slopes, coasts, and roadside thickets are readily separable when bearing mature fruit from Lonchocarpus and other genera of the Dalbergieae by their dehiscent pods. Their alternate (occasionally subopposite) leaflets likewise distinguish them from Lonchocarpus. But, like many tropical shrubs, they have a tendency to drop both pods and leaves toward the end of the dry season and to burst into flower with the first rains, generally before the new leaf- buds have begun to expand. This leafless flowering stage is particularly attractive to collectors, and the superficial resemblance between their inflorescences and those of some of the Lonchocarpi accounts for the large number of specimens in herbaria re- ferred at least tentatively to the latter genus. In this leafless condition both plants seem to be most readily separable from Lonchocarpus by their persistent, indurated, awl-shaped stipules, by the lack of evident bractlets, and by the conspicuous articula- tion of the pedicels at both base and apex. The calyx, with its deep tube, its compara- tively long teeth, and its subbilabiate form, so pronounced in the bud, might also be considered diagnostic. The combination of the half-dozen or so characters, for the most part of fundamen- tal taxonomic significance, here listed for setting off these two plants from Loncho- carpus is found in both the monotypic genera Humboldtiella and Callistylon. Such 1 Received August 7, 1947. FREDERICK J. HERMANN, U.S. Department of Agriculture. an apparently fortuitous combination of characters occurring simultaneously in sup- posedly separate genera naturally raises the question of their status, and an examination of their history reveals that in each case this has had a varied career. First known of the two was Humbold- tiella, originally described by Kunth in Humboldt and Bonpland’s Nova genera et species plantarum (6: 395. 1823) as Robinia (?) ferruginea. The basis of Kunth’s de- scription was a fragmentary flowering speci- men, lacking leaves and fruit, collected by Humboldt or Bonpland in the Quebrada de Tacagua near Caracas, Venezuela, and deposited in the quondam Berlin Herbar- ium (Field Museum photograph no. 2079). In 1924 Harms (Fedde Repert. Spec. Nov. 19: 12-14) pointed out its departure from Robinia, in its rostrate carina and narrow pod with unmargined lower suture, and from Coursetia, which does possess these characteristics, in its broad, short calyx- teeth and its coalesced vexillar stamen. Because of these discrepancies he proposed for it the new genus Humboldtiella. Pittier, however, maintained (Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 18 (8): 209. 1928) that the only — character that would exclude it from Ro- binia ‘is the absence of a conspicuous margin on the upper suture of the pod, which would certainly not be sufficient to establish a new genus’’—a conclusion diffi- cult to reconcile with the fact that the plant differs from Robinia in possessing monodel- phous stamens, a thick, fleshy calyx with short, relatively blunt teeth, and articulate pedicels, in addition to the rostrate keel noted by Harms. At any rate, Pittier seems to have abandoned his original low opinion of the merits of Humboldizella for — generic recognition, since in his latest work — on the subject (Leguminosas de Venezuela, — Fess. 15, 1948 I—Papilionaceas. Boletin Técnico No. 5, Ministerio Agric. y Cria, Caracas, 1944) we find (p. 152): ‘Como lo habia hecho entrever el Dr. Harms, hace algunos ajios, la planta que acabamos de definir no pertenece real- mente al género Robinia. Difiere principal- mente en la forma del c4liz y de las semillas, en la ausencia de un ala en la sutura su- perior de la legumbre y en otros detalles.” The second plant, the Colombian ‘‘Ra- moncillo,”’ was originally described as Cour- setia arborea by Grisebach (Flora of British West Indies, 183) in 1859. Harms considered it, or at least such material of it as was available to him, to be sufficiently close to Robinia ferruginea to be relegated to its synonymy in his transfer of the latter to Humboldtiella. This fact seems to have been overlooked by Pittier when he expressed surprise at finding Coursetia arborea among the numbers cited by Harms under his Humboldtiella ferruginea (l.c., 208-209). His own comment (‘‘Later, when revising the Papilionatae for the Venezuelan Her- barium, I was surprised to find that, among the numbers cited by Dr. Harms as belong- ing to his Humboldtiella ferruginea, one (no. 5780) apparently corresponds to Gliricidia sepium HBK., another (no. 9078) is unmistakably Coursetia arborea Griseb., and only one (no. 6004) belongs to the real Robinia ferruginea HBK...”’) seems to be a more fitting basis for surprise not only because one would logically expect to find Coursetia arborea (Pittier 9078) cited under Humboldtiella ferruginea when treated as a synonym of that species but also because at least the specimens in the U. S. National Herbarium of the other cited numbers bear out Harms’s rather than Pittier’s determinations, that is, Pittder 8780 shows no resemblance to Gliricidia but is typical Robinia ferruginea, while Pittier 6004 is Coursetia arborea, not Robinia ferruginea. Following his criticism of Harms’s work, Pittier proposes segregating Coursetia arborea as the type of a new genus, Callistylon. In the proposal of Callistylon, its distinctiveness from Cour- setia is carefully elaborated ; but no reference is made to its relationship with Humbold- tiella until the necessity of keying out both genera arose in the Leguminosas de Vene- HERMANN: HUMBOLDTIELLA AND CALLISTYLON 73 zuela. Here we find (l.c., 189-140, 152) car- ried still further a confusion in the char- acters of Humboldtiella and Callistylon, which was already apparent in the original publication of Callistylon. In the proposal of Callistylon the lateral calyx teeth are described as more or less acute and the lowermost tooth as acute, whereas a new description of Robinia ferruginea accom- panying the same paper states that the calyx teeth in that plant are obtuse. Ex- actly the reverse is true, however, as is apparent from Kunth’s original description of Robinia ferruginea (Humboldt & Bon- pland 6: 395) as having the calyx “lobis ...acutis” and from an examination of a photograph of the type specimen. In the generic key to the Venezuelan Papilionatae this inversion is perpetuated as ‘‘Dientes del caliz cortos y todos obtusos...”’ for Humboldtiella, and ‘‘Dientes del cAliz alargados o desiguales, pero siempre el carinal largo y agudo...”’ in the lead for Callistylon and Coursetia together. The lead setting off Callistylon from Coursetia de- scribes the calyx teeth as ‘‘muy desiguales, los 2 superiores obtusos y unidos, los la- terales mAs cortos y agudos, el inferior otra vez mAs largo y agudo,”’ but it is only in the bud stage that the teeth could strictly be called very unequal and the lateral teeth shorter than the upper pair. In flowering and fruiting material of typical Callistylon arboreum the calyx teeth are subequal, the lateral and lower ovate and obtuse to sem- iorbicular rather than deltoid and acute as in typical Humboldtiella ferruginea. The original description of Callistylon calls for a plant with leaflets ‘“‘petiolulatis ... ex- stipellatis,’’ whereas the petiolules are ac- tually stipellate, and describes the style as glabrous as opposed to “‘basi glabro apicem versus utrinque villosulo,’ whereas the villosulous character applies equally well ‘to the styles of both plants. Callistylon is originally described as having ‘‘bracteolae parvae et inconspicuae,”’ but the generic description in Pittier’s later treatment specifies ‘‘bracteas y bracteolas nullas.”’ Diligent search of the 38 sheets of Callisty- lon available to the writer has failed to reveal any trace of bractlets, but the bracts, although caducous, are fully as conspicuous 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES during most of the bud stage as are the equally evanescent bracts of Humboldtiella ferruginea. Callistylon is keyed out from Coursetia in Leguminosas de Venezuela by the additional character of having ‘“‘valvas de la legumbre de dehiscencia plana y no elastica,’’ yet the elastic dehiscence of the pods in the Pittier collections of Callistylon numbered 7833, 10780, and 11447 (the last cited under the original description) could not be more striking. There can scarcely be any question that the peculiarities of the calyx alone in Callistylon are sufficient to set it off generi- cally from Coursetia, just as the calyx morphology in Humboldtiella is adequate basis for removing HA. ferruginea from Robinia. But between Humoboldtiella and Callistylon there appears to be no distin- guishing character of generic rank. The treatment of the two plants by Harms as specifically indistinguishable, and Pittier’s inability to consistently separate the two as evidenced by his citation of his collection 6004 (typical Callistylon arborea) under Robinia ferruginea, would seem to be signif- icant corroboration of this view. It is therefore proposed that the genus Callisty- lon be abandoned, and that Coursetia arborea be transferred as follows: Humboldtiella arborea (Griseb.) Hermann, comb. nov. Coursetia arborea Griseb., Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 183. 1859. Callistylon arboreum (Griseb.) Pittier, Washington Acad. Sci. 18 (8): 212. 1928. The submergence of this species in Hum- boldtiella ferruginea by Harms is not difficult to understand when one considers the prev- alence of collections which are annoyingly intermediate between the two. Of the 53 col- lections of Humboldtiella in the U. S. National Herbarium, 7 can be conscientiously referred to H. ferruginea, 38 may be with varying de- grees of confidence assigned to H. arborea, but 8 are too nicely balanced between the two to justify outright committal in favor of one or the other. On the other hand, the differences between the typical forms of both plants (well illustrated in plates 80 and 81 in Pittier’s Leguminosas de Venezuela) are too fundamental to permit of their being interpreted as mere ecological extremes of a single polymorphic species, nor is there a geographic segregation of Journ. VOL. 38, NO. 2 the two sufficiently marked to warrant their designation as varieties (i.e., “subspecies,” as currently employed with increasing fre- quency). A hypothesis of hybridization be- tween the two species, and that of a contem- poraneous, fertile and vigorous type, would seem to be the most plausible explanation of the frequency of these transitional forms and the comparative impurity of many of the forms identifiable as possessing predominantly the characteristics of one of the extremes. Geo- graphically the specimens of H. arborea at hand represent localities scattered throughout most of northern South America north of latitude 5°, from the Department of Bolivar, Colombia, eastward to Trinidad and the Ka- nuku Mountains in British Guiana; H. fer- ruginea is almost restricted to the Venezuelan North-Central States of Yaracuy, Carabobo, Aragua, Distrito Federal and Miranda, with one outlying station in Sucre; and the inter- mediates are apparently centered in two dis- junct areas, in the Venezuelan North-Central States where the ranges of the putative parents overlap and on Trinidad and the extreme east- ern tip of the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, Vene- zuela. The nearest authenticated specimen of H. ferruginea is from a locality approximately 80 miles west of this second area of extensive hybridization, although Pittier cites two Trinidad specimens that are not available for verification. Harms cites a Brazilian col- lection under his H. ferruginea, as well as re- ports for Panama and Guiana, but his concept, of course, included both species. The following key is an attempt to empha- size the more constant characters by which the two species may be separated. Pronounced departures from these distinctions are indi- cated in the citations of collections below. Calyx slightly if at all gibbous, generally tapering toward base, averaging 6 mm in length, densely ferruginous-strigose, tube 1} to 2} times length of lateral teeth; calyx-teeth typically deltoid, acute, lateral averaging 2 mm long; leaflets generally elliptic-lanceolate- to oblong-lanceolate, broad- est below middle, acute, sparsely strigose above, pilose-strigose beneath.......... H. ferruginea Calyx typically gibbous on vexillar side, generally rounded at base, averaging 5 mm in length, with thinner and paler pubescence, tube 33 to 4 times length of lateral teeth; calyx-teeth typically ovate to semiorbicular, obtuse, lateral averag- ing 1 mm long; leaflets generally oval-elliptic to oblong, broadest at middle, obtuse, typi- cally slabrous):) io G50. see ree H. arborea ae ge _ Fes. 15, 1948 CLARK: SOME INTERESTING STARFISHES AND BRITTLE-STARS dillin and Antioquia, SPECIMENS EXAMINED (Allin U. S. National Herbarium, except Steyer- mark collections in Chicago Natural History Museum) HUMBOLDTIELLA FERRUGINEA VENEZUELA: Ll. Williams 12331, La Entrada, Carabobo (typical); Pittier 7594, between El Eneanton and Los Teques, Aragua (typical); Pittier 9159, between La Victoria and Los Teques, Aragua (calyx-lobes mostly obtuse); Pztizer 5780, La Trinidad de Maracay, Aragua; F. Tamayo 1305, near Guayas, Aragua; Pittter 11956, Los Moriches, Miranda; A. Allart 283, near Las Moriches, Miranda; A. Allart 283, near Las Mos- tazas, Miranda (calyx pale); Steyermark 62403, between Cumanacoa and Cocollar, Sucre (calyx- tube nearly 4 times the length of lateral teeth). HUMBOLDTIELLA ARBOREA Cotomstia: R. D. Metcalf 30017, between Me- Antioquia; Dugand & Jaramillo 2849, between Cartegena and Turbaco, Bolivar; H. M. Curran s. n., Apr.—May 1916, Island of Mompos, Bolivar; Bro. Elias 1192, Puerto Colombia, Atlantico; Dugand 1181 & 323, Barranquilla, Atlantico; Dugand & Jaramillo 4042, between Juanmina and Cuatrobocas, Atlan- tico; Dugand 3640, Juanmina, Atlantico; H. H. Smith 935, Santa Marta, Magdalena (calyx-lobes acutish). VENEZUELA: Pittier 10780, near Valera, Tru- jillo; Pattier 13125, Escuque, Trujillo; F. Tamayo 1694, Valera, Trujillo; Saer 230, La Ruesga, Lara; Saer 247, Barquisimeto, Lara (indument ferrugineous); A. Jahn 1197, Humocaro, Lara; Pittier 7665, between Valencia and Puerto Ca- bello, Carabobo (typical); Pzttier 9078, between Puerto Cabello and San Filipe, Carabobo (calyx- lobes unusually acute); Pitiier 9413, same, in fruit (calyx-lobes blunt); Pittter 7631, near Va- lencia, Carabobo; Pittier 10310, between Caracas and La Guaira, Dist. Federal; Killip & Tamayo 37053, Santa Lucia, Miranda; Pittier 6004, 79 Siquire Valley, Miranda (typical); Pztiter 7833, Guatire, Miranda; Pvttter 11447, El Sombrero, Guarico; Archer 3025, between El Sombrero and La Democracia, Gudrico (typical); Ll. Williams 12566, El Cristo, Bolivar (calyx acute at base); Steyermark 61488, Bergantin, Anzoategui; Brown, Gillin & Bond 21, Paria Peninsula, Sucre; Broad- way 796, Cristébal Colén, Sucre; Broadway 809, same (typical). TRINIDAD: Brition 478, Teteran Bay; Britton 485, same (leaflets broadest below middle); Brit- ton, Hazen, & Mendelson 523, Patos Island; Britton, Freeman, & Watis 2704, Chacachacare; A. Fendler in 1877-1880, without definite locality; Britton & Broadway 466, Lady Chancellor Road. BritisH Guiana: A. C. Smith 3092, Kanuku Mountains. HUMBOLDTIELLA ARBOREA X H. FERRUGINEA VENEZUELA: Pittier 12601, San Pedro, Yaracuy (calyx nearest H. arborea; leaflets nearest H. ferruginea); Pittter 8196, between Puerto Cabello and San Esteban, Carabobo (calyx proportions of H. arborea, but lateral teeth rounded-deltoid; indument dense, dark); Ll. Williams 10400, Carmen, Aragua (calyx gibbous but tapering at base, densely hairy, the tube only twice the length of the acute lateral lobes; leaflets of H. arborea); Broadway 266, Cristébal Colén, Sucre (calyx pro- portions of H. arborea but teeth nearly deltoid, varying to broadly obtuse; leaflet shape and size of H. ferruginea, but glabrous); Broadway 813, same (calyx proportions of H. ferruginea and lat- eral lobes acute, but vesture pale; leaflets blunt, not broadest below middle). TRINIDAD: Broadway s. n., March 7, 1930 (lat- eral calyx-teeth deltoid but the tube 4 times their length; indument pale); Broadway 3619, without definite locality (calyx proportions intermediate, the tube 3 times the length of the lateral teeth; leaflets blunt, but broadest below middle); N. L. & E. G. Britton 2201 coastal thicket (calyx teeth deltoid but tube 33 times as long). ZOOLOGY .—Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis an the mid-Atlantic. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion has recently submitted to me for ex- amination, through Dr. Louis W. Hutchins, a small but interesting collection of star- fishes and brittle-stars dredged by the At- lanizs in the mid-Atlantic. The expedition on which these were found, Cruise No. 150 of the Ailantis, was sponsored by the Na- tional Geographic Society, Columbia Uni- ? Contribution from the Woods Hole Oceano- graphic Institution No. 410. Published with the ermission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian nstitution. Received November 5, 1947. im fi AusTIN H. Ciark, U. 8. National Museum. versity, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. I am much indebted to the Institution and to Dr. Hutchins for the privilege of studying this collection. The species represented in the collection are the following: Hyphalaster parfaiti E. Perrier Locality —Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’ W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Seven specimens. Notes—The details of the seven specimens are as follows: 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2 Cribriform United The arms beyond the swollen basal portion Specimen R r organ marginals ; ‘ ‘ - are in cross section triangular with the apex 1 34 mm 14 mm. 7 10 rounded, about as high as broad, becoming : es if d i higher than broad toward the arm tips. 4 30 7m 7 8 The adambulacral plates have a strongly 5 27 11 7 8 curved crest which is set at an angle of about : - : . ; 60° with the axis of the arm, the distal end of Pythonaster atlantidis n. sp. Description.—R =165 mm, r=28 mm. The height at the center of the abactinal system is 26 mm. The rays are 31 mm wide at the base, tapering rapidly to 10 mm at 30 mm from the base, from this point tapering gradually to 3 mm at the tip. A shallow interradial sulcus runs from the middle of each interradius to the center of the disk. The animal may be de- scribed as broadly stellate, with each point of the star produced into a long and slender arm. There is no abactinal skeleton, but the skin is filled with minute rounded plates, which are almost contiguous on the disk and arm bases but become scattered on the outer part of the arms. Among these are the much larger and denser circular lenticular plates, which carry the groups of spines. On the midline of each ray, running from the center of the disk to the end of the swollen portion of the arm bases, is a band 10-15 mm wide consisting of groups of from 2 or 3 to about 10, commonly 5 or 6, very slender and delicate spines 2-3 mm long arising from a common base on a deeply embedded lenticular plate, the whole enclosed in a bag of thick skin by which the spines are entirely concealed. In a patch about 15 mm long on the inner part of the disk these spine-containing sacculi are in- termixed with papulae. On the disk this band of sacculi is bordered on each side by a patch of bare skin through which the large eggs, 2 mm in diameter, are visible. These bare patches may bear two or three sacculi including 4-7 spines. The apical region is closed by 5 large radially placed triangular flaps consisting of numerous delicate spines enclosed in a web of thick skin. The madreporite is situated at the inner end of an interradial sulcus at the outer end of the line between two of these valves or flaps. Just beyond the central valves and bor- dering the interradial sulcus for about half its length are a few cup-shaped structures consist- ing of about a dozen slender spines radiating upward from a common base and enclosed in thick skin. each crest being considerably farther inward than the proximal end of the crest following. These crests carry a row of 8-10 slender spines which are closely placed with their swollen bases contiguous and are united by a web; the innermost spines are about 1 mm long, those following gradually increasing in length to the outermost, which is 3 mm long. The outer part of each adambulacral plate bears a single much stouter spine 4 mm long, these stouter spines supporting a broad fin-like web which runs along the actinolateral border of the arm resembling the actinal web of many Pterasteridae. Beyond the proximal swollen portion of the arms the adambulacral spines be- come reduced in number, being usually 5. Running upward from each adambulacral plate to the dorsolateral border is a band about 1.5 mm broad composed of numerous fine spines arising in small groups, sometimes singly, from a row of independent concretions, the whole band being enclosed in a continuous envelope of thick skin. Beyond the swollen proximal portion of the ray the bands of the two sides meet in the middorsal line. Distally these bands become narrower, the concretions bearing only 1-3 spinelets. The pair of mouth plates is 9 mm broad at the mouth edge, 2 mm broad on the outer bor- der, and 7 mm long. The line of union of the two plates is raised into a rounded erest. The inner border at the mouth edge is everted and curved, and the outer borders are somewhat concave. The everted inner border of each mouth plate bears 4 large spines, beyond which are 5 much smaller spines. There are no spines on the actinal surface. The mouth plates recall those of some of the Pterasteridae, as for instance Hymenaster perissonotus. The mouth is circular, 23 mm in diameter. The very large stomach is empty. The tube feet, in two series, are large and stout and end in a large sucking disk. On the arms beyond the swollen basal por- tion the ambulacral plates are long and slender. The sides of the lower half diverge gradually so that the end adjoining the adambulacrals is Fes. 15, 1948 CLARK: SOME INTERESTING STARFISHES AND BRITTLE-STARS 77 - about 2 mm broad, the central portion of the plate being only 0.5 mm wide. The upper third of the ambulacrals is abruptly broadened in the form of a broad Y with very thick arms. When viewed from the exterior the distal arm of the Y is entirely concealed by the proximal arm of the Y of the ambulacral following, which imbricates over it. This causes the ambulacrals when viewed from the exterior, to appear ab- ruptly bent proximally, but when viewed from the interior they are seen to be straight with both arms of the Y about equal. The adambulacrals as viewed from the ac- tinal edge are seen to be narrowly rhombic, about 3 mm long and 0.75 mm wide. The inner side of the lower angle of the rhombic figure is abruptly swollen, appearing as if a rather thick flat pad had been soldered to it. The distal edge of this pad is evenly curved and bears the spines that form the adambulacral comb. The stout adambulacral spine is situated at about the middle, and widest part, of the adambulacral plate at some distance from the comb-bearing pad and entirely out of line with it. The adam- bulacral plates are strongly imbricated so that the large spine is in line with the spines of the comb of the plate following, to which it appears to belong unless the arm is cleaned, when its true relationship becomes apparent. Just above each adambulacral and parallel to its long axis, lying practically on its surface, there is a long, slender and delicate plate 4 or 5 times as long as broad, and a little over half as long as the adambulacral; in some cases _ there are two of these lying closely side by side. These plates appear to be vestigial marginals. In a line from these vestigial marginals to the midradial line, as viewed from the inner surface of the skin, there is a regular row of elongate sharply carinate plates 2 or 3 times as long as broad closely placed with their long axes parallel. Between these regular columns of elongate plates (from the center of which on the outer side spines arise) there are very numerous and closely packed minute concre- tions. Distally the plates in these columns become smaller, fewer, and more widely spaced, and the concretions become more widely scattered. Locality Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’ W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. One speci- men (type, U.S.N.M. No. E. 7175). Notes—The genus Pythonaster, the sole genus in the family Pythonasteridae, includes only the type species Pythonaster murrayti Sladen described from a single specimen dredged by the Challenger at station 323 east of Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1,900 fathoms, on February 28, 1876. The type specimen of P. murrayz is slightly smaller than the type specimen of P. atlan- tidis, and the bases of the rays are much less swollen; but this difference may be due to the occurrence of large masses of eggs in the type of B. atlantidis. According to Sladen’s description and figure the actinolateral areas of P. murray? are tra- versed by regular rows of isolated skin sacks, whereas in P. atlantidis these skin sacks are coalesced into continuous lines. The skin sacks on the abactinal surface of P. murray are much smaller and more widely separated than those of P. atlantidis in which they are almost or quite in contact. In P. murray: the adambulacral combs are composed of about 6 spines the number be- coming reduced to 5 distally. In P. atlantidis there are 8-10 proximally, 5 distally. In P. mur- rayi the outermost and largest spine on the adambulacrals is counted as one of the comb, being united to the next by a web. In P. at- lantidis the outermost spine on the adambulac- rals is abruptly larger than the others and rela- tively much larger than in P. murray and is joined to the outermost spines on each side by a web, all the spines together and the web forming a continuous broad actinolateral web or fin which appears to be absent in P. mur- ray. The mouth plates of P. murrayi as figured are not of the same shape as those of P. at- lantidis. They bear 3 or 4 large inner mouth spines and 3 small outer ones instead of 4 large and 5 small as in P. atlantidis. Furthermore, there are in P. murrayi spines on the actinal surface of the mouth plates which are not pres- ent in P. atlantidis; however, in the latter these may have been rubbed off during capture. With only a single specimen of each species it is impossible to form any idea of the limits of variation. It is possible, though not probable, that P. atlantidis is a more fully developed ex- ample of the species represented by P. mur- rayt. It is also possible, though not probable, that P. atlantidis is a female of the species of which the type of P. murray is the male; but Sladen did not give the sex of his specimen. 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Asteroschema inornatum Koehler Locality.—Altlantis station 6; mid-Atlantic east of Bermuda (lat. 30° 06’ N., long. 42° 08’ W.), 1,554 meters; August 8, 1947. One speci- men. Notes.——As the original description of this species was brief and lacking in detail the fol- lowing supplementary information derived from the present specimen may be of interest: The disk is 6 mm in diameter, stellate with truncated angles and regularly incurved inter- radial borders; the outer ends of the radial shields are raised about 0.75 mm above the arm bases. The arms are about 60 mm long, slender, 1.3 mm broad at the base and tapering gradually to a delicate tip; they are only slightly higher than broad. The disk is covered rather thickly with mi- nute granules of coarse and spongy structure. The radial shields are rather broad, widest in the middle, the outer border having a broadly obtuse median angle, and those of each pair are almost in contact. They extend inward for about two-thirds distance to center of disk. The first two tentacle pores have no scales. The next five have a single tentacle scale. Those following have two scales of which the large inner scale is about a segment and a half in length. At the arm tip the outer scale is only slightly longer than the inner, but neither as- sumes a hooklike shape. The larger inner scale is cylindrical in the basal third or fourth, from that point being less dense and tapering to the tip. The distal three-fourths bears on the outer side numerous long and slender sharp spine- lets, longest near the tip, which through the dried skin appear as small conical points. There are similar but smaller spinelets on the inner side. The small outer scale is similarly armed. There are 5 stout triangular teeth. On the sides of the jaw plates within the mouth there are about 8 rather large and well separated granules; these are irregularly scat- tered, the group as a whole running upward and outward, the outermost being a pair, one on each side of the uppermost tooth. The skin of the arms contains large delicate filmy plates that appear to form an almost continuous pavement. The color in alcohol is pale dull pinkish, be- coming dark purple on the outer half or more of the tentacle scales. This species was described by Prof. René Koehler (1907) on the basis of two specimens — dredged by the Talisman in the Gulf of Gas- cony (the inner part of the Bay of Biscay) (lat. 45° 59’ N., long. 6° 29’ W.) in 1,480 meters, coral bottom, on August 30, 1883. Sanderson | Smith (1888) gives this station as No. 156. — Koehler gave the color in alcohol as white. A single specimen was subsequently dredged by the Princesse-Alice at station 2248, in lat. 37° 02’ 30” N., long. 27° 35’ W., in 1,478 meters, on September 6, 1905 (Koehler, 1909). In his report on the Princesse-Alice echinoderms Koehler did not amplify his original descrip- tion, but he gave a colored figure showing the animal as deep pink, lighter on the radial shields and becoming lighter on the arms after the basal 20 mm. Ophiura inornata (Lyman) Locality— Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’ W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Seven specimens. Notes.—In these specimens the oral shields are in most divided into two elongate plates — meeting in the median line as an angle of about 90°. The jaw plates, the adoral shields, and the © two sections of the oral shields are similar, and of about the same size, appearing as three similar chevrons. In a small specimen one of the oral shields is undivided. In other cases it appears as if the third or outer chevron was composed in reality of a pair of supplementary plates intercalated between the oral shield, much reduced in size, and the adoral shields. Opiomusium armigerum Lyman Locality.—Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantie west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’ W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Two spec- | imens. REFERENCES KoEHLER, RENE. Descriptions des ophiures nou- velles recuetllies par le Travailleur et le Talis- | man pendant les campagnes de 1880, 1881, 1882, & 1883. Mém. Soe. Zool. France 19: (for 1906): 30, pl. 3, figs. 46, 47. 1907. . Résultats des campagnes scientifique ac- complies sur son yacht par Albert 1¢°, Prince | souverain de Monaco, fase. 34: 205, pl. 7, fig. 1. 1909. SmitH, SANDERSON. Lists of dredging stations in | North American waters from 1867 to 1887. Ann. Rep. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries for 1886: 871-1016 (p. 984). 1888. : | VOL. 38, NO. 2 “ Rae Te Fup. 15, 1948 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 79 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 414th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 414th meeting of the Board of Man- agers, held in the Cosmos Club, January 12, 1948, was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the _ President, Dr. Watpo L. Scumirtr. Others present were: H. 8. Rappieys, N. R. Smiru, H. A. Renver, M. A. McCatt, H. B. Cotuins, JR., J. S. Wann, A. Wetmore, W. W. RuBEY, L. E. Yocum, W. A. Dayton, C. A. BeErTts, A. O. Foster, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, G. P. Watton, J. I. Horrman, E. A. CHaPin, and A. T. McPHERSoN. The Chairman of the Committee on Mono- graphs, Dr. E. A. CHAPIN, announced that estimates had been obtained from several printers for the publication of Dr. HerBert FRIEDMANN’S monograph The Parasitic Birds of Africa. These ranged from about $1,500 to $2,500 for 1,000 paper-bound copies. Buckram Jinding increased the estimates $450 to $460. From the record of the sale of Dr. Friedmann’s earlier monograph of the cowbirds, Dr. Chapin considered that the present volume, published possibly as a supplement to the JouRNAL, _ would in all probability pay its way and - recommended that the Academy accept it. The monograph was referred to the Board of Editors for further review and recommenda- tions. Ten persons were elected to membership. The Chairman of the Committee on Science Legislation, Dr. A. T. McPusrson, briefly summarized current activity in science legisla- tion, on which he would report more fully at the annual meeting. His talk was concerned principally with the progress of the Foreign Scholarships program and on H. R. 3342. Dr. McPherson proposed that serious considera- tion be given to the formation of a study group on science legislation. By an informal showing of hands the outgoing Board recommended to the incoming Board that a Science Legislation Committee or Study Group be reappointed for the coming year. The Acting Chairman of the Committee on Academy Awards for Scientific Achievement in 1947, Dr. Henry B. Co.tins, JR., presented the following recommendations for the three subcommittees: Biological Sciences: None. Engineering Sciences: HARRY WARREN WELLS, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, in recognition of his distinguished upper-air re- search and organization of a world-wide network of ionospheric stations. Physical Sciences: Dr. RopERT D. Huntoon, of the National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his distinguished service in the advancement of electronics and its applications to other sci- ences and to modern ordnance. The Board accepted the recommendations, but during the discussion it developed that there existed some misunderstanding as to the age limit of award winners. The Board voted that for future purposes the nominee for the award must not have passed his 40th birthday during the year for which the award was made. The Chairman of the Committee on the JOURNAL and its Improvement, Dr. R. J. SEEGER, reported as follows: The Committee has had several meetings, in- cluding those of special subcommittees, over a period of almost a year. During this time it has reviewed the reports of similar previous com- mittees; it has also consulted with various past Editors of the JourNAL and with the George Banta Publishing Co. After considering many as- pects the Committee unanimously makes the following recommendations pertaining to the JOURNAL and its improvement: (1) That an index of the JouRNAL be prepared and published for the first 40 volumes and for each succeeding 10 volumes. (2) That the address of the Retiring President of the Academy be published without charge, including the first 50 reprints with covers. (3) That each author be allowed, without charge, the equivalent of the first 50 four-page reprints without covers. (4) That each invited Academy speaker whose address is published in the JouRNAL be allowed, without charge, the first 50 re- prints without covers. (5) That the size of the JoURNAL be increased to approximately 500 pages per year and that the JouRNAL be published economi- cally in issues of 32 or 48 pages—say, 6 issues of each size. (6) That in each issue one page (the Editorial Page) be allotted to the President of the Academy for his own use or designation. (7) That the list of officers and committees (standing and special) of the Academy be 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES published on the third cover page (inside back) of each issue of the JouRNAL. (8) That Editors of the JouRNAL be continu- ously vigilant in seeking papers of gen- eral interest, in securing copies of out- standing Academy addresses (footnote reference to occasion of delivery), and in selecting papers from different fields for any particular issue. (9) That the Board of Managers authorize the appointment of a committee to study the functions of the Academy and to formu- late a program that will integrate these functions, including the JoURNAL. The Board voted that the recommendations of the JouRNAL Committee be brought up at the next meeting of the Board. The Secretary, Dr. C. L. Gazin, announced the death of Maj. Gen. Grorcrs PERRIER, honorary member, formerly of Paris, France, on February 16, 1946; Harprr CHAMBLISS, formerly of Catholic University of America, on June 1, 1947; and Ropertr H. LomsBarp, for- merly of the Norton Company, Research Laboratories, Worcester, Mass., on October 11, 1947. Dr. Harvey IJ. Curtis was transferred to the list of retired members, effective December 31, 1946. The following letter to the Secretary from Dr. P. W. BripG@Man was read to the Board: It is a great pleasure to learn that I have been transferred from regular membership to honorary membership in the Washington Academy of Sci- ences. Will you please express my appreciation to the Board of Managers. The Treasurer, H. 8S. RappLeye, announced that the auditing committee had met that morning, examined his books and the Academy securities, and gave him a “clean bill of health.’”? He announced also that the transfer of investment certificates to an account book form in the First Federal Savings and Loan Association, as authorized at the 413th meet- ing, had been made. The President, Dr. W. L. Scumrrt, stated that expenses of the Meetings Committee had exceeded the amount of the budget for this purpose and that in order to secure outstanding speakers he had paid out $100.30 more than allowed. It was his hope that, at the close of the Academy Year 1947, the unexpended amounts from the budgets of other offices and committees might be transferred to that of the Meetings Committee, up to the amount of $100.30, but without increasing the budget for the year. The Board authorized that Dr. Schmitt be so reimbursed for the expenditures made by him on behalf of the Meetings Com- mittee. The meeting was adjourned at 9:45 P.M. C. L. Gazin, Secretary VOL. 38, NO. 2 | a President ae FPS FTO ',Freperick D. Reka, National Bureau of Weandaris Secretary. . Pee ry Wear sane We ee .C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum Treasurer. . Paes fis sets dinigie «sale Howarp S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey Archivist. ..... .NatHan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station Custodian and iBibaaipiion Ma anager of Publican ee Ma aca Ee? See ares. ais vera a its eee at H. A. Renper, U.S. National Museum — " Vice-Presidents Representing the A filiated Socteties: _ Philosophical wociety 64, Washington: os. eee ... WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington........... Nae eek ae T. Date STEWART _ Biological Society of Washington.......... a RAS Joun W. ALDRICH _ Chemical Society of Washington.............. ccf AD Ca Oe, Cuarues E. WHITE _ Entomological Society of Washington... pk ureigtae ya Maa C. F. W. Mursepeck National Geographic Society........... eae Baa Be S: ALEXANDER WETMORE (a aaa _ Geological Society of Washington... ...2..05..... Ma ... Wintiam W. Rupey i a : _Medieal Society of the District of Columbia......... ee eerie FREDERICK O. CoE a Columbia Historical Society. . ae RRR ae ere a crate hy GILBERT GROSVENOR br gtadicnl Society of. Washington a eee See PSA ee Mom RONALD BAMFORD Wa ineton Section, Society of American Foresters........ WriiiamM A, Dayton _ Washington Society i TaPeINGCIR « 61) che On heen ee he ak Cuirrorp A. BreTTs _ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical TMM ECRS Jitoa 5. ipa as ae ee aa tae hyo: d outa ete EL at let sev tar Ng me Francts B. SILsBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical POMUMIC OPS ier a5 8h nk N.S rere ge Sei Si Mia te ature Raa gos basin Martin A. Mason eaiaathological Society of Washington. SB ice ea Ahi CRMC Noe Reg AUREL QO. FostTER a Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists spd Lore A. RoGERs | Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMenT L. GARNER . Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY -_* Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OweEN B. FRENCH 2 Elected Members of the Board of M Hc ak ‘ % oupeaary 1949. he ..Max A. McCatit, Wautpo L. Scamittr A Morennuary 1950)...0. 6... 5056. 8 ...F. G. Brickwreppz, WiLuiaAM W. Dinau awe ed aminsey CMOS ae aia iw gs Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON Board POT cia ck le Ps nie es ..All the above officers plus the Senior Editor | i. Board of Editors and Assotiate Editors..... SRC Cae DS eiotatic ek iasens . (See front cover] : Executive Committee. -...s...FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, Pe peas eso .. Waupo L. Scumitr, Howarp 8. Rappieyn, C. Lewis G-AzIN -Commiitee TROT MTOR IE ogre kal «ei iia ERS WON Eis ss ale oliatatiel SIG Soha lg son etal a ra! cake ; HaRoLb E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Burz, C. WytTHE Cooxz, WinuiaM t oeeeees-sW. Drent, Fioyp D. FELTON, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manoy Committee TOLER OR 2 me ey re ulna ews . RAYMOND J. SEGEER (chairman), mE ctw RANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Riczt, FRANK THONE way Committee on M ee: To January 1949........,..Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Enwarp A. CHAPIN To January POTN ee os Ly os. SROBAND. Wi Brown, Haratp A. REHDER To January 1951..... a oe kd lees 8 WOE IN FENTON, Emmett W. PRIcE Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HErzre.p, general chairman): For the Biological Sciences... .. AR a NG NET: a ict aan ees Cate C, F. W. MursesBreck (chairman), Harry §. ‘BERNTON, Cuestar W. Emmons, _ Exmer Hicerns, Marto Mouuari, GorrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum _ For the Engineering Riker ts OUR Le. ad hantce tarp meee Bn Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. ‘BERKNER, ‘Rosert C. Duncan, Herpert N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIs.tpNiER, FRANK B. Scuzuetz, W. D. SUTCLIFFE For the Physical Rdtonmes er oe att ek es BS? Oita th RSM) Salen kn Kart F. Herzrevp (chairman), Natuan L. DRakE, LLoYD D. FELTon, ws | Herspert Insupy, Witt1am J. Roongy, Rosert Simua, Micuag. X. SULLIVAN Commiitice on Grant-in-aid for TERS eS Ge et ateaa as Beit aimee eS hi, ' ..F. H. H. Roperts, Jr. (chairman), “Anna E, ‘JENKINS, a aes SHERESHEVSKY Representative on Council of FY a: Goals Ao MER eI EE MD eR Oa tts . FRANK THONE Committee of Auditors. Tet rae UNS AC ee CR Le LN at LURE, SARI oa Me datcl Deer as og _ WriuriraM G. BROMBACHER (chairman), Haro.p F. STIMSON, HERBERT L. HALLER Sy NR ecru Ree UC Wov Nine ovine ola a wae hac oie weeaa® aes Ppt ee SOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocmr C. BATES, Wituam A. WinpHAck CONTENTS Prysics.—The measurement of high voltage. F. M. Deranporr.... CHEMISTRY.—Standardization of the pH scale. Roger G. Bares and — EpGar REYNOLDS SMITH > ANTHROPOLOGY.—The true form of the cranial deformity originally de- scribed under the name ‘‘téte trilobée.” T. D. Srewart........ Borany.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humbold- tiella and Callistylon. FREepERIcK J. HERMANN e\ e's eV ele, 000 5) se 8 (eee ae Zoo.ocy.—Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis in the mid-Atlantic. Austin H. CLark PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY » © 0 ee) 6) ® he. wee we @ ae 8 @ es 6 ee « Sie > » e518 ps ee ee ; This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals OF THE 7 "a oer . BOARD OF EDITORS ALAN STONE FraNK C. KracEK BURHAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY _ PLANT QUARANTINE - ASSOCIATE EDITORS 5 Ricuarp E. BLACKWELDER ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY : JAMES S. WILLIAMS nICAL SOCIETY . GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY . L. Litre, ives Me Wa.po R. WEDEL ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY ~ In. CG. 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In the normal course of events every per- son born in the United States possesses im- mediately two permanent designations, his family name and his national citizenship. To most people these are perhaps equally precious, but the first is of course the more personal. Family names are treasured inher- - itances, and even those that may seem, to the other fellow, to be trivial, amusing, or absurd are likely to be continued for scores of generations. Surnames are our handholds on the family tree, and most of us refuse to let go. The surnames of biological origin listed in this report I have found in telephone direc- _ tories. Included are plant and animal names _ and terms referring to the parts of plants and animals (Daisy, Moose, Seed, Antler). Associations of plants and of animals (Or- chard, Herd, Covey) are left out, as are also descriptive-anatomical names (Bare- foot, Smallback) and physical abnormali- ties. Not too strictly, I have omitted va- rieties of domesticated plants and animals (Pippin, Beagle), some products made from and most constituents of plants and ani- mals (Cream, Hay, Leather, Pickles, Pitch), and obsolete words (Poe and Coe for pea- cock and jackdaw). Most compounds such as those of big, bird, berry, corn, crow, gold, long, short, silver, small, wood, and the names of colors are left out (Birdseye, Greenleaf, Redapple). No attempt has been made to trace derivations. One advantage of making my own rules has been freedom _ to appropriate names of dual or multiple meanings. Books and other references on the subject point out that in Biblical times, and until ' Received August 22, 1947. (Communicated by JosEPH 8. WADE.) after the Norman Conquest in 1066, or- dinary people had only one name, such as Joseph. As populations increased, the con- venience of having another name was recog- nized, and surnames began to be adopted. That was some 700 years before Linnaeus established the binomial system for the science of biology. In Great Britain the cities were ahead of the countryside in making the change. Whether the surnames established there were allotted to families or were chosen by them without official guidance is not on record in the sources that I have examined. It seems likely that both methods were used. From the wide coverage of the names that I shall list farther on, one would sur- mise that some system was involved, at one time or another. Surnames have been grouped under four classifications: locality names derived from the home of the bearer (Kent); patronym- ics, those referring to the father’s Chris- tian name (Robertson); names taken from occupations (Weaver); and nicknames (Fox, House, Longfellow, Stone). On the whole, the family names that I have found in my hunting through tele- phone directories have a homespun dignity, an earthy quality that reflects what was prominent and important in day-by-day living on the island of Great Britain 25 or more generations ago. In those days men, women, and children lived closer to their farm animals, their vegetable gardens, and to wild nature than most people do now. As my collection has grown, and with the use of the Oxford Dictionary and other dictionaries, it has become clear to me that there is no need to seek obscure explana- tions for the greater number of the biologi- 81 mnR D4 1948 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cal surnames found. Nearly all of them, quite evidently, were taken directly from the names of living things of interest in everyday life in Britain before the discovery of America. Doubled consonants, final e’s added, and some other departures from modern spellings are for the most part straightforward legacies from olden times. My first adventure into the vast assem- blage of American family names was by way of the Fresno, Calif., Telephone Directory. Since this modest book involved scanning only some 200 linear feet of columns—about 25,000 names—the entire list was searched. There were 15 tree names listed in the Fresno book: Ash Elder Maple Bay Elms Palm Cherry Haw Peach Coffee Holly Pistacchio Crabtree Lemon Thorn And 22 varieties of plants which attract attention because of their beauty or utility: Bean Ivy Rice Bluett Lilly Rose Chess Mellon Rue Cotton Moss Rush Daisy Nutgrass Sage Dill Pease Stocks Furze Radish Grass Reed General plant terms found were Bush and Herb, and plant parts were well represented among Fresno surnames, as follows: Berry Cobb Root Bloom Cone Shuck Branch Flower Stump Budd Fruit Trunk Burr Hull Turnipseed As might be expected, nearly all of the animal names referred to vertebrates. Fishes, so important to the island-dwelling British, were well represented. All refer to European species but all of their names have been transplanted for use in North America. Bass Pickerel Salmon Bream Pike Sturgeon Darter Pollack Trout Herring Ray - Whiting Perch Roach Farther up the scale are the reptiles, rep- resented by one name only: Asp. VOL. 38, NO. 3 Birds, being conspicuous and abundant as to species, were of frequent occurrence. There were 19 of them, and the majority are of rather large size: Brant Heron Ruff Coote Kite Sprigg Crow Knott Swan Duck Martin Swift Eagle Parrott Wren Finch Peacock Hawk Quail Excluding domesticated forms there were only 11 mammals, if Fisher is considered to be an occupational surname: Badger Fitch Lion Batt Fox Puma Bear Hare Wolf Fawns Hart Among miscellaneous terms were the following: Bird Fish Maiden Child Anatomical terms were plentiful: Beard Hand Pate Brain Head Scales Chin Horn Shank Elbow Joint Venter Furr Lips Wing Gill Lung Names of domestic animals, including poultry, number more than 50. There usu- ally are separate designations for mature males and females, newborn young, juve- niles of both sexes, and unsexed males. In addition, call-names and pet names have been used for centuries. Surnames based on these terms probably are nearly all pre- Columbian, since the only domesticated animals native to the Western Hemisphere that have been put to general use by the settlers of North America are the turkey and the muscovy duck. The dog was com- mon to both the New World and the Old at the time of the discovery of the New. In the Fresno Telephone Directory there were four surnames that refer to the names of farm animals: Barrows Lamb Bullock Following the page-by-page scanning of | the Fresno directory it seemed necessary to change the method of hunting for surnames of biological origin. A detailed examination Pigg Mar. 15, 1948 SIMMONS: ENGLISH-LANGUAGE SURNAMES OF BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN 83 of the 455 pages from Aabel to Zzylch in the San Francisco book and of the 1,032 pages of Los Angeles namesfrom Aaen to Zylstra seemed too much of a project. Therefore, lists of terms that probably had been adopted as surnames were compiled. The chief sources of these were the indexes of reference books on botany, horticulture, and zoology. All the findings from both cities were combined and are listed here under several classifications. Forage plants, small grains, fiber plants, etc.: Bramble Darnel Milo Bracken Flax Rye Clover Hemp Timothy Corn Millet Wheat Vegetables, flavoring plants, etc.: Carrott Garlick Mustard Chard Hops Onions Citron Kale Parsley Clove Leek Pepper Collard Lettice Cress Mangel Garden ornamentals, perfume plants: Aster Fern Marigold Balsam Flagg Pink Broom Heather Poppy Cosmos Lavender Primrose Fruit and ornamental trees were: Aspen Hawthorne Pine Beech Laurel Plane » Box Limes Privett Cedar Linden Shaddock Figg Medlar Other botanical terms in the San Fran- cisco and Los Angeles telephone books were Nut, Plant, Posey, Spore, Stem, and Vine. As was the case in the Fresno directory, the two leading Pacific coast cities revealed an extensive list of fishes: Bleak Eeles Sauger Carp Fluke Skates Char Haddock Sole Chubb Ling Spratt Codd Loach Tench Conger Pilchard Tunney Dace Puffer Drum Rudd There was a single form of amphibian, Frogge, and one reptile, Turtle. The birds were even more abundant; 27 were found, not including Loon, a Chinese name: Bunting Jay Rook Bustard Lark Sparrow Buzzard Nightingale Starling Diver Ostrich Stilts Dove Partridge Stork Finch Petrell Swallow Grebe Rail Thrush Gull Raven Titmus Hobby Roller Woodcock Domestic animals were represented by the following useful inhabitants of the farmstead: Boss Dobbin Jack Bull Dogge Jenny Burro Donk Kidde Capon Drake Malkin Catt Filley Mare Cattell Gander Nanny Chick Gilt Rabbitt Cocke Gosling Shoat Cockrell Hogg Steer Colt Hoggett Sixteen more mammals were trophies of the hunt: Boy Hind Otter Deer Lemming Panther Elefant Leopard Sable Elk Mink Tiger Gibbon Mole Grison Moose The directories of San Francisco and Los Angeles provided the following additions to the list of anatomical terms: Ankle Finger Nail Arch Fist Ribbe Arms Gut Sides Back Hair Skinn Bone Hock Teat Bowell Hoof Thumb Brow Kidney Thye Cheek Knee Tongue Eggs Legge Tooth Kye Maw Having had good hunting on the Pacific coast, I prepared for larger fields by adding to my list of unfound possibilities until it numbered about 625. Of much help were the many plants and animals illustrated in a dictionary, and I included in the list about 50 biological surnames encountered in gen- eral reading. All the latter were found sub- sequently in telephone directories of cities in the eastern part of the United States. Giant among telephone directories is the Chicago book, because New York City sub- 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES scribers are grouped in several separate volumes based on the boroughs, and the third telephone city of the world, London, divides its directory into .two volumes. From Aabad to Zyzik in the Chicago direc- tory the distance was 1,741 four-column pages, a total column length of 6,021 feet. From a systematic standpoint the most lowly among the surnames of plant origin in Chicago was Kelp, followed by Brake. Wild and cultivated plants, except trees, were as follows: Aloe Dock Nettles Anis Ginger Oats Begonia Gourd Orris Burdock Honeysuckle Thistle Brier Mallow Tulip Columbine Marguerite Violet Caraway Millet Yarrow There were 17 trees and shrubs, as well as the name Tree. Alder Filbert Oak Almond Hazel Olive Birch Hemlock Quince Cinnamon Magnolia Spruce Cypress Myrtle Willow Elm Orange Names that refer to plant anatomy were: Cedarleaf Seed Tuber Peel Straw Although lists already given include many fishes, there were still others in the Chicago directory: Dolphin Guppy Shark Goby Hake Snook Gudgeon Mullet Wrasse And still more birds: Cardinal Grouse Robin Crane Merlin Sora Dipper Owl Snipe Falcon Pheasant Teal Flicker Plover Willet Gannett Pellican Among the following mammals were several additions to the list of domestic animals: Baby Lady Ram Buffalo Lass Stripling Beaver Man Seal Camel Marten Stag Foale Mule Virgin Ferret Muskrat Whale Lad Puss VOL. 38, NO. 3 Chicago furnished additions, also, to the group of anatomical terms: Belly Gum Pastern Clawes Heart Quill Fang Heel Rump Feather Kneebone Talon Flank Liver Wattles Foot Mane Wool Fin Nape Following the expedition through the Chicago directory, the list of possibilities were checked through the ’phone books of Boston, Brooklyn, and Detroit. From Aaberg to Zynsky, in Boston, was a dis- tance of 804 pages and 2,780 linear feet of columns; there were 784 pages in the Brook- lyn book, from Aa to Zytynski; and the Detroit directory, from Aaberg to Zzzpt, was 910 pages in length. Trophies from all three hunts are combined in the lists which follow. In Detroit I found Winston Churchill’s famous trio of Blood, Sweat, and Tears. Other materials found in the three books were Butter, Milk, Ivory, and Breath. The botanical names were these: Awn Larch Saffron Basil Leaf Savory Belladonna Lilac - Shamrock Calla Maize Stock Cassia Poplar Tea Chicory Raisin Teasel There were more fishes: Dabbs Goldfish Shad Elver Grunt Thresher Gar Lamprey One reptile, Blackadder, occurred. In addition to the many species of birds recorded from directories previously exam- ined, there were 10 in Boston, Brooklyn, and Detroit, with Brood for good measure. Auk Goose Sheldrake Bittern Hen Terns Eider Oriole Erne Pullett A few more mammals: Bunny Goat Squirrel Ewe Ratte Weasel And further anatomical names: Antler Neck Ramus Shoulder Vein Whisker Mar. 15, 1948 SIMMONS: ENGLISH-LANGUAGE SURNAMES OF BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN 85 After having explored seven telephone directories I began to get the feel of the undertaking. A sense of the kind of words likely to be found as biological surnames had developed, so I went back over some of the indexes of botanical and zoological books. More possibilities were obtained by scanning references on the botany and zo- ology of the British Isles. This was a pleas- ant experience because so many of the common names used in the mother country have been adopted here. On the other hand, many were wholly strange. If an American, reading about rural England, should find this statement: ‘‘Then I glimpsed an effet as it dashed from a patch of squitch and gobbled a mawk beneath a paigle,”’ he would be confused. Having translated, he would find that a lizard had left its hiding place in couch grass (Agropyron repens) and eaten a maggot under a cowslip (Primula veris). We need to understand our neigh- bor’s language better! Several hundred possibilities resulted from this more effective approach. Equipped with the new list I hunted again through the telephone directories of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit, Boston, and Brooklyn. Using both lists, I then examined the Philadelphia Telephone Directory. The plants found in the seven books, omitting a number of unfamiliar ones, were as follows: Arum Cornel Redwood Balm Crowfoot Rosemary Barley Currant Rust Bent Fennell Senna Bunt Gale Sorrel Burnet Gorse Speedwell Cabbage Grape Spelt Calamus Heather Spice Camphor Hop Thyme Campion Leatherwood Tansy Cane Mayberry Walnut Caper Mints Woodbine Celandine Osier Woodruff Chives Pear Wormwood Colliflower Ramson Yew There were more plant parts: Acorn Cork Spike Bark Gall Twigg Blossom Pod Fishes were represented by: Barbel Grindle Pogge Brill Gunnell Ruffe Burbot Mackerell Smolt Cisco Minnow Sparling Dace Molla Shiner Flounders Parr Fry Pilchard Two of the surnames found were trans- fers from the names of amphibians: Asker, Eft. Three reptiles, Boa, Luth, and Ser- pente, were discovered. Birds and their parts were as follows: Biddy Combs Pinnock Bill Down Pippitt Bulfinch Hummer Spurr Canary Macaw Tit | Chaffinch Ortolan Web Chat Peregrin Mammals and their structures were: Body Gazelle Pore Bruin Goa Roebuck Chest Hock “Tabby Craw Kitt Wethers Ermine Knuckles Withers Farrow Leverett Wrinkle Fleece Every collector at length awakens from his self-induced trance to admit a need for setting a limit to his enterprise. So, after Philadelphia, I decided to use the two long lists only once more, in London. But I couldn’t drop certain unfound probabilities. Therefore I made a list of about 50 choice ones and set out to find them in the direc- tories for Baltimore, Bronx, Cleveland, Houston, Long Beach, Manhattan, Milwau- kee, Minneapolis, Newark, New Orleans, Portland (Oregon), Queens, St. Louis, San Diego, Seattle, and Washington. There were satisfactions in this search, since most of the surnames that turned up may be considered to be rarities. First, the plants, the last one being more recent than most biological surnames: Bellrose Seallion Tobacco Parsnip There was one fish, Girling (a young sal- mon), as well as several other vertebrates: Chicken Mouse Pups And some interesting anatomy: Flesh Hips Nipple Tissue Breast Face 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Examination of the London Telephone Directory, of 2,209 three-column pages, from Aaggard to Zyrot, followed. I was in effect searching the ‘‘mother lode,” the orig- inal source from which family names of English-speaking people have been scat- tered over the world. None of the following had been found in American lists. Botanical surnames were: Daphne Majoram Spurge Iris Madder Sycamore Lupine Mold Vetch And, as always, a few additions to the long list of fishes: Gargett Flaice Smelt Grayling Pout Sucker One amphibian, Newte, and three birds: Condor Gooney Phoebe The list of mammals included several of the few names of domesticated animals that had not been located before: Boar Girle Stallion Calf Lynx Stoat Cow Marmot Voles Gelding Ox Anatomical terms were Beak, Chine, Hide, Skinn, Skull, Toe, and Wrist. Invertebrates found in all directories are. combined in a single list, which includes a few surnames associated with parts or prod- ucts of backboneless animals. Ant Grubbs Pupa Barnacle Honey Scallop Bee Hornett Shell Beetle Leach Silk Bot Locust Slug Bug Looper Spider ' Clam Maddock Sting Cockle Mantis Tick Coral Moths Warble Crabb Mussel Wasps Cricket Oyster Wax Drill Pearl Winkle Goldflies Piddock Worm In the course of the investigation I re- corded a number of surnames which have their origin in mythological persons and beasts: Angel Fairy Indra Atlas Faun Merman Cherubin Fay Phoenix Dragon Genius Satyr Griffin VOL. 38, NO. 3 Not so much mythological as fictional, Doe (John) and Roe (Richard), long prom- inent in the symbolism of the law, both refer to names of deer. Other imaginary persons were Punch and Judy. Even after the good returns from my hunt through the London books, I was not satisfied. Missing were many surnames that could have escaped transfer from the names of common living things only by some im- probable accident. I had located more than 300 fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, but where were Donkey, Heifer, Hinny, Horse, Sheep, Toad, and Woman? About 100 family names were based on animal structures, but why had Jowl, Stomach, and Tail eluded search? Plant surnames to the number of about 200, not to mention some 35 terms for plant parts, had turned up, but not Lentil and Turnip. A fair representation of the small but useful invertebrates did not include the super- latively toothsome Lobster. Are some of the “‘lost”’ families still oceu- pying the same English farms where their family trees became established hundreds of years ago? Perhaps certain of the male lines have run out, or other names have been chosen. Possibly some are living in the United States outside of large cities. They may have no telephones. Some of them may be living in other countries. According to an analysis of surnames re- corded during the first United States Cen- sus,” the following families which I have been unable to find in telephone books were living in this country in 1790: Horse Bantam Sealion Heifer It is of interest to record that surnames found in the course of the First Census were 83.5 percent English and 91.8 percent from the British Isles. In a final effort to find Horse, Sheep, and Turnip I looked in the telephone direc- tories of Atlanta, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Columbus, Dallas, Dayton, Denver, Fort Wayne, Fort Worth, Indianapolis, and Pittsburgh; Montreal, Toronto, and Van- 2 A century of population growth. From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790— 1900. U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census. 303 pp., 1909. Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 87 couver, Canada; Melbourne and Sidney, Australia. Although the Turnipseed family is well distributed, Turnip still eluded me. I could get no closer to Horse than Horsey, which occurs plentifully. But I found Sheep. That is my rara avis; or, more accurately, rara ovis! Those who write reports of the results of their research seldom mention one influence that helps to shape the course of their en- deavors. I refer to the comments of wives. In my case attention was called to the possibility of sometime bringing the search to a close by a gentle remark, “‘I’m getting a little tired of seeing piles of telephone books around the house.”’ BOTAN Y.—WNew species of trees from western Ecuador! ELBERT L. LiTrue, JR., Forest Service, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. The 19 new species here described and il- lustrated are from the author’s collection of tree specimens made in 1943 in western Ecuador with the Latin American Forest Resources Project of the U. 8. Forest Serv- ice. Genera represented are: Hezsteria, Hir- tella (2), Brownea (3), Humiria, Erythro- chiton, Tetragastris, Guarea, Trichilia, Be- lotia, Matisia (2), Clusia (2), Neosprucea, Symplocos, and Aspidosperma. Twelve spe- cies are from the province of Esmeraldas, and others from the provinces of Pichincha, Chimborazo, Los Rios, and El Oro. Addi- tional new species from this collection are being published elsewhere by specialists, and others must remain undescribed at present because of incomplete material. Type specimens have been deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium, Washington, D.C., and a set of isotypes in the herbarium of the U. 8. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Additional isotypes of most species are in the following herbaria: Tropical Forest Experiment Station, U. 8S. Forest Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico; Yale University School of Forestry, New Haven, Conn.; Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago, Ill.; and Instituto BotAnica, Uni- versidad Central, Quito, Ecuador. Acknowledgment is due C. V. Morton, of the U. 8. National Museum, for assist- ance in checking the Latin diagnoses, to Ellsworth P. Killip, also of the National Museum, for suggestions, to Miss Leta Hughey, botanical artist, Forest Service, for making the drawings of the new species, and the late Dean Samuel J. Record, Yale University School of Forestry, for making generic determinations of wood samples of 1 Received October 3, 1947. four of these new species. The Forest Serv- ice project in Ecuador is described in the following report: HoupripGE, L. R., et al., The forests of western and central Ecuador. 134 pp., illus. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C. 1947. (Processed.) Heisteria cyathiformis Little, sp. nov. Fig. 7 Sec. Euheisteria Engl. Frutex vel arbor parva 4 m alta, trunco 3 cm diametro, glabra, ramulis gracilibus teretibus viridulis, novellis subangu- latis, internodiis brevibus 0.5-3 em longis. Folia petiolata, petiolis 4-11 mm longis, supra leviter canaliculatis; laminae anguste ellipticae vel oblanceolatae, (5) 8-15 em longae, 3—5.5 cm latae, basi acutae vel acuminatae, apice sub- abrupte acuminatae, acumine 4-9 mm longo, membranaceae, margine integrae, costa supra plana subtus elevata, nervis lateralibus utrin- que 5-9, prope marginem arcuato-conjunctis, subtus prominulis. Flores fasciculares in axillis 2 vel 3; pedicellus 3 mm longus, apicem versus crassus; albastrum ca. 1.5 mm longum; calyx 1 mm longus ad medium 5-lobus, lobis triangu- laribus acutis; corolla in alabastro globoso- ellipsoidalis, 1.3 mm longa, viridulo-albida, 5- lobata, intus minute puberulenta; stamina 10, 5 longiora et 5 alternatim breviora; ovarium tri- angulare, apicem versus acuminatum, 1 mm longum, 1 mm diametro, 3-loculare ovulis 8, stigmate minuto sessili 3-lobato. Fructus soli- tarius, pedicello in stato fructifero 12-15 mm longo, calyce fructifero accrescente cyathi- formi, 4-5 mm longo et 7 mm lato, truncato, subintegro vel minute 5-dentato, rubro; drupa ellipsoidalis, 11 mm long, 7 mm diametro, nigra. Shrub or small tree 4 m tall and 3 cm in trunk diameter, said to become larger. Speci- 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mens collected from two plants in wet tropical forest at Quinindé. ‘‘Aji.” ESMERALDAS: Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April 15, 1943, Little 6263A (Forest Service no. 96832; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1854915, Typs). Little 6263 (Forest Service no. 96833). Heisteria Jacq. has more than 40 species in South and Central America and 3 in western Africa. Most species have the enlarged calyx of the fruit lobed and rotate, reflexed, or loosely enclosed the drupe. In H. cyathiformis the red, cup-shaped or hemispherical calyx is about one- third the length of the black, ellipsoidal drupe (red when immature) and closely adheres to the lower part of the drupe. This enlarged fruiting calyx is truncate and subentire or minutely 5-toothed. Superficially the fruit, with its elongated drupe and cuplike calyx, resembles that of some members of the Laura-. ceae, though the other characters are unlike that family. Caroline K. Allen and I. W. Bailey kindly have suggested that this material prob- ably belongs in Heisteria, where it apparently is undescribed. Heisteria cyathiformis is related to H. cyano- carpa Poepp. & Endl., of the Amazonian region of Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador, which has larger and thicker leaves, more flowers in a fascicle, and the fruiting calyx broad, orbicular, usually reflexed. The collection contains material of another species of this genus, doubtfully re- ferred to the Central American species H. mac- rophylla Oerst. Hirtella carbonaria Little, sp. nov. Je Arbor mediocris 12 m alta, trunco 25 em diametro. Cortex laevis, griseus. Ramuli parce hirsutuli mox glabrescentes. Folia petiolata cum stipulis linearibus, ca. 3 mm longis, in- volutis, strigosis; petiolis ca. 2mm longis, parce hirsutulis; laminae ellipticae, 5-9 em longae et 2.5-4 cm latae, basi rotundatae, apice abrupte acuminatae, integrae, inflexae, coriaceae, re- ticulatae, supra glabrae, subtus in costa et venis pilis paucis subappressis praeditae, venis primariis 5—8-jJugis, arcuatis et margine anasta- mosantibus, his cum costa utrinque paullo ele- vatis. Inflorescentiae terminales atque axillares, thyrsiformes, multiflorae, cum floribus multis abortivis, 6-9 cm longae et 2-4 cm latae, pe- dunculo 2-5 cm longo, rhachibus pilos paucos appressos gerentibus; bracteae triangulares, VOL. 38, No. 3 acutae, 1-2 mm. longae; pedicelli 3 mm longi; hypanthium campanulatum, 3 mm longum et 2 mm latum, externe sparse pubescens, intus glabrum; sepala 5, elliptica, obtusa, 3 mm longa et 2.5 mm lata, externe strigillosa, intus densius strigillosa; petala 5, alba, elliptica, 4 mm longa et 2.5 mm lata, retusa, glabra; stamina 3, 8— 12 mm longa, filamentis glabris, basi connatis; staminodia 2, 1.5 mm longa; ovarium fere 2 mm longum, dense pilosum; stylus deorsum sparse pilosus, 10-15 mm longus. Drupa ob- ovoidea, 15 mm longa, 8 mm lata, 3.5 mm crassa, compressa, atra, glabrescens, intus dense pilosa; semen ellipsoideum, compres- sum, fuscum, ca. 10 mm longum, 5 mm latum, 2.5 mm crassum. Medium-sized tree to 12 m tall and 25 cm in trunk diameter. Bark smooth, gray. Wood used for charcoal, as the common and specific names indicate. Common in moist soil, flood plain forest near Rio Nadadero, wet tropical forest zone at San Lorenzo. ‘Carbonero,”’ “earboncillo.” ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude near tidewater, April 19, 1943, Little 6275 (Forest Service no. 96790; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858838, TYPE). Besides Hirtella triandra Sw., this collection contains two undescribed species of Hirtella L. Hirtella carbonaria has elliptic, coriaceous, glabrescent leaves that are turned inward slightly at the midrib. The pubescence of twigs, leaves, and inflorescence is rather sparse, con- sisting generally of a few appressed hairs, which are lost as the parts become nearly glabrous with age. The thyrsiform inflorescence contains many abortive flowers. Hirtella pauciflora Little, sp. nov. Fig. 2 Arbor magna 25 m alta, trunco 50 cm diame- tro. Cortex laevis, leviter fissilis, fuseus. Ramuli dense hirtelli. Folia petiolata cum _ stipulis linearibus, ca. 3 mm longis, dense hirtellis; petiolis 3-4 mm longis, dense hirtellis; laminae ellipticae, 7-13 cm longae et 3-5 em latae, basi acutae, apice acuminatae, integrae, mem- branaceae, pallide virides, supra costis his- pidae, pilis paucis rigidis in venis et venulis ferentes, mox glabratae, subtus in venis et venulis hispidae, nervis primariis 6—9-jugis, ascendentibus, his cum costa supra leviter im- pressis, subtus prominentibus. Inflorescentiae LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 89 Mar. 15, 1948 SS i/ \ oe yy fl AN M \Y TQ \ SS His Fic. 2.—Hirtella pauciflora, 3X; flower, Fic. 1.—Belotia australis, 4 X; flower, 2 X; fruits, 3X. Fig. 4.—Guarea polymera, 2X. Fig. 3.—Hirtella carbonaria, 3 X; flower, about 3 X; fruit, $ X. oe; lower, | ><; fruit, 1x. er 90) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES racemosae terminales in ramulis brevibus, in- conspicuae, 2- vel 3-florae, 3-6 cm longae, pedunculo hirtello, 1-4 em longo; pedicelli crassi, inflati, lignei, 10-12 mm longi, basi fere 1 mm diametro, medio et apice 1.5-2 mm di- ametro, dense hirtelli; flores viridulo-fusci, ca. 5 mm longi et 5 mm diametro; hypanthium ca. 2 mm longum et 2 mm latum, externe hir- tellum, intus fauce dense retrorse pilosum, alibi glabrum; sepala 5, late elliptica, obtusa, 3 mm longa et 2-3 mm lata, externe dense hirtella, intus dense puberula; petala 5, elliptica, obtusa vel retusa, 3 mm longa et fere 2 mm lata; stamina 3, filamentis glabris, basi connatis, 5-7 mm longis; staminodia 2, minuta, 0.2 mm longa; ovarium fere 2 mm longum, dense pi- losum; stylus basin versus sparse pilosus, alibi glaber, 4 mm longus. Fructus deest. Large tree 25 m tall and 50 cm in trunk di- ameter. Bark smooth, slightly cracked, brown. Virgin wet tropical forest and old cacao planta- tion at Pichilingue. ‘“‘Coquito.” - Los Rfos: Pichilingue, altitude 45 m, May 21, 1948, Litile 6475 (Forest Service no. 95855; U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 1876218, Typx). The inconspicuous, small racemes terminal on short branches and bearing only 2 or 3 flowers distinguish H. pauciflora. Brownea disepala Little, sp. nov. Fig. 9 Arbor magna 30 m alta; trunco 35 cm di- ametro, florifero, cum tumoribus ellipsoidalibus magnis et conspicuis, 3-5 cm crassis, 3-5 cm longis, et 3-10 cm latis, cicatricibus inflores- centiarum ferentibus. Cortex griseus, fere laevis; ramuli glabri. Folia paripinnata; petioli crassi, subglabrati, 6-15 mm longi et 3-4 mm diametro; rhaches 20—40 cm longi, fere glabri; petioluli crassi, corrugati, 3-5 mm longi, sub- glabri; foliolae (4) 6—9-jugae, oppositae, ob- longo-ellipticae, (5) 9-12 em longae, (2) 3-4 cm latae, basi inaequales, apice longe caudato- acuminatae, subcoriaceae, nitidae, reticulatae, glabrae, costae basi glande uno minuto gerentes. Inflorescentia caulina capitata, stro- biliformis, globosa, sessilis, pallide incarnata, 5 em diametro; bracteae multae, subrotundae vel ovatae vel oblongae, valde concavae, 1-7 em longae, externe dense tomentosae, intus glabrae vel leviter pilosae, exteriores satis crassae et coriaceae, interlores membranaceae; rhachis 2.5-3 cm longa et 8-10 mm diametro, ad VOL. 38, NO. 3 % longitudinis bracteata, apicem versus flori- fera. Flores multi (ca. 30-40), albidi; pedicelli 10-18 mm longi, pilosuli; vagina nulla; hy- panthium campanulatum, subtetragonum, 8 mm longum, 5-6 mm latum, pilosulum; sepala 2, oblanceolata vel oblonga, apice bidentata dentibus 3-5 mm longis, pilosula vel glabrata, nervis parallelis, 30-50 mm longa et 10-15 mm lata; petala 4, longe angusteque unguicu- lata, glabrata, pinninervia, 2 majora oblance- olata, obtusa, 37-43 mm longa et 10 mm lata, 2 minora lineari-spathulata, acuta, 25-27 mm longa et 3 mm lata; vagina staminalis 3 cm longa, pilosula; stamina 17 vel 18, filamentis 25-50 mm longis, antheris 5-6 mm longis; ovarium stipitatum (6 mm), 15 mm longum, 2.5 mm latum, compressum, dense tomento- sum; stylus glaber, 50-60 mm longus; stigma capitellatum. Legumen paucum, ca. 15 cm longum, 4 cm latum, plano-compressum, rufo- puberulum, valvis post dehiscentiam tortuosis. Large tree 30 m tall and 35 cm in trunk diam- eter, distinguished by cauliflory. Bark gray, smoothish. Trunk easily recognized by the en- larged elliptical swellings at scars of former in- florescences. The large whitish flowers are borne in a headlike cluster from a spherical pink, bracteate, strobiliform bud about 5 em in di- ameter which is sessile on the trunk. From the flower cluster a few large flat pods develop. Mountain (wet tropical) forest in southwestern Ecuador. ‘‘Palo de vaina.”’ Ex Oro: Near Piedras, altitude about 800 m, June 21, 1943, Little 6677 (Forest Service no. 98587; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857106 and 1857107, Typ). Guayas: Near Pedro Carbo, altitude about 300 m, Jan. 13, 1943, Oscar Haught 3131 (U. S. Nat. Herb.). Haught 3131 has flowers similar to those of the type but differs in having the leaflets slightly smaller (5-7 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad). It is described by the collector as a moderate-sized tree, strictly cauliflorous, with white flowers, in a forest on calcareous soil. The genus Brownea Jacq. contains more than 25 known species, principally from Venezuela, Colombia, and Peru, with more from Venezu- ela than any other country. Some species occur also in Panama, the Guianas, and Brazil. Many of these are of restricted distribution. Only one new species, B. herthae Harms, has heretofore been described from Ecuador. In addition to that species, this collection contains Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 91 Fic. 6.—Tetragastris varians. +X; flower, x. Fic. 8.—Brownea puberula, 3X. Fic. 5.—Brownea angustiflora, 4 X; flowers, about 4X. Fic. 7.—Heisteria cyathiformis, cole Ico x 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES three new species of Brownea. Most species of Brownea have very showy, brilliant red flowers borne in terminal inflorescences. Very few spe- cies have white flowers and very few have cauli- flory. Brownea disepala is odd in both ways in having white flowers borne in clusters on the trunks. The segregate genus Browneopsis Huber (Bol. Mus. Goeldi 4: 565. 1906) was proposed for the species with sheath absent, larger num- ber of stamens, and lesser development of petals (lacking, rudimentary, or 4). However, Ducke, Record and Hess, and Macbride have reduced the segregate to synonymy. Besides Brownea disepala, other species in this group are: Brownea ucayalina (Huber) Ducke, Brown- ea cauliflora Poepp. & Endl., Brownea excelsa (Pittier) Macbr., and Brownea peruviana Macbr. Of these, the new species is like the last in its calyx. Macbride (Field Mus. Bot. 13, pt. 3, no. 1: 184-135, 132. 1943) in the original description noted that B. peruviana was aber- rant in having 4 petals and 2 colored, petaloid bractlets or sepals. After examining a specimen of one of the two collections cited by Macbride (Klug 3810), I interpret as sepals the two paral- lel nerved structures of both species attached in the usual position of the calyx, at the summit of the hypanthium and outside the four clawed, pinnately nerved petals. These sepals, which in both species are slightly 2-toothed or 2-lobed at the apex, may represent a reduction from 4 sepals to 2 connate ones. This interpretation is simpler than the alternate one also mentioned by Macbride of regarding the petals as absent, the 4 clawed petaloid structures as bractlets. In Brownea the bractlets or sheath, when present, are attached at the base of the hypan- thium, not at the summit. Brownea puberula Little, sp. nov. Fig. 8 Arbor 6 m alta vel major, trunco 10 em di- ametro. Ramuli, petioli, rhaches, et petioluli dense et minute fusco-puberuli vel demum glabrati. Folia paripinnata; petioli basi crassi, 5-40 mm longi; rhaches’ (3) 7-25 em longae; petioluli 3-7 mm longi; foliolae (1) 3—7-jugae, oppositae, oblongo-ellipticae vel ovatae, (4) 7-12 cm longae, (2) 3-6 cm latae, basi inae- quales, obtusae vel rotundatae, apice longe caudato-acuminatae (1.5-2.5 cm longa), cori- VOL. 38, No. 3 aceae, supra glabrae, subtus minute puberulae, reticulatae, costae basi glande uno gerentes. Inflorescentiae terminales vel laterales, inter- dum ex rhachibus inflorescentiarum priorium; racemi breves, umbelliformes, rhache 2 em longa, bracteis caducis; flores 15-25, rubri vel coccinei, spectabiles; pedicelli tenues, puberuli, 10-20 mm longi; vagina petaloidea tubulosa, bilabiata, 30-32 mm longa, externe appresso- puberula, intus glabra, lobis acutis 10-12 mm longis; hypanthium anguste tubulosum, 12-14 mm longum, 3 mm diametro, puberulentum vel glabratum; sepala 4, petaloidea, glabra, 24-27 mm longa, anterius obovatum, acutum, 8-11 mm latum, alia oblanceolata, obtusa, 4-6 mm lata; petala 5, fere aequalia, 37-46 mm longa, 9-13 mm lata, longe angusteque unguiculata, glabra, obovata, obtusa; stamina 11, 38-45 mm longa, ad 4 vel 3 longitudinis connata; vagina staminalis externe glabra, intus basi pilosa; filamentis glabris, 10-18 mm _ longis; antheris 2 mm longis; ovarium 7—8 mm long- um, dense tomentosum; stylus tenuis, deorsum tomentosus, 27-35 mm longus; stigma capitel- latum. Legumen 20 cm longum, 4.5 cm latum, planocompressum, minute fusco-tomentosum, valvis post dehiscentiam tortuosis. Tree 6 m tall and 10 cm in trunk diameter. Uncommon in understory of wet, swampy tropical forests at sea level, including flood plain at edge of river and higher level of man- grove swamp forest at San Lorenzo. ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, sea level, April 22, 1943, Little 6338 (Forest Service no. 98230; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1909574, TypE); April 22, 1943, Little 6338A (Forest Service no. 98231); April 19, 1948, Little 6291 (Forest Service no. 96719). PROVINCE NoT KNOWN: Moist forest at foot of Western Cordillera, altitude 200 m, Rimbach 183 (U. 8. Nat. Herb.). Rimbach 183, from an inland locality, was described by the collector as a tree 20 m high and 25 cm in trunk diameter, with red flowers in dense umbels, mostly from old wood, some- times near base of trunk, and more rarely from the branches. This species is unusual in the dense, minute, dark brown pubescence of the young branches, petioles, rachises, and petiolules. However, in age the pubescence may be nearly absent. The inforescences are fewer flowered and the flowers more nearly glabrous than in most species of Brownea. Though it has the bilabiate floral Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 93 sheath found in most species of the genus, Brownea puberula is distinct in the size, shape, and pubsecence of the floral parts. It resembles B. birschellii Hook. f., of Venezuela, which is glabrous and has much larger clusters of larger flowers. In publishing that species, J. D. Hooker (Bot. Mag. 98: pl. 5998. 1872) men- tioned that “it closely resembles a species from the Pacific sea-coast of New Granada, at Es- meraldas, collected by Colonel Hall, and pre- served in the Hookerian Herbarium.” Hall’s specimen, collected near the type locality of B. puberula, upon examination may prove to be a much earlier collection of this species. Brownea angustiflora Little, sp. nov. Fig. 5 Arbor parva 10 m alta, trunco 15 cm diame- tro. Ramuli glabri. Folia paripinnata, glabra; petioli basi crassi, 4-25 mm longi; rhaches 3-15 em longae; petioluli 3-5 mm long); foliolae 2— vel 3-jugae, oppositae, oblongo-ellipticae, (7) 10-23 cm longae, (3) 4-7 cm latae, basi inae- quales, obtusae vel acutae, apice caudatoacumi- natae (1-8 cm longo), coriaceae, reticulatae, costae basi glande uno gerentes. Inflorescentiae terminales et laterales vel caulines; racemi breves, umbelliformes, rhache 1.5—2 cm longa, bracteis caducis; flores ca. 15-20, rubrae vel coccineae, spectabiles; pedicelli tenues, pu- beruli, 9-12 mm longi; vagina petaloidea, anguste tubulosa, 35-52 mm longa, 6 mm diametro, uno latere ad 15-20 mm fissa, externe puberula, intus glabra; hypanthium anguste tubulosum, 11-15 mm longum, 2-2.5 mm diametro, glabrum; sepala 4, petaloidea, glabra, anterius oblanceolatum, acutum, 35 mm lon- gum et 6-7 mm latum, alia linearia, acuta, 28— 30 mm longa et 2-3 mm lata; petala 5, longe angusteque unguiculata, glabra, maximum ob- lanceolatum, retusum vel apiculatum, 42 mm longum, 6-8 mm latum, duo oblanceolata, retusa, 35-38 mm longa, 4-6 mm lata, duo linearia, obtusa, 20-22 mm longa, 1—2 mm lata; vagina staminalis 25-29 mm longa, glabra vel leviter pilosa; stamina 9 vel 10, filamentis 10- 20 mm longis, antheris 2 mm longis; ovarium 9-10 mm longum, 2 mm latum, dense tomento- sum; stylus tenuis, inferne tomentosus, 35-40 mm longus; stigma capitellatum. Legumen paucum, 20 cm longum, 4 cm latum, plano- compressum, minute puberulum; valvis post dehiscentiam tortuosis; semina orbiculata, plana, 2.5 cm diametro. Small tree 10 m tall and 15 cm in trunk diameter, in understory of wet tropical forest and in clearing. ‘‘Flor de mayo.” ESMERALDAS: Borbén, elevation 15 m, May 3, 1948, Little 6418 (Forest Service no. 98232; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1879851, Typ); April 26, 1943, Little 6382 (Forest Service no. 98225). Two collections of this species were made, both at the same locality. In the type collec- tion, Little 6418, the inflorescences are terminal or lateral on the leafy branches. Little 6382 has the flowers borne on the trunk and slightly larger and more mature. This species is characterized by long, narrow, slender, nearly glabrous flowers in few flowered clusters. The narrowly tubular flower sheath, which is cleft on one side, is unusually long, 35- 52 mm long, and nearly encloses the perianth, though the three larger petals are exserted. The sheath generally varies from 12 to 32 mm long in other species of Brownea. Only a few others, such as B. coccinea Jacq. and B. aroensis Pit- tier, have the sheath cleft on only one side instead of bilabiate. Humiria procera Little, sp. nov. Fig. 12 Arbor magna recta, 30-34 m alta vel major. Ramuli glabri, 4-alati ex foliis et costis decur- rentibus, alis 1-2 mm latis. Folia disticha, de- currentia, sessilia, coriacea, vivo atroviridia, nitida, late elliptica, 8-13 cm longa et 5-7 cm lata, basi obtusa, apice abrupte et breviter acuminata (5-10 mm), margine remote glandu- loso-crenulata, supra glabra, subtus minute rugulosa, costa subtus carinata, carina angusta, basi 1 mm alta, decurrente. Inflorescentia axil- laris, corymbosa multiflora, 4-6 ecm longa et 3-5 cm lata, puberula, ca. 5 vel 6 dichotoma vel trichotoma; bracteae triangulares, acutae, 1-2 mm longae; pedunculus alatus anceps, 2- 2.5 ecm longus; pedicelli 1 mm longi; flores minuti, viriduli, ca. 2 mm longi et 1.5 mm lati; sepala 5, rotundata, ciliata, leviter puberula, 1 mm longa; petala 5, oblonga, externe leviter puberula, 1.5-2 mm longa et 0.5 mm. lata; stamina 20, glabra, ca. 1.5 mm longa; fila- menta basi connata; cupula hypogyna e Ssquamis plus minus connatis composita; pistil- lum ca. 1.5 mm longum; ovarium ovoideum, parce puberulum, 5-loculare, ovulis 2 in loculo; 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES stylus crassus; stigma 5-radiatum. Drupa ovoidea vel ellipsoidea, base obtusa, apice acuta vel obtusa, tomentosa, 25-35 mm longa, 17-20 mm lata; endocarpium osseum, sub apice 5-foveolatum. Large erect tree of forest canopy in wet tropical forest, 30 to 34 m tall and 40 cm in diameter, according to measurements from trees felled for wood samples, but becoming larger. The fruits resemble pecans (Carya il- linoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch) in size and shape. It is said that the oily seeds are edible. “Chanul.” EsSMERALDAS: Playa de Oro, altitude about 65 m, May 1, 1948, Little 6412 (Forest Service no. 95906; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1876214, TYPE; with wood sample). Little 6413 (Forest Service no. 95907; with wood sample). San Lorenzo, altitude about 10 m, April 21, 19438, Little 6320 (Forest Service no. 96880; with wood sample). Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April 9, 1943, Little 6233 (old fruits only). Common and probably widely distributed in the wet tropical forest of Esmeraldas. In some locations near San Lorenzo it comprises a large part of the big timber. Very common also along the banks of Rio Santiago above Selva Alegre, where Chanuzal, a group of houses, apparently derives its name from the many trees of ‘“chanul.” After partial cutting of other tree species, ‘‘chanul” occurs in nearly pure stands. It exists in quantities along the main rivers and trails. ; The South American genus Humiria Jaume St.-Hil. is distributed in Brazil, the Guianas, Venezuela, and Colombia and apparently has not been reported previously from Ecuador. Though the characteristic size is that of shrubs and small trees, two species are described as becoming large trees under favorable condi- tions. Selling (Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 39: 257-269, illus. 1945) distinguished 6 living species and 3 fossil ones. The latter, based upon fruits from Brazil, Colombia, and Peru (Piura), indicated a broader distribution of the genus in the Ter- tiary than at present. Wood samples of the Ecuadorian material were first determined by 8S. J. Record as Humiria sp. near H. floribunda Mart., which occurs in the Guianas, Amazonian Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia. Subsequent study of herbarium specimens confirmed this deter- mination and showed that an undescribed spe- VOL. 38, No. 3 cies was represented. Humiria procera is readily separated from other species of the genus by the numerous minute flowers only about 2 mm long, while the others have fewer, larger flowers usually about 4-5 mm long. In H. procera the twigs are prominently 4-winged and the leaves are distichous, abruptly acuminate, and crenulate, while in H. floribunda the twigs are only slightly winged, the leaves spirally ar- ranged, smaller, usually obtuse at apex, and entire or nearly so. The distichous leaves dis- tinguish H. procera from most species of the genus also. The following notes on the wood of Humiria procera were made by J. Edson Myer, of the Forest Service field party. Sapwood grayish white, about 5 cm thick. Heartwood dull red, becoming brownish on exposure, hard and heavy, having a specific gravity of 0.68 based upon volume when green or 0.82 based upon volume when oven dry. Texture fine and uni- form. Growth rings are indistinct due to fewer pores in denser zones; the pores are minute, thin walled, and numerous. The rays are very fine, not visible on cross section and low and inconspicuous on radial section. Wood fairly difficult to cut, rather harsh, readily polished, strong but brittle, and of medium durability. Not used much because of alleged silica content which dulls saws. Might be used for construc- tion where not exposed to the weather. Waterman (Trop. Woods 88: 1-11. 1946 (1947)) included wood samples of the collec- tions cited above in tests of decay resistance of water-soluble extractives of several tropical American woods to growth of wood-decay fungi. This species, listed as Humiria sp., was found to be nontoxic or not resistant to decay. Erythrochiton carinatus Little, sp. nov. Fig. 14 Sect. Toxosiphon (Baill.) Engl. Frutex vel arbor parva 2—5 m alta, trunco 5 em diametro. Cortex griseus, leviter asper et fissilis, decorti- eans. Folia solitaria, unifoliata; petioli (2) 4.5-7 cm longi, 1.5 mm diametro, glabri, tenues, semiteretes, apice tumido-articulati; laminae oblongo-ellipticae, 11-20 cm longae et 5-8 cm latae, basi cuneatae, apice abrupte acuminatae, integrae, papyraceae, glabrae, in- conspicue glanduloso-punctatae, venis lateral- ibus primariis ca. 12-14, angulo obtuso egredi- entibus, arcuatis, venulis reticulatis. Inflores- Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 95 Fic. 9.—Brownea disepala, + X; axis of old inflorescence, 4 X; young globose, unopened inflorescence, 3X; flower, +X. Fic. 10.—Trichilia floribunda, + X; bud, 6 X; flower, 6X. 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES centia terminalis, 17-19 ecm longa, longepedun- culata; pedunculus 11-15 em longus, sulcatus, strigillosus, apice furcatus, ca. 3-florus; flores desunt. Sepala libera, persistentia, bractei- formia, viridia, lanceolata, acuminata, reticu- lata, inconspicue glanduloso-punctata, externe fere glabra, intus dense tomentulosa, in fructu 30-37 mm longa et 4-8 mm lata, capsulis sub- duplo longiora; capsula fere ad medium 5- lobata, pallide viridis, 15 mm alta et ca. 20 mm lata, coccis 5, reticulatis, inconspicue glandulo- so-punctatis, puberulis, ca. 15 mm altis et 9 mm latis, carina prominente 1-2 mm lata, mucrone 1 mm longo; semina 2, superposita, fusea, fere laeve, 5 mm longa et 4 mm lata et crassa. Shrub or small tree 2 to 5 m tall and 5 cm in diameter. Bark gray, slightly rough and fis- sured, shredding. Common locally in under- story of mountain (wet tropical) forest. “Chiumr? Eu Oro: Piedras, altitude about 500 m, June 18, 1943, Little 6632 (Forest Service no. 98509; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1909573, TYPE). The genus Erythrochiton Nees & Mart. con- tains seven previously described species of shrubs or small trees widely but sparingly dis- tributed in tropical America from southern Mexico to Colombia, Brazil, and Peru. Engler (in Engler and Prantl, Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 19a: 288. 1931) listed five species, and two others have been added. Apparently this genus ‘ has not heretofore been reported from Ecua- dor. Specimens of both Erythrochiton brasilien- sis Nees & Mart. and this new species were collected near Piedras, El Oro. Erythrochiton carinatus belongs to Section Toxositphon (Baill.) Engl., in which the 5 sepals are free, and is distinguished in fruit from the other four species of this section by the elongate, acuminate sepals about twice the length of the capsule and by the deeply lobed capsule, with a prominent keel on each seg- ment. Tetragastris varians Little, sp. nov. Fig. 6 Arbor 25 m alta, truneo 50 cm diametro. Ramuli crassi, subteretes, brunnescentes, glab- ri, lenticellis elevatis. Folia alterna, pinnata, apicem ramulorum versus trifoliolata vel uni- foliolata, petioli 4-9 (21) cm. longi, evidenter VOL. 38, NO. 3 suleati, subancipites, glabri, supra _plani; rhaches foliorum trifoliolatorum 2—4 em longae, suleatae, glabrae, supra planae; petioluli 2—4 mm longi; laminae foliolarum late ellipticae ad obovatae, 9-20 cm longae et 5-10 cm latae, basi obtusae vel cuneatae, apice abrupte acuminatae (5-10 mm), chartaceae, integrae, venis primariis utrinque latere ca. 9-12, angulo lato divergentibus, arcuatis et prope marginem anastomosantibus, utrinque venis et venulis elevatis et prominente reticulatis, supra glabrae, subtus glabratae, minute papillosae, ad costam pilis paucissimis appressis praeditae. Paniculae laterales apicem ramulorum versus, 7-12 cm longae, multiflorae; rhaches leviter compressae, minute strigillosae, bracteatae; bracteae triangulares, acutae, 1 mm longae; pedicelli 0.5-1 mm longi; flores 4-meri (raro 5- meri), 4.5-5 mm longi; calyx 2.5 mm longus et 3mm latus, glaber, lobis 3 vel 4, triangularibus, acutiusculis, 1-1.5 mm longis, corolla anguste campanulata, 4.5-5 mm longa, externe minute strigillosa, intus glabra, ad medium in lobis 4 (raro 5) divisa, lobis lanceolatis, 2.56 mm longis et 1 mm latis, acutis, valvatis, carinatis, cras- sis, marginibus apiculoque inflexis; stamina 8 (raro 10), sub disco inserta, 1.5 mm longa, glabra, antheribus 1 mm longis; discus annu- laris, 0.7 mm longus, 2 mm diametro, glaber, margine crenatus; ovarium ovoideum, 1.5 mm longum et 1.3 mm diametro, sparse pilosum, 4- loculare (raro 5-loculare) ovulis in loculis 2; stylus brevis; stigma capitatum, 4-lobulatum (raro 5-lobulatum). Fructus deest. Large tree 25 m tall and 50 em in trunk diam- eter, in wet tropical forest. Wood used for lumber. ‘‘Quemapecho.” ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about 10 m, April 20, 1943, Little 6292 (Forest Serv- ice no. 96876; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1877653, TYPE). Six species of Tetragastris Gaertn. are recog- nized in the recent monograph by Swart (Ree. Trav. Bot. Neerland. 39: 403-419, illus. 1942), and another was published in 1939. This generic name is retained here over the technically valid, older generic name Hedwigia Sw. (1788), which is not in use. Hedwigia [Ehrh. 1781] Beauv. (1805) should be made a nomen conservandum for a monotypic genus of mosses (LITTLE, Bryologist 46: 114-115. 1943). The genus is distributed from Brazil and British Guiana to the West Indies and Central America and now Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR Fie. 11.—Symplocos ecuadorensis, 4X; flowers, PP OGeirulteel yc: Fic. 12.—Humiria procera, in- cluding fruit and two old fruits showing bony endocarp, all4X. Fic. 138.—Neosprucea pedicellata, 4 X; flower 3X. Fic. 14.—Erythrochiton carinatus, 4 X; carpels of fruit, 1X. 97 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is reported for the first time from Ecuador and the Pacific slope of South America. Tetragastris varians is easily distinguished by the broadly elliptic leaflets, which vary in number. Leaves at the ends of twigs have only 3 leaflets or 1, but apparently some leaves have more leaflets. Other species of the genus have narrower leaflets, 5 (rarely 3) to 11 in number. In the new species the calyx is glabrous, the corolla is minutely strigillose outside and glabrous inside, and the ovary is sparsely pilose. Specimens of the type collection in the U. 58. National Herbarium and Forest Service Herbarium are terminal portions of twigs with both trifoliolate and unifoliolate leaves. How- ever, the type bears, at a distance of 30cm from the apex of the twig, the base of a much longer pinnate leaf with petiole 21 cm long and with a single leaflet attached. Guarea polymera Little, sp. nov. Fig. 4 Sect. Huguarea C. DC. Arbor 12 m alta, myrmecophila, trunco 15 cm diametro. Ramuli minute et dense brunneo-glanduloso-tomentu- losi. Folia pinnata; petioli 6-7 cm longi, supra canaliculati; rhaches ca. 26 cm longi; foliolae 6- vel 7-jugae, breviter (4-5 mm) petiolulatae; laminae oblongo-lanceolatae, base acutae, apice acuminatae, membranaceae, 20-23 cm longae, 6-7 cm latae, supra glabrae, subtus incon- spicue et minute cinereo-puberulae, nervis lateralibus utrinque 12-15, ascendentibus et margine curvatis, his cum costa supra fere planibus, subtus prominentibus. Paniculae axillares 6-12 cm longae, 3-6 cm latae, ramulis minute glanduloso-tomentulosis, bracteae tri- angulares, acutae, 2-3 mm longae; pedicelli clavellati 5-15 cm longi. Flores albidi, fra- grantes, (5) 6- vel 7-meri, calyx late cupu- latus, 3 mm longus, 7 mm latus, leviter 10—16- lobatus, lobulis 0.5 mm longis, mox 3—4-fissus fere ad basin, externe brunneo-tomentulosis, intus glaber. Petala 5-7, valvata, lanceolata, acuta, leviter involuta, 10 mm longa, 3 mm lata, externe dense albido-sericeo-tomentulosa, intus glabra; tubus stamineus cylindricus, mar- gine crenulatus, 7 mm longus, 4 mm diametro, glaber; antherae 10-14, inclusae, sub margine sessiles, 1.5 mm longae; gynophorum 1 mm altum, glabrum, apice annulum glandulosum gerens, 4 mm diametro; ovarlum ovoideum, VOL. 38, NO. 3 suleatum, dense sericeo-tomentulosum, 3 mm longum, 2.5 mm diametro, 6—8-loculare, locu- lis 2-ovulatis, ovulis superpositis; stylus cras- sus, strigillosus, 3 mm longus, 1 mm diametro; stigma crassum discoideum, glabrum, 2 mm diametro. Capsula fere matura globosa, rugu- losa, brunnea, 11 mm diametro, 6—8-loculare; semina in loculo 2 superposita, atra, ca. 3 mm longa. Tree 12°m tall and 15cm in diameter, said to become larger. Twigs hollow and inhabited by ants. Wet tropical forest. ‘‘Pialde macho.” EsMERALDAS: Playa de Oro, altitude 65 m, April 30, 1943, Little 6404 (Forest Service no. 98254; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1877588, TYPE; with wood sample). This specimen is readily associated with the group of a few species in the large genus Guarea Allem. ex. L. and Sect. Huguarea C. DC. having ovaries and capsules with more than 5 cells (6 to 12). The flowers are 6- or 7- merous, rarely 5-merous, and the ovaries are 6-8-celled. Petals are 5 to 7, instead of the usual number in this genus, 4 or 5. The wood sample was identified by 8S. J. Record as Guarea. Other species with approximately the same number of carpels are G. purusana C. DC., of Amazonian Brazil, with 6—9-celled ovary but much larger fruit and dense brownish pubescence, and G. grandifolia DC., of Guiana, 7-celled but other- wise 4-merous. This Ecuadoran collection con- tains also specimens of G. syringoides C. H. Wright (?) and G. trichilioides L. Perhaps Guarea Allem. ex L. (Mant. Pl. 2: 150. 1771) should be made a nomen conservan- dum over Elutheria P. Br. (Civ. Nat. Hist. Jamaica 369. 1756). The latter was referred to Guarea by Fawcett and Rendle (Fl. Jam. 4: 215. 1920) and cited by Harms (in Engler and Prantl, Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 19bI: 129. 1940). Rendle (Journ. Bot. 50: 129. 1912) con- tended that it was unnecessary to conserve names against earlier names by Patrick Browne observing that Browne published descriptions of species only, not genera. Whether Browne’s descriptions in monotypic genera, such as Elutheria, would be valid as combined generic and specific descriptions (art. 43) is uncertain because binomial nomenclature was not adopted. Nevertheless, several generic names of Browne having priority have formally been made nomina rejicienda. Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 99 Trichilia floribunda Little, sp. nov. Fig. 10 Sect. Moschoxrylum (A. Juss.) C. DC. Arbor 10-20 m alta vel major, tr&nco 20 em diametro. Ramuli minute strigillosi. Folia alterna, magna, imparipinnata; petioli 8-11 cm longi; rhaches 30-35 cm longae; foliolae 11-14, alternae; petioluli 5-12 mm longi; petioli, rhaches, et petioluli minute strigillosi; laminae foliolarum oblanceolatae, (11) 25-33 cm longae et (5) 7-10 em latae, infimae minores, basi acutae, apice acutae, integrae, subcoriaceae, supra glabres- centes, subtus minute et sparse puberulentae vel glabrescentes, nervis lateralibus utrinque (9) 20-25, ascendentibus, marginem versus curvatis, his cum costa supra fere planibus vel leviter impressis, subtus prominentibus. Pani- culae axillares, corymbiformes, multiflorae, 20-30 cm longae, fere 20 cm latae, ramulis strigillosis; pedicelli tenues, 1-2 mm longi; flores flavo-albidi, fragrantes; alabastrum oblongo-ovoideum, 6 mm. longum et 2-2.5 mm latum; calyx patelliformis, brevissimus, sub- integer vel leviter 4- vel 5-lobulatus, 0.6 mm longus et 2.5 mm latus, externe strigillosus, intus glaber; corolla in alabastro 6 mm longa et 2-2.5 mm diametro, externe dense cinereo- strigillosa, intus glabra; tubus cylindricus, 4- lobatus (raro 3-lobatus) fere ad medium, lobis lanceolatis, obtusis, cucullatis, valvatis, leviter involutis; tubus stamineus urceolatus, 4 mm. longus, apice 6-8 denticulatus (denticulis 1 mm longis), externe glabrescens vel parce ap- presso-pilosus, intus hirtellus; antherae 6-8, vulgo 7, inter denticulos insertae, exsertae, 1 mm longae; ovarium ovoideum, cum gyno- phoro 1.5 mm longum et 1 mm latum, dense strigillosum, 2- vel 3-loculare, loculis 2-ovu- latis; stylus tenuis, inferne strigillosus, 1.5 mm longus; stigma clavatum. Fructus deest. Tree 10—20 m tall and 20 cm in diameter, re- ported to become a large tree of forest canopy. Wood said to be used for axe handles. Possibly of ornamental value because of the abundant small, yellowish-white, fragrant flowers. Wet tropical forest of northwestern Esmeraldas. “Pialde.” | ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude 10 m, April 21, 1943, Little 6323 (Forest Service no. 96852; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1877646, Type); Borbén, altitude 15 m, April 26, 1943, Little 6372 (Forest Service no. 98283; with wood sample). The very numerous flowers in this species of Trichilia P. Br. have a saucerlike calyx very slightly 4- or 5-lobed, and the 4-lobed corolla united more than half its length. This species has relatively large leaves and leaflets for the genus. 8. J. Record named the wood sample as Trichilia. Also represented in this collection are J’. hirta Land T. macrophylla Benth. Belotia australis Little, sp. nov. Fig. 1 Arbor 18 m alta vel major; trunco 35 cm. diametro. Cortex glaber, albidus. Ramuli et petioli minute dense stellato-puberuli, grisei. Petioli 8-15 mm longi. Laminae ellipticae vel lanceolatae, 9-14 cm longae, 3-6 cm latae, basi obtusae vel acutae, apice acuminatae, acumine 1—1.5 cm longo, glanduloso-serrulatae, d-nervatae, chartaceae, discolores, supra viri- des, minute sparse stellato-puberulae, subtus griseae, minute dense stellato-puberulae, pilis paucis stellatis majoribus praeditae. Inflores- centia cymosa axillaris, 3-6 cm longa, ca. 10- flora; pedicelli 3-6 mm longi; bracteae lanceo- latae, 2-4 mm longae, interdum 2- vel 3-den- tatae; pedunculus et pedicelli bracteaeque minute dense stellato-puberulae, griseae; ala- bastra ca. 8 mm longa; flores 10-11 mm longi; sepala 5, rubella, lanceolata, 9-11 mm longa, 2.5 mm lata, margine involuta, apice obtusa, cucullata, 5-nervata, externe minute dense stellato-puberula, intus fere glabra, pilis paucis stellatis praedita; petala 5, ligulata, 8-9 mm longa, 1.5 mm lata, apice 2—4-dentata, 5-ner- vata, externe sparse pubescentia, intus basi et circum nectarium stellato-pilosa, ceterum gla- bra; androgynophorum 1 mm altum, apice discum dense stellato-pilosum 3 mm diametro ferens; stamina 15, 2-3 mm longa; filamenta deorsum stellato-pilosa; antherae suboribcu- lares, 0.8 mm longae; ovarium ovoideum, 3 mm longum, 2.5 mm diametro, dense pilosum, 2- loculare, ovulis paucis; stylus 3-4 mm longus, basi stellato-pilosus; stigma 4-lobatum, lobis laciniatis, 0.6 mm longis. Capsula bilocularis, valde obcompressa, loculicida, brunnea, 15 inm longa, 20 mm lata, 4 mm crassa, basi ro- tundata, apice truncata, sparse puberula, pilis minutis stellatis et pilis stellatis multo longioribus interspersis, stylo persistente cus- pidato 3 mm. longo coronata. Semina desunt. Tree 18 m tall or larger, and 35 cm in diame- 100 ter. Bark smooth, whitish. The light-weight wood is sometimes mixed with that of balsa (Ochroma lagopus Sw.) and substituted for the latter. Scattered in cutover wet tropical forest and fields at San Lorenzo but not common. “Chillarde.’? Also improperly called “balsa.” ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about 10 m, April 19, 1943, Little 6273 (Forest Service no. 96826; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858843, Typn; with wood sample). In the genus Belotia A. Rich., T. A. Sprague (Kew Bull. 1921: 270-278. 1921) distinguished 11 species, including 6 new, distributed from southern Mexico through Central America to Panama and in Cuba and Santa Lucia in the West Indies. A. A. Bullock (Kew Bull. 1939: 517-521. 1939) later examined additional ma- terial and reduced the number of species to 9. Sprague predicted that this genus might be found later in the Pacific coast forests of Co- lombia, and this collection represents a further southward extension of Belotia to Ecuador. Belotia australis is related to B. panamensis Pittier (B. macrantha Sprague) of Panama. Pubescence in the former is finer, more minute, and gray, while the latter has the twigs and branches of inflorescence coarsely ferrugineous tomentose. The leaves of B. panamensis usu- ally are larger, rounded or obtuse at base, and with teeth more prominent. The under surface of the leaves in B. australis has finer pubescence with the larger hairs of the upper tier scattered and fewer. The flowers of B. panamensis are slightly larger. Capsules in both species are similar in size and shape, but those of B. pana- mensis are much more densely stellate pubes- cent and have shorter styles less than 3 mm long. Sprague noted that the common name “‘balsa,”’ which is applied to B. australis, is used also in British Honduras for B. campbellii Sprague. Matisia alata Little, sp nov. Fig. 16 Arbor 20 m. alta, trunco 20-30 ecm diametro. Ramuli et petioli minute stellato-tomentosi, pilis flavis, radiis numerosis, brevissimis, glandulosis, demum glabrescentes. Folia magna petiolata, petiolis 2-5 cm longis; laminae oblongo-obovatae, 15-38 cm longae, 8-18 cm latae, basi subrotundatae vel leviter cordatae, apice acutae, margine integrae vel obscure un- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 3 dulatae, penninervis, nervis lateralibus 9-12 utrinque latere, prope marginem arcuatis et anastomosantibus, subtus elevatis, venulis prominente reticulatis, supra glabratae, subtus sparse et minute stellato-puberulae. Flores solitarii, oppositifolii, 2 vel 3 apice ramulorum, magni, 7 cm longi; pedicellus crassus, curvatus, fulvus, 4-7 cm longus, 3 mm diametro; calyx anguste campanulatus, 45 mm longus, 22 mm diametro cum alis, basi attenuatus, crassus, plus minusve succulentus, ochraceus, dense et minute stellato-tomentosus, pilis glandulosis, intus dense sericeus, lobis 5 brevibus, acutis, 3-5 mm longis, alis 10, longis, angustis, usque ad 6 mm latis; petala 5, ochracea, 70 mm longa, basi connata tubo 2 mm, limbo spatulato vel obovato, obtuso, ca. 32 mm longo et 15-18 mm lato, externe dense stellato-tomentoso, intus glabro; columna staminea longe exserta, leviter curvata, 5 cm longa, 5-lobata, lobulis leviter pubescentibus, 10-16 mm longis, antherarum loculis 4-6 linearibus; ovarium 5-lobatum, 5- loculare, 3 mm longum, stellato-tomentosum; stylus 60 mm longus, 10 mm exsertus, curva- tus, stellato-tomentosus; stigma capitatum, 2 mm longum. Fructus globosus, succulentus, ochraceus, magnus, 8-10 cm diametro, calyce accrescente 6-7 cm longo, cum alis 4-10 mm latis, suffultus. Tree 20 m tall and 20-30 cm in trunk diam- eter. It is said that the large, fleshy fruits are edible. Observed also at San Lorenzo, Esmeral- das. Wet tropical forest of Esmeraldas and Pichincha, northwestern Ecuador. ‘‘Sapote,”’ “‘sapotillo.”’ ESMERALDAS: Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April 12, 1943, Little 6244 (Forest Service no. 96751; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858828, TypE). PiIncH- INCHA: between Santo Domingo de los Colora- dos and Quinindé, April 7, 19438, Little 6197 (Forest Service no. 96867); April 8, 19438, Little 6200 (Forest Service no. 96785; in fruit). More than 20 species of the genus Matisia H. B. K. have been described, a third of these in 1945-1946. This genus of small to medium- sized trees ranges from. Brazil to Colombia and Keuador and north to Panama and Costa Rica. Some of the species apparently are of local range. In this Ecuadorian collection are M. cordata Humb. & Bonpl., a cultivated species, M. coloradorum R. Benoist, an Ecuadorian species found again at the type locality, and two species proposed here as new. Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN BCUADOR 101 AY Ae Cc ING / \ <7) Yypy «\\" a Ze, TZ ny Fic. 15.—Clusia polystigma, including bud and immature fruit, all 4X. Fic. 16.—Matisia alata, 1X; flower, 3X. Fig. 17.—Clusia plurivalvis, including separate staminate flowers and fruits, all 3 X. Fic. 18.—Matisia grandifolia, § X; flower, about 1X. 102 Matisia alata, one of the few species with pinnately veined leaves, is distinguished from other species of the genus by the prominent wings on the calyx, to which the specific name refers, and by the large flowers, which are orange or brownish in color. The 10 conspicu- ous wings of the calyx tube are longitudinal, narrow, slightly curled projecting ridges, start- ing at the base of the calyx and reaching a maximum width of 6 mm. near their rounded ends of the apex of the calyx. The 5 wings oppo- site the calyx lobes are larger, while the alter- nate wings are smaller and shorter or may be almost absent. Matisia grandifolia Little, sp. nov. Fig. 18 Arbor parva, 5 m alta, trunco 5 cm diametro. Ramuli et petioli dense et minute stellato-to- mentosi, pilis multiradiatis, glandulosis. Folia magna, petiolata, petiolis 1-1.5 cm longis, 4 min diametro; laminae late ellipticae, 50-60 em longae, ca. 28 cm latae, basi rotundatae, apice acuminatae, margine integrae vel obscure un- dulatae, penninervis, nervis lateralibus 12-14 utrinque latere, prope marginem arcuatis et anastamosantibus, subtus elevatis, venulis prominente reticulatis, supra glabrae, subtus minute stellato-puberulae. Flores pauci, soli- taril, oppositifolii, 3-3.5 em longi; pedicellus brevis, leviter curvatus, 5-7 mm longus; brac- teis 3, basi floris, subulatis, 3-6 mm longis; calyx anguste campanulatus, fulvus, 22-25 mm longus, 8 mm diametro, uno latere 10-12 mm fissus, lobis plerumque cohaerentibus, saepe 2-4, sinubus 2-7 mm longis, alis 10 longis, angustis, 1 mm latis, dense et minute stellato- tomentosus, pilis glandulosis, intus dense seri- ceus, petala 5, in sicco rubida, anguste oblan- ceolata, apice obtusa, 30-34 mm longa, 4-5 mm lata, externe apice appresso-stellato-tomentosa; columna staminea 17-20 mm longa, apice le- viter pubescens, 4- vel 5-lobata, lobulis 3-9 mm longis, antherarum loculis ellipticis usque ad 8; ovarium conicum, 5-loculare, 3-4 mm longum, stellato-tomentosum; stylus 24 mm longus, 3 mm exsertus, stellato-tomentosus; stigma 5- lobatum, lobulis obtusis, fere 2 mm longis. Fructus deest. Small tree 5 m tall and 5 cm in diameter, said to become larger. One tree seen in cacao plantation, wet tropical forest area. ‘‘Peni- mon.” JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 3 PicuincHa: Santo Domingo de los Colora- dos, altitude 560 m, April 7, 1943, Little 6146 (Forest Service no. 96782; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1858834, TYPE). This species is characterized by unusually large, pinnately veined leaves, by the short pedicels, and by the calyx split on one side, with 10 narrow wings or ridges. Clusia plurivalvis Little, sp. nov. Fig. 17 Arbor dioica, recta, extensa, 15 m alta, trunco 30 cm diametro. Cortex fuscus, leviter asper, fissus, latice alba. Ramuli crassi, teretes. Folia petiolata; petioli 1.5-4 em longi, 4-7 mm lati, leviter alati; laminae ovales vel obovatae, (8) 12-24 cm longae, (5) 8-14 em latae, basi obtusae vel acutae, apice rotundatae, valde coriaceae, nervis lateralibus numerosis, paral- lelis, sub angulo ca. 60—-70° adscendentibus. Inflorescentia terminalis, capitata, pauciflora pedunculo crasso, 2.5-4 em longo, 6 mm dia- metro, floribus sessilibus. Flores masculi magni, 5 em diametro; bracteae calycinae rotundae, 4-9 mm longae, 8-13 mm latae, obtusae, carinatae; sepala 4—6, biseriata, late rotundata, obtusa, concava, coriacea, 2 inferiora minora 6-10 mm longa et 15 mm lata, superiora 10-15 mm longa et 12-20 mm lata; petala 5, obovata, 28-32 mm longa, 20-25 mm lata, obtusa, in vivo alba, basi incarnata vel ochracea; stamina in disco convexo 5-6 mm alto et 10-13 mm dia- metro inserta, numerosissima, spissa, fere sessilia, antheris 1.5 mm longis, longitudina- liter dehiscentibus; staminodia in globo re- sinoso 5 mm diametro apice disci aggregata. Flores feminei desunt; sepala in fructu per- sistentia, similia sepalis florium masculorum; staminodia nulla. Capsula succulenta depresso- globosa, 17 mm alta et 21 mm diametro, 13- 16-locularis et 13—16-valvatis; stigmata 13-16, peltata, radiata, sessilia, triangularia, plana, 8 mm longa et 2-3 mm lata, atra, in disco 17 mm diametro; semina in loculis 2. Large, erect, widely spreading tree 15 m tall and 30 cm in trunk diameter. Bark dark brown, slightly rough, with white latex. Common and with another, probably undescribed species of Clusia (Little 6769) a dominant tree species of the dry mountain forest in ravines at Huigra. Common name “lamai,” according to Rose. CHIMBORAZO: Huigra, altitude 1300 m, July 17, 1943, Little 6768A (Forest Service no. ero Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 98525; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857089, TyPE; with fruits). Little 6768 (Forest Service no. 95852; with staminate flowers). Little 6768B (Forest Service no. 98526; with staminate flowers). Huigra, Aug. 19, 1918, J. N’. Rose and George Rose 2223 (U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1021907; with fruits and staminate flowers but also containing larger, detached, sectioned fruits of a different species). Rose and Rose 2223 bears the note, ‘‘ ‘Not at Kew’ N. L. Blritton]. Sept. 1920.’ Clusia plurivalvis is not readily placed in the proper section in the latest summary of Clusia L. by Engler (Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 42: 103 199-204. 1925). It seems to be in subgenus Thysanoclusia Vesque and related to section Euclusia Planch. & Triana, which differs in having the connectives elongate and pointed. In this species the numerous stamens are crowded and almost sessile in a convex disc, which bears a central resinous mass of stami- nodia. The number of carpels in the ovary in this species, 13-16, is very high. Of the species in which the number of carpels is known, only afew, such as C. flava Jacq. with 12-14 car- pels, C. cuneata Benth. with 16, and the new species described below have more than 12 carpels. os Fic. 19.—Aspidosperma elatum, +X; fruit, 3X. 104 Clusia polystigma Little, sp. nov. Fig. 15 Epiphyta magna, scandens, arborea, dioica, 10 m alta, trunco 10 em diametro. Ramuli crassi, teretes. Folia subsessilia, obovata, 15-20 em longa, 8-11 em lata, basi angustata et sub- petioliformes, apice obtusae, valde coriaceae, nervis lateralibus numerosis, parallelis, sub angulo ca. 50° adscendentibus. Flores masculi desunt. Inflorescentia feminea terminalis, race- mosa, pauciflora, rhache 6 cm longa, bracteata, bracteis oppositis, late ovatis, 5-8 mm longis et 6-10 mm latis; pedicelli 3-6 mm longi; bracteae calycinae 2 late rotundatae, 3 mm longae et 5-6 mm latae, obtusae, crassae; sepala 4-6, biseriata, late rotundata, obtusa, coriacea, minora 2 inferiora, 7-11 mm longa et 9-12 mm lata, 2-4 superiora 15-16 mm longa et 12-18 mm lata; petala 6 vel 7, obovata, 32-34 mm longa et 22-24 mm lata, obtusa, in vivo albida, leviter incarnato-tincta; cupula staminodialis 3-4 mm longa, 12 mm diametro, apice leviter lobata; ovarium cylindricum, 4 mm longum, 6 mm diametro, sulcis longitudi- nalibus et loculis 16-19, loculis multiovulatis; stigmata 16-19, radiata, sessilia, anguste tri- angularia, 5-6 mm longa et 1.5 mm lata, atra, connata in annulo 4-5 mm longo et 8-9 mm diametro. Capsula succulenta immatura sub- globosa, 18 mm longa et 16 mm diametro, sul- cata, stigmatibus sessilibus coronata. Large woody vine 10 m tall and 10 cm in trunk diameter, epiphytic on a tree of Ficus sp. nov. (Little 6356) left in a clearing, wet tropical forest. ‘‘Matapalo.”’ ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about 10 m, April 28, 1948, Little 6355 (Forest Service no. 98245; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857080, TyPs). In the absence of staminate flowers, this species of Clusia L. cannot be definitely placed as to section. When more material is available, this species perhaps may be included in sub- genus Thysanoclusia Vesque, section Huclusia Planch. & Triana, according to the summary by A. Engler (Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 21: 199-204. 1925). The large, 6- or 7-petaled flowers suggest affinities with this section. This species is readily distinguished by the very high number of carpels, 16-19, apparently more than have been recorded previously in this genus. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 3 Neosprucea pedicellata Little, sp. nov. Fig. 13 Arbor parva, 10 m alta, trunco 20 em dia- metro, ramulis teretibus griseis, minute ap- presso-pubescentibus. Folia petiolata, pe- tiolis appresso pubescentibus, 12-16 mm longis; laminae ellipticae, 10-20 cm longae, 6-10 cm latae, membranaceae, basi subrotundatae, apice attenuatae, margine remote obtuseque glanduloso-serratae, e basi distincte tripli- nerviae, glabrae nervis subtus minute paullo appresso-pubescentibus exceptis. Racemus la- teralis laxus divergens, pauciflorus (2 vel 3), 5-6 em longus; rachis et pedicelli subangulati, minute denseque tomentosi; pedicelli 25-30 mm longi; flores magni, albidi, sepala et petala similia, valvata, persistentia, utrinque breviter denseque appresso-tomentosa; sepala 4, basi leviter connata, ovata, 16-17 mm _ longa, 5-7 mm lata, acuminata, 5—-8-nervata; petala 4, ovata, acuta, carinata, 15-17 mm longa; stamina numerosa; filamenta filiformia, 2 mm longa; antherae linearae, hirsutae, 5 mm longae; receptaculum dense hirtum; ovarium globosum, fere glabrum, 5 mm diametro, semi-5—7-loculare, placentis parietalibus pro- minentibus; stylus crasse filiformis, 9 mm lon- gus; stigmate truncato. Fructus deest. Small tree about 10 m. tall and 20 cm. in diameter, wet tropical forest. PICHINCHA: Santo Domingo de los Colorados altitude about 560 m, April 2, 1943, Little 6152 (Forest Service no. 96909; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858861, TYPE). Neosprucea Sleumer (Notizbl. Berl. 14: 47. 1938), a monotypic genus of the Flacourtiaceae, was based upon WN. grandiflora (Spruce) Sleu- mer (Notizbl. Berl. 44: 47. 1938), originally described as Banara grandiflora Spruce (Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 5. Suppl. 2: 93. 1861). The type was collected at Tarapoto, Peru, by Spruce, and the species now is known from the Atlantic slope in Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. The sec- ond species, N. pedicellata, represents an ex- tension of range of the genus to Ecuador and possibly the first record on the Pacific slope. N. pedicellata is a distinct species readily separated from the type species by the follow- ing characters: leaves membranaceous (instead of chartaceous); leaves mostly larger, broader, and rounded at base; petioles slightly longer; Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR greatly elongated pedicels 25-30 mm iong; and larger flowers. Though N. grandiflora was described by Sleumer with a spikelike raceme and pedicels only 2 mm. long, Mutis’ specimens from Colombia have pedicels 10 to 20 mm. long. Symplocos ecuadorensis Little, sp. nov. Fig. 11 Subgenus EHusymplocos Brand, sect. Symplo- castrum Brand, subsect. Ciponimastrum Brand. Arbor 15 m alta, trunco 20 cm diametro. Ra- muli leviter hirsuti. Folia petiolata, petiolis hirsutis, 5-8 mm longis; laminae oblanceolatae, 5-10 cm longae, 2.5—-4 cm latae, basi cuneatae, apice abrupte acuminatae, remote crenulatae, subcoriaceae, lucidae, supra glabrae, subtus parce hirsutulae, costa et venis primariis subtus prominentibus. Paniculae axillares, 1-2 cm. longae, rachibus hirsutis, bracteis ovatis, hir- sutis, ciliatis, 1 mm longis; flores 7-8 mm longi, subsessiles; calyx 2—2.5 mm longus, hypanthio campanulato ca. 1 mm longo, glabro, lobis 5, late ovatis, ciliatis, 1-1.5 mm. longis; corolla alba, 6-7 mm longa, tubo ca. 3 mm longo, lobis 5, ellipticis, obtusis, apice ciliolatis, 3-4 mm longis et 2 mm latis; tubus stamineus tubo corollae adnatus, 1 mm longus; stamina 28-32 triserialia; filamenta complanata, 0.2-2.5 mm longa; ovarium fere omnino inferum, 1.5 cm. altum, apice pilosum, 3- vel 4-lobulatum. Fruc- tus baccatus, cylindricus, lobis calycinis et basi styl coronatus, 10 mm. longus, 5 mm diametro, 3- vel 4-locularis. Tree 15 m tall and 20 cm in diameter. Two trees were seen in a pasture, cleared wet trop- ical forest. ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about 10 m, April 22, 19438, Little 6349 (Forest Serv- ice no. 98370; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858685, TYPE). Though the genus Symplocos Jacq. is widely distributed with about 300 species in tropical and subtropical America, Asia, and Australia, most species have restricted ranges. This ma- terial from the poorly explored Ecuadorian province of Esmeraldas could not be assigned 105 to any of the species from northwestern South America. Aspidosperma elatum Little, sp. nov. Fig. 19 Arbor magna, 35 m alta; trunco 1 m dia- metro, profunde suleato et angulato. Cortex fere laevis, leviter fissus, albido-griseus. Ra- muli subteretes, puberuli. Folia alterna, non congesta, internodiis 4-7 cm longis, petiolata, petiolis fusco-puberulis, 1 cm longis; laminae magnae, oblongo-oblanceolatae, chartaceae, 22-26 cm longae, 7-9 cm latae, basi subrotun- datae, apice acutae vel obtusae, fere glabrae, supra virides, subtus glaucescentes, costa leviter puberula, supra canaliculata, subtus elevata, nervis lateralibus utrinque 13-16, fere rectis, prope marginem leviter arcuatis, subtus elevatis, secundariis inconspicuis. Inflorescen- tiae desunt. Mericarpia magna, compressa, suborbicularia, 10-12 em longa, 9-10 ecm lata, 2 cm crassa, externe dense fusco-tomentosa, pericarpio lignoso, 5-8 mm crasso; semina plano-compressa, suborbicularia, 9 em longa, 7 cm lata, alis latis, papyraceis. Large tree of forest canopy, to 35 m tall and 1 m in trunk diameter. Easily recognized in the field by the odd, fluted trunk with deep, branching, vertical grooves. Bark smoothish, slightly cracked, whitish-gray. Wet tropical forest at Pichilingue. ‘‘Naranjo de monte.” Los Rios: Pichilingue, altitude about 45 m, May 25, 1948. Little 6517 (Forest Service no. 98223; U.S. Nat. Herb., Typr). The genus Aspidosperma Mart. & Zuce. is widely distributed in tropical America from Mexico and the West Indies to Brazil and Ar- gentina, centering in Brazil and represented in northwestern South America by only a few species. Four species were recorded from Col- ombia by Standley (Trop. Woods 36: 13-20. 1933). The herbarium material of Aspido- sperma elatum, which consists of foliage and detached fruits, seems sufficiently distinctive, as the leaves and fruits are larger than in most species. Apparently this is the second species of Aspidosperma recorded from Ecuador. 106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 3 HERPETOLOGY.—A collection of salamanders from Mount Rogers, Virginia.’ RicHarp L. Horrman and Husertr |. Kirrnrerer. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) Although White Top Mountain, Va., is well known to students of salamander dis- tribution, and is subjected to periodic dep- redation by different collectors; its ad- jacent neighbor to the northeast, Mount Rogers, has apparently escaped the atten- tion of most herpetologists. The absence of any particular road to the summit of Mount Rogers may be partly responsible for this neglect. When, in the summer of 1947, we had the opportunity to be in southwestern Vir- ginia, we avoided White Top believing that we could make no particular contribution by further depleting its already well-known herpetological fauna. Instead a period of three days was spent on Mount Rogers. Our station was located on the eastern slope, in Grayson County, at an elevation of about 4,500 feet, from which one all-day journey was made to the top, as well as many short trips in the general region about the camp. The lower slopes of the mountain are thickly forested with a mesophytic flora which might be characterized as a maple- hemlock-dogwood association, with com- paratively little undergrowth of herbaceous plants. Although fir and spruce trees are widely scattered, the extensive stands are restricted to the uppermost 500 or 600 feet of the knob. Here red spruce, Picea rubra (DuRoi) Dietr., and southern fir, Abies fraserz (Pursh) Poir., seem to comprise the entire evergreen forest, the latter being by far the more abundant. The ground is com- pletely covered by mosses and thick car- pets of the wood sorrel, Oxalis acetosella L. A striking feature of the evergreen stands is the large number of logs and stumps, all in approximately the same stage of de- composition. The more level parts of the top are covered by heavy growths of vari- ous ferns. From a physiographic standpoint, the Balsam Mountains (of which White Top and Mount Rogers form the bulk) are char- 1 Received October 20, 1947. acteristic of the Southern Section of the Blue Ridge Province. White Top has previ- ously been designated part of the Iron Mountains, but the recent Mount Rogers Quadrangle (q.v.) of the U. 8. Geological Survey ranks the Iron and Balsam Mountains as separate units. Although a rather large number of sala- manders was encountered, they represented but a few species. The contrast between the salamander fauna of White Top and Mount Rogers is interesting in that the following species reported from the former were not found by us on Mount Rogers: Triturus v. viridescens, Desmognathus monticola, Ple- thodon c. cinereus, P. g. glutinosus, P. yonahlossee, and Pseudotriton ruber nitidus. It is difficult to account for the apparent absence of several of these species, whereas at least one other form which is scarce on White Top (Plethodon wellerz), is extremely common on Rogers. In the case of P. yonah- lossee, it is not inconceivable that we col- lected above its maximum elevation prefer- ences. The lower slopes seemed very favor- able for P. glutinosus, but the only Pletho- don found there was metcalfi, which was present in considerable numbers. In addition to the salamanders which (with the exception of a small series of a strange Desmognathus reserved by the jun- ior author for further examination) have been donated to the United States National Museum, the following amphibians and rep- tiles were found on Mount Rogers: Bufo ter- restris americanus, Lampropeltis t. triangu- lum, and Thamnophis s. sirtalis. One speci- men of the last named was seen sunning itself on a rock at approximately 5,500 feet; the others were all seen near our station at 4,500 feet. | We take pleasure in indicating our grati- tude to Drs. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., and Arnold B. Grobman for help in preparation of this paper, and to Dr. Doris M. Cochran for courtesies attendant upon our visits to the National Museum. Mar. 15, 1948 HOFFMAN & KLEINPETER: SALAMANDERS FROM MOUNT ROGERS, VA. LIST OF SPECIES Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Rafinesque) Six specimens, which were not presented to the Museum, were collected in a large seepage area located in a cleared saddle on the northeast side of Mount Rogers. This species was not represented farther down in the stream em- anating from the spring. Desmognathus ochrophaeus carolinensis Dunn Sixteen individuals, U.S.N.M. nos. 124455- 70, were collected at elevations from 4,500 to 5,700 feet. The species seemed to be equally common in evergreen and deciduous forests. Desmognathus quadramaculatus quadra- maculatus (Holbrook) Nine specimens, mostly large adults, U.S.N.M. nos. 124471-79. On July 2 we col- lected in a small but cold and swift stream on the eastern slope of the mountain at an eleva- tion of about 4,300 feet. This species was es- pecially common; most of the specimens found being under submerged rocks in rapids. The largest specimen included in our series meas- ures 78 mm from snout to vent, a size not ap- proached by specimens from farther north in Virginia. Desmognathus wrighti King Two adults, U.S.N.M. nos. 124480 and 124634, were collected at an elevation of ap- proximately 5,600 feet. They were found in rotting logs in company with Plethodon wel- lertx. Mount Rogers is the northernmost locality at which this diminutive salamander has been found. Plethodon metcalfi Brimley Hight specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 124412-18, 124631. This species shares with D. o. carolinen- sis the distinction of being one of the two most abundant salamanders on Mount Rogers, and the size of our series is in no way indicative of the abundance of the animal. In the evergreen forests, metcalfi occurred all the way to the very summit of the mountain, although less common on the top; in and under logs but notinstumps. Plethodon welleri Walker Eleven specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 124442- 49, 124632-33. The size of the series serves to 107 indicate the relative abundance of this hereto- fore supposedly rare species. Far more were collected than were retained. It was not until we were several hundred yards within the evergreen forest that we found the first wellerz, but thereafter almost every log or stump ex- amined contained one and occasionally two specimens. Most frequently, welleri was found in decaying, moss-covered stumps, usually in the upper portion. Individuals found in logs were usually lying with the body in a ‘‘U’”’—the end of the tail near the head. Many of them remained still and were easily caught. One log, nearly at the top, was found to con- tain two females with their eggs. This log, seem- ingly identical with many others investigated, was supported about 18 inches above the ground. The females were discovered in small crevices in the damp wood, about 6 inches apart, an inch under the surface of a layer of moss. Both were curled around the eggs, and showed some reluctance to leave them. In fact, one, on being dislodged, moved back after a short time. The larger clutch contained nine eggs, which were slightly pear-shaped and averaged 4.2 (3.6—5.0) mm in the largest diame- ter. We could detect no particular pedicles, and the eggs clung together by the adhesive nature of the outer envelopes. The smaller clutch in- cluded seven eggs, which are arranged in a ring of five with one above and below at the center. In color, the eggs were a light creamy yellow, and no trace of embryos could be discerned within. The mothers differed in size in accord- ance with the number of eggs, the larger meas- uring 47 mm snout to vent (87.5 mm total length) and the smaller 43.5 mm snout to vent (79.1 mm total length). It is interesting that of the many wellert seen, the only two with egg masses were in the same log. We wonder if it was due to coincidence or to a tendency of the females to congregate at a sort of Wochenstube where conditions for hatching and growth (not apparent to humans) are optimum. Mount Rogers is the fourth locality reported for this form, and it is probably more abundant there than at any other place. Only a dozen or So specimens have been taken altogether on White Top, thus its abundance on Mount Rogers is the more interesting, particularly in view of the fact that we covered such a small area. 108 Gyrinophilus sp. One larval specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 124487. This individual was found in the stream noted above under D. q. quadramaculatus and was but one of several seen in this and the rivulet where D. f. fuscus was secured. We expended several hours in a particular attempt to ob- tain adults, which seem to have escaped the efforts of White Top collectors as well. One would expect the adults, from geographic prob- ability, to be Gyrinophilus danielst. An attempt which was made to raise the larva to trans- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 3 formation was unsuccessful. Collectors who visit the Balsams in the future should make special efforts to obtain adult specimens. Eurycea bislineata wilderae Dunn Two adults, U.S.N.M. nos. 124484, 124629, were taken, of which one was found under a rock in a marshy area at about 4,900 feet on the east side of the top. The second example was discovered in a thick leaf pile along the side of the creek mentioned above under D. q. quadra- maculatus. ORNITHOLOGY .—The races of the silver-breasted broadbill, Serilophus lunatus (Gould). Through the kindness of the authorities of the Chicago Natural History Museum (C.N.H.M.), the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (A.N.S.P.), and the American Museum of Natural History (A.M.N.H.), I have been enabled to add to the series of the silver-breasted broadbill in the United States National Museum (U.S.N.M.) to make a total of 93 specimens. From the taxonomic point of view, this has proved to be a highly unsatisfactory species. While the races may be immedi- ately broken into three main groups, in accordance with the color of the lores (black, rusty, or ashy), further subdivision hinges upon such subtle factors as the extent and intensity of tones of gray and brown and is complicated by a certain degree of individual variation in almost any given character. Thus, while subspeciation appears in all the zoogeographic areas where such might be expected, yet it is a matter of the greatest difficulty to set forth intelli- gible diagnoses, even when these apply, not to individuals, but to series. In the diag- noses given below, only characters that possess subspecific importance will be noted; it may be said at once that no con- sequential variation has been found in measurements or in the complicated pat- terns of wing and tail. With the understanding that Serzlophus rubropygius (Hodgson) represents a closely 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received July 18, 1947. H. G. Derenan, U. 8. National Museum. allied but independent species, I find the following populations of S. lunatus ap- parently worthy of nomenclatorial recog- nition: 1. Serilophus lunatus polionotus Rothschild Sertlophus lunatus polionotus Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 14: 7. Oct. 30, 1903 (Mount Wuchi, Hainan). Diagnosis ——The lores black; the sides of the head and the ear coverts pale ashy ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy gray, this color changing insensibly to the pale ashy ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy gray; the lower back rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Hainan. Specimens examined.mHAINan: Wuchi (10 males, 3 females). Mount 2. Serilophus lunatus elisabethae La Touche Serilophus lunatus elisabethe La Touche, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 42: 14. Oct. 29, 1921 (Hokow, elev. 300 feet, southeastern Yunnan Province, China). Diagnosis——The lores blackish; the sides of the head and the ear coverts pale ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Mar. 15, 1948 DEIGNAN: THE RACES OF THE SILVER-BREASTED BROADBILL Range—The valley of the Red River from the Chinese frontier to its mouths and thence southward into northern Annam. Specimens examined.—YUNNAN: Southeast: Hokow (1 female); ANNAm: Thanhoa Province: Lunglunh (2 males); Vinh Province: Phuqui (1 female). 3. Serilophus lunatus impavidus, n. subsp. Type—C.N.H.M. no. 90275, adult male, collected at Thateng (lat. 15°31’ N., long. 106°22’ E.), Saravane Province, Bas-Laos, on December 6, 1931, by Jean Delacour (original number 743). Diagnosis.—The lores black or blackish; the sides of the head and the ear coverts pale ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back brownish ashy; the lower back chestnut- rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the inner- most secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Bas-Laos (Boloven region). Specimens examined.—Bas-Laos: Saravane Province: ‘‘Boloven Plateau” (1 male), Tha- teng (4 males, 4 females), Ban Kok (1 male), Pakse (1 male, 1 female). Remarks—This race is very near to S. l. elisabethae, with which it has been heretofore confused, but is easily distinguishable, es- pecially in series, by the predominantly ashy hue of the scapulars and upper back. Certain examples of true elisabethae seem to approach it in this respect but prove to be less well- made skins, in which the grayish bases of the feathers are exposed to view. In series also the reds of crown, nape, lower back, rump, upper tail coverts, and innermost secondaries average slightly paler in zmpavidus than in elisabethae. 4. Serilophus lunatus aphobus, n. subsp. Type—U.S.N.M. no. 330375, adult male, collected on Khao Laem ( a mountain of the San Kamphaeng Range at lat. 14°25’ N., long. 101°30’ E.), at the southwestern corner of the eastern Siamese Plateau, on December 28, 1930, by Hugh M. Smith (original number 4432). Diagnosis.—The lores blackish rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ferrugi- nous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of the crown 109 and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost second- aries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Eastern Siam. Specimens examined.—St1am: East: Ban Lam Thong Lang (1 male), Khao Laem (1 male, 1 female). Remarks.—The present form is similar to both S. l. elisabethae and S. 1. impavidus, but separable from either by having the lores blackish rusty instead of black, and the sides of the head and ear coverts a rather more vivid ferruginous. The color of the scapulars and upper back is intermediate between those of elisabethae and impavidus. A male from Khao Soi Dao and another from Ban Bang Phra, localities in extreme south- eastern Siam, are near aphobus but have the reds slightly deeper in tone. For the present they must be left unnamed. 5. Serilophus lunatus atrestus, n. subsp. . Type-—A.M.N.H. no. 143346, adult male, collected at Mengting (lat. 23°33’ N., long. 99°05’ E.), western Yunnan Province, China, on February 19, 1917, by Roy C. Andrews and Edmund Heller (original number 492). Diagnosis —The lores blackish rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts bright ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the bright ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the lower back chest- nut-rufous, this color changing to rufous- chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Northeastern Burma; Northern and Southern Shan States; western Yunnan; Haut-Laos; Tongking (west of the Black River-Red River divide); northern Siam (eastern provinces. ) Specimens examined—YUNNAN: West: Mengting (1 male); SourHERN SHAN STATES: Kengtung State: Mong Len (1 male); Siam: Northeast: Muang Lom Sak (1 male); Havut- LAOS: 5° Territoire Militaire: Muong Yo (2 males, 2 females); Tonexine: Laichau Proy- ince: Muong Mo (1 male). Remarks——This race is distinguishable in series from S. 1. aphobus by the more vivid 110 tones of the reds of the sides of the head, ear coverts, and upper parts. From S. l. elisabethae it may be separated by having the lores blackish rusty instead of black, and by having the reds of the sides of the head, ear coverts, and upper parts distinctly lighter and brighter. 6. Serilophus lunatus lunatus (Gould) Eurylaimus lunatus Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon- don 1 (12): 133. Apr. 16, 1834 (‘‘apud Ran- goon’’; type locality here restricted to the hills of the Pegu District, Pegu Division, Burma). Eurylaimus lunatus Gould, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lon- don 1 (2): 176, pl. 25. Apr. 23-25, 1834 (‘“‘apud Rangoon, Peninsule Indie ulterioris’’). Diagnosis——The lores rusty or blackish rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the lower back rufescent, this color changing to chestnut-rufous on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries rufous-buff. Range.—Pegu Yomas; Karenni; Tenasserim (south to the Amherst District); northwestern Siam (including Chiang Rai Province). Specimens examined.—Siam: Northwest: Chiang Saen Kao (1 male, 2 females), Wiang Khae (1 female), Ban Muang Sum (1 male), Doi Pha Hom Pok (1 male, 1 female), Doi Hua Mot (1 male, 2 females), Doi Chiang Dao (1 male, 2 females), Doi Suthep (1 male, 2 females), Doi Khun Tan (1 male, 2 females); TENASSERIM: Salween District: Papun (1 male). Remarks.—The population I have taken to represent S. /. lunatus is immediately separable from all except the next following by the pale coloration of its innermost secondaries. It must be said, however, that no topo- typical material has been available to me, and the assumption that the bird of Pegu is the same as that of northwestern Siam rests only upon zoogeographical probability. The colored portrait of ‘‘lunatus’’ in Gould’s Birds of Asia is, as observed by Hume (Stray Feathers 3: 53. 1875), altogether too brightly colored; that given in the Trans. Zool. Soc. London could as easily picture the race described below from southwestern Siam. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 3 7. Serilophus lunatus intrepidus, n. subsp. Type.—A.M.N.H. no. 203342, adult female, collected 28 miles southeast of Ban Um Phang (a village at lat. 15°47’ N., long. 98°50’ E.), southwestern Siam, on February 2, 1924, by Arthur S. Vernay (original number 611). Diagnosis—The lores rusty or blackish rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the lower back chestnut- rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the inner- most secondaries rufous-buff. Range.—Southwestern Siam and the adja- cent parts of Tenasserim (Amherst and Tavoy Districts). Specimens examined.—TENASSERIM: Am- herst District: ‘“Thaungyin valley” (1 male), “Thoungyin” (1 male), Moulmein (1 male), headwaters of the Mepale Chaung (1 female), Mitan (1 male); Sram: Southwest: 17 miles east of Lakya, Tenasserim (1 female), 28 miles southeast of Ban Um Phang (1 male, 1 female), 20 miles west of Muang Kamphaeng Phet (1 female). Remarks.—S. l. intrepidus is distinguished from all races except lunatus by the light- colored innermost secondaries. From lunatus itself it is separable only by the richer colora- tion of the posterior upper parts, in this show- ing normal intergradation between the more northern form and S. 1. stolidus. It is probable that the differentiating charac- ter of the race would appear more strongly in specimens from more southerly localities; in default of such material, I have selected as type locality the most southern provenience repre- sented in my series. 8. Serilophus lunatus stolidus Robinson and Boden Kloss Serilophus lunatus stolidus Robinson and Boden Kloss, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 40: 16. Dec. 8, 1919 (Khao Nong, a mountain in peninsular Siam at lat. $°55’ N., long. 99°38’ E.). Diagnosis —The lores ashy rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ashy ferrugi- nous; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the pale ashy ferruginous of the hindcrown and nape; the Mar. 15, 1948 DEIGNAN: THE RACES OF THE SILVER-BREASTED BROADBILL scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut- rufous. Range.—Peninsular Siam (south of lat. 11°40’ N.); Tenasserim (Mergui District). Specimens examined.—Si1am: Peninsula: Khao Luang, at lat. 11°40’ N., long. 99°35’ E. (1 female), Khao Luang, at lat. 8°30’ N., long. 99°45’ BE. (3 males). “1 Remarks—Compared with “lunatus’’ from the Isthmus of Kra, Robinson and Boden Kloss found that stolidus had “‘deeper-coloured inner secondaries and tertiaries”’ and “‘slightly more drab, less fulvous ear coverts.’’ One would not ordinarily expect isthmian examples (lat. 10° N.) to differ in any important way from those of Khao Nong (lat. 8°55’ N.), and the fact that the single specimen from lat. 11°40’ N. is indistinguishable from those of lat. 8°30’ N. seems to show that only one race occurs in the Siamese portion of the Peninsula. 9. Serilophus lunatus rothschildi Hartert and Butler Serilophus rothschildt Hartert and Butler, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 7: 50. May 25, 1898 (Gunong Ijau, elev. 3,000 feet, Perak State, Malaya). Diagnosis——The lores pale ashy; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ashy or brown- ish ashy; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the brownish ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range—Malaya (northern Perak to south- ern Selangor). Specimens examined—Mataya: Perak State: Gunong ITjau (2 females); Selangor State: Ginting Bidei (2 females). 10. Serilophus lunatus moderatus Chasen Serilophus lunatus moderatus Chasen, Treubia 17 (2): 187. July 1939 (Palok, near Mount Leuser, elev. ca. 1,000 meters, Achin, northern Su- matra). Pit Diagnosis—The lores blackish ashy; the sides of the head and the ear coverts ashy or brownish ashy; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the brownish ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Northern Sumatra (Achin). Specimens examined.—Sumatra: North: Bandar Bahru (1 male), Blangnanga (2 males, 2 females), Blangbeke (1 male, 1 female), Kungke (1 female). Remarks.—This form seems to be separable from rothschildi only by its darker lores. 11. Serilophus lunatus intensus Robinson and Boden Kloss Serilophus lunatus intensus Robinson and Boden Kloss, Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 73: 276. July 1916 (Siolak Dras, Korinchi Valley at elev. 3,100 feet, southwestern Sumatra). Diagnosis—The lores blackish ashy; the sides of the head and the ear coverts brownish ashy; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the brownish ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep ashy brown, lightly suffused with rufous; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous- chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous. Range.—Sumatra (excepting Achin). Specimens examined.—SuMatTRa: Southwest: Siolak Dras (2 males, 1 female). Remarks.—Meyer de Schauensee and Ripley (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 91: 336. 1940) have combined moderatus with rothschildi but have kept intensus as a “thin” race, barely separable from their rothschildi-moderatus. All Sumatran birds seen by me, however, are easily distinguishable from true rothschildi by the color of the lores. To my-eyes, the real problem is to divide moderatus from intensus, and this seems to be just possible in series by the tone of the brown of the scapulars and upper back. 112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 3 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY MEETING OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The Executive Committee met in the Cos- mos Club at 8:10 p.m. on February 2, 1948, to consider the budget submitted by the Treas- urer. The President, F. D. Rossin1, presided; others present were: H.S. RapPpLEYE, WALTER RaMBERG, W. L. Scumitrt, and C. L. Gazin. After careful consideration of the separate items, the Committee unanimously approved the following budget for 1948: Item Amount Operating Expenses: Meetings Committee..... $ 500 SECKEUCATY?. cnc oe nl ole cae 400 ELKEASUTET {Oe ek Stet ee 250 Sa Nid (Ceol Pubs: 50 $1,200 Journal: Printing, mailing, illustra- tions, & reprints....... $4,776 Editorial Assistant....... 300 Miscellaneous...) -/aen.e 50 85,126 Total expenditures. ... $6 , 326 Estimated receipts......... 6,144 Dehenties: {25k Nes $ 182 In view of the evident deficit the Committee turned its attention to ways and means of in- creasing the Academy income so that running expenses in the future might be met from yearly income without depleting the invested assets. Discussion was centered about two means: in- creasing the number of paying members and initiating a drive for JouURNAL subscriptions. About 18 vacancies exist in the Academy membership, and an informal discussion the Committee showed agreement in favor of rais- ing the limit of membership to permit a greater income from this source. With regard to the possibility of obtaining additional funds from new subscriptions, the Secretary was instructed to inform the Custod- ian and Subscription Manager of Publications that the Executive Committee is desirous of having the Subscription Manager attempt to secure these subscriptions through distribution of approximately 100 copies of an appropriate issue of the JouRNAL, each with a reprint of the index of the JouRNAL for 1947 and a covering letter to various university and scientific insti- tution libraries in this country and abroad not now subscribing to the JoURNAL. The meeting was adjourned at 9:55 p.m. C. L. Gazin, Secretary. Obituary Rosert HamiItTon LOMBARD was born in Ashburnham, Mass., on December 3, 1887, and died on October 11, 1947. He was graduated from Cushing Academy in Ashburnham in 1906, and from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1910 with the 8.B. degree. While at M.I.T. he was research assistant in physical chemistry. He published papers with Prof. M. DeKay Thompson and Prof. A. A. Noyes, un- der whom he worked. He obtained his Ph.D. degree at Columbia University in 1915 in chemistry and was an instructor there. He pub- lished two papers with Prof. Alexander Smith, one dealing with phosphorus pentachloride and the other with ammonium halides. From 1915 to 1927 Dr. Lombard was em- ployed as a chemist in the Geophysical Labo- ratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, where he conducted research on the sys- tem copper-iron-sulphur. He published three papers on this work, with E. T. Allen and H. KE. Merwin as co-authors. For the last 20 years Lombard was a research chemist in the Norton Company, Research Laboratories, at Worcester, Mass. He made important contributions to the abrasive in- dustry, and a number of patents, both domestic and foreign, have been granted covering his developments. Most of his researches were connected with the vitrified bonding of grind- ing wheels and other abrasive products. The most important new product resulting from his work is a grinding wheel having diamonds as the abrasive grains and a new-type vitrified bond. This product is superior to resinoid bonded and metal bonded diamond wheels in that the diamonds are held more firmly and efficiently while, at the same time, a freer cut- ting action is obtained. . Dr. Lombard was a member of the honorary scientific societies Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda Upsilon. He was a member of the American Chemical Society, the Washington Academy of Sciences, the American Fern Society, and the Worcester Chemists’ Club and was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His hobbies included botany and photography, and he had a collection of fine cameras. He was a member of the First Baptist Church of Worcester. He is survived by his wife, Hazel Soule Lom- bard, and a 12-year old daughter, Anne. L. H. MILLIGAN. - Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences Rete. wee eeeeeeeeseeseeLREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards | Seoretary eee & Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum Treasurer. Sa REE ate ae ne See em -Howarp S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey RR PeNIUIS. 2 hae 8 e ; .NATHAN R. SMirH, Plant Industry Station _ Custodian and Subscription Mo anager of Peiblepgignte 2 fis: eee Toe Gade co ee eer, CA ARALD AL REHDER, U. S. National Museum View Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington...... SA. ree aK Sos WaLTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington.................... T. Date STEWART Paolosieal Society of Washington. 2.02. 6 ee JOHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington.......... Bees Soap ete CHARLES E, WHITE Entomological Society of Washington................... C. F. W. MursEBECK _ National Geographic Society..... A Te eS, EN GRE ak SRR HEU ALEXANDER WETMORE w(seolopical Society of Washington... 0. 602252. es Winuiam W. Rusey ‘Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK O. CoE aoe Wolumbia Historical Society... 2.2... ....6. kat GILBERT GROSVENOR - = tovanical society of Washinfton........2 006. ee ek RoNALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.. ... Wintr1amM A. Dayton Washington Society Ol Mee iner Esa So OSs ous sms be alee we CLIFFORD A. BETTS Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers.......... RY het Meer ne Bal Se ce Se Sp ai oars 6a Nee ee FRANCIS. B. SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers..............5 RE epee fo katie pce 3 Seal oe SE ere & aes a a> abe tus oS Wore y we MartTIn A. Eason: Helminthological Society of Washington nk pe tate tee OR cee AUREL O. FosTER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists ies Lore A. ROGERS Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH Elected Members of the Board of M sagen To January 1949...:........ cegeee ap at Max A. McCati, Watpo L. Scumitt weeuannary 19505 SoS o . ..........F. G, BrRICKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL Timwantary 1951 23.55 5.....% ....-.FRANCIS M. DEFANDORF, WILLIAM N. FENTON PMTM OPE ONOUCTS ..0 35.0 0s bos tek Se 0s All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors............000eeeees fare ee [See front cover] _ Executive Committee......... FrREepErRIcK D. Rosstn1 (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, 2 OS ais ....Watpo L. Scumirr, Howarp S. Rappieye, C. LEwis GazINn Committee on M embership yards SNR Lae ee Mantis Sereno w peuk ea Cl ‘a-atale ie «ie es? Harotp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis Ww. Butz, ©. “WYTHE Cooxs, WILLIAM +-+-.--.. W. Direut, Liuoyp D. FEtToN, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorcr G. Manov Committee MIR GOTO OE Po i BT Ss sic wade a RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman), tenes acd RANK P, CULLINAN, _Frep L. Monuer, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONE ~ Committee on M ae To January 1949........... Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN To January 1 aera es more nas Roitanp W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER To January 1951..... Se eee eget ls WiuuiAM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzrELp, general chairman): Mame BIOIDP IGN! OLENGES 5 eS ica altos ha wale esis vee be beads EEN . F. W. Mvusseseck (chairman), Harry 8. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons, ELMER Hiecins, Mario Motuarl, GOTTHOLD STEINER, ‘L. Epwin Yocum Por the Engineering SM NS 5 SRE Re Tig ee gaa a en eae Harry Dramonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Rosert C. Donean, HERBERT N. Eaton, Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. SurcuFrE For eee CRMC SIMONE 20 or katie, te la Pi ask in Ee ca we Cates. we se kat «Kart F,. Herzreip (chairman), NATHAN L. DRAKE, Luoyp D. FELTON, - HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, ROBERT SIMBA, MicHaE. X. SULLIVAN ‘Garmitiee MeL Uraticeu-utd. gor Wiseartn Be i a ln ce ek dels ce oki wece ..F. H. H. Roserrts, Jr. ri tae Anna E., Jenkins, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY _ Representative on Council of eee, PA cee Sets he eae cs Ace ar eae FRANK THONE Rommitce.0; Auditors). 5. cen ee See pee cone as Sats ei hate Weg See ONS ae Writam G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), H AROLD F. Stimson, HERBERT L. HALLER Commitee of Tellers............ Ee pee Csi ss Rorwaie wa eke Sens oe aot - JOHN iw McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. BATES, Witutam A. WiLpHAcK PurLoLoy.—English-language surnames of biological origin. 1 SiAIONS. «pe ve een “Rican L. Horraa and Huperr LK K ~ 4 A aye : Se ’ ngs = > = = ~ ; = af ' ‘ ; ; ¥, i‘ , } fe x3 5: “ = ~s as 7 - * P. ny a ¢ wa —* pF i ay ‘ ck ; S Si t 3 = : 7 a - ‘ < > : Eee ee ia J = ~ 5 ee m= x ‘a y ‘ 4 . 2 a x -: [mar BOARD OF EDITORS ee ALAN SronE | Frank C. Kracex a , BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY aN _ PLANT QUARANTINE | t . a ah PN a 4 . a . : aN aes _ ASSOCIATE EDITORS Sen hss Ae eer op: Ricuarp E, BLACKWELDER ae Uae : Mae - ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY , ua. Ml Gay ien Nie James 8. Wittiams | Pane) re wp ig ys et GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY SE as ah Waxpo R. WEDEL Ce hes ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Irt ©. 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Ezchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other - societies. 5 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 38 APRIL 15, 1948 No. 4 BIOCHEMISTRY .—The chemical nature of enzymes.! JAMES BATCHELLER SUM- NER, Cornell University. Why was it difficult to isolate an enzyme? Here I employ the word “‘isolate’”’ as mean- ing preparing in pure condition. It does not seem difficult to isolate and crystallize an enzyme now, but it was difficult 20 years ago. The reasons were several. One was the inertia of men’s ideas. Another reason was the influence exerted by Willstatter and his school, who held that enzymes were neither lipids, carbohydrates, nor proteins and who believed enzymes to exist in ex- cessively low concentrations in plants and animals. The misconception that colloidal substances had a chemistry different from that of crystalloids was another stumbling block. A yet more important reason why enzymes could not be isolated readily was because work with these substances requires a special technique. The enzyme is present in relatively low concentration in the raw material. It often is highly unstable. The raw material nearly always contains natural protectors which are left behind during the purification processes. In the absence of these natural protectors, the enzyme may become destroyed by traces of heavy metals, by oxidation, by unfavorable pH, or even by autolysis. I wish to tell next why I decided in 1917 to attempt to isolate an enzyme. At that time I had little time for research, not much apparatus, research money, or assistance. I desired to accomplish something of real importance. In other words, I decided to take a “ong shot.’”’ A number of persons advised me that my attempt to isolate an 1 Nobel Laureate Lecture delivered at Stock- holm, Sweden, December 12, 1946. Previously published by the Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. 113 } > P. ig , A » (Communicated by Waxpo L. Scumirt.) enzyme was foolish, but this advice made me feel all the more certain that if success- ful the quest would be worth while. The reasons why I chose to work with urease were several. I had been working with urease as a reagent for the estimation of urea in muscle, blood, and urine. This urease was prepared from soy bean meal. In 1916, Mateer and Marshall found that the jack bean, Canavalia ensiformis, con- tained about 16-fold more urease than the soy bean. The jack bean appeared to me to be extraordinarily rich in urease and I could see no reason why this enzyme could not be isolated in pure form and charac- terized chemically. Claude Bernard has said that success or failure may depend upon the lucky choice of some reagent or raw material. Willstatter was unfortunate in his choice of saccharase as an enzyme to isolate. I was fortunate in choosing urease. I hoped that urease would turn out to be a globulin, since globulins usually, if not always, are present in beans and seeds, and since globulins are easy to precipitate by dialysis. Other reasons for choosing urease as the enzyme to isolate were that this enzyme can be estimated quantitatively very accurately and readily, and that urease could be expected to be one enzyme, rather than a mixture of enzymes, acting as it does on such a simple substrate as urea. I started trying to isolate urease in the fall of 1917, having been occupied previ- ously with analytical methods. At this time, our laboratory contained no adequate apparatus for grinding jack beans. We first used a coffee mill and then ground the coarse material with a mortar and pestle. Years later, we constructed a mill which was run by an electric motor and which BPR 2 3 194E 114 employed a bolting device, However, in the meanwhile we usually used commercial jack bean meal. This commercial meal was not always satisfactory. The jack bean is a miniature world in itself and contains all of the elements re- quired for life, growth, and reproduction. I decided to isolate and characterize as many as possible of the chemical compounds pres- ent in the bean. I found various minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, extractives, pigments, and enzymes to be present. Par- ticular attention was paid to the proteins of the jack bean, since I expected to find that urease was one of these. I isolated two globulins in crystalline form and named these concanavalin A and concanavalin B. A third globulin which I called “‘canavilin”’ separated as spheroids upon dialysis. Years later Howell and I were able to crystallize this, after a preliminary digestion with trypsin. Many years later we discovered that concanavalin A is a hemagglutinin for the red cells of certain animal species as well as an excellent precipitant for certain polysaccharides. A lipid fraction of the jack bean was observed to function as a thromboplastic agent. In attempting to concentrate and purify urease, I employed fractional precipitation with alcohol, acetone, and other organic solvents. Fractional precipitation with am- monium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and other neutral salts was tried. I tested a large number of salts of heavy metals or precipi- tants. I employed a very large number of reagents as absorbents. This work covered many years. At times I grew discouraged and temporarily abandoned the quest, but always returned to it again. At first we used to extract urease from jack bean meal with water. These aqueous extracts were viscous and therefore very difficult to filter. Glycerol extracts were even more bothersome. I learned that Folin used 30 percent alcoholic extracts of jack bean meal as a source of urease for analytical purposes. It was found that ex- traction with 30 percent alcohol was of distinct advantage, inasmuch as this sol- vent dissolved most of the urease but failed to dissolve a rather large quantity of the other proteins. Hence, a considerable JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4 purification was achieved through the use of this solvent. The alcoholic extracts filtered very rapidly, leaving the undis- solved material behind on the filter paper. The only disadvantage of 30 percent alco- hol lay in the slow inactivating action of this solvent upon the urease. However, if kept at low temperatures, there was no inactivation of the enzyme. When kept at low temperatures, 30 per- cent alcoholic extracts of jack bean meal formed precipitates. These precipitates con- tained practically all of the urease, together with concanavalin A, concanavalin B, and other proteins. At this time we had no ice chest in our laboratory and we used to place cylinders of 30 percent alcoholic extracts on our window ledges and pray for cold weather. It seemed to me of interest to employ dilute acetone instead of 30 percent alcohol and to see whether this substitution would result in any improvement in the method of purification. Accordingly I diluted 316 ce of pure acetone to 1,000 cc and used this as the means of extracting the urease. I rou- tinely employed this dilution of acetone, since I had been preparing 30 percent alco- hol through diluting 95 percent alcohol in this manner. The acetone extract was chilled in our newly acquired ice chest over- night. The next morning I examined the filtrate. It contained practically no precipi- tate, thus differing from alcoholic filtrates. However, upon observing a drop of the liquid under the microscope, it was seen to contain many tiny crystals. These were of a shape that I had never observed previously. I centrifuged off some of the crystals and observed that they dissolved readily in water. I then tested this water solution. It gave tests for protein and possessed a very high urease activity. I then telephoned to my wife, ‘‘I have crystallized the first enzyme.”’ } Now I should like to tell this audience what enzyme crystals look like. This de- scription applies also to proteins, since enzymes are proteins. Enzyme crystals are nearly always microscopic, since these compounds, being of high molecular weight, diffuse relatively slowly and_ therefore crystallize slowly. Enzyme crystals belong Apr. 15, 1948 nearly always to the isometric or hexagonal systems. Sometimes enzymes separate from solution as spheroids. This formation indi- cates a tendency to crystallize, as Dr. Northrop can tell you from his experience. Spheroids are nearer the crystalline state than purely amorphous material, such, for example, as casein which has been precipi- tated from milk by the addition of acetic acid. Spheroids have sometimes been found by us to be aggregations of many needles either in parallel or concentrically arranged. Having convinced myself that I really had isolated urease in crystalline form, I read a paper on this matter at Clifton Springs, N. Y., and published an article in the August number of the Journal of Biological Chemistry for the year 1926. But now a difficulty arose. The commercial jack bean meal which we had been using suffered a decline in quality and we could obtain no urease crystals from it unless we added a small amount of acetic acid to the alcoholic filtrates. Even then, the yield of crystals was low. Analyses showed that the recent samples of jack bean meal contained only about one-half as much urease as the ear- lier samples. Accordingly, attempts were made to obtain satisfactory meal, or satis- factory jack beans. We grew jack beans in one of the Cornell greenhouses. The beans grew poorly and the yield was less than the number of beans planted. We obtained jack beans from Texas, Guatemala, and Honduras, but these were low in urease. I happened to meet a plant physiologist, Dr. Albert Muller, who said he would grow me some jack beans at Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico. I gave him about a kilo of jack beans rich in urease, the last I had left. Some seven months later about a bushel of beans ar- rived from Puerto Rico. These beans were rich in urease. The finely ground meal gave a high yield of urease crystals. Later we were able to obtain excellent jack beans from an Arkansas farmer. He has supplied us with jack beans ever since. I wish to speak now about. proofs of the identity of the crystals with urease. In cases of this sort, one piece of experimental evidence is not sufficient to constitute a valid and satisfactory proof; one must sub- mit many pieces of evidence. At this time SUMNER: THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYMES 115 I had no access to the ultracentrifuge of Svedberg nor to the electrophoresis appara- tus of Tiselius. However, I was able to offer evidence of another sort, as is shown below: 1. When the crystals separated there occurred a great increase in purity, namely from 700 to 1,400-fold. Using other methods the increase in purity observed was very much less than this and at times there even occurred a decrease in purity. 2. When the distribution of urease was followed quantitatively it was found that of the urease passing into the filtrate as much as 40 percent or more separated with the crystals. 3. Recrystallization increased the purity of the urease. 4. Adding traces of poisons, such as mercuric chloride or formaldehyde, to jack bean meal inactivated the urease and, at the same time, prevented the appearance of the crystals. In obtaining the crystals, I felt much the same as a person does who is trying vainly to place in position a piece of a machine. Suddenly the piece slides in as if covered with butter. One knows that it is now where it belongs. During later work on crystalline urease, I was fortunate to have a number of excel- lent men in our laboratory. These were Doctors Hand, Kirk, Poland, and Dounce. We found that trypsin neither digested nor inactivated urease. Since trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme of second attack, it does not digest certain native proteins readily. Some proteins that are digested with great difficulty are hemoglobin, oval- bumin, and the serum proteins. After urease had been denatured by acid or by heating, it was found to be very readily digested by trypsin. Pepsin acts best in a strongly acid me- dium and strong acid rapidly destroys ure- ase. However, at pH 4.3 we found that urease was so slowly destroyed that it was possible to demonstrate a parallel digestion and inactivation by pepsin. In place of pepsin it was possible to use papaincysteine. In our laboratory Dr. J. Stanley Kirk was able to immunize rabbits to crystalline urease. Kirk started by giving rabbits as little as 0.03 mg of crystalline urease intra- 116 peritoneally. This dose was given twice weekly and was finally increased to 1,000 lethal doses. The immunized rabbits con- tained antiurease in their blood serum. This antiurease could be purified by precipitat- ing it by adding urease, washing the urease- antiurease precipitate, decomposing the complex with 0.05 N hydrochloric acid, bringing to pH 5.0, and centrifuging down the denatured urease. The antiurease was not harmed by this treatment and could be employed as an excellent precipitant in testing for urease. It gave a visible precipi- tate with solutions of urease diluted 1 to 500,000. However, urease allowed to stand for a few seconds with 0.05 N hydrochloric acid and then neutralized gave no precipi- tate with antiurease; neither did it possess any urease activity. ‘ Northrop has made good use of physical methods to demonstrate the identity of pepsin with his pepsin crystals. While we have not employed such methods, Kubo- witzand Haas, working in Warburg’s labora- tory, have demonstrated that ultraviolet light is absorbed by highly dilute solutions of crystalline urease and that exactly the same wavelengths that are absorbed are those which destroy urease. In 1930, Northrop of the Rockefeller Institute obtained pepsin in crystalline form. A short time later, Northrop and Kunitz obtained crystalline trypsin, crys- talline chymotrypsin, and also the zymo- gens oi these enzymes in crystalline form. Their monumental work was of very great help in bringing the scientific world to ad- mit that enzymes can be isolated in pure and crystalline condition. In this connec- tion I wish to note that Professor von Euler aided me greatly when I worked on urease in his laboratory at Stockholm’s Hégskule in 1929 and that I received valuable help in 1987 while working in the laboratory of Prof. Thé Svedberg at the University of Upsala. The announcement of the crystallization of urease and pepsin was not accepted by some biological chemists. In Germany stu- dents of Willstatter attempted to show that our crystalline proteins were merely carriers of the enzymes. It suffices to say that these attempts to disprove our work failed, as JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 they were bound to fail, since Northrop and I were right and since our evidence was unassailable. To date about thirty enzymes have been obtained in crystalline and in presumably pure condition. Certain enzymes are col- ored, being combinations of specific pro- teins with such prosthetic groups as ribo- flavin, phosphate, or hematin. Theorell has crystallized the yellow enzyme of War- burg and Christian and, remarkably enough, has been able to split the protein from the riboflavin phosphate and later to reunite these two components. He has shown con- clusively that the union of these compo- nents proceeds stoichiometrically. The enzymes catalase and peroxidase are compounds of protein with hematin and these two enzymes possess characteristic absorption bands. This property has greatly facilitated the crystallization of these two enzymes. In addition, it should be noted that these two enzymes have been shown to form compounds with hydrogen sulfide, sodium fluoride, sodium azide, etc. All enzymes are proteins but not all pro- teins are enzymes. Many, if not all enzymes can be crystallized. The oxidizing enzymes all appear to be conjugated, or compound, proteins, while the hydrolytic enzymes are, as far as we can tell, without prosthetic groups. However, even hydrolytic enzymes must have reactive groups. Every enzyme requires a specific method for its purifica- tion. Our present methods of purifying both enzymes and proteins are crude and unsatisfactory for the most part. It is fairly certain that better methods will be dis- covered in the near future. One can purify an enzyme either by precipitating the im- purities or else by precipitating the enzyme. The latter procedure is to be preferred, but the former procedure often is necessary at the beginning. When I speak of precipitat- ing the enzyme I mean, of course, a more or less specific precipitation and not a general precipitation of everything, much as occurs on adding a great excess of alcohol or ace- tone. Some day every enzyme in living matter will have been discovered and described. Every chemical reaction which goes on will have been recorded. We probably can ex- Apr. 15, 1948 pect to find some enzymes which are glyco- proteins, others which are lipoproteins, and others which are nucleoproteins. In 1917, the role played by enzymes was only partially understood. Digestive en- zymes were well known, autolytic and oxi- dative enzymes were somewhat known, but not well understood. At present we realize the tremendous complexity of the cell. In muscle alone, some 60 enzymes are known to occur. Thanks to relatively recent in- vestigation, practically all of the compli- cated reactions involved in the breaking down of glycogen to carbon dioxide and water have been made clear. The organic chemist has never been able to synthesize cane sugar, but, by using en- zymes, the biological chemist can synthesize not only cane sugar, but also gum dextran, gum levan, starch, and glycogen. We know now of the existence of enzymes which employ phosphoric acid instead of water and which might be given the general _ term ‘‘phosphorases.’”’ There are the phos- phorylases, transphosphorylases, phospho- BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION 117 isomerases, phosphomutases, and phospho- dismutases. From the work of Cori and his associates, we now have evidence that hormones func- tion through their effect on enzymes. Thus, glucose is transformed into glucose-6-phos- phate when it reacts with ATP in the pres- ence of the enzyme known as hexokinase. This reaction, essential for utilization of glucose, is inhibited by the diabetogenic hormone coming from the anterior pitui- tary. This inhibiting action is abolished by insulin. We can sum up by saying that, as the re- sult of discoveries in the field of enzyme chemistry, some questions have been an- swered and many new questions have arisen. We live in an expanding universe in more senses than that of the astronomers. In conclusion, I wish to pay tribute te my former teacher, Otto Folin, who emigrated as a boy of 17 from SmAaland to America and who, as professor of biochemistry at Har- vard, inspired me as he did many other young men. CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the field of adsorption. Raupu A. BEEBE, Amherst College. At the outset I think it is desirable to distinguish clearly between physical ad- sorption and chemisorption, and with that in view I have tabulated below a number of characteristics of each type of process: Physical Adsorption Chemisor ption 1. Rapid Rapid or slow 2. Reversible Often irreversible 3. Low heat High heat 4. Non-specific Specific 5. Multilayer Monolayer only Since this comparison should perhaps be discussed in some more detail, attention is called to the following: 1. Physical adsorption is generally a rapid process whenever the surface is read- ily accessible to the gas or vapor being ad- sorbed, although one may encounter a slow 1 Address delivered before the Chemical Society of Washington, March 1946, on the occasion of the awarding of the Society’s Hillebrand Prize to Dr. Stephen Brunauer. Dr. Beebe’s preliminary congratulatory remarks are here omitted. Re- ceived September 24, 1947. (Communicated by JAMzs I. HorrMan.) adsorption when it is necessary for the ad- sorbate to diffuse into cracks or capillaries to reach the adsorbing surface. Chemisorp- tion, on the other hand, like chemical reac- tions in general, may be rapid or slow, and frequently displays a temperature coeffi- cient requiring an activation energy of the order of magnitude found in chemical reac- tions. 2. Physical adsorption is in general re- versible, and it is possible to remove the adsorbate from the surface by outgassing at the temperature of adsorption or at slightly elevated temperatures. Chemisorp- tion, on the other hand, may be truly ir- reversible, indeed to such an extent that the adsorbate can be removed only by chemical action at elevated temperatures. For instance, oxygen chemisorbed on tung- sten can be removed only by heating to about 2000°C. Other chemisorbed layers, however, can be removed by less drastic treatment, let us say by outgassing at 118 temperatures of a few hundred degrees above that at which the adsorption process takes place. 3. In general, the heat of adsorption which indicates the energy of binding of the adsorbate molecules to the solid surface is of a low order of magnitude in the case of physical adsorption, usually two to three times the heat of vaporization for the first portions of adsorbate added to the surface. This means that for such gases as nitrogen, oxygen, argon, or carbon monoxide, all of which boil at temperatures approximately that of liquid air, the heat of adsorption will not exceed 5 kcals per mole. With larger molecules, such as butane, we en- counter higher heats of physical adsorption, which, however, do not exceed 15 to 16 keals per mole. Again one finds a marked difference in chemisorption, the heats of this process, like those of ordinary chemical reactions, running as high as 100 kcals per mole in certain instances. 4. Although, as is pointed out in Dr. Brunauer’s book (1), there has never been given an exact definition of the term spe- cificity as applied to adsorption, yet this term is of some use in a qualitative sense. It may be said that in the case of physical adsorption the heats evolved tend to be nonspecific to the chemical nature of the gases or vapors involved if these adsorbates have molecular weights, and therefore heats of vaporization, of the same order of mag- nitude. For instance, one finds that the four substances mentioned above have heats of adsorption of the same order of magnitude. However, we shall see in a later portion of this paper that we must not generalize too far about this nonspecificity of physical adsorption, and that, indeed, significant differences become apparent’ especially when we study the physical adsorption of the same adsorbate on different surfaces. As might be expected, the heat of adsorption in chemical processes is highly specific and may vary all the way from, let us say, 15 keals to 100 keals in different instances. In this respect, of course, chemisorption again resembles chemical reactions in general. 5. It has been well established by the work of Dr. Brunauer and others that the forces which give rise to chemisorption ex- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~ vou. 38, NO. 4 tend to a negligible extent beyond the monolayer of adsorbed molecules. On the other hand the work of the group with which Dr. Brunauer has been associated seems to establish beyond reasonable doubt that we are concerned in physical adsorption with the formation of multi- layers of adsorbate on the solid surface (2). With this background, we are now pre- pared to turn to a discussion and review of of some of the significant work to which Dr. Brunauer has contributed. In making a selection from Dr. Brunauer’s experiments, I have chosen the work that has been es- pecially helpful to my own investigations. In Fig. 1 are shown the isotherms ob- tained by Emmett and Brunauer (3) for the adsorption of carbon monoxide on two iron catalysts at the temperature of liquid oxy- gen. Looking first at the isotherms for the pure iron catalyst, it is evident that the curve labeled ‘‘total adsorption” lies very much above the “physical adsorption” curve. For reasons which have been abun- dantly established by the group with which Dr. Brunauer has been associated, the points labeled B on each curve represent approximately the completion of the sta- tistical monolayer of physically adsorbed gas. Thus the volume indicated by Point B in the “physical adsorption” curve is the volume of gas required to complete a layer of carbon monoxide molecules in direct con- tact with the solid surface. The curve la- beled ‘‘total adsorption”? was obtained by outgassing the sample at 400°C and then admitting carbon monoxide to the system at —183°C. After this experiment, the sur- face was outgassed at —78°, or indeed within the range from —78° to 0°, the tem- perature of outgassing not being very criti- cal within this range. Following the out- gassing process, the adsorption of carbon monoxide was again measured and was found to follow the curve labeled ‘“‘physical adsorption.’”’ Emmett and Brunauer inter- preted these experiments to indicate that in the initial experiment the carbon monoxide was adsorbed first as a chemisorbed layer with the carbon monoxide molecules held by relatively strong chemical bonds to the underlying atoms, and next as a physically adsorbed layer on top of the chemisorbed Apr. 15, 1948 molecules. On outgassing in the tempera- ture range from — 78° to 0°C, the physically adsorbed molecules were removed, but the thermal energy was insufficient for the re- moval of the chemisorbed layer, with the result that the extent of physical adsorption could be determined by a subsequent ad- sorption measurement. It is obvious then that the difference in heights of the two curves represents chemisorption. From the isotherms for the promoted iron catalyst given in Fig. 1, it is evident again that the two types of adsorption process can be separated. In this case, the relatively large physical adsorption appears to indi- cate that the small percentage of promoter material present in the catalyst must cover a relatively large fraction of the surface since it is assumed that carbon monoxide is chemisorbed only on that fraction of the surface in which the iron atoms are exposed, but is physically adsorbed on the whole sur- face. This deduction comprises an impor- tant contribution by Emmett and Brunau- er to the understanding of promoter action. Following the completion of these experi- ments, Dr. Emmett suggested to me that it would be worth while to apply to this prob- lem the technique developed at Amherst for the calorimetric measurement of heats of adsorption. In Fig. 2 are shown the re- sults of these calorimetric experiments (4). Emmett and Brunauer, from an interpreta- tion of their curves, would have predicted that the chemisorption process would be superseded by physical adsorption after 0.24 ce and 0.21 cc of carbon monoxide at —78 and —183° respectively had been ad- sorbed per gram of catalyst. The initial high values in the differential heats of ad- sorption, of course, indicate chemisorption at 0°, —78°, and even at —183°, although the heat values are lower at the latter tem- perature. The sharp drop in the heats of adsorption at —78° to the region of 4 kcals per mole at 0.25 cc per g, the point pre- dicted by Emmett and Brunauer as a result of the analysis of their isotherms, supplies experimental confirmation of the validity of their interpretations. This confirmation from the heat data at — 183°, while not so strikingly apparent, is nevertheless seen to be present. BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION 119 Next we shall turn our attention to an- other important facet of the work to which Dr. Brunauer has contributed heavily. I refer to the experimental and theoretical development of the theory of multimolecu- lar adsorption, known as the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller theory (2). In the early development of the experimental work, Emmett and Brunauer came to the tenta- tive conclusion that the monolayer is com- plete at the Point B of the characteristic isotherms obtained in many adsorption sys- tems and illustrated in Fig. 1. This conclu- sion was found to be consistent with the theoretical considerations developed by Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller. The funda- mental equation most generally used is given below: Iv( If it C-1 p/v(po— P) Oe p/Po- In this equation, v represents volume of vapor adsorbed, p the equilibrium pressure, ADSORPTION IN CC AT S.T.P. Gy PRESSURE Fic. 1.—Isotherms for CO on iron catalysts at —183°: Pure iron catalyst, 973; promoted iron catalyst (K:O, 1.59 percent, and Al:O;3, 1.3 per- cent), 931. 120 and po the saturation pressure of the vapor at the temperature of the experiment, v» the volume of gas necessary to fill the mono- layer, and C a constant which is approxi- mately defined as C=e1-£)/RT jn which EH, is the heat of adsorption in the first layer, and Hy, is the heat of vaporization, and R and 7 have their usual meaning, Ey, E,, and R being expressed in calories and 7’ as the absolute temperature. It is apparent that a straight line should be ob- tained if the function (p/v(po—p)) is plotted against p/po, and indeed literally scores if not hundreds of cases provide experimental data which conform to this condition. From such a plot, known as the B.E.T. plot, it is possible to obtain the slope and intercept of the straight line, and from these to calcu- late the values of v,, and of C. Knowing vm and making an estimate of the area occu- pied by the adsorbate molecule on the sur- face, we can calculate the surface area. Obviously such an estimate of surface area, especially on finely divided or porous solids, is a welcome additional technique in the field of adsorption, and as a result has come into very wide use. It will become apparent, Diff. heats, heal. /mole : 03 0.6 0.9 Vol. ads. c/a. Fia. 2.—Heats of adsorption of CO on catalyst 931; —1835,0O7 @; —12 pee OF": JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 I think, in the experiments to be described below, that our ability to estimate the sur- face area has added greatly to the signifi- cance of the interpretation of the experi- mental results. Now I want to tell you about some work we have been doing in Amherst on the heats of adsorption of vapors on carbon black (5). This work was initiated about a year ago as a result of a series of conversations between the writer and Dr. Walter R. Smith of Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc. At that time Dr. Smith was especially interested in getting at the fundamental reasons for the effectiveness of carbon blacks in reinforcing rubber. The investigations in his laboratory had indicated that different carbon blacks presented a very high degree of specificity in their reinforcing ability, especially as de- termined by the modulus of elasticity. It is apparent, since the carbon black is dis- persed through the rubber as particles of the order of several hundred Angstroms di- ameter, that the binding forces between the particles of black and the rubber must be adsorption forces between the surface of the blacks and the adjacent sections of the rubber molecules. Following this line of reasoning, one would be tempted te predict that a close correlation might be found be- © tween the extent of surface of a carbon black pigment and its reinforcing ability. That the above prediction is not borne out by the experimental facts is shown in Table 1, which contains data on two sam- ples selected from the several blacks which have been studied; these are labeled Spher- on Grade 6 and Graphon respectively. More TABLE 1 2 Modulus, Sample Diameter | Area 300% elone. - eet ES A sq. m./g. | lb. sq. in. Spheron Grade 6........ 285 110 1,720 Graphons.is eee 300 85 230 complete data on these blacks especially as regards the chemical composition of their surfaces and their underlying crystal struc- ture have been published elsewhere (4). Spheron Grade 6 is a channel black having good rubber reinforcing ability. The Graph- on has been prepared from the Spheron Apr. 15, 1948 pause 7 Dee Mears. Fic. 3.—Heats of adsorption on carbon blacks at —195°C: Ne on Spheron Grade 6, O; Ne on Graphon ©@. Grade 6 by electrical heating to tempera- tures of 2,800 to 3,000°C (6). As is seen in Table 1, this heating process had relatively little effect on the particle diameters as de- termined by the electron microscope and on the specific surface areas as determined by the B.E.T. nitrogen adsorption method, al- though there was a profound effect on the rubber reinforcing ability as indicated by the modulus of rubber samples reinforced by the two pigments. Although there appeared to be no definite correlation between the extent of surface and the rubber reinforcing ability, it seemed possible that there might be a significant difference in state of surface if the two blacks were compared. Since a convenient means of testing the quality or state of sur- face of these carbon black samples seemed to be offered by data on heats of adsorption, calorimetric measurements have been un- dertaken using the elementary gases nitro- gen, oxygen, and argon at —195°C (7). The results of the experiments with nitrogen are shown in Fig. 3 in which the differential heats of adsorption are plotted against the BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION 121 number of layers adsorbed (v/v,,=1 repre- sents a monolayer). In relation to the rubber reinforcing prob- lem, the difference in behavior of the Graph- on and the Grade 6 black is of great interest. It is apparent that although the high tem- perature treatment, by which the Graphon was made from the Grade 6 carbon black, resulted in a relatively small change in the total surface of the black, this treatment nevertheless produced a profound change in the energy state of the surface, with the re- sult that approximately the first third of the surface would hold adsorbate molecules considerably less firmly than the original Spheron Grade 6. Thus there appears to be a correlation between the rubber reinforcing abilities of the two blacks and the energy states of their surfaces as indicated by the heats of adsorption. Apart from the problem of rubber rein- forcement several other conclusions of con- siderable general interest may be drawn from the data of Fig. 3. (1) The order of magnitude of the heats indicates that the process is exclusively physical adsorption. (2) The rapid decrease in the differential keal. /mole Diff. heats, Fic. 4.—Heats of adsorption of Spheron Grade 6 carbon black at 0°C: n-butane, O; 1-butene, @; cis-2-butene, @; trans-2-butene, &. 122 heats of adsorption for the first parts of the surface covered on the Grade 6 carbon black suggests a considerable heterogeneity of the surface with the fractions first cov- ered exhibiting excessively high binding energies. (3) The rapid approach in the vicinity of v/vm=1 of the differential heats for nitrogen on all the carbon surfaces studied to values only slightly greater than H,, the heat of vaporization of nitrogen, provides experimental confirmation of the B.E.T. theory since the value of v,, is deter- mined from the experimental data by a method which is entirely dependent upon this theory. Calorimetric studies with the elementary gases oxygen and argon produced results entirely analogous to those for nitrogen, the adsorption of both these gases being ex- clusively of the physical type. Although the experiments with nitrogen already described have served to bring out differences among the various carbon blacks used, it is obvious that heats of adsorption using hydrocarbons as adsorbates would provide data which would be more closely related to the problem of rubber reinforce- ment, in which there must be forces in op- eration between the carbon black surface and adjacent portions of the large hydro- carbon molecule, rubber. For this reason, the next phase of the work to be described involves calorimetric measurements with butane and the butenes as adsorbates at the convenient temperature 0°C. Because each of these substances boils within a few de- grees of 0°C, the po value for each is in the vicinity of one atmosphere pressure, and it is convenient to work over the relative pres- sure range in which the monolayer is com- pletely filled. The results of these experi- ments are summarized in Fig. 4. In this figure are given the differential heat curves for butane, 1-butene, cis-2-butene, and trans-2-butene on Grade 6 carbon black. It is to be noted that the general shape of the heat curves is similar to that of nitrogen at —195° with the differential heats ap- proaching H; after the completion of the statistical monolayer. It is noteworthy that there is no great difference in the heats of adsorption of the butane and the unsat- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 urated hydrocarbons. This evidence ap- pears to indicate that the unsaturated sec- tions of the rubber molecule are not neces- sarily the points at which the rubber is bonded to the carbon surface, and that the adsorption process and possibly also rubber reinforcement involve forces which are pri- marily physical in nature. As this talk has progressed, I think it must have become abundantly evident that those of us who have done the heats of ad- sorption work at Amherst are very greatly indebted to Dr. Brunauer and his co- workers for the pioneer work they have done in the field of adsorption, work which has made our experimental results considerably easier to interpret as a contribution to the fundamental problems of adsorption as well as to the application to rubber reinforce- ment. REFERENCES (1) BrunavEeR. The adserption of gases and Vapors, Vol. 1: Physical adsorption. Princeton, 1943. (2) BRUNAUER, EMMETT, and TELLER. Amer. Chem. Soc. 60: 309. 1938. (3) EmmMetr and Brunaver. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 59: 310. 1937; 59: 1553. 1937; 62: 1732. 1940. (4) BrEEBE and STEVENS. Journ. Chem. Soc. 62: 2134. 1940. (5) Bersr, Biscon, SmirH, and WENDELL. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 69: 96. 1947; Breese, PoLtey, Smiru, and Wen- DELL. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., forth- coming. (6) This high temperature treatment would of course have the effect of removing any volatile matter from the surface of the Grade 6 carbon as well as changing the degree of crystallinity of the underlying solid. Our calorimetric experiments on a sample of Grade 6 black ‘‘devolatilized” at 927°C make it more plausible to conclude that the marked difference in the energy states of surface between the Grade 6 black and the Graphon is due to an al- teration in the underlying solid by the high temperature treatment rather than to any chemical change in the super- ficial layers of the pigment (see reference Journ. Amer. 5). (7) Details of the experimental method, as well as data on several other blacks and a more extensive discussion are to be found in the publications cited in refer- ence 5. Apr. 15, 1948 METEOROLOGY .—Loose usage of weather words." Fog, haze, visibility, cyclone, blizzard, sleet, drought—what are they? There is no excuse for so using words that they convey no idea whatever or, at most, only vague suggestions of an idea. But frequently they are so used, and for several reasons. The usual reason is the ignorance of the speaker or writer, and the next most common, per- haps, the fact that few indeed practice that best of all courses in rhetoric: ‘‘Have some- thing to say; say it; quit talking about it.” Of course, an unwilling witness may be consciously vague, and sometimes justly so, but most of us do a lot of talking in our sleep, as it were. And the subject we discuss in vaguest terms is that which concerns us most, and about which we have talked the most since that time when certain things happened in the Garden of Eden “‘in the cool of the day’—the weather. Even the term ‘‘weather’’ itself is used in the vaguest sort of way, as anyone will realize as soon as he tries to define it accurately. Not only are we nearly always vague when speaking about weather as a whole, but also, as a rule, we are equally inexact when speaking of any of its elements, or of other phenomena dependent upon or associated with it. For example, fog and haze: are mixed up in a scandalous way despite the great and growing importance of each to the aviator. They often are used as synonymous terms, and again as though a fog were just a dense haze and a haze merely a light fog. Now, they are not the same thing at all and need not often be con- fused with one another. A true fog is a cloud of water droplets in the space immediately above the surface of the earth—a cloud on the earth. A haze, on the other hand, is a cloud of dust particles of whatever origin, such as impalpable sand caught up by desert winds, the smoke of forest fires, pollen from pine clad mountains, and the like. It may, and commonly does, extend down to the surface of the earth, but it does not always do so. Sometimes, too, its upper surface is as sharply limited and: as clearly visible in the direction of the horizon (not vertically) as is that of a waveless ocean. ! Received October 10, 1947. HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS 123 W.J. HUMPHREYS. Each decreases visibility. That is why the aviator is so concerned with them. Perhaps, too, as they bother him in much the same way he may feel justified in calling either or both of them by whichever bad name hap- pens to come to his mind first. Indeed they often are so confused, but they do not need to be, for it is quite easy to distinguish between them. The fog droplets are so large that they reflect equally, or nearly so, lights of all colors. It therefore appears white. A large portion of the haze particles, on the other hand, are so small that they scarcely reflect light at all, but just diffuse or scatter it. Furthermore, they scatter the blue, or short-wavelength light, to a far greater extent than they do the longer wavelength, or red light. This being so, the glare that results from the scattered light, and which so greatly reduces visibility, can largely be prevented from reaching the eye by the use of amber, or red, glasses. Clearly, then, the cloudlike obstruction is a dust haze whenever it has a bluish color, and whenever visibility through it is improved by the use of a red or amber screen. Simi- larly, it almost certainly is a fog when it is white and equally opaque to all colors. Not only is it generally easy to make this distinction, but frequently it is important. to do so, because a fog is likely soon to dis- appear by evaporation, while a haze hangs on until washed out by rain, thinned by convection, or blown away by clear air. Visibility—We have just been glibly using a rather new weather term, visibility, that needs some explanation. It seems to have an obvious enough meaning until we try so to define it that one visibility can be © numerically compared with another. Then the trouble begins, for it is hard to say how many times one object is more visible than another. In fact for practical purposes we never define visibility that way, but just say that it is the distance to which objects can be seen, or, better, the greatest distance to which objects of appropriate size can be recognized by a person of average but un- aided vision. Evidently visibility is not a distance at all, though dependent on it. Nevertheless, this term with its forced definition is very useful and seems destined 124 to hold indefinitely an honorable place among the innumerable and growing host of weather words. It is worth while also to note that there are two quite differently caused visibilities, night visibility and day visibility. The former may be defined as the greatest dis- tance at which a standard light can be seen by a normal, unaided eye. This distance ob- viously is fixed by the rate of depletion of the light on its way to the observer, since perception fails in this case owing to the feebleness of the light received. Day visibil- ity, on the other hand, is limited mainly by an entirely different cause—not chiefly by depletion of light but by addition of light. When the fog or haze between the observer and distant objects reflects or scatters so much light from the sun, or other sources, as to appear luminous the contrasts of light, by which outlines are perceived and things recognized, soon are lost in the gen- eral glare. To repeat, for it is an important distinction, the brighter the light the farther it can be seen. The brighter the day the worse the visibility—the greater the blind- ing glare. Fog and cloud.—Not only is fog often confused with haze, to our occasional an- noyance, but frequently, too, it is con- founded with cloud, and the second of these confusions is the more difficult of the two to disentangle. We may say, and it is quite true, that a fog is a surface cloud formed by surface conditions. But what then shall we call what is left of it when the under portion is burned off, as so commonly happens to sea fog when it drifts in over land? Shall we call it high fog, lifted fog, veillo cloud (the name given to it in southern California), or stratus cloud? All these terms are in good and constant usage, but “stratus cloud”’ is the best, for that is what the erstwhile fog has now become. Wherever, though, it con- tacts with the surface, whether water, hill or mountain, it should still be, and generally is, called fog. That is, the same sheet of water droplets is called cloud at one place, where it does not extend to the surface, and fog at another, where it does. Name of cloud.—And then when we are sure the thing we observe and want to talk about, or record, really is a cloud and not a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4 fog, what sort of a cloud shall we call it, for there are several kinds to which distinct names are given? Way back in the year 1803 an English chemist, or apothecary, as we would say in America, Luke Howard, gave Latin names to several distinct kinds of clouds, names so apt that they soon came into general use in all countries. Later on a few other names were added to the original list until all the more common varie- ties of clouds had each a distinct designa- tion that seemed entirely appropriate and was Clearly defined. But new cloud pictures soon were needed, the old charts being out of print, and this offered an opportunity to revise names and definitions as well. So a committee was appointed for that purpose, a committee that at once began ‘‘throwing monkey-wrenches,”’ or so some think, into the erstwhile smoothly running cloud ma- chine. We used to be quite sure, for in- stance, that a nimbus cloud was one from which rain or snow was falling in quantity, or looked as though precipitation from it was imminent. This was pretty satisfactory, and many of us want to keep the good we have. But no, we are told by this committee that those who feel that they really must retain this life-long name may be graciously permitted to do so provided they pledge to mean thereby only that insignificant little cloud that drifts along in the rain somewhere between the surface of the earth and the base of the heavy cloud out of which the rain is falling. That is, this ancient and honorable name must go out of use alto- gether, or else be given to that little, unim- portant ragamuffin the sailor calls ‘‘scud.” This is not clarification. It is needless con- fusion. Then, too, we felt as certain as one could about anything that the good and appropri- ate name ‘‘cumulo-nimbus” had come to stay and to mean a cumulus (wool-pack or heaped-up) cloud from which rain was fall- ing, and in which thunder and lightning nearly always occur. No. We now are asked to restrict this name to the cumulus cloud whose top has been, or is in the process of being, drawn out into a thin, fibrous sheet. And this in spite of the fact that often a thunderstorm cloud, a cumulo-nimbus as heretofore known, may give much rain and Apr. 15, 1948 yet produce no fibrous sheet at all; and in face, of the further fact that occasionally a cumulus cloud may produce no rain, but, for all that, a high sheet of fibrous cloud. For generations we have been accustomed to consider the falling of rain from the base of a cumulus cloud the necessary and suf- ficient condition for calling it a cumulo- nimbus. Now we are asked to note whether or not a fibrous cloud is developing out of its top—certainly a radical change of meaning, and a wholly unnecessary one. It would be well, however, for the aviator to remember that, in middle latitudes, a cumulus cloud that is developing a high fibrous sheet very probably, though not cer- tainly, is also, and at the same time, giving rain below with thunder and lightning; and that the region under a cumulus that has not yet begun to display such a sheet, pre- sumably, but not surely, still is free from rain or other disturbance. To him it is a very real warning flag. Nevertheless, this fact does not in the least justify this change of name, a change that is only confusion confounded—or the other way around. The next monkey-wrench disarranged the alto-stratus cloud. This term used to mean just what it says—a high layer cloud; that and nothing more. Now we are asked to use this term only when portions of the cloud show some fibrous structure. Here, too, is only confusion, for those who insist on this definition insist, too, that this is the rain- producing cloud. That is, we must call that wide-spread, lightning-free cloud, from which rain is falling abundantly, alto-stra- tus, and at the same time we must not call it alto-stratus unless we can see in it one or more fibrous patches—thread-bare por- tions, consisting, we believe, of snow parti- cles. Truly, this puts us in much the same puzzled frame of mind as was Pat when the doctor told him to take one pill three times a day! The cirro-cumulus cloud is another vari- ety that many of us will insist that we know when we see it, since it is just a field of many little cloudlet balls and ripples (a “mackerel sky” if in orderly rows, a ‘‘cur- dle sky” if the cloudlets are numerous and without order) very high and too tenuous to show evidence of shading, or hide the sun. HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS 125 No, again says our authority, this thing that is a cirro-cumulus cloud must not be called cirro-cumulus unless it has been seen to be formed from a cirrus cloud or cirro- stratus, that is, from a thin or relatively dense cloud, respectively, of fibrous form. Said the yeoman to a yokel: ‘That is a fine hog of mine over there in the barn lot.” “‘I. am not so sure it is a hog,” said the yokel. ‘““Why not?” ‘“‘Oh, I didn’t see him grow up from a pig.”’ ““Damned fool.”’ Humidity, a term that comes to mind when we are talking about clouds, is one of the most vaguely used of all weather words. Most of us realize that water is somehow or other involved in its meaning, but just how, when we speak of the air as being humid, is not always clear. Certainly the air is not wet in the sense that our hands become wet when we wash them. Perhaps we can run the trouble down this way: Water can and does exist in the gaseous state as well as in the liquid and solid states. Furthermore, the amount of water that can occupy a given space in the form of a gas, for instance the amount that is in a cubic inch of the “‘empty” space in a tightly closed bottle containing some water, rapidly increases with increase of tempera- ture. Strange as it may seem, too, this amount is not appreciably affected by the presence of other gases, whether added singly or in whatever combination. From these facts it is evident that the expression “humidity of the air,” or ‘hu- midity,’’ for short, can mean any one of at least three different things. To be under- stood, therefore, one must specify which particular humidity he is talking about. If he just says “‘humidity”’ he will be nearly as badly off as the fellow who called for Jones at a Welsh college. ‘“‘Ah Jones’”— most of the windows went up. ‘‘Tom Jones’’—half of the windows stayed up. “JT mean the Tom Jones that has a tooth- brush.” If one means, as often is meant, the amount or weight of the water vapor in the air per unit volume he must say “absolute humidity.” If, however, as is more often the case, one means the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually present per unit volume to the greatest amount that could 126 exist in the same volume at the same tem- perature—the ratio, in brief, of the actual quantity to the saturation quantity—it is necessary to say “relative humidity.” Finally, we sometimes mean the weight of the water vapor per unit weight of the moist air, in which case the proper expression is “specific humidity.” The term “humidity,” as qualified in any one of the above three ways, has a definite and useful meaning; but as commonly used in weather talk it seldom conveys a clear idea to the hearer, and rarely contains a definite concept when it leaves the speaker. Generally, such idea as is associated with this term starts mud- dled and ends fuddled. Wind direction.—Here is another source of confusion, one from which force of mem- ory alone can protect us, the naming and charting of wind directions. The weather man’s wind vane generally is in the form of an arrow of some sort, and so constructed that the point of the arrow always turns to face the wind. In other words it flies against the wind. On his maps and charts, however, he gets all his little wind arrows turned the other way around, for here they fly not against the wind but with the wind. What, then, does he mean when he says “north wind,”’ for instance? That is a toss-up until he tells us that he always means a wind from the north. Similarly, by ‘‘east wind” he means a wind from the east, by ‘‘south wind” a wind from the south, and so on for every point of the compass. It is all simple enough—if you don’t forget. Veering and backing.— Not only the word used to designate the direction of a wind can be confusing, as just explained, but also, and to an even greater extent, those commonly employed to specify the order of its change of direction. Whenever the wind at a particular place so shifts, or changes in direction, as to cause the wind vane to turn clockwise we say that it is veering, and when it so changes as to cause the vane to turn counter clockwise we say it is backing. This, too, is very plain and easy, if only we could remember it—if we could keep from getting like the old lady who said she knew that good eggs sank or swam, but had forgotten which. Indeed it is even worse than that, for while, as used by most JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4 writers, backing is backing, and veering is veering, the world over, others reverse the terms with change of hemisphere, calling that shifting of direction veering, in the southern hemisphere, which, in the northern they call backing; and in the southern backing, that which, in the northern, they call veering. Surely the way some words are used is perplexing. Surface wind is another of the vague terms often used in discussions of the move- ments of the air. The trouble comes from the uncertainty as to where and what the “‘surface’’ is. In the case of calm water there is not much doubt about where the surface is, at least in the every day practical use of the term surface. Over land, however, we usually find a greater and greater entangle- ment of grass and other vegetation before reaching the soil, and therefore are quite © unable to say just where the “surface”’ is. But in any case where there is a definite sur- face, as over a lake, for example, the air exactly at the surface we believe to be calm, whatever the wind at appreciable heights above that surface. It would seem then that by the expression “surface wind” we should always mean no wind—no horizon- tal movement of the air. However, this strictly face value of the expression is not at all what we do mean when we use it. We mean the wind, not at the surface, as the expression implies, but at some appreciable height above it, namely at the level at which the velocity of the air is measured— a level that in practice may be anything from a few feet to twice as many hundred feet above the ground. Clearly then, since the velocity of the wind increases rapidly with increase of height, and since hills and hollows, trees, buildings, and every other ir- regularity of, and on, the ground affect the velocity of the lower air, the term “surface wind,” like the expression ‘‘quarter of a lot,” has the semblance of meaning some- thing definite but only the semblance. Fair.—Certainly everyone should know the exact meaning of this term, but many do not and refuse to learn. We may use as vague terms as we like when merely making talk about the weather, but the few terse sentences used by the forecaster certainly should be clearly and correctly understood Apr. 15, 1948 by all who read or hear them. Indeed they are clearly understood for they are very carefully constructed to that end, but un- fortunately they are by no means always correctly understood. The chief confusion arises from a single one of the forecaster’s terms, ‘‘fair’—his favorite word (formerly, at least) if one might judge from the fre- quency of its occurrence. The trouble here comes from the fact that the forecaster and a large portion of his audience, that is, the general public, attach entirely different meanings to this familiar word. He means fair weather; they mean fair skies. To him it is the antonym of foul, and means weather suitable for outdoor occupation; to them it is the antonym of clouds and im- plies abundant sunshine. What to do about it is the question. It is precisely the word to use, or certainly would be if rightly understood, but unfor- tunately there are many who do not know what it means in this connection, and who even are unwilling to learn—who resent being told, who insist that they know what words mean without looking them up in a dictionary or having some smart Aleck tell them. It is too bad, this confusion of mean- ings, and the worst of it is, there is no ob- vious and simple way to make the matter any better. Cyclone.—This is another weather term that often fails to carry the meaning in- tended. Many people call the “twister” a cyclone, that smallest but most violent, freakish and destructive of all storms. The meteorologist calls this madly whirling devil a tornado, but the man from Missouri, or a neighboring State, comes back with em- phasis: ‘‘What are you talking about? If my cyclone cellar isn’t a place for dodging cyclones, then you will have to show me.” This much of the confusion comes mainly from giving the same name, ‘‘cyclone,’’ to two entirely different kinds of storms, and two different names, “cyclone” and “‘tor- nado,” to the same sort of disturbance— the same name to two things, and two names to the same thing. But this is not all the confusion. If you turn to the word ‘‘cyclone”’ in some large dictionary, or even a meteorological vo- cabulary prepared by experts, you are likely HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS 127 to find its definition to be: ‘“‘An area of low atmospheric pressure,’’ or some similar ex- pression. Now, this is inexcusable confusion. A cyclone is not an area at all, any more than a house is an area. It is first and fore- most a system of winds, and secondly, characterized by such and such particulars (extensive and about a center of low pres- sure, accompanied by clouds and wide- spread precipitation, et cetera) as suffice to distinguish it from all other systems of winds; just as ‘‘man”’’ is first of all an ani- mal, and, secondly, possessed of certain qualities, such as rationality, risibility, or whatnot, that belong to no other animal. This is Just a fine example of the innumer- able cases in which we neither say what we mean nor mean what we say. Anticyclone—By its very name one would expect the anticyclone to be some- thing quite the reverse of the cyclone. And so it is in several respects. It occupies a region of relatively high atmospheric pres- sure, not low, as does the cyclone; its winds, | like those of the cyclone, are directed spirally about its center, but outward, not inward, and in the opposite sense; it is at- tended, usually, by clear skies, not over- cast, and fair weather not foul. Meteoro- logically the cyclone and the anticyclone are distinctly antithetical. Lexicologically, however, they usually have one important feature in common, for generally each is er- roneously defined as an area, and not cor- rectly defined as a particular system of winds. Secondary.—lIf one were in a teasing frame of mind and wanted some fun with a meteorologist, he hardly could find a bet- ter way to succeed than by asking him what a secondary is. He uses this term a lot, and by it he always means a cyclonic storm. Likely as not he will tell you that a second- ary cyclone is any one that is not a pri- mary; and that a primary cyclone is any one that is not a secondary. Often, and es- pecially in certain regions, there develops on or near the outer border of a system of cy- clonic winds, and doubtless incident to them, a similar system, at first of relatively small extent and strength, but which later grows in size and intensity until, in many cases it itself becomes the main storm, and 128 occasionally even the only one. This storm, at least in its earlier stages, is often called a secondary cyclone, or secondary, for short, But other storms of less certain history also have been called secondaries for reasons that sometimes seem to be known only to the perpetrator—and he never tells. Yes, ask a meteorologist about secondaries and pretty soon you will have him in a corner, if not up a tree. Blizzard, a good example of things con- fused, is a fine word, even if its pedigree 1s unknown, so long as it means a cold, driving wind filled with blinding snow—a sure-to- goodness storm of the Plains. But how un- worthy of itself, how fallen, how decrepit and addled it is when made to mean only a little snow flurry that even a baby scarce would notice. A real blizzard commands re- spect and deserves a strong name all its own, but the little parlor things that in the Eastern States we so often braggingly call blizzards are not worthy, in comparison, even to be called ‘“‘blizzetts.” A blizzard used to be a blizzard with no doubt about it; now it is anything that has a little snow in it, but one never knows exactly what. Hail.—Here is a mix-up, too. As used by the U. S. Weather Bureau, and by many people all over the country, only lumps of ice that fall in thunder storms are called hail. Lots of others, though, will not hear of this restriction, but insist that the little ice pellets that fall only in the winter shall also be called hail. That is what they call them, as of course they have a perfect right to do, despite the confusion it causes, and there is no help for it, swear as you may. Sleet.—Hail is bad enough in its confu- sion, but sleet is worse, for it has three en- tirely distinct and much-used meanings. As sung by the poets, and as recorded by the U.S. Weather Bureau, sleet is that which rattles against the windowpane and nothing else. It is frozen raindrops and occurs only in winter and when the temperature of the lower air is below the freezing point while that of the air at around 500 to 1,000 feet elevation is distinctly above it. The rain that falls from the warmer air is frozen by the colder layer below, and reaches the sur- face in the form of Small roundish pellets— ice shot. This is sleet, according to one defi- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 nition and extensive usage. According to British usage, though, and the custom of many in America also, sleet is a mixture of rain and snow. They call the frozen rain- drops hail, or winter hail. This is confusion enough, but by no means the whole of it, for the engineer, ignoring both the above definitions, restricts the name sleet to the smoothish coats of ice that sometimes form on wires, street-car rails and other exposed objects. This sleet, in the engineer’s sense of the term, the U. 8. Weather Bureau calls glaze. It is the characteristic feature of an ice storm. And nothing can be done about it. Even if we could get the engineer to call glaze (an excellent word) that which he now calls sleet and restrict this term, as so many of us do, to the stuff that rattles, there still would remain the mixture of snow and rain to re- christen. Of course, a word-telescoping genius like Lewis Carroll might call it “snane,”’ but then some one would be sure to laugh at it, if he did not even make a face. Ice-flower.—lIf sleet is a vague term owing to its three definitions, what shall we say about ‘‘ice-flower’’ that means any one of five distinct things? Two or three genera- tions ago Tyndall tried the happy experi- ment of putting a sheet of ice in the usual position of a lantern slide, and was rejoiced to see blossom on the screen a beautiful bed of six petaled flowers—images of course, of internal melted ice crystals. These 6- rayed cavities Tyndall, in his poetic way, and very appropriately, called ice-flowers. Pretty soon some one else, also with a poetic fancy, gave the same name to the beautiful fernlike figures Jack Frost traces on your windowpane. Then some nature lover, en- thusiastically describing the tufts of frost that sometimes in bitterly cold weather grow up numerously on a sheet of ice, called them also ‘‘ice-flowers.”’ Even the little columns. of ice that spring up from damp soil, and resemble in a measure the familiar Indian pipe, have been called ice-flowers. Finally, at least finally up to the present, the exquisite, curling and satiny ice ribbons, as thin and broad as the blade of a case knife, and often fully as long, that in early winter grow out from the dead stems of rock mint, likewise have been called ice-flowers. Apr. 15, 1948 And no wonder, for among the brown leaves of the woods these ice formations look for all the world like a field of beautiful white lilies. In every one of these five cases the name ice-flowers seems appropriate, yet its use for more than one, preferably the first, is to be deprecated, for it leads only to con- fusion. Climate.—It is a long call in one sense from ice-flowers to climate, but the terms have one bad feature, muddle meaning, in common. Perhaps climate is most often de- fined as “average weather.” That would seem to justify defining weather as irregular climate. However, both these snap defini- tions are hopelessly inadequate. The aver- age annual temperature of a place, average rainfall, and average all-the-other-things do not tell the story of its climate. We need for this purpose to know also the extremes, frequencies of such and such values, normal run of the weather elements through the year, and a lot of other matters as well. In short, the climate of a place is neither its average weather nor the average of its weather, but the history of its past weather. Drought.—This much used term also is a term confused. Most of us use it glibly as though we knew exactly what it meant until, perchance, we need to define it pre- cisely whereupon our concept of it begins to fade away. We ask ourselves whether it is a number of consecutive days without rain or snow, and, if so, how many. Then we wonder whether the amount of the immedi- ately preceding precipitation should be con- sidered in our definition, and whether the time of the year matters. And if we take a certain number of consecutive days without rain as our definition of drought for one region will that also hold for every other re- gion? Would such a drought for New Eng- land be also a drought for New Mexico? If not, then what is a drought? Most of us will agree that one one-hundredth of an inch of rain will not break a drought, and if it will not then certainly we can not define a drought as so many consecutive days without any rain at all, though sometimes, and for statistical purposes, such a rainless spell has been called an absolute drought. Perhaps we might better define a drought HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS 129 as SO many consecutive days without more than a specified small amount of rain. But this does not avoid the difficulties as to season and place. Really, drought is a hard term to deal with. Possibly the best thing to do when- ever accuracy is essential is to give it an arbitrary, but reasonably exact, definition appropriate to the needs of the occasion. Spring.—Who knows when spring begins, or any of the other seasons, for that mat- ter? If we take Tennyson’s dictum that it is “when a young man’s fancy turns to thoughts of love,’’ we must conclude that it is a perpetual season! If, on the other hand, we take the word at its primitive meaning, signifying the season when plants spring up, we will be forced to conclude that the beginning of spring varies from place to place and year to year, and also that it de- pends on the kind of plant selected as the criterion. We will even conclude that it has no beginning in ice covered regions, and that it goes on forever in tropical lands. This indefiniteness led to the more or less general adoption of fixed dates for the be- ginning and end of each season. In so doing the spice of life was amply preserved for surely in the dates of these beginnings there is abundant variety. According to popular English usage spring begins with the first of February. In America we put it a month later, first of March. Astronomers, though, say 1t begins with the vernal equinox, which may be at any instant through the day, usually, but not always, on the twenty-first of March, and lasts until the coming sum- mer solstice, also a slightly variable date. Here are three widely used but distinctly different dates for the beginning of spring. February 1, March 1, and March 21 or 22, spread over a period of seven weeks. And so it is with the other seasons, for they follow each other at approximately equal intervals of time. Clearly, then, ‘‘first day of spring,” “last day of summer,”’ and all others of their kind are confusing expressions for to equally well informed people they convey the concept of distinctly different dates. End of twilight—When the end of twi- light comes is another point about which the astronomer and the general public have oc- casion to differ, though confusion in this 130 case is not nearly so bad as it is in regard to the beginning of spring. The astronomer who, for most of his work, prefers the clear- est skies and the darkest hours, says twi- light ends only with the last trace of scat- tered sunlight in the western heavens. On clear nights, the only kind in which he is interested, this last glimmer disappears when the center of the sun is about 18 de- grees below the horizon. This does not suit the average person who considers twilight to end as soon as it gets too dark for people to go about their ordinary outdoor occupa- tions. On clear evenings this occurs when the center of the sun is about 6° below the horizon, or in about one-third the time from sundown to the end of astronomical twi- light. On cloudy evenings twilight, in this work-a-day sense, ends much sooner, but there is no fixed time for it—the term is vague and often confusing. Light and dark of the moon.—Whoever follows the foolish occupation of moon- farming, of planting things that fruit above the ground in the light of the moon, and tubers that grow under the soil in the dark of the moon, is confronted with the puzzling necessity of knowing just when it is light of the moon and when dark. And the more he tries to be certain of the matter the more confused he is likely to become. Some will tell him that dark of the moon is that brief time, three or four days, before new moon when it is not seen at all owing to its near- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 ness to the sun, and light of the moon the three or four days centered about full moon. Others, while agreeing with this definition of dark of the moon, will insist that all the rest of the time is light of the moon. Still others, with equal assurance, will insist that the time the moon is waxing, that is, the time of the first and second quarters, is light of the moon, and that the time of its waning, the duration of the third and fourth quarters, is dark of the moon. Finally, there are many who recognize light of the moon to be all the days when the moon is above the horizon most of the fore part of the might, and all the rest of the time dark of the moon. Here are three distinct and widely recog- nized definitions of dark of the moon, and four of the light of the moon. What then can the poor moon farmer do when up against such conflicting definitions as these? Nobody knows, though it is quite certain what he should do—forget the moon fool- ishness and plant when the ground is ready and the season right, as all sensible farmers do. And these listed above are not the only weather words loosely used by the general public, whose omnibus excuse is the fact that, if restricted to correct understanding and clear expression, the pleasant glibness of its tongue would be lost in many a dreary silence—an honest enough excuse but a mighty poor one. PALEONTOLOGY .—An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West Virginia.* Davip H. DunxKtgE, U. 8. National Museum. GAZIN.) Recently, through the generosity of Harold T. Stowell, of Westmoreland Hills, Md., the U. S. National Museum received a small slab of rock exhibiting two distinctly impressed tracks. The following brief report on the specimen is prompted by the proba- ble tetrapod nature of the prints and by the geologic details of its occurrence. The prints are impressed upon the upper undulating surface of a thin block of dense, finely grained sandstone, composed of many 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received December 5, 1947. (Communicated by C. L. small cross-bedded laminae of variegated red and buff color. As found by Mr. Stowell in 1939, the slab lay loose at the base of a cliff on the East Bank of the Greenbrier River, about 1 mile south of the mouth of Island Lick Run, in the Watoga State Park, Pocahontas County, W. Va. The physical expression of fossil track- ways is dependent on a number of variable conditions. Seldom are the remains of the causative agent found associated with the prints. The structure of the contributing organ, therefore, must be inferred. This latter is very often difficult because the Apr. 15, 1948 DUNKLE: AN OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL TRACKS IN WEST VIRGINIA completeness of the impression is subject, at the time the tracks were made, to the composition and the consistency of the sub- stratum and, subsequently, to all the mul- tiple, special factors for their preservation. The interpretation of the present examples is not exempted from these general difficul- ties. The two tracks, oriented parallel to each other, are each composed of the depressions made by three, stout, distally tapering dig- its. When the block is placed with the di- vergent extremities of the impressions di- rected away from the observer (Fig. 1), it may be seen that the track on the left is more deeply impressed and is situated slightly above the one on the right. From the similar lengths and practically identical angles of divergence of the corre- sponding digital impressions in each of the 131 two tracks, it is conceivable that the prints could have been made by one and the same appendage of an animal crossing the photo- graph transversely. In this latter event, however, the limb would seem necessarily to have extended out at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the body with little or no anterior flexure. The literature on fossil trackways fails to reveal the occurrence of such a structural condition in the Late ‘Paleozoic. Further in opposition to such an interpretation is the fact that the distance between the two prints would represent an extremely short stride, especially when the slab is large enough transversely to exhibit both preceding and succeeding impressions. During the tetrapod propulsive cycle (Schaeffer, 1941; Evans, 1946), the body weight, first distributed over the entire sur- face of either the hand or foot, progressively Fig. 1.—Photograph of fossil tracks (U.S.N.M. no. 17656) obtained in the Watoga State Park, Pocahontas County, W. Va. Reproduction approx. X3/5. 132 shifts to a final concentration on the medial digits. While variable (Colbert and Schaef- fer, 1947), this action ideally results in a deeper impression of the inner side of the organ than any other of its parts. The sides of the present fossil footprints, which are adjacent to each other, are clearly more deeply impressed than their distant sides. Thus, while the evidences are conflicting, it is here assumed that these tracks were made by a limb and its complement from the opposite side. Whether that pair of append- ages was anterior or posterior can not be ascertained. Markings of the pads of either heel or palm are not discernible. Impression of the digits alone indicates that the tracks were made on a fairly firm substratum. As pointed out by Colbert and Schaeffer (1947), the lateral digits are structurally the most divergent and under the least optimum of conditions are the most poorly defined in trackways. Thus, while 3-toed impressions have been encountered in practically every known geologic occurrence of tetrapod tracks, it remains uncertain whether com- plete impressions are being dealt with in the present case. No attempt here is made to assign these prints to any of the scientific names available because of the above men- tioned uncertainties of interpretation and because of the questionable advisability of such practice. The specimen is no less in- teresting for this failure, however, because an early and unknown animal of considera- ble dimensions is indicated. The better pre- served left imprint measures roughly 35. mm across the proximal base of the digits. The distance between parallel lines pro- jected through the medial borders of the prints approaches 62 mm. The block of sandstone bearing the im- pressions may be assumed to have been de- rived at or very near the site of its discovery. No evidences of transportation can be ob- served. The edges of the slab remain sharply angular. Fragments of soft red shale still adhere in the concavities on both its upper and lower surfaces. Furthermore, its lithol- ogy is identical with that of the bedrock exposed in the immediate vicinity as well as JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 for many miles upstream. Price (1929) iden- tifies this rock as the Pocono formation. As summarized by Branson (1910) and Colbert and Schaeffer (1947), the oldest previous re- ports of definitive tetrapod tracks in the United States are restricted to the upper Mississippian Chester Series. The literature (Butts, 1940; Chadwick, 1935; Willard, 1936) suggests a transgressive character to the Pocono sediments and a consequent variation in age from place to place. Not- withstanding, the Pocono is well below the Chester equivalent, the Mauch Chunk, in the West Virginia section. The present oc- currence, therefore, seems to be the earliest yet known from our country and approaches in age the oldest authenticated tetrapod tracks from the Horton Series of Nova Scotia (Dawson, 1894; Sternberg, 1933). REFERENCES Branson, E. B. Amphibian footprints from the Mississippian of Virginia. Journ. Geol. 18(4): 356-358, 1 fig. 1910. Butts, CHARLES. Geology of the Appalachian Valley in Virginia. Pt. 1: Geologic text and illustrations. Virginia Geol. Surv. Bull. 52: i-xxxil, 1-568, 10 figs. incl. index and geol. sketch maps, 10 tables, 63 pls. 1940. CHapwick,G.H. Whatis “Pocono”? Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 5, 29(170): 1383-143, map. 1935. CoLtBerT, E. H., and ScHarrrer, B. Some Mississippian footprints from Indiana. Amer. Journ. Sci. 245(10): 614-623, 1 fig., 1 plo ay. Dawson, W. Synopsis of the air-breathing ani- mals of the Paleozoic in Canada, up to 1894. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 12(4): 71-88. 1894. Evans, F. G. The anatomy and function of the foreleg in salamander locomotion. Anat. Ree. 95: 257-281, 6 figs. 1946. Price, P. H. Pocahontas County. West Vir- ginia Geol. Surv. County Repts.: 531, 21 figs., 71 pls., 2 maps. 1929. ScHAEFFER, B. The morphological and func- tional evolution of the tarsus in amphibians and reptiles. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 78(6): 395-472, 21 figs. 1941. STERNBERG, C. M. Carboniferous tracks from Nova Scotia. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 44: 951-964, 1 fig., 3 pls. 1938. WILLARD, B. Continental upper Devonian of northeastern Pennsylvania. Geol. Soe. Amer. Bull. 47(4): 597-599, 3 figs., 3 pls. 1936. Apr. 15, 1948 MYCOLOGY.—The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes.' (Communicated by G. W. Martin.) University of Iowa. Biflagellate swarm-cells have been ob- ~served as occurring occasionally in Myxo- mycetes by many observers, but it has been generally held that the swarm-cells in this group are normally uniflagellate. DeBary (7) in 1884 and Vouk (20) in 1911 reported bifiagellate forms in exceptional cases only. Gilbert (6) found one-fourth of the swarm- cells of Stemonztis fusca biflagellate. Von Stosch (19) saw biflagellate cells in many other species, but none in the single species of Stemonitis that he studied. Gilbert (7) reported Dictydiaethalium plumbeum to be uniflagellate, but E. C. Smith (17, 18) twice within the following year published photo- micrographs showing biflagellate swarm- cells in the same species. Howard (10) termed biflagellate swarm-cells in Physarum polycephalum ‘‘common.”’ Sinoto and Yuasa (16) studied Cerattomyzxa and four species of Myxogastres, finding only one flagellum in Cerattomyxa but occasional bi- and even tri- flagellate forms in all the others. Yuasa (2/) likewise found bi- and triflagellate cells in Fuligo septica. Jahn (11) in 1928 ignored the previous reports of biflagellate swarm-cells; and in 1936 (12) he criticized the work of Von Stosch, insisting that swarm-cells are normally uniflagellate and that all biflagel- late swarm-cells are anomalies. Karling (73) in his general summary of the literature pertinent to the relationships between the Plasmodiophorales and the Myxomycetes, says that “although the majority are uni- flagellate, zoospores with two flagella are not uncommon....” In 1945 Ellison (5) reported biflagellate swarm-cells in propor- tions varying from 2 to 26 percent for a number of species of Myxomycetes but re- tained the assumption that the majority are uniflagellate. It is not inconceivable that an occasional biflagellate swarm-cell could occur as an ab- normality in an otherwise uniflagellate group. But biflagellation has already been reported too frequently in the Myxomycetes to represent mere abnormality. And on the basis of flagellation as reported in other groups it is very unlikely that both uni- 1 Received December 15, 1947. ELLIOTT: THE SWARM-CELLS OF MYXOMYCETES 133 EucEeNE W. E.uiott, State flagellate and biflagellate forms would nor- mally exist in the same life stage of the Myxomycetes. It seems more probable that the second, shorter flagellum is difficult to see and is frequently hidden. This study was undertaken to determine whether this latter assumption is not the case. METHODS AND MATERIALS Spores of 21 collections representing 11 species were germinated for these tests. Fol- lowing is a list of the collections, with the State and year of collection: 1. Arcyria denudata lowa 1947 2. Dictydiaethalium plumbeum Iowa 1947 3. Dictydiaethalium plumbeum Iowa 1947 4, Enteridium rozeanum lowa 1946 5. Enteridium rozeanum Iowa 1946 6. Enteridium rozeanum Iowa 1947 7. Fuligo septica Indiana 1944 8. Fuligo septica Michigan 1947 9. Lycogala epidendrum Indiana 1944 10. Lycogala epidendrum lowa 1946 11. Lycogala epidendrum lowa 1947 12. Oligonema schweinitzit Iowa 1947 13. Oligonema schweinttziz lowa 1947 14. Physarum polycephalum lowa 1947 15. Reticularia lycoperdon Iowa 1929 16. Reticularia lycoperdon lowa 1942 17. Reticularia lycoperdon New York 1947 18. Reticularia lycoperdon lowa 1947 19. Stemonitis flavogenita West Vir- ginia 1947 20. Stemonitis splendens lowa 1947 21. Trichia affinis lowa 1946 The first cultures were prepared in Sep- tember 1946, using Reticularza lycoperdon (Coll. no. 15, above), Lycogala epidendrum (no. 10), and Trichza affints (no. 21). Abun- dant germination was obtained in the first attempts with R. lycoperdon and T. affinis, but only one of several cultures of L. epidendrum was observed to germinate. Repeated attempts to germinate cultures of the two oldest collections of Enterzdiwm rozeanum (nos. 4 and 5) resulted in the ob- servation of occasional swarm-cells in no. 4, but only very low percentages of germina- tion. Other species gave similar results. Cultures were made in Syracuse watch glasses using distilled water from which the traces of toxic minerals were removed with powdered charcoal. It was observed fre- 134 quently that most of the spores placed in the culture dish continued to float on the surface of the water, never becoming wet. This was especially true of those forms hav- ing very small spores, such as Hnteridiwm and Lycogala. Various wetting agents were tried in an attempt to accelerate the wetting and increase the germination of these spores. Alcohol was the first wetting agent tested. Cayley(4) used 20 percent alcohol for wet- ting spores of Didymium sp., securing ap- proximately 50 percent germination whether the spores were in the alcohol “a few minutes” or a full hour. Also she used a solution of 0.2 percent mercuric chloride in a mixture of equal parts of 95 percent alco- hol and water, as a combined wetting agent and bactericide. The resulting cultures were not bacteria-free and germination was poor. In the tests here reported a number of different dilutions of alcohol were tried, 95 percent being the strongest and 20 percent the weakest concentration used. Lower con- centrations had negligible wetting effect. After wetting, spores were washed three times with centrifuging and cultured as be- fore. No germination was obtained from spores wetted with-alcohol, even in Reticu- laria lycoperdon, in which nearly 100 per- cent germination had been secured without the use of a wetting agent. Trisodium phosphate was tried next. By experimentation it was found that spores of Enteridium rozeanum, which has the smal- lest spores of any species used up to the time of these tests, would sink immediately in a 0.5 percent solution and slowly in a 0.2 per- cent solution. In preparing cultures using trisodium phosphate as a detergent, wash- ing was done as when alcohol was the wet- ting agent. Cultures of E. rozeanum (no. 5), prepared with the use of trisodium phos- phate in either 0.5 percent or 0.2 percent solution, germinated nearly 100 percent within one hour. Swarm-cells had not been seen in cultures of this collection before. Trisodium phosphate in 0.5 percent solu- tion was used as a detergent in preparation of cultures of a number of other collections. Abundant germination was produced occa- sionally in Lycogala epidendrum (no. 10), but no consistent germination was secured with any species except H. rozeanum, hence toxic effects were suspected. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 In the search for an active detergent without toxic effects, two commercial de- tergents, “Soilax’’ and “‘Dreft,’’ were tried, both in 0.5 percent solution. Both acted as effective wetting agents, but many spores were caught in the foam on the ‘‘Dreft’’ so- lution and could not be reclaimed by centri- fuging. Germination in cultures thus pre- pared was similar to, and no more satisfac- tory than, that obtained with trisodium phosphate. | The fact that bile salts greatly lower the surface tension of solutions, as exemplified in the Hay test for bile in urine (9), inspired the testing of solutions of sodium glyco- cholate and sodium taurocholate as wetting agents for preparation of cultures. It was found that either the glycocholate or the taurocholate will wet the spores satisfac- torily in 1 percent solution, but lower con- centrations act so slowly as to be inade- quate. In equal concentrations, these two salts, or a mixture of them, are equally effec- tive as wetting agents. Spores of many species of Myxomycetes that did not germinate at all when prepared directly in water or with other detergents, germinated when previously wetted with either of the bile salts. And all those callec- tions which germinated directly in water germinated more quickly and in greater per- centage when previously wetted with the bile salts. Of course, the spores of two dif- ferent collections of the same species fre- quently show greatly different percentages of germination. Similar differences are ap- parent when the bile salts are used, other conditions being equal; but the differences are substantially reduced. Germination of spores directly in 1 per- cent solution of the bile salts was tried. Protoplasts emerged from the spore cases, but developed no further. However, a technique was developed in which only one washing with water is necessary to free wetted spores of the detergent. Approxi- mately 1 cc of the wetting agent is placed in a centrifuge tube and the spores to be cul-. tured are added and stirred until wetted, a process which usually takes one-half minute. Then the solution is diluted to 5 or 6 ce with water and promptly centrifuged. The spores are then washed once with distilled water by centrifuging and are finally cultured in Apr. 15, 1948 distilled water prepared with charcoal as described above. It was found that in order to preserve the flagella of swarm-cells for observation, the killing agent used in preparation of material for microscopic examination must act very quickly. Smears prepared by air-drying, or even by drying as quickly as possible over mild heat, as is done in the preparation of bacterial mounts, showed recognizable swarm-cells, all of which, however, com- pletely lacked flagella. The most satisfactory results for tem- porary mounts were obtained by killing and staining on the slide with a drop of iodine- potassium iodide solution. For this purpose Gram’s iodine is used without dilution, den- sity of staining being controlled by varying the proportions of culture solution and io- dine solution which are mixed on the slide. Whatever proportions are used, mixing must be accomplished quickly and thor- oughly if the flagella are to be preserved for observation. Permanent slides were prepared for obser- vation of flagella by use of a modification of the Loeffler stain for bacterial flagella (3). The mordant and stain were prepared as directed, but the times of application of both mordant and stain were reduced from five minutes to one-half minute. Smears were prepared by various means. Slides were thinly coated with albumin fixative, on which a drop of culture solution was placed and inverted over osmic acid fumes. This was then allowed to dry in air. Other smears, killed over osmic acid, were fixed by heating gently after drying. Still others were killed with iodine, as was done in the preparation of temporary mounts, and al- lowed to stand until the iodine had sub- limed. These slides were fixed over heat. The crystals of potassium iodide were dissolved off in distilled water before staining. Equally satisfactory results were obtained with all these methods. The iodine method, being the simplest, was used. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Some biflagellate swarm-cells were ob- served in every culture prepared of every species studied. In some species, notably Lycogala epidendrum, Oligonema schweinit- ELLIOTT: THE SWARM-CELLS OF MYXOMYCETES 135 zi, and Fuligo septica, the proportion of swarm-cells obviously biflagellate was nearly 100 percent. In one culture of Dicty- diaethalium plumbeum, many zygotes with four flagella, in two pairs of two each, were found. In all species except Stemonitis splendens, the two flagella were of greatly different length, the shorter one being sometimes scarcely more than lu long. The length of the shorter flagellum is quite constant for a given species. The flagella of Stemonitis splendens averaged 16yu for the longer flagel- 10 MICRONS Figs. 1—8.—Outlines of representative swarm- cells: 1, Dectydiaethalium plumbeum (a—b, swarm- cells; c, zygote) (all others are swarm-cells); 2, Enteridium rozeanum; 3, a—b, Fuligo septica; 4, Lycogala epidendrum; 5, Oligonema schweinitzii: 6, Physarum polycephalum; 7, Reticularia ly- coperdon; 8, Stemonitis splendens, 136 lum and 14, for the shorter. Ellison drew swarm-cells of Stemonitis fusca and S. ferruginea with two flagella approxi- mately equal in length, though the other biflagellate forms he records have one flagel- lum much shorter than the other. Similarly, Gilbert (6) shows S. fusca with two nearly equal flagella, but all other forms definitely heterocont. The second flagellum, in addition to being very short, is usually recurved so as to be almost indistinguishable from the outline of the cell itself. Even in Slemonitis splendens, in which both flagella are relatively long, one is usually trailing, so that it is easily overlooked. The significance of this point is borne out in the following observation: A temporary mount was prepared from a cul- ture of swarm cells of Duzctydiaethalhum plumbeum. The mount was killed and stained with Gram’s iodine. Using the 90X oil im- mersion objective, the microscope was fo- cused upon a swarm-cell in which both flagella were easily seen. Then, by touching the edge of the cover slip with a dissecting needle, the mount was disturbed while the original swarm-cell was kept in view. This swarm-cell was observed to roll over and again come to rest. In its new position, the shorter flagellum could not be seen with any manipulation of the microscope. A second swarm-cell which presented only the longer flagellum to view was found, and by simu- larly disturbing the cover slip the swarm- cell was maneuvered until the shorter flagel- lum could also be seen. This same demon- stration of the fact that the shorter flagel- lum may be—and frequently is—hidden by the body of the cell, was also performed on mounts of Fultgo septica and Arcyria de- nudata. The second flagellum is clearly visible on only a very few swarm-cells in most mounts. Some mounts stained with Loeffler’s tech- nique were destained to transparency with acid alcohol. On swarm-cells thus prepared the flagella remained clearly stained, but the body of the cell was sufficiently destained so that the nucleus and other cellular details were visible. When swarm-cells are properly stained by this method, careful focusing on the anterior portion of the body of the cell will reveal a dark line reaching backward JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 from the apex to the base of the conical anterior portion. Occasionally this dark line will be found lying across the conical por- tion, either on or underneath the body of the cell, but most frequently it is barely dis- tinguishable from the outline of the cell. It is not found on those swarm-cells on which the second flagellum is clearly visible apart from the body of the cell. It is believed that this is the shorter flagellum which ordinarily is closely appressed to the anterior portion of the cell. CONCLUSIONS Spores of 21 collections representing 11 species of Myxomycetes were germinated. The flagellation of the swarm-cells of these species was observed in temporary and permanent preparations. In three species, Fuligo septica, Lycogala epidendrum, and Oligonema schweinitzi, it was possible to see two flagella on nearly every swarm-cell observed. In all other species, two flagella were Clearly visible on some swarm-cells, and it was demonstrated by manipulation of fluid mounts that the second flagellum could be brought into view even though not originally visible. From this it is inferred that if adequate technique were used, the second flagellum would be found on all myxomycete swarm-cells. All of the biflagellate swarm-cells ob- served in this study were heterocont. In all species except Stemonztis splendens the two flagella differ greatly in length. In S. splendens the difference is slight, but is nevertheless constant. The Myxomycetes and the Plasmodio- phorales have long been considered related groups by may investigators. Formerly, the reported existence of anteriorly uni- flagellate zoospores in the reproductive cy- cle of both groups was regarded as strong evidence of this relationship. However, Led- ingham (14, 15) showed that the zoospores of the Plasmodiophorales are anteriorly bi- flagellate, the second flagellum being very short and, hence, easily obscured. As a re- sult of Ledingham’s finding, the supposed difference in flagellation was thought by many to emphasize a separation between the two groups. The existence of two blepharoplasts has been reported in several species of Myxomy- Apr. 15, 1948 cetes (5, 8, 19). Bessey (2) regards the second blepharoplast as a vestige of the biflagellate condition, indicating that the Myxomycetes and the Plasmodiophorales have arisen from a common ancestor. He considers the loss of the second flagellum as evidence that the Myxomycetes are of higher phylogenetic position. Insofar as flagellation is of phylogenetic significance, the existence of the second flagellum in the swarm-cells of Myxomy- cetes as demonstrated by this study, may indicate a closer relationship with the Plas- modiophorales than has recently been sup- posed. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Bary, A. pr. Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen, und Bacterien. Leipzig, 1884. (2) Bessny, E. A. Some problems in fungus phylogeny. Mycologia 34: 355-397. 1942 (3) Bucwanan, E. D., and Bucuanany, R. E. Bacteriology, ed. 2. New York, 1931. (Pp. 153-154.) (4) CayLtey, Dororay M. Some observa- tions on Mycetozoa of the genus Didym- ium. Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 14: 227- 248. 1929. (5) Extison, Bernarp R. Flagellar studies on zoospores of some members of the Mycetozoa, Plasmodiophorales, and Chu- tridales. Mycologia 37: 444-454. 1945. (6) GizBEerT, F. A. On the occurrence of bi- flagellate swarm cells in certain Myxo- mycetes. Mycologia 19: 277-283. 1927. (7) Feeding habits of the swarm cells of the Myxomycete, Dictydiaethalium plumbeum. Amer. Journ. Bot. 15: 123-132: 1928. (8) GILBERT, Henry C. Critical events in the ORNITHOLOGY.—A small collection of birds from Eritrea.' MANN, U.S. National Museum. During the early stages of World War II when North Africa was an important battle- field, numbers of American troops were sta- tioned in Eritrea, a rather neglected and little-known part of eastern Africa. Two of the men who were destined to spend some time in that former Italian colony collected 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of ae ae conian Institution. Received October , 1947. FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA 137 life history of Ceratiomyxa. Amer. Journ. Bot. 22: 52-74. 1935. (9) Hawk, Puitie B., and Bercerm, Oar. Practical physiological chemistry, ed. 11. Philadelphia, 1937. (P. 653.) (10) Howarp, Frank L. The life history of Physarum polycephalum. Amer. Journ. Bot. 18: 116-133. 1931. (11) Jann, E. Myzxomycetes. In Engler & Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamil- ven, ed. 2, 2: 304. Leipzig, 1928. Myxomycetenstudien 16. Dre Kernphase und die Zahl der Chromo- somen. Ber. Deutsche Bot. Ges. 54: 517-528. 1936. (13) Karuinc, JoHn 8S. Plasmodiophorales. New York, 1942. (14) LepincHam, G. A. Zoospore ciliation in the Plasmodiophorales. Nature 133: (12) 534. 1934. (15) Occurrence of zoosporangia in Spongospora subterranea (Wallroth) Lagerheim. Nature 135: 394-895. 1935. (16) Stnoto, Y., and Yuasa, A. Studies on the cytology of reproductive cells. I. On the planocytes in five forms of Myxomy- cetes. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 48: 720-729. 1934. (17) Smita, E. C. spores. Mycologia 21: 321-323. The longevity of myxomycete 1929. (18) Some phases of spore germina- tion of Myxomycetes. Amer. Journ. Bot. 16: 645-650. 1929. (19) Stoscu, H. A. von. Untersuchungen iiber die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxo- mycetes. Sexualitie und Apogamie ber Didymiaceen. Planta 23: 623-656. 1934 (20) Voux, V. Uber den Generationswechsel ber Myxomyceten. Oe¢csterr. Bot. Zeitsch. 61: 131-139. 1911. [Cited in Karling (13).] (21) Yuasa, Akira. Studies in cytology of re- productive cells. III. The genesis of the flagellum in the planocyte of Fuligo sep- tica Gmelin. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 49: 538-545, 1935. HERBERT FRIED- birds as time and opportunity permitted. Col. L. R. Wolfe sent in to the U. 8. Na- tional Museum a small box containing eight birds. A second and larger shipment com- prising about 300 specimens was most un- fortunately lost in transit. Thane Riney similarly suffered the loss of the bulk of his collection, but was able to bring back some 37 birds, which he forwarded to the Mu- seum of Vertebrate Zoology of the Univer- 138 sity of California, where most of them are now. A small number, chiefly duplicates, were generously presented by that insti- tution to the National Museum, where they together with Wolfe’s handful of specimens, are incorporated with the large East African material previously brought together by Mearns and others. Because of the paucity of published data concerning Eritrean birds I thought it ad- visable to put on record the contents of the Wolfe and Riney collections, small though they be, and, thanks to the cooperation of Dr. Alden H. Miller and Dr. Frank A. Pi- telka, I have been able to examine all the specimens and to combine them in this re- port. A collection containing only 34 species could hardly be expected to yield many new facts, but as may be seen from the subjoined annotated list, a few items of interest have been found to be contained in it. Family AccIPIrRIpAE: Hawks, Eagles, and Kites Elanus coeruleus coeruleus (Desfontains) Falco coeruleus Desfontains, Hist. (i.e., Mém.) Acad. Roy. Paris, for 1787: 503. 1789 (near Algiers). One specimen, in somewhat abraded plu- mage, was collected at Ghinda, altitude 962 meters, on February 2, 1943, by Thane Riney. Melierax metabates metabates Heuglin Melierax metabates Heuglin, Ibis 1861: 78 (White Nile between 6° and 7° lat. N.). During August (16-26), 1942, Wolfe col- lected an adult male, adult female, and a juve- nal male 15-20 miles south of Gura. Riney obtained an adult (unsexed) between Cheren and Agordat, on December 12, 1942. The very extensive white freckling on the secondaries and inner primaries of the adults suggests that they may be somewhat intermediate between neumanni and true metabates, but nearer to the latter. They have the barred upper tail coverts of the nominate race. Seclater and Mackworth Praed (Ibis 1919: 702) consider all Sudanese birds south of Khar- toum and north of Lake No as intermediate between the two races. Moltoni and Rusconi (Gli Uccelli dell’ Africa Orientale Italiana 2: 240. 1942) record newmanni from Eritrea near JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 the border of the Red Sea Province of the Su- dan, and metabates from the rest of Eritrea. The birds are rather small, the adult male having a wing length of 300, the female of 307 mm. In this respect they approach the south- west Arabian race ignoscens. The August birds show evidences of molting. The juvenal female is slightly more rufescent on the breast and darker on the upperparts than comparable birds from extreme north- western Uganda. Buteo rofofuscus augur (Riippell) Falco (Buteo) augur Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vdg.: 38, pl. 16. 1836 (Abyssinia). A female was taken by Riney about 20 km from Decamera, on January 1, 1943, at an ele- vation of 2,000 meters. A second specimen is unfortunately without data of any kind. Both are in the light phase. Lophaetus occipitalis (Daudin) Falco occipitalis Daudin, Traité 2: 40. 1800 (the Anteniquoi country, i.e., Knysna district, Cape | Province). Wolfe eollected a male and an unsexed bird, both adults, 15-20 miles south of Gura, August 16, 1942. He found the crested eagle not un- common at elevations of about 5,000 feet. Aquila rapax raptor Brehm Aquila raptor Brehm, Naumannia 1855: 13 (Blue and White Nile). An adult female in worn plumage was taken by Riney-on a nest in a baobab tree, south of Barentu, January 17, 1943. The date is in agree- ment with Blanford’s observation (Geol. and Zool. Abyss.: 295-296. 1870) that in Ethiopia the birds breed in January. Circus pygargus (Linnaeus) Falco pygargus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1: 89. 1758 (Europe). Riney collected an unsexed bird (female by plumage) 5 km west of Asmara at an elevation of 2,409 meters, on January 4, 1943, when he saw it foraging over open fields. The bird is in rather poor plumage and is molting its remiges, making definite identification somewhat diffi- cult. The third primary, from the outside, is only partly grown in, while the remainder of the remiges is considerably abraded. Montagu’s harrier is a Palearctic bird and Pigs k 8 Apr. 15, 1948 comes into Africa only during the northern winter. In eastern Africa it has been recorded all the way to South Africa. Family FaLconipasz: Falcons Falco naumanni pekinensis Swinhoe Falco cenchris var. pekinensis Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1870: 442 (Shihshanling (Ming Tombs) near Peking). An adult male, taken near Asmara, 2,371 - meters, on January 31, 1943, by Thane Riney, is in somewhat worn plumage and differs from the nominate race in its darker rufescent back. Archer and Godman (Birds of British Somali- land and the Gulf of Aden 1: 180-183. 1937.) consider this race a rare straggler to their area and suggest that it may follow down the Nile Valley to the west. If we were to apply this suggestion to Eritrea we should have to con- sider the bird a rare visitor to that country as well, which actually seems to be the case; in fact, Riney’s specimen is the first record for Eritrea, at least as far as published data indi- cate. The bird is known to reach South Africa during the northern winter and is probably commoner along the eastern part of the conti- nent than the few records would indicate. Falco alopex (Heuglin) Tinnunculus alopex Heuglin, Ibis 1861: 69, pl. 3 (Gallabat, Egyptian Sudan). A male, collected by Wolfe, 15 miles south of Gura, August 16, 1942, is noticeably darker than a female from Talodi, Kordofan, Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, the only other example of the species available for comparison. Our male also differs from this female in having the black bars on the median rectrices more complete, less marginal in character, and in having those on the lateral rectrices less broadened. There is a tendency in the female to have these bars dilated marginally on all the tail feathers, but this is most highly developed on the outer ones. Bannerman (Birds Tropical West Africa 1: 216-219. 1930) has given more extensive com- ments on this species than any other recent writer. He states that the wing measurement of the males varies from 266 to 293 (our example measures 276 mm). His account is unfortu- nately garbled by some misprinting of his orig- inal intention as he then goes on to state that the “largest birds are those from N. Nigeria with wings ~ 212 9 210....” FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA 139 The intensity (darkness or paleness) of the coloration appears to vary individually in this kestrel. Bannerman had 23 specimens for study and found the darkest birds came from such widely separated areas as Kulikoro on the Niger River, Jebel Marra in Darfur Province, Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, and Ethiopia. On the basis of this spotty occurrence of dark birds (among which the present Eritrean example appears to belong) it seems impracticable to recognize Oberholser’s race eremica from Togoland, which is based entirely on its paler tone. Bannerman (loc. cit.) has placed eremica in the synonymy of alopex, but, probably by oversight, he uses a trinomial for the latter. Our specimen shows signs of molt in the remiges and rectrices. This suggests the possi- bility that its darker tone may be due to the freshness of its plumage and that paler birds may show the results of fading under the hot sun in the dry open country it inhabits. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,-1: 90. 1758, (Europe; restricted type locality, Sweden apud Hartert). Riney shot a female 10 km from Decamera, at 2,050 meters, on January 1, 1943. The bird has a wing length of 258 mm and is therefore too large to be F. t. archeri Hartert and Neu- mann from the Waghar Mountains, and also too large to be F. t. carla (Hartert and Neu- mann) of the mountains of East Africa. In coloration it is slightly darker than typical tinnunculus but not as dark as carlo. It seems best treated as a darkish example of the nomi- nate race. Family PHASIANIDAE: Pheasants, Francolins, and Quails Francolinus erckelii erckelii (Riippell) Perdiz erckelii Riippell, Neue Wirbelth. Vog.: 12, pl. 6. 1835 (Taranta Mountains, Abyssinia). Erckel’s francolin is a poorly known bird, and any additional material of it is still of inter- est. Riney collected a female, 40 km north of Asmara, 2,390 meters altitude, on January 9, 1943. It is smaller than any mentioned by Mol- toni and Rusconi (Gli Uccelli dell’ Africa Orien- tale Italiana 3: 22-25. 1944.) having a wing length of only 202.6 (their series ranges from 205 to 230), and a tail length of 91 (as against 110-140 mm in Moltoni’s series). 140 Moltoni and Rusconi write that the race pen- toni ranges from the Red Sea Province of the Sudan into the adjacent parts of Eritrea, but as far as I can learn no actual specimens of this paler, grayer race have been taken in Eritrea. Family CoLuMBIDAE: Pigeons and Doves Oena capensis capensis (Linnaeus) Columba capensis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1: 286. 1766. (Cape of Good Hope). Riney collected a male in low bush near the Decamera turn off on the Adi-Ugri Road, 45 km south-southwest of Asmara, on January 1, 1948. The bird is in abraded plumage. Family APopiDAB: Swifts Apus aequatorialis aequatorialis (Miller) Cypselus aequatorialis Miller, Naumannia 1: 27. 1851 (Abyssinia). A female mottled swift was taken by Riney on the Citao compound at Asmara on February 2, 1943. It is a bird in rather worn feathering. Family Conimpaz: Colies, or Mousebirds Colius striatus leucotis Riippell Colius leucotis Riippell, Mus. Senck. 3: 42, pl. 2. 1839 (Temben Province, Abyssinia). Two unsexed examples of this common spe- cies were obtained by Riney, one on the Adi- Ugri Road at the base of the Asmara Plateau, on November 14, 1942, and one near Cheren, on March 15, 1943. This race inhabits Eritrea, Bogosland, northern Ethiopia, and adjacent portions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Family Coracrmpaz: Rollers Coracias naevius naevius Daudin Coracias naevia Daudin, Traité 2: 258. 1800 (Sen- egal). Wolfe obtained one specimen, unsexed, south of Gura, on July 26, 1942. It has the white stripes on the anterior underparts unusually broad and has the purplish brown of the top of the head and the greenish of the back slightly darker than in Ethiopian specimens. It has an unusually large bill, the culmen measuring 47 mm from the base; the largest billed birds from Ethiopia and Kenya Colony seen having cul- men lengths of 43 mm or less. The specimen was molting when collected, the outer remiges still showing their sheaths basally. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 Family Upupimpan: Hoopoes Upupa epops somaliensis Salvin Upupa somaliensis Salvin, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 16: 13. 1902 (Somaliland). On February 2, 1943, Riney obtained an adult female on the acacia plain between Ne- fasit and Decamara, altitude 1,825 meters. It matches Ethiopian and East Africa examples very well. This is the resident race, the nomi- nate one being only a winter visitor from Eur- ope. Family Bucrrotipar: Hornbills Tockus nasutus nasutus (Linnaeus) Buceros nasutus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1: 154. 1766 (Senegal). The gray hornbill is represented by a head collected south of Gura, in August 1942, by Colonel Wolfe. Tockus erythrorhynchus erythrorhynchus (Temminck) Buceros erythrorhynchus Temminck, Pl. Col., livr. 36: sp. 19. 1823 (Senegal). Riney collected a male red-billed hornbill on the plains west of Agadat, 700 meters altitude, on December 13, 1942, and Wolfe shot another individual south of Gura, July 26, 1942. Riney’s bird shows active molt in the tail. Family Tima.impAE: Babblers Turdoides leucopygia leucopygia (Riippell) Ixos leucopygius Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vég.: 82, pl. 30, fig. 1. 1840 (coast of Abyssinia). Riney met with this northern race of the white-rumped babbler 40 km north of Asmara, 2,390 meters altitude, on January 9, 1943, when he collected a male and an unsexed specimen. This race has the whole forehead and fore- crown white, while the four more southern sub- species have the white reduced or absent. The male shows signs of active molt in the wings. Family Turpipazg: Thrushes, Chats, and Wheatears Monticola solitaria solitaria (Linnaeus) Turdus solitarius Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10:1: 170. 1758 (Italy, apud Hartert). The blue rock-thrush of central and southern Europe winters in northeastern Africa, along Apr. 15, 1948 with the race longirostris of western Asia. Riney collected a female 20 km south-southwest of Asmara, 1,930 meters altitude, on January 1, 1943, which agrees with the nominate form in its dark and brownish color (the western Asiatic form is paler and more grayish). Oenanthe hispanica melanoleuca (Gildenstadt) Muscicapa melanoleuca Giildenstadt, Nov, Com, Petrop. 19: 468. 1775 (Georgia; Caucasus). An unsexed specimen of the eastern black- eared wheatear was obtained by Riney 20 km- south-southwest of Asmara, 1,930 meters alti- tude, on January 1, 1943. The race is known to winter from Egypt to Darfur Province in the Angol-Egyptian Sudan and to Eritrea and to southwestern Arabia (Aden Protectorate). Oenanthe lugubris (Riippell) Sazxicola lugubris Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.: 77, pl. 28, fig. 1. 1837 (Simen, Abyssinia). The Abyssinian black chat was met with by Riney on January 1, 1943, when he collected an adult male and female 20 km south-southwest of Asmara, at an altitude of 1,930 meters. These _ two specimens are definite evidence that Zed- litz (Journ. fiir Orn. 1911: 85) was wrong when he suggested that this species was migratory in Eritrea, leaving for the south after breeding, and returning in the latter part of March. To- gether with December and January birds pre- viously recorded from Ethiopia (Friedmann, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 153, pt. 2: 135. 1937.) these examples indicate that the migration, if any, 1s very limited in geographical extent. Both specimens are in fairly fresh plumage; the female has pale tips on the outer rectrices (curiously enough, only on the left side of the tail, but not on the right), the male has none at all. Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck) Sazxicola isabellina Temminck, Pl. Col., livr. 79: pl. 472, fig. 1. 1829 (Nubia). Riney obtained a female isabelline chat in the low brushland of the Asmara Plateau, 2,040 meters elevation, near Asmara, on January 1, 1943. The species breeds in Europe and east to Mongolia and winters in northeastern Africa, Arabia, and India. FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA 141 Cossypha semirufa semirufa (Riippell) Petrocincla semirufa Rippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.: 81. 1840 (Abyssinia). In the dense forest of Monte Marara, 2,340 meters altitude, about 40 km north of Asmara, on January 9, 1943, Riney shot an example (un- sexed) of this robin-chat. This must be about as far north as it is known to occur; I know of no published records north of Bogosland. Family MusctcapipagE: Old World Flycatchers Bradornis pallidus bowdleri Collin and Hartert Bradornis pallidus bowdleri Collin and Hartert, Nov. Zool. 34: 52. 1927 (new name for B. p. sharpet Rothschild, 1913, not B. sharper Bo- cage, 1894: Abyssinia). One female was collected by Riney near De- camera, 2,000 meters altitude, on January 1, 1943. This race of the pale flycatcher inhabits northern Ethiopia (south to the vicinity of Adis Ababa) and Eritrea, where it lives on open bushy areas. Batis minor erlangeri Neumann Batis minor erlangert Neumann, Journ. fiir Orn. 1907: 352 (Gara Mulata, near Harrar, Ethio- pia). Riney obtained an unsexed specimen (male by plumage characters) near Decamera, 2,000 meters altitude, on January 1, 1943. Inasmuch as this example agrees with Ethiopian speci- mens of erlangeri and shows no approach to the characters ascribed to chadensis, I have no hesitancy in so classifying it, although it ex- tends the known range of erlangeri northward a very considerable distance. It was known pre- viously from the Harrar area in central eastern Ethiopia, southwest to southern Shoa, and to Lake Stefanie. Family Moracttuipar: Wagtails and Pipits Anthus richardi cinnamomeus Riippell Anthus cinnamomeus Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog., 103. 1840 (Simien Province, Abyssinia). On January 1, 1943, Riney collected a female of this pipit about 15 km south-southwest of Asmara, at 2,040 meters altitude. The bird was seen on the ground in low brushlands. The specimen, which is in somewhat frayed plumage agrees well with others from Ethiopia. 142 Family LanipaAg: Shrikes Lanius collaris humeralis Stanley Lanius humeralis Stanley, in Salt, Travels in Abyssinia... , Appendix, li, no. 4. 1814 (Cheli- cut, Abyssinia). One female, collected by Riney 15 km south southwest of Asmara, 2,040 meters, January 1, 1943, is of this subspecies, which occurs from Eritrea and Ethiopia, south through eastern Africa (west to central Uganda), to Zululand and Natal. Family PrionoprpArE: Wood-shrikes Prionops cristata cristata Riippell Prionops (Lanius) cristatus Rippell, N. Wir- belth., Vég., lief. 183: 30, pl. 12, fig. 2. 1837 (coast at Massawa). Riney obtained an unsexed bird at Ghinda, 962 meters altitude, on February 2, 1943. The specimen is in very worn feathering. Family SturNIDAE: Starlings Lamprocolius chalybeus chalybeus (Hemprich and Ehrenberg) Lamprotornis chalybeus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, Symbolae physicae, folio y: pl. 10. 1828 (Am- bukol, Dongola). A female, showing evidence of active molting in the wings, was collected by Riney 30 km from Asmara, 1,930 meters altitude, on Janu- ary 1, 1948. Family PLoceipar: Weaverbirds Sporopipes frontalis abyssinicus Mearns Sporopipes frontalis abyssinicus Mearns, Smith- sonian Misc. Coll. 56(14): 7. 1910 (Abyssinia). Three examples of the speckle-fronted weaver were collected by Riney, 2 males and 1 female, on the acacia plain between Nefasit and Decamera, elevation 1,852 meters, Feb- ruary 7, 1943. One of the males shows evidence of molting in the tail. These specimens are somewhat darker on the upper surface of the wings than is the type, but this may be due to the fact that the latter is in very fresh plumage and has more exten- sive pale margins to these feathers. Ploceus baglafecht baglafecht (Daudin) Loxia baglafecht Daudin, in Buffon, Hist. Nat. ~ (Didot’s ed.), Quadrupeds 14: 245. 1799 (ac- tually 1802) (Abyssinia). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 4 Riney collected a male, 40 km north of As- mara, 2,390 meters elevation, on January 9, 1943. This weaver is known to occur at alti- tudes of from 5,000 to 12,000 feet in Bogosland and Ethiopia. Uraeginthus bengalus bengalus (Linnaeus) Fringilla bengala Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1: 323. 1766 (‘‘Bengal’; Senegal substituted by Sclater, Syst. Avium Ethiop. 2: 804. 1930). One male and one female were taken by Riney on January 1, 1943 in low acacia-dotted open grassy country between Decamera and the Adi-Ugri Road, 2,000 meters elevation. The male had the testes enlarged. Both birds are in worn plumage. I can see little advantage in accepting the recent suggestion that bengalus and its races are conspecific with the angolensis group. There is more to be said for Delacour’s action in ‘lumping’? Uraeginthus in the genus Estrilda, but even in this I hesitate to follow him as the cordon-bleus are a very distinctive section, at least, of the waxbill aggregate. Family FRINGILLIDAE: Finches, Sparrows, and Buntings Poliospiza tristriata tristriata (Riippell) Serinus tristriatus Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.: 97, pl. 35, fig. 2. 1840 (Taranta Pass, Abys- sinia). Riney collected a female in the Bermuda grass at the base of the Asmara Plateau, at 1,930 meters elevation 20 km south-southwest of Asmara, January 1, 1943. This seedeater ap- pears to range from altitudes of from 4,000 to 11,000 feet, and is reported (in literature) to be common in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Fringillaria tahapisi septemstriata (Riippell) Emberiza septemstriata Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.: 86, pl. 30. 1840 (Gondar, Abyssinia). A male in fairly worn plumage was taken by Riney on January 1, 1943, 45 km from Asmara, 1,930 meters elevation. This race of this rock bunting is characterized by the extensive rufescent area on the basal portion of the inner web of the outermost pri- mary. _ Apr. 15, 1948 ZOOLOGY .—Some echinoderms from Brak, Schouten Islands.' CLARK AND BAYER: ECHINODERMS FROM BIAK 143 AustTIN H. CLARK and FREDERICK M. Baysgr, U. 8. National Museum. Biak (or Wiak) is the largest and most easterly of the Schouten Islands, a small group of islands just north of Geelvink Bay, New Guinea, in approximately latitude 1°S. It is 45 miles long and 23 miles wide. It is a low island, not rising more than 50 feet above sea level except at the southern end where there is a hill 800 feet in height. Until the late war Biak was regarded as of little importance. It was remote from the Netherlands East Indies capital of Batavia, and the natives, addicted to headhunting and other unpleasant practices, were hostile to strangers. Few collections of any kind had ever been made there, and no echino- derms have ever been recorded from the island. During the war the junior author, then a member of a 5th Airforce Photo Recon- naisance Squadron, was fortunate enough to spend four months at Sarido village within a stone’s throw of a luxuriant coral reef. This reef is a fringing reef of rather in- significant proportions. It is perhaps 200 yards wide at the most and approaches quite close to the shore, which is sandy in the small embayment in which Sarido stands, and rocky southward toward the point on which the airstrip is located. In the little bay the actively growing reef is some- what farther from shore than elsewhere and is separated from it by a strip of slightly deeper water, from 3 to 5 or 6 feet deep at low tide, with a sandy bottom on which are scattered living and dead clumps of coral and patches of eelgrass and algae. This is a rather restricted zone, grading rapidly into the active reef zone. The reef itself is covered with water at all but the very lowest tides when a few of the highest coral prominences are exposed. It is made up of great masses of living coral, huge rounded heads of massive species many feet thick and submarine “brier patches” of branched madrepores in which reef fishes of indescribable colors hide by day. It is not an algal reef of the type found * Published by permission of the Secretary of oe omen Institution. Received November in the Marshall Islands and generally throughout the Pacific. There is no promi- nent ridge of Lithothamnion, nor are these plants even present in noticeable numbers. The coral masses afford precarious foot- holds, for the delicate Acroporas and other branched species are liable to give way, plunging one’s foot into 4 or 5 feet of water and raking one’s legs with razor-sharp edges in the descent. Among these coral masses are pools of deep water with sandy bottoms, providing a fine habitat for marine ani- mals. Two invertebrates especially force them- selves on the attention of the collector, the giant clam, T'ridacna, with its mantle rich shades of blue, green, and purple, and a starfish, Linckia laevigata, with a very small disk and long, rigid, cylindrical arms of the most outlandish blue imaginable. These two creatures are everywhere. Coral masses are studded with the multicolored zigzags formed by the clams, and the entire reef is dotted here and there on sand and coral alike with the brilliant blue 5-pointed stars. The most interesting animals were less evident, and it required poking into dark crevices, turning over coral blocks, and stir- ring up sand pockets to find them. Occa- sionally one of the giant slate-pencil urchins, Heterocentrotus mammillatus, would be found in the open, though usually they were tucked away in remote nooks and cran- nies, their presence betrayed only by a stray spine or two projecting from a small open- ing, apparently much too small to allow the creature free passage. Cidarids could be found in similiar situations, though they were much less common. Turning over coral heads was a simple way of finding interesting things. Brittle- stars were, of course, under every one, and those with large enough recesses often con- tained comatulids of unusual beauty. The less conspicuous starfishes also were often found in such situations. The little sand pockets under the rocks produced very in- teresting mollusks, such as the venomous cone shells, Conus textile, C. striatus, and C. geographus, not to mention dozens of less conspicuous things such as abalones (Halto- 144 tis), several species of Trochus, Mitra, Cymatium, and many other genera. The large starfishes Culcita novaeguineae and Acanthaster planci were found crawling about in the open, but because of their pro- tective coloration were more often over- looked than seen. The latter is adorned with the most vicious 3-cornered spines imagin- able. In collecting one of these the spines drew blood through a pair of heavy leather oloves. Toward the outer reef the water deepens, the coral heads become more widely spaced, and, reaching the brink, one can look down the almost vertical wall into fathomless blue. Sharks were sometimes seen cruising along in the hazy middle distance, and al- ways myriads of reeffishes, moorish idols, parrotfishes, pomacentrids, wrasses, scor- pionfishes, and many others. To the right and left on almost every coral pinnacle could be seen a huge black or deep red comatulid, gently swaying in the aquatic breezes. These seemed never to stray from their own chosen perch, for on several visits to the same spot we found them unchanged. The occurrence of Heterocentrotus mam- mullatus at Biak is especially interesting, for only H. trigonartus has been definitely re- corded from nearby New Guinea. Hetero- centrotus trigonarius occurs in the Philip- pines and generally throughout the Pacific islands. It is replaced by H. mammillatus in the Hawaiian, Bonin, and Riu Kiu islands, which is also found at Lord Howe Island, in the Murray Islands at the northern end of the Great Barrier reef, and at Cape Jau- bert, Western Australia. The specimens listed below are in the U.S. National Museum, and the numbers follow- ing the names are those in the catalogue of the Division of Echinoderms. CRINOIDEA Comantheria briareus (Bell), 4, E.6935, E.6937, E.6939, E.6961. Comanthus bennettt (J. Miller), 4, E.6963, E.6970, E.6972, E.6976. Comanthus timorensis (J. Miiller), 5, E.6936, E.6954, E.6962, E.6874. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4 Comanthus parvicirra (J. Miller), 5, E.6841, E.6842, £.6966, E.6971. Himerometra magnipinna (A. H. Clark), 7, E.6957, E.6958, E.6964, E.6965, E.6973. Stephanometra spicata (P. H. Carpenter), 1, E.6939. Stephanometra protectus (Liitken), 1, E.6843. Lamprometra palmata palmata (J. Miiller), 4, E.6959, E.6960, E.6969, E.6987. ECHINOIDEA Plococidaris verticillata (Lamarck), 1, E.6967. Eucidaris metularia (Lamarck), 3, E.6968. Mespilia globulus (Linné), 1, E.6951. Heterocentrotus mammillatus (Linné), 1, E.6977. ASTEROIDEA Archaster typicus Miller and Troschel, 1, E.6980. Protoreaster nodosus (Linné), 1, E.6830. Culcita novaeguineae Miiller and Troschel, 3, E.6979. Gomophia aegyptica Gray, 1, E.6828. Nardoa mollis de Loriol, 2, E.6981. Linckia laevigata (Linné), 4, E.6982—E.6984. Linckia multifora (Lamarck), 3, E.6986. Linckia guildingu Gray, 1, E.6985. Asterope carinifera (Gray), 1, E.6827. Asterina cepheus (Miller and Troschel), 1, E.6831. Othilia luzonica Gray, 1, E.6978. Acanthaster planci (Linné), 2, E.6955, E.6956. OPHIUROIDEA Ophiodera brevispina (von Martens), 1, E.6950. Ophiothrix longipeda (Lamarck), 1, E.6944. Ophiocema erinaceus (Miller and Troschel), 1, E.6952. Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck), 2, E.6953. Ophiomastix annulosa (Lamarck), 2, E.6949. Ophiomastix litkenii Pfeffer, 2, E.6948. Ophiarthrum pictum (Miller and Troschel), 5, E.6946, E.6947. Ophiarachna incrassata (Lamarck), 1, E.6943. Ophiarachnella septemspinosa (Miller and Tro- schel), 1, E.6945. Ophiolepis superba H. L. Clark, 5, E.6940. Ophiolepis cincta Miller and Troschel, 2, E.6942. Ophioplocus imbricatus (Miller and Troschel), 5, E.6941. a eS , > fas Ss Sa ha TS Ais oils GE: nh: 9 > A Oa aR es Nae x oy ‘Officers of the Washington Read my of Sciences President........+sese0e- ... FREDERICK D. Rossint, National Bureau of Standards | a aS SOG EE A Sees ....C, Lewis "Gazin, U. S. National Museum Treasurer... = DEE Ree i ag a ae ge ge .-- HOWARD 8S. RApplEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey ESO Rs Sele ina eH eaiee Samalae ary NatTHan R. Smiru, Plant Industry Station Custodian as Subscription Manager of Publications. ac... 0. e ec cee cto eee eR le Wee C cinienie'e wtals bie wie bre HarRaup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the A fiiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington..............0c cc econ WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington... ...........20008: T. Date STEWART Biological Society of Washington. 3.0... ee ee eee es JoHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington... ........ cece ccc cece ees CHarR.Les E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington Pec Steet pie eek eeu SON C. F. W. MuESEBECK National Georraphic Society... 2.2.2 eee cee ce ewe canes ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington........... let ek niin ee we aien Wi.tiiaAM W. RuBEY Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK QO. CoE ruins Tistorical Society. a. 0. si es we ck ce cewnes GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanica! Society of Washington... cw cee ee cee ees RONALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Witu1am A. Dayton Washington Society of Engineers.............0 cee eee eees CuIFFORD A. BETTS Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... Marae crore a caster dy Pk Gis wo lin''e: sie Tatas a Jako tere och o's bien e's Francis B. SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... ME ee ep od ie ahs PE lve cp Gon! Segitinte wie Eatecee wey Fuse me ounce Martin A, Mason Helminthological Society of Washington: 2.3... foes 0 oa AUREL O. FostTER Washington, Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERs Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... H®RBERT GROVE DoRSEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OweEN B. FRENCH Elected Members of the Board of Managers: mer enroery L940) ek ds ee bees wee Max A. McCatrt, Watpo L. Scumitt Re A Ey. LOGO. 5c sulealc ee cae oe F. G. BRIcKWEDDE, WiLLIAM W. DIEHL eaamusary BOS) Oe ee ea). es Francis M. DeranporFr, WiLu1aM N. FENTON MMPI IP ICADIETS ig cin 6k Udine ee etet All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors..... 0... cece eee eee cee eens {See front cover] Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERQ, eta hitless 9s we Waupo L. Scumitt, Howarp §. Rappers, C. Lewis Gazin RINE PROUT ARE Belt ds OL Wethts Petia ies U Sig v/Gim wee Mk ae vib Sicko e Sra & woemlele wlataleree Haroitp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyTHE Cooxs, WiLi1aM ee ee W. Disx., Luoyp D. Fre.itron, Recina FLANNERY, GrorGE G. Manov Committee OE LE TI ORES SERS OR nl ae eS ARS Pe RayYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), ~»e+-- FRANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Moutsr, Francis O. Rict, Frank THONE Committee on Monographs: To January 1949........... Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN earetiieey 1950. 2S ssa bse 'nle #6 teaeie RoLanpD W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER Beer TERE POD, sing wn baw gsh a piace ewe WiuiiaM N. Fenton, EMMETT W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman): Hor Meee MIEN HRSA SURESTRCEIN 7G Np Ana's in Pk Sis Cans See's bate Uw Wii ela 3 Uwe 6 arate eee are _C. F. W. Muesesescx (chairman), Harry §S. BERNToN, CHEsTER W. Emmons, ELMER Hiceins, Mario Mo.uuari, GoTTHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum For the Engineering ORCS FC By Sai VEE ke, OR Sa AAC ae ane a _ Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan, HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNO C, FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEeEtz, W. D. Sutcuirrs eee MSE POCORN GG 11, bite ais wih Vita aig cw’ ven ores ance aelb whe ded ce UAee ad Karu F. Herzrevp (chairman), NatHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FEtron, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, RoBERtT SIMHA, MicHaEL X. SULLIVAN Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research. ...... 1... cece eee c cece ccc ee ete neneacs 2a H. Roperts, JR. Se rare Anna E. JEnxt1ns, J. LEoN SHERESHEVSKY Representative Ly LE SES Ue rE RAN SSR Re a ee Dene MEE FRANK THONE MM RARTELOR ES Jol) A potas eC Fate olor A ein Sida bales wee We a4 ok S ae kee 8% Wiuiiam G. BromBacuer (chairman), Harotp F, Stimson, HERBERT L. Hatter tamer OE EOE CS REAR 1 TING ey MERI Dt ah 0s a ag DO A OE RC ER SL Ae .. JOHN W. McBurney amie Rocer G. Bates, Wititiam A. WILDHACE CONTENTS BIOCHEMISTRY.—The chemical nature of enzymes. JAMES BATCHEL- LER SUMNER |) 9°60 Goer hs aes. Bag ad Wr oe eh eth eee oe CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the field of adsorption: “ RAbpH A!) BEMBe. 3 2202 ela). 6 oo ee MeErEorROLOGY.—Loose usage of weather words. W. J. HUMPHREYS. . PaLEONTOLOGY.—An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West Virginia. ‘Davin FS DUNKEE i. ide soe tea ee ee Mycotocy.—The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes. EUGENE W. ELuiorr ORNITHOLOGY.—A small collection of birds from Eritrea. HERBERT FRED MAIN eR NG PD ere a Pk te oe ee ae Oe ZOOLOGY.—Some echinoderms from Biak, Schouten Islands. Austin H. CnarkK and Freprrick)M: BAYER... eee ae io This Journal is Indexed in the Internationa] Index to Periodicals Page 113 117 123 130 133 137 No. 5 JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS pate aay ALAN STONE FRANK C. KRAcCEK BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PLANT QUARANTINE . _ ASSOCIATE EDITORS eg RicHARD E. BLACKWELDER ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY t. JAMES 8. WILLIAMS : GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY . Waupo R. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 38 May 15, 1948 No. 5 PHYSICS.—General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure physics.' Percy W. BripGMan, Harvard University. In this lecture I shall attempt to present a general survey of those parts of the field of high pressure physics with which I have had direct contact, dealing first with tech- nical matters of producing and measuring high pressure, and secondly with the physi- cal phenomena which occur under. high pressure. With regard to technique, several differ- ent ranges of pressure are to be recognized. The first step was to devise a method of packing which should be without leak, since leak had limited the range of previous experiments. A packing was devised, shown in Fig. 1, which automatically becomes tighter the higher the pressure, so that any pressure is accessible up to the strength of the containing vessels. If the vessels are made of one-piece construction, from the best heat treated alloy steels, it is possible to reach pressures of 12,000 kg/cm? as a routine matter and on occasion for short intervals of time as high as 20,000. For many years my work was confined to this range, and in this range it proved feasible to measure nearly all the ordinary physical properties of substances. The next step was to give the pressure vessel external support which increases in magnitude at the same time the internal pressure increases. A sim- ple method of doing this is to make the ex- ternal surface of the pressure vessel conical in shape, and to push it into a heavy collar with a force which increases as the internal pressure increases, as illustrated in Fig. 2. With apparatus of this kind it is possible to make routine experiments up to 30,000 1 Nobel Laureate Lecture delivered at Stock- holm, Sweden, December 11, 1946. Reprinted by permission from the proof of the article for Les Prix Nobel en 1946. kg/cm? with volumes of the order of 15 cm‘', to get electrically insulated leads into the apparatus, and practically to repeat all the former work in the range to 12,000. I am still engaged in carrying out this program. An extension of the same technique on a, Fig. 1.—The general scheme of the packing by which pressure in the soft packing materials is automatically maintained a fixed percentage higher than in the liquid. smaller scale with capacities of the order of 0.5 cm? can be made up to 50,000 kg/cm?. In this range all ordinary liquids freeze solid, electrically insulated leads cannot be got into the apparatus, and the phenomena which can be studied are limited to various volume effects, such as compressibilities and phase changes, including fusions and poly- morphic transitions. 145 146 The external support of the vessel is only one of the factors that make possible the extension of range from 12,000 to 50,000. No steel piston will support as much as 50,000; carboloy, however, the recently de- veloped substance for tools formed by cementing a fine powder of tungsten carbide with cobalt, fortunately proves to have a compressive strength high enough for the purpose. Fie. 2.—TIllustrating the general principle of the method for giving external support to the pressure vessel in such a way that support increases auto- matically with the increase of internal pressure. The next step in extension of range, from 50,000 to 100,000 kg/cm?, demands still more effective support of the pressure ves- sel. This is done by immersing the entire pressure vessel in a fluid under pressures ranging up to 30,000 kg/cm?. The pressure apparatus has to be made still smaller, the pistons are only 1.6 mm in diameter, and the capacity is only a few cubic millimeters. The pressure cylinder itself, as well as the pistons, is now made of carboloy with an external jacket of shrunk-on steel to give it greater strength. The piezometer is illus- trated in Fig. 3. Even with this type of con- struction so great an extension of range as from 50,000 to 160,000 would not have been possible if it were not for a fortunate change in the properties of metals under pressure. At pressures of 25,000 kg/cm? ordinary grades of steel become capable of almost indefinite deformation without fracture, so greatly has their ductility been increased, as shown in Fig. 4. Even carboloy loses its normal brittleness and becomes capable of supporting higher tensile stresses without fracture than steel. Up to the present, the compressibilities and polymorphic transitions of some 30 ele- ments and simple compounds have been JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 studied in the range to 100,000 kg/cm. Much higher pressures than 100,000 can be reached in very small regions by con- structing the apparatus entirely of carboloy, but up to the present no particularly im- portant physical results have been attained in this range. In addition to the problem of attaining the pressures, there is the problem of meas- uring them and measuring the effects which they produce. This demands in the first place the establishment of various fixed points. In the range up to 30,000 a sufficient number of such points has been established to permit measurements to an accuracy of about 0.1 percent. A transition of bismuth in the neighborhood of 25,000 gives one convenient such point. An essential part of the measuring technique is the utilization of the change of resistance of manganin under pressure, first suggested by Lisell at Uppsala. Above 30,000 the territory is not so well marked out; it is probable that the measurements to 100,000 have an accuracy of about 2 percent. Fig. 3.—The miniature apparatus for reaching 100,000 kg/cm. It is natural to think of volume compres- sion as the simplest and most fundamental of all the effects of hydrostatic pressure, and for that reason it will be discussed first here. It is not, however, the simplest to measure experimentally, because the measurements immediately obtained are relative to the containing vessel, which is itself distorted. May 15, 1948 Elaborate procedures may be necessary to eliminate the effect of such distortion. The compression of gases is outside the range of this work; at pressures of 1,000 kg/cm” or more the densities of gases be- come of the same order of magnitude as those of their liquid phase, and there ceases to be any essential difference between gas and liquid. If the volume of any ordinary liquid is plotted as a function of pressure at constant temperature, a curve will be ob- tained which at low pressures has a high degree of curvature and a steep tangent, meaning a high compressibility, but as pres- sure increases the curvature rapidly be- comes less and the curve flattens off. In Fig. 5 the volume of a typical liquid, ether, is shown as a function of pressure. For com- parison, the curve of the most compressible solid, caesium, is also shown. Two different physical mechanisms are primarily responsi- ble for the different behavior in the low and high pressure ranges. The low range of high compressibility is the range in which the chief effect of pressure is to push the mole- BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS 147 cules into closer contact, eliminating the free spaces between them. In this range individual substances may show large and characteristic individual differences. In the higher range..the molecules have been pushed into effective contact, and the com- pressibility now arises from the decrease of volume of the molecules themselves. This effect persists with comparatively little decrease over a wide range of pressure. This effect is of course present also in the lower range of pressure, but there it is masked by the much larger effect arising from squeez- ing out the free spaces between the mole- cules. If one attempts to set up a formula for the effect of pressure on volume on the basis of measurements in the low range only, one will be likely to neglect too much the contribution from the compressibility of the molecules, with the result that the actual volumes at high pressures will be found to be materially smaller than the volumes which would be extrapolated from the low pressure formulas. This, as a matter of fact, has been a property of practically all the Fig. 4.—Illustrating the effect of pressure in increasing the ductility of steel. On the left, a piece of mild steel broken in tension at atmospheric pressure. On the right, the same steel pulled to a much greater reduction of area without fracture in a liquid at 25,000 kg/cm?. 148 formulas that have been derived from low pressure data. At high pressures, the volumes of ordi- nary organic liquids become surprisingly alike in spite of initial differences. To illus- trate the rapid falling off of compressibility with pressure, the volume change in the first 5,000 kg/cm? is roughly the same on the average as the volume change between 5,000 and 50,000; the effect is accentuated by the fact that the volume decrement in the latter range often includes the volume discontinuity on freezing. In the low pressure range, in which the molecules are being pushed into effective contact, one might expect effects depending on the shapes of the molecules, and that these effects would be highly specific with the liquid. This is the case. In the low pres- sure range a great variety of small-scale ab- normalities are superposed on the larger scale uniformities, and these small-scale effects vary greatly from liquid to liquid. Thus there may be sub-ranges of an extent of a few thousand kg/cm? in which the com- pressibility increases with increasing pres- sure instead of decreasing as is normal, or VOLUME JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 the thermal expansion may also increase with increasing pressure instead of decreas- ing. Any satisfactory theory of liquids must ultimately give an account of these small- scale effects but for the present the large- scale effects must have first attention. When the theory of liquids does come to be writ- ten, the first step may well be to set up an idealized ‘‘perfect liquid” in analogy to the perfect gas which has played so important a role in the theory of gases. The-experimen- tal results at high pressures show sufficient uniformity in the behavior of all ordinary organic liquids to indicate that such an idealized perfect liquid is not too far from the actuality. The compressibility of solids varies over a much wider range than does that of the ordinary liquids; caesium, for example, is 350 times more compressible than diamond. The highest compressibilities among solids, judging from indirect evidence, are probably to be found in solid hydrogen and helium. As in the case of liquids, the compressibility of solids normally drops off with increasing pressure. This would be expected in general because of the operation of a law of “di- PRESSURE IN THOUSANDS OF Kg/em2 Fig. 5.—Volume as a function of pressure for a typical liquid, ether. The corresponding curve is also shown for caesium, the most compressible solic. The liquid is initially much more compressible than the solid, but at higher pressures is less compressible. May 15, 1948 minishing returns,” and is obviously neces- sary when pressure is raised indefinitely because if volume continued to decrease at its initial rate it would eventually become negative. For instance, the volume of caesium would become negative at a pres- sure of only 14,000 kg/cm? if it contin- ued to decrease with pressure at the ini- tial rate. In spite of the fact that the compressibility of solids on the average must decrease with increasing pressure, there is a very marked qualitative dif- ference as compared with liquids. The initial phase of very rapid decrease is ab- sent, and the decrease is spread more uni- formly over the entire pressure range. The difference is to be accounted for by the lat- tice structure of solids; with increasing pressure the atoms retain their position in the lattice with the result that a smaller part of the free space between the atoms is available for occupancy as the centers of the atoms are forced closer together. The volume decrements of a number of the more compressible solids are shown as a function of pressure up to 100,000 kg/cm? in Fig. 6. The curvature is in general very marked. There is no thermodynamic necessity that the compressibility should decrease with increasing pressure, although this opinion has sometimes been expressed. Solid substances are known in which the com- pressibility may increase with increasing pressure over a comparatively wide range of pressure. The most striking example is quartz glass. The compressibility not only increases with pressure, but increases at an accelerating rate. This continues up to 35,000 kg/cm? and then abruptly stops. At this pressure there is a discontinuity in the derivative, a transition of the ‘‘second kind”’ in the nomenclature of Ehrenfest, and from here on compressibility decreases with rising pressure as is normal. The mechanism which is responsible for the low pressure effect abruptly ceases to act. Fig. 7 shows the relations. So far we have been considering the effect of pressure on the volume of isotropic sub- stances; this includes substances like glass and all cubic crystals. If the material crys- tallizes in some non-cubic system, the ef- BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS 149 fects are more complicated. The compressi- bility is not the same in all directions, so that the shape of bodies composed of such crystals may change under pressure. The differences of compressibility in different di- rections may be large; thus zinc is eight times as compressible in the direction of the hexagonal axis as at right angles to it. Some difference in this direction might be ex- pected, because the atomic spacing is greater along the axis than at right angles, but no simple consideration would lead to the expectation of differences as large as this. There is even one substance, tellurium, which has a negative compressibility along the axis. That is, when a single crystal of tellurium is subjected to hydrostatic pres- sure by a fluid in which it is completely im- mersed, it expands along the axis. Considerable success has been achieved in calculating theoretically the effect of o7 06 os PN \ PE er eee eee er, 12) EN i oe a Sess . Pie Nace NS 0.2 Gea oes =u ES Teck ho Pr he °. ee NS eee el. rer hs es ° 60900 100,000 PRESSURE, Kg/em" Fig. 6.—The volume compression of several elements up to 100,000 kg/cm?. The breaks in some of the curves indicate polymorphic tran- sitions. 150 pressure on the volume of simple solids. The first success was with simple ionic lattices of the type of NaCl by Max Born, who was able to get acceptable values for the lattice spacing and for the initial compressibility. He was not at first successful, however, in reproducing the change of compressibility with pressure, and even today complete success has not been attained in this regard. More complete results have recently been obtained for the alkali metals by applying the methods of wave mechanics. Bardeen has had surprising success in reproducing the entire volume curve over the experi- mental pressure range for the alkali metals. The calculations are particularly simple here because there is only one free electron per atom, and it turns out that the major part of the effect arises from the increase of kinetic energy of the free electrons arising from their decrease in effective wave length when the volume is decreased. Other metals, with more free electrons, are more difficult to compute, but it is pp eves ted that the difficulties are merely difficulties of the com- plexity of the calculation. Theory is apparently not yet in a position to attack with much success the problem of non-cubic crystals. We now consider the discontinuous vol- ume effects arising from phase changes of various sorts. The simplest of these is the effect of pressure on melting. Historically the study of the effect of pressure on melt- Deviations 20000 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 ing was approached with the anticipation that the effects would be found to be similar to the effect of pressure on vaporization, and in particular that there would be criti- cal phenomena, so that above a certain pressure and temperature continuous pas- sage would be possible between liquid and solid. It soon appeared, however, that the pressure scale of any such effects must be much more extensive than the scale of the critical effects between liquid and vapor, and that whereas pressures of a few hun- dred kg/cm? were adequate in the latter case, pressures of thousands of kg/cm? would be required to produce analogous ef- fects for solid and liquid, if indeed they could be produced at all. With every exten- sion of pressure range the probability of the existence of any such critical phenomena has become increasingly remote. Melting curves have now been followed up to 40,000 kg/cem?; a number of these are shown in Fig. 8. The melting curves of all substances have certain qualitative features in com- mon, so that it is appropriate to speak of “the” melting curve just as one may speak of ‘‘the’’ vaporization curve. In other re- spects, however, the situation with regard to melting is qualitatively different from that with regard to vaporization. In par- ticular, all melting curves, that is, the curve of melting temperature against pressure, are concave toward the pressure axis with a. curvature becoming less at higher pressures, $0000 30,000 40000 Pressure Kg/cm* SiOz Glass Fig. 7.—The deviations from linearity of the volume decrements of quartz glass for pressure in- crements of 5,000 kg/cm? plotted against pressure. The cusp in the curve marks the change from_ab- normal to normal behavior. May 15, 1948 and the curve of difference of volume be- tween liquid and solid as a function of pressure is convex toward the pressure axis with a curvature decreasing with increasing pressure. No critical point has ever been ob- served in the experimental range. If there were such a point outside the range, the latent heats and the volume difference be- tween liquid and solid would have to vanish at a common pressure and temperature. Extrapolation of the curves for latent heat and volume difference indicates that neither of them will vanish at any finite pressure or temperature, to say nothing of both vanish- ing at the same pressure and temperature. The probability at present seems over- whelming that there can be no critical point between liquid and solid, at least for the type of substance investigated up to now, which includes organic substances of vari- ous types and a few metals. The same line -of argument rules out the existence of other such features on the melting curve as a maximum temperature or an asymptotic temperature. In general, the melting curve rises to indefinitely high temperatures with indefinitely increasing pressure but at a diminishing rate, the curve becoming more nearly linear. It is possible to show thermodynamically that if a substance expands when it melts, its melting temperature must rise with in- creasing pressure, and, conversely, it falls. There are only three substances which be- long to the latter category in the ordinary range, water, bismuth, and gallium. Con- sistent with thermodynamics the melting curves of these three substances are found to fall. Furthermore, the curvature in- creases and the curves drop more and more rapidly as pressure increases. Such a state of affairs apparently cannot continue in- definitely. Nature extricates itself from the dilemma by the “liquidating” of such ab- normal substances. Above a certain pres- sure the lattices in which these substances initially crystallize become unstable, and the lattice collapses into another lattice. The new lattice has a volume so much less than the former lattice that the solid phase is now more dense than the liquid, and from here on the melting curve rises as for other substances. The collapse of the lattice oc- BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS 151 Tem perature 20.000 Pressure, Kglem? 30.000 40.000 Fig. 8.—Melting temperature against pressure for a number of substances. At 15,000 kg/cm? the order of substances, reading from top down, is chloroform, chlorobenzene, chlorobenzene (second modification), water (ice VI), n-butyl alcohol, carbon bisulphide, methylene chloride, n-propyl bromide, ethyl bromide, and ethyl] alco- hol. curs at a pressure of about 2,000 kg/cm? for water, at 12,000 for gallium, and at 25,000 for bismuth. The phase changes of these three sub- stances afford a particular example of poly- -morphism. The phase diagram of bismuth is shown in Fig. 9. Under pressure, poly- morphism is a very common phenomenon; the number of instances increases with in- crease in the experimental pressure range and with increasing sensitiveness in the methods for detecting small discontinuities of volume. In the range from room tempera- ture to 200° C and up to pressures of 50,000 kg/cm?, roughly one-third of the substances examined have proved to be polymorphic. In the much greater range of conditions en- countered in the crust of the earth, the pre- sumption seems to be that no substance exists in the lattice with which we are fa- miliar under laboratory conditions, unless perhaps the lattice is of a particularly sim- ple type. The importance of such a con- clusion for geophysics is obvious. The thermodynamics of a polymorphic phase change is the same as the thermody- namics of melting, but beyond that there is little resemblance between the two phe- nomena; there is no such thing as “‘a’”’ poly- 152 morphic transition curve as there is ‘‘a” melting curve. There are only three falling melting curves, and these disappear at higher pressures; there are many falling transition curves, and they become increas- ingly numerous at higher pressures. Be- tween 12,000 and 50,000, 41 percent of the new transition curves are of the falling type. Transition curves may have horizontal or vertical tangents; melting curves have neither. Transition curves may have up- ward or downward curvature; melting curves are always concave downward. The difference of volume of two polymorphic phases may increase or decrease in the direc- tion of increasing temperature along the transition line; the difference of volume be- tween liquid and solid always decreases. The compressibility of the high pressure phase may be greater or less than that of the low pressure phase; the compressibility of the liquid is always greater than that of the solid. Substances are capable of existing in a number of polymorphic forms, and the complete mapping of the transition tem- peratures and pressures for all the forms may result in phase diagrams of great com- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 plication. Thus bismuth has six different phases; water, which has some striking analogies to bismuth, has seven phases. The most complicated phase diagram investi- gated to date is that of camphor, which has eleven phases. There are only two generalizations with regard to polymorphic transitions that stand to date. The first is that critical points and continuous transitions between differ- ent polymorphic forms do not occur. If there were such points this would demand a continuous transition from one type of lat- tice to another, and this seems highly im- probable, although perhaps not logically inconceivable. The second generalization is that transitions in the simple CsCl type of lattice in the direction of smaller volumes are not produced by pressure; this lattice seems to be of such a simplicity that it is not likely to be disturbed. This second generali- zation naturally rests on a much smaller number of examples than the first, and is correspondingly less secure. We have so far been discussing transi- tions which are thermodynamically re- versible; when pressure is released the origi- 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 Bismvth Fig. 9.—The phase diagram of bismuth. The arrows on the transition line III-IV indicate the pressure limits within which the transition runs with increasing or decreasing pressure. May 15, 1948 nal form is resumed. In addition to these reversible transitions, the existence of irre- versible transitions is to be recognized, that is, of changes effected by pressure which re- main permanent when they have once taken place. Two well-marked examples of this have been found. The first was phosphorus. If ordinary yellow phosphorus is exposed to pressures above 12,000 kg/cm? at tempera- tures above 200° C, it is permanently changed into a black solid much like graph- ite in appearance and like it a conductor of electricity, although yellow phosphorus is a good insulator. This remained the only ex- ample for many years. Recently I have found that ordinary liquid CS, may simi- larly be changed permanently into a black solid at temperatures in the neighborhood of 200° C and by pressures of the order of 40,000 kg/cm?. This black substance is defi- nitely not a mixture of sulphur and carbon, which one might at first expect, but is ap- parently a unitary substance, truly a black solid form of carbon bisulphide. It has been suggested that the structure may be that of a single giant molecule like the known struc- ture of SiO2, which from the atomic point of view is very similar. It is fascinating to speculate that there may be many other common substances which may be pushed by sufficiently high pressures over a po- tential hill of some kind permanently into some hitherto unknown form. Until we have theoretical understanding of these two known permanent transitions, we can not help attaching a certain reasonableness to the assumption of the possible existence of other such substances. In fact, there is experimental evidence that many other such transformations may be effected. In experiments in which I combined high shearing stresses with high hydrostatic pressure I have observed some cases of ir- reversible transitions to forms already known, and have also observed a large number of color changes, which are the indi- cation of some sort of permanent change. It was not possible to establish whether new substances were formed under these con- ditions because the quantities of material involved were too small to permit satisfac- tory analysis. We pass now to other sorts of pressure BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS 153 effects. Perhaps the simplest of these to measure are the effects of pressure on elec- trical resistance. Measurements have been made at room temperature or higher up to 30,000 kg/cm? and at the temperature of liquid air to 7,000. At low temperatures there is a natural limit to the pressure range imposed by the freezing of the medium transmitting pressure, which in this case was gaseous nitrogen. Fig. 10 shows the ef- fect of pressure on the alkali metals at room temperature up to 30,000 kg/cm’. In the first place, there is a specific effect of pressure on resistance; the pressure co- efficient of resistance is in general of the order of magnitude of ten times greater than the volume compressibility. This would in- volve as a corollary that the effect of pres- sure on the resistance of a highly compres- sible metal is greater than on a metal of low compressibility. This is indeed true in general, but exceptions are common. The resistance of perhaps three-quarters of the metals decreases with increasing pressure; as is to be expected, the rate of decrease itself decreases with increasing pressure, that is, the curve of resistance against pres- sure is convex toward the pressure axis. On the other hand, there are several metals, of which lithium, strontium, and bismuth are examples, whose resistance increases under pressure. For these metals, surprisingly, there is a law of increasing returns, that is, the rate of increase of resistance itself in- creases with increasing pressure. This means that for these metals also the curve of re- sistance against pressure is concave up- ward. Finally, there are a few metals which combine both types of behavior, that is, the resistance initially decreases, then passes through a minimum, and then turns upward. Examples are caesium, rubidium, potassium, and barium. It would appear, therefore, that the upward curvature is common to all metals, and that all resist- ance curves may be regarded as pieces of one single curve, the only difference for different metals being that what might be called the intrinsic zero of pressure is dif- ferently situated with respect to atmos- pheric pressure for different metals. Considerable success has been achieved by theoretical physicists in explaining theo- 154 retically the effect of pressure on resistance. As might be expected when effects depart- ing so largely from linearity are concerned, we can recognize the presence of at least two different mechanisms working in opposite directions. There is in the first place an effect of pressure on what is the analogue of the electron free path in the old electron gas theory of metallic conduction. This is con- nected with the change of dimensions, and in general works in the direction of an in- crease of free path, that is, a decrease of resistance, with increasing pressure. In the second place, there is a rearrangement of the energy levels, and this may, when the energy bands are nearly completely occu- pied, work in the direction of a change in the effective number of free electrons. De- eonding on the details of the atomic rela- tions, this effect may be either an increase or a decrease. The calculations have been carried through approximately in a few 35 30 25 20 RELATIVE RESISTANCE AT 30° ARRANGE XS OSs bi an 5000 10,000 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 simple cases. It turns out that the increase of resistance of lithium with pressure is due to the preponderating effect of a decrease in the effective number of free electrons. The effect of pressure on the electrical re- sistance of single crystals is sometimes very complicated. If the crystal system is cubic, the material behaves electrically like an isotropic body, but if the system has lower symmetry, there may be differences in dif- ferent directions. In antimony, for example, the sign of the pressure effect is different in different directions. There are directions in the crystal for which the resistance passes through a maximum with increasing pres- sure, whereas for other directions the re- sistance decreases with normal curvature. The resistance of some semi-conductors may be decreased by such large amounts that they approach the absolute resistances characteristic of the metals. An early in- vestigation in this field was made on PRESSURE Ka/ern2 Hie; 10: —The relative resistances of the alkali metals up to 30,000 kg/cm?, The break in the curve for caesium is due to a polymorphic transition. Potassium has a very flat minimum near 23,000. May 15, 1948 selenium and silver sulphide by Montén in Uppsala. At higher pressures, tellurium approaches the properties of a metallic con- ductor under 30,000 kg/cm”. Not only does the absolute value of the resistance drop to a characteristically low figure, but the tem- perature coefficient, which initially is nega- tive, reverses sign under high pressure and becomes positive like that of the metals proper. Theory is as yet hardly in a position to explain these complicated effects, either in single crystals or in semi-conductors. Closely related to the electrical conduc- tivity of metals is their thermal conductiv- ity; the relationship is expressed by the approximate equality of the Wiedemann- Franz ratio of electrical to thermal con- ductivity for all metals. Under pressure, thermal conductivity changes as well as electrical conductivity. It is much more dif- ficult to measure than electrical conductiv- ity, and satisfactory measurements have been made only for a few metals and those up to only 12,000 kg/cm’. It appears that for these metals the Wiedemann-Franz ratio is approximately independent of pressure. The effect of pressure on the thermal con- ductivity of liquids is much larger than on that of metals, and is much easier to meas- ure. In general, the thermal conductivity increases for ordinary liquids under a pres- sure of 12,000 kg/cm? by a factor varying between 2 and 3. The effect on water is smaller; at 12,000 the increase for it is only 50 percent. There is a close connection be- tween the effect of pressure on thermal con- ductivity of normal liquids and the effect of pressure on the velocity of sound in the liquid. That is, thermal conductivity in a liquid is primarily a mechanical affair; heat is transferred by microscopic mechanical waves travelling with the velocity deter- mined in the conventional way by the com- pressibility. The small effect in water is associated with the small change in the compressibility of water brought about by pressure. Another property of metals obviously re- lated to electrical and thermal conductivity is the thermo-electric characteristics. These properties are also affected by pressure. In general, a metal under pressure behaves thermoelectrically differently from the same metal not under pressure, so that a thermo- BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS 155 Relative Viacosity Pressure, Kg/cn® Fig. 11.—The effect of pressure on the viscosity of i-butyl alcohol. couple may be made with one branch of any ordinary metal and the other branch of the same metal exposed to hydrostatic pressure. Under a pressure of 12,000 kg/cm? the thermoelectric power of such couples may be as large as that of ordinary couples com- posed of two entirely different metals. A number of such “pressure couples’ have been investigated. The effects are compli- cated; there is not any universal rule with regard to the sign of the effect. There may be reversals of sign and large departures from linearity. No satisfactory theory of these effects has been formulated. At pres- ent one can only draw the conclusion that the interplay of several different mecha- nisms must be involved. The largest of all the pressure effects studied to date is on the viscosity of liquids. In general, viscosity increases under pres- sure at a rate increasing rapidly with in- creasing pressure. The curve of viscosity against pressure usually rises exponentially with pressure and sometimes more rapidly than exponentially. In Fig. 11 is shown 156 the viscosity of i-butyl alcohol at 30° and 75° at pressures up to 12,000 kg/cm?. The total rise may be by as much as a factor of 10’ for a pressure increase of 10,000 kg/cm? (for eugenol). The rate of rise is definitely linked with the complication of the mole- cule, and is greater the more complicated the molecule. For the comparatively simple liquid water the rise of viscosity under JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 10,000 kg/cm? is by a factor of only 2 or 3 and for monatomic mercury by only 30 per- cent. For methyl alcohol the increase is by a factor of 10, for propyl alcohol by a factor of 100, and for amyl alcohol by a factor of 1,000. In the last few years the theoretical physicists have had considerable success in accounting for the effect of pressure on the viscosity of liquids. EDITOR’S NOTE Readers of Professor Bridgman’s Nobel Lecture may be interested also in his re- marks on the subject ‘‘Science and Free- dom”’ that he made on January 11, 1947, at a dinner given in his honor by the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences of Harvard University at the Harvard Club of Boston. The address is here reprinted from the Isis 37: 128-131. 1947, by the kind permission of Dr. George Sarton, editor of that journal. In introducing Professor Bridgman’s re- marks in the Isis, Dr. Sarton wrote: “They are of great interest to historians of science because they reveal the afterthoughts which do not appear in [his] scientific papers, nor even in the philosophical ones, yet which are essential for the understanding of a man’s personality. The document .. . is of great value for the ‘new humanists,’ who wish to understand not only the technical aspects, but also the human factors, with- out which there would be no science, or without which science would lose its mean- ing and its grace.” SCIENCE AND FREEDOM: REFLECTIONS OF A PHYSICIST By Percy W. BripGMAN 7 This will not attempt to reproduce exactly what J said at the dinner on January 11, 1947, but I shall avail myself of the suggestion of Dr. Sarton to make a partly imaginary speech, composed of parts of what I actually said, and of what, in the light of afterthought, I wish I had said. I shall not attempt to reproduce a number of the more or less personal and in- formal details, but shall confine myself to mat- ters of more general interest. Of all the conditions of my work which in retrospect appears most important, and of which at the time also I was keenly conscious, freedom of investigation is outstanding. There has never been any suggestion from any out- side source as to the nature of my investiga- tions. Even in the early days, when I sought and obtained the maximum relief from teach- ing and administrative duties for the ostensible purpose of more complete devotion to my re- search, no attempt was made by the University authorities to impose as a condition that I continue to devote myself to high pressure in- vestigation or even to investigation itself. The apparent attitude of the authorities was that if you are going to gamble that you have found a good man, a gamble without strings attached is the most likely to succeed. Any consistency which my experimental program may have shown has been a consistency imposed entirely from within; this I believe to be the proper source of consistency. In spite of the fact that I have in the main followed one guiding experi- mental idea, I have nevertheless at all times felt free to pursue other lines of interest, wheth- er experiment, or theory, or fundamental criticism. Another outstanding characteristic of my work has been the smallness of its scale. Not only is the apparatus itself small, in fact be- coming smaller the higher the pressure, because of inherent physical limitations on strength, May 15, 1948 but I have never had more than two or three students at a time or a couple of assistants. The result has been that I have been able at all times to maintain the closest contact with the details of the work, and also have been able to conserve the requisite amount of leisure. Both of these features have been of the highest im- portance. In advancing into new territory, as in this high pressure work, the necessity is con- tinuous for the development of new methods and new ideas. For me, at least, new ideas germinate only in an atmosphere of leisure. I have to immerse myself in a problem and then let it gestate in my brain, without the distrac- tion of other interests, if I am to expect the solution to come sauntering into my mind when I wake up two or three mornings later. In this process manual cooperation plays a great part. Adjoining my laboratory is my machine shop; in fact, it is an integral part of the laboratory to which I can repair and stimu- late inspiration by working out half-formed ideas with my own hands. Not only do I have enough leisure so that I can work in the shop with my own hands on occasion, but I am also able to carry through my own experiment, in- cluding making all the readings, myself. I find this necessary if I am to have confidence in the results of some method not hitherto tried. There are too many pitfalls of unanticipated sources of error, which often require ingenuity for their elimination, and which may take much time to discover if one is only watching from the side lines. I have been able to make it an invariable practice to stay with each new method long enough to get material for a com- plete paper, before turning the method over to an assistant for more or less routine application to a large number of substances. Not only this, but even when an assistant makes the experi- ment and the readings, I have always made the computations and written the paper myself. This gives me a confidence in the results not possible when working on a larger scale. An- other great advantage of working on a small scale is that one gives no hostages to one’s own past. If I wake up in the morning with a new idea, the utilization of which involves scrapping elaborate preparations already made, I am free to scrap what I have done and start off on the new and better line. This would not be possible without crippling loss of morale if one were working on a large scale with a com- plex organization under one. BRIDGMAN: SCIENCE AND FREEDOM 157 Another characteristic of the field in which I have been working is that it is not a particularly popular field, so that there have been com- paratively few workers in it and corresponding- ly little competition. This has both advantages and disadvantages. It is an advantage that one can do his work with no sense of hurry, so that there is little temptation to make premature announcements, and should questions arise one can take the time to repeat the experiment or make other modifications that will clear up the matter. Also, the order in which the prob- lems are attacked can be the order of greatest scientific economy, rather than the order of a competitive politics. On the other hand, the principal disadvantage, obvious enough to everyone, is that the investigator loses the stimulation of conversation with his colleagues on mutual problems. Just how important this stimulus is will depend in considerable measure on the individual investigator; some may find it well nigh indispensable, whereas others may be much less dependent on it. I myself have been able to get along in considerable measure with- out it. Even at scientific meetings, which every physicist seems to have to attend at intervals for rehabilitation of his inner man, the stimulus which I have received has not been detailed and specific, but rather general, in suggestions of trends and areas of coming interest. It has, I think, been a happy circumstance that my field, although obviously narrow in the sense that pressure is a highly specialized physical parameter, nevertheless from another point of view has been exceedingly broad. For the gen- eral problem has been no less than to deter- mine the effect of pressure on all physical prop- erties, and it therefore covers the entire reach of physical phenomena with the exception of such things as vacuum tube phenomena. Mention of the stimulus of conversation with one’s colleagues naturally prompts one to con- sider the increasing trend during the last few years to large-scale cooperative enterprises among physicists. The reasons for this are obvious in the enormously increasing size and expense of the apparatus necessary for modern physical research, such as the cyclotrons and the piles of nuclear physics. Although we may recognize that such instruments are necessary, we may nevertheless deplore some of the conse- quences. Up to now ideas have been in such a rapid state of flux that the instrument itself has been continually evolving, with the result 158 that most physicists in this field have been spending an increasingly large fraction of their time on the purely engineering job of the design and construction of new and better instruments and correspondingly an increasingly small pro- portion of time on the calculation of results and rumination on their significance. The competition in this field is intense; rivalry between different groups at different universi- ties can offer little opportunity for leisure or the scholarly digestion of results before publication. Within the last year there has been one glaring example of hasty publication of a spectacular result of such presumptive importance as to start a rush of other investigators into the field, only later to be withdrawn as erroneous be- cause of inadequate consideration of factors which obviously were crying for evaluation in the beginning. Not only is there haste because of competition, but there is haste because of financial considerations. The apparatus is so expensive that consideration of the overhead demands that the apparatus be kept in opera- tion for twenty-four hours a day, and this is not conducive to a feeling of leisure. Each of the teams which is the slave of one of these in- struments has to be driven by some one at the head who has the ideas. There is danger here that all the rest of the team will pick the brains of one man, with an ultimate decrease in the number of physicists in the community capable of independent and critical thought. Still worse, the physicist who should be directing his team by his creative ideas is likely to be so swamped by the administrative details of the large en- terprise under him that he is overwhelmed and his purely scientific activity destroyed. This is well known to have happened, at least tem- porarily, in the case of one of the new mammoth calculating machines, machines whose osten- sible purpose is to free the scientist from drud- gery and make possible the creative use of his time. Doubtless some physicists have the nat- ural knack of being able to work together harmoniously and perhaps even efficiently in teams, and perhaps others can acquire it, but I believe there are many who are permanently unfitted for effective cooperation in this way, and it will be a major loss if they are not able to find a niche in which they may function. During the war practically all the physicists in this country were diverted to war work of one sort or another, and a large part of them JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 were engaged in large-scale enterprises which involved team work developed to its maximum efficiency, with the consequent and necessary submergence of the individual. The older men, who had previously worked on their own prob- lems in their own laboratories, put up with this as a patriotic necessity, to be tolerated only while they must, and to be escaped from as soon as decent. But the younger men, who had been drawn into the maelstrom before starting work for their Ph.D. degree, had never experienced independent work and did not know what it is like. Some of these younger men will continue in government work; others who return to academic circles will there join in the teams serving the mammoth instruments. The result is that a generation of physicists is growing up who have never exercised any particular degree of individual initiative, who have had no op- portunity to experience its satisfactions or its possibilities, and who regard cooperative work in large teams as the normal thing. It is a natural corollary for them to feel that the ob- jectives of these large teams must be something of large social significance. The temper of the rising generation is recognizably different from that of the older. I may mention one example with which I have had personal acquaintance. The Association of Cambridge Scientists was one of many similar associations formed soon after the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiro- shima to consider all the implications of the situation thus created. In the early days of the Association the May-Johnson bill was a matter of much concern. With regard to this there was in the ranks of the Association a cleavage of attitude almost exclusively along lines of age. The older men were troubled and concerned by the threats to scientific freedom contained in the bill, whereas the younger men were not at all concerned about this, but took the oppo- site view that it was on the whole a rather base and self-indulgent thing for the individual not to be willing to sacrifice his scientific freedom on the altar of the good of society. The young men, never having experienced scientific free- dom, did and could not see that the question of . self-indulgence does not enter at all into the situation, but the existence of science itself, which I think all conceded to be a social good, is impossible without scientific freedom. The increasing amount of administrative work falling on some of the scientists compos- May 15, 1948 ing the large teams has a parallel in the ever increasing amount of routine administrative work expected from the members of a Univer- sity faculty. As I look back on the forty years of my work there can be no question but that the fraction of the time of the average faculty member spent in routine of administrative or other sorts has increased unconscionably. There seems to be a natural law operating here; the larger an institution becomes, the more cumbersome and less efficient it becomes. One might think that when the institution becomes ten times as large it would have ten times as much business and ten times as many people to do it, so that each individual would need to give only the same amount of time. But it does not work this way; it is more like the develop- ment of a telephone exchange, which when it increases by a factor of n has to provide for the handling of factorial n as many combinations. Each new functionary in a University has to justify himself, which he does by exacting at- tention from every member of the faculty. When, for example, the office of archivist is created, every member of the faculty is asked to provide material for the archives. Ten times as many officials tend to demand ten times as much attention from each member of the faculty. In a recent number of the Scientific Monthly there was an amusing and satirical article depicting the eventual extinction of the FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS 159 human race by suffocation in its own intel- lectual effluvia. It is well known that every large library tends to increase in size geometri- cally with the simple arithmetical passage of time. Why this should have to be true does not seem to have been explained, but it is an un- doubted description of the observed behavior of the human animal. Unless some way can be discovered of breaking the cycle, the logical final result is catastrophic. In the past the cycle has been broken by wars and the collapse of civilizations. In the hoped-for brighter future in which war has been eliminated, some specific means will have to be devised to cope with the situation. The satirical article portrayed the consequences of the inability of the human race to devise an adequate means. It is no less a problem to devise a means by which the time of the members of university faculties may be saved for creative effort. Otherwise creative science will be driven to other asylums, if in- deed it is not destroyed. As I look to the future I am therefore trou- bled by two misgivings: that there will be less and less place for the small individual experi- menter, and that the time of all of us will be increasingly commandeered by administrative mechanical details. In view of these misgivings I cannot help wondering as I look back on the past whether, if I were to start over again now, I would be able to do again what I have done. CHEMISTRY.—A method for the determination of certain metals present in minor concentration in various substances. and Bruck McDurriz, Princeton University. I. HorrMan.) This paper presents an account of a systematic scheme for the determination of certain metals in a variety of substances. The scheme at first was directed toward the estimation of minor amounts of a few other metals that were found to occur in uranium 1 Lecture delivered March 13, 1947, on the oc- casion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize in Chemistry by the Chemical Society of Washing- ton to Dr. James I, Hoffman in recognition of his contributions on the extraction of alumina from clay and the purification of uranium for atomic energy. Received December 31, 1947. Parts of the work briefly reported on herein were done under O.S.R.D. contracts NDRC-121 and OEM-sr-649 and Manhattan Project Con- tract W-7405-eng.-81, and this support is grate- fully acknowledged. N. HoweEuu Furman, C. E. BRICKER, (Communicated by JAMES or its compounds and salts. The method was gradually modified and extended in scope from 1942 to 1945 with the aid of G. P. Haight, Jr., J. A. Nyitrai, and others. The proved applications of the process, in addition to those already mentioned, in- clude the estimation of minor amounts of various metals in the salts, alloys, or nearly pure metallic specimens of Ba, Be, Ca, Mg, and Na. From the experience thus far ob- tained it appears probable that the method could be applied to the testing of many other pure metals, their alloys, or com- pounds. The method is also applicable to the collection of the traces of metals that may occur in organic compounds or in 160 materials of biological and pharmaceutical interest. The original problem had to do with the detection or the determination of certain metals of the hydrogen sulphide group, notably copper, cadmium, lead, and molyb- denum, or the detection of copper, cadmium, iron, ete., in lead and its salts, or in bismuth and its compounds. It was therefore natural to explore the possibilities of mercury cath- ode electrolysis as a preliminary to polarog- raphy and colorimetry. The pioneer work of EK. F. Smith on mercury cathode separa- tions was at once utilized (1942) in connec- tion with the estimation of minor amounts of cadmium in lead or bismuth or in lead compounds. USE OF A SMALL MERCURY CATHODE TO COLLECT SMALL AMOUNTS OF METALS The majority of the procedures that were later developed in detail centered around the use of a small mercury cathode as a collector for minor amounts of metals which were electrolyzed into the cathode under the conditions chosen. The mercury cath- ode was then drained into a weighed silica combustion boat without interrupting the current, and after removal of the mercury by distillation in a current of nitrogen the residues were weighed and dissolved and the conditions were adjusted for the ap- plication of polarography. After the polaro- graphic estimations the residual solution was further utilized for certain spectro- photometric determinations. The solution, from which the electrodeposited metals had been removed by electrolysis, was ex- amined systematically by extractions and colorimetric procedures for minor amounts of other metals, e.g. Mo, Fe, Ti, and V (2). This method of concentration has very decided advantages prior to polarography because the supporting electrolyte can be controlled very simply for the estimation of minor amounts of metals recovered froma great variety of samples. The method has been found useful for the concentration of materials prior to spectrophotometric or spectrographic estimations. For routine ap- plication to a given material the weight of the residue from the mercury distillation gives an idea of the gross contamination JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 of the material by the electrolyzable metals. Chance contamination of some part of a sample can be detected by virtue of the fact that a very large sample may be examined. The general facts of electrolysis into a mercury cathode have been summarized as follows (2): The following metals singly or in association are quantitatively de- posited in a mercury cathode: Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Ge, Sn, Bi, Po, Cr, Mo, Re, Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, Pd, Ir, Pt. Further Pb, As, Se, Te, and Os are quantitatively separated from the solution, but are not necessarily deposited in the mercury. Mn, Ru, and Sb are partially separated from the solution. The foregoing general facts had not been studied exhaustively in the minor concen- tration ranges in which we were interested, nor had the recovery of various metals by electrolysis into mercury and distillation of the latter been studied, although the re- covery of gold after amalgamation is a well-known process. Oxidation-reduction buffers.—In the elec- trolysis of specimens of which the major constituents may form oxidation-reduction systems such as the U'Y—U™, TiVY—Ti!, Vilt_yt etc., the list of metals that are completely deposited in the mercury is cur- tailed because the cathode potential is not depressed far enough to reach the level necessary to deposit some of the metals. For example, from rather concentrated solu- tions of uranium sulphate no Mo, Cr, and -Mn are deposited under conventional con- ditions of electrolysis. A further point that we have noted is that the level which the cathode reaches is affected by the deposition of traces of platinum, iron, copper, etc., on the mercury. These and other metals tend to lower the overvoltage of hydrogen depo- sition and to make the removal of certain metals less complete. Iron under some con- ditions is completely removed from a solu- tion containing uranium but from concen- trated solutions the removal is uncertain and it is necessary to test for iron both in the mercury deposit and in the aqueous solution after electrolysis. The details of electrolysis, distillation, and colorimetry can best be described in the May 15, 1948 following outline of the experimental de- velopment: EXPERIMENTS AND PROCEDURES The scale of operation was set up prima- rily for the analysis of micro-amounts of metals. The apparatus was so chosen that distillation residues in the range from 10 micrograms up to 5 mg of material could be handled. The sample size is adjusted so that the material electrolyzed and left after dis- tillation will be in this range. This scale of operation is well suited to polarography. In general residues between a few tenths of a mg and 1.5 mg were handled so that the process is a true microprocedure from this point. Apparatus and materials.—Silica dishes of 250 ml capacity or smaller were used in the preparation of solutions except for fluorides: which were treated in platinum dishes. The reagents used to dissolve the samples were at first redistilled from a silica still for acids or from Pyrex for distilled water. Re- distilled mercury was used. Later it was found feasible to use analytical reagent acids and to run frequent reagent blanks through the whole process. Electrolysis cells of special design as shown in Fig. 1 were used. It is important to have the wire leading to the cathode termi- nate as near the stop-cock as possible. Anodes of platinum alloyed with 10 percent of iridium are satisfactory. The mercury cathode is drained into a silica combustion boat 14 by 75 mm and 10 mm deep, with handle. Silica beakers of 150 ml capacity are used for dissolving the deposit. A 12-inch split tube furnace of conven- tional design is used for the distillation. The nitrogen that is used to sweep out the mercury is not freed from air. A recording polarograph, preferably of the Heyrovsky type is desirable. The instru- ment that was used in the development of the method has been described in the litera- ture (3). DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURES The initial experiments were made by electrolyzing exhaustively a solution con- taining a large amount of the substance to FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS 161 be tested. The first mercury cathode was drained out and washed out with a little mercury. Then with a fresh mercury cath- ode a known addition of any metal to be tested was made, and the electrolysis was repeated and the mercury was drained out, distilled, and the residue tested. Since cad- mium did not occur in the reagents, as proved by frequent blank tests, the extent of recovery of varying amounts of cadmium may be used as an illustration of the effec- tiveness of the method, Table 1. TaBLE 1.—TypicaL RECOVERIES BY THE PROCEDURE Cadmium Cadmium Percent added | recovered recovered mg mg 0.010 0.0095—0.010 95-100* 0.100 0.095 —0.100 95-100* 0.50 0.45 -0.50 90-100* 1.00 | 0.935 93.5 2.00 | 1.94 97 2.50 2.56 102 3.00 2.94 98 4.00 3.89 97 5.00 4.79 96 * Where a range is given several individual determinations were made. A number of similar experiments were made with small amounts of various sub- w2G “> OI Platinum Wire Fig. 1.—Cell for electrolysis. The cell is pro- vided with a lip not shown. The anode is inserted over the lip and a cover glass is used. 162 stances added to uranyl solutions that had been purified by electrolytic or other meth- ods. The results are corrected for blank values, and typical data are given in Table 2 TABLE 2.—RECOVERIES OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS BY THE PROCEDURE Method of analysis Amount} Percent | added | recovered | Ele- ment mg. Co 0.05 95-100* Colorimetric 0.10 95-100* = 5.00 97°75 # Cu 0.05 95-100* Ealaoenan bic 5. 00 103 Pb 0.02 | about 100* s Ni 0.02 95-100* . 0.10 95 = 5.00 98 s Zn 0.05 95-100* 2 1.00 98-100* | - Mo 0.20 None deposited, owing to oxidation-reduc- ; 1.00 tion buffering action. Cr 1.00 | Doubtful. Probably none deposited. Mn tO00) ih 0-2 Colorimetric. In general no Mn is electrolyzed into the ce eee ee ee oe PL mercury. * Several individual determinations were made. A superficial investigation was made of the behavior of Bi, In, Tl, Ir, Ru, Ga, Au, Pd, Re, Se, and Te. The first three are quantitatively taken into the mercury. It was not definitely established that the re- maining substances can be deposited in the mercury, although Ga, Au, Pd, and Re gave distillation residues that indicated sub- stantial recoveries. Blanks on reagents.—In routine opera- tion, blanks are run each time a new bottle or other supply of any reagent is introduced. A number of sealed containers of reagents of the same lot are set aside for the work that is planned. A typical set of reagents for handling many types of samples is as fol- lows: Mercury, 2.5 ml. Water, distilled, 160-165 ml. Nitric acid, conc. 6 ml. Maximum supressor, 0.1 ml. Sulphuric acid, conc. 5.35 ml. Hydrochloric acid, cone. 2.1 ml. Potassium chloride, 25 mg. Pyridine 0.15 ml. Successive blanks obtained over a period of several weeks had the following range, in milligrams, Cu, 0.011 to 0.026; Fe, 0.023 to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 0.039; Ni, 0.001 to 0.002; and Pb, 0.002 to 0.004. Cadmium, cobalt, and zinc were not en- countered in these reagents. Fluctuations in copper blanks were in one instance traced to a copper pin in an atomizer bulb that was used with a stock bottle of nitric acid. A series of erratic results for cadmium was due to cadmium contained in methanol that was used to wash metallic specimens that were greasy. The cadmium content of the methanol was 2 parts per million. It proved to be unwise to use the polarographic cells and the silica beakers for experiments with major amounts of any of the metals that were being estimated. The iron blank in- cludes additional iron introduced by a suc- cession of reagents that were used in con- nection with the recovery of iron from the solution that had been electrolyzed. Calibrations.—Although it was possible to control the composition of the solution that was subjected to polarographic analy- sis rather rigorously, it was considered de- sirable to calibrate with mixtures of ele- ments in the normal ranges that were encountered in applying the method. Cer- tain calibrations were made with materials put through the complete process and with proper blank deductions. Other calibrations were made with mixtures of elements taken from standard solutions of their chlorides or nitrates. The solutions were handled in exactly the same fashion as the residues from the distillation of mercury. Perhaps the best evidence that the calibrations were consistent is to be found in the data of Tables 1 and 2. Some of the determinations there reported were on single substances and others were for mixtures of Cd, Cu, Co, Ni, Zn, and Fe in varying ratios. Reproducibility of the procedure.—A few typical results on the recovery of minor amounts of elements from solutions are shown in Table 3. Approximately the same degree of re- producibility was obtained in check deter- minations on numerous samples of various types. A typical example of the polaro- graphic findings is shown in Fig. 2, which presents the polarograms taken from solu- tions of two equal samples of a slightly alloyed light metal. May 15, 1948 FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS 163 a t _F- é . RUN] 2 | 0.001 Ss Ebi = °o Zn oO : f Fig. 2.—Duplicate analyses. Curves 1 and 2 are taken before adding pyridine; curves 3 and 4 after the addition of pyridine. The zinc wave in curve 4 is used for the qualitative estimation of this metal. 164 OUTLINE OF THE PROCEDURE A sample is taken of suitable size to give a residue in the range of tenths of a milli- gram to 2 mg after electrolysis and distilla- tion. The samples may range from a few tenths of a gram up to 20 g or more with the equipment specified. If the material will dissolve in sulphuric acid, an amount calcu- lated to leave 0.5 ml of the free concentrated acid in excess is used. If nitric acid is needed, a measured minimal amount is used. With samples containing much cal- cium, it is desirable to use hydrochloric acid followed by sulphuric acid and evaporation and fuming to convert to sulphates. Alter- natively for samples containing calcium perchloric acid may be used during the solu- tion and electrolysis. Uranium and its compounds are con- verted to sulphates, usually after prior treatment such as burning the metal to oxide and treatment with sulphuric acid. It is important to fume off the free sulphuric acid and then to add prior to the electroly- sis an amount of free sulphuric acid equiva- lent to 1 mole of H2SO, per gram atom of uranium because there is an average con- sumption of 1 mole of acid during the con- version of one gram atom of UY! to UM. Two moles of acid are used up in the reduc- tion from state VI to state IV and one mole of acid is regenerated in the reduction of UY to Ul. If the acidity is not regulated, the recovery of the desired metals may be incomplete. If too little acid is present, hy- drolysis may occur during the electrolysis. A reagent blank has to be carried through with any type of process. If there is an insoluble residue, it may be TABLE 3.—DUPLICATE ANALYSES OF SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL AMOUNTS OF METALS, IN MILLIGRAMS OF ELEMENTS FouND cas oe Cue Tron Lead | Nickel mium balt per 1s 25 0.004 | 0.023 | 0.029 | 0.367 | 0.029 | 0.005 b. 0.004 | 0.025 | 0.026 | 0.373 | 0.029 | 0.005 2,4. 0.001 | 0.025 | 0.026 | 0.620 | 0.012 | 0.005 b. 0.000;| 0.014 | 0.022 | 0.615 | 0.012 | 0.006 Shy, a — 0.018 | 0.043 | 0.923 | 0.009 | 00.33 b. — 0.020 | 0.038 | 0.918 — 00.30 Ania: — 0.022 | 0.059 | 0.888 | 0.016 | 0.015 b. — 0.023 | 0.058 | 0.863 | 0.010 | 0.011 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 filtered and if silica is present, its weight is determined by hydrofluoric acid treatment and the residual oxides are dissolved and added to the filtrate. Electrolysis —A 2.5 ml mercury cathode is placed in the cell, Fig. 1, and the solution is added and diluted to 100 ml. A platinum- iridium (10 percent) anode is inserted to a depth of 1.5 cm. A wire of B. and 8. gauge 15 (0.058 inch diameter) is satisfactory. The cell is covered with a watch glass. With an applied voltage of 10 volts the series re- sistance is regulated so that 0.8 ampere flows. This corresponds to an initial cathode current density of about 0:08 ampere per cm?. At the end of the electrolysis the current has usually dropped to about half the initial value. In order to remove the more active metals such as zine it is desira- ble that the cathode potential shall go down well into the region of the lowest soluble oxidation-reduction system that may be present. In the case of uranium it is desira- ble to have as much trivalent uranium present as possible. Mechanical stirring causes much of the U!™ to be oxidized to UY at the anode or at the exposed sur- face. Such stirring does not interfere with the complete removal of iron. Lead if pres- ent in minor amounts goes completely into the cathode when an oxidation-reduction buffer is present. Iron is completely electro- lyzed out of solutions that have no oxida- tion-reduction buffering action. With many types of samples the small mercury cathode is observed to rotate spontaneously at a slow rate that gives a certain desirable amount of agitation near the cathode. Distillation—After the electrolysis, which is normally allowed to proceed from late afternoon to the next morning, or from early morning to late afternoon, the mer- cury cathode is drained into a weighed silica boat, without interrupting the current. The last drop of mercury is caught on a dry filter paper to free it from any trace of solu- tion, and then added to the boat. The aqueous solution is quickly washed into a beaker and the cell is inverted and tapped over a filter paper to recover the last glob- ules of mercury which are blotted dry and added to the boat. If there is as much as a few tenths of a milligram of other metals May 15, 1948 present, the mercury has a visible surface scum. The temperature of the boat is observed during the distillation with the aid of a thermometer inserted through the inlet stopper of the tube furnace. A current of nitrogen, not freed from oxygen, is passed through the furnace during the distillation, and the mercury is condensed in a beaker of water into which the outlet tube dips. As many as three boats at a time are handled in a 12-inch furnace. After distillation the temperature is lowered and when the boat is nearly at room temperature a cylinder of clean paper is inserted in order to avoid contact of the boat with condensed mer- cury droplets. There is a characteristic change from a golden brown color to bluish with amalgams rich in cadmium and the temperature is lowered as soon as this change becomes evident. If little or no zine is present and the residue is largely iron it will be distributed in small specks on the bottom of the boat. Zine and indium form amalgams which are decomposed only at a much higher temperature. The zinc amal- gam forms a continuous layer. The weight of the residue is of little significance when zinc 1S a major component of the residue. Indium was only encountered in synthetic samples. In residues that contain primarily iron plus very minor amounts of copper, lead, etc.,.the weight of the residue less the Fe2Qs3, that is equivalent to the iron, agrees fairly closely with the sum of the metals other than iron in about 65-75 percent of the cases. The weight is therefore only a rough index of over-all content of electrolyzable metals. The average ratio of weight of de- posit to weight recovered polarographically and colorimetrically in the residue is about 1.88 for a given class of material. The ratio Fe.03;/2Fe is 1.48. The discrepancy is in part due to the presence of minor amounts of mercury or platinum and to the fact that the elements other than iron probably are converted more or less completely to oxides. Solution of the deposit. Polarography.— The boat is placed handle end up in a silica beaker of 150 ml capacity, and the residue is treated with 2 ml of concentrated hydro- chloric acid and 1 ml of concentrated ni- FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS 165 tric acid. The acids are caused to come into contact with all the residue and the covered beaker is heated until solu- tion is complete. The boat is then washed with a minimum amount of water and re- moved. The solution is evaporated to dry- ness. Then 0.5 ml of concentrated hydro- chloric acid and an aliquot of a potassium chloride solution containing 25 mg of KCl are added and the evaporation is repeated. If mercury is known or suspected to be present, it is volatilized by heating on a hot plate at medium heat. The residue is finally evaporated after the addition of another 0.5 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and a little water, at 100°C. The heating is stopped while the odor of HCl is faint but present in the dry residue. This step is very important because sufficient acid remains in the residue to prevent loss of iron or other metals. The residue is dissolved in 2.9 ml of water, and 0.1 ml of 0.1 percent methy] cel- lulose is added as a maximum supressor. The solution is made homogeneous and: as much as possible is transferred to a polaro- graphic cell of the type devised in this labo- ratory (10). The solution is deaerated with nitrogen for 10 minutes, the nitrogen being passed through a purifying train and a wash bottle containing water. A polarogram is taken at the highest feasible sensitivity, recording that portion of the current voltage curve immediately following the spontaneous initial wave due to iron, etc. In this medium only the cad- mium and lead waves are useful. A second polarogram is taken after adding one drop of hydrochloric acid and three drops of pyridine and deaerating for a few minutes; the pH of the solution is about 5.2. Lingane and Kerlinger (4) proved that the precipi- tate of hydrated ferric oxide does not carry Cd, Cu, Co, Ni, or Zn. In this second polarogram the copper is determined from the Cu'to Cu° wave and a check is ob- tained as to the amount of cadmium. The nickel and cobalt waves are well separated, but the cobalt and zinc waves are merged. Iron and cobalt are estimated colorimetri- cally. If there is a large amount of zinc a third partial polarogram at lower sensitivity has to be taken to get the sum of the zinc and cobalt. 166 Platinum, if present in the residue from the mercury distillation, is sometimes re- vealed in the polarogram by a spontaneous rise at the start and an anomalous dip or decrease in current after the lead wave. The dip usually begins to be evident at —0.9 volt applied and reaches a minimum at —1.10 volt applied. The addition of a drop or two of hydrochloric acid eliminates this dip but causes a catalytic hydrogen wave to start at —0.8 volt applied. Platinum may make it difficult or impossible to determine the amount of zine from the polarogram taken after adding pyridine. The terminal wave is shifted from —1.48 volts to —1.28 volts by 0.01 mg of Pt in3 ml. With 10 times as much platinum the terminal wave begins at —1.13 volts. Under the conditions chosen 10 micro- grams per 3 ml of any of the common metals Cu, Cd, Pb, Co, Ni, or Zn cause a wave of the order of 1 em. Under the most favorable conditions 1 microgram of a metal may be detected, provided the metal does not occur in the reagents. If iron is the dominant component of the solution the sensitivity of the detection of lead may be greatly diminished because lead can be de- tected only in the most acid medium where the sensitivity that may be used is governed by the height of the initial iron wave. Other determinations.—Systematic pro- cedures have been adapted from colori- metric determinations in the literature for the estimation of iron and cobalt in the solution that has been polarographed. The solution after electrolysis and separation of ETHNOLOGY U. S. National Museum. When George Catlin, the artist and Indian enthusiast, published (1841) the first graphic account of the practice of self-torture in a Plains Indian ceremony, which he had witnessed in 1832, his de- scription was termed fantastic by D. D. Mitchell, Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Apparently shocked by Catlin’s vivid por- trayal of coolly premeditated self-sacrifice of human flesh and blood by participants in the Okipa ceremony of the Mandan, 1 Received January 30, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .—Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance. VOL. 38, No. 5 the electrolyzable metals may be tested systematically for such elements as molyb- denum by thiocyanate extraction, after which iron, titanium, and vanadium may be extracted as cupferrates and determined by separate colorimetric tests. SUMMARY The possibility of using a small mercury cathode as a collector for minor amounts of electrolyzable metals has been explored and the procedure has been tested for a variety of applications. A novel combination of techniques based on the distillation of the mercury from the cathode and the polarographic and colori- metric examination of the residue has been devised and studied extensively in a rather limited range of applications. The pro- cedure appears to be capable of many further applications to a great variety of organic or inorganic substances. REFERENCES (1) Haicnr, G. P., Jn; McDernz ire Spasyrx, G. W., and Furman, N. ise Madison Square Area Inf. Rep. ’ A-1033, sect. 2, p. 1, Mar. 29, 1944. Revised Procedures. Ci. also Reports A-1045, 2E, p. 1, July 4, 1944; A-1054, 2E, p. 1, Aug. 12, 1944; A-1076, Mar. 20, 1945. (2) Lunpet., G, E. F., and Horrman, J. L Outlines of methods of chemical analysis. J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1938. (3) Furman, N. H.; Bricker, C. E.; and WHITESELL, E. B. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 14: 333. 1942. (4) Lineane, J. J., and Keriincer, H. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 13: 77. 1941. JoHN C. EweErs, Mitchell declared, ““The scenes described by Catlin, existed almost entirely in the fertile imagination of that gentleman” (Schoolcraft, vol. 3, p. 254; Catlin, vol. 1. pp. 157-177). Catlin’s deena was substantiated, however, some years before Mitchell’s Pes sh were made, by the Independent Mandan investigations of Prince Maximilian in 1833-34, (Maximilian, vol. 23, pp. 324— 334). Catlin was defended strongly by the intelligent fur trader James Kipp, who had been with Catlin when he witnessed the _ ceremony (Kipp, pp. 436-438). Smee the days of that historic contro- versy, the practice of self-torture in tribal sun-dance ceremonies has been reported, on _Teliable authority, as once characteristic _ of the Arapaho, Arikara, Assiniboin, Cana- dian Dakota, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ven- _ tres, Hidatsa, Oglala Dakota, Plains Cree, _ Plams Ojibway, Sarcee, Sisseton Dakoia, and the three Blackfoot tribes (Spier, pp. 473-475). Furthermore, brief accounts have been published of ceremonial self-torture, witnessed as early as 1805, among the Arikara and Hidatsa by the fur traders Pierre-Antoine Tabeau and Charles Mac- kenzie (Tabeau, pp. 191-193; Mackenzie, pp. 354-357). lt seems most probable that some Plains tribes practiced forms of seli-torture in the period before first white contact. _~__ Among the Plains Indian tribes of the United States the- practice of self-torture was prohibited more than 60 years ago. This ban resulted from the combined op- position of missionaries and the civil and military branches of the Federal Govern- ment to such seli-imposed cruelties, which tended to excite the Indians, to perpetuate _ both Indian-white and intertribal hostili- ties, and to make difficult the process of civilization and Christianization of the Indians. Published descriptions of seli-torture among these tribes have been primarily of two kinds. Some were eye-witness accounts _of interested but untrained white observers who not infrequently misinterpreted the purpose of the torture as a ceremony for “making braves.” Others were based on the testimony of older Indians who had wit- nessed the tortures some years earlier but had not experienced torture themselves. Detailed case histories from the mouths of men who had submitied themselves to torture are few and fragmentary in the extensive literature on the sun dance. Self-torture survived in the sun dances of the Blood and North Blackfoot Indians of - southern Alberta for a few years aiter its discontinuance among the Plains tribes of this country. In the course of field work on © the Blood Reserve in September, 1947, the _ May 15, 1948 EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE 167 writer met two elderly full-bloods who had been tortured in the sun dance oi their tribe. They were the last survivors of men of that trnbe who had experienced this ordeal, and they were particularly desirous that their torture experiences should be recorded accurately. These narratives by Scraping White (now 81 years old) and Heavy Head (now 78), related to the writer through the miterpreter Percy Creighton, provide new and significant information on the procedure of seli-torture in the Blood sun dance ceremony and its meaning to those who submitted to it. They help to round out the only published description oi the Blood self-torture, that of the mis- sionary John McLean, who witnessed the ceremony prior to 1889. In the summer of 1889 the Blood medicine lodge was erected on the north bank of the Kootenay River, in southern Alberia. Three young men, Scraping White (then 23 years of age), Tough Bread (now de- ceased), and Heavy Head (then 20 years old), presented themselves to be tortured. Scraping White described his experience thus: Three of us tortured ourselves in the sun dance that year—Tough Bread, Heavy Head, and I. I was the oldest of the three. I was on a war party to take horses from the Assiniboine when I made my vow to be tor- tured. Shortly before the sun went down, when we were in sight of the enemy camp, I turned to the sun and said, “I want good luck. Now I zo to the enemy. I want to capture a good horse and go ee safely. I'll be tortured this coming sun dance.” As soon as it was dark I went into the enemy camp and took two fast horses out of their corral without any of them knowing it. I had good luck and reached home safely. Then I told my relatives of the vow I had made. Yellow Horn, an older relative, who had been through the torture before, told me, “Put up a sweat lodge for me and I shall look after you.” I made the sweat lodge the very next day. Not long after that the sun dance was held. The torture took place the day after the center pole was raised for the medieme lodge. I was the first one to be tortured. The torture began about noon. Old Yellow Horn cut my breasts with an iron arrowhead and imserted a skewer through the cuts at each breast. These skewers were of serviceberry wood, flattened on both 168 sides, thinned toward the ends but not sharp- ened, and about this long. [Scraping White indicated a distance of about 2 inches between his thumb and forefinger.| Then sinew was wrapped around the ends of the skewers and they “were tied, each skewer to a 4-strand plaited rawhide rope. The two ropes were fastened at their far ends to the center pole at its forks. I stood up and Yellow Horn told me, ‘““Now you walk up, put your arms around the center pole and pray. Tell Sun, now your vow is being fulfilled.’”’ I did just as he told me. Then I stepped back. Yellow Horn pulled hard on the rawhide ropes attached to the skewers. Then I danced. I didn’t dance long before my flesh gave way and the skewers pulled out. Yellow Horn came to me and cut the skin that had broken. He trimmed it off even. Then he gave me the pieces of skin he had cut away and told me to take them and stick them in the ground at the base of the center pole, saying, ‘“Now sun, I have completed my vow.” Heavy Head’s narrative of his torture experience was still more detailed: There were only two of us, Buffalo Teeth, my partner, and I. We went to war together to take horses. At Medicine Hat we found a small camp of Cree half-breeds. It was night when we saw their camp. It was moonlight. I looked up at the moon and prayed to it, “I shall be tortured at the sun dance if I have good luck and get home safely.”’ Then I stole up to the camp and got one bay that was tied in front of a lodge without any of the enemy waking or seeing me. Buffalo Teeth took a roan. We started back to the Blood camp, traveled three days and three nights with no food other than a black rabbit. We got awfully weak and hungry. When I reached home I told my story to my father, Water Bull. The old man got up and sang his encouraging song. Then he told me, “My son, you have done something worth doing. You have made a vow that you will be tortured at the sun dance. You must do it this coming sun dance.”’ A few days later I went out to the east point of Belly Butte to fast. While I fasted I dreamed that a sacred person came to me and gave mea drum and certain herbs to use for doctoring. Then I returned home. A short time after that the bands began to come together for the sun dance encampment. I prepared myself to go to an old man named Little Bear, a relative of mine, who had been through the torture himself, years before. I JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 filled my pipe and took it to him. I gave him the pipe and a buckskin horse, and said, “Here is a horse for you. Keep this pipe too. I want you to look after me in the torture.”’ When I gave him the pipe he put it down and went over to the next lodge. There were two old men there, Green Grass Bull and Red Bead. These men were not related to me, but they were both older than Little Bear, and both had been through the torture. Little Bear asked them to come to his lodge, to take my pipe and pray for me. After they prayed, they told me not to take any food or water the day I was to be tortured. The day before the torture I ate or drank nothing. Next day I ate or drank nothing until after the torture. However, the three old men gave me some sagebrush to chew. I was the last of the three Blood Indians to undergo the torture that day. Scraping White, who was the oldest, was first. Then Tough Bread, then I. I was the youngest. Inside the medicine lodge, on. the west side of the center pole and north of the weather dancer’s arbor, a shelter was built of sticks like a sweat lodge, covered with willow leaves. I went in there be- fore noon of the day of the torture. I was laid on my back with my head pointed north. I was barefoot, and wore only a breechcloth made from a small, red, trade shawl purchased from the Hudson’s Bay Company. There was a little bowl of white paint and another of black paint nearby. The three old men painted four black dots, one below the other, under each of my eyes. This was called “tear paint.” If I cried the tears would run down there. Then they painted a double row of six black dots on each arm. They painted the symbol of the moon, points up, on my forehead in black. On the out- side of each of my legs they painted a double row of six black dots. The rest of my body was painted white, also my face. They took some of the broad-leafed sagebrush from the ground inside the sweat lodge and bound it together, placed a wreath of it around my head, and bands of it around each wrist and ankle. I was taken from the sweat lodge and laid upon a blanket on the ground at the north side of the center pole with my head to the north, my feet toward the center pole. Other people were told to keep back away from me. Then an old man named Low Horn was brought for- ward. He counted four of his coups. The three old men, Little Bear, Red Bead, and Green Grass Bull, held me—one at each arm, and one at my head. Red Bead took a sharp, iron ar- rowhead in his hand, and asked me, “‘How do you want me‘to cut them? Thick or thin?” I said, ‘‘Thin.’’ (I learned later that this question May 15, 1948 EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE 169 Fig. 1.—Scraping White (left) and Heavy Head (right), two men who were tortured in the Blood sun dance of 1889. Fig. 2.—An act of self-torture in the Blood sun dance of 1891. Photograph by R. N. Wilson. 170 was always asked of the man undergoing the torture before his breasts were pierced, and the one doing the cutting always did just the opposite of the young man’s request. So when I said ‘‘thin,’? Red Bead knew to make his in- cisions deep).2 Red Bead gave four of his own war coups. He made no prayer. Then he pierced my breasts with the sharp arrowhead and in- serted a serviceberry stick through each breast. The sticks were not sharp but flattened at the ends. The other two men held my arms as he cut and inserted the sticks. Blood flowed down my chest and legs over the white paint. Then Red Bead pressed the sticks against my body with his hands. They turned me around to face the sun and pierced my back. To the skewers on my back they hung an imitation shield, not so heavy as a war shield. The shield had feathers on it, but I don’t remember how it was painted. It belonged to a man named Peninsula. The ropes were brought out from the center pole and tied to the skewers in my breasts— right side first, then left side. Red Bead then grabbed the ropes and jerked them hard twice. Then he told me, ‘‘Now you go to the center pole and pray that your vow will come true.” I walked up there. I knew I was supposed to pretend to cry. But oh! I really cried. It hurt so much. Coming back from the center pole I was shouting. Then, before I started to dance, I jerked the shield off my back. I leaned back and began dancing, facing the center pole. It felt just like the center pole was pulling me toward it. I began to dance from the west toward the doorway of the sun lodge and back. Then, when the skewers did not break loose, the old men realized that the incisions had been made too deep. Red Bead came up and cut the outside of the incisions again so they would break loose. As I started dancing again the left side gave way and I had to con- tinue dancing with only my right side holding. An old man named Strangling Wolf jumped up from the crowd and came toward me shouting. He called out four coups he had counted and jumped on me. The last rope gave way and I fell to the ground. The three old men came to me and cut the rough pieces of flesh hanging from my breasts off even. They told me to take this flesh that had been trimmed off, and the sagebrush from my head, wrists, and ankles, and place them at the base of the center pole. I did as they told me. * Jenness, pp. 54-5, reported the same con- trariness of action on the part of the Sarcee surgeon when the suppliant pleaded for a ‘‘thin” cutting. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Then I took my robe and walked out of the medicine lodge alone. I went to a lonely place and fasted for a night. I wanted to dream. But I couldn’t sleep at all because of the pain. At sunrise I prayed to the sun. Some time after that I saw a man approach- ing on horseback. He said, “I’m going to take you home right away.”’ He took me up behind him on his horse and rode me slowly back to camp. My breasts were swollen and hurt. The rider’s name was Red Crane. He told me of a mix-up that took place at the sun dance over horses stolen from the Gros Ventres. When I got to my lodge, my mother gave me something to eat. She and my father told me what had happened at the sun dance gathering —a mix-up between the Mounted Police and Indians.* I had to stay in the lodge several days. My breasts were so swollen I could hardly move. Indian doctors used herb medi- cines to take the swelling away and cure my wounds.4 The common elements in these two ac- counts reveal the pattern of the self-torture experience among the Blood Indians more clearly and completely than the brief de- scription of the ordeal previously published by McLean. This experience was initiated by a warrior through a vow to the celestial deities, sun or moon (the latter in Blackfoot belief was sun’s wife), very shortly before the man exposed himself to danger. The vow was a simple, direct appeal to the deity for protection and success in the im- mediate, hazardous undertaking. In return for such aid the petitioner promised to make the self-torture sacrifice in the sun dance lodge of his people. On return home after the successful exploit the pledger made known his vow to his relatives. They helped him to obtain the services of one or more older men who had been through the ordeal and were qualified, therefore, to instruct and care for the young man in the ceremonial fulfillment of his vow. The public cere- 3 In the summer of 1889, the Mounted Police sought to apprehend Calf Robe, a Blood horse thief, who sought sanctuary in the medicine lodge of his people. The Indians overpowered the police and set Calf Robe free, but there was no blood- shed (Steele, pp. 262-265). This incident serves to verify the year of Scraping White’s and Heavy Head’s torture. 4 These narratives follow as closely as possible the words of the interpreter. In a few places de- tails obtained during further questioning of the informants have been inserted. May 15, 1948 mony took place in the sun-dance lodge, about midday of the day following the erection of the center pole. One man was tortured at a time. Each young man’s experienced helper or helpers prepared him for the ordeal, pierced his breasts, inserted the wooden skewers, and attached the thongs leading from the crotch of the center pole. They guided his actions by telling him first to embrace the center pole and pray for successful fulfillment of his vow, watched him closely until he freed himself from the ropes, trimmed off the ragged edges of flesh from his breasts and instructed him to place them at the base of the center pole as an offering to the sun. With this act the vow was fulfilled. Both informants stated that the helpers were always men well advanced in years, rather than men who had been through the torture only a few years earlier. The num- ber of helpers depended primarily on the age of the victim and his relative’s confi- dence in his ability to take the punishment. Younger men generally had more helpers to hold them as the incisions were made. Fasting was not considered obligatory. Scraping White said he was not required to abstain from food on the day prior to the torture. Scraping White’s narrative omits mention of the painting of his body in prep- aration for the torture. However, Heavy Head asserted that all who underwent the torture were painted just as he had been. Neither Scraping White nor Heavy Head took any active part in the tortures at the sun dance of 1891, the last occurrence of self-torture in the Blood ceremony. They said that four men, Calf Tail, Buckskin Tom, Old Man Owl, and Takes Paint, all now deceased, were tortured in that year. R. N. Wilson, a trader on the Blood Re- serve, photographed these torture cere- monies. One of his photographs is repro- duced here, through the courtesy of Arch- deacon S. H. Middleton, principal of St. Paul’s Residential School, on the Blood Reserve, owner of a print from the original glass plate negative. Percy Creighton be- lieved that the Indian shown in the act of torture was Takes Paint. The Blood Indians were the last Black- foot tribe, and probably the last tribe of EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE 171 Plains Indians to observe the self-torture ceremony. After their 1891 performance of the torture it was prohibited by the Indian Department and the Mounted Police. A year earlier the North Blackfoot had been persuaded to abandon torture (Ann. Rept., pp. 83-84). The Piegan eliminated torture from their sun dances at least 20 years earlier. Weasel Head (born about 1860), for many years a prominent weather dancer in the South Piegan sun dance, told the writer before his death in 1943, that he had never seen the torture performed in the sun dance of his tribe, although he recalled that as a youth he had seen older men who bore the scars of torture. Red Plume (born ante 1850), informed Curtis that he had seen the torture rites in the Piegan sun dance only four times, thrice when a small boy and once when a young man. Each time a single man had submitted to the torture. Red Plume attributed the discontinuance of self-torture in the Piegan sun dance.to the warning of a North Piegan weather dancer that ‘‘they would die if they gave their bodies to the sun” (Curtis, vol. 6, p. 55). Clark Wissler (p. 262) and Walter MeClintock (p. 320) reported the persist- ence of this belief among the Piegan in the first decade of the present century. Wissler (p. 263) believed that self-torture had not become thoroughly adjusted to its place in the Piegan sun-dance ceremony at the time it was abandoned. On the other hand, the torture appears to have found much more favor among the neighboring Blood Indians. McLean (p. 236), stated that from two to five men underwent this torture every year in the Blood sun dance. Whereas the Piegan seem to have aban- doned torture as a result of native fear and distaste for the ceremony, the Blood con- tinued to practice it until they were com- pelled by Government authorities to give it up. Wissler (pp. 263-264) was inclined to credit a Piegan tradition that the Blackfoot tribes borrowed the torture ceremony from the Arapaho. There still exist among the Piegan vague but persistent traditions of a group of Blood Indians who sojourned for a number of years with the Arapaho in the early part of the nineteenth century. Chey- 172 enne traditions, obtained from elderly men of the Southern Cheyenne nearly half a century ago by George Bird Grinnell and George E. Hyde, tell of a group of Gros Ventres and “Blackfeet”? (division not in- dicated), who joined the Cheyenne and Arapaho in the Black Hills or on the Platte about the year 1826. According to one ver- sion of this tradition the ‘‘Blackfeet’’ returned north a few years later (Grinnell, vol. 1, pp. 39-40). Major Culbertson, who was married to a Blood woman, is reported to have found ten lodges of Blood Indians living with the Arapaho, when he attended the Fort Laramie Treaty Council in 1851. “They were unknown to him, and he did not learn how long they had been there or whether they ever returned” (Bradley, Book A, p. 184). These data, and the fact that the Piegan were relatively indifferent to the torture in later years, suggest the possibility that the torture feature was introduced among the Blackfoot tribes by Blood Indians, who may have borrowed it from the Arapaho no earlier than the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Spier (p. 491) regarded the self-torture as a nonessential element in the sun-dance ceremony of most Plains tribes. Our evi- dence certainly supports this conclusion in- sofar as the Blood sun dance is concerned. Both the torture pledger and his helpers played no necessary part in the sun-dance ceremony. They entered the medicine lodge for the sole purpose of fulfilling the pledg- er’s vow. The Blackfoot tribes have con- tinued their annual sun dances to the pres- ent day, with no apparent sense of loss of any essential feature. Now as formerly the sun dance centers about the elaborate ritual prescribed for the fulfillment of the vow of the medicine woman who pledged the cere- mony. Her objective was reached with the completion of the medicine lodge, the day before the tortures took place. The Blackfoot tribes regarded the tor- ture, such as was endured by Scraping White and Heavy Head, as the most dan- gerous and severe form of physical sacrifice to the sun. The mutilation of the body by offerings of a finger or bits of flesh from the arms and legs were considered lesser ordeals (Wissler, pp. 263-265). Scraping White JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 showed the writer scars on his legs resulting from the sacrifice of pieces of flesh to the sun prior to the year of his torture experi- ence. Nevertheless, the belief of the Piegan that men who submitted to the torture would not live long after they had given their bodies to the sun, appears to have been based upon religious fear rather than the life histories of men who had been tor- tured. Several of our elderly South Piegan informants recalled having seen older men of the tribe who bore the scars of the torture. The severity of the torture varied with the depth of the incisions. Older men watched the suppliant carefully, and did not permit the torture to be prolonged in- definitely. Even in the case of Heavy Head, whose experience was described by other elderly Blood Indians as the most severe punishment they had witnessed in sun- dance tortures, the performance lasted only a few minutes. His narrative indicates the pain and nervous shock must have been intense. But in the majority of cases it probably did no permanent damage to the individual. Although Scraping White and Heavy Head still bear the scars of their torture, these men appear to be in fair health, active of mind and body, nearly six decades after they expiated their vows to the sun in the Blood medicine lodge in the summer of 1889. BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNUAL Report of Department of Indian Af- fairs for 1891. Ottawa, Canada, 1892. BRADLEY MANUSCRIPT, In Montana Historical Society Library, Helena. CaTLIN, GEORGE. Letters and notes of the man- ners, customs and condition of the North American Indians, 2 vols. London, 1841. Curtis, Epwarp 8. The North American Indian, 6. Norwood, Mass., 1911. GRINNELL, GEORGE Birp. The Cheyenne In- dians, 2 vols. New Haven, 1923. JENNESS, DiamMonp. The Sarcee Indians of Alberta. Canada Dept. Mines and Re- sources. Bull. 98, Anthropological Series 23. Ottawa, 1938. Kipp, JAMES. On the accuracy of Catlin’s ac- count of the Mandan ceremonies. Ann. Rept. Board Regents Smithsonian Insti- tution for 1872. Washington, 1878. McCuintock, WatTEeR. The Old North Trail. London, 1910. McLean, Joun. The Blackfoot sun dance. Proc. Can. Inst., ser. 3,6. Toronto, 1888. May 15, 1948 MaAcKENZIE, CHARLES. The Missouri In- dians, a narrative of four trading expedi- tions to the Missouri, 1804-1806. In L. R. Masson, “Les Bourgeois de la Com- pagnie du Nord-Ouest.” Quebec, 1889. Maximiuian (Prince of Wied-Neuwied). Travels in the interior of North America. Early Western Travels Edition, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, vols. 22-24. Cleveland, 1906. ScHooLcRaFT, HENRY R. Information respect- ing the history, condition and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States, 6 vols. Philadelphia, 1851-7. DUNKLE: UPPER CRETACEOUS SELACHIANS 173 SpreR, Lesuiz. The sun dance of the Plains Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. An- throp. Papers, 16 (pt. 7). 1921. STEELE, 8. B. Forty years in Canada. don, 1915. TaBEAU’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition to the Upper Missouri. Edited by Annie H. Abel. Norman, Okla., 1939. WIssLER, CLarK. The sun dance of the Black- foot Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop. Papers, 16 (pt. 3). 1918. Lon- PALEONTOLOGY .—On two previously unreported selachians from the Upper Cre- taceous of North America. Davin H. Dunxtez, U. 8S. National Museum. (Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.) Recently, the U. 8S. Geological Survey transferred to the National Museum two interesting toothlike fossils obtained by Dr. _L. W. Stephenson during the course of his prolonged geological investigations on the Cretaceous formations of Texas. These specimens have proved to be examples of the structures currently interpreted as rostral teeth of pristid sharks. They are as- signable to the genera Onchopristis Stromer and Schizorhiza Weiler, both of which were founded on materials from various upper Cretaceous horizons and localities in North Africa. In the Western Hemisphere, Oncho- pristis has not heretofore been known and Schizorhiza only from a single, doubtful re- port from the upper Senonian of Chile (Wetzel, 1930; and Weiler, 1930). The definitive record of the fossil Pristi- dae in North America is confined to the iso- lated rostral armament of Pristis from the Cretaceous and a number of Tertiary hori- zons. In addition, during recent years the problematical genus Ischyrhiza has been in- cluded here. In the Eastern Hemisphere no less than 12 genera of fossil pristids are recognized. The majority of these are founded on isolated rostral teeth and their assignment to the family Pristidae, often- times doubtfully, has been based on the na- ture of their insertion onto the rostral carti- lages as shown by gross morphological features and by histological considerations. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 30, 1948. The present two specimens can not lend themselves to histological preparation with- out destruction, and little of general mor- phological and systematic information can be deduced from them. However, the new occurrences in essential stratigraphic con- temporaneity with their North African genotypes seems of sufficient interest to warrant the following brief description. The illustrations accompanying this note have been prepared by Mrs. Elinor Strom- berg, scientific illustrator of the U. 8. Geo- logical Survey. Onchopristis cf. numidus (Haug) A single unassociated tooth (U.S.N.M. no. 17088), although with only one side exposed and lacking the distal extremity, exhibits well the characteristics of the genus as defined by Stromer (1917). The structure is strongly compressed, dorso- ventrally, and is composed of a short inserted base and an exposed, enamel-covered crown. The line of demarcation between these two parts is prominent, being remarked by a con- striction of the base adjacent to the proximal limit of the enamel. This latter shows a border arched in gentle convexity toward the base and extended obliquely across the long axis of the element. The preserved portion of the crown possesses one posterior barb. Both anterior and posterior margins of the crown form sharp cutting edges except at the proximal reen- trance of the barb where the edge is bluntly rounded. The enamel on the slightly convex, exposed surface of the tooth is checked both 174 /\ ee . y - y } / Fic. 1.—Onchopristis cf. numidus (Haug) (U.S.N.M. no. 17088). Rostral tooth from the Woodbine formation of Texas. Approx. x4. longitudinally and transversely as a result of weathering but exhibits no observable orna- mentation. The base, in dorsoventral aspect, is expanded and is marked by a few regularly spaced furrows, which are extended in the direction of the longest axis of the tooth. Measured in relation to the longest axis, the specimen has the following dimensions: Total preserved length, 13.7 mm; greatest length of base, 4.56 mm; maximum width of base, 8.4 mm; width of crown immediately below barb, 6.0 mm; and greatest thickness of crown on fractured distal exposure, 2.4 mm. Fic. 2.—Schizorhiza cf. weilerit Serra (U.S.N.M. no. 17087). Rostral tooth from the Escondido for- mation of Texas in (A) dorsoventral aspect as restored from a cast of the preserved impression and in (B) ideal transverse section. Approx. X4. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Remarks.—The systematic history of On- chopristis numidus (Haug) has been completely summarized by Stromer (1917). The present example from Texas differs from the North African specimens in the shortness of that portion of the enameled crown proximal to the barb. Stromer (1917, 1925, and 1927), however, | in his discussions on this sawfish, has demon- strated wide variation between individual ros- tral teeth and has described examples with multiple posterior barbs. In consequence there seems to be no immediate basis for erecting additional species within the genus. Geological horizon and _ locality Collected from the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) in the Lewisville member of the Woodbine for- mation, approximately 2.4 miles southwest of Lewisville, Denton County, Tex., by L. W. Stephenson, October 25, 1945. Distribution —All the North African occur- rences of Onchopristis are considered by Stromer to be of Cenomanian Age. Schizorhiza cf. weileri Serra To this form is assigned a small imperfectly preserved tooth (U.S.N.M. no. 17087). The complete outline of one side of the specimen is clearly impressed in the limy sandstone matrix, although almost all the tooth tissue from that side has been lost. The opposite side of the tooth is deeply imbedded in the matrix of the counterpart. As thus incompletely exposed it was necessary to crack the counterpart in two and examine the cross section of the imbedded part before any structural interpretation could be made. May 15, 1948 It is assumed that this tooth projected later- ally from firm attachment along the edge of a rostrum. In orientation, therefore, the long axis of the tooth is a transverse dimension, and this breadth exceeds the shorter length by about three times. The element is moderately compressed, dorsoventrally, and the top and bottom halves are apparently symmetrical. The crown. occupies approximately one-third the longest axial dimension, and from the shiny smoothness of its impression is indicated to have been enamelled. It projects directly out in the frontal plane of the tooth without dorsad or ventrad flexure; is arched very slightly to- ward the rear; and is basally emarginated at the anterior and posterior edges. The free lateral margins are sharp, straight, and converge to an obtuse distal point. The root, viewed either dorsally or ventrally, is seen to expand proxi- mally from a narrow distal neck. The part is divided into flat upper and lower lips by a frontal groove which extends outward nearly to the base of the crown. Three furrows trav- erse the outer surfaces of both upper and lower lips, parallel to the long axis of the element. These grooves are continued proximally as deep notches in the inner edges of the root lips. Thus, mesially, the lips are each produced into four acutely conical projections, of which the central two are the longest. Measured in relation to the longest axis, the tooth possesses the following dimensions: Total length 15.0 mm; length of crown, 4.0 mm; maxi- mum width of crown, 5.0 mm; maximum width of root, 6.0 mm; length of longer proximal rays, 5.5 mm; and depth of proximal divergence of root lips, 6 mm. Remarks.—The genus Schizorhiza is known only from isolated teeth and the genotype is the species stromeri (Weiler, 1930). In addition to some Egyptian specimens, Weiler included in his original description a number of frag- mentary teeth from several widely scattered localities (Di Stephano, 1919; Quaas, 1902; and Wetzel, 1930). This type series presented a range of structural variation from teeth as here described to examples which in gross features appear similar to Ischyrhiza, with long tapering, scimiterlike crowns and robust roots exhibiting only a shallow frontal groove. Ap- parently no one specimen among those was designated the type. Subsequently, Serra (1933) abandoned the name stromeri for all of DUNKLE: UPPER CRETACEOUS SELACHIANS 175 the teeth of the type series except that pic- tured by Weiler in his Fig. 1a, Pl. II. In return, the specific name weileri was proposed for the tooth illustrated as Fig. 3a, Pl. II, and a col- lection of identical specimens from Sofeggin, Tripolitania. Of these two species, the present Texas speci- men is more closely comparable with wezvlert. It differs from it only in the more pronounced asymmetry of the crown profile in dorsoven- tral aspect and in exhibiting a greater size than reported by Serra. Provisional assignment to the latter species is therefore made. While possibly representing a new species, it does not seem advisable to establish a type on this, an incomplete tooth heretofore unrecorded from North America. A more critical evaluation will depend upon the acquisition of a series of the Texas specimens which permit qualitative studies and histological examination. Geological horizon and locality —Collected from the Upper Cretaceous (Maestrichtian) in the Escondido formation, 2 miles east of Eagle Pass, Maverick County, Tex., by L. W. Ste- phenson, October 30, 1912. Distribution —Weiler (1930) gave a Senonian Age to all the teeth from North Africa, Arabia, and Chile on which he based his definition of Schizorhiza stromeri (sensu lato). Serra (1933) considered the occurrence of S. weileri as Maestrichtian. REFERENCES Have, E. (Paleontologie, in Foureau, T.) Documents scientifiques de la mission sas harienne 2. Paris, 1905. Quaas, A. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fauna der obersten Kreidebildungen in der Libyschen Wiiste (Overwegischichten und Bléttertone). Paleontographica 30 (3): 153-334. 1902. SERRA, G. Di nuova specie di Schizorhiza del Maestrichtiano della Tripolitania. Riv. Ital. Paleont. 11 (2-8): 103-107, pl. 3. 1933. STEPHANO, G. DE. Osservazioni sul Cretaceo e sul Eocene del deserto Arabico e di Sibaiya, nella valle del Nilo. Boll. Comit. Geol. Ital. 47: 1-39, pls. 1-11. 1919. STROMER, E. Die Sage des Pristiden Oncho- pristis numidus Haug sp., und iiber die Sdgen der Sdgehaie. Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., math.—nat. Abt., 28 (8): 1-28, 1 pl. 1917. . Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromer in den Wiisten Agyptens. IT. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharize-Stufe (un- terstes Cenoman). 8. Hin Skelettreste des Pristiden Onchopristis numidus Haug sp. 176 Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., math.-nat. Abt., 30 (6): 11-12, 1 pl. 1925. . Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromer in den Wiisten Agyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (un- terstes Cenoman). 9. Die Plagiostomen mit einem Anhang iiber kdno- und meso- zoische Riickenflossen-Stacheln von Elasmo- branchiern. Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., math.-nat. Abt., 31 (5): 1-64, 3 pls., 14 figs. 1927. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 Weiter, W. (In Stromer, E., and W. Weiler). Beschreibung von Wirbeltierresten aus dem nubischen Sandsteine Oberdgyptens und aus agyptischen Phosphaten nebst Bemerkungen liber die Geologie der Umgegend von Ma- hamid in Oberdgyptens. Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., math.-nat. Abt., new ser., 7: 1-42, 4 pls. 1930. WerzeL, W. Die Quiriquina-Schichten als Sediment und paldontologisches Archiv. Palaeontographica 73 (Fishes) : 94-97. 1930. ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the sub- family Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dynastini, and Phileurini.* LAWRENCE W. Saytor, California Academy of Sciences. This paper is the fourth in the series of my United States dynastine scarab beetle studies and completes the specific listings and notes. The fifth, and last, part will in- clude a complete classification of the tribes and genera, from the Nearctic standpoint. Genus Aphonus LeConte Aphonus LeConte, 1856, p. 21; Horn, 1882, p. 122; LeConte and Horn, 1883, p. 259; Casey, 1915, pp. 178, 210; Ritcher, 1944, p. 28, Cart- wright, 1944, p. 36. Podalgus (part) Burmeister, 1847, p. 117; Lacor- daire, 1856, p. 408. Aphonus (as now constituted) is limited to the Eastern United States and contains four valid species; the farthest west I have knowl- edge of the genus occurring is Texas, where brevicruris Cartwright was collected. The only character separating the adults of Aphonus from United States species of Chevro- platys Hope is the trilobed (varying to sub- tridentate to even simply carinate in worn ex- amples) preapical carina of the clypeus. In the larvae, Ritcher has pointed out (1944) the very close similarity between Cheiroplatys pyriformis LeConte and Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer), the only real difference being that the first antennal segment in the latter is bare of setae, and the other two key characters being those of degree only (relative distance between lobes of the thoracic spiracle, respiratory plate, and width of the head capsule). In the adults, the peculiar preapical carina and the rather odd apical, front tibial tooth, as well as external facies and proportions in general, immedi- ately disclose the close affinity of the two groups at present called Aphonus and Cheiro- 1 Received September 3, 1947. platys. Indeed, I have relatively fresh speci- mens of A. castaneus (from Massachusetts and New Hampshire) in which the preapical clypeal carina is distinctly bidentate, so that the only character for the retention of the name Aphonus as a valid genus is gone. However, even though I feel that Aphonus must eventually be considered a synonym of the earlier described Cheiroplatys I am unable definitely to synonymize the two genera until I can review the genotypes; I desire also to dissect carefully the mouthparts of many of the Neotropical and Australian forms of the genus. The sexes of Aphonus are rather similar in most characters, but in the male the last ab- dominal sternite is shorter and is feebly but distinctly emarginate apically, whereas the last abdominal in the female is longer and the apex is evenly rounded. I have been unable to construct a satisfac- tory key to the species based on nonvariable external differences, so that to place the species properly it is necessary to make genital dissec- tions. The only general statement that can be made as to the external facies is that castaneus is most frequently rufous, averages 10 to 11 mm in length, and is more robust; whereas densicauda and tridentata are both more elongate, and the former averages 13 mm in length and the latter 15 mm. Obviously, such generalities are interesting but of little assist- ance in actually separating closely allied and variable species. According to Cartwright’s description of brevicruris (the unique type of which I have not seen) the proportions of the heavy, short tibia and femora will readily sep- arate this species from all other described forms. May 15, 1948 Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer) Fig. 1, k, m Bothynus castaneus Melsheimer, 1856, p. 138; LeConte, 1856, p. 22. Podalgus obesus Burmeister, 1847, p. 119; Arrow, 1909, p. 341. Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer) Casey, 1915, p. 220; Sims, 1934, p. 334 (larvae); Johnson, 1942, p. 79; Ritcher, 1944, p. 30, pls. 2-5 (larvae). Aphonus cubiformis Casey, 1915, p. 221. Aphonus saginatus Casey, 1915, p. 220. Aphonus trapezicollis Casey, 1915, p. 219. All examples of this small species that I have examined vary from rufocastaneous to piceo- castaneous in color, and from 8 to 13 mm in length. The species ranges generally along the East Coast from Maine south through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama. Johnson mentions finding numerous larvae on the sur- face of a Connecticut golf course during a gen- tle July rain, and these larvae retreated into the sod when the sun reappeared. Sims records the larvae as common in the turf of the coastal plains golf courses and in sandy soil generally. Aphonus densicauda Casey Fig. 1, h, 1 Aphonus densicauda Casey, 1915, p. 216; Ritcher, p. 31 (larvae). Described from Pennsylvania, and seen also from New Hampshire, south to Georgia and Kentucky and west to Iowa; will probably be found to have a much wider distribution than indicated by available specimens. Ritcher re- cords it as fairly common in Kentucky where full-grown larvae may be found in pastureland, in or just beneath the sod, from November to May, and pupation occurs late in May or early in June; he found adults in the soil throughout the year. | The color is usually piceous or piceocastane- ous, varying to rufous, as do all species of the genus, and the length averages 13 mm. The adults are hard to separate from typically black tridentatus other than on genital charac- ters and the slightly larger average size of the latter (15 mm.); the larvae are also very similar but distinct according to Ritcher (1944). Aphonus tridentatus (Say) Fig. 1, f, 2, j, Scarabaeus tridentatus Say, 1823, p. 209. Bothynus variolosus LeConte, 1848, p. 88 (new synonymy). SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 177 Aphonus tridentatus (Say) Horn, 1882, p. 122; Casey, 1915, p. 215; Ritcher 1944, p. 33 (lar- vae); Arrow, 1937, p. 42 (additional refs.). Aphonus aterrimus Casey, 1915, p. 216. Aphonus congestus Casey, 1915, p. 218. Aphonus elongatus Casey, 1915, p. 215. Aphonus frater LeConte, 1856, p. 22. Aphonus hydropicus LeConte, 1856, p. 22. Aphonus ingens Casey, 1924, p. 334. Aphonus modulatus Casey, 1915, p. 219. Aphonus politus Casey, 1915, p. 218. Aphonus scutellaris Casey, 1924, p. 335. ~ Usually piceous, this largest United States species of the genus varies to entirely rufous, especially in specimens from Florida, and these latter are the variolosus of LeConte; the Florida specimens are often 2-3 mm smaller than the more northern specimens and superficially look different, but the genitalia and all essential di- agnostic characters are identical and I have no doubt of the correctness of the synonymy. I have seen specimens from Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, south through Georgia, South Caro- lina, and Florida; also recorded from New York and Wisconsin. Cartwright has taken numbers at Clemson, 8S. C., from March through July. Ritcher says that the larvae are found in woodland loam; collected by Yeager from “forest duff’ in Michigan. Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright Rigs 1. -¢ Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright, 1944, p. 36, pl. 1. fig. 5. Described from a unique male collected at Austwell, Tex., May 20, 1941 (Goodpaster collector), and not taken since to my knowl- edge. I have not seen the type, and the informa- tion here is reworded and taken from Cart- wright’s paper: Easily separable from all other United States species by the proportions of the hind legs: the femur is three-fifths as wide as it is long, the tibia is shorter than the femur, and the tibial apex is widely flared and more than half as wide at apex as the full tibial length; in all other United States species the hind femur is only half as wide as long, the hind tibia and femur are subequal in length and the hind tibial apex is flared but at most is one- third as wide at apex as the length. Tribe DYNASTINI Some of the largest and heaviest insects in the world occur in this tribe, including 178 the well-known Dynastes hercules of the American Tropics. Arrow (1937) lists only 21 genera in the tribe from the world, many of these genera being monobasic. The essen- tial character of the enlarged male forelegs is not too well shown in our United States species, but in our relatively common Golofa Hope and such Megasoma as elephas the character is strongly indicated. In the Colombian Golofa porteri Hope the front legs in the male are as long as the entire body and exactly twice as long as the fore- legs of the females. Bates (1889) reports the immense Megasoma elephas (Fabricius) as feeding in numbers on ripe mangoes in Panama, and my father has collected num- bers around street lights in central Panama, where the large lumbering insects often fly into the faces of passersby and occasionally badly scratch or at least scare them! Since a large male specimen weighs nearly half a pound, the bruises and abrasions that could be occasioned by such a specimen flying into a person’s face is easily imaginable. We have only two genera in the United States. KEY TO UNITED STATES GENERA First segment of hind tarsus sharp on outer side but not really extended into a long spine (length of segment on outer side exclusive of apical movable setae only one-third to one-fifth longer than length on inner side); prosternal spine high between front coxae (as ‘“‘tall’”’ as its own width across base) and always either densely hairy or at least hairy or setose api- cally on posterior side; surface glabrous and usually gray, speckled with piceous spots (rarely unicolorous in some females); male with front thoracic angles normal, that is, not sinu- ous (southeast and southern United States and IMiexic@)): Sais Becta geen tare tan Dynastes Kirby First segment of hind tarsus with a long distinct apical spine (length of segment on outside, in- cluding spine, one-half to three-fourths times longer than length on inner side); prosternal spine much shorter than coxal length (two- thirds as “‘tall’’ as its own width across base) and always quite glabrous on external face; surface always hairy (velvety) and unicolorous piceous; male with each front thoracic horn strongly sinuous (Arizona and Mexico)...... Data: wren aes toes Re .....-Megasoma Kirby Genus Dynastes Kirby Dynastes Kirby, 1825, p. 568; Burmeister, 1847, p. 256; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 444; Casey, 1915, p. 258; Arrow, 1937 (many references given), p. 95; Ritcher, 1944, p. 39 (larvae). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 38, NO. 5 Our species have been variously listed or de- scribed in the genera Scarabaeus, Geotrupes, X ylotrupes, and others by the older authors and such references are readily available in Arrow (1937) and Burmeister (1847). Arrow lists 13 species of these so-called “rhinoceros beetles’ as valid in his 1937 cata- logue, these occurring in India, the Philippines, Java, Burma, Borneo, Nigeria, the Congo, and the Americas. I seriously doubt that all these could possibly be congeneric. At any rate, six species are listed from the Americas, and two of these are supposed to occur in the United States. The large and well-known hercules ap- parently has not been taken yet north of Gua- temala, except possibly in quarantine intercep- tions, and it appears to be replaced in Mexico by the much smaller so-called hyllus of Chevro- lat. I have seen specimens of the latter species from central and southern Mexico and am entirely unable to separate them either on genital or external characters from our common tityus (Linnaeus). Our Arizona Dynastes are usually called grantt Horn; the male genital characters are identical with those of tityus and the only dif- ferences can be summed up in the following (the thoracic horn is measured with a microme- ter scale in a direct line between the laterobasal denticles at each side of the horn base, and the horn apex): Male thoracic horn distinctly 6-8 times longer than scutellar length (19-23 mm/3 mm); this horn also much broader basally through the denticles; horn on head long, with a very dis- tinct and large, preapical tooth on the dorsal side; CAniZ0Na >... 82a 50 terrae grantt Horn Male thoracic horn 3—5 times longer than scutel- lar length (7-12 mm/2.5 mm); horn of head usually faintly notched dorsally or entirely smocth, never with a dorsal preapical tooth. Eastern United States and Mexico.......... Ae eet trae een ee. tityus (Linnaeus) As anyone who has worked to any extent in the Dynastini knows, these characters as listed above are highly variable in a group where ex- ceptionally dimorphic forms are the rule rather than the exception, and I am not at all sure of the validity of grantz. We have an exact coun- terpart of this in the related and well-known Golofa imperialis Thomson and pizarro Hope where the males are unusually variable and the thoracic horn in male majors is unusually long and toothed within, varying through all de- grees to the male minors, in which the horn is May 15, 1948 SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 179 the merest sort of a knob with a smooth inner andthe more typically eastern tityus, it appears surface. Until such time as exact intermediate best to retain the name granti as a weak sub- specimens can be collected between Arizona species of tityus. Fic. 1.—a, Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois): Male genitalia; b, Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte): Male genitalia; c, Phzleurus illatus LeConte: Male genitalia; d, Phileurus castaneus Haldeman: Male genitalia; e, Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright: Male genitalia; f, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Head of female, front view; g, Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus): Male genitalia; h, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Male genitalia; 1, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Male genitalia, from Jacksonville, Fla.; 7, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Male genitalia, from South Carolina; k, Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer); Male genitalia; from Rhode Island; l, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Female genitalia; m, Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer): Female genitalia; n, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Female genitalia. 180 ‘Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus) Fig. 1, g Scarabaeus tityus Linnaeus, 1763, p. 391. Scarabaeus marianus Linnaeus, 1767, p. 549. Scarabaeus pennsylvanicus DeGeer, 1774, p. 308. Scarabaeus hyllus Chevrolat, 18438, p. 33 (new synonymy); Bates, 1888 (as Dynastes), p. 336; Dugés, 1887 (as Dynastes), p. 137 (biology). Scarabaeus iphiclus (Panzer) Burmeister, 1847, p. 259. Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus) Burmeister, 1847, p. 260; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 444; Arrow, 1937, p. 98 (many references); Casey, 1915, p. 260; Hamilton, 1886, p. 112 (biology); Manee, 1915, p. 266 (biology); Ritcher, 1944, p. 39 (larvae). Dynastes corniger Sternberg, 1910, p. 26 (new synonomy). Subspecies: Dynastes grantt Horn, 1870, p. 78; Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow, 1937, p. 97. This large and familiar species is widespread throughout the eastern United States from New York and Pennsylvania south through Florida, west to Arizona and south into Mexi- co, and possibly Guatemala. Varies greatly in size and color, especially in the females. The smallest specimen I have seen was 37 mm and the largest 74 mm; with the average about 55 mm. The often asymmetrical (bilateral) colora- tion has been frequently noted, especially in the females, and a good description is given by Ritcher (1944) of this variation in adults he collected in a single stump and very probably from a single parent: in 14 pupal cells (7 males, 7 females), 8 individuals were spotted, 5 had one elytron spotted and the other of a solid dark mahogany color, and 1 was of a uniform dark mahogany color. The larvae are recorded as feeding in decaying wood of oaks, pines, chestnut, willows, wild cherries, black locust, and fruit trees such as peaches and apples. The adults feed on the sap of wounded trees as well as decaying fruit of peaches, plums, pears, and apples, and Casey claims that the adults have a characteristic odor that can be smelled for some distance, if the observer is downwind of a considerable number of individuals. D. granti Horn was described from Arizona, though tityus has also been recorded from this State. As stated above, Iam not at all sure that the form is sufficiently distinct to warrant its retention. Genus Megasoma Kirby Megasoma Kirby, 1825, p. 566; LeConte and Horn, 1883, p. 260; Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow, 1937, p. 98 (other references). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 Megasominus Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow, 1937, p. 35. Megalosoma Burmeister, 1847, p. 273. Lycophontes Bruch, 1910, p. 73. Arrow lists eight species of this American genus, five of them from South America. Our only species in the United States is the ther- sites of LeConte, which occurs in Arizona and Lower California. Casey erected the genus Megasominus for this species, the essential dif- ferences between it and the very much larger Neotropical elephas (Fabricius) being the pres- ence of a large basal horn dorsally on the base of the male cephalic horn in the latter, and also the marked sexual dimorphism in the front legs of the two sexes of elephas (fore tibia of male noticeably elongated and curved, and not so in female); in thersites there is no trace of a dorsal tooth on the base of the large cephalic horn, nor is there any difference between the length of the front legs in the two sexes. At first glance, there is a marked difference be- tween male elephas and thersites: the former is very large (34 to 43 inches) and with a dense uniform clothing of short velvety pile, and a very large forward-projecting tooth on the base of the cephalic horn, and the mid-dise of the thorax is evenly convex without a central horn; whereas in thersites the male is small (14 to 14 inches long), the cephalic horn has no basal tooth, the dorsal clothing of pile is slightly longer, less velvety, and much less uniformly placed, and the mid-dise of the thorax hasa narrow, semierect horn, which is slightly bi- furcate apically. However, in the females of the two species, the only essential difference be- sides size is that the thorax base in elephas is strongly margined, as opposed to the non- margined base of thersites, but all other essen- tial characters are so closely similar that it is necessary to treat the two species as congeneric. Megasoma thersites LeConte Megasoma thersites LeConte, p. 336. Megasominus thersites (LeConte) Casey, 1915, p. 259. a This uncommon species is usually confined to Lower California, but I have a specimen taken in the ‘‘Coyote Mts., Arizona, August, 3,500 ft. elevation.’”’ Ross and Bohart collected the species at San Venancio in Lower Cali- fornia on October 8, 1941. Easily separable in the male from all other United States Dynas- May 15, 1948 tini by the combination of the strongly bi- fureate clypeal horn, and the sharp tooth of each front thoracic angle, as well as the mod- erate to short, narrow, erect, weakly bifurcate horn of the mid-dise of the thorax. The female is readily separable from female Strategus by the widely separated front teeth on the apex of the clypeus (one at each side angle) as well as the sharp, bidentate mandibles and the non- margined center base of the thorax. The female thersites somewhat resembles a female A pho- nides dunnianus, but the clypeus there is uni- dentate at apex and the mandibles are equally rounded and not at all toothed. The life his- tory is apparently unknown. It is very surprising to me that the male aedeagus of this species is inseparable in form from that of male Dynastes tityus, but such ap- pears to be the case, based on my own careful dissections; throughout dynastines generally, the characters of the male genitalia appear to be specific within narrow boundaries of varia- tion. Tribe PHILEURINI This tribe is the most aberrant of the sub- family Dynastinae, as the labial palpi are inserted on the wnderside of the ligular plate instead of at the sides, and the gener- ally black color and the depressed (majority of species) dorsal surface is suggestive of the Passalidae. Numerous genera and species are described and the tribe is world-wide; our American (Neotropical) species and genera are very poorly and inadequately known. The two sexes are not well differentiated externally in this tribe. The only obvious external sexual difference is that the male sixth abdominal sternite (instead of being emarginate apically aS in most other dynastine tribes) is subtruncate at apex, whereas the same sternite in the female is somewhat narrowly rounded, though at times it is practically impossible for even an experienced student of the group to be cer- tain of the sex unless he dissects the speci- men. This condition, however, does not hold good throughout the tribe, since males of the Neotropical Amblyodus Westwood show the typical emargination of the last sternite. KEY TO UNITED STATES GENERA AND SPECIES 1. Completely lacking any tubercles or horns on SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 181 either head or thorax; clypeal base consisting of a wide carina which is obsolescent lat- erally; front not at all concave, but coarsely punctate; side of thorax exceptionally hairy (hairs really extend from beneath thoracic margin); elytra short and very coarsely crib- rate; apex of hind tibia slightly irregular but not really toothed; all tarsal segments short and subrectangular in shape; elytra “‘soldered’”’ at sutures and wings reduced to IMETET VESRIE ESET os ee, See Sos Sa ..Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte) With tubercles or horns on either head or thorax or both, without transverse clypeal carina; front always strongly concave; elytra longer, depressed; hind tibial apex distinctly spinose, at least at sides; tarsal segments longer, basal segment of mid and hind legs with strong apical spine; elytra not soldered at suture and wings of normal length. UMMC UIES a oes Re hone a a 3 2. Size large (29-34 mm); clypeal horn very large, as long as exposed dorsal portion of head, each horn situated right at and on lateral margin of head; small canthus in front of eye (dorsal view) very obsolescent, not at all conspicuous. . Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois) Size much smaller (16-23 mm); clypeal horn small or represented by a tubercle, always much shorter than head length; clypeal horn situated znside each lateral margin, and not at it; eye canthus moderate to strong..... 3 3. Front tibia distinctly 4-dentate, the subapical and apical external teeth very narrowly sep- arated by a distinctly U-shaped incision; the sides of the ‘“‘incision”’ parallel........ ee eS Phileurus castaneus Haldeman Front tibia tridentate, at most with the merest suggestion of a fourth tooth (near base if present) apical and subapical external tooth separated by a wide non-parallel-sided emar- eG Ss . . Phileurus illatus LeConte Genus Archophileurus Kolbe Archophileurus Kolbe, 1910, p. 334; Casey, 1915, p. 271; Arrow, 1937, p. 38; Cazier, 1399, p. 170. Arrow in his 1937 catalogue lists a number of American species in this genus, some of these however actually being synonyms, but the group is not well enough known to definitely list them as such at the present time. Our single United States species also occurs in northern Mexico: Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte) Fig. 1, 6 Phileurus cribrosus LeConte, 1854, p. 80; Bates, 1887, p. 338. Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte) Casey, 1915, p. 264; Arrow, 1937, p. 87; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Judged from collected specimens apparently the center of distribution of this species is in 182 northern Mexico (Durango, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas), with further distribution in the southwestern United States (Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico). Nothing is known regarding its habits. The slender vestigial wings are inter- esting, and owing to this flightless condition we might expect to find local races in such a wide- ranging form. Genus Phileurus Latreille Phileurus Latrielle, 1807, p. 103; Burmeister, 1947, p. 148; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 456; Kolbe, 1910, p. 336; Casey, 1915, p. 264; Arrow, 1937, p. 89; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. In his 1937 catalogue Arrow lists 27 species, at least 10 of which are known to me to be synonyms. The species range generally through- out the Americas and the West Indies. The larvae live in decaying wood. Because of the flattened dorsal surface and the black color, these Phileurus are often mistaken for passalid beetles, which they do indeed superficially re- semble. Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois) Fig. 1, a Scarabaeus truncatus Palisot de Beauvois, 1807, p. 41. Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois) Casey, 1915, p. 265; Bates, 1889, p. 340; Arrow, 1937, p. 90; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Phaleurus recurvatus Casey, 1915, p. 266. Recorded by Bates and Casey from Mexico and ranging also rather commonly throughout our southeastern United States. Has been re- corded as mistaking chimneys for hollow trees and thus falling into fireplaces. The large size and strong cephalic horns readily place the species. Phileurus illatus LeConte Hig Se Phileurus illatus LeConte, 1854, p. 80; Casey, 1915, p. 267; Ritcher, 1944, p. 47 (larvae). Phileurus vitulus LeConte, 1866, p. 80; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Phileurus phoenicis Casey, 1915, p. 267; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Phileurus puncticollis Casey, 1915, p. 268; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Goniophileurus femoratus (Burmeister) Kolbe, 1910, p. 149, p. 344 (pars); Arrow, 1937, p. 86, 90; Blackwelder, 1944, pp. 257-258; Ca- zier, 1939, p. 170. There has been a great deal of controversy about and incorrect citations for this species JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 since Kolbe erected the genus Goniophileurus for femoratus Burmeister and placed illatus LeConte and vitulus LeConte as synonyms of it. Burmeister’s types of femoratus were from French Guiana and this name (the species is unknown to me) should apply to that locality, and vitulus and illatus should be removed from the synonymy of that species. Kolbe’s main character for the genus Goniophileurus was the 2- or 3-toothed mandible, whereas my dissec- tions show without doubt that the mandibles of our U.S. species are quite simple. Thus in the catalogues of Arrow (1937) and of Black- welder (1944) following Arrow, vitulus and illatus are listed both as synonyms of Gonio- phileurus femoratus (Burmeister) and also as valid species of Phileurus; actually, they have nothing to do with femoratus, and vitulus is a synonym of our common tllatus. Ritcher has studied larvae taken in the trunks of trees (Dasylirion) in Arizona. The species occurs fairly commonly in Arizona, very rarely in southern California and in northern Mexico and Lower California (Triunfo, July 7, Ross and Michelbacher). I have also seen a specimen some time ago, apparently of this species, taken from the La Brea tar pits in southern California, probably representing a specimen of the (?) Pleistocene period. Phileurus castaneus Haldeman Fig. 1, d Phileurus castaneus Haldeman, 1843, p. 304; Casey, 1915, p. 270; Arrow, 1937, p. 89; Ca- zier, 1939, p. 170; Ritcher, 1944, p. 42 (larvae). Phileurus valgus Olivier (nec Linnaeus), 1789, p. 48; Arrow, 1937, p. 89. Phileurus texensis Casey, 1915, p. 268; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Phileurus sulcifer Casey, 1915, p. 269; Cazier 1939, p. 170. Phileurus floridanus Casey, 1915, p. 270; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Phileurus carolinae Casey, 1915, p. 269; Cazier, 1939, p. 170. Arrow in his 1937 catalogue lists four varie- ties of this species from the West Indies and South America. It is a fairly common species in the United States, ranging from Virginia through the Southern States and Florida and Texas into Mexico, and supposedly also Gua- temala. Ritcher has reared the larva from a specimen collected in a cavity of a dead Bass- wood tree. May 15, 1948 LITERATURE CITED Arrow, G. J. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1909: 341. . Coleop. Catalogus, pars 156: 89. 1937. . Trans. Ent. Soc. London (A) 86: 38. 1937. Bates, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana, Coleoptera 2(2): 338. 1889. Beavuvois, A. M. J. Patisor pr. Insectes recuerllis en Afrique et en Amerique: 41. 1807. BLACKWELDER, R. E. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 185, part 2: 257-258. 1944. Brucu, Cartos. Rev. Mus. La Plata 4(2): erect O10, - BurRMEIsTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie 5: 148. 1847. Cartwricut, O. L. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 37(1): 36. 1944. Casny, T. L. Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6: 178. 1915; 11: 334. 1924. Cazier, M. A. Bull. Southern California Acad. Sci. 38(3): 170. 1939. CuHEVROLAT, L. A. A. Jn Guerin, Mag. Zool., Coléoptéres du Mexique, 13: 33. 1842. DeGsEeER, Cart. Mémoires pour servir a Vhis- toure des insectes 4: 322. 1774. Ducks, HEucenge. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique 31: 137. 1887. HatpEMAN,S.S. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia 1: 304. 18438. Hamiuton, J. Can. Ent. 18: 112. 1886. Horn, G. H. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 2: 78. 1870; 10: 122. 1882. DELACOUR: NOTE ON AETHOPYGA SATURATA (BLYTH) 183 JOHNSON, R. Connecticut Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. 461: 79-86. 1942. Kirpy, W. ‘Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14: 566-568. 1825. Kose, T. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique 54: 334. 1910. LacoRDAIRE, J. T. Genera des coléopteres 3: 456. 1856. LATREILLE, P. A. Genera crustaceorum et in- sectorum 2: 103. 1807. LeConts, J. L. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia (2), 1:88. 1848. . Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 6: 80. 1854; 8: 21. 1856; 13: 336. 1861. LreConte, J. L., and Horn, G. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America 259. 1883. LinnakEus, C. Amoen. Academy 6: 391. 1763. . Systema naturae (ed. 12) 1(2): 549. 1767. Maneg, A. H. Ent. News 26: 266. 1915. MELSHEIMER, F. E. V. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 2: 138. 1856. OxuivieR, A. G. Entomologie ou histovre na- turelle des insectes 1 (pars 5): 48. 1789. Ritcuer, P. O. Kentucky Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. No. 467: 48. 1944. Say, Tuomas. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. delphia 3: 209. 1823. Sartor, L. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 35(12): 378-386. 1945; 36(1): 16-22. 1946; 36(2): 41-46. 1946. Sims, Ropert. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 334.1934. STERNBERG, R. Stett. Ent. Zeitung 71: 26. 1910 (1909). Phila- ORNITHOLOGY .—WNote on the races of the black-throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson).1 J. DELAcour, American Museum of Natural History. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) While I was in Europe in the summer of 1947, I made a complete examination of the specimens of Aethopyga saturata preserved in the Museums of Paris and London at the instance of H. G. Deignan, who has re- cently revised the races of the species, using the material available in the United States. I found that the races stand as he has indi- cated in his recent paper (This JoURNAL 38: 21-23. 1948) with one addition. Also new indications are supplied by the specimens in the Paris and London collections, many of which have been collected by me in Indo- china. The metallic blue, or dull black, coloration of the middle of the throat of the males is an important characteristic, but it is not quite stable, and specimens varying 1 Received January 30, 1948. in that way may be found apparently in several populations. I have listed the fol- lowing ratios of metallic and dull throats in two subspecies from the specimens de- posited in Paris and London. Subspecies and locality Metallic throat Dull throat sanguinipectus: Karenni 3 1 (including type) Tenasserim 9 0 petersi: Southern Shan States 0 14 Haut Laos 2 9 Tongking 2 6 Even in specimens with a completely metallic blue throat the center is always somewhat duller than the sides, so that in some cases it is a question of degree and there is a gradation between the two ex- 184 tremes. Also there is a good deal of variation in the intensity and extent of the yellow of the underparts among specimens from Tongking and Haut Laos. Two males from Dakto, Central Annam, are similar to speci- mens from the Boloven Plateau and should be referred to ochra. Mr. Deignan was unable to examine ma- terial from Bokor, southwestern Cambodia. This population is isolated on the Chaines des Eléphants et des Cardamomes and has special characteristics. I propose to call it: Aethopyga saturata cambodiana, n. subsp. Type.—Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. no. 1578, adult male, collected at Bokor, Cambodia, on December 12, 1927, by J. Delacour (original number 798). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Diagnosis.—Nearest to ochra Deignan (Bas Laos and Central Annam), differing in having the middle of throat usually metallic blue, not dull black, the mantle of a darker maroon red color and the abdomen grayer. Resembles sanguinipectus Walden (South Burma), but darker red on the mantle. In its dark mantle and metallic throat it approaches johnsi Robin- son and Kloss (South Annam), which, how- ever, is very distinct from all other races in the almost plain red color of the breast. Iris dark brown; bill black; legs blackish brown. Female similar to petersi, very yellow underneath. Range.—The mountains of southwestern Cambodia and probably the border of Siam. Specimens examined.—8 males, 3 females. Remarks.—One of the males (Paris) has the center of throat dull black. ORNITHOLOGY .—Some races of the babbling thrush, Malacocincla abbotti Blyth.! H. G. Deienan, U. 8. National Museum. Despite the fact that this common bab- bler is generally admitted to show normal subspecific variation in the Malaysian Sub- region, ornithological writers have con- sistently held that the nominate race ranges, without the least geographical change, from the eastern Himalayan foot- hills to Malaya and Indochine. Inasmuch as the rich material before me shows unde- niable subspeciation, it must be supposed that lack of specimens from Arakan, the type locality of the species, has inhibited its proper study in the past. It may be said at once that I have not myself seen a single topotype of Malaco- cincla abbott: and that all remarks to follow are based upon the premise that specimens from southwestern Siam and _ northern Tenasserim represent the Arakanese form —an assumption supported by careful com- parison of these birds with the original de- scription of Blyth (Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 14, pt. 2: 601. Aug. 1845). In my diagnoses of new subspecies, only fresh-plumaged adult examples have been employed, and ‘‘foxing’”’ has been taken into account by comparison of birds of approxi- mately the same date of collection. After these precautions, I still find it necessary 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 16, 1948. to name three races from Siam alone. Their descriptions follow. 1. Malacocincla abbotti rufescentior, n. subsp. Type.—U. 8. N. M. no. 330572, adult female, collected at Ban Tha Lo, southwest of Surat Thani or Ban Don (ca. lat. 9°05’ N., long. 99°15’ E.), peninsular Siam, on September 20, 1931, by Hugh M. Smith (original number 4982). Diagnosis.—Separable in series from M. a. abbottt (as exemplified by birds from south- western Siam and northern Tenasserim) by having the upperparts slightly more rufescent, and especially by having the underparts (ex- cept the white throat and abdomen) more strongly washed with a much brighter ferrugi- nous. Range.—Peninsular Siam (except Pattani Province) and southern Tenasserim. Remarks.—M. a. rufescentior is distinguish- able from olivacea of Pattani Province and Malaya by the same characters as separate it from abbotti. The material before me does not show any very obvious difference between abbottt and olwacea, although the latter seems to have the upperparts the least bit darker in tone; larger series would probably show this better. Twenty-four winter-taken adults of rufes- centior have been examined. May 15, 1948 2. Malacocincla abbotti obscurior, n. subsp. Type.—U. 5S. N. M. no. 333912, adult male, collected at Khao Sa Bap (lat. 12°35’ N., long. 102°15’ E.), Chanthaburi Province, southeast- ern Siam, on October 25, 1933, by Hugh M. Smith (original number 6545). Diagnosis——Separable in series from M. a. rufescentior by having the coloration of the crown, especially anteriorly, darker and more olivaceous; by having the remaining upper- parts equally rufescent, but decidedly deeper in tone; and by having the rufescent of the underparts (excepting the white throat and abdomen) slightly brighter and deeper. Range.—Southeastern Siam. Remarks.—Twenty-five winter-taken adults of obscurior have been examined. 3. Malacocincla abbotti williamsoni, 1. subsp. Type.—uvU.S. N. M. no. 324357, adult male, collected at Sathani Pak Chong, eastern Siam LOOMIS: TWO NEW MILLIPEDS OF JAMAICA = 185 at lat. 14°40’ N., long. 101°25’ E., on November 16, 1929, by Hugh M. Smith (original number 3457). Diagnosis.—Like M, a. obscurior in the dark coloration of the crown but easily distinguish- able from it in series by having the remaining upperparts olivaceous brown, but slightly suf- fused with rufescent, and by having the under- parts (except the white throat and abdomen) more lightly washed with a paler ferruginous. From M. a. abbottr, which it resembles be- neath, williamsoni is separable by the deeper tone of the more olivaceous-brown upperparts and the darker coloration of the crown. Range.—Eastern Siam and Laos (Vientiane). Remarks.—This race is named in honor of Sir Walter J. F. Williamson, C.M.G., the well- known student of Siamese ornithology. Eleven winter-taken adults of williamsoni have been examined. ZOOLOGY .—Two new millipeds of Jamaica.! H. F. Loomis, Coconut Grove, Fla. Late in January and early in February, 1937, Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of insects, United States National Museum, collected insects and members of lower groups in Jamaica. The millipeds included in this collection were sent to me for identification, there being eight species of which two ap- pear to be undescribed, one representing a new generic type. These two new millipeds are here described and the previously known species in the collection listed. All speci- mens have been deposited in the National Museum. Glomeridesmus angulosus, n. sp. One male (type) and six other specimens in bottle labeled only “Sifting fern gully, Feb. 2,’ but probably collected at Moneague, where other collecting was done the same day. Diagnosis.—This is the smallest West Indian species of the genus and has the posterior cor- ners of more of the caudal segments produced into acute angles than any other species. The last male legs also are distinctive. Description — Length of largest specimen, a female, with 21 segments, 4 mm, width 1 mm; 1 Received January 16, 1948. largest male, with 20 segments, 3 mm long. The generally dark color of living animals probably is almost entirely derived from the internal organs showing through the quite transparent and colorless body wall noticeable in preserved specimens. The pit behind each antenna is circular and not opened on any side, nor is the antennal socket opened behind or below although there is a depression below it as in the Haitian G. jenkinsi Loomis. From segment 12 or 13 to segment 19 in- clusive the posterior corners are increasingly produced into acute angles as shown in Fig. 1. Basal joint of the legs with posterior margin minutely serrate. Pleurae with about three transverse ridges in front, the back margin smooth but with 6 to 8 minute, short, pro- jecting setae; inner posterior corner acute. Penultimate legs of male with basal joints di- rected outward, the three terminal ones bent caudad. Last male legs with only the two ter- minal joints projecting beyond the penultimate legs, modified as shown in Fig. 2. Siphonophora robusta Chamberlin A female, apparently of this species from Moneague, station 370, February 2. 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Rhinocricus sabulosus Pocock Rhinocricus sp. A female from Moneague, station 370, A young specimen from near White Horses, February 2, and several specimens from ‘‘under _ station 386, February 6. dung” at Mocho, February 16. Spirostrophus naresi (Pocock) Rhinocricus solitarius Pocock Numerous specimens from Bath St. Thomas, A male collected with R. sabulosus above. February 6 and 8. ——_—— —_ ————— .0 Gaane "00 9 99.9005 5 9929 ClUGe fel % noe. oO OP NONE 99559 Gusee 0Q 2922 > Soper Loe Qeok 2 > 0 °c se C£e°Ce00 0 me O00 Ba" aN aa ae 4 000, 9° °Q, 0° ae Bere ecn oe 006 ya O95 6.92 oe 5° oe 0°29 2 Saree =20". oe z O° ca aay ° i ae oou& E00 0°08, we 5 a Cc ie & c a % a emt fetes Mo ae > 22 oer SSeS ‘e) 2 = z 2-2 4 2 oe Sey, _— G oO Fiaes. 1-2.—Glomeridesmus angulosus, n. sp.: 1, Segments 16 to 20, lateral view; 2, two apical joints’ of last male leg on left side, ventral view over penultimate leg. Fies. 3-6.—Xaymacia granulata, n. sp.: 3, Antenna and part of opposite socket; 4, head and first penultimate three segments, the nonsetiferous tubercles not shown; 5, segment 9 of male showing typieal dorsal sculpture; 6, gonopods, ventral view. \ May 15, 1948 Xaymacia, n. gen. Genoty pe.-—X aymacia granulata, n. sp. Diagnosis.—From the shape of the gonopods it does not appear that this genus has any close relatives in the known chelodesmid fauna of the West Indies or the mainland surrounding the Caribbean area. The ornamentation of the dorsum is not duplicated in other members of the family in the region. Description.—Body of the size and propor- tions of the common Orthomorpha coarctata (Saussure) with which species specimens were collected in several localities. Males more slender and with the dorsum flatter than fe- males. Dorsum thickly granulate in addition to three transverse series of slightly larger setose tubercles on segments 1 to 19, inclusive. Head large, as wide as segment 1; a strong sulcus on the vertex; antennae separated by little more than the diameter of one of the sockets, geniculate at joint 4; joints 5 and 6 with a group of sensory hairs on the outer side near apex. Produced posterior corners of lateral keels, from segment 2 to 18 inclusive, subequal in size. Pore formula normal, the pores opening outward from the margin of the carinae. Sterna sparsely hispid. Gonopods with the apical half of the poste- rior division slender, pointed, and curving be- hind and partly obscured by the anterior divi- sion which is biramose and with its apical half in a sigmoid curve. The generic name is in reference to the old name ‘‘Xaymaca”’ from which the modern name of Jamaica was derived. Xaymacia granulata, n. sp. From January 28 to February 8, 1937, numerous specimens were collected at the fol- lowing localities: Caymanas, along Rio Cobre, (male type); Annotto Bay; Half Way Tree; Hope Gardens; Bath St. Thomas. Description.—Length 16 to 18 mm; body parallel-sided from segment 1 to 16; males definitely more slender than females and the dorsum flatter, nearly horizontal; general size and color very similar to Orthomorpha coarctata (Saussure) Living color dark brown except for the cor- ners of segment 1 and the lateral carinae of succeeding segments which are light yellow, LOOMIS: TWO NEW MILLIPEDS OF JAMAICA 187 the color being restricted to the outer margin of the carina at the front of each segment but broadening to include the entire posterior cor- ner; last segment wholly brown; sterna, legs, preanal scale, and the anal valves colorless. Head almost as wide as remainder of body; strongly and evenly inflated, subglobose, with a very definite sulcus extending across the vertex to between the antennae; the vertex shining, glabrous behind, sparsely and finely hispid in front, the remainder of the head much more densely hispid with erect hairs varying in length from very short to others several times as long. Antennae close together near the front of the head, separated by little more than the diameter of one socket, shaped as shown in Fig. 3; joints 5 and 6 each with a small area of sensory hairs near apex on the outer side. First segment semicircular, strongly convex, with the posterior corners depressed, thin, horizontal, rather acute but not produced backward; surface densely scattered with small vesiclelike granules as high as broad, and three transverse rows of slightly larger setifer- ous granules, 12 of which are along the anterior margin,10 in the median row and 8 to 10 some- what in advance of the posterior margin; a single seta projects outward from the margin just in advance of the posterior corner. Ensuing segments with granules and trans- verse rows of setiferous tubercles similar to those of segment 1; a pronounced transverse sulcus crosses the middle of each segment and the lateral carinae have one or two setae pro- jecting outward from the outer margin (Fig. 4). Second segment with the outer margin of the keels slightly longer than on ensuing ones, the posterior corners produced backward in the same degree which remains uniform to segment 18, corners of segment 19 reduced to half size; from segment 5 backward the outer margin of the keels thickened and containing an elongate impressed area opening outward, this being much broader in the poriferous keels (Fig. 5). Pore formula normal. Last segment short, conical, abruptly nar- rower at apex, the dorsal surface lacking gran- ules except those bearing the setae, there being an anterior row of six of these and a posterior, subapical, row of four, the outermost actually being on the lateral surface. Preanal scale large, triangular, the posterior margin of segment 19 just in front of it with 6 to 188 10 marginal setae. Anal valves moderately in- flated, the margins thinly elevated. Sterna sparsely hispid with long erect hairs. Sterna of fourth male legs with two rather large conical tubercles, other sterna and legs normal. Gonopods as shown in Fig. 6. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Orthomorpha coarctata (Saussure) Numerous specimens collected at Annotto Bay, January 30; Half Way Tree, January 28 and 31; Caymanas, on sandy beach along Rio Cobre, February 3. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 416TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 416th meeting of the Board of Man- agers, held in the Cosmos Club, March 15, 1948, was called to order at 8 p.m. by the President, Dr. F. D. Rossini. Others present were: H. 8. Rappleye, W. L, Scumirt, W. W. Diex., F. M. Dreranporr, C. F. W. Muzss- BECK, R. Bamrorp, W. A. Dayron, F. B. SILSBEE, M. A. Mason, A. O. Fostsr, L. A. Rogers, C. L. Garner, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, H. E. McComps, R. J. Sescer, and L. V. JUDSON. The President announced the appointment of a Committee on Science Legislation: J. E. GraF, Chairman, A. T. McPHEerson, W. W. RUBEY. It was reported that the Executive Commit- tee had agreed to accept an invitation to join with the Library of Congress, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the Founda- tion for Integrated Education in cosponsoring a memorial meeting in honor of the late Alfred North Whitehead at the Library of Congress on Sunday, March 21, 1948. The Executive Committee recommended to the Board that an allotment of $20 be made to the Membership Committee to cover ex- penses of office, including the preparation of mimeographed summaries of the new-member qualifications for presentation to the Board. The Chairman of the Committee on Meet- ings, Dr. R. J. SEEGER, announced that the March meeting would be given over to the Academy Award winners for 1947. The secretary read the following report sub- mitted by a committee appointed to consider the creation of an office of President-Elect, increase in the permitted number of members, and the addition of two standing committees: The Committee met on 25 February 1948 in the office of Dr. Gazin at the National Museum to consider the questions referred to it by the Board of Managers, namely, the questions of creating the office of ‘“‘President-Elect”’ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, of increasing the permitted number of members, and of adding the Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement and the Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research to the standing committees of the Board of Managers. The Committee recommends the creation of the office of President-Elect to promote continuity of policies and objectives of the Academy by ae- quainting the income president with the current business and the administrative routine of the Academy. The Committee regards with favor the proposal to raise the permitted number of members of the Academy since this would make possible an ex- pansion of the Academy more nearly in propor- tion to the growth of Washington as a center of science, and would at the same time provide addi- tional income for the Academy. However, the Committee feels that the increase in number should be a modest one. A large increase would create so many vacancies that there might be a danger of lowering the standards of admission of the Academy. The Committee suggests that the permitted number of active members be raised from 650 to 700 and the number of resident active members from 500 to 550. The Committee feels that such action would provide ample room for suitable candidates for several years to come, especially since there are at present about 20 vacancies in the Academy. The Committee recommends increasing the number of standing committees of the Board of Managers from four to six to include the Commit- tee on Awards for Scientific Achievement and the Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research. Both of these committees have been standing commit- tees in effect for the past several years. [There followed a list of suggested changes in the Bylaws and Standing Rules to carry out these recommendations. | The Board accepted the report and in- structed the Secretary to submit to a vote of the membership the recommended changes in May 15, 1948 the Bylaws, with the emendation that the increase in the number of members permitted in the Academy be changed from 50 to 100. Changes in the Standing Rules were accepted with one amendment. These changes are re- quired to be presented at the next meeting of the Board for final approval. Upon further discussion of the composition and duties of the various standing committees, it was voted that the present Special Commit- tee that recommended the changes in the By- laws look into the matter of the tenure of membership in the standing committees to consider the suggestion that some arrangement be made to permit a rotation or carry-over of a certain number of each committee to the suc- ceeding year, in order to facilitate functioning of the committee and continuity in plans. The Secretary reported the request by Dr. O. E. Meinzer that H. FREEBoRN JOHNSTON be reinstated as a member of the Academy. Mr. Johnston resigned in 1939 as a result of ill health. The Board voted to reinstate him to membership. The Secretary reported the death of Dr. Neuson Horatio Darton, formerly with the Geological Survey, an original member of the Academy, on February 28, 1948; and of Dr. Wiuu1am Rautpu Maxon, formerly curator of the U. S. National Herbarium, Smithsonian Institution, on February 25, 1948. The Board approved the request of Dr. Oscar Ripp.eE to be placed on the retired list, effective December 31, 1946. The Senior Editor, Dr. J. I. HorrMan, re- ported that he had read the monograph re- ferred to the Board of Editors for comment and had found it to be in good order and worthy of publication. The monograph, The Parasitic Birds of Africa, by Dr. HERBERT FRIEDMANN, was then referred to the new Committee on Monographs for its recommen- dations. Dr. Horrman then brought up the question of the proposed index to the first 40 volumes of the JouRNAL, and after some dis- cussion the President was authorized to ap- point a committee to consider the index and make recommendations on its publication. The Board accepted the nomination of Dr. T. Date STEWaRT as a Vice-President of the Academy representing the Anthropological So- ciety, replacing Dr. W. N. Fenton who with- drew from this office because of his election to PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 189 the Board of Managers. Item 9 of the recommendations of the Com- mittee to consider ‘“‘various matters pertaining to the JouRNAL and its improvement,” carried over from the unfinished business of the previ- ous meeting of the Board, was again discussed. The President was authorized to appoint the committee recommended, i.e., to study the functions of the Academy and to formulate a program that will integrate these functions, in- cluding the JournaL. The Board requested that this committee make its report by Janu- ary 1949. The meeting was adjourned at 10:15 p.m. C. L. Gazin, Secretary NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY There follows a list of persons elected to membership in the Academy, by vote of its Board of Managers, since January 13, 1947, who have since qualified as members in accord- ance with the bylaws. (See also previous list in January 15, 1948, issue of the JouRNAL.) The bases for election are stated with the names of the new members. RESIDENT Elected January 13, 1947 JosEPH P. E. Morrison, zoologist, U. S. National Museum, in recognition of his scien- tific attainments in the field of malacology, es- pecially for his studies on the taxonomy, anatomy, and biology of the fresh-water mol- lusks. Elected October 6, 1947 Ear_Le K. PLyYuer, physicist, National Bu- reau of Standards, in recognition of his work on the structure of molecules from infrared spec- tra, chemical analysis by infrared absorption measurements, and properties of matter as ex- hibited by characteristic absorption spectra. Elected December 15, 1947 RoseErt C. Cook, biologist, managing editor of the Journal of Heredity, in recognition of his services to biology, in particular his long-time distinguished editorship of the Journal of Heredity. Ira A. Goutp, Jr., chemist, University of Maryland, in recognition of his studies on the chemistry of milk, especially of the chemical 190 changes brought about by the application of heat. Tirrey F. Forp, chemist, Bureau of Dairy Industry, in recognition of his contributions to the ultracentrifugal measurement of micellar sizes and in particular his researches on the particle size of the proteins of milk. Harotp H. SHEPARD, entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in recognition of his contributions to entomology, particularly the action of insecticides, the biology of stored products, insects, and the bibliography of the Hesperiidae. PauL R. Miuuer, plant pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural En- gineering, in recognition of his contributions to the science of plant pathology and in particular his researches on apple rusts and on plant- disease survey methods, including spore load studies, development of new techniques, epi- demiological studies, etc. W. GARDNER Lynv, biologist, Catholic Uni- versity of America, in recognition of his studies in embryology and herpetology. Hueu T. O'NEILL, botanist, Catholic Uni- versity of America, in recognition of his contri- bution to systematic botany, especially the Cyperaceae and Arctic plants. Lex Line, plant pathologist, Food and Agri- cultural Division, United Nations Organiza- tion, in recognition of his contributions to the mycology and plant pathology of China. _Grorce D. Rock, physicist, Catholic Uni- versity of America, in recognition of his contri- butions to ultrasonics. Francis EK. Fox, physicist, Catholic Uni- versity of America, in recognition of his work in ultrasonics, particularly on the absorption of ultrasonic waves in liquids. JOSEPH S. CALDWELL, physiologist, U.S. De- partment of Agriculture, in recognition of his studies in the physiology of fruit and vegetable processing. FRANK L. CAMPBELL, entomologist, editor of the Scientific Monthly, in recognition of his researches in entomology, in particular the physiology of insects in relation to toxicology. RicHarp 8. DIu, engineer, Heating and Air Conditioning Section, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his outstanding re- -search in the fields of heating, insulation, and air-conditioning of structures. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 Joun K. Taytor, chemist, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his work on electrode potentials, refractive index, and polarography. J. Brookes Knicur, paleontologist, U. S. National Museum, in recognition of his contri- butions to the knowledge of Paleozoic Gastro- poda. Doris M. Cocuran, zoologist, U. 8S. Na- tional Museum, in recognition of her scientific work in taxonomic herpetology, especially for the Herpetology of Hispaniola, U. S. National Museum Bulletin 177, 1941. Elected January 12, 1948 JoHun C. Ewsrs, ethnologist, U. S. National Museum, in recognition of his research on the material culture and arts and crafts of the Plains Indians in historic times. WattrerR §. Dieux, engineer, Bureau of Aeronautics, Department of the Navy, in recognition of his contributions to aerody- namics and to aeronautics. ASHLEY B. GuRNeEY, entomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog- nition of his contributions to the taxonomy of the Orthoptera, SEB Neuroptera, and Zoraptera. Harry A. Bortuwick, botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi- neering, in recognition of his work in plant physiology and in particular his researches on photoperiodism in relation to plant morphology. Marion W. Parker, botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi- neering, in recognition of his work in plant physiology and especially on the relation of light and temperature to plant growth. Puitip BRIERLEY, plant pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi- neering, in recognition of his contributions to plant pathology, particularly in clearing up the nature and complexity of the virus diseases of Inlium longiflorum. Wiitpur D. McCuietuan, plant pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul- tural Engineering, in recognition of his work on use of fungicides and interaction of nutritives and fungicides in the pathogenicity of certain organisms. Paut C. Marta, botanist, Bursar of Plant Industry, Soils, at Agricultural Engineering, May 15, 1948 in recognition of his work in plant physiology, in particular his pioneering research on the ef- fects of growth regulators on plants and fruits. Fioyp F. Smiru, entomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog- nition of his investigations of insects as vectors of viruses and the application of aerosols to in- sect enemies of ornamental plants. NONRESIDENT Elected January 13, 1947 Acssitau A. Brrancourt, biologist, Insti- tuto Biolégico Sao Paulo, Brazil, in recognition of his contributions to tropical researches in plant pathology, particularly in citrus diseases. Elected December 15, 1947 JuLIAN H. MiuieEr, plant pathologist, Uni- versity of Georgia, Athens, Ga., in recognition of his researches in mycology, in particular his contributions on the comparative morphology and taxonomy of the Sphaeriales. Ernest H. VouLwiLer, chemist, Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IIl., inrecognition of his contributions to organic chemistry, par- ticularly the synthesis of organic medicinals. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held on January 7, 1948, elected the following officers: President, WIL- LIAM N. Fenton; Vice-President, W. Monta- GuE Coss: Secretary, MarsHatu T. Newman: Treasurer, JoHN C. Ewers: Councilors to the Board of Managers, E. Wytitys ANpREws IV, STELLA L. Deicnan, Grorce M. Foster, Wiuu1aM H. GILBert, Jr., Gorpon R. WILLEY; Representative to the Washington Academy of Sciences, T. D. Stewart. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last annual meeting follows: Life members, 1; Active members, 62; Asso- ciate members, 20; Total, 83. This represents a decrease of six since last year. The members elected during the year were: Active members: Dr. E. W. ANpREws, Comdr. SYDNEY Connor, J. R. CaLtpwrELu, Dr. N. Datra-MasumpER, Dr. Pxtuip Drucker, Miss E. C. Davis, Dr. C. E. Hurcuinson, Dr. D. W. Locxarp, Dr. W. O. NEGHERBON, PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 191 Dr. PuitteEo Nasu, Dr. M. H. Warkxins, Associate member: Dr. GEorcrE M. Foster. The Society records its deep sense of loss at the death of Dr. BratTricze BicKEL, member since 1933. Except for the joint meeting with the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences at the Cosmos Club on January 16, 1947, all regular meetings were held at the U. 8. National Museum. The Program Committee for the year comprised Dr. MarsHatt T. Newman, chairman, and Dr. MarGareT LANTIs. Titles of papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were: January 16, 1947, 739th meeting, WaLpo R. WEDEL, Archeology and the Missouri River development program (slides; refreshments served by Washington Academy of Sciences). February 18, 1947, 740th meeting, R. Ruc- GLES GaTES, Human ancestry from a geneticist’s viewpoint (slides). March 18, 1947, 741st meeting, PRESTON HoupEer, The Motion Indians, an untouched tropical forest group in northwestern South America. (Published in this JouRNAL 37: 417- 427, 1947). April 15, 1947, 742d meeting, W. Montacur Coss, The American Negro in the light of modern physical anthropology (slides). May 23, 1947, 743d meeting (joint meeting with the Medico-Chirurgical Society of the District of Columbia), Witton M. Kroaman, Anthropology and race relations. October 21, 1947, 744th meeting, Father Ernst Worms, The natives of northwestern Australia—a contemporary picture of their language and culture (sound color film). November 5, 1947, 745th meeting, GEORGE M. Foster, The People of Tzintzuntzan—a con- temporary study of social and economic adjust- ment in Mexico (color films). December 3, 1947, 746th meeting, EUGENE C. Worman, Jr., The neolithic period in India—new evidence on early cultural move- ments in Asia. The Society voted to freeze the Perpetual Building fund at $2,000 and to subsequently add the interest to dues and other income for running expenses. In this way the scope of activ- ities can be enlarged. It was decided also to govern annual expenditures by a budget esti- mate made at the start of each year. 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5 The report of the Treasurer follows: Income: A.B.W. dues. collepted...... «- . x est ce h.s e eeeeeee Total as.of December. 31; 1946. c4 2.3: 2... =. ee ee ee ee Wncrease. SOS COS Re ee ee ee Less bills outstanding: To A.A.A. (Subscriptions to American Anthropologist): For~l member, 3: years, 1948-50 yA. =o. 5 oh) oo oe ee $ 15 Net: increase econ eck CE aes Se ee ee eee .00 For.l member, 1 year, 1948). 0.02 o. coen sks 2 eee ee eee 5. $ 240.08 183.67 $ 56.41 $3,128.15 3,071.74 $ 56.41 20 .00 $ 36.41 MarsHALu T. Newman, Secretary. TE EEE Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences President...........+.++++++FREDERICK D. Ross1in1, National Bureau of Standards DEMME hic AS a cage bm bo epi bist «nel binds C. Lewis "Gazin, U. 8. National Museum CE PUT ER oo wae’ sa ieee Wate .»- HOWARD S. RApPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey UME shen icy Ste A ds oes, w ahallel aie NaTHAN R. Situ, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications.......... 00.0 c cc cee eee eee PEE I o)2 war's! Nai Gie ig els (ale lied Haraup A, Renper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington............0c cece eee. WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington...............0008: T. DaLe STEWART Pananioa pociety OF Washington . oc. 0 os cee die wk eb eee JOHN W. ALDRICH ipaeeuens society of Washington. . 2... 662 ae ice eee ce mess CHARLES E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington...............202: C. F. W. MuESEBECK Namonal Geographic Society. ..3 05 ce. ee wee eae ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington..:..5......c.cccceccee WiuuiamM W. RuseEy Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK QO. CoE Saumdiioi Hastorical Society... oo. Cos acces mec ceeavwe GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanies! Society of Washington... 0.2.5... ees cee cece cece: RoNALD BAMFORD - Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ WiiuiaM A. Dayton Washington Society of Engineers.............00c0e ee eeees CuirrorD A. BETTS Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... IMD eS ae VER Se D Bra wid cl Phd wy ts ele RIGS Te wie Soh ears Francis B, SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... TE Mees Bh Eas See) Cire. okays sce lufave oe aiieiel pine egha ke a. 3 Martin A. Mason _ Helminthological Society of Washington.................0-: AUREL O. FosTER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN RB. FRENCH Elected Members of the Board of Managers: eAEY 1949 ce a me ew wae Max A. McCautu, Watpo L. ScumittT MPIMARYT VIGO hin os viele a et ove aSieeu F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL Proremmnry, 1950S oe. is chee es Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON MaMMRRPOT IE ILTURGETE 2. s,s ae cae «sve d's bie All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors.......... ccc cece ccc ccecenes [See front cover] Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D. Rosstnr (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, 1 AS Wa.po L. Scumitt, Howarp §S. RappLeye, C. Lewis GAziIn ESTES ICES) 08. US aon G's Sah g Sw ha 0 Sis Pataca’ a oelgrw wtkye. Sia wie 86 8 Sow Wb s Glee OW mi Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), LEwis W. Butz, C. WytHE CooKE, WILLIAM a W. Dieu, Luoyp D. Fetron, Reeina FLANNERY, GEoRGE G. Manov meemamimtee OF6 IM celings 2... ug Fe et ele ecneees RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), ......FRANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONB Committee on Monographs: To January 1949...... rote th Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN SO CMMMEAT TE ODO iS a o's de wb o wees we RoLanD W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER ERD VOR Ps Sle aa s ke ee ic Wiuu1aM N. Fenton, EMmMett W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeEnrzFeE xp, general chairman): INPUT Betray Wf ir 60. Se dia ok eas bea Ue ave bie en 8 biel wo he weirs C. F. W. Murseseck (chairman), Harry S. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons, Eimer Hicerns, Marto Mouuari, GorrHoLpD STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum For the Engineering Mert alee eet aah, hae Mtg eee Oke, ec Uae Harry Dramonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan, HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScuHzetz, W. D. SutTciirre For the Physical Srp WEARS JABS SSO agai FH Sa oa Kart F. Herzrevp (chairman), Natsan L. Draxsz, Luoyp D. FEtron, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. ROONEY, ROBERT SIMBA, Mrcnar. X. SuLLIvAN Committee on Grants-in-aid Pep RE ROMEMND AS 02 Ota). raise aia ia Riiah odcgh wade ie die o, wiaenis ete ew .F. H. H. Rossrts, Jr. - Raat Anna E. Jenxins, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY Representative MU OUGEL Dh eile EE, OO go as e's BR Ate nse BMA ab og a wee FRANK THONE ER Cr PURSE A rat cdg Mia bo fois cig ta a sAURULETE Ci Go alee o hie dined wie'm ewmyeie eine vie Wit1i1amM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER MEE ROT EMR TE crac Sia ee ALES Coke 6 AG ace Ae Us sc dele ed Wee es .JoHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bates, Wituiam A. WILDHACK CONTENTS ~ 7 Puysics.—General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure physics. .-Percy W. BRIDGMAN. Wc. J howdon ee aan ee SCIENCE AND FreeEpom: Reflections of a physicist. Prrcy W. Brine- CuEMistRY.—A method for the determination of certain metals pres- ent in minor concentration in various substances N. HoweE.u Furman, C. E. Bricker, and Bruck McDvurffiz...,.... Bey ETHNOLOGY.—Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance. Joun C. PALEONTOLOGY.—On two previously unreported selachians from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. Davin H. DunKLE...... ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the ‘subfamily Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dynastini, and Phileurini. LAwrRENCE W. SAYLOR............ ORNITHOLOGY.—Note on the races of the black-throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). J. DELACOUR................. ORNITHOLOGY.—Some races of the babbling thrush, Malacocincla abbotit: (Blyth) ::; HG. DEIGNAN. 35.3 fee eee ZooLocy.—Two new millipeds of Jamaica. H. F. Loomis.......... PROOREDINGS: “THE ACADEMWi: 00 es Re ee ee ees PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY...........-200cccecuecee ~ This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Page 145 Vot. 38 JuNE 15, 1948 No. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS James I. HorrMan ALAN STONE FRANK C. Kracrex NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PLANT QUARANTINE ASSOCIATE EDITORS LAWRENCE A. Woop RicHarRD E. BLACKWELDER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. P. E. Morrison JAMES S. WILLIAMS BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Evsert L. Litre, Jr. Watpo R. WEDEL BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Int C. ScHOONOVER CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Aunarp St. aT MenasHa, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized January 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JoURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re- quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JouRNAL and conform their manuscripts to the usage found there as regards arrangement of title, subheads, syn- onymies, footnotes, tables, bibliography, legends for illustrations, and other matter. Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good el Sd Footnotes should be numbered serially in pencil and submitted on a separate sheet. The editors do not assume responsibility for the ideas expressed by the author, nor can they undertake to correct other than obvious minor errors. Illustrations in excess of the equivalent (in cost) of one full-page halftone are to de paid for by the author. Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication one proof will generally be sent to authors in or near Washington. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Unusual cost of foreign, mathematical, and tabular material, as well as alterations made in the proof by the author, may be charged to the author. 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(12 numbers per vol.)...... ‘ 7.50 0.90 * Limited number of complete sets of the JouRNAL (vol. 1 to vol. 37, inel.) available for sale to libraries at $318.50. PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete....... Sele eee «cede ve «$5000 Single volumes, unbound..........cceecceeceees wba me» + 0) blaidiwls se alan cee Single numbers................ a ie Mate eae Be ose 2 pe ae A aS Pert tr Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim i is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences’’ ait addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. RappLeye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington 25, D. C. Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 38 PHYSICS.—Mass spectra of hydrocarbons.' of Standards. Mass spectra were first observed by J. J. Thompson by passing canal rays through transverse electric and magnetic fields. His discovery in 1913 (1) that there appeared to be two isotopes of neon led Aston (2) to much more elaborate experiments. For many years interest centered in discovery of new isotopes and precision atomic-weight measurements. Studies of molecular mass spectra were largely an American develop- ment. (3) The purpose was to study the mechanism of ionization of polyatomic mole- cules. Later Hipple (4) at Westinghouse and Washburn (5) of the Consolidated Engineering Corporation developed this type of mass spectrometer into an instru- ment suitable for chemical analysis of gas mixtures. The requirements for such an instrument are accurate automatic elec- trical recording and reliable reproducibility. An important feature intioduced by Bleakney was the ionization chamber in which the ions were produced. A beam of univelocity electrons traverses the ioniza- tion chamber and a magnetic field parallel to the beam keeps this beam centered while a small transverse electric field draws the ions produced out of the ionization cham- ber. The ions are then accelerated by a large electric field and bent by a magnetic field to give a mass spectrum. The gas to be ionized enters the ioniza- tion chamber in a jet at very low pressure (about 10-* mm), and fast pumps maintain a pressure of about 10-* mm outside the ionization chamber. This insures ideally simple conditions. There is no appreciable accumulation of ionization products in the 1 Address of the retiring President of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, January 17, 1948. Received March 17, 1948. JUNE 15, 1948 No. 6 Frep L. Montusr, National Bureau ionization chamber and there are no colli- sions between ions and gas molecules. As the applied voltage of the electron beam is increased, molecule ions first appear at about 10 to 12 volts. Then with increasing voltage, ions of various dissociation prod- ucts are formed. Twenty-five or 30 volts are sufficient to produce almost every pos- sible dissociation product of a hydrocarbon and, in the range 50 to 100 volts, the rela- tive intensities of the molecule ion and the various dissociation products remain nearly independent of voltage. The resulting mass spectrum is a property of the molecule modi- fied only slightly by instrumental factors. In the Consolidated mass spectrometer the ions from the ionization chamber are accelerated by a variable electric field and bent through an arc of 180° by the field of a large magnet to reach a collecting elec- trode. After passing through the electric field V all the singly charged ions will have the same kinetic energy 1/2 mv?=eV and light ions will have a high velocity and heavy ions a small velocity. The magnetic field exerts a force proportional to the veloc- ity at right angles to the field and to the velocity. Ions of mass m and charge e will move on the arc of a circle of radius R defined by the relation m/e=CH? R?/V where C is a constant, H is the magnetic field, and V the ion accelerating voltage. If V is gradually changed from high to low values, ions of different masses will succes- sively reach the ion collector. The current reaching the collector is amplified and re- corded by galvanometers on a moving sheet while 1/V changes at a uniform rate. Thus, the resulting record shows a series of peaks at the values of 1/V or m/e corre- sponding to the molecular weights of the compound and its dissociation products. 193 SN Q ~ 1G i 194 Fig. 1 is part of the mass spectrum record obtained with a Consolidated mass spec- trometer of n butane, CH;:CH»2-CH2-CHs3. Four galvanometers with four ranges of sensitivity record the ion current. The upper trace records the galvanometer of highest sensitivity. Deflections of the other galvanometer traces are to be multiplied by 3, 10, and 30 to give deflections in terms of the upper trace. The parent peak, the undissociated molecule ion, is at mass 58 and a peak at 59 comes from molecules containing one C' isotope. Then there are molecules which have lost from 1 to 10 hydrogen atoms. It is a remarkable fact that in a single ionization process all ten hydrogen atoms can be removed to give C,*. The most probable ionization process is losing CH; to give mass 48. Losing an ad- ditional CHe to give 29 is also probable. One finds indeed every possible dissocia- tion plocess consistent with the structural formula. Peaks at 2553 and 2653 come from doubly charged ions of mass 51 and 58. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 The small broad peaks are metastable ion transitions resulting from ions which dis- sociate after traversing the electric field. Hipple, Fox, and Condon (6) have studied and explained these metastable transition peaks. The use of mass spectra for chemical analysis involves the direct comparison of the mass spectrum of an unknown with the spectra of pure compounds and an im- portant project of the Mass Spectrometry Section is compiling mass spectra of pure compounds. To show characteristics of the mass ‘spectra of hydrocarbons it is convenient to use a greatly simplified picture in which only peaks greater than 2 percent of the maximum peak are included. The maximum peak is uniformly given a height vf 100. First are shown spectra of saturated hydro- carbons of formula C, Hoy. Fig. 2 shows some of these. In methane the most probable process is ionization without dissociation. 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Ges OS Es 9 eee 8 ee a ee ee ee eee Gee 0 PR GS Os Gee OS Se I 5 GEES Ee OS eS i Eee 8 ee ee ee ee ee eee ee Eee 3 eae SESE ei Se CSS oS SES © Gee 7" GER 0 CO & Gee eee eee eee § SE 2 Be Be eee SSeS I OS Ges Ge | 6 PSE SS 6 Gee Ss ee ee ee ees f Sn oe Pe SSS eRe aos ol @ Sess 2 ET 2 SO ee el Gee ee ee eee 0 EE SE Se Re SS Se 2 GSES GEES 2) SS 2 Ce & ee ee ee ee ee eee © Ee SS Gees es EE OS a OG ae & Be 2 ee) Se © ee eee eee ee eee, © Ee i Pee Ss Trin SSS Sa @ GREER © GEE) © FE 2 SEES OS Ge ee ee ee eee 6 ae 6 GSE i La | eS I ee 6 Se © Gee DE 0 ee Ss ee eee ene ee eee 8 CE SS Sees 2 SA A SSeS SSS 2 BE SD SES © BE EE ) er ee ee ee S) Ee 0 Ce ee Ge Gs Gs A ee @ Sees FE 0 EEE ©) OS 8 2 ee Ss ee Ee eee © Ge | .| Ge | EE SE ASS IE BG EE © 1 Ge © 0 GE 0 GE SS Ee —6 CE ee ee eee EES | | i Be SS . (EGE 19 A Ee GD GS © Ge 0 GS GE ee 2 eee eee 2 eee SS ee) Ss ee I a eT O1.@. 0! |) CEE SS © GE Ws @) GS 0 ns es Ee ee ee El Pa) GE EE 0 Ge) CS OS) as SS 28 0 2 GD | 2 | GE Gs “Se GG 0 eee ee eee SE ees 6 0 ee ee GS OS aie BE 2 ee 6 i 2 oo, SS GS © a * a Se 2), Ge eee ee. ~ Se 2 es | Gee SS SS aS = _. SEE GG as es EEE, GE Sn WE ee ee Se eee eee 6S | SESS ES GES SS STS SS I @ GSS © Gi © SE Bi 7 2 GEE GES Si Sas @ Een | a | ES 3 Eee |S a GEE OS Ges) | GS Ss SS EE 2 | RE SIG DE Sa SS Geis Enel GEE GM | EE 1S EES @ eee 6 | Ge © | Ces BR. RAO SiS Se SEoeg i BSS © 6 GS © WE a EE GW. 2 Bas BA SSO Lo~*a@awaoens a 88 ~—s 2 ~ .. “4. a." 1 EE es 2 eee ed. eee SF Beis 5 Ges HS Gees BEES i US" © Gees Ee ES | Oo GEES GS GEES © TE Oo SSE = 6 SS SS 0 Es es Ss ae eee ee ee 2 b. “ee = aa _ ea! =| = = Wie 8 Wes EE) Cli .. Ge) SSS oo GEESE eee EA ee aE ee See a se as = Ee = Fig. 1.—Part of the mass spectrum record of n-butane as obtained by a Consolidated mass spectrometer. JUNE 15, 1948 with removal of one hydrogen atom is prob- able but removal of H* is improbable and this is true in all hydrocarbons. In ethane the most probable ionization process in- volves removal of two hydrogen atoms. Production of CH3;* is relatively improbable here and in all hydrocarbons except meth- ane. In propane and the two butanes loss of CH; is the most probable ionization process. It is a useful property of the structure of saturated hydrocarbons that the parent peak of each hydrocarbon is characteristic of that hydrocarbon and can not be pro- duced as a dissociation product of other compounds. The other mass peaks recur in spectra of heavier compounds. This is very convenient for the purpose of chemical analysis. There are two isomers of butane and the different structures give markedly different spectra. One difference between n-butane mass “/e 30 40 CH,CH,CH,CH, CH3GHCH, CH, Fie. 2.— Mass spectra of methane, ethane, propane, and two butanes. MOHLER: MASS SPECTRA OF HYDROCARBONS 195 My, 10 20 30 40 50 60 790 80. CH,CH,CH,CH,CH, 40 CH,CHCH,CH, CH 40 : 40 Fig. 3.—Mass spectra of pentanes. and iso-butane is that one can not break iso-butane in half without first rearranging the hydrogen atoms. A peak at mass 29 is found so this rearrangement must occur before dissociation. Such rearrangements are common in more complicated molecules. The parent peak is much smaller in iso- butane and it is a general rule that mole- cules with side chains have smaller parent peaks than the normal molecule. Fig. 3 shows spectra of the three isomers of pentane. In normal and iso-pentane losing CH:+CH; is the most probable process. In neopentane losing CH; is most probable and the parent peak is only a fewhundredths of a percent. Losing two CH; radicals is quite improbable and the loss of CH3;+CH, involving breaking of three bonds is quite probable. The peak at C2H;* is large al- though this requires a rearrangement of hydrogen atoms before dissociation, as in iso-butane. Here the spectrum gives little clue as to the structure of the molecule. There are five hexanes shown in Fig. 4 and these give five very different mass spectra. Many of the features of these spectra can be described qualitatively by the statement that there is a tendency to dissociate at either side of each side chain. Normal hexane like normal pentane loses C.2H; most readily. In 2-methyl-pentane, loss of one or three carbon groups is pre- ferred, while in 3-methyl-pentane, loss of CH,CHCH,CH,CH, 3 CH,CHCHCH, 1 4 CHCH, ie CH G CH,CH, CH, Fira. 4.—Mass spectra of hexanes. CoH; is again preferred. In 2,3-dimethyl- butane, loss of one and three are preferred while in 2,2-dimethyl-butane, one and two are preferred. In the last case, however, the most probable ionization process is breaking in half to give 43* although this involves a rearrangement of hydrogen atoms. Peaks involving rearrangement are also noted at 43 in 3-methyl-pentane and at 29 in 2,3-dimethyl-butane. We know that these cases involve rearrangement be- cause the original structure does not yield such masses but obviously rearrangement may occur in other cases where it is indis- tinguishable from simple dissociation. Our measurements include the nine iso- mers of the heptanes and the 18 octanes. All these show a great variety of mass spec- tra depending on the structure of the mole- cules. The tendency to dissociate on either side of a side chain is again found except in cases where rearrangements give ions which would not be expected on the basis of the molecular structure. Fig. 5 shows some unsaturated molecules with double or triple bonds. In ethylene the parent peak is the maximum peak, while in JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 ethane it is about 25 percent of the maxi- mum. In acetylene the parent peak is by far the largest peak. In propylene the parent peak is not the largest, but the whole C three group of ions is much larger than in propane. Propylene always loses CH; rather than CHe and this is true of most of the unsaturated molecules. There are two iso- mers of C3H,, propadiene and methyl-acety- lene, and their mass spectia are almost exactly alike in spite of the difference in structure. It seems very probable that in this case first a molecule ion is formed and then the hydrogen atoms are redistributed to give identical ions from both isomers. Fig. 6 shows some unsaturated C four molecules. There are four butene isomers and they all give mass spectra similar to CH,CH=CH, Fig. 5.—Mass spectra of ethylene, acetylene, propylene, propadiene, and methyl acetylene. Frep L. Mouser, president of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1947 a ~ ae Belg JUNE 15, 1948 the 1-butene spectrum shown in the figure. 2-butene, CH; -CH=CH—CHs, has a cis and a trans form depending on whether the two central hydrogens are on the same side or opposite sides of the chain. The mass spectra are nearly identical, the most con- spicuous difference being that the mass 29 peak is 15.5 percent of the maximum in the cis compound and 19.8 percent in the trans compound. These two molecules cannot give a 29* ion without a rearrangement of hydrogen atoms. There are four isomers of C,H, and the mass spectra show differences of a rather unexpected nature. The most probable -jonization process in CH2.:CH-CH:CHs is loss of mass 15 which involves a double dissociation while in the other isomers which can lose 15 in a simple dissociation this transition is less probable. Also, the mass 28 peak is largest in 1,3-butadiene where production of 28* involves a rear- rangement of hydrogen atoms. The unsaturated hydrocarbons show several characteristics as a class. The parent peaks are larger than for saturated com- pounds and larger for doubly unsaturated compounds than for mono-olefins. Ioniza- tion by loss of CH, is very improbable even where both terminal radicals are CH». Both _ properties reflect the fact that the unsatu- rated bonds are stronger than the saturated bonds. Mass spectra of unsaturated mole- cules are also much less sensitive to struc- tural differences among different isomers than is the case with saturated molecules. This indicates that rearrangements of hy- drogen atoms in the molecule ion occur more readily in the unsaturated molecules. It may seem surprising that there are any rearrangements in saturated hydrocarbons and it will be of interest to study mass spectra with deuterium substituted at one position in the molecule and see where it appears in the mass spectrum. On the basis of momentum considerations it must be assumed that electron collisions always produce molecule ions and that these ions may be left in a highly excited state and subsequently dissociate spon- taneously to give the great variety of ions observed in the mass spectrum. I have re- ferred before to small wide peaks in the MOHLER: MASS SPECTRA OF HYDROCARBONS CH,CH,CH=CH, CH,=C=CHCH, — CH,= CHCH® CH, CHECCH,CH, CH,CECCHs. Fig. 6.— Mass spectra of butene-l, butadienes, and butynes. mass spectrum that arise from ions which dissociate after they have traversed the electric field. Because of this phenomenon of delayed dissociation we can obtain direct experimental evidence as to some of the dissociation processes which occur. The apparent mass m, of an ion which dissociates immediately after traversing the electric field is Ma=m;/m; where m; is the initial mass and my, the final mass of the ion (6). Because the ions dissociate over a range of positions the peaks are wide. The dissociating ions are presumably metastable ions with a life of the order of 10-* seconds (7). As m; and m; are integers equal to or less then the molec- ular weight the numerical value of m, is sufficient to determine both m; and m,. An important aid in finding my; and m; is a qualitative intensity rule that the mass peaks corresponding to m; and m; are always fairly large peaks in the mass spectrum. 198 To return to Fig. 1, there are seven me- tastable transitions in the range of this record but some are very hard to see. The one at mass 32 comes from the parent ion of mass 58 losing mass 15, a CH; radical. The one near mass 30 comes from 58 losing CH,. These two transitions only occur in n-butane. A large peak near 39 comes from 43+ losing two hydrogen atoms and near 25 is a peak from 29 losing two hydrogens. These last two recur in many hydrocarbons. Mrs. Bloom of our Section has made a careful compilation of mass spectra of 56 hydrocarbons and has found 362 cases of metastable transition peaks and has identi- fied the transitions involved (8). The com- pounds include saturated hydrocarbons through C eights, mono-olefins through C fives, and four CH, isomers. The data have been published in the American Petroleum . Institute Catalogue of Mass Spectral Data (9). The transitions frequently recur in dif- ferent hydrocarbons and 32 different tran- sitions are found. These involve loss of masses ranging from 2 to 44. Table 1 summarizes the metastable transitions. Loss of mass 2 is by far the most common type of metastable transition and it appears in nearly all cases where there are two large peaks differing by two mass units. Losses of masses 1 or 3 are never observed. It is also significant that there are no metastable transitions involving loss of CHe as this is a structural unit in most hy- drocarbons and large peaks often fall at intervals of 14. Loss of CH; is only observed from parent ions and is a comparatively infrequent phenomenon. CH, is not a structural unit and loss of 16 involves a double dissociation. The loss from the ion 57+ recurs in 30 of the 40 saturated hydrocarbons. Loss of C2H»2 seems to be a unique prop- erty of the 55+ ion and recurs in most of the hydrocarbons. The loss of C.H3 occurs only when the butadienes and butyne-2 split in half. It is of interest that the un- symmetrical molecule CH,=C=CH—CH; splits in half although this requires a re- arrangement before splitting. C2H, in the form CH2:CHe or CH: CH; is a structural unit of many saturated molecules and the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 2 metastable transitions recur in many of them. In this case, the terminal CH; radical must first be removed from the initial ion. The loss of mass 29 comes from loss of the structural unit CH.-CH; and includes the terminal radical as is shown by the fact that it comes from parent ions. Loss of mass 30 comes from losing two CH; radicals from the parent ion and necessarily involves a double dissociation. | The mass C:H, can be CH2:CHe-CHz or can involve methyl side chains, but like CH, it will never come from parent ions. Of course, it can only come from rather large molecules. Loss of mass 44 from the parent mass of 3 heptanes is perhaps doubt- ful. We are not certain that there is not an alternative explanation. It involves a double dissociation, removal of mass 43 and one hydrogen. . This looks very complicated, and I have given it in detail to show that dissociation of ions does indeed involve many alterna- tive processes. If the initial metastable ion is the parent ion this means that the mole- cule ion traverses the electric field and then dissociates. When the initial ion is not the parent ion then the dissociation takes place in at least two stages. The initial metastable TaBLE 1.—SUMMARY OF METASTABLE TRANSITIONS Mass lost | Occurrence 2 2H 8 transitions in all hydrocarbons except methane. 15 CH; 7 transitions from parent ions of 13 unsatu- rated and 5 saturated hydrocarbons. 16 CH, 55+ 39+ +16 in pentenes. 57* >41* +16 in 30 saturates. 5842 +16 in n-butane. 26 C:H: | 55*—29*+26 in 41 hydrocarbons. 27 C:H; | 54¢—27+-+27 in 3 isomers of C.He. 28 C:H, | 71*--43++28 in 21 saturates. 85' 357 +28 in 14 saturates. 29 C.H;s | 3 transitions from parent ions of pentenes, n-hexane, and 3 octanes. 30 C:H.e | 4 transitions from parent ions of 12 satu- rated hydrocarbons. 42 C:H. | 85'—-43* +42 in 19 heptanes and octanes. 99* 57* +42 in 17 octanes. 44 C:H: | 100‘—56++44 in 3 heptanes. JUNE 15, 1948 LARSEN: NEW SPECIES OF ACHAETOGERON FROM MEXICO ion is formed by dissociation within the ionization chamber, then it passes through the electric field and dissociates again. - Sometimes large structural units are broken off in a single dissociation; in other cases at least two bonds must be broken in the de- layed dissociation as in losing two CH; radi- cals or CHa. The metastable transitions account for only a small fraction of all the dissociations. Hipple (7) has made quantitative estimates in the case of n-butane. The parent ion gives rise to two metastable transitions with loss of masses 15 and 16. The life of each excited state is about 2X10-° sec and initially at time zero not over 10 per- cent of the 58* ions are in the excited state or states which give rise to these transitions. Now the 58+ ions account for only about 4 percent of all the n-butane ions. Ninety- six percent of all the ions dissociate im- mediately or very quickly, about 3.6 per- cent become stable 58* ions and 0.4 per cent fall into the metastable states. This is prob- ‘ably a typical case as far as orders of magni- tude are concerned. What I have said has been largely de- scriptive and probably seems like little more than a catalog of empirical facts. However, this is largely a matter of viewpoint. As I pointed out in the introduction, these mass spectra are a molecular property and are BOTANY.—New species of Achaetogeron (Compositae) from Mexico." L. Larsen, Crown Point, Indiana. The new species here described were discovered some years ago when the genus Achaetogeron was being studied together - with several related genera of the tribe Astereae. The work was done at the Mis- sour! Botanical Garden. The following ab- breviations are used for herbaria cited: M= Missouri Botanical Garden; N Y = New York Botanical Garden; Phil= Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; US=U. S. National Herbarium. Achaetogeron filiformis Larsen, sp. nov. Annuus 15-45 cm altus; caules tenues juven- tate simplices maturitate diffuse ramosi foliosi patenti-hirsuti; folia obovata ad obovato- 1 Received March 23, 1948. 199 somewhat analogous to intensities in molec- ular absorption spectra but in absorption spectra there is a theoretical basis for the interpretation of results. In spite of all the work on mass spectra we still lack this theoretical background. This is not onlya challenging problem but it is of considerable practical importance. Chemical analysis now depends on comparing unknowns with pure samples of the various components. It would be very useful if we could deduce the structure of pure compounds of un- known structure. Beyond C sevens the possibilities become so many that empirical methods can never give the complete an- swer. REFERENCES (1) J. J. THompson in an address to the Royal Institution, 1913. (2) Astron. Mass spectra and isotopes. Lon- don, 1942 (3) SmyrH. Rev. Mod. Phys. 3: 347. 1931. (4) Hreppte. Journ. Applied Phys. 13: 551. 1942. (5) WasHpuRN, WILEY, and Rock. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 15: 541. 1948. (6) Hippie, Fox, and Conpon. Phys. Rev. 69: 347. 1946. (7) Hippie. Phys. Rev. 71: 594. 1947. (8) Broom, Mouter, LENGEL, and Wise. (In press Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards). (9) AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, Re- search Project 44. ESTHER (Communicated by 8. F. Buake.) spathulata pinnatifida 0.5-4 cm longa, lobis obtusis apiculatis strigosis; folia suprema brac- teiformia oblonga integra; pedunculi filiformes 1.5-2.5 em longi infra capitulum dense patenti- hirsuti; capitula 0.7—1 cm diam.; phyllaria 2—-3- seriata lineari-lanceolata acuminata glandulari- puberula basi hirsuta; radii albi vel caerulei supra discum arcte circinnati; pappus incon- spicuus coroniformis laceratus, in floribus radii interdum etiam setis paucis donatus; achenia pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel obscure biden- tatis. TAMAULIPAS: Vicinity of Tampico, alt. 15 m, March 10—April 19, 1910, #. Palmer 249 (type, M, also US); vicinity of La Barra, 8 km east of Tampico, at sea level, February 1-8, 1910, H. Palmer 281 (M, US); en route 200 from San Luis Potosi to Tampico, December 1878 to February 1879, HE. Palmer 1089 (US). Veracruz: Vicinity of Panuco, April 20-25, 1910, E. Palmer 356 (US). The filiform peduneles, small heads, and circinate rays which scarcely exceed the disc distinguish this species. Achaetogeron fisheri Larsen, sp. nov. Herbaceus 20-45 cm altus ubique strigosus, ramis adscendentibus e caule decumbente sub- lignoso; folia caulina sessilia alte pinnatisecta 1-3 em longa lobis 3-7 lineari-lanceolatis obtusis, folia suprema saepius integra linearia; pedunculi 2-4 em longi strigosi; capitula 2—2.5 em diam. (radiis inclusis); involucri 2-seriati 0.5 em alti phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acumi- nata glanduloso-puberula et strigosa, margine secariosa; pappus annularis laceratus incon- spicuus cum setis caducis interioribus; achenia basi callosa pubescentia; pilis bidentatis. STaTE oF Mexico: Amecameca, alt. 2,648 m, July 29, 1924, Fisher (M, No. 914802 type); Amecameca, alt. 2,676 m, July 29, 1924, Fisher 220 (US). Pursia; Teutla, October 1913, Salazar (US); Manzanilla, vicinity of Puebla, November 24, 1908, Arséne 10184 (US). The subpinnatifid leaves and a pappus crown so reduced as to be nearly lacking are charac- teristic. Achaetogeron sophiaefolius Larsen, sp. nov. Perennis 30—60 cm altus; caules plures e basi sublignoso ramosi striati patenti-hirsuti et subglandulari-puberuli; folia elliptica ad ovata, pinnatisecta vel bipinnatisecta inferiora petio- lata usque ad 9 em longa pilis longis multicel- lularibus appressis pubescentia et minute glan- dulari-puberula, segmentis ultimis obtusis, superiora sensim reducta sessilia, suprema bracteiformia; pedunculi 1.5-3 em longi dense appresse pubescentes; capitula terminalia soli- taria 2—2.5 cm diam. (radiis inclusis); involucri 1—1.2 em diam. phyllaria 2-seriata 4 mm longa lineari-lanceolata acuminata glandulosa et parce hirsuta pilis multicellularibus, margine mem- branacea; pappus minutus coroniformis lace- ratus cum setis paucis caducis interioribus; achenia basi callosa pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel dentatis. Duranco: City of Durango and vicinity, April—November 1896, E. Palmer 158 (M, No. 123017 type, NY, US). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 A relatively coarse plant with conspicuously bipinnatisect leaves, which are pubescent with long appressed multicellular hairs. Achaetogeron pringlei Larsen, sp. nov. Herbaceus erectus ca. 65 cm altus ubique glandulari-puberulus et patenti-hirsutus; folia caulina sessilia alte pinnatisecta lobis ca. 5-9 linearibus vel lineari-spathulatis obtusis utrim- que sparse villosa margine ciliata; folia in- florescentiae lineari-lanceolata integra vel inter- dum lobata sensim reducta, suprema ca. 1 em longa; pedunculi 1.5—2.5 em longi dense glandu- Jari-puberuli pilis sparsis intermixtis; capitula 1.5-2.5 em diam.; involucri 2-seriati phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata anguste mem- branaceo-marginata glandulari-puberula et sparse pilosa; radii numerosi albi saepe reflexi; flores disci numerosi; pappus minutus coroni- formis laceratus cum setis paucis interioribus caducis; achenia anguste obovata basi minute callosa pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel biden- tities. fe CHIHUAHUA: Cool slopes, Sierra Madre, October 10, 1888, Pringle 1625 (M, type); cool slopes, foothills of the Sierra Madre, October 11, 1887 Pringle 1272 (Phil). PuzBLA: Santa Maria de Zacatepec, vicinity of Puebla December 1908, Arséne (US). Distinguished by deeply pinnatisect, spar- ingly villous leaves and a relatively finer habit than A. sophiaefolius. Achaetogeron polycephalus Larsen, sp. nov. Herbaceus Im altus et ultra (basi inviso) ubique strigosus et minute glandulari-puber- ulus; caulis supra valde ramosus aetate glabra- tus; folia caulina majora oblanceolata sessilia prope apicem serrata usque ad 5 em longa 1.5 em lata, minora valde reducta integra; pedun- culi 1-4 cm longi striati strigosi et minute — glandulari-puberuli; capitula 2-3 em diam. (radiis inclusis); involueri 2-seriati phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata anguste mem- branaceo-marginata minute glandulari-puber- ula basi patentipilosa margine angusto mem- branaceo leviter lacerato; radii numerosi albi; pappus minutus annularis laceratus cum paucis setis interioribus; achenia basi callosa dense pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel bidentatis. DuraAnGo: San Ramon, April 21—May 18, 1906, E. Palmer 52 (M, type). A profusely branching, strigose-pubescent JUNE 15, 1948 plant with serrate leaves and many scattered heads. Achaetogeron corymbosus Larsen, sp. nov. Herbaceus 20—40 cm altus dense breviterque einereo-hirsutus et minute glandulari-puberulus; caules erecti ramosi ramis apice corymboso- ramosis; folia caulina oblanceolata sessilia supra serrata 5 cm longa 1.5 cm lata, superiora ad bracteas sensim reducta; folia infima non visa; pedunculi 0.5—1 cm longi; capitula 1-1.5 © em diam. (radlis inclusis); involucri 2-seriati phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata minute glandulari-pubescentia et sparsissime hirsuta, margine angusto scarioso leviter lacerato; radii albi; pappus minutus coroniformis vel ROSS: DESCRIPTIONS OF NEARCTIC HYDROPTILIDAE 201 annularis laceratus cum setis paucis caducis interioribus; achenia basi late callosa dense pubescentia pilis longis apice rectis. JALIScO: Canyons, moist rocks, Tuxpan, February 1904, Purpus 527 (G, type). The serrate leaves, crowded corymbs, and cinereous aspect are characteristic. Achaetogeron garciae (Blake) Larsen, comb. nov. Bellis garciae Blake, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 22: 593. 1924. Still known only from the type, P. [bana Garcia 310 (U. S. Nat. Herb. 1032782) from the State of Durango, alt. 100 m. ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera) Herpert H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, III. In the caddisflies of the family Hydroptil- idae there undoubtedly exists a number of genera that bear their closest relationship with forms known from other regions and with which they have not yet been associ- ated. Two such cases are outlined in this paper, and in each the geographic limits of the genera involved are extended into another continent. During the investigation of these cases some interesting morpho- logical considerations have arisen, and as a result a few suggestions regarding termi- nology are made in this paper. Tam greatly indebted to Dr. G. T. Riegel, University of Illinois, and to Dr. H. K. Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sciences, for making material available to me for study, and to Dr. D. G. Denning for the loan of type material of some of the species studied. Types of new species described in this paper are deposited in the collection of the Illinois Natural History Survey. TERMINOLOGY In reviewing the terminology I have used for parts of the male genitalia of Hydroptili- dae, one change and one addition seem indi- cated in the interests of clarity and struc- tural identification. Subgenital plate—In most genera of Hy- droptilidae there is a variously shaped, 1 Received March 8, 1948. mesal structure usually occurring above or between the claspers. In Hydroptila, Fig. 6, sp, and Neotrichia this structure is platelike and bears at its apex a pair of setae. In Oxyethira and Stactobiella what appears to be this same structure is heavily sclerotized, frequently arched, and assumes a variety of shapes in different species; in these two genera I have heretofore called this struc- ture the tenth tergite (Ross, 1938, 1944). The tenth tergite, however, must be above the aedeagus, whereas in the structure in question, Fig. 1A, sp, it is situated below the aedeagus. It may be a sort of guide for the aedeagus or it may assist in the coupling action during copulation. Because it lies below the aedeagus and because its exact homology is obscure, I am proposing that this plate be called the subgenital plate. Bracteole—In quite a number of Hy- droptilidae, especially in Stactobiella, there occurs a structure associated with the area dorsad of the base of each clasper. In some cases, Fig. 1, br, this appears as a small structure at the base of each clasper, in others, Fig. 2, br, the structure is larger and more conspicuous than, the clasper and probably usurps its function. For this I propose the term bracteole. Here again the homology is difficult to determine, but I believe that the term will be a useful one for purposes of taxonomic description. 202 Genus Stactobiella Martynov Stactobiella Martynov, Pract. Ent. 5: 58. 1924. (Genotype, monobasic, Stactobia ulmeri Sil- tala.) Tascobia Ross, Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. 23: 124. 1944. (Genotype, by original designation, Stactobia palmata Ross.) New synonymy. Comparing Nearctic species of this genus with illustrations of Palearctic species shows that not only are the two genera synonymous but also that two Nearctic forms each have their closest known relative in the Palearctic fauna. S. palmata (Ross) is very similar to Martynov’s illustrations of biramosa Marty- nov, the former having the claspers short and ovate, coustricted at base, and the stalked process tridentate, the latter having the clasp- ers slightly longer and parallel-sided, and the stalked process bidentate. In each the aedeagus is simple and tubular. The Nearctic species delira (Ross) is similar to the Palearctic ulmeri (Siltala) and risi (Felber), especially in regard to the curved, fingerlike subgenital plate, but exhibits marked differences in the shape of each structure. The Nearctic brustia Ross is not allied closely to any of the other species and forms a species complex of its own. Thus, not only is Stactobiella as a genus Holarctic in dis- tribution, but two of its three component phylogenetic units are truly Holarctic also. To assist in identifying these species, a key is given to the males of these six species, which comprise the known world fauna of the genus. I have taken characters of the Palearctic forms from illustrations in the literature, cited in the key. KEY TO SPECIES OF STACTOBIELLA MALES 1. Claspers apparently fused to form a ventral plate. bearing three whiskerlike brushes of setae; aedeagus with apex curved and bent into shape of a crook (Ross, 1938, p. 115, fig. 22). Nearctic (Wyoming)... .brustia (Ross) Claspers not fused, either elongate or biscuit- shaped) 2. freee one wi sce he ogee ees oe even 2 2. A curved process, the bracteole, arising above each clasper, longer than the clasper and di- vided at apex into two or three fingerlike branches, Fig. 2; subgenital plate short and WIC. so Ly ones. cic Rs, © eee Ae ee 3 Bracteole represented by only a small process associated with a lateral clump of setae, clasper long, parallel-sided or tapering to apex; subgenital plate long and fingerlike, often curved orangled, Pigsle 2 hae 4 3. Bracteole having apex divided into two “fingers’”’ (Martynov, 1934, p. 159, fig. 105). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 Palearctic (Russia)..... biramosa Martynow Bracteole having apex divided into three “fingers,” Fig. 2. Nearctic (central U.S. A.) Rr te eee MENT MgTy palmata (Ross) 4, Apical portion of aedeagus divided into one mesal and two Jateral lobes, Fig. 1A. Nearc- tic (northcentral U.S. A.).....delira (Ross) Apical] portion of aedeagus tubular, much as in Pg. 2... sre senses es ou 2 bin ei a » 2 5 5. Apical margin of clasper truncate and slightly oblique (Felber, 1908, p. 721, fig. 2). Paleare- tic (Switzerland). :):: . .:\nnee rist (Felber) Apical margin of clasper rounded, the clasper tip narrow (Martynov, 1934, p. 159, fig. 103). Palearctic (northern Europe)......... Sip ate Mee 2 ea ee ee ee ulmeri (Siltala) Genus Oxyethira Eaton Argyrobothrus Barnard, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 21: 392. 1934. (Genotype, monobasic, A. velocipes Barnard.) New synonymy. Barnard’s illustrations of pupal case, vena- tion, and genitalia of both sexes leave no doubt that Argyrobothrus velocipes is a typical member of Oxyethira. The genus as such has not been recorded previously from central or southern Africa. Oxyethira arizona, new species The wide, curved lateral process of the aede- agus and the long, ventral internal projection of the base of the ninth segment show a rela- tionship of this species with pallida (Banks) and maya Denning, but arizona differs from both of these in the straight apical portion of the aedeagus (this part is angled and twisted in pallida and maya) and the elongate lateral processes of the eighth tergite. Male.—Length from front of head to tip of wings, 2.5 mm. Color entirely pallid or straw color, with an annulation of a darker shade on some segments of the antennae and some darker areas on the front wings. General structure typical for genus. Seventh sternite with a sharp curved apical process. Genitalia as in Fig. 4.. HKighth tergite divided into a pair of lateral lobes, the lower margin of each produced into a long, smooth, sharp process, the left one curved dorsad at tip, as shown, the right one curved slightly ventrad; the base of each lobe bears abundant long setae, but the projecting portion is without vestiture. Eighth sternite forming the lateral and ventral part of a ring, trapezoidal from lateral view, the apical mar- gin gently curved on the meson. Ninth tergite membranous. Subgenital plate moderately \ S. PALMATA ¢ / om 5 ole d He Za {: i I i HT ery 6A Fic. 1.—Stactobiella delira, male genitalia, ventral aspect; 1A, same, lateral aspect. Fie. 2.— Stactobiella palmata, male genitalia, ventral aspect. Fic. 3.—Ozxyethira lumosa, male genitalia, lateral aspect; 3A, apical portion of male genitalia, ventral aspect. Fic. 4.—Ozyethira arizona, male genitalia, lateral aspect; 4A, claspers and associated structures, ventral aspect; 4B aedeagus; 4C, aedeagus as seen at right angles to long axis of 4B. Fic. 5.—WNeotrichia numiz, male genitalia, lateral aspect; 5A, aedeagus, 5B, claspers and associated structures, ventral aspect; 5C, bracteole. Fic. 6.—Hydroptila denza, male genitalia, ventral aspect; 6A, aedeagus. Abbreviations: br, bracteole; cl, clasper; sp, subgenital plate. 204 heavily sclerotized, lateral aspect evenly curved to form about a quarter of a circle, ventral aspect, Fig. 4A, incised at apex to form a mesal arcuate area on each side of which is a short fingerlike process. Claspers fused on meson, very deep dorsoventrad, the ventral apical margin bearing a fingerlike projection on each side with a truncate edge between them. Style sinuate, membranous, and tipped with a long seta. Aedeagus, Figs. 4B and C, with base only a little longer than apex; neck only indistinctly set off: and apex divided at base into a taper- ing, slightly twisted central portion bearing the penis, and a wide, ribbonlike twisted pro- cess which makes a complete circle around the central portion, and which is concave on its inside surface. Female.—Size, color, and general structure similar to male. Genitalia simple; tenth tergite fairly wide at base, tapering to a round apex; ninth tergite with a narrow, spiculate, dorso- apical hump and with straight internal apo- demes. Spermatheca and its associated struc- tures similar in most respects to pallida, but differing in having the ventral bar of the sperma- theca arcuate but only moderately wide. Holotype, male—Superior, Pinal County, Ariz., taken at light in Boyce Thompson Arboretum, May 17-24, 1946. Allotype, female—Same data as for holotype. Paratypes—Same data as for holotype, 2, Tors Oxyethira pallida (Banks) Ozxyethira cibola Denning, Can. Ent. 79: 12. 1947. New synonymy. The most outstanding character of this species is the more slender of the two curved lateral processes of the aedeagus. This is ab- sent in maya Denning; the other apical struc- tures of the aedeagus are subject to twisting in both species and, in comparably twisted speci- mens, are remarkably similar in both. Collecting generously afforded by Dr. Swingle around artificial fish ponds near Auburn, Ala., brought in several catches of this species. It is probable that it is the first species of caddisfly to invade these ponds after they are filled. Oxyethira lumosa, new species This species is most closely related to grisea Betten and novasota Ross on the basis of simple eighth segment and the long, curled spiral JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 process of the aedeagus. From both species and others in the genus it differs markedly in the small, compact, ovate ventral aspect of claspers and subgenital plate, Fig. 3A. Male.—Length from front of head to tip of wings, 2.5 mm. Color a salt and pepper mixture of cream and brown. General structure typical for genus. Seventh sternite with a sharp apico- mesal spur. Genitalia as in Fig. 3. Eighth segment almost cylindrical, the apical margin slightly roughened and its ventral aspect U- shaped. Ninth segment with ventral portion forming only a rounded internal lobe extending only slightly into the seventh segment. Ninth segment also having no prominent marginal structures, the dorsal portion membranous and the ventral portion membranous and emargi- nate to form a deep V around the base of the claspers. Subgenital plate with lateral aspect forming a stout, hook-shaped structure with a wide base and stout, curved apex with a sharp tip, and with ventral aspect ovate and slightly incised on meson. Claspers fused to form an ovate plate deeply incised on meson from apex to over half the distance to base, Fig. 3A. Aedeagus not very long, base only about as long as apex, and the neck indicated by a shal- low constriction and the origin of the spiral process. This structure is stout and long, and encircles the aedeagus one and a half times, the first circle making almost a ring and the other half circle made while extending pos- teriad to the apex of the aedeagus. Apex of aedeagus cylindrical, semimembranous, and with a sclerotized, sharp, triangular sclerite placed transversely across the structure near the tip. Holotype, male—Daytona August 27, 1945, G. T. Riegel. Beach, Fla., Genus Hydroptila Dalman This is the most abundant and widespread genus of Hydroptilidae, with species known from every part of the globe. It is interesting that the Nearctic fauna contains many species whose closest relatives are in the Palearctic fauna, and other species which have apparently arisen from Neotropical nuclei of evolving forms. The species described below is of this latter category. Hydroptila denza, new species Among some material from Mexico a speci- JUNE 15, 1948 men was encountered that is of the general type of meralda Mosely, but differs from it in a variety of characters: The claspers are little longer than the subgenital plate, the apex of the tenth tergite is deeply incised, and the apical blades of the aedeagus are wide and swordlike, Fig. 6A. Male.—Length from front of head to tip of wings, 3 mm. Color moderately dark brown, the wings mottled with gray and brown. General structure typical for genus and scent cap ovate. Seventh sternite with a short, sharp apicomesal process. Genitalia as in Fig. 6. Ninth segment projecting freely from eighth segment, its internal portion rounded and only moderately produced, the apicolateral margin bearing a fingerlike lobe which appears sharp and spurlike from ventral view. Tenth tergite with lateral margins sclerotized, mesal portion membranous and deeply incised. Clasper of moderate length, ventral aspect with apex slightly widened, lateral aspect with apex much widened and trianguloid; apicolateral corner projecting as a small sharp point, apico- mesal corner slightly angulate and a small sclerotized point just within it. Subgenital plate triangular, over two-thirds as long as clasper, and bearin’g a pair of setae near apex. Aedeagus, Fig. 6A, with base extremely long, extending internally through three full seg- ments of a completely extended specimen; neck bearing a rufflike collar of membranous folds and a slender spiral process which encircles the aedeagus one and a half times; base of apex swollen, the apex beyond this divided into two parts, a long, bladelike, flattened, sclerotized process, and a tapering, straight style which bears the penis tube and which is membranous and corrugated at its base. Holotype, male——Hacienda Santa Engracia, Tamaulipas, Mexico, March 9, 1939. Genus Neotrichia Morton As is true of Ochrotrichia, Mayatrichia, and a few other genera, additional United States species of Neotrichia continue to follow patterns of general structure found in Central American forms. To date these genera are known only from the New World, and their distribution seems to indicate clearly that these genera originated in the Neotropics, and various spe- cies are spreading horthward following the retreat of the glacial area. ROSS: DESCRIPTIONS OF NEARCTIC HYDROPTILIDAE 205 Neotrichia numii, new species The elongate and triangular claspers and the structure of the aedeagus indicate definite affinities between this species and digitata . Mosely on the one hand and collata Morton on the other. From both this species differs in the extremely long, beaklike process of the subgenital plate, and the very dissimilar sclero- tized processes at the apex of the aedeagus. Male.——Length from front of head to tip of wings, 2.5 mm. Color entirely dark brown, the legs paler. General structure typical for genus. Genitalia as in Fig. 5. Ninth segment having an angulate internal portion, each side ending in a spurlike process; the dorsal portion is fused with the tenth tergite, the lateral portion is large and its apical margin is produced into a low, wide angle. Tenth tergite moderately narrow, rounded at apex and forming a simple, undivided mesal structure projecting above the other apical parts of the genitalia. Clasper elongate, lateral aspect tapering and curved at apex, ventral aspect having a broad, parallel- sided base narrowing suddenly to a short, pointed apex, heavily sclerotized and bearing only a few short setae. Bracteole, Fig. 5C, spatulate, pale, and bearing a series of long hairs.on its ventral and apical margin, the base of the bracteole short and narrow, the apical portion broad and slightly curved dor- sad. Subgenital plate unusually complex; the mesal portion, Fig. 5B, ends in a long beak which in lateral view is narrow and sharp, and in ventral view is expanded at apex into a platelike area bearing a hooked lateral process and a pair of mesal setae; this mesal part is joined ventrad with a large, convex lateral sclerite which narrows dorsad and appears to fuse with the inner margin of the tenth tergite. Aedeagus, Fig. 5A, elongate, the base tubular and narrowing to a long neck from the apex of which arises a stout spiral process encircling the aedeagus a little more than a complete turn; apex swollen at base, and divided at apex into a sharp spur bearing the penis and a lateral plate that is broad at base, slightly narrower at apex, and almost truncate at tip. Holotype, male—Lake George, Colo., in 11- mile canyon of the South Platte River, August 8, 1943, J. A. and H. H. Ross. Neotrichia vibrans Ross Neotrichia ranea Denning, Can. Ent. 79: 20. 1947. New synonymy. 206 Further study of this species indicates that there is considerable lateral movement of several parts of the genital capsule, and that this may result in considerable difference of appearance between one specimen and another. The widely expanded condition is shown in my own drawing (Ross, 1938, p. 120, Fig. 29), and a more contracted condition is illustrated by Denning in the description of ranea. Dr. Denning has kindly loaned me his type ma- terial for study. LITERATURE CITED BaRNARD, K. H. South African caddis-flies (Trichoptera). Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa 21: 20-394, illus. 1934. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - VOL. 38, NO. 6 DenninG, Donautp G. Hydroptilidae (Tri- choptera) from southern United States. Can. Ent. 79: 12-20, illus. 1947. FELBER, JAcQuES. Microptila risi nov. sp. Zool. Anz. 32: 720-722, illus. 1908. Martynov, ANDREAS B. Trichoptera. Prac- tical Entomology 5: 67 and 388 pp., illus. 1924. Leningrad. — Trichoptera Annulipalpia. Tabl. Analyt. Faune U.R.S.S. 13: 1-343, illus. 1934. Ross, Herpert H. Descriptions of Nearctic caddis flies (Trichoptera) with special refer- ence torthe Illinois species. Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. 21 (4): 101-183, illus. 1938. . The caddis flies, or Trichoptera, of Illinois. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey 23 (1): 1-326, illus. 1944. ZOOLOGY.—An analysis of specific homonyms in zoological nomenclature.’ RicHARD E. BLACKWELDER, U. 8. National Museum. In the systematic study of animals, which is the science known as systematics or taxonomy, the scientific names of the animals are at once an essential tool and a source of much confusion and discussion because of their vast number and the com- plexity of our system of using them. A branch of systematics has grown up which concerns itself entirely with these names and the principles to be used in applying them; this is nomenclature. Its principal aims are to formulate and establish systems under which each species can be given a distinetive name and to provide machin- ery to insure as great stability or perma- nence as possible to each of these names. One of the difficulties which plague the taxonomist in his use of scientific names is the situation that arises when the same name is inadvertently given to two different species of animals. If a name is to be useful in exact science it must always refer to but one species, and always to the same species. Therefore, we cannot permit the use of one name for two or more species, and when duplicate names are found we must provide another name for one of the species. Identi- cal names used for two or more species are called homonyms. They may be further classified by calling the older of the two usages the senior homonym and the younger one the junior homonym. 1 Received April 2, 1948. The discovery of homonyms very often results in a change of name for one of the species, and this type of change accounts for a large proportion of the annoying al- terations of names that have given taxon- omy a bad reputation among biologists. It is thus of special importance to taxono- mists to study the problem of homonymy and find a way to protect names from this major source of instability. The treatment of homonymy of specific names in zoological nomenclature is one of the oldest problems with which the writers of rules of nomenclature have had to deal, and it is one that has not been solved on any universal basis even after 75 years of code-building. It is therefore not unreason- able to reexamine the problem to present a possible new approach. In the various nomenclatural codes that have been proposed, the treatment of the problem of homonymy differs widely. The reason for this divergent treatment is not clear, except on the assumption that none of them have given real satisfaction. It is therefore believed useful to examine the procedures that have been proposed here- tofore and to analyze the requirements of a satisfactory system. (1) The first method we will examine for dealing with homonyms is that prescribed by the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature in articles 35 and 36. It is JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 207 the most direct and the simplest approach but may not be the one giving the most desirable results. This treatment is based on two principles: (1) ‘‘A specific name is to be rejected as a homonym when it has pre- viously been used for some other species or subspecies of the same genus”’ (from article 35), and (2) “rejected homonyms can never be used again” (from article 36).? This is a 2 The term specific name is here used in its cur- rently official meaning, in which the combination of the generic and the trivial names is a specific name. Article 2 holds that the scientific designa- tion of a species is binomial, and it is therefore only the binomial combination that can be a homonym. simple and direct solution, and it has been reinforced by Opinion 83. Unfortunately the ramifications of nomenclature are not as simple as this rule, and names do not conform to a pattern of being irrevocably either “homonyms” or “not homonyms” at any given time. This can be illustrated by diagrams of the eight major types of homonyms (Fig. 1). You may recognize in these diagrams your old friends X-ws albus and Y-us albus. In these diagrams two genera are represented in parallel vertical columns. The passage of time as one reads down each diagram is indicatéd by the dates at the left, and the X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US ‘yao ALBUS ras. «00 ALBUS ras 1300 ALBUS ras. exo ALBUS darn sa i900 ALBUS sari 1900 i390 ALBUS sw X-US Y-US X-US Y-US 1800 Sp Six ees ALBUS «are. 1850 nace Wh isso ALBUS swt | | 1900 ALBUS SMITH 1900 | | X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y7USe 1800 ALBUS une | i800 ALBUS tare i800 ALBUS ur 850 ALBUS SMITH 1850 1880 1880 ALBUS SMITH 1800 900 G Fic. 1 208 subsequent history of each specific name is indicated by the solid line beneath it. The heavy horizontal line at the bottom repre- sents the time at which the homonymy is discovered. In A, albus was proposed twice in X-us, producing unequivocal homonymy from 1900 on. B is just like A except for the later removal of one of the species to Y-us. It would be just the same if it had been the other name that was removed. In C the older name has been removed before the proposal of the second name. In D the two JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 were originally proposed in separate genera, but by the time the second was proposed in X-us, the older name had been trans- ferred to X-us, producing unquestiona- ble homonymy. E is similar except that the transfer of the older name is later than the proposal by Smith. And F, G, H are the same as D and E except that the transfer of the older name to X-us was temporary—in F entirely prior to Smith, in G entirely subsequent to Smith, and in H partly before and partly after Smith. X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US i300 ALBUS ras. i300 ALBUS ras. i300 ALBUS rae. co ALBUS svn ae i900 ALBUS satu 1900 i390 ALBUS sam X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US 1800 ALBUS usr tev ALBUS usr _i00 ALBUS ur 1850 1850 1850 1880 is80 ALBUS sam i900 ALBUS swtu i900 ALBUS sum 1900 D F Y-US 1800 ALBUS tare i850 ALBUS sw H X-US Y-US 1800 ALBUS tare 50 ALBUS swrn 1880 1900 G Ete. 2 JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 209 Under the International Rules every one of these eight types of homonyms requires a change of name, because in every case there has been combined with X-us a name albus that is older than X-us albus Smith 1900. This is the rigid interpretation of the present wording of the Rules, which has been followed by many taxonomists but by no means by all. Many taxonomists have felt that in some of these cases, such as diagram F in which - the homonymy was of a tempoiary histori- cal nature, it is not really necessary to re- place the 1900 name. They have argued that a distinction of some sort should be made to prevent the change of such names. (II) The question of whether all homo- nyms should be treated alike has led to wide discussion of a possible distinction between © two types called primary and secondary homonyms, so that different treatment might be accorded them after revision of this part of the Rules. There have been at least two _ definitions of primary and secondary homo- nyms, but the one most commonly known is this. A homonym is primary if the names were originally proposed in the same genus; it is secondary if the two names occur in the same genus only through trans- fer of one from another genus. It is argued that all primary homonyms must be re- placed, but that secondary homonyms should require replacing only if the names are still in the same genus. The examples in the top row of Fig. 1 (A, B, C) are primary, since the names were originally in the same genus; all the rest are secondary, under this definition, because the names were origi- nally in different genera. A, B, C require replacing of the younger name, since these are primary homonyms, but D and E also require replacing, because both names are currently in use in X-us. Only F, G, and H can be saved by this procedure. Stability of the names is indicated by a tabulation, thus: Method Change Keep I. International Rules 8 6 II. Primary-Secondary (original genus) 5 3 (III) A third school employs primary and secondary in a very different sense. Here, a homonym is primary if it was a homonym at the time of its proposal, whether this fact was recognized or not; it is secondary if it was valid when proposed and became a homonym later by other action. Again, the primary homonyms are treated as in the International Rules—they must be replaced. And secondary homonyms are considered to be such only as long as the two names remain in the same genus. In Fig. 2 we find the top two rows representing the primary homonyms under this defini- tion. A, B, C, D, F, and H are primary, since the later name was already preoccu- pied by an older combination with X-us. But E, which is secondary, must also be replaced, since the names are both in cur- rent use in X-us. This would appear in the stability tabulation, thus: Method Change Keep I. International Rules 8 0 II. Pri-Sec (original genus) 5 3 III. Pri-Sec (validity when pro- posed) c 1 (IIIa) A variant of the third procedure might be required by those persons who believe that temporary transfer of a name into X-uws does not preoccupy the name for later use in X-us. In this case, A, B, C, D, and E would be primary. This would give results in the stability table of Change 5, Keep 3. The first of these procedures for separat- ing homonyms into primary and secondary (our second system) is based on two new principles (see Fig. 1): (1) The fact that the identical names were originally proposed in the same genus is held to be of first im- portance, making the top row primary. In this manner, in Fig. 3, diagram A is set apart from diagram D, although they are identical except for the original assignment of the names, yet we must take the same action in the two cases because there is actual homonymy in each. They must be treated alike even though one is primary and one secondary. In diagrams B and H, which also are identical except for the orig- inal genus of the names, we should be re- quired to change a name in B and not in H because B is primary and H is secondary. This time we do not treat them alike, al- though they differ in exactly the same way. There appears to be no justification for 210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4 X-US Y-US X-US Y-uUS later removed from X-us (H and G, in soo ALBUS rs 1 oe As ea Fn which H is called primary and G secondary) we would be required under this third pro- cedure to replace the newer name in H (because it was a primary homonym) and would not be required to replace it in G (where it is secondary). Again we find that D (primary) and E (secondary) must be treated alike, whereas H (primary) and G (secondary) must be treated differently. There appears to be no reason for such a A D distinction. In summarizing these last two proce- dures, it is apparent that there has appeared KoUS._ ous ais KM Hs the new principle that a name may not be woo ALBUS rs ind ALBUS ur replaced unless the older name is still in the same genus when the homonymy is dis- 1850 covered, as in D and E of Fig. 4. But this weo ALBUS sum principle is applied only to the class of ALBUS sen secondary homonyms as variously defined. 1300 B00 It would require a change in D and in E, and it would require a change in H but not G. There does not seem to be any reason why all types of homonyms should not be B - treated in this way. In other words, if there is no real justification for the distinction Fie. 3 X-US Y-US X-US Y-US these distinctions, and there also appears to geo ALBUS ca ae ALBUS ure be no basis for the principle of segregating homonyms on the basis of their original = = me assignment. (2) Asecondary homonym must be replaced only if the older name is still in the same genus at the time the homonymis _,,,. ALBUS sum ia discovered. There can be no question that ; the younger name in diagram D must be replaced, because there is active homonymy E: at the present time, but if in diagram H it is D not necessary to rename the younger name, why must we do so in diagram B? Merely because of the accident of the original gen- X-US Y-US X-US Y-US eric assignment of the older name? There “ aiBuSun SD appears to be no justification for the use of this principle either. a The second procedure for separating “™ wso ALBUS sun homonyms into primary and secondary uses *% ALBUS om = another new principle (see Fig. 4). It places first importance upon the fact that Smith in ks sa 1850 (in E) was correct in believing that the name albus had never been used before in the genus X-us, whereas in D he failed in 1900 to recognize the older name. D is H G therefore called primary and E secondary. | But in these cases if the older name had been Fie. 4 JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 211 X-US _Y-US X-US _Y-US X-US Y-US 1800 ALBUS FAB. | 1800 ALBUS LATR. 1800 ALBUS LATR. 1850 1880 ALBUS sax i300 ALBUS sanx i900 ALBUS sax 1900 | | | ee eee aawaeua“aesa—a— X-US Y-US X-US Y-US soo ALBUS ras is00 ALBUS as. 1880 seo ALBUS own & ce co ALBUS sun X-US _Y-US X-US _Y-US X-US Y-US 1800 ALBUS ur i800 ALBUS ure i800 ALBUS ure 1850 al isso ALBUS sum between primary and secondary, why not judge both types on the same ground? (IV) Now if we apply this new plan uni- formly to all types of homonyms, we need new terms for the ones that are to be re- placed and those that are not, to avoid con- fusion with primary and secondary. We are now interested, in the first place, in the situ- ation as we find it at the time of discovery of the homonymy. (This time is represented by the heavy line across the bottom of each diagram.) The question to be asked is, Is there concurrent use of two names of iden- tical spelling? — aes La Fig. 5 In Fig. 5, in A, D, and E two identical names are in use in the genus X-us at the present time—they occur together and are therefore coincident homonyms. In B, C, F, G, and H the names are not now in the same genus and are therefore homonyms only in an historical sense—only because of their antecedents. We may therefore term them antecedent homonyms.? 3 Other terms may be thought more readily understood in these uses, such as concurrent and historical or present and past, but the need for any such terms would be eliminated in a new rule by calling only the first group “homonyms,”’ eliminating the need for any term for the second group. 212 By replacing only the coincident homo- hnyms, we obtain a rating on the stability tabulation thus: Method Change Keep I. International Rules 8 0 II. Pri-Sec (original genus) 5 3 III. Pri-See (validity when pro- posed) Uf 1 IIIa. 5 3 IV. Coincident-Antecedent 3 5) I should point out here that in this table a very false impression can be made. These figures are the number of types of homo- nyms that require change. One of these types might be much more common than another, completely overshadowing it in importance. But it appears that in number IV, changes are required only in cases which would have had to be changed under all of the other systems as-well (A, D, E in Fig. 5), and the remaining cases are an improve- ment in stability over the other procedures. A summary of this distinction between coincident and antecedent homonyms can be made by defining them and the treat- ment of them. Any name that 1s discovered to be of the same spelling as an older name currently assigned to the same genus is a COINCIDENT JUNIOR HOMONYM and is to be replaced. Any name that is dis- covered to be of the same spelling as an older name that was at one time in the same genus but 1s not now so assigned 1s an ANTE- CEDENT JUNIOR HOMONYM and is not to be replaced. Obviously, an antecedent homonym can become coincident, as would be the case in diagram Cif after 1900 the older name was brought back into X-us. It is the actual state of affairs at the time of discovery of the homonymy that determines the type of homonymy and the action to be taken. In some discussions of primary and second- ary homonymy there has been proposed another new principle, which is a radical departure from the International Rules in that it requires the revival of a name pre- viously suppressed as a homonym. In Fig. 6, which represents a case of secondary homonymy in procedure II, X-us albus Smith, 1900, required replacing, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 even though it was a secondary homonym. It was renamed in 1910 by Jones as X-us novus. This is an action that would have been necessary under any of the four pro- cedures we have examined. Then in 1920 albus of Latreille, the older name, was re- moved by Brown from X-us; the new pro- cedure would then require that X-us albus Smith 1900 be reinstated with novus Jones as a Synonym. This appears to be completely contrary to the primary aim of the Rules, which is stability in nomenclature, since it produces an extra name change that is not absolutely necessary. If it stopped here, it would be fairly reasonable, but there is nothing to prevent, some other worker from claiming (in 1925 for example) that albus of Latreille was correctly transferred to X-us, and therefore novus must be used for albus Smith once again. And in 1926 Brown reit- erates his belief that albus Latreille does not belong in X-us, and therefore novus is only a synonym of X-us albus Smith. It is more than possible that such a con- troversy should continue for years, since there are many cases in which two authors X-US Y-US 1800 ALBUS ‘ure 1850 on woo ALBUS sum 10 NOVUS ones ALBUS | s ee Novus : | 1028 NOVUS Jones tes | NOVUS Fia. 6 JUNE 15, 1948 have consistently used different generic assignments for a given species. Again, when two workers disagree on the correct generic assignment of a species, as has occurred many times over long periods of years, the first worker, calling the genus X-us, finds that X-us albus is a secondary homonym, as in D, requiring a new name; whereas simultaneously and equally cor- rectly the second worker, who believes the genus should be called Z-us, finds that the name Z-us albus is not preoccupied at 1900 and is therefore the correct name for the species. On the basis of their beliefs concern- ing the generic name, both are correct in their use of the specific names, so that we have two apparently correct names in use for one species. The possibility of this result from a dif- ference of opinion on generic assignment of another species, or of the correct name for a@ genus, can not occur under our present Rules. In procedure II as generally stated it can occur in five of the examples. In procedure III it can occur in two of the examples. If the conclusions of this discus- sion are made part of procedure IV, such a situation could not arise in any case. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 213 The only point that I have seen raised against this principle of accepting a valid renaming in spite of later actions is that malicious transfer could provide the means for some one to rename any species desired, on a small or large scale. I have not found any one who knows of such a case of mali- cious misappropriation of a rule, and I con- sider it at best as a possibility of importance insufficient to warrant action designed to prevent it. If a case should occur, the International Commission has ample au- thority to take action against the offender, without adding to the complexity of our nomenclatural system. There appears to be no other reasonable course than to accept the valid renaming of a homonym as final. There are other cases in which we find that strict priority gives less stability to names than a care- fully controlled departure from priority. And this appears to be an opportunity to prevent the possible (or rather certain) con- fusion of having two valid trivial names in current use for one species, merely through a difference of opinion concerning the status of some other species which happens. to have an identical name. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 50TH ANNUAL MEETING The 50th annual meeting, concurrently with the 353d meeting of the Academy, held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, January: 15, 1948, was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by the President, WaLpo L. Scumitt, with 55 persons in attendance. The minutes of the 49th annual meeting were approved as published in the JoURNAL 37: 436— 444, 1947. The reports of several officers and of the Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read and accepted. These reports are recorded at the end of the minutes. After the acceptance of the report of the Committee of Tellers, the President declared the following duly elected to the given offices: FREDERICK D. Rosstnt, President, C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary, Howarp S. RapPpLEYE, Treasurer, Franeigs M. DrFANDORF and WILLIAM N. FENTON, Board of Managers to January 1951. The Secretary presented for the Affiliated Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents of the Academy as follows: Philosophical Society of Washington— WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington—WIL- LIAM N. FENTON Biological Society of Washington—Joun W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington—CHaARLES E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington—CarL F. W. MursEBECK National Geographic Society—-ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington—WILLIAM W. RuBEY Medical Society of the District of Columbia— FREDERICK O. Con Columbia Historical Society—GILBERT GrRos- VENOR Botanical Society BAMFORD Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters—WIiLiLiaM A. Dayton . of Washington—RoNaLpD 214 Washington Society of Engineers—C.uirrorp A. BEerts Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers—FRaAncis B. SILSBEE Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers—Marrin A. Mason Helminthological Society of Washington— AUREL O. FOSTER Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists—Lorr A. RoGERsS Washington Post of the Society of American Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers—OweEn B. FRENCH The Secretary was instructed by the mem- bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for these nominees. The President announced the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment for 1947 as follows: In the Biological Sciences, no award made. In the Engineering Sciences, Harry W. WELLs, of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, in recognition of his distinguished upper- air research and organization of a world-wide network of ionospheric stations. In the Physical Sciences, Ropert D. Hun- TOON, of the National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his distinguished service in the - advancement of electronics and its applications to other sciences and to modern ordnance. The reports of three special committees were _ presented as a part of the program as follows: ~The Journal, by the Chairman of the Commit- tee, Raymonp J. SrxcerR; National Science Legislation, by the Chairman of the Commit- tee, A. T. McPurrson; A Junior Academy of Sciences, by the Vice-Chairman of the Com- mittee, EaprrT H. WALKER. The retiring President, Wautpo L. ScumirTT, presented his address, The Academy in Retro- spect and Prospect, then appointed Past Presi- dents EUGENE C. CRITTENDEN and Oscar E. MEINzER to escort the incoming President, FREDERICK D. Rossini, to the chair. Dr. Rossini adjourned the meeting at 10:20 P.M. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY During the Academy year, January 16, 1947, to January 15, 1948, one person was elected to honorary membership and 45 persons were elected to regular membership, including 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 resident and 3 nonresident. Of these, 26 resi- dent and 2 nonresident qualified for member- ship. Ten resident members, elected to mem- bership January 12, 1948, were notified on January 13, but insufficient time has elapsed for their reply. Sixteen resident members and 4 nonresident members elected to membership in the preceding Academy year qualified during the present Academy year just ending. The > new members were distributed among the vari- ous sciences as follows: 9 in botany, 8 in physics, 5 each in zoology and entomology, 4 each in chemistry and engineering, 2 each in pa- leontology, geology, anthropology, and plant pathology, and 1 each in biology, bacteriology, genetics, physiology, and ceramics. Twelve resident and 3 nonresident members, having retired from the gainful practice of their professions, were placed on the retired list of members to enjoy all the privileges of active membership without further payment of dues. The deaths of the following members were reported to the Secretary: CHARLES 8. BuTiER, Bristol, Tenn., on October 7, 1944. GEORGES PERRIER, Paris, France, on February 16, 1946. ? Epwarp A. GOLDMAN, Washington, D. C., on September 2, 1946. Sir JAMES Harwoop Jeans, Dorking, Surrey, England, on September 16, 1946. Wits L. Jepson, Berkeley, Calif., on Novem- ber 7, 1946. Henry G. Avers, Washington, D. C., on Janu- ary 19, 1947. | Howarp S. Roperts, 2d, Washington, D. C., on January 30, 1947. CHARLES A. Browne, Washington, D. C., on February 3, 1947. W. P. Hay, Bradenton, Fla., on May 26, 1947. HARDEE CHAMBLISS, Washington, D. C., on June 1, 1947. Rupour W. GuasezR, Princeton, N. J., on Sep- tember 4, 1947. Ropert H. Lomparp, Worcester, Mass., on October 11, 1947. Dwiaut W. WINDENBURG, Washington, D. C., on November 14, 1947. Sir JamMEs Harwoop JEANs and General GEORGES PERRIER were honorary members. On January 15, 1947, the status of member- ship was as follows: Boe oe Ts Patron Total lar tired ary Resident....... 457 52 2 0 511 Nonresident.... 161 26 15 0 202 Wotal@us cece: 618 78 17 0 713 _ JuNE 15, 1948 ~The net changes in membership during the past year are as follows: Regu- Re- Honor- : Patron Toal lar tired ary Resident....... + 8 +12 - 0 0 20 Nonresident.... 9 —2 —1 0 + 6 Motalon. s+ +17 +10 —1 0 +26 During the Academy year 1947 the Board of Managers held 9 meetings, with an average at- tendance of 18 persons. The following impor- tant matters were considered by the Board: 1. Observance of the 50th Anniversary of the Academy.—The President appointed a commit- tee to look into the various ways in which the 50th Anniversary of the Academy might be ob- served and make recommendations to assist the incoming 1948 Board in its selection and carrying out of the observance. It was antici- pated that this committee might render timely services inasmuch as the anniversary date, February 18, 1948, falls such a short time after the induction of the new Board of Managers. 2. Preparation of an Illustrated Anniversary Edition of the ‘‘Red Book’’ or Directory.—The Board of Managers authorized the publication of an Anniversary Edition of the Red Book, which is to include photographs of members of the Academy together with as complete a list as possible of the membership of the various scientific societies affiliated with the Academy, and to include the constitutions, bylaws and current lists of officers of the Academy and affiliated societies. The Board authorized the expenditure of $3,000 for the publication of the directory, with a leeway of $600 to cover un- expected charges, such as proofreading, ete. 3. Consideration of a Monograph.—A mono- graph on The parasitic birds of Africa, by Herbert Friedmann, was presented to the Board of Managers and recommended for pub- lication by the chairman of the Monograph Committee. Estimates for the cost of publica- tion were secured and the Board referred the manuscript to the Board of Editors for review and recommendation. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 215 During the Academy year, seven meetings of the Academy were held as follows: On February 20, 1947, Huecu L. DrypEn, as retiring President, offered an address entitled Exploring the fundamentals of aerodynamics. Owing to unusually inclement weather the paper was read by title only. On March 20, 1947, the 1946 Academy Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre- sented to WaLpo R. WeEpEL, U. S. National Museum, for work in the biological sciences; to Martin A. Mason, Beach Erosion Board, for work in the engineering sciences; and GEORGE W. Irvine, Jr., Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, for work in the physical sciences. On April 17, 1947, His Excellency, Mr. HerMan Eriksson, Minister from Sweden, contributed a few remarks on Alfred Nobel and the Nobel prizes, introducing P. W. Bripaman, of Harvard University, who addressed the Academy on High pressures and their effects. On May 15, 1947, JAmzs B. SuMNER, Cornell University, addressed the Academy on The chemical nature of enzymes. On October 16, 1947, Epwarp A. Dotsy, St. Louis University School of Medicine, addressed the Academy on Vitamin K. On November 20, 1947, I. I. Rasr, Columbia University, addressed the Academy on The hyperfine structure of the hydrogens and other atoms. On January 15, 1948, the meeting of the Academy was devoted to the business of the 50th Annual Meeting and included the address of the retiring President, Waupo L. ScumirT, entitled The Academy in retrospect and prospect. The meetings were all held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. C. L. Gazin, Secretary REPORT OF THE TREASURER Your Treasurer submits the following re- port concerning the finances of the Washington Academy of Sciences for the year ended De- cember 31, 1947: RECEIPTS MM OAD we PRS ts, Fe ce 2 ae AEN 5 $ 30.00 Neer re PE eke. os Seg pM iO Neo ong ela Waters alia eb 75 .00 aor eae, A ee eN eee ye an oes 3,167.00 EA eS on LVN! 3.015 Roe Sead Gens 70.00 $ 3,342.00 Sohne, siphon.» etna’ Beis Moves roe ao tae et Nah eee 6.00 TOAG 2 OPN UR Ga On ee, Monee ties bead tae San. ee nS 6 .00 1OAT, 2 hei, Sb Rae. aE, ie ea ee eee 735 .09 LOLS oi sin gts valet ts bveah ty fe-ard een ws a) tye a gape Ue es 557 . 84 TOAD: 2 cu lle dud tujhe abled bse reaakae ste eo ee peas Manne eels 3.38 Reprints; 19465 00 Aiken os breyten Fok vp ipa Re SezteN eI Oe nee es $ 515.41 ht: Y Ce ee Ree tre A A SR la SMe ot tye 672.73 Sales, LOAF 225 stsusnnah Bas Mt : . eee eo eee: RR) 2 1 A Wea Yee A: BP AS Cash. 2-4. cee yee ee es 295.00 Gimecomiscelianecous. ) 205.5 62 42.31 PRG lero ide ocaces me a. 8 $5,175.04 To recapitulate, the total cost of the printing bills was $4,837.73. From this may be sub- tracted $936.38, the amount charged to authors for reprints, excess illustrations, and excess typesetting charges. Thus the net cost to the Academy of printing the JoURNAL was $3,901.35. It should be noted that on several items the Editors are well within their appropriation and that, despite the rise in printing costs at the end of the year, they were able to get by with- out the supplemental appropriation. The Board of Editors wishes to acknowledge the cooperation of the Board of Managers and the officers of the Academy. The Associate Editors met with the Board of Editors early in the year and worked out a procedure for han- dling manuscripts in special fields, for reading galley proofs, and for consultation, in all of which the Associate Editors have supported the Board of Editors ably and willingly. Dr. R. E. BLACKWELDER supplied for Dr. Stone during the latter’s field work in Alaska, and special thanks are due to Mr. Pau. H. O§&HSER, our editorial assistant, for taking over administra- tive duties during the summer months while Dr. FENTON was away teaching. Mr. OEHSER’sS very considerable specialized knowledge and his genuine interest in the continual improvement of the JouRNAL far exceed the implication of his title. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 219 The Editors also wish to cite Mr. Irwin H. WENSINK, Washington representative of the George Banta Publishing Co., for his help in maintaining the continuity and high standard of the JouRNAL and for the courteous way that he conducted negotiations for a new contract for his company. We do not think it entirely flattery when he tells us that the Academy’s editorial set-up has come to be a model which his company recommends to other learned bodies. WILLIAM N. FENTON JAMES I. HorrMAN ALAN STONE REPORT OF THE CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS SUBSCRIPTIONS: Nonmember subscriptions in the United States...... 131 Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries......: 75 WON Dae Rn Pe a RD oh Re Ac eee MRT Shor 206 INVENTORY OF STOCK AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1947: Reserve Sets of the JoURNAL: Bound Volumes 1-29 and unbound Volumes 31 SS -7 he Sey Ca Tee ih Nee ee ene ee ee 1 set Unbound Volumes 1-372). 3235-0. wy 3 sets Unbound Volumes 11-37) .>.2 2255 3 42 one 6 sets Unbound Volumes 16-37................--. 11 sets Miscellaneous numbers of the JOURNAL........- 18,911 Total numbers in the Reserve Sets............ 8,070 Grand total of back numbers.........-...-- 26,981 The only important change that has taken place during the year 1947 was the resignation of Frank M. Serzuer as Custodian and Sub- scription Manager of Publications. Mr. SETZLER was forced to hand in his resignation toward the end of this year because of his leaving the country for an extended field trip. To fill this vacancy, I was appointed at the 411th meeting of the Board of Managers held on October 20, 1747. Mr. SetTzuer has admirably filled this position for five years, and during this tenure of office he has organized the operations and records in a most efficient manner, so that when I took over this position I found everything in perfect order and all information readily acces- sible. I feel that Mr. SrrzLer deserves to be highly commended for the excellent way in which he has run this office. SALES AND EXPENDITURES: During the year no complete sets were sold, but the sale of individual volumes and numbers 220 has continued, 24 volumes and 115 numbers having been sold. One complete set (Vol. 1-36) was purchased from one of the members of the Academy. Income from Sales Miscellaneous mumbers...........0:.-2..565 $178.07 Expenditures Set ioiidTourRNAmV ol. 1=36. ie" es ek oar... Pee $100.00* Postage and office expenses................. 48 .36 1947 Budgetary allotment//34% sarsse sae «oak $ 50.00T Hnexpenditures tor (O47. oe er oe ene 48.36 Wnexpended! balancesen. » fna es ees oe $ 1.64 * Deducted from special fund earmarked for purchase of volumes and numbers needed to form complete reserve sets. + This does not include the additional $50 that was added to the budget allotment by vote of the Executive Committee for the purpose of carrying out a campaign to increase the present subscription list. This money was not expended in 1947. Haraup A. REHDER, Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TELLERS A total of 325 envelopes were delivered to the Secretary. The count of valid ballots showed the following officers were elected: President, FREDERICK D. Rossini Secretary, C. LEw1s GazIn Treasurer, Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE Board of Managers to January 1951, FRANcIS M. DEFANDORF and WriLiiaAM N. FENTON ANNA E. JENKINS, Chairman Miriam L. BomMHARD REGINA FLANNERY REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION (ABSTRACT) The Committee on Legislation, composed of J. E. Grar, W. W. Rupery, and A. T. Mc- PHERSON, reported on recent and pending legislation in three phases of Government ac- tivity, each of especial interest and importance to science. Unusual possibilities for the ad- vancement of science were seen in the inter- national exchange of scholars and information provided by the Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Act (Public Law 584, 79th Congress) and by the proposed Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948 (HR 3342, January 7, 1948). Funds for the program under the former act are in foreign currencies derived from the sale of surplus war property abroad. The latter bill which was expected to be passed at an early JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 date contains provision for the dollars needed to send American scholars abroad and will ex- tend the international exchange of scholars to countries in which there was no surplus prop- erty. The second phase of legislative action re- ported on was that concerned with the future of the synthetic rubber industry. The Com- mittee felt that the most important considera- tion for future national security regarding rubber lay in establishing an adequate research and development program, entirely apart from any production program. The cost of sucha program would be less even than the cost of maintaining the unused plants in standby con- dition. _ The third subject dealt with by the Commit- tee was that of the National Science Founda- tion. At the time of the report, it was thought that a compromise bill acceptable to both the Congress and the Administration would be in- troduced soon. The recent report of the President’s Scien- tific Research Board was reviewed and was compared with a similar study made by Rosa after World War I.* The fact that many of the recommendations regarding the scientific pro- gram of the Government made in the Rosa re- port are similar to those in the current report was cited by the Committee in support of their recommendation that the Academy give serious and sustained attention to legislation relating to science. 7 A. T. McPHERson, Chairman REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON A JUNIOR WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dr. Waupo L. Scumitt, President of the Washington Academy of Sciences in 1947, ap- pointed a committee on junior academies of science consisting of Austin H. Clark, Chair- man, E. H. Walker, Vice Chairman, and Frank Thone, and requested it to study the subject and make recommendations to the Washington Academy of Sciences. The following is the re- port of the vice chairman based upon the results of the study as given in his talk at the 50th * Expenditures and revenues of the Federal Gov- ernment, by Epwarp B. Rosa. Publication No. 1518. Reprinted from “Taxation and Public Ex- penditures,’’ Vol. 95 of the Annals of the Ameri- can Academy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, May 1921. JUNE 15, 1948 annual meeting of the Washington Academy on January 15, 1948. The growing interest in the early recognition and encouragement of potential scientists has found expression in the development of organi- zations working with and for these young scien- tists. Their activities are centered largely on the approximately 15,000 science clubs in the secondary schools throughout the country. Assisting in the coordinating of these clubs is Science Clubs of America, administered by Science Service, Inc., Washington, D. C. An important activity of this coordinating organi- zation is the conducting of the annual Science Talent Search for the Westinghouse Science Scholarships. Scholarships totaling $11,000 are distributed among the 40 winners on the basis of a nation-wide examination. In 11 states additional awards are granted to local winners in this same examination, this usually under the auspices of the state junior or senior acade- mies of science. Junior academies of science exist in more than 30 states. The first one was formed in II- linois in 1919. These organizations provide to the young scientists and their sponsors, mostly organized into school science clubs, (1) valuable training through cooperative endeavors; (2) association with other young scientists and with adult scientists; (3) incentives to the stu- dents through exhibits, fairs, and congresses, to engage in creative activities; (4) incentives and assistance to the adult sponsors; (5) insight into senior scientific organizations and their ac- tivities; and (6) opportunities to take an active part in adult scientific projects. Membership in these junior academies usu- ally consists of the science clubs as chapters and their members as individuals. They are vari- ously financed, the funds coming from dues paid by the chapters or by the members, or both, and subsidies by senior academies, teacher organizations, sponsors, friends, com- mercial organizations, etc. Sums run from about $20 to $400 annually. Additional services and facilities are often provided by associated and sponsoring organizations. The Junior academies of science are usually governed by committees of the senior acade- mies and of the school sponsors of the clubs. They function best where there is an experi- enced and active adult leader on both commit- tees or at least actively supported by them. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 221 These junior academies, besides assisting in the conduct of the science clubs’ activities, provide stimulating and coordinating publica- tions, sectional meetings, an annual state con- gress, usually in connection with the annual state academy meeting, with exhibits, fairs, trips, talks, etc., and awards of various kinds. They often enlist the aid of juniors in various senior scientific projects where such is appro- priate. j The organization of a Junior Washington Academy of Science is favored by local indi- viduals and organizations engaged in junior scientific work. The head of the science work in the public schools and the teacher-sponsors of the science clubs believe it would be a spur to their efforts and could provide valuable facili- ties they are otherwise unable to obtain. Sci- ence Clubs of America would be glad for such an Academy to take over its responsibilities in the annual science fair, an activity which it has previously assumed in the absence of other suitable organizations to do so. It would be glad to assist in the selection of the best science talent in this area for awards in addition to the national Westinghouse Science Scholarships. This committee’s investigation of the local organizations and individuals who might be in- terested in this project is incomplete. More work should be done in this field before a final plan of organization is prepared. There should be careful investigation of the activities of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science, centered in Charlottesville, in order to coordinate the considered activities of a Junior Washington Academy of Sciences with those of this nearby organization working within the greater Wash- ington area. We have had a preliminary meet- ing with officers of the Maryland Academy of Sciences in Baltimore and find that our activi- ties would supplement theirs in the adjacent portion of Maryland, with which we might be concerned, and that cooperation with that or- ganization would be highly desirable and wel- comed. Their junior academy is temporarily suspended for lack of a director, but much junior work is being carried on along with their program of interpretation of science. The dif- ferent emphases and perspectives of the Mary- land and of the Washington Academies of Sci- ence would find common ground through this proposed Junior Washington Academy of Sci- ences. 222 We, therefore, recommend that the Board in control of the Washington Academy of Sciences continue this committee with new or aug- mented personnel and instruct it to report at the April meeting of the Academy definite and detailed plans for organizing a Junior Washing- ton Academy of Sciences with proposals for implementing this plan. Eapert H. Waker, Vice Chairman REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE TO CONSIDER VARIOUS MATTERS PERTAINING TO THE JOURNAL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT The report of this committee was included in the published Proceedings of the Academy, 414th Meeting of the Board of Managers: This JOURNAL 38 (2): 79-80. Feb. 15, 1948. Submitted by C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary 417TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 417th meeting of the Board of Mana- gers, held in the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1948, was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi- dent, Dr. F. D. Rossini. Others present were: H.S. Rappers, N. R. Smiru, H. A. REHDER, W. W. Disut, W. RamBere, T. D. STEWART, C. E. Wuitrt, A. Wetmore, W. A. Dayton, C. A. Berts, M. A. Mason, L. A. Roasrs, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, H. E. Mc- Comps, R. J. Srecer, A. Stonn, J. E. Grar, and F. H. H. Rossrts, Jr. The following appointments were announced by the President: Committee on the Index of the Journal: W. N. Fenton, Chairman, J. I. Horrman, M. C. Merriti, H. A. REHDER, PauL H. OxrHseER (consultant). Committee on Functions and Policies of the Academy: E. C. CRITTENDEN, Chairman, A. H. Cuark, W. A. Dayton, M. A. Mason, L. W. Parr, F. B. SILSBEE. The Chairman of the Meetings Committee announced that Prof. PHinipp Frank, of Har- vard University, would speak at the April meeting of the Academy. The Chairman of the Special Committee to consider certain revisions of the Bylaws of the Academy and Standing Rules of the Board of Managers, Dr. WaLTER RAMBERG, read the following report: The Committee has considered means of revis- ing the Standing Rules of the Board of Managers JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6 in order to provide greater continuity in the Standing Committees of the Board, The Commit- tee recommends the following revisions for this purpose: Standing Rules Section 3, third sentence, replace by: “The Com- mittee on Membership, Meetings, Grants-in- Aid for Research, and each of the Subcommittees of the Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement shall include, if possible, at least two members reappointed from the preceding year. The Committee on Monographs shall have six members, each appointed for 3 years at the rate of two each year. At least three members of the Committee on Monographs shall be past editors of the JOURNAL, if possible.’ In addition the Committee recommends the following revision in the Standing Rules in order to describe more accurately the duties of the Com- mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement: New Section 8, second sentence, replace by: “A candidate must be a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences or a resident member of one of the affiliated societies, and shall not have passed the 40th anniversary of the date of his birth by the end of the calendar year for which the award is made; recommendations by the Committee must reach the Board of Managers not later than the meeting preceding the Annual Meeting of the Academy in January.” The Chairman of the Committee on Science Legislation, JoHn E. Grar, reported that Senate Bill 526 had been vetoed by President Truman but that Senator Smith of New Jersey was sponsoring $3285, introduced March 25, which would overcome some of the objections raised to the previous bill. The president announced that the results of the study to be made by the Special Commit- tee appointed to consider the policy and func- tions of the Academy were to be available by the end of the calendar year and to be pub- lished in the JOURNAL as a matter of permanent record and in order to bring them to the atten- tion of the membership of the Academy. Changes in the Standing Rules of the Board of Managers introduced at the 416th meeting were approved as follows: Section 2 After c. iv., insert: - ‘““~ Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement.”’ “vi. Committee on Grants-in-aid for Re- search.”’ Section 3 Replace first sentence by: ‘“There shall be six STANDING COMMITTEES, as follows: Executive | | JUNE 15, 1948 Committee, Committee on Meetings, Commit- tee on Membership, Committee on Mono- graphs, Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement, Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research.” Section 4, first sentence: In place of ‘‘or acting President,”’ insert ‘‘Presi- dent-Elect”’ (providing the Academy approves of the new office of President-Elect). Following Section 6, insert: 7. The CoMMITTEE ON Monocrapus shall re- ceive for review and recommendation regard- ing publication such monographs as may be submitted to the Academy, preference being given to members of the Academy. 8. It shall be the duty of the COMMITTEE ON AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT of recommending one candidate each for the Bio- logical Sciences, the Engineering Sciences, and the Physical Sciences. A candidate shall. not have passed the 40th anniversary of the date of his birth by the end of the calendar year for which the Award is made; recommendations OBITUARY 223 by the Committee must reach the Board of Managers not later than the meeting immedi- ately preceding the annual meeting of the Academy in January. Each recommendation to the Board must be accompanied by a written - supporting statement giving the necessary in- formation concerning the candidate, together with a citation covering not over 80 spaces, as ‘in recognition of his distinguished service in (80 spaces) ng 9. The COMMITTEE ON GRANTS-IN-AID FOR RESEARCH shall review applications for grants- in-aid from such funds as may be at the dis- posal of the Board of Managers for this purpose. Renumber: present Section 7 as new Section 10 present Section 8 as new Section 11 present Section 9 as new Section 12 present Section 10 as new Section 13 present Section 11 as new Section 14 present Section 12 as new Section 15. The meeting was adjourned at 9:35 p.m. C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary. é @Obituary GrorGE Rocers MANSFIELD, retired geolo- gist of the U. S. Geological Survey, member of the Geological Society of Washington, and its 39th President in 1930, died at the home of one of his daughters, Mrs. John W. Carroll, at Swarthmore, Pa., on Sunday, July 11, 1947. He was born August 30, 1875, in Gloucester, Mass. At Amherst College he received the B.S. degree and membership in Phi Beta Kappa in 1897, and the M.A. degree in 1901. From 1897 to 1903 he was science teacher at Central High School in Cleveland, Ohio. At Harvard Uni- versity he received the Ph.D. degree in 1906 and was instructor in geology from 1906 to 1909. At Northwestern University he was as- sistant professor in geology from 1909 to 1912. He worked during the summers of 1910 to 1912 for the U. S. Geological Survey in Idaho. In 1913 he joined the permanent staff as geologist and was placed in charge of phosphate investi- gations, which he carried on for many years. In 1922 he was made chief of the Section of Non- metalliferous Deposits, in 1921 editor of geolog- ic maps, and in 1927 chief of the Section of Areal and Nonmetalliferous Geology. He re- tired in 1943. Dr. Mansfield’s contributions to geology over a period of 36 years (1906-42), include 109 titles, of which Professional Paper 152: Geog- raphy, geology, and mineral resources of a part of southeastern Idaho, published in 1927, may be cited as an example of his outstanding com- petence in investigation, description, discussion and solution of the areal, physiographic, strati- graphic, structural, and economic problems en- countered in the detailed study of an area (in this case of some 2,200 square miles). Other publications of the Survey of which he was either author or joint author described the phosphates of Florida, the greensands of New Jersey, the nitrates of California, Texas, Idaho, and Oregon, and the potash deposits of Texas and New Mexico. His other contributions ap- peared in many publications, mainly those of the Geological Society of America, American Association of Geographers, the American Journal of Science (of which he was associate editor from 1938 to 1945), the Journal of Ge- ology, Washington Academy of Sciences, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Kco- nomic Geology, Science, Proceedings of Section E of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. He was a member of the National Research Council 1925 to 1934 and chairman of the com- mittee on tectonics from 1924 to 1934, a fellow of the Geological Society of America, and a member of the American Institute of Mining 224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 38, NO. 6 and Metallurgical Engineers, the Society of versity, Dr. James 8. Mansfield, of Cambridge, Economic Geologists, the American Geophysi- Mass., and Robert H. Mansfield, of Caracas, cal Union, the Washington Academy of Sci- Venezuela; two daughters, Mrs. George W. ences (vice president 1931), and the Cosmos Patterson, of Morton, Pa., and Mrs. John W. Club. Carroll, of Swarthmore, Pa.; and twelve grand- He is survived by his wife, Adelaide Clafi children. Mansfield; three sons, Harvey C. Mansfield, a Raupu W. RicHAarps professor of political science at Ohio State Uni- Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences ; President..............++++.FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards x Secretary....... ge x gto pie eetw SG Me Maem Gees ata t: C. Lewis ‘Gazin, U. 8. National Museum ; Treasurer....... Weir clarerele | ..- HOWARD S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey Pea IOI onc eas os oe wie «alae bs NATHAN R. SmirH, Plant Industry Station = ce Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications. .........0c ccc cece uence encees : nL ee ene Haraup A. Rewper, U. 8. National Museum : Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington............ Loe Sapien WALTER RAMBERG i Anthropological Society of bc meee SN Se Pay aa Beate T. DALE STEWART % . Biological Society of Washington......... 0. ccc cece cece eee JoHN W. ALDRICH im Chemical Society of Washington....... Pew aeons CHARLES E. WHITE . Entomological Society of Washington...... gist Gis oabias erat wd C. F. W. MuErSEBECK i ; National Geographic Society...............00008 ee es ALEXANDER WETMORE 7 Geological Society of Washington.............. pa fee Wituiam W. Rusey 4 Medical Society of the District of Columbia....... Sages ees FREDERICK O. CoE Ponts Historical Society. . so. cs cE alec che ou veees GILBERT GROSVENOR . Botanical Society of Washington................2. GO ees RONALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wiiiiam A. Dayton i Washington Society’ Of MnMineers oe ee as Ss ee ok awe CuIFFOoRD A. BETTS ie _ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... nena 8S oto ecg gi bon ab c' atacd oS ei A wid Selec ee cwesiccwans FRANCIS B. SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... Er Se fa ala ae cs Ga aw < ala aia @ s s's'n esis n ga oles ewe avae scent wanes Martin A. Mason ' : Helminthological Society of Washington................005. AUREL O. FosTER pee - Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS | Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER ; . Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY ae Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENCH i Elected Members of the Board of M fonagers: aoe Mergomuany OA on. tie eee oe se Max A. McCautt, Watpo L. Scumirtr 24 CIR ER LOGO: on grave Sev aiuje cacy ao. F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL ES OES @ Ge 05) er ...FRANcIS M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON Boord of Managers... 2 :..... 02... cccees All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors............0 cece cece e ence [See front cover] Executive Committee......... FrEDERIcK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, MRS. 5's oa = oS Wa.po L. Scumitt, Howarp §S. Rappieyse, C. Lewis GaAZIN Cocrinitites STARE! MOEA oe eee uC cra. Wi teense bm alla ews Pee eee Harotp E. McComp (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyTHE CooKkE, WiiiaM . ...-..-W. Dirat, Luoyp D. Fe.itron, Recina FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov Committee on M BOMGS Fre oleh WE a, cin hd bees nies RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), ...... FRANK P. CULLINAN, FRED L. Mounter, Francis O. Rice, FRANK THOND Committee on M ante To January 1949. ....LEwis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN To January 1950..... Pes Sisk eer ou a i a Rotanp W. Brown, HARALD A. REHDER ce Oy SSS gE! St EP eo nn ae Wiuuiam N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeRzFELD, general chairman): NNR IORMERA SELL SESE 55 yardage Sd aa ans w echoe wid plik we Oe wake OKC woe, @ C. F. W. Murseseck (chairman), Harry S. Bernton, CHEesTER W. Emmons, Etmer Higeins, Marto Mouuari, GotrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum For the Engineering Sciences. SP Se TE SAR a ea OCD ai eae ENS peas a Harry Driamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BeRKNER, Rosert C. DuNcaN, HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETz, W. D. Surcurre For the Physical aE i ee Bath ee RS Karu F. Herzretp (chairman), NarHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FELTON, HERBERT Insiey, WiLLIAM J. RooNgEy, RoBeRtT Simua, Micnart X. SULLIVAN muita OM = GTi s-01-Utd JOP ILOGeOTCh 62). o.oo kia lw else eu wae cess nisetvsenase ..F. H. H. Roserts, JR. oon Anna E, Jenkins, J. Leon SHERESHEVSKY Representative on Council of RMN OR Ss ete ag ate sacle aod k Ge a8 FRANK THONE aD TPR SEE OEIS S e ON. e Teee U Lsk oia s Bin) Wage ba aii we slate aN eee ewes Wii1i1am G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, HERBERT L. HALLER oe ee RE a ee ePIC Sea ek oe SNS a Wad ee ea ee A wee eo .. JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. Bates, Witutiam A. WILDHACK f CONTENTS Page Puystcs.—Mass spectra of hydrocarbons. Frep L. Mouumr........ 193 © Botany.—New species of Achaetogeron (Compositae) from Mexico. Estner Gy. LABRBENG'S 2255s 22 oe A ee ee ee 199 ENTOMOLOGY.—Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera). : Hunperr Ross: os) Sos. ae tee 201 Zootocy.—An analysis of specific homonyms in zoological nomen- - clature. RicHarp E. BLACKWELDER.............-..-++.+-+--- 206 PROCEEDINGS: THe ACADEMY (2.240. 332. 252 ceoe talons eee ee 213. OprTuary: George Rogers Mansfield... ............. 0.0.0 cee eeees 223 This Journal! is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals VoL. 38 Jury 18, 1948 No. 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS JAMES I. HorFMAN ALAN STONE FRANK C. KRAcEK NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PLANT QUARANTINE ASSOCIATE EDITORS LAWRENCE A. Woop RicHARD E. BLACKWELDER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. P. E. Morrison JAMES S. WILLIAMS BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Eusert L. Litt ez, JR. Wapo R. WEDEL BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Irt C. SCHOONOVER CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY ” BY THE | oe WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 Aunarp St. at MeNnasHA, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized January 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JOURNAL is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Eachanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. yD y j JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 38 ARCHEOLOGY .—Florida archeology and recent ecological changes.! Goaein, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. municated by W. R. WEDEL.) American archeology in the past few years has turned to several of the natural sciences for aid in dating recent sites and for a fuller understanding of the natural environment in which primitive man played his role. In the Southwest, for example, archeologists have been able to obtain ca- lendric or absolute dates from the study of tree rings (Glock, 1937; Haury, 1935). Pollen analysis, of considerable value in European prehistory, also shows promise of utility in the New World (Sears, 1937). Other methods of dating and interpretation are based upon work done by the geologist and conchologist (Baker, 1937; Richards, 1937). The best results are now being obtained by cooperative research on the part of both archeologists and natural scientists. Two such studies can be briefly summarized: One in Oregon gave a relative date for ar- cheological material sealed in a cave deposit under volcanic ash. The same ash layer was found in peat deposits. By pollen analysis the history of the peat deposit was worked out, and the relative date of this ash layer was determined, which in turn gave an 1 Data used in this paper were gathered as part of the Yale Caribbean Program directed by Dr. Cornelius Osgood. The 1947 summer’s work was done under a fellowship from the Social Science Research Council. Many persons have been very helpful in offering me unpublished data, especially Irving Rouse, Vera M. Masius, and John W. Griffin. Others have generously read and criti- cized the manuscript. For this special thanks are due Frederick Johnson, R. 8. Peabody Founda- tion, Philips Academy, Andover, Mass.; Irving Rouse, Department of Anthropology, Yale Uni- versity; Richard F. Flint, Department of Ge- ology, Yale University; and Martin Burkenroad Newport, North Carolina. Received March 22, 1948. JuLY 15, 1948 No. 7 JoHn M. (Com- upper limit relative date for the archeo- logical material in the cave.? Another recent example of a combined project of this type is the Boylston Street fishweir. In the course of a construction excavation in Boston the remains of a fish- weir were found many feet below the pres- ent surface of the land. The indications are that man lived in the Charles River estuary ‘when the level of the sea in relation to land, was about fifteen feet eight inches lower than it is at the present time”’ (John- son et al., 1942). A more recent joint prob- lem of archeology and botany is the Grassy Island site (Johnson and Raup, 1947).° Approaches like these were originally developed in the Old World where the usual time span involved was much greater.* Al- though American archeologists had been aware of the European results, it was thought until recently that the length of time in which the greatest developments in American cultures took place was too short to have resulted in ecological changes of any importance. It is now realized that while the changes that have taken place in the New World are not so sharp as those in some parts of Europe, such as in Scandi- navia, nevertheless they are present and can be detected by more refined analysis. 2 Symposium on Early Man in Oregon: Cress- man, 1946; Hansen, 1946; Allison, 1946. Han- sen, 1947. 3 As a point of historical interest it can be noted that E. 8. Morse was perhaps one of the first to point out a series of ecological changes in vegeta- tion, species of animals, and erosional factors in a single Maine shell heap (1868; 1925: 430). -4 A complete summary of the methods and re- sults of archeological and geological dating will be found in Zeuner, 1946. 225 fri (f. ‘ ; 2 fA 5 AUG LU pedis 226 The twofold problem facing the archeolo- gist can be briefly summarized as follows: The first phase will necessitate the prepara- tion of a detailed ecological history of late Pleistocene and Recent times covering the climate, the composition and changes in flora and fauna, and the changes in land form, especially the coast line. These are factors directly affecting primitive man on a simple subsistence level. The second problem, of special interest to the archeolo- gist, is Whether any of these changes can be used *for either absolute or comparative dating. A hope for absolute dating possibly lies in the analysis of some constant process such as tree rings or the deposition of sedi- ments like varves or peats, and less likely in sea-level changes. But sea-level changes, as well as ecological changes, do offer hope of comparative correlations with other regions where similar conditions can be observed. The analysis of climatic fluctuations with the attendant floral and faunal changes also offers much hope for comparative correla- tions. This should be especially helpful in Florida where a relatively sharp temperate versus tropical physiographic line can now be drawn. Minor climatic changes, only scantily reflected in either more temperate or tropical regions, probably resulted in appreciable movements of the border line in Florida.’ This meant that abrupt changes often took place in Florida, which necessi- tated adjustment of the biota to the new conditions. In the course of recent archeological work in Florida the writer has noticed a number of situations that may offer valuable infor- mation if they can be considered in detail by competent specialists. It is the object of this paper to bring these situations to the attention of the respective specialists in the hope that they may be stimulated to follow up some of the problems, or to instill an 5 It is probably no accident that the bulk of the comparable data for ecological changes in Eastern United States, mentioned in later sections of this paper, comes from Maine. This too is a physio- graphic boundary area and climatic variances would make appreciable changes here as in Florida. An area in the middle of a large physio- graphic region, Virginia for example, would not be affected by variances which would result in pro- nounced changes in Florida or Maine. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 awareness of the problems in event that similar situations arise in routine biological or geological research. Some of the following situations have been directly observed in the field and others are taken from existing literature. In most cases there is not enough information to formulate concrete conclu- sions. They must be thought of as inter- esting leads offering promise with future detailed work. No attempt has been made to gather similar data from purely natural-history sources or to evaluate the material pre- sented here in terms of other ecological data. To repeat, it is the purpose of this “paper to present evidence of ecological changes that can be related to human ac- tivity in this region for dating purposes. An explanation of the various archeological cultures referred to in this article will be found in a recent paper (Goggin, 1947). A chronological chart from that paper is re- produced here (Fig. 1). Changes in sea level—Careful measure- ments in recent years have brought forth data on the rise of sea level relative to a stable coast line (Flint, 1947: 426-428). In south Florida this rise has been demon- strated by Davis (1940: 402-405; 1946: 180— 181) in his study of the mangrove swamp. It is of interest therefore to be able to correlate this rise in sea level with sites oc- cupied by man. Numerous midden sites in southern Florida, particularly those on the lower east coast, in the Ten Thousand Is- lands, and in the Cape Sable region, which are now small islands in the mangroves, were probably on dry land when first oc- cupied. A good example is one located in the present village of Surfside north of Miami Beach. This site consists of a black dirt and shell midden with an adjacent burial mound made of beach sand. The mid- den site was first occupied in Glades II times, but the burial mound is believed to date from Glades III times (Fig. 1). Pre- vious to the filling operations the site was a small dry, hammock-covered island in the mangrove swamp. Excavation in the burial mound has re- vealed the lowermost group of human bones to be completely below low tide level. No mangrove peat underlies the mound. It is JuLY 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES very unlikely that the burials were made under water and then covered with sand; therefore the sea level must have risen since the burials were deposited. This postulation is substantiated by trenches in the midden part of the site, which show that deposit to be resting on clean beach sand, not man- grove peat. A reconstruction of the history of the site would be as follows: The first occupa- tion here was on the dry inner shore of the beach ridge. Subsequently the rise of sea level inundated the low shoreline and iso- lated the site, which by that time had been built up enough to be above the rising sea. Thus the site became an island which in time was surrounded by a mangrove swamp. Changes 1n ground-water level—In parts of southern Florida there has been an ap- preciable demonstrable rise in ground-water level, which is in some places associated with a deposition of sediments. South Indian Field is a sand midden site LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY RODIvEST one COAS } cenraat cute | Parone FORT WALTON |SAFETY HARBOR COLES CREEK WEEDEN ISLAND |WEEDEN ISLAND Ir pas es ISLAND | WEEDEN ISLAND Pra COAST TROYVILLE SANTA ROSA— | PRE-WEEDEN MARKSVILLE |owiFT GREEK ISLAND DEPTFORD PRE-DEPTFORD (eR) TCHEFUNCTE COPELL (NON- CERAMIC) Fig. 1.—Archeological areas and periods in Florida. The term MANATEE REGION (3) SAFETY HARBOR WEEDEN; ISLAND! WEEDEN ISLAND at) PRE-WEE DEN ISLAND 227 in the valley of the St. Johns River near its head, west of Malabar, Brevard County. This little cabbage-palm hammock is a mound composed of sand and refuse about 3 feet higher than the surrounding sawgrass prairie (Rouse, MS.). Previous to modern drainage water normally surrounded the site, and often only the constricted highest portions were above water. Excavations in the site (Masius, MS.) indicate that the first occupation began here on a level approximately the same as the present surface of the prairie. As refuse ac- cumulated the site was built to its present height. In terms of the archeological picture this site was fairly early, its initial occupa- tion in the Orange Period being about 700 A. D. or earlier (Fig. 1). An interesting problem is posed here (Rouse, MS.). In the light of recent con- ditions, the earliest level of the site could not have been a suitable camp site for the Indians, for it was never dry enough. Even GLADES AREA (4) c GLADES NORTHERN ST. JOHNS MELBOURNE REGION(6) | pe cign (7) ST. JOHNS Ir ST. JOHNS Ir ' SERIES GLADES 0 ST. JOHNS ur ST. JOHNS GLADES I ORANGE TICK ISLAND NON-CERAMIC(?)| NON-CERAMIC as used “Archaic Horizon,”’ - in the text, refers to the Orange, Tick Island, and Nonceramic periods. 228 a short seasonal dry spell or several years of drought would not have given a sufficient period of time for the beginnings of the midden, as the deposit shows no signs of a rapid accumulation which might have en- abled its builders to get above the present water level. Therefore, we have to postu- late a different initial ecological condition, one in which the prairie was completely dry. Since that time the water table has risen and the surrounding area become a marsh. As corroborative evidence for the dry- ness of the locality Rouse (MS8.) has noted that the present surface material of the prairie is sand, but until recently there was a thin layer of muck or peat, which has burned off since drainage. There is no muck under the refuse deposit; so such material must have formed since the development of the site. In addition there are traces of a large number of pits which were dug around the site during the early period of occupa- tion. They seem admirable wells, but other- wise their presence is difficult to account, for. Under present conditions (that is, be- fore drainage) wells are not needed, but if the prairie was once dry they would have been very necessary. Several possible theories to account for the apparent history of this locality can be given, but field study is necessary to deter- mine the true cause. A rise in sea level would result in a higher ground-water table, but this could only account for part of the rise. Increased precipitation would certainly be important, and another possible factor would be the damming up of the St. Johns Valley farther down the river, by the de- velopment of extensive peat beds. Archeological sites in the northern Ever- glades, on the south shore of Lake Okeecho- bee, are found in conditions indicating con- siderable rise in ground water level along with sedimentation. The large midden site at Chosen near Belle Glade has a foot of muck over its edges, while the bottom was two feet below the 1934 ground surface (Stirling, 1935: 374; Willey, MS.). A con- sideration of local muck subsidence prob- ably would increase this depth figure. The midden must have been begun at some period of low water when the Everglades were dry or nearly so, possibly at one of the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 low water stages indicated by Dachnowski- Stokes (1930). At South Bay, to the west of Belle Glade, even deeper archeological sites have been reported.® These are small midden deposits with animal bones and pottery which lay about three feet below the present surface of the muck. A number of these have been noted in the sides of drainage ditches in this region. All appear to be on the same strati- graphic horizon. The reported two-foot subsidence in this region gives an original depth of five feet for these small sites. Like the Belle Glade site, they could not have been formed under anything similar to the modern predrainage conditions, but must have been begun at a relatively dry period. Changes in local ecology.—There is some archeological evidence that coastal lagoons such as the Indian River and Halifax River were once much fresher than in recent years. The Florida Archaic peoples, using fiber- tempered pottery, lived mainly along the St. Johns River, where their large shell middens indicate the use of almost all the available forms of Mollusca and animals for food. Evidence of their residence along the Atlantic coast is scanty but two sites have been examined and one more is reported. These two sites, one near Malabar on the beach ridge (Rouse, MS.) and the other on the west shore of Halifax River north of Ormond (Blatchley, 1902),7 are unique in that they are mainly composed of coquina shells (Donax sp.) with occasional moon shells. Other shells are uncommon but in- clude fresh-water forms and occasional oy- sters. The latter site is an unusually large deposit, being over 100 yards in length and up to 12 feet in depth, while the former is much shallower. The composition of these sites is unusual because other archeological sites on this coast are predominantly formed of oyster shells, with only occasional small pockets of coquina shells. Moreover, the oyster § Personal communication from L. M. Hardy of South Bay, a University of Florida student, July 10, 1947. Unfortunately, high water made it im- possible to examine these sites in the 1947 sum- mer season. 7 Excavations here in the summer of 1947 by the Florida Park Service will give us much more data when the results are studied. JuLy 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES shell heaps are all of the St. Johns I and II periods dating from a.later time (Fig. 1). Therefore, the difference in composition of these sites has temporal significance. It seems probable that if oysters were available in quantity they would have been eaten by the Archaic peoples. They cer- tainly showed little selectivity for foods on the St. Johns, and the occasional oyster shell in the coastal middens indicates that they were used when available. Under pres- ent ecological conditions (before dredging) and for some time previous, judging from the St. Johns I and II shell heaps, oysters were abundant in the coastal lagoons. By inference from their absence in the early sites, it seems probable that at the time these middens were deposited oysters were not available in quantity. A successful oyster habitat is one that has the proper concentration of brackish water; therefore oysters usually grow in large bays and estuaries where fresh water constantly mingles with salt water. If this proper habitat was not available in Archaic times then the water must have been either. too fresh or too salty. The possibility of its being too salty is not so probable in view of the lower sea level, unless there was a period of drought which reduced the supply of fresh water from the interior. It is more probable that the level of the sea was enough lower (perhaps no more than a couple of feet) to allow fresh water or only slightly brackish water to stand in these shallow lagoons. A similar situation could be the result of greater runoff, from in- creased precipitation, in the feeding streams. However, the shallowness of these coastal lagoons favors the former theory. Rein- forcing evidence for this is the fact that a slightly lower sea level would be accom- panied by a steeper gradient in the streams emptying into the lagoons, which would probably have resulted in a greater dis- charge of fresh water. In this flat country with the short streams such a change in gradient would be of importance. _ Another possible explanation for the fresh- ness of lagoon water takes into considera- tion the alternate opening and closing of inlets along the coast. This is an observed situation noted from the late eighteenth 229 century (Romans, 1775: 287) to the present. However, inlet closing would produce purely local phenomena while we are deal- ing with areas as far apart as Ormond and Malabar, but which appear to share the same ecological situations. Another possibility, which seems least probable to the writer, is that there was little or no change in depth and salinity of the coastal lagoons and that the absence of oysters must be due to other causes. In event of such a situation the possibility of some catastrophe killing the oysters cannot be ignored. Cold waves, salinity changes, and micro-organisms are known to have caused much damage among fish, although the damage to invertebrates is not well known (Gunter, 1947). Such disasters would be much more severe in the coastal lagoons than along the open Atlantic. Thus Mol- lusca such as the coquina would be less damaged. It has been suggested (personal com- munication, Martin Burkenroad, January 1948) that considerable time might have been necessary after the water had reached the proper salinity before oysters would have been numerous. This would have de- pended on the nature of the bottom; neither a very sandy nor a very muddy situation would have been conducive to a rapid growth of oyster beds. Under such conditions they would have developed slowly until the dead shells finally produced the proper base for an extensive growth. In summary we can reconstruct the situ- ation as follows: In late Archaic times—the Orange and Tick Island periods (Fig. 1)— there was little occupation of the north At- lantic coast of Florida. The few people there made shell middens of coquina shells gathered on sandy beaches. Because the coastal lagoons were too fresh, oysters were not common. In a few localities, perhaps at the mouths of inlets, some oysters were available and these were eaten when found. The freshness of the coastal lagoons may have been due to a number of factors, but the most probable is the lower sea level, with the possibility of increased precipita- tion being an additional factor. The problem of local ecological changes has been considered to some extent in 230 studies of the famous Vero and Melbourne sites. Data on these finds are being reex- amined and evaluated by Irving Rouse (MS.) in terms of the newer ecological studies. It is probable that the history of these sites is closely tied to changes in the Indian River. In the northern Everglades around the south shore of Lake Okeechobee, peat pro- file studies have disclosed considerable local ecological changes (Dachnowski-Stokes, 1930). Alternate low and high water stages are indicated by the sediments. This is mentioned here because of the evidence of deep archeological sites in these sediments (see the previous section). Unfortunately it is not clear if these variances represent local shoreline or other conditions or whether they are an expression of a broader climatic fluctuation. An examination of the biota of these beds might be fruitful. Changes in faunal composition.—The West Indies top shell, Lzvona pica Linnaeus, is an abundant shell in many middens along the lower east coast of Florida. It has been seen in almost every archeological site ex- amined between Key Largo and Sugarloaf Key in Monroe County and in numerous sites from Hillsborough Inlet north to Singers Island in Palm Beach County. This distribution coincides with the range of favorable habitat; that is, a rocky shore. These sites were occupied by the Indians in Glades II and III times, circa 1000-1500 AD (Ris 1)t The presence of this shell is of consider- able interest because, with the exception of a couple of doubtful records, this mollusk is not now found in Florida (Clench and Abbott, 1943:9). The present range of the species is the West Indies, and the nearest modern occurrence is their reported pres- ence on Dog Rocks, Cay Sal Bank, not far southeast of the Florida Keys. What is the significance of their presence? The large quantity of shell found» in the sites and the close correlation of their oc- currence with their natural rock shore habi- tat suggests that the shells were locally collected, presumably for food, in the im- mediate vicinity of the sites. It is of interest to the archeologist whether their extinction JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 in Florida can be attributed to man, to disease, or possibly to some environmental change which caused the animal to contract its range. If the last is the answer, was it purely a local manifestation or was it an expression of a broader change? Examples of Anodonta imbecillis Say (probably specimens of a local species closely related to A. imbecillis), a fresh- water shell, are described from the Ormond Archaic midden. Blatchley (1902: 72-74) cites Simpson to the effect that the present range of this mollusk is not south of North Carolina. On the Florida Gulf Coast the Strombus gigas Linnaeus, is not now present, although there are records of dead shells or occasional specimens.*® However, they are reported to occur in shell mounds at Cedar Keys (Cal- kins, 1878: 228; Ecker, 1878: 101). No shells of this species were seen in shell middens here in the course of a brief visit to this region, but a more intensive study may con- firm their presence. Most of these sites were occupied subsequent to 1000 A.D.° Vertebrate remains have not generally been carefully identified in Florida arche- ology, but one excellent study does point out differences in faunal composition. At South Indian Field, west of Malabar, a wide variety of vertebrate bones were 8 Worn dead specimens have been noted at Sanibel and Captiva Islands (Perry, 1940: 135). Strombus costatus rarely occurs in the vicinity of Tampa Bay (Simpson, 1887-89: 53). 9 Evidence from other regions in the New World indicates that similar molluscan faunal changes have taken place in recent times. Oysters form a large part of Maine shell heaps, although they are now uncommon in that area. The scallop Pecten sp. is also found in these shell heaps al- though it now lives from Cape Cod to the south- ward, and the clam Mercenaria mercenaria is at present rare north of Cape Cod although it is abundant in Maine shell heaps (Morse, 1925: 430). In shellheaps on the Pear] Islands, west of the Isthmus of Darién, there were found three species of shells, Strombus peruvianus, Ostrea chilensis, and Solen (Tagelus) dombeyi, which do not have that northern range at the present time. To com- plicate things further there was found another species, Venus (Ventricola) rugosa, whose present habitat is the Antilles (Linné, 1929: 128-129). On the Rio Preto, a tributary of the Rio Grande da Conceicéo in Brazil, Azara sp. shells were found (in middens) which are of a form not now occurring in the surrounding region (Koenigs- wald, 1905: 346; also see Serrano, 1946, Ihering, 1903, and Krone, 1914). - JuLY 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES identified (Houck, MS.). Among them was an unworked jaw fragment of a beaver, Castor sp., found in the early Orange period (Fig. 1). This animal is not now found in the vicinity of the site, although beavers were reported in unspecified localities in northern Florida in Colonial times.’ Remains of the great auk have been found in a shell heap near Ormond (Hitch- cock, 1902; Blatchley, 1902). Details of the find are lacking, but the identification is apparently well confirmed."! This is the same site previously mentioned which was recently excavated by the Florida Park Service. Changes in faunal size-—Jeffries Wyman (1875: 14) first pointed out that Ampullaria and Paludina shells (now known as Poma- cea and Viwiparus respectively) much larger than those now known, were to be found in shell heaps on the St. Johns River. He gives measurements which illustrate this clearly. Clarence B. Moore substantiated Wyman’s findings by discovering even larger ex- amples. However, he went further, pointing out that there has been considerable change in shell size, with the oldest and most modern being similar in size, while those of an intermediate period were larger (Moore, 1892: 921-922; 1893: 115). It has not been possible to equate pre- cisely Moore’s old, middle, and late periods of shell change with the present chronology (Fig. 1), but a rough approximation is pos- sible. There is little question that the first or oldest period with small size shells is the equivalent of the preceramic horizon, for he clearly states this. The period with the largest shells certainly includes in part the Orange and Tick Island horizons (see the Orange Mound, Moore, 1893: 616). How- ever, the other sites listed by Moore as having large shells appear to have been oc- cupied in part into St. Johns II times. Whether these large shells occur in that late horizon is not clear. But it does appear from the data that at least by some time in 10 7¢ may be noted that an extinct form of mink has been described from Maine shell heaps (Prentiss, 1903; Loomis, 1911). u Although the great auk has long been extinct in New England, bones of the bird are very com- ae Maine shell heaps (Loomis and Young, 12). 231 the St. Johns II horizon, the large size shells disappeared and the mollusks re- verted to a size comparable to that now attained. In association with the large size Viv7- parus georgianus of the middle period was a new form Viviparus georgianus var. altior Pilsbry (1892: 142). Moore (1892: 922) notes that the proportions of aperture to height of the Viviparus changed, but it is not clear whether this new variety represents the change or whether it is within the regular Vwiparus georgianus.'? Data on mammals are limited, but deer bones from South Indian Field appear to represent individuals much larger and more massive than the present range of Florida deer. The remains of the round-tailed musk- rat, Neofiber allent True, are also much larger than contemporary forms, so much so that Houck (MS.) has expressed the pos- sibility that they may represent a new variety. Climatic change as evidenced by vegetation. —The well-known royal palms on the St. Johns River reported by Bartram (1940: 113) are a good example of what may be a recent climatic change in the past 200 years. The modern (circa 1900) natural range of the royal palm is twofold. One area of scattered occurrences is from Little River, Dade County, south and westward beyond Royal Palm Park to the Cape Sable region. In this spread of distribution they are closely associated with tropical vegetation. The other region is the southern end of Fakahatchee Slough or Strand in Collier County. Here the palms flourish in great numbers, reaching 80 to 100 feet in height, but in a temperate cypress and water-oak association. Strangely enough, a thatch palm is also found here. Between these two areas is the small group of palms on Lostmans River. The most obvious explanation for the presence of the royal palms on the St. Johns would be that they made their northern extension during a warm period and then held on in favorable localities 12 Comparable changes in proportion have been noted in Maine shell heaps and elsewhere in the world in other species of shells (Morse, 1882; 1925). 232 until cold weather finally killed them off, moving their range southward. It is pos- sible that, once established, they can sur- vive a long time in a nontropical environ- ment (as in Collier County), and that the climatic change that resulted in their ex- tinction in north Florida actually was begun sometime before Bartram’s visit in 1773. CONCLUSIONS A series of situations has been presented showing changes in the Recent ecology of Florida. These were either observations of early travelers or are data derived from archeological excavation. The changes in- cluded differences in sea level, coastal ecology, and in flora and fauna. At best, much of the value of these data is to awaken interest and to stimulate further work. Because of the nonscientific method of gathering, most of the changes described can not be used for critical work. However, many of these finds could be du- plicated under controlled collecting con- ditions. The work at South Indian Field can serve as a model for further work, especially when biological and geological specialists are in- cluded in the research program. At this site every fragment of animal bone was saved and when possible was identified (Masius, MS8.; Houck, MS.). As a result, strati- graphic data, which are tied to the cultural sequence can be given for the animal re- mains. The detailed survey and testing of Rouse (MS.) clearly bring out the unusual nature of the site in relation to the physical environment. The future of Recent ecological work in Florida appears to be promising. The very nature of the environment on the border between tropical and temperate zones, plus a long low coastline must have resulted in many changes since the Pleistocene. It is probable that this survey has pointed out only a small amount of the information to be derived in conjunction with archeologi- cal work. To gain the utmost ecological data from archeological work will require real coopera- tion. The archeologist whose interest is usually only cultural history is loath to collect all animal materials. He has found JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ‘GoaeiIn, JOHN M. VOL. 38, NO. 7 from experience that few naturalists are equipped to identify or even interested in identifying zoological .material, which is often in very fragmentary condition. How- ever, if given any encouragement he will probably be found eager to cooperate in col- lecting non-cultural material, for the ar- cheological awareness of their value is grow- ing. BIBLIOGRAPHY ALLISON, Ira 8. Pluvial lakes and pumice. Monthly 42: 63-65. 1946. BAKER, FRANK C. Pleistocene land and fresh water Mollusca as indicators of time and eco- logical conditions. In ‘“‘Early Man,” edited by G. G. MacCurdy: 67-74. 1937. BarTRAM, WiiuramM. The travels of William Bartram. New York, 1940. BLaTCcHLEY, W.8. A nature wooing at Ormond by the Sea. Indianapolis, 1902. CaLkins, W. W. Some notes of personal in- vestigation among the shell mounds of Flor- ida. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci. 2: 225-229. 1878. CrencuH, W. J., and Apsott, R. Tucker. The genera Gaza and Livona in the western At- lantic. Johnsonia (12). Cambridge, 1943. CrESsMAN, L. 8. Stratigraphic evidence. Sci. Monthly 42: 48-51. 1946. DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, ALFRED P. Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida The strati- graphic features of the ‘‘Upper” Everglades and Sci. correlation with environmental changes. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 89-106. 1930. Davis, JoHN H., Jr. The ecology and geologic role of mangroves in Florida. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 517. 1940. The peat deposits of Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. Geol. Bull. 30. Tallahassee, 1946. Ecker, A. Zur Kenntniss des Kérperbaues friiherer Einwohner der Halbinsel Florida. Arch. fiir Anthrop. 10: 101-114. 1878. EIsELY, LOREN C. Pollen analysis and its bear- ing upon American prehistory. Amer. Antiq. 5: 115—139. 1939. Fuint, Ricuarp F. Glacial geology and _ the Pleistocene epoch. New York, 1947. A preliminary definition of archeological areas and periods in Florida. Amer. Antiq. 13: 114-127. 1947. Guock, W.S. Principles and methods of tree ring analysis. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 486. 1937. HANSEN, Henry P. Pollen analysis and post- glacial climaie and chronology. Sci. Monthly 42: 52-62. 1946. Postglacial forest succession, climate, and chronology in the Pacific Northwest. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soe. 37(1). 1947. Haury, E. W. Tree rings, the archeologist’s tume piece. Amer. Antiq. 1: 98-108, 1935. ——_---»~_ - JuLy 15, 1948 Hitrcucocx, C. H. The Hernandes shell-heap, Ormond, Florida. Science 16: 203. 1902. Houck, Marcaret Van WINKLE. Animal re- mains in kitchen-middens from South Indian Field, Florida. MS., Yale Peabody Mu- seum, New Haven, Conn. IHERING, HERMAN VON. A origem dos Samba- quis. Rev. Inst. Hist. e Geogr. Brazil 8: 446-457. 1903. JOHNSON, FREDERICK, ET AL. The Boylesion Street fishweir. Papers Robert 8. Peabody Foundation for Archeology 2. 1942. JOHNSON, FREDERICK, and Ravup, HucH M. Grassy Island. Archeological and botanical investigations of an Indian site in the Taunton River, Massachusetts. Papers Robert S. Peabody Foundation for Archeology 1(2). 1947. Die indianischen Globus 87: KOENIGSWALD, GUSTAV VON. Muschelberge in Svidbrasilien. 341-347, 1905. Krone, Ricarpo. Informacées ethnographicas do valle do Rio Ribeira de Iguapé. Bol. Com. Geogr.e Geol. Estado de Sao Paulo. 1914. Linn, 8. © Darien in the past. Géteborgs Kungl. Vet. Vitter-Samh. Handl. Femte Fdéljden, ser. A, 1(3). 1929. Loomis, F. B. New mink from the shell heaps of Maine. Amer. Journ, Sci., ser. 4, 31: 227— 229. . 1911. Loomis, F. B., and Youne, D. B. On the shell heaps in Maine. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, 34: 17-42. 1912. Masius, VERA M. Chronology at South Indian Field, Florida. MS., Yale Peabody Mu- seum, New Haven Conn. Moore, CLARENCE B. Certain shell heaps of the St. John’s River, Florida, hitherto unex- plored. Amer. Nat. 26: 912-922. 1892. . Idem. Amer. Nat. 27: 8-13, 113-117, 605-624, 708-723. 1893. Idem. Amer. Nat. 28: 15-26. 1894. Morss, E. S. LHvidences of great antiquity in the shell heaps at. Goose Island. Proc. Boston CHEMISTRY.— Purification of uranium oxide.! Bureau of Standards. Early in the summer of 1941 Leo Szilard? gave a sample of impure uranyl nitrate to the author and requested that the uranium be separated from everything else. It was his desire to obtain the residue, after the 1 Received April 28, 1948. The information covered in this paper will appear at a later date in Division VIII of the Manhattan Project Techni- cal Series. 2 Member of Power Production Subsection of the Uranium Committee. See Atomic Energy, by pewy D. Smyth, Princeton University Press, 1945. HOFFMAN: PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE 233 Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 301-302. 1868. . Changes in Mya and Lunatia since the deposition of the New England shell heaps. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 30: 345. 1882. Shell-mounds and changes in the shell. composing them. Sci. Monthly 21: 429-440. 1925. Perry, Louise M. west coast of Florida. (95). 1940. PiusBry, Henry A. Preliminary notices of new forms of fresh water shells. Nautilus 3: 142- 143. 1892. Prentiss, D. W. Description of an extinct mink from the shell heaps of the Mainecoast. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 26: 887-888. 1903. RicHaRDs, Horace G. Marine Pleistocene mol- lusks as indicators of tume and ecclogical con- ditions. In ‘‘Early Man,” edited by G. G. MacCurdy: 75-84. Philadelphia, 1937. RoMaANSs, BERNARD. A concise natural history of east and west Florida. New York, 1775. Rousse, Irvine. An introduction to the archeol- ogy of the Melbourne region, Florida. MS., Yale Peabody Museum, New Haven, Conn. SERRANO, ANTONIO. The Sambaquis of the Bra- zilian coast. Handbook of South American Indians (Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 143) 1: 401-407. 1946. Simpson, CHARLES T. Contributions to the Mol- lusca of Florida. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci. 5: 45-72. 1887-89. WILLEY, GorRDON R. Excavations in southeast Florida. MS., Yale Peabody Museum and Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith- sonian Institution, New Haven and Wash- Marine shells of ihe south- Bull. Amer. Pal. 26 ington. WYMAN, JEFFRIES. Fresh-water shell mounds of ithe St. John’s River, Florida. Peabody Acad. Sci. Mem. 4. Salem, 1875. ZEUNER, FREDERICK E. Dating the past, an in_ troduction to geochronology. London, 1946. JAMES I. Horrman, National removal of uranium, for measurements of neutron absorption. During the same period samples of impure uranium oxide were sent to the National Bureau of Standards for chemical analysis. For both purposes it was desirable to use a solvent that would dis- solve the bulk of the uranium without dis- solving any of the other substances. The solubility of uranyl nitrate in ethyl ether, first reported by E. Peligot,*? suggested its 3 Ann. Chim. Phys. (3) 5: 5. 1842. 234 use for extraction of uranium as the nitrate, somewhat as ether is used in steel analysis for the extraction of ferric chloride. This extraction had been successfully applied in 1939 for separating uranyl nitrate from rhenium and certain rare earths in work on the determination of rhenium and molyb- denum,* but, because of the conflicting statements concerning the solubility of the rare earth nitrates in ether,® it was obvious that experimental work was necessary, es- pecially since Szilard stated that certain members of the rare earth group are strong neutron absorbers. The work herein described is not intended to give the procedure finally used in large- scale production of uranium or the methods used in the various laboratories of the Man- hattan Area. Many improvements in pro- cedure have been made since this prelimi- nary work was done. EXPERIMENTAL The bulk of the uranium was extracted with ether from 100 g of uranyl nitrate, UO.(NO3)2.6H20, to which had been added 5 ml of water and “rare earth” nitrates (equivalent to 0.0084 g of oxides) contain- ing cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, -holmium, erbium, ytterbium, lutecium, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and tho- rium. After removal of most of the uranium, the combined “rare earths’? were deter- mined in the residual water solution by pre- cipitating them as fluorides, converting the fluorides to sulphates, then precipitating as oxalates, and igniting the oxalates to ‘‘rare earth’’ oxides. These oxides weighed 0.0086 g. In this particular case the uranium ex- tracted by the ether was not examined for 4 Kther extraction of uranyl nitrate actually was first suggested to the author by the work of W. F. Hillebrand, U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 78: 47. 1891, and such extractions were in use in our laboratory during the 1930’s. Although the fact that uranyl nitrate could be extracted with ethyl ether was known for many years prior to the work recorded in this paper (see references in footnotes 3 and 5), data on the neutron-absorbing elements in atomic-energy work were of course not avail- able. 5 R. C. Weuts, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 146. 1930; F. Soppy and R. Prrret, Phil. Mag. (6) 20: 345. 1910; W. F. HiLLEBRaANpD, U.S. Geol."Surv. Bull) 78) 470 's9le (CW... Davis: Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 11: 20. 1926. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 impurities, but 1t was evident that extrac- tion of uranyl nitrate with ether should be a good starting point for the purification of uranium. To obtain a quick answer to the possi- bility of using ether for the purification of uranium a nitric-acid solution of the ele- ments listed in mixture A® in nitric-acid solution was evaporated as far as possible on the steam bath. The dry residue was ex- tracted with 100 ml of ether, the ether was washed twice with 5 drops of water, and then the uranium in the ether was con- verted to oxide. . Qualitative spectrochemical analysis showed that this oxide contained only cal- clum, magnesium, and silicon, besides ura- nium. These encouraging results prompted further experiments, which formed the basis for the procedure given in the following section. PROCEDURE USED FOR THE PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE Fifty grams of U3;03 was transferred to a 600-ml beaker, 75 ml of diluted nitric acid (1 volume of concentrated nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.42, diluted with 1 volume of water) was added, and the beaker was placed on the steambath until all action ceased. The in- soluble matter was removed by filtration, and the residue was washed four or five times with diluted nitric acid (1 volume of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.42, diluted with 20 volumes of water). The filtrate and wash- ings containing the uranyl nitrate were evaporated to dryness on the steambath. To the cooled and dried residue in the beaker 5 ml of water and 100 ml of ethyl ether were added, and the beaker was swirled until the uranyl nitrate was dissolved. The large quantities of impurities caused the aqueous phase in the bottom of the beaker to have the appearance of an emulsion, but this did not interfere in separating the layers be- 6 Mixture A consisted of 2.5 g of uranium metal dissolved in an excess of nitric acid. To this was added as nitrates 2.5 mg each of copper, anti- mony, lead, aluminum, lithium, zirconium, indium, gallium, bismuth, potassium, dysprosium, cadmium, gadolinium, chromium, magnesium, holmium, cobalt, tin, calcium, and 10 mg of a mixture of ‘“‘rare earths’? known to contain cerium, lanthanum, scandium, praseodymium, thorium, and yttrium. JuLy 15, 1948 cause it was possible to pour the ether into a separatory funnel without mixing with the water layer. The beaker was washed three times with 5-ml portions of ether, which were likewise transferred to the separatory funnel. The HOFFMAN: PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE 235 funnel was stoppered and shaken vigorously for 3 to 1 minute. After allowing the liquid to stand 3 minutes, a few drops of water appeared in the bottom of the separatory funnel. This water was drained into the beaker that originally contained the ether TABLE 1.—SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS! OF PRODUCTS OBTAINED IN THE PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE OR URANIUM FROM ORE CONCENTRATES BY THE PROCEDURE DESCRIBED HEREIN Carnotite ore? Pitchblende ore? U306 #155 U30s 7181 concentrate concentrate Ele- ge Original Water Purified Original Water Purified Oneal U303 On nae ee U;303 oxide extract oxide oxide extract oxide centrate | Obtained | centrate | obtained aaa eee Ag T W at VW WwW T it any ale T Al VW W VW VW W VW N) — S) — As WwW M — WwW WwW — = == Ne ane Au = T — Vw VW — at — — = B T VW = at W 7 — 1 a = Ba — — — —— VS — M — W — Be — — — — = = = = VW a i VW W VW W — == — W — Ca VS W — W M Lh VS ah Ss — Cb — — — Cd — — = = = = = — — — Ce — W — — W — Co — _. — W M — WwW — Vw me ee — VW = — VS oa — — At _ Ss —— — — — — —— Cu Vw M ae W M a aly 4h Th ae Dy — Ss — — S — Er — M — — M — Eu — M — _ M — Fe WwW M Vw W M Vw NS) M S — Ga = — = Gd — M — — M = Ge — — — — ase = | = = = = Hf — — — | = — — — Hg — — — = a = — = — Ho — M — — M — — — — — In — — _ = Vw — —— — — — Ir — — — K ap W — Ww M — La — aT — — Tr = — — Li — a — — Vw — Lu = Vw a= — VW — Mg W WwW oT W W Vw M dk M 4h Mn VW W — W W — WwW — y = Mo W M W WwW M — — — Vw a Na WwW M ap M S it Nd — WwW — _ Ww — Ni = Vw = Vw W a — — — — Os — — — = — — 12 et VW W — WwW M — Vw — M — Pr — W — W — iby — — _. _ WwW —_ — Ra Rb — — — — = — Re — — — — — — Rh Ru — — = = — — Sb WwW M — W M — — — — Se — W — _. WwW — Si M M Vw M W Ww S VW Ww Vw Sm — W oa — W — Sn — VW — —= — — — — Vw —- ’ Sr — _—. — Vw — W — VW — Ta — — — — — Tb — M M — Te Th — — — — — — a Siat 4 Ti — — — — “ Tl — a — — — — — — Ww — Tm — WwW — — WwW — — — U VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS V Vw W — VS VS WwW — WwW — — — WwW —— Y — VS — — vs = M — Yb _ M | — — M — Notr.—The designations VS and S correspond to major constituents (greater than 1 percent); M and W to minor constituents (1 to 0.01 percent); and VW, T, and FT to trace constituents (less than 0.01 percent). The absence of a designation indicates that a test was not made for that element. 1 By V. F. Scribner and H. R. Mullin. 2 The water extracts contained rare earths, but no attempt was made to identify them individually. 236 solution. Five ml of water was now added to the solution in the separatory funnel, the mixture was shaken vigorously, and the solution was again allowed to stand until two layers formed. The aqueous phase was drained into the beaker that originally con- tained the ether solution. The washing with another 5-ml portion of water was repeated once more. To convert the purified uranyl nitrate to oxide a little water was added to the ether, the ether was cautiously evaporated, and the residue was ignited to U30s at 1000°C. It was afterward found preferable to add 20 ml of water to the ether solution, shake vigorously for 1 minute, and allow the liquid to separate into two layers. The water layer containing the uranium was drained into a suitable dish, and the extraction with 20-m1 portions of water was repeated until the ether above the water was colorless. Three or four such extractions were suffi- cient to remove the uranium. The combined water extracts were evaporated to dryness, and the uranyl nitrate in the residue was ignited to U30, at 1000°C. The ether from which the uranyl nitrate had been removed was suitable for future extractions. The procedure was also applied to the extraction of uranium from pitchblende and carnotite ore concentrates by digesting the ore concentrate with nitric acid, evapo- rating to dryness, and extracting the residue with ether. The efficacy of this method of purification is shown in Table 1. The table shows that in many cases impurities that were not detected in the original oxide were concentrated and detected in the water ex- tract. Note especially Ce, Co, Cr, Dy, Er, Eu, Gd, Ho; la; bu, Nd, Pr Sey Sm,-lb; Tm, and Y. BOTAN Y.—Notes on North American U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the course of routine identification of collections of Leguminosae sent to the U.S. Department of Agriculture over a period of several years the advisability of proposing the following transfers and changes in status has become apparent. Included also is a 1 Received March 25, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 DISCUSSION It was evident that the purification of crude uranium oxide and the removal of uranium from ore concentrates by conver- sion of the uranium to uranyl nitrate and extraction with ether had possibilities be- cause practically all impurities were re- moved in a single operation. Tests by L. F. Curtiss’ indicate that practically none of the radium in the original ore was extracted by the ether. Under stress of wartime conditions not all the possible confirmatory tests were made, but, as a check on removal of the rare earths, the purified oxides obtained from no. 155 and no. 181, Table 1, were put through a second purification by the same procedure. The water extracts in this case showed no rare earths. Tests by K. D. Fleischer indicated that if 0.5 mg of ‘‘rare earth” oxides had remained in the purified oxide, a positive test would have been ob- tained here. These tests showed also that by this simple procedure the combined ‘“‘rare earths” in the purified oxide were reduced to less than 5 parts per million. The spectrochemical tests showed that not more than 0.5 part of cadmium or boron per million remained in the purified mate- rial. . SUMMARY A procedure is given for the purification of uranium oxide by converting the oxide to the nitrate and partitioning the nitrate between a large amount of ether and a rela- tively small amount of water. In modified form, the procedure was found to be appli- cable to pitchblende and carnotite ore con- centrates, as indicated in Table 1. 7 Chief of Section on Radioactivity at the Na- tional Bureau of Standards. Leguminosae.! FREDERICK J. HERMANN, diagnosis for an apparently hitherto un- described Phaseolus from Mexico. Acacia schaffneri (S. Wats.), comb. nov. Pithecolobium schaffnert S. Wats., Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 352. 1882; Samanea schaffneri Mac- bride, Contr. Gray Herb. 59: 2. 1919; Poponaz Juny 15, 1948 schaffnert Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 89. 1928. Acacia pinetorum, nom. nov. Vachellia peninsularis Small, Man. Southeastern Flora 654. 1933; not Acacia peninsularis (Britton & Rose) Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 11: 158. 1936, based on Senegalia peninsularis Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 116. 1928. Schrankia angustisiliqua (Britton & Rose), comb. nov. Leptoglottis angustisiliqua Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 143. 1928. Schrankia chapmani (Small ex Britton & Rose), comb. nov. Leptoglottis chapmani Small ex Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 141. 1928. Desmanthus pringlei (Britton & Rose), comb. nov. Acuan pringler Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 134. 1928. Caesalpinia colimensis, nom. nov. Brasilettia glabra Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 321. 1920, not Caesalpinia glabra (Mill.) Merrill, Philipp. Journ. Sci. 5: 54. 1910. Caesalpinia pumila (Britton & Rose), comb. nov. Guaymasia pumila Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 322. 1930; Caesalpinia gracilis Benth. ex Hemsi., Diag. PJ. Nov. 9. 1878, not Migs) Bl, Ind. Bat, 1: 110. 1855. Dalea tuberculina (Rydb.), comb. nov. Parosela tuberculina Rydb., N. Amer. Flora 24: 89. 1920. Petalostemum candidum Michx., var. oligo- phyllum (Torr.), comb. nov. Petalostemum gracile var. oligophyllum Torr. in Emory, Notes Mil. Rec. 139. 1848; P. candidus var. occidentalis Gray ex Heller in Britton & Kearney, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 14: 33. 1895; Petalostemon oligophyllus ‘‘Torr.,’”’ Smyth, Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 15: 61. 1898; P. oc- cidentale (Gray) Fernald, Rhodora 39: 28. 1937. Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers., var. leuco- sericea (Rydb.), comb. nov. Cracca leucosericea Rdyb., N. Amer. Flora 24: 163. 1923; Tephrosia leucosericea (Rydb.) Cory, Rhodora 38: 406. 1936. Tephrosia ambigua (M. A. Curtis) Chapm., var. intermedia (Small), comb. nov. Cracca intermedia Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 21: —- 3038. 1894. HERMANN: NOTES ON NORTH AMERICAN LEGUMINOSAE 237 Astragalus tenellus Pursh, var. strigulosus (Rydb.), comb. nov. Homalobus strigulosus Rydb., Bull. Torr. Bot Club 34: 420. 1907; Astragalus tenellus f. strigulosus Macbr., Contr. Gray Herb. 65: 34. 1922. Astralagus michauxii (Kunize). comb. nov. Tragacantha michauzii Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 941. 1891; A. glaber Michx. 1803, not Lam. 1783. Astragalus ceramicus Sheld., var. filifolius (Gray), comb. nov. Astragalus pictus var. filifolius A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 6: 215. 1864; Psoralea longifolia -Pursh, F]. Amer. Sept. 741. 1841, not Astra- galus longifolius Lam. 1783; Astragalus mito- phyllus Kearney, Leafl. W. Bot. 4 (8): 216. 1945. The above combination is necessitated by the fact that Gray’s Astragalus pictus (Proc. Amer. Acad. 6: 214. 1864) is a later homonym of the validly published A. pictus Boiss..& Guillardot in Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient. Ser. 2, 3 (6): 55. 1859, so that A. ceramicus Sheld. must be taken up in its stead for our American plant. Although Dr. Kearney’s epithet is avail- able for Gray’s var. filifolius when treated in specific rank, the proportion of specimens in- termediate between it and A. ceramicus that have come to the attention of the writer leads to the conclusion that varietal status may be more appropriate for it. Centrosema arenicola (Small), comb. nov. Bradburya arenicola Small, Fl. Southeastern U. S. 651. 1903. . Desmodium arenicola (Vail), comb. nov. Meibomia arenicola Vail, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23: 140. 1896; Hedysarum lineatum Michx., FI. Bor. Amer. 2: 72. 1803, not L. 1759; Des- modium lineatum (Michx.) DC., Prodr. 2: 330. 1825. Although the name Desmodium lineatum (Michx.) DC. has been in general use for this plant it can be maintained only in spite of Article 61. An unfortunate consequence of this rule, as it now stands, is that a later homonym is rendered permanently hors de combat, even though the specific epithet upon transference to another genus would not constitute a homo- nym in its new context. 238 Rhynchosia simplicifolia (Walt.) Wood, var. intermedia (T. & G.), comb. nov. Rhynchosia tomentosa B intermedia T. & G., N. Amer. F]. 1: 285. 1838; R. intermedia (T. & G.) Small, Man. Southeastern Flora 715. 1933. Phaseolus neglectus, sp. nov. Herba volubilis; stipulis lineari-oblongis, 3—5 nervis, 5-6 mm longis, rigidis; stipellis lineari- oblongis, 2-3 mm longis; foliolis deltoideo- acuminatis vulgo plus minusve lobatis; pedun- culis 5-11 cm longis: bracteis persistentibus, rigidis, 6-9 mm longis, 5-nerviis, subtus ple- rumque pilosis: pedicellis tenuibus glabratis; bracteolis caducis, uninerviis; calyce campanu- lato-cupuliformi; corolla 20 mm longa; vexillo obovato, valde emarginato; alis orbiculari- ovatis; ovario dense piloso. Herbaceous vine; stems slender, sparsely puberulous with reflexed hairs to glabrate; stipules linear-oblong, 3-5 nerved, 5-6 mm long, rigid; petioles puberulous to glabrate, 3-6 cm long; stipels linear-oblong, rigid, 2-3 mm long; leaflets 3, membranaceous, deltoid- acuminate, sparsely puberulent above, glabrous to sparsely puberulent beneath, 2-6 cm long, 2-4.5 cm wide, lobed (often only shallowly so or even entire), the median 3-lobed, the lateral 2-lobed, the lobes round-ovate and generally shallow; peduncles slender, 5-11 cm long, 11— 25-flowered; bracts persistent, green, lanceo- late-acuminate, firm, 5-nerved, generally more or less pilose beneath, sparingly so to glabrate above, 6-9 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide at base; MYCOLOGY.—Two new species of Physarum.! of Iowa. The two species of Physarum here noted were included in the extensive collections of Myxomycetes made by William Bridge Cooke on Mount Shasta, Calif., and sub- mitted by him for identification. One of them proves to be identical with two old collections from Mount Rainier, Wash., which have been in this laboratory for many years awaiting determination. Both appear to be clearly distinct from any recognized species in this large genus. 1 Received November 5, 1947. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 pedicels slender, glabrate, 3.5-5 mm long; bracteoles caducous, green, narrowly linear- lanceolate, one-nerved, glabrous, 2—-2.5 mm long; calyx campanulate-cupuliform, 2.5-3.5 (lower lip up to 5) mm long, very sparingly ciliolate, the lower lip irregularly pilose, promi- nently 3-lobed with median lobe 2.5 mm long, acute, upper lip very shallowly 2-lobed; corolla 20 mm long, pale salmon to light blue; standard obovate, 16 mm long, 12 mm wide, deeply emarginate, the upper half reflexed; wings orbicular-ovate, abruptly contracted into a broad claw, its lower half adnate to the keel; keel tubular, with two complete coils; free stamen with a reniform enlargement above the base; style-beard extending around the first coil; stigma lateral; ovary linear, densely pilose. Nuevo Leén, Mexico in oak woods along trail up Sierra de la Cebolla from La Trinidad, Municipio de Montemorelos, C. H. Muller 2881, Aug. 20, 1939 (Typr—U. S. National Arboretum Herbarium). Nearest allied to Phaseolus foliaceus Piper, of the Sierra Madre. From this it differs in its longer, linear-oblong, rather than triangular- lanceolate stipules; its 5-nerved, linear-lanceo- late bracts which are pilose below; its shallowly lobed leaflets; longer peduncles bearing ra- cemes with more numerous flowers; campanu- late-cupuliform calyx which is almost imper- ceptibly ciliolate; corolla 20, rather than 10, mm long; obovate, deeply emarginate stand- ard; and orbicular-ovate wings. G. W. Martin, State University Physarum rubronodum, sp. nov. Sporangiate, globose to obovate or pulvi- nate, sessile or borne on weak, strandlike stalks produced as extensions of the hypothallus, pinkish brown, or dark when lime is scanty in peridium, 1-1.5 mm in diameter, densely clustered on a common hypothallus; peridium double, the outer layer cartilaginous, calcareous, shining, crustose, smooth except for a coarse overlying reticulation or, when lime is scanty, dark and lacking the reticulation, the inner layer membranous, closely applied, colorless, JuLy 15, 1948 iridescent; hypothallus prominent, silvery to yellow, venose, the veins often projecting as _ stalk-like extensions on which sporangia are borne; capillitium profuse, close-meshed, bear- ing large fusiform or irregularly angular scarlet or pinkish nodes, most of the junctions lime- less; spores nearly black in mass, dark viola- ceous brown by transmitted light, slightly paler on one side, densely and somewhat ir- Fie. 1.—Physarum rubronodum. Left, group of sporangia (Cooke 15671a) on hypothallus, X12; right, detail of capillitium with two spores (Cooke 18126), 520; above, spore of same, 1,000. regularly verrucose, globose, 11—13y in dia- meter, or oval and correspondingly longer and narrower. Plasmodium scarlet or orange-red. Sporangiis globosis vel obovatis vel pulvi- natis, sessilis vel substipitatibus, miniato-brun- neis, 1-1.5 mm diam., dense caespitosis sub hypothallo commune; peridio duplici, extus eartilagineo, calcareo, crustaceo, nitente, laeve praeter crasso reticulato; intus membranaceo, applicato, hyalino, iridescente; capillitio denso e filamentis hyalinis reticulato-anastomosatis, nodulis calcareis, magnis, fusiformibus vel irregulariter angulafibus, coccineis vel miniatis multis axillis ecalcareix; sporis globosis vel subovoideis, atropurpureo-brunneis crebro grosseque tuberculatis 11—13u diam. Plasmodio coccineo vel aurantiaco.? CALIFORNIA: Mount Shasta, 8,000 feet, elev., July 7, 1941, W. B. Cooke 15671a, Typr. Same locality, June 29, 1947, W. B. Cooke 18126. Physarum rubronodum is obviously close to P. albescens Macbr. Like that species, it has a crustose outer wall suggesting Leocarpus, and many of the sporangia are borne on strandlike extensions of the hypothallus. It differs in the 2 I am indebted to Sister Mary Cecelia Bodman for assistance with the Latin diagnoses. MARTIN: TWO NEW SPECIES OF PHYSARUM 239 pinkish-brown or dark peridium, in the striking scarlet nodes, in the somewhat smaller, warted rather than spiny spores, and in the scarlet or deep orange-red plasmodium. Physarum auripigmentum, sp. nov. Sporangiate, stalked, gregarious; sporangium globose, 0.4-0.6 mm in diameter, total height 0.6—1 mm., clear to opaque yellow (about lemon- chrome of Ridgway); peridium membranous, closely covered by subcircular limy scales; dehiscence somewhat petaloid; columella none; stalk short, about half the diameter of the sporangium, cylindrical, expanded at the base, orange-red, limeless, translucent; hypothallus scarcely evident; capillitium dense, delicate, persistent, the nodes small, rounded, bright yellow, many of the junctions limeless and with numerous free, ‘pointed ends; spores dark brown in mass, clear violet-brown by trans- mitted light, nearly smooth, (8.5-) 9.5-11 (-12.5)u in diameter, Plasmodium unknown. Sporangiis stipitatibus, gregariis, globosis, 0.4-0.6 mm diam., totis 0.6—-1 mm altis, lucidis haud pellucidis luteis; peridiis membranaceis, squamis suborbiculatis calecareis applicatis; subfloriforme dehiscentibus; columella nulla; stipes brevis, attingens dimidium diametrosis sporangii, cylindraceus, expansus basi, auran- tiacus, ecalcareus, translucidus; hypothallo quo Fig. 2.—Physarum auripigmentum (Cooke 20099). Left below, two sporangia, X60; right, detail of capillitium, with two spores, X520; left, above, three spores, 1,000. =) |= vix sentiri; capillitio denso, delicato, persis- tente, nodulis parvulis rotundatis, luteis, mul- tis axillis ecalcareis, apicibusque multiplicibus, apertis, acutis; sporis atro-brunneis, violaceo- brunneis pellucente, sublevibus, 9.5-lly diam. Plasmodio ignoto. CatrorniA: Mount Shasta, 8,000 feet elev., June 23, 1947, W. B. Cooke 20099, TYPE. 240 WASHINGTON: Longmire Springs, Mount Rainier, August 10-17, 1928, D. B. Creager S. U. I. 1722; Paradise Valley, Mount Rainier, August, 10-17, 1928, D. B. Creager S. U. I. 1723. Physarum auripigmentum suggests P. obla- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 tum Macbr. but differs in the scaly character of the peridium, in the shorter and brighter stalks without dark basal deposits, and espe- cially in the dense capillitium, with its small, regular nodes, numerous lime-free junctions and conspicuous free ends. ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera. LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR, California Academy of Sciences. This paper completes my studies covering a synoptic review of the United States dy- nastine scarab beetles, the preceding four parts having been published in this same JOURNAL. A great deal of work, from a taxonomic standpoint, remains to be done in the American members of this tribe, especially in the Neotropical genera. Generic limits of such genera as Ligyrus and Stenocrates, as well as many others, must be thoroughly studied and the relative importance of such characters as the front male claws (enlarged or not), the dentition of the mandibles, and the usual sexual dimorphism must be better understood. In the present studies I have had the cooperation of many institutions and indi- viduals in obtaining material, or submitting material for identification: United States National Museum, through the courtesy of Drs. Wetmore and Chapin; the extensive collections of the California Academy of Sciences through its director Dr. Miller and its entomological curators Drs. Ross and Van Dyke; American Museum of Natural History through its curator Dr. Cazier; and many private individuals, among them Drs. Cartwright, Ritcher, Reinhard, and Sanderson, as well as Dr. Dampf of Mexico City. I have also received material from the Paris Museum through Dr. Paulian, and from the British Museum through Dr. Hinton and Mr. Arrow, to all of whom I am indebted for numerous past favors. SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE Diagnostic characters—Tarsal claws always equal in size, or at least so on the middle legs (one claw of the front pair is frequently en- 1 Received September 3, 1947. larged in males of certain species); mandibles entirely corneous, and usually exposed beyond the clypeus (from dorsal view); mandibles fre- quently large and dentate externally; labrum hidden under the clypeus; clypeus more com- monly acuminate apically, and dentate or edentate; scutellum normal, never greatly en- larged; sexes frequently dimorphic, the males frequently with tubercles or horns on either head or thorax or both, the females in many species likewise equipped; coloration usually some shade of black or brown, only very rarely with any metallic lustre; antennal club always relatively small and 3-segmented; ligula en- tirely connate with the mentum; abdominal spiracles diverging strongly behind; anterior coxae transverse, not prominent; stridulating organs frequently appear in many species, lo- cated on propygidium or inside the elytra; fifth ventral sternite and propygidium connate, the last spiracle on the suture between them; onychium between the tarsal claws commonly bisetose, varying to multisetose in certain genera. KEY TO UNITED STATES TRIBES 1. Labial palpi inserted behind the mentum; body always depressed above; frequently with tubercles or horns on head or thorax; mid- disc of thorax often longitudinally im- pressed; hind tibia digitate or truncate at apex but not noticeahly widened; first seg- ment of hind tarsus with strong spine at apex; sexual differences hardly apparent... PRE SR SS te wee bes Sn ae) ene Labial palpi inserted at the sides of the ligular part of the mentum; body never strongly de- pressed, usually evenly convex dorsally; head and thorax horned or not; sexual char- acters noticeable in last abdominal sternite or front tarsal claw in all instances....... 2 2. Head and thorax in both sexes entirely un- armed, without tubercles or carinae or horns, and never depressed or foveate; claw with the onychium always bisetose (never more : ; Juuty 15, 1948 SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 241 cylindrical and usually elongate, never tri- angular; prosternal spine prominent behind thes fore). Coxaes az ies at )s 4. CYCLOCEPHALINI Head and thorax (either or both) armed with than two cilia); stridulating organs absent; male front claws in many species either en- larged or larger than in female; antenna often larger in male than female; tarsi Fic. 1.—a, Ligyrus relictus Say: Hind tibia of male; b, Euetheola subglabra Schaeffer: Hind tibia of male; c, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Hind tibia of male; d, Cheiroplatys clunalis LeConte: Hind tibia of male; e, Xyloryctes jamaicensts (Drury): Worn hind tibia of male; f, same as e, fresh tibia; g, Strategus antaeus (Drury): Hind tibia of male; h, Strategus mormon Burmeister: Hind tibia of male. 242 horns or tubercles (on fore margin of thorax if nowhere else) in both sexes, ard frequently foveate (or with strong head carina and large, well-rounded mandibles as in A phon- ides); claw with onychium bisetose to multi- setose; striduJating organs variable; other characters:wariable cers «ssi ines o eee 3 3. Onychium between claws bisetose to pluri- setose; tarsal segments, especially basally, frequently triangular in shape; fore tibia and tarsus of same length in both sexes; stridulat- ing organs frequently present; dorsal surface always wunicolorous; never spotted or with Genser ek ee a ee ORYCTINI Onychium between claws always with three or more setae apically; tarsal segments elongate smooth, never triangular, the basal segment usually with a strong apical spine; front tibia and tarsus a little longer in the male than in the female (very distinct in neo- tropical species, but must be carefully com- pared in United States species); stridulating organs absent; dorsal surface either clothed with a fine velvety short hair, or spotted and speckled, onl, rarely entirely unicolorous in SOME TOMALES HI) sas Gen ait ue eee DYNASTINI The genera of the tribes Phileurini and Dynastini were covered in Part 4 of this series, and the genera of the tribe Cycloce- phalini in Part 1. ? The tribe Oryctini was discussed in Part 2° and in Part 34 and was completed in Part 45; these eight United States genera of Oryctini may be separated as follows: KEY TO GENERA OF UNITED STATES ORYCTINI 1. Apex of hind tibia uneven, with sharp angula- tions or teeth (see Fig. 1, g, f); head fre- quently with horn (male) or large tubercle (female) (this character will place those specimens with worn tibia as in some Xy- lonuctes asuin gio ol ce uaa. eee ee 2 Apex of hind tibia moderately to strongly ex- panded, with very fine serrations (not sharp teeth) or entirely smooth (see Fig. 1, a, d); head never with horns, at most with a strong to weak transverse carina or a small tubercle 2. Clypeal apex acute and unidentate; mandibles large and exposed, and evenly rounded, never toothed; thorax never foveate or tubercu- late; base of clypeus with a strong transverse carina (Texas and) Arizona)e > 4.5. = oan Be £8 OP SMe nae: 28) 4d Aphonides Rivers Glypeus acute, bidentate or bluntly rounded (if acute, inen the mandibles always dis- tinctly eémarginate or toothed externally, 2 Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 35 (12): 378- 386. 1945. 3 Ibid. 36 (1): 16-22. 1946. 4Tbid. 36 (2): 41-46. 1946. 5 Ibid. 38 (5): 176-183. 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 and thorax always foveate and tuberculate) 3. Mandibles usually hidden beneath the clypeus, or only edges exposed, and always unarmed externally; usually with 5 to 9 small teeth on outer apical margin of hind tibia....... eae Acie Die ey ne X yloryctes Hope Mandibles always large, always well exposed, always armed externally with teeth or else right-angled in outline (cessuws); apical mar- gin of hind tibia usually with 1 or 2 sharp angulations, or 3 or 4 teeth... cae euse Wh See Te eh ee Strategus Hope 4. Clypeal apex acute, wnidentate; clypeal base with an acute transverse carina; mandibles large and tridentate; thorax with fovea at midapex and a small tubercle in front of the fovea; color usually rufous............... Leet Se See ere kl Oxygrylius Casey Clypeal apex distinctly bidentate, or evenly truncate, or very bluntly rounded, never with a single sharp point (or if somewhat pointed, then the mandibles small and nearly hidden under the clypeus); color variable. .5 5. Clypeus with a distinct carina just before (i.e., practically on) the apex, this carina entire, or wide bidentate, or tridentate; front male tibia frequently edentate, the tibia unusually wide in both sexes and the emarginations between the externa] teeth very shallowly indicated, especially the two apical teeth. .6 Clypeus carinate or not; if carinate the carina located quite a distance before the apex; front tibia always strongly tridentate... .7 6. Preapical clypeal carina entire, or bidentate; thorax and head tuberculate or not (South- western United States). Cheiroplatys Hope Preapical clypeal carina strongly to weakly tridentate; thorax not tuberculate, head rarely so (Eastern United States)......... il a ES yg Het ci Aphonus LeConte 7. Mandibles Aeanitcly tridentate externally, the basal tooth often worn and barely visible; thorax not more than two-thirds the ienein of the elytra; color rufous to rufopiceous or rufocastaneous........ Lagyrus Burmeister Mandibles bidentate externally (do not count lacinia tooth as mandibular!); thorax about three-fourths length of elytra; color always black? See os. ee Euetheola Bates SUPPLEMENT Euetheola subglabra Schaeffer Since Part 2 of this series was published I have received a male specimen from Tepic, Mexico, from Dr. Chapin, of the U. S. National Museum; this has very worn mandibles and clypeus, but the genitalia are typical, and the thoracic punc- turation is very minute and sparse but still visible on the center disc in a good light. I have also just recently mounted an additional pair (male and female) from ‘‘Compostella, Tepic, Nayarit, col- lected VI-24-40 at light by Morgan M. and L. W. Saylor’; these were mixed in with some un- JuLY 15, 1948 GAHAN: SOUTH AMERICAN CHALCIDOIDEA DESCRIBED BY ASHMEAD mounted Dyscinetus material, which they greatly resemble superficially. The female has not been described before and I am designating this speci- men as the Allotype: Very similar to male ex- cept that it is a little larger (16 mm), the minute thoracic punctures are entirely absent over most of the center-disc, the apical half of the pygidium is smooth and very sparsely punctate and the 243 apical half of the sixth sternite is entirely smooth and impunctate. It is interesting that nearly the entire abdomen (except for a single transverse setigerous row on each sternite near sides) and the metasternum (except at sides) are highly polished and entirely impunctate in both sexes. Both specimens remain in the Saylor Collection at the California Academy of Sciences. ENTOMOLOGY.—The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American Chalci- doidea described by W. H. Ashmead.! A. B. Gauan, U. 8. Bureau of Ento- mology and Plant Quarantine. In his Classification of the chalcid flies or the superfamily Chalcidoidea (Mem. Carne- gie Mus. 1 (No. 4, pt. 2): 394-551. 1904) W. H. Ashmead published results of his study of the Herbert H. Smith collection of South American chalcidoids, including a bibliographic catalogue of all the known South American species. Many new species were described, most of them based upon material in the Smith collection, but several of the included new species were based upon material in the United States National Museum, collected by Albert Koebele. In the bibliographic catalogue, citations were given for a number of species previously described by Ashmead from material in the Smith collection, these descriptions appear- ing in Insect Life 3: 456. 1891; Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 3: 233. 1895, and 4: 11- 14. 1896; and Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 22: 368-375. 1900. Also included were Ash- mead’s identifications of a number of spe- cies described by Walker, Westwood, Fabricius, Perty, and other authors. Holotypes of 8 species and duplicate par- atypes of 36 additional species, as well as duplicates of some of the determined spe- cies, were retained by Ashmead from the Smith collection. The remainder of the col- lection was returned to the Carnegie Mu- seum, which had acquired it by purchase from the collector. There the collection re- mained practically undisturbed until 1934, when through the kind cooperation of the late Dr. Hugo Kahl, then curator of the section of entomology at Carnegie Museum, and with the consent of the Museum direc- tor, I was permitted to bring the whole 1 Received March 7, 1948. (Communicated by E. A. CHAPIN.) collection to the United States National Museum for study. Though it still remained the property of Carnegie Museum, it has reposed in the National Museum since that date and while being used for reference has been kept, until very recently, in the orig- inal boxes and arrangement in which Ash- mead left it. Early in 1947, through collaboration with Dr. George E. Wallace, successor to Dr. Kahl at the Carnegie Museum, and with the approval of the authorities of both the Carnegie Museum and the National Mu- seum, arrangements were completed where- by, in exchange for a representative collec- tion of named North American chalcidoids, the entire Smith collection covered by Ash- mead’s paper, with the exceptions of one- half the duplicates in any series of para- types or of determined specimens of any species, became the property of the National Museum. With consummation of the ex- change the Carnegie Museum received a named collection of North American ma- terial comprising 412 species represented by 1,222 specimens and also a return of 22 paratypes representing 16 species and 84 specimens representing 19 determined spe- cies from the South American material. The National Collection acquires named representatives of 248 species made up of 192 holotypes, 79 paratypes (8 of which represent species the holotypes of which were already in the National Museum), and 156 determined specimens representing 48 species. Also included are 122 unidentified specimens, making a total of 549 specimens. Unfortunately, the unique types of Par- encyrtus brasiliensis Ashmead, Pelorotelus coeruleus Ashmead, Horismenus corumbae 244 Ashmead, Euplectrus brasiliensis Ashmead, and Stenomesius dimidiatus Ashmead have become dislodged from the mounting points and lost. Since the first two species are gen- otypes, their loss is doubly unfortunate. Also missing from the collection is the speci- men (or specimens) of [doleupelmus annuli- cornis Ashmead recorded from Santarém, Brazil. This species was originally described (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 4: 13. 1896) from the Island of St. Vincent, West Indies, and the holotype is presumably in the Brit- ish Museum. ; The material from the Smith collection acquired by the National Museum has now been removed from the original boxes and placed in standard trays and drawers. While making the transfer I made the following notes regarding certain species: Hemitorymus thoracicus Ashmead.—In my opinion this is not a monodontomerine. The type appears to be a typical Torymus and the genus Hemitorymus, therefore, a synonym. New synonymy. Plesiostigmodes brasiliensis Ashmead.—The unique type is a male, not a female as stated in the description. Spilochalcis tarsalis Ashmead.—The type is from Corumba instead of Chapada. Spilochalcis persimilis Ashmead.—Type lo- cality Santarém instead of Chapada. Spilochalecis bimaculata Ashmead.—De- scribed only in the key to species. The type, a female, is from Trinidad. Sptlochalcis nigropleuralis Ashmead.—The holotype female is from Trinidad. The only male associated with this female in the collec- tion is from Corumba (not Chapada), Brazil, and does not entirely fit the description given of the male. It does not bear a name label and may or may not be the allotype. Spilochalcis mayri Ashmead.—The type is from Corumba, not Chapada. Spilochalcis urichi Ashmead.—No male is described, but included among the 12 speci- mens in the type series is one male. This is colored almost exactly like the females and not easily distinguished. Spilochalcis lineocoxalis Ashmead.—The unique holotype is a male, not a female. Spilochalcis chapadensis Ashmead.—In the key to species (p. 427) and on the name label, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 the name of this species is chapadensis, but heading the formal description (p. 443) it is given as chapadae. That the latter spelling is a lapsus is obvious, since the name chapadae had already been used for another species of Spilo- chalcis (p. 432). The name chapadensis should be retained for the species on p. 443. Spilochalcis persimilis Ashmead.—The unique holotype is a male instead of a female. Octosmicra nigromaculata Ashmead.—The locality is Corumba instead of Chapada. Heptasmicra lineaticora Ashmead.—One paratype is from Maruru, the type and 2 para- types from Santarém. Metadontia similis Ashmead.—The unique holotype is a female instead of a male. Pentasmicra brasiliensis Ashmead.—De- scribed only in the key to genera. See article by Hugo Kahl (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 13: 265. 1921). Azima brevicornis Ashmead.—The male al- lotype and 4 male paratypes of this species do not appear to be the same species as the female holotype and the female paratype. Instead, these males all seem to me to be A. koebelei Ashmead. Azimopsis morio Ashmead.—The type local- ity for this genotype species, not recorded by Ashmead, is Santerém, Brazil. Isomodes brasiliensis Ashmead.—Only 4 of the 5 specimens recorded by Ashmead were found, the specimen from Santarém being missing. Prodecatoma bruneiventris Ashmead.—The type series consists of 3 females and 1 male. In my opinion the 3 females represent 3 different species. The male allotype is labeled “‘Prode- catoma flavescens Ashmead. & Type,” but since no male was described for flavescens and since this male specimen agrees with the description of the male as given for bruneiventris, it is ob- vious that the labeling is a lapsus. Neorilya flavipes AShmead.—The type series, of which orly 9 specimens can be located, is a composite made up of apparently 3 different species. Rileya orbitalis Ashmead.—The unique holo- type female is from Chapada instead of San- tarém. A male in the National Museum col- lection from Chapada is labeled ‘‘Rileya orbi- talis #, Type No. 8080.”’ Ashmead may have originally associated this with the female holo- type, but since no male is mentioned in the JuLy 15, 1948 description it should not be considered a para- type. This male is apparently not the same species as the holotype but appears to be identi- cal with Rileya insularis Ashmead. Lelaps affinis Ashmead.—A paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 8087, is not the same species as the holotype but belongs instead to Lelaps ferruginea Ashmead. — Chalcedectes annulipes Ashmead.—Holotype from Corumba in May. Paratype from Cha- pada already in National Museum collection. Macreupelmus brasiliensis Ashmead.—Only 3 of the 4 specimens mentioned by Ashmead located. U.S.N.M. type, no. 8091. Anastatus auriceps Ashmead.—Holotype from Corumba. Paratype from Chapada miss- ing from pin. Trichencyrtus chapadae Ashmead (pp. 291, 392) (= robustus Ashmead, p. 495). See com- ments by Gahan and Peck, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36: 317. 1946; also Gomes, Bol. Soc. Brazil. Agronomia 5: 287. 1942. Metopon brasiliensis Ashmead.—The holo- type female is from Corumba. The 2 paratype females are from Santarém and appear to be not the same species as the type. The allotype male, also from Santarém, is missing from the pin. Horismenus brasiliensis Ashmead.—A speci- men in the National Museum from Chapada labeled ‘““Type No. 8094” is not the same spe- cies as the holotype, which is from Rio de DEIGNAN: CONTINENTAL RACES OF PYCNONOTUS DISPAR 245 Janeiro. This specimen from Chapada is not mentioned in the description and hence is neither type nor paratype. Ametallon chapadae Ashmead.—The holo- type from the Smith collection is in poor con- dition. The paratype which was in the National Museum and recorded in the type book under no. 8097 is missing from the pin. Trichoporus melleus Ashmead.—The holo- type acquired with the Smith collection is a female from Santarém. The alleged male de- scribed by Ashmead and bearing U.S.N.M. type, no. 8098 is a female from Chapada and is not the same species as the holotype. Trichoporus viridicyaneus Ashmead.—All 20 specimens of the type series located, 3 of them in the National Museum under type no. 8099. These 3 are the same species as the holotype, but at least 5 of the paratypes in the Smith collection appear to be a different species. Alophus flavus Ashmead (p. 358, 365) ( =brasiliensis Ashmead, p. 520). See comments by Gahan and Peck, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36: 314. 1946. Holotype and allotype from Chapada and one paratype from Rio de Janeiro in Smith collection. Holotype and paratype are alike, but the allotype male is a different spe- cies. Also two alleged paratypes in the National Museum, type no. 8100, are not the same as the holotype and represent two different species. ORNITHOLOGY .—Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield).! H. G. Drienan, U.S. National Museum. Geographical variation in continental populations of Pycnonotus dispar (‘‘Oto- —compsa flaviventris” of the older authors) appears in a tendency to darker coloration of the upperparts, shortening of the crest, and reduced wing length from north and west to east and south. The effects of wear on the plumage are so marked that only fresh-plumaged specimens are suitable for taxonomic study, and the change from one form to another is so gradual that the dis- tinctions between juxtaposed races can be observed only in series. The difficulty of establishing satisfactory limits of range for 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 16, 1948. the several subspecies is complicated by the appearance of winter-wandering examples of one within the breeding territory of an- other. Two hundred and one specimens from the Asiatic mainland, brought together in Washington with the kind cooperation of the authorities of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (A.N.S.P.) and of the Chicago Natural History Museum (C.N.H.M.), enable me to accept the fol- lowing forms: 1. Pycnonotus dispar flaviventris (Tickell) Vanga Flaviventris Tickell, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 2: 573. Nov. 1833 (Dampara, ‘“‘in Dhol- bhim’”’=Singhbhum District, Chota Nagpur Division, Province of Bihar and Orissa, India). 246 Diagnosis.—Head and neck blue-black; up- perparts golden olive-green, somewhat brighter posteriorly; exposed portions of remiges and rectrices blackish brown, edged with golden olive-green; underparts rich yellow, somewhat suffused with olive on the breast and along the flanks. Wing length—86-91 mm. (5 males), 85-89 mm. (4 females), 85-96 mm. (4 unsexed). Specimens examined.—‘‘Inp1a’”’: No definite locality (3 unsexed). BencGau: Darjiling Dis- trict: Sivok (1 male, 2 females). Assam: No definite locality (1 unsexed); Cachar District: Rupachena (1 female); Lakhimpur District: Margherita (1 male, 1 female). Burma: Myit- kyina District: N’ Pon Village (1 male); Pakok- ku District: Dudaw Taung (2 males). 2. Pycnonotus dispar vantynei, n. subsp. Type.-—C.N.H.M. no. 79247, adult male, collected at Phongtho (lat. 22°32’ N., long. 103°20’ E.), Laokay or Laichau Province, northwestern Tongking, on February 24, 1929, by J. Van Tyne (original number 396). Diagnosis.—As large as P. d. flaviventris, but easily separable by having the upperparts a darker and duller olive-green, almost without golden suffusion. Wing length—85-91 mm (20 males), 85-87 mm (4 females). Specumens examined.mANNAM: No definite locality (1 male); Thanhhoa Province: Hoixuan (1 female), Lunglunh (1 male). Tonexine: Laokay or Laichau Province: Phongtho (2 males); Laokay Province: Ba Nam Nhung (1 male); Laichau Province: Muong Mo (1 male, 2 females), Muong Moun (1 male), Paham (1 male), Laichau (1 male), 27 km WSW. of Laichau (2 males). Laos: 5° Terri- toire Militaire: Bountai (3 males), Muong Yo (1 male, 1 female); Pakse Province: Pakse (1 male, winter). BurMA: Kengtung State: Loi Mwe (3 males, 1 female), Mong Len (1 male); Stam: North: Chiang Saen Kao (2 females), Chiang Rai (1 male), Muang Fang (1 male), Wiang Pa Pao (1 female), Doi Suthep (2 males, winter); East: Ban Chanuman (1 male, winter). Remarks.—Only one of these examples shows the red-throated phase of plumage (discussed below under P. d. johnsont). This race is named in honor of Toeegn Van Tyne, collector of the type specimen. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 3. Pycnonotus dispar xanthops, n. subsp’ Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 332362, adult male, collected at ‘Khan River’’=Ban Mae (lat. 18°40’ N., long, 98°50’ E.), Chiang Mai Prov- ince, northwestern Siam, on February 8, 1932, by Hugh M. Smith (original number 5321). Diagnosis.—Smaller than either of the two precedent races and with the color of the upper- parts darker, more greenish, less golden, than in flaviventris, but much lighter and more golden than in vantynet. Wing length—83-87 mm. (16 males), 83-85 mm. (4 females). Specimens examined.—S1am: Northwest: Doi Chiang Dao (1 male), Muang Pai (1 male), 30 km N. of Chiang Mai (1 male), Doi Suthep (5 males, 3 females), vicinity of Chiang Mai (3 males, 1 female), Ban Mae (2 males), Doi Khun Tan (6 males). Burma: Amherst District Myawadi (1 male), Kawkareik (1 female). Remarks.—This race presumably has a much more extensive range than my material shows; it should be the form of all southern Burma. The few skins available from southwestern Siam are smaller than zanthops; their plumage is so badly worn that, for the present, they must be left unnamed. 4, Pycnonotus dispar auratus, n. subsp. Type.—A.N.S.P. no. 115110, adult male, collected at Amphoe Wat Pa=Muang Lom Sak, on the borders of central and eastern Siam at lat. 16°45’ N., long 101°10’ E., on October 26, 1934, by collectors for R. Meyer de Schau- ensee (original number 1705). Diagnosis.—Smaller than either vantynei or flaviventris and with the color of the upperparts lighter, less greenish, more golden, than in the former, but much darker and less golden than | in the latter. From P. d. xanthops, with which it agrees in size, auratus is separable by having the upper parts slightly darker and less golden. Wing length—85-87 mm (4 males), 82-84 mm (5 females). Specimens examined.—Laos: Vientiane Prov- ince: Vientiane (1 female). Stam: Central or East: Muang Lom Sak (4 males, 5 females). ANNAM: Phanrang Province: Krongpha (1 female, winter). Remarks.—P. d. auratus and P. d. xanthops are equivalent ‘‘links’’ in the cline between flaviventris and vantyner. The range of auratus Juuy 15, 1948 may be expected to cover the more eastern provinces of northern Siam, the northern half of the eastern Siamese plateau, and portions of Haut- and Moyen-Laos between the territories of vantyner and johnson. One of my specimens shows the red-throated phase of plumage; another has an irregular spot of red and yellow feathers at the left side of the chin. 5. Pycnonotus dispar johnsoni (Gyldenstolpe) Rubigula johnsoni Gyldenstolpe, Kungl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 50 (8): p. 25, col. pl. 1. July 19, 1913 (near Sathani Chakkrarat, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, eastern Siam at lat. 15-00’ N> long. 102°25’ E.). Diagnosis.—Near to P. d. auratus, but smaller and with the upperparts slightly darker and less suffused with golden. Wing length—79-85 mm (33 males), 76-83 mim (34 females), 81-83 mm (3 unsexed). Specimens examined.—S1am: East: Sathani Pak Chong (7 males, 9 females), Sathani Hin Lap (3 males), Sathani Lat Bua Khao (5 males, 3 females), Ban Tha Chang (1 unsexed), Ban Khanong Phra (2 females), Ban Pang Sok (1 male), Nakhon Nayok (1 unsexed), Ban Chanu- man (4 females), Ban Khulu (1 unsexed), Ban Khemmarat (1 female); Southeast: Khao Saming (2 males, 1 female), Ban Bang Phra (1 male, 1 female), Ban Laem Ngop (1 male), Khao Sa Bap (3 males, 1 female), Khao Soi Dao (1 male), Muang Rayong (2 females), Siracha (1 male), Ban Nong Kho (3 males), Ban Nong Yang (4 males); Laos: Pakse Prov- ince: Pakse (2 males, 4 females), Paksong (1 female, 1 unsexed), Bassac (1 female). Cam- BopiIA: Kampot Province: Ok Yam (1 female); Siemreap Province: Banteai Srei (1 female); Kompong Cham Province: Kompong Cham (1 female). ANNAM: Phanrang Province: Krong- pha (1 female, 1 unsexed), between Bellevue and Daban (1 male, 3 females), Fimnon (1 fe- male), Ban Methuot (1 male). Remarks.—A color phase in which the lower throat is clothed in shining red feathers is fre- quent in johnsoni; in the population of the southwestern corner of the eastern Siamese plateau (topotypical), all the specimens seen show the character, which appears with dimin- ishing frequency as one moves away from this center and is then often indicated merely by a few red feathers among the black. Since red- throated individuals appear in any predomi- DEIGNAN: CONTINENTAL RACES OF PYCNONOTUS DISPAR 247 nantly black-throated population of southeast- ern Indo-China (and even in populations other- wise representative of the races auratus and vantyner), it is not possible to restrict the use of Gyldenstolpe’s name to red-throated birds without seeming to have two subspecies resi- dent at the same localities, and there is, of course, no question here of two sympatric species. A case precisely similar to this is pre- sented by the bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps (Tem- minck), in which the several color phases ap- pear with varying frequencies from one to an- other part of the ranges of the different races. The problem has been discussed at some length by R. Meyer de Schauensee (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 98: 53-56. 1946), whose conclusions, however, do not wholly agree with mine. 6. Pycnonotus dispar caecilii, n. subsp. Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 160418, adult male, collected in Trang Province, peninsular Siam at ca. lat. 7°-8° N., on February 12, 1897,- by William L. Abbott. Diagnosis—Nearest P. d. johnsoni (black- throated phase), but with the upperparts a decidedly darker olive green, almost without golden suffusion. Wing length—78-82 mm (10 peninsular males), 78-81 mm (6 peninsular females). Specimens examined.—S1aM: Southeast: Ko Kut (3 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed), Ko Chang (8 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed); Southwest: Prachuap Khiri Khan (1 female), Khao Luang (1 male, 2 females), Khao Nok Wua (1 male, 1 female); Peninsula: Ban Tha Lo (1 female), Nakhon Si Thammarat (1 male), Khao Pha- nom Bencha (3 males, 1 female), Trang Prov- ince (4 males, 2 females). Burma: Mergui District: Victoria Point (1 male). Mavaya: Selangor State: Ginting Bidei (1 male). Remarks.—This race was named Otocompsa flavwentris minor by Boden Kloss (Ibis, ser. 10, 6 (2): 200. Apr. 9, 1918), with the type specimen from Ko lLak=Prachuap Khiri Khan. With the submersion of ‘“‘Otecompsa”’ in Pycnonotus, Kloss’s name becomes preoccupied by Pycononotus nigricans Var. minor von Heuglin (Ornithologie Nordost-Afrika’s 1: 398. 1869), and a new designation is required for the bird of the Malay Peninsula. Kloss’s type lies before me and seems to be inseparable from more southern specimens. 248 Nevertheless, since Prachuap Khiri Khan is situated just where numerous peninsular races intergrade with distinct forms of southwestern Siam, it has seemed to me desirable to fix the new name on a much more southern population, rather than simply to rename Kloss’s bird. The word “caeciliz”’ derives, of course, from this earlier worker’s given name. That the 15 specimens from Ko Kut and Ko Chang should be quite distinct from birds of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 the neighboring mainland, but virtually insep- arable from those of the Malay Peninsula, is of considerable interest. Their wing length ranges from 81 to 85 mm (11 males), 80 to 83 mm (2 females); they are thus a trifle larger than topotypical caecilii, but hardly enough to justify their separation at this time. One example has a few red feathers on the lower throat. ICHTHYOLOGY.—Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a@ new subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on related forms. ScHULTzZ and LorEN P. Woops. During our studies of tropical Pacific Ocean fishes, we observed that in the vast area from the East African coast to the western shores of the Americas certain species said by certain ichthyologists to be the same throughout this entire region are actually separate species, subspecies, or distinct populations. Among these, the sur- geonfish, Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus), is one of the most abundant and widely distributed species of the Indo-Pacific re- gion. It ranges from the Red Sea and Natal coast of South Africa eastward to Australia and thence in Oceania to the offshore Amer- ican islands—Clarion, Clipperton, and Co- cos. In the Hawaiian chain of islands this surgeonfish is represented by a distinct species, Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets, and by some means it has extended its range to include Johnston Island, 520 miles southward. In order to clarify the status of the vari- ous species and subspecies of surgeonfishes closely related to A. triostegus we studied specimens from the Pacific and Indian Oceans and found that certain of the larger island groups of the Pacific have popula- tions of this surgeonfish morphologically distinct from other island groups. There- fore, we find it necessary to describe as new a subspecies from the Marquesas and to point out other distinct populations without naming them at this time. Throughout the entire range of this surgeonfish the five narrow dark bars on 1 Published with the permission of the Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received March 23, 1948. LEONARD P. the sides show no significant variability. The first body band ends in the axil of the pectoral base. In contrast the dark bar on caudal peduncle varies greatly from a dorsally located spot to one completely encircling the peduncle. Usually it is in the form of a dorsal saddle with a spot ventrally disconnected from the saddlelike dark mark. The larval stages of this surgeonfish are unknown to us, but numerous examples of postlarvae occur in the U. S. National Museum collections. All have been taken over reefs or near land; those from 21 to 25 mm in length have been collected from tidal pools. The smallest specimen seen by us was 20.5 mm. It was colorless when it appeared at a light at night. This suggests a pelagic habitat for the young. Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis Streets, U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 7: 67. 1877. (Type locality, Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, T. H.) Lectotype, U.S.N.M. no. 15398, and paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 143446. Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets is character- ized by having a black streak running from the upperpart of the pectoral base to near the ven- tral surface (see Fig. 1, A), and by averaging one or two more soft rays in the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins. (See Table 1.) The streak be- low the pectoral was found in all specimens examined (about 100) from the Hawaiian and Johnston Islands and in no specimen from any other locality. The distinct character of the color pattern of — Acanthurus sandvicensis and its complete lack of intergradation with representatives of trio- Juiy 15, 1948 stegus from other island groups reemphasize the recognized long-time isolation of the Hawaiian Chain. The average temperature of the water around the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Island is a little lower than the average for most parts of the equatorial western Pacific Ocean. This may have caused the meristic differences recorded for sandvicensis, but it does not ex- plain the difference in color pattern. Acanthurus triostegus triostegus (Linnaeus) Chaetodon triostegus Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10: 274. 1758. (Type locality, Indies.) The normal color pattern of alcoholic speci- mens is a light-gray to dark-brown background on head and body with the dorsal parts darker, and ventral region whitish; middorsal line of interorbital space and of snout usually with a brown streak; head and body with 5 narrow transverse brownish or blackish bars, the first from nape through eye across cheek to lower margin of preopercle, the second from dorsal origin to base of pectoral, the third from below fifth dorsal spine nearly to anus, the fourth from base of second dorsal soft ray to first soft anal ray, and the fifth from about the seventh to ninth dorsal rays to below the eighth soft anal ray; caudal peduncle usually with a nar- row black saddle across dorsal surface extend- ing down to about middle of sides, lower part of caudal peduncle usually with a small spot or short dash (sometimes the dorsal saddle is con- nected with this spot but this character has been found to be too variable to consider here) ; median fins dusky, the anal with a narrow white margin; pectoral fin translucent. The normal or typical color mark on the upper part of pectoral fin base (Fig. 1, B) con- sists of a single dark spot. Specimens in breeding colors have a distinct lengthwise line along lower sides, below this, body abruptly white, anal fin black basally, often with a broad white margin; the transverse lines on females apparently narrower than those of males. Variability among island groups—The spe- cific marks that show consistent variability along certain lines center around the pectoral fin base, such as (1) a dark spot below pectoral fin base, or (2) the elongation of the usual round dark spot into a short bar. These changes usually occur along with an increase of about one additional ray in the dorsal, anal, or pec- toral fins. SCHULTZ AND WOODS: A NEW SURGEONFISH 249 Among the specimens from the Indian Ocean and western Pacific—Marianas, Marshall, and Samoan Island groups—only an occasional specimen differed from the normal color pattern of triostegus. Four out of five specimens from Tahiti had one more pectoral fin ray on both sides, but no color variations. One specimen each available from the isolated Baker, Christ- mas, and Fanning Islands were normal ftrio- stegus. In one-third of the Phoenix Island specimens there occurred either an extra spot, a bar (Fig. 1, D), or an elongate spot (Fig. 1, E), and about one-third had one more pectoral fin ray than the average for triostegus. This may indicate a variation in the direction of sandvicensis. Of the six small specimens examined from the ‘Tuamotus, four had a bar across the pectoral base (Fig. 1, D) and two had one spot, and one specimen had an additional pectoral fin ray. ) (y(n | Niuafu; Samoa........... — Sh eh alae) ee Phoenix Islands.......... — |11};/—;—] 1] 8] 2] — Tahitinte emg acetate: 1 3) —)}— 1 2 1); — Tuamotus; Mangareva; Takaroa staan ret : : — 6) — 1 5 | — Eastern Pacific, Clarion, Clipperton; Cocos Is- Acanthurus triostegus marque- sensis: Marquesas... 52 ohn 2s — | 14) — 2/10} 2] — Acanthurus sandvicensis: Hawaiian and Johnston Tslandsiiiss\ 2 oe wae — | 32) — UN TB nay & Coloration of Anal rays Pectoral rays pentomllvece T, i, | Li, 114, | One aa Two TIL | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 49! 43'| 14 lapot} 28") spots | Streaks 12 1 1 7 3}/—|—/12,—} 10 2 10'S) | sage pede he Aka ee eae 7|— 3 3 1|;—;|;— 7); — 5 1 1 Pt Ne se Lua Ay a ST Pa Pl etal Upc Saal) 8) —}]— 5 3/—)— 6 2 7 1 11; — | — 7 4} — 10 6 | 30 | 10 Sie Ages antes eal |e een elle (fee 6/—]|— 4 2/;— alle alut Di 2 4 14 | — 2 6 5 | — 7 Ta WA 14 |} — 1 6 7)— 10 | 24 4 15 5 | 27 32 Soe el ao eae ee VOL. 38, NO. 7 hing JuLy 15, 1948 ing saddle over dorsal surface of caudal pe- duncle extending down sides of caudal peduncle and joining with spot on lower side on one side, lower spot separate on other side (these are joined on at least one side in 45 paratypes, separate on both sides in 17); holotype and paratypes 49 to 86 mm, with a large distinct spot below the pectoral fin base (Fig. 1, C); young specimens 25.7 mm have a faint dark bar about twice as long as diameter of pectoral base, narrowing and fading ventrally but not as long asin A. sandvicensis; in the 31-mm speci- men the pectoral spot is conspicuous and in the form of an elongate bar, pinched in the middle and tapering ventrally; on one 38-mm example the bar has completely divided into a short bar across the base of pectoral in one side and lower half is more or less rounded into a spot as those of 49 to 86 mm, but on the other side the di- vision into two parts is not quite complete ZOOLOGY .—The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia. CurtTIN,” Catholic University of America. HARD.) The Tardigrada constitute a group of microscopic animals usually included, as a class, in the phylum Arthropoda. All are hygrophilous, but some species are re- stricted to marine and fresh-water habitats. Their distribution is world-wide, the num- ber of species being greater in the sub-Arctic than in the tropical regions. No reference to a study of the Tardigrada of the District of Columbia was found in the literature, but Marcus (1929, p. 576) and Mathews (1938, pp. 624-626) listed one species, Macrobiotus hufelandit C. Schultze, as an inhabitant of this area. The results of a survey conducted by the writer in this region are contained in this paper. Packard (1873, p. 740) was the first to note the presence of a tardigrade in the United States, but his description is unfor- tunately inadequate. A tardigrade from 1 A contribution from the Department of Bi- ology, the Catholic University of America, Wash- ington, D. C. This paper, prepared under the direction of Dr. E. G. Reinhard, is based on the author’s dissertation submitted in partial fulfill- ment of the requirements for the degree master of science. Received January 16, 1948. 2 Now biology instructor at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md. CURTIN: TARDIGRADE FAUNA OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 251 (Fig. 1, F). A distinct spot on pectoral fin base; a small faint spot near lower edge of gill open- ing, and 3 faint spots in line along side of breast, median fins dark, the anal witha narrow white border; pelvics dark, their outer margin and tips pale. Remarks—On all the Marquesas Islands specimens occurs a large dark spot below the pectoral fin base except in very small specimens as described above in addition to the usual spot on the pectoral base. Only occasional specimens of A. triostegus triostegus from other parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans have this additional spot. In the Marquesas Islands this extra spot occurs along with a consistently higher average number of anal and pectoral fin rays, thus separating the new subspecies from A. frio- stegus triostegus. Named marquesensis after the island group where this subspecies occurs. CHARLES B. (Communicated by E. G. REIN- New Gloucester, Maine, was described by Beal (1880, p. 593). The species, however, can not be determined with accuracy. Mathews (1938, p. 625) stated that it fits the description of Hypsibius augustt Murray. To date, 14 species of Tardigrada have been reported for the United States. Of this num- ber, two, Batillipes mirus Richters and Bathyechiniscus tetronyx Steiner, are ma- rine species. The two described by Packard and Beal are incertae sedis. None of the species reported for the United States are peculiar to this country as they have been previously noted as inhabitants of other countries. Terrestrial Tardigrada inhabit lichens and mosses while aquatic species may be found on water plants. Richters (1927, pp. 1-3) noted that the tropical mosses were poor both in species and number. In his survey, Murray (1907, p. 515, and 1913, p. 136) listed 25 species of Tardigrada from South Africa. The exact localities of the col- lections were not given, but from the regional topography the average elevation was 4,000 feet. Teunissen (1938, pp. 6—15) listed 1,200 meters as the lowest elevation 252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 TABLE 1.—List oF TARDIGRADA REPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES (compiled from papers of Marcus, Mathews, and Packard)’ Species 1. Batillipes mirus Richters (B. caudatus Hay) . Bathyechiniscus tetronyx G. Steiner . Echiniscus arctomys Ehrenberg . Echiniscus merokensis Richters . Pseudechiniscus suillus Ehrenberg . Macrobiotus hufelandii C. Schultze HD Or & co bo 7. Hypsibius schaudinni Richters 8. Hypsibius prosostomus Thulin 9. Hypsibius canadensis Murray 10. Hypstbius convergens Urbanpwicz 11. Hypsibius oberhdusert Doyére 12. Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank) 13. Hypsibius augustt Murray Locality Authority Beaufort, N. C. W._P. Bay California coast Mathews Brandon, Vt.; East Troy, Wis. Mathews San Juan Island and Longmires Springs, Wash. Mathews Brandon, Vt.; Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews Ephraim and East Troy, Wis.; Washington, Mathews D. C.; Isle Royal, Mich.; San Juan Island, Marcus Wash. Mathews Galveston, Tex. Mathews Isle Royal, Mich. Mathews Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews Niagara Falls, N. Y. Marcus East Troy, Wis.; Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews East Troy Wis.; Techny, Ill.; Friday Harbor Neuhaus and San Juan Island, Wash. Mathews SPECIES INCERTAE SEDIS New Gloucester, Maine Beal New Gloucester, Maine Packard 14. Hypsibius americanus Packard at which he found Tardigrada. These eleva- tions approximated those of the subalpine region, and environmental conditions would favor the support of a tardigrade fauna. De- spite the unfavorable physiography of the District of Columbia, foliose lichens and water samples collected from the Rock Creek Park, Fort Dupont Park, and the Catholic University campus yielded 39 specimens. Two were aquatic and 37 were terrestrial forms. These represented three definite species and two of uncertain nature. Table 2 lists the species and location where the Tardigrada were obtained. Macrobiotus hufelandii C. Schultze 1834. Macrobiotus hufelandit Schultze, Macro- biotus Hufelandii, animal e crustaceo- rum classe novum reviviscendi post diuturnam asphyxiam et ariditatem potens ... Berolini. 1895. Macrobiotus eminens Ehrenberg, Abh. Adad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 452, pl. 2, fig. 1, A-E. 1914. Macrobiotus interruptus Della Valle, Ann. Mus. Zool. Napoli, Suppl. 1, no. 7: 29. Twenty-one specimens of this species were obtained. The average length of the larger specimens was 500u. The eyespots were black and prominent. The cuticle of the live animals appeared annulated with wide bands of gray- white color separated by a thin,’ clear con- stricted area. Typical claws present with bas- al lunulae. Lamellae surrounded the mouth. The pharynx was ovoid with distinct commas. The anterior macroplacoid touched the apoph- yses. Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank) Fig. 2 1803. Arctiscon tardigradum ? Schrank, Fauna Boica 3 (1): 195. 1840. Milnesium tardigradum Doyére, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool. ser. 2, 14: 283. 1859. Acrophanes schlagintweitii Ehrenberg, Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 451, pl. 1, fig. 1, A-F. Fifteen specimens were obtained which were well pigmented and of the characteristic orange- brown color. The largest was 416u long. The eye spots were large and black. The cephalic palps were prominent and the wide, short buccal TABLE 2.—TARDIGRADA FOUND IN THE DISTRICT oF COLUMBIA Species Locality 1. Macrobiotus hufelandii Rock Creek Park C. Schultze 2. Milnesium tardigradum Rock Creek Park (Schrank) 3. Hypsibius dujardini Catholic University Campus (Doyére) Catholic University Campus Fort Dupont Park 4. Hypsibius sp. 5. Hypsibius sp. F ol = * — _ JuLy 15, 1948 CURTIN: TARDIGRADE FAUNA OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA tube emptied into a saclike pharynx lacking placoids. The claws were united at the base by a cuticular band. Tht Fie. 1.—Macrobiotus hufelandii, lateral view: a, eyespot; b, cuticular depression or pearl; c, peri- buccal lamellae; d, macroplacoids. Fig. la.— Pharynx of M. hufelandiz: a, buccal tube; b, sty- let; c, tooth bearer; d, apophysis; e, macroplacoid; f, microplacoid or comma; g, pharyngeal bulb. Fie. 2.—Milnesium tardigradum, ventral view: a, external palp; b, lateral palp; c, eye spot; d, pharynx. 253 Hypsibius dujardini (Doyére) Fig. 3, 3a Macrobiotus dujardin Doyére, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool., ser. 2, 14: 288. Macrobiotus lacustris Dujardin, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool., ser. 3, 15: 164. Hypsibius dujardint Thulin, Arkiv Zool. 7 (16): 33. Of this small, transparent, aquatic form, only a single specimen was obtained. It meas- ured 177u. The eyespots were black and the claws dissimilar, the basal part being short. In the short straight buccal tube, the anterior macroplacoid was longer than the posterior. The cuticle appeared to be a faint gray-green color in the abdominal region. 1840. 1851. YU Hypsibius species Fig. 4 The identification is based upon a molt which contained four ovoid eggs. These meas- ured 22u by 39u. The length of the animal was 162u. The claws were partially concealed but appeared to be the Hypsibius type. The cuticleshowed some spiny protuberances leading to the belief it might be Hypsibius ornatus Richters. Hypsibius species Fig. 5 This identification is assigned to a skin with 13 eggs obtained in a water sample. The eggs were slightly ovoid measuring 48u by 61u. The molt measured 168u. The claws appeared to be of the Hypsibius type and it approximated the description of Hypsibius dujardini (Doy- ére). It appeared very probable that it was the molt of this species. Thirty-nine specimens of Tardigrada were obtained in the survey, and duplicates have been deposited in the United States National Museum. Three distinct species and two of a dubious nature were represented. Mosses were found to be poor habitations for Tardigrada, while foliose lichens in the Rock Creek Park area yielded the best results. Of the 10 good terrestrial and aquatic species reported for the United States, two, Macrobiotus hufelandii C. Schultze and Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank) are inhabitants of the District of Columbia. The range of Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank) can now be extended to include this region. The presence of Hypsibius dujardini (Doyére) is the first reported occurrence of this species for the United States. The possibility of one 254 molt being Hypsibius ornatus Richters would add another species to the list of those that inhabit the United States. All specimens were found to be smaller than the average of those reported from colder regions. LITERATURE CITED Brat, F. E. Tardigrades and eggs. Nat. 14 (8): 593-594. 1880. Doyersg, P. L. M. Mémoire sur les tardigrades. Ann. Sci. Nat.,.Zool., ser. 2, 14: 269-361, pls. 12-19. 1840. Hay, W. P. A new species of bear-animalcule from the coast of North Carolina. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 251-254. 1917. Marcus, E. Tardigraden. In: Bronn, Klas- sen und Ordnungen des Tier-Reichs 5 (4): 608 pp. 1929. Amer. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 Matuews. G. Tardigrada from North America. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 19: 619-627. 1938. Morray, J. Some South African Tardigrada. Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1907: 515-524. African Tardigrada. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soe. 1913: 136-140. PackaRD, A. Discovery of a_ tardigrade. Amer. Nat. 7 (12): 740-741. 1873. Ricuters, F. Tardigrada. In: Kiikenthal und Krumbach, ‘‘Handbuch der Zoologie”’ 3: 1-68. 1927. ScHRANK, F. Fauna Boica 3: viiit+272 pp. 1803. TEUNISSEN, R. Tardigraden. Exploratie van het Nationaal Albert Park, pt. 16: 1-21. 1938. oie Fic. 3.—Hypsibius dujardini, lateral view: a, mouth; b, eyespot; c, claws. Fic. 3a.—Pharynx of H. dujardini: a, stylet; b, macroplacoid; c, microplacoid. Fig. 4.—Hypsibius species. Molt containing 13 eggs: a, the cuticle; b, an egg; c, a claw. Fig. 5.—Hypsibius species. Molt containing 4 eggs: a, the cuticle; b, an egg; c, a spine; d, a claw. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 418TH MEETING oF BoaRpD oF MANAGERS The 418th meeting of the Board of Managers held in the Cosmos Club, May 17, 1948, was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the President, Dr. F. D. Rossrni. Others present were: H. S. Rappueye, N. R. Smita, J. I. Horrman, F. G. BRICKWEDDE, W. N. Fenton, W. RAMBERG, T. D. Stewart, J. W. Aupricu, C. E. WHITE, W. W. Russy, W. A. Dayton, C. A. BETTs, M.A. Mason, A. O. Fostsr, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, H. E. McComp, F. C. Kracrx, L. V. Jupson, and F. THonE. The Chairman of the Committee on Mem- bership, H. E. McComb, presented 27 nomina- tions for resident membership. The Chairman of the Committee on Mono- graphs, Dr. L. V. Jupson, reported the com- mittee’s favorable reaction to Dr. HERBERT FRIEDMANN’S monograph on The parasitic birds of Africa. Upon a motion by Dr. Judson, the Board voted to accept the bid of the Lord Baltimore Press to publish, in buckram bind- ing, 1,000 copies of the monograph at a cost to” the Academy of approximately $2,100. It was agreed that the map of North Africa recom- | Juty 15, 1948 mended to Dr. Friedmann should be included, raising the printing cost about $30. Dr. Judson recommended that the price the Academy is to charge for copies of the monograph be fixed so that the cost of publication is returned in the sale of half of the edition. Dr. FRANK THONE, the Academy representa- tive on the Joint Committee on Press Relations, presented a report on the financial standing of the committee which the Board voted to refer to the Executive Committee for consideration and recomendation. _ The Chairman of the committee appointed to consider and make recommendations regard- ing an index to the JouRNAL, Dr. W. N. FEn- TON, presented a report which was also referred to the Executive Committee for consideration and recommendation. The Secretary reported the result of the bal- lot submitted to the membership regarding the change in the Bylaws proposed at the 417th meeting of the Board: 1. Amendment to create office of President-elect (Yes, 254; No. 10). 2. Amendment to increase permitted number of THE 1947 ACADEMY AWARDS 255 active members (Yes, 251; No. 13). Total bal- lots cast, 264. The Secretary announced the death of AL- BERT FRED Woops, an original member, on April 12, 1948. The Board approved the following changes in the Standing Rules proposed at the 417th meeting: Section 3, third sentence, replace by— “The Committee on Membership, Meetings, Grants-in-Aid for Research, and each of the Sub- committees of the Committee on Awards for Sci- entific Achievement shall include, if possible, at least two members reappointed from the preced- ing year. The Committee on Monographs shall have six members, each appointed for three years at the rate of two each year. At least three mem- bers of the Committee on Monographs shall be past editors of the JouRNAL, if possible.” New Section S, second sentence, replace by— ‘“‘A candidate must be a member of the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences or a resident member of one of the Affiliated Societies and shall not have passed the 40th anniversary, etc....” The meeting was adjourned at 10:40 P.M. C. L. Gazin, Secretary - THE 1947 ACADEMY AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT As encouragement to younger scientists the Washington Academy of Sciences makes three annual Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment to members of the Academy or resi- dent members of the affiliated societies— © one in the Biological Sciences, one in the Engineering Sciences, and one in the Physi- cal Sciences. Only two awards were made for 1947. The winners were Robert DeWitt Huntoon, of the National Bureau of Standards, in the Physical Sciences; and Harry Warren Wells, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, in the Engineering Sciences. The awards were made at the regular meeting of the Academy at the Cosmos Club on the eve- ning of March 18, 1948. Dr. Huntoon’s citation was “in recognition of his distin- guished service in the advancement of electronics and its applications to other sciences and to modern ordnance.” Mr. Wells’s was ‘“‘in recognition of his distin- guished upper-air research and organization of a world-wide network of ionospheric sta- tions.”’ RoBertT DEW1tTT HUNTOON Dr. Huntoon was born at Waterloo, Iowa, on July 20, 1909. After obtaining his B.A. degree from Iowa State Teachers Col- lege in 1932, he began graduate work at the State University of Iowa, receiving his M.S. degree in 1935 and his Ph.D. in 1988. During this time he also served as graduate teaching assistant (1933-35) and research assistant in the University’s department of physics (1935-38). Leaving Iowa, he be- came instructor in physics at New York University (1938-40), then research physi- cist with the Hygrade Sylvania Corporation (Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.) at Em- porium, Pa. (1940-41), and in 1941 joined the staff of the National Bureau of Stand- ards to work on electronic ordnance devices. In 1944-45 he served as expert consultant to the Office of the Secretary of War, but 256 returned to the Bureau to become chief of the Basic Research Section, Ordnance De- velopment Division, and later chief of the Electronics Section. At present he is assist- ant chief of the Atomic Physics Division. RoBErRT DEW1TT HuNTOON In addition to the Academy Award, Dr. Huntoon is the recipient of two other dis- tinguished recognitions of his abilities: A Naval Ordnance Development Award and a War Department Certificate of Apprecia- tion, both in 1946. He is a member of the American Physical Society, the Philosophi- cal Society of Washington, the Institute of Radio Engineers (senior member), Sigma Xi, and Kappa Delta Pi. Harry WARREN WELLS Mr. Wells is a native of Washington, D. C., where he was born on January 13, 1907. He received the B.S. degree in elec- trical engineering in 1928 and the E.E. de- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 7 gree in 1937 from the University of Mary- land. Between 1928 and 1932 he was associ- ated with the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., the All-American Ma- laysian Expedition to Borneo, Heintz & Kaufman, Ltd., and the Army Air Forces. He has been a member of the scientific staff of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, since 1932. His investigations, both here and abroad, have contributed mate- rially to knowledge of the ionosphere, radio wave propagation, and related geophysical subjects. Mr. Wells is a member of the Committee on Wave Propagation and Utilization of the Harry WARREN WELLS Institute of Radio Engineers and is a senior member of that Institute. His other profes- sional affiliations include the Washington Academy of Sciences, the American Geo- physical Union, and the Philosophical Soci- ety of Washington. . _ Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences De eoat we eeeeesseceeeeees FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards ee Lewis Gazin, U. 8; National Museum Se POGSUPEN 6 occ s koe eos e ch cess HOWARD ©. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey RA TENMMUSGE 6 Sa. ce oe ect we ee eee ess NATHAN R, SmituH, Plant Industry. Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications............2+00cceceeeeeecees Beles «S Bee ree os oes Ses ook ae ss os ARALD A.’ Renper, U.S: National Museum Bx Vice-Presidents Representing the A filiated Socteties: Philosophical Society of Washington....................... WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington....................1. Dae Stewart % Biological Society of Washington...............++ee+.++++++-JOHN W. ALDRICH -— Chemical Society of Washington.......................+.-+CHARLES E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington...................C. F. W. MussEesrecx ae National Geographic Society.................++++++..+-ALEXANDER WETMORE ie Geological Society of Washington..................+.+.+++ WILLIAM W. RuBEyY ape Medical Society of the District of Columbia................FREDERICK O. Coz ek Columbia Historical Society.............222+++e+22++e++ GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanical Society of Washington. .............2.eeeeee0++++ RONALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wituram A. Dayton Washington Society of Engineers................+..+...-+CLIFFORD A. BETTS _ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... =s See ee bat salon Mae te wie alate ck sine acu e dae 3 os sis «=f RANCIS B; SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... oe ee eae ees isiii na etre hha s oe wk he pik uaa die ose Ca MARTIN A.: MASON Helminthological Society of Washington....................AUREL O. Foster Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......Lor=e A. RocErRs Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. Crmment L. GARNER : - Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.....H=RBERT Grove DorsEyY y Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.....QwEN B. FRENcH a Elected Members of the Board of Managers: "~~ To January 1949...................-.- Max A. McCati, Watpo L. Scumirtr - To January 1950....................-.F. G. BRICKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL To January 1951...............FRANcIS M. DreFranporr, ‘Wituram N. Fenton Board of Managers....................All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors.............000+++++e+++...[pee front cover] oe _ Executive Commitiee.........FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, nah veseeeeeesees.s.. WALDO L, Scumitr, Howarp 8. Raprieye, C. Lewis GazIN ie re. __ Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WytHe Cooxn, WILLIAM ——— gaeeeees. W. Dient, Luoyp D, Fetton, REGINA FLANNERY, GEORGE G. MAnov piieddikitee on Meetings..........2++0.2+0e000++++RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), sg es ee» FRANK P. CULLINAN, FRED L. Mounier, Francis O. Ricz, Frank THONS Commitiee on Monographs: To January 1949...........Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN - To January 1950.................... ROLAND W. Brown, Harautp A. REHDER Peo wandary 1951 : . ote. 5. 6. se WILLIAM N. FENTON, Emmett W. Price ae on Awards for ‘Scioniific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman): TES Se Oe ae ee eee C, F. W. Mursespeck (chairman), Harry 8S. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons, Eimer Hicerns, Marto Mouiari, GorrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum _ For the Engineering Sciences............... Se ee lara fastens uw Skea aaa aa disse os a Sa. Harry Driamonpd (chairman), Luoyp V. BeRKNER, Rospert C. DuNcAN, ‘ Herpert N. Eaton, Arno C, FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. Surcuirrs te rea ir tf ro ts ce wid bee ve oe a Karu F. Herzretp (chairman), NatHan L. Drakes, Liuoyp D. FELTon, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, Ropert Simu4, MIcHAEt X. SULLIVAN “Committee on ce letERe eae ERI SEAN ek cite a we Fo So Wee SF dees tee ..F, H. H. Ropsrts, Jr. ee Anna E. JENKINS, J. Lton SHERESHEVSKY __ Representative on Council of A. A. A. S. Pe een PN a aan TRON SIRES. a SS ee ee an ee _ Wii1am G. BromBacHEr (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Herpert L. HAuuer _ Committee of Tellers... .. 2.6... see e esses eee e eet sen eee nese eee nes eae eae _...JoHN W. McBournoy (chairman), Roger G. Bates, WitLiaM A. WILDHACK CONTENTS ARCHEOLOGY.—Florida archeology and recent ecological changes. JOHN M. GOGGIN: 2 32 Fan aeons a) eee i Aa a aca aa CHEMISTRY.—Purification of uranium oxide. JAMESI. HorFMAN .... Borany.—Notes in North American Leguminosae. FRrEpeErRick J. TIER MANN 30) Sh a ls Oe A ee ea Myco.Logy.—T wo new species of Physarum. G. W. MaArTIN....... ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera. LAWRENCE Wo SASLOR Soo). Le ie en EntTomo.Locy.—The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American Chalcidoidea described by W. H. Ashmead. A.B. GAHAN...... ORNITHOLOGY.—Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield)..: Hi. G.’ DRIGNAN S25) hae te oe eee a IcHTHYOLOGY.—Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on related forms. LEeonarD P. Scouttz and Loren P. Woops.................. ZooLtoGy.—The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia. Ciarnces B: Cuntin, 260.500. Seiko, ae er PROCEEDINGS: THE |ACADEMY oo.) ) OS aS Oe ee eee - Tur 1947 AcADEMy AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT........ Tus JOURNAL I8 INDEXED IN THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS Page 225 233 236 238 240 243 245 ‘ ee eT KS ee © 4. se ee err Pe ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee = “ad i hel elite Bes sae 4 ‘ % q 4 "BOARD OF EDITORS : ee Srone ht - Franx C. Kracex aes he ‘BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 4 : hy haa PLANT QUARANTINE © Ran Fe geo ae : si ASSOCIATE EDITORS Woop 3 _- Riemarp E. BLACK WELDER [ETY Le | ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY me it 5 ; e iy be, nr) aie cl _ James S. WILLIAMS poate. Plc) hs GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ae . Waxpo R. WEDEL Mae dor tee | ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY aoe ee Tr C. ScHooxover Ph ae | CHEMICAL SOCIETY ~~ | PUBLISHED MONTHLY : BYTEB Bes! ACADEMY OF SCIENCES f, 450 AHNAIP Sr. A Menasna, Wisconsin ; | ae nS e = * Z Me fy .c under er the _ of August a 1912, at t Menasha, Wis. 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C. ; Exzchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. : aes JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 38 Avaeust 15, 1948 No. 8 ETHNOLOGY .—Utilization of marine life by the Wampanoag Indians of Mas- sachusetits.1\ FRANK G. SpEcK, University of Pennsylvania, and Ratpu W. DeExtTeER, Kent State University. Coastal Indians have always possessed a unique advantage. Marine resources have been at their disposal for use in many ways, especially for food. Undoubtedly marine foods played the most important part in the diet of these aboriginals as indicated by numerous prehistoric shell heaps, and_also by the persistence to the present day of the use of marine animals by the living descend- ants of the shell-heap builders. The writers have made a study of the use of marine life, with special reference to the marine inverte- brates, by the Wampanoag Indians living at Mashpee on Cape Cod and at Gay Head on Marthas Vineyard. Information ob- tained from informants? portrays the use of marine life from about 1850 to the present. This is correlated with published records on the contents of shell heaps which have been excavated in the region. A preliminary survey was made at Mashpee and Gay Head in August 1940. In 1946 a concentrated study was made in the Mashpee area (including Herring Pond). In 1947 a brief revisit to this area and a concentrated study with the Gay Head group was undertaken. Table 1 summarizes = * Received April 20, 1948. To the Faculty Re- search Fund (Grant no. 594), University of Pennsylvania, the senior author is indebted for financial support of this Wampanoag Ethnological project. 2 We are grateful to the following informants: From the Mashpee group: Mr. and Mrs. William Sturgis, Marshall Jeffers, Edward Amos, Fred Gardner, Mr. and Mrs. Ambrose Pells, and Clinton Haynes. From the Herring Pond group: Mrs. Josephine Webquish, Mrs. Ella Hirsh Grover, and Howard Hirsh. From the Gay Head group: Linus Jeffers, Mr. and Mrs. William Ryan, Harry Vanderhoop, Mr. and Mrs. Jerry Diamond, Grover Ryan, and Eva Ryan. (Communicated by WILLIAM N. FENTON.) the marine life known to have been used by the Wampanoag, and compares marine forms cited by living Indians with marine life collected in the vicinity and with re- mains recovered from local shell heaps. Byers and Johnson (1940) characterize the Wampanoag as “a rather undeveloped fishing and hunting people” and say that ‘“‘shellfish were the principal part of their diet.” Earlier, Chase (1885) stated that they were “‘largely dependent for food upon the fish and shellfish which they caught at the mouth of streams and sheltered bays.” In reporting an early journey of Edward Winslow and Stephen MHopkins_. with Squanto from Plymouth to Narragansett Bay, Miller (1880) described the travelers meeting Indians ‘“‘with baskets of roasted crab fishes and other dried shell fish.’’ They also encountered Indians fishing for bass at a weir on the Taunton River, and “at Mattapoiset they ate oysters and other fish.’’ Miller also pointed out that ‘‘as soon as the shores were clear of snow and ice, in the spring, they would naturally flock to them, for shellfish, and watch for the coming of the early sea fish.”’ The abundant shell heaps of coastal Massachusetts leave no doubts as to the importance of marine life, especially the mollusks, in the economy of the aboriginals. There is also evidence that the Indians of the interior journeyed to the coast to obtain shellfish, which were smoked or dried for winter use. The salt-water ponds, inlets, and bays along the shore have provided sea foods for these people for many centuries. Squib- nocket Pond at Marthas Vineyard is no longer connected with the sea, but Guernsey (1916) presented evidence that the Indians 257 258 had opened it to the sea with a channel way for the purpose of introducing marine fish and shellfish. Such ponds as Menemsha Pond and Tisbury Pond still furnish them with food. In August 1947, the junior writer accompanied Linus Jeffers of the Gay Head band on a trip into Menemsha Pond for the collection of shellfish, and notes were taken on the marine life available there for com- parison with archeological records and re- cent ethnological information on the use of such marine organisms in past and recent times by the inhabitants of Gay Head. Fresh-water ponds such as Mashpee Pond, and Herring Pond have long provided an abundance of such fishes as the alewife or fresh-water herring. While the sea foods once formed the bulk of their diet, and ma- rine animals were adapted for many uses in their culture, the Wampanoag have gradu- ally become less and less dependent upon marine resources, although they are still important as items of food. The ethnic character of these people has been described by Speck (1928). Of all the marine invertebrates utilized by the Wampanoag, the pelecypods or bi- valve mollusks have been of the greatest importance. Many species were common items of food, some were used in tempering clay for pottery, and some were used for beads, scrapers, and ornaments. The oyster (Ostrea virginica) was at one time a staple food. This mollusk lived in Menemsha Pond, and other salt-water ponds at Gay Head, and probably in sheltered bays along the southern shore of Cape Cod. In recent times this species has become scarce in the locality of this study. Efforts have been made by present day Indians to reintroduce the oyster into the salt-water ponds at Gay Head without success, so that now it is ob- tained only through commercial sources. In former times, however, the oyster was un- doubtedly fished in large quantities and eaten frequently, as attested by the great bulk of oyster shells found in many of the excavated shell heaps. In modern times they are stored by spreading them over a basement floor with the deep shell down and sprinkled with corn meal, or packed in seaweed in a cool, dark place. Equally important as the oyster was the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 bay scallop (Pecten itrradians). This shell- fish was also obtained from the salt-water ponds and inlets, and today still ranks first among local food mollusks. As in the case of the oyster, shell heaps reveal a large con- sumption of this bivalve. Some shell heaps are largely oyster shells; others are largely scallop shells. At times the two are mixed, and at other times there are alternating layers of the two species. The latter case may indicate fluctuations of abundance of these mollusks from one time to another, or the greater availability of one over the other at certain seasons. Besides food, scal- lops were used in the manufacture of pot- tery. Byers and Johnson (1940) found that “By far the greatest number of sherds are tempered with scallop shell.’”’ An interesting superstition of recent times among the Gay Head Indian people is the belief that domestic cats, which eat the rim of the scallop (edge of the mantle containing the eyes), have their ears rot off in a short time. The quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria) ranks third in importance in the all-time list, although in recent times it shares with the scallop the honor of first place. Quahog shells are abundant in the shell heaps, and today it is the commonest clam consumed in the area. They are obtained by treading in shallow water and by the use of quahog rakes in deeper water. They are stored by spreading out on cool basement floors. In addition to steaming and frying, they are used in clam chowder, clam fritters, and clam pie. They have also been used for bait although less valuable shellfish are now substituted for that purpose. In pre-historic and proto-historic times purple wampum or beads were cut from the purple nacre of the quahog shells. Chase (1885) found quahog shells perforated in such a manner as to suggest they had been strung in the form of a necklace. The soft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria) is another common bivalve that has been in use over a long period of time, but this species is no longer as important on the south shore of Massachusetts as it is and has long been along the coast north of Cape Cod, where it is more abundant and where the quahog or hard-shelled clam does not live in any significant quantity. South of TABLE 1.—MARINE ORGANISMS UTILIZED BY THE WAMPANOAG INDIANS [Allinvertebrates are listed by Sumner, Osburn, and Cole (1913) and fishes by Bigelow and Welch (1925) for the region. 1, Collected from Menemsha Bight by Lee (1944). 2, Collected from Menemsha Pond by Dexter and Jeffers. 3, Found in Marthas Vineyard shell- heaps by Byers and Johnson. 4, Found in Nantucket shellheaps by Bullen and Brooks. 5, Reported by Wampanoag informants from Mashpee and Gay Head.] ALGAE: Fucus vesiculosis, rock seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum, rock seaweed Chondrus crispus, Irish moss PELECYPODA: Argina campechiensis pexata, combed ark Ostrea virginica, oyster - + Pecten irradians, bay scallop P. grandis, deep sea scallop Anomia simplex, jingle shell Mytilus edulis, blue mussel Volsella demissa, ribbed mussel Mercenaria mercenaria, quahog Ensis directus, razor clam Spisula solidissima, sea clam Tagelus gibbus Mya arenaria, soit-shelled clam GASTROPODA: Polwnices heros, sand-collar snail P.. duplicata, sand-collar snail Crepidula fornicata, boatshell _ Iuttorina littorea, English periwinkle Urosalpinx cinereus, oyster drill Nassarius trivittata, sand snail + N. obsoletus, mud snail Buccinum undatum, English whelk Busycon canaliculatum, pear conch B. carica, pear conch CEPHALOPODA: Loligo pealii, squid ARACHNOIDEA: Limulus polyphemus, horseshoe crab = CRUSTACEA: Balanus balanoides, rock barnacle B. eburneus (?), ivory barnacle + Homarus americanus, lobster Cancer irroratus, rock crab + Callinectes sapidus, blue crab Carcinides maenas, green crab Uca spp., fiddler crabs PIscEs: Squalus acanthias, spiny dogfish = Raja spp., skates Acipenser sp., sturgeon Anguilla bostoniensis, eel Pomolobus pseudo-harengus, alewife Osmerus mordax, smelt Scomber scombrus, mackerel Pomatomus saltatrizx, bluefish Roccus sazxatilis, striped bass Morone americana, white perch Centropristes striatus, sea bass Stenatomus chrysops, porgy Tautogolabrus adspersus, cunner Tautoga onitis, tautog a5 Opsanus tau, toadfish Merluccius bilinearis, whiting Gadus morhua, cod Pseudopleuronectes americanus, flounder REPTILIA: Sea turtles MAMMALIA: Physeter catodon, sperm whale Globicephala ventricosa blackfish Porpoise Phoca vitulina, harbor seal Halichoerus grypus, gray seal ++ +++ +++ ++ SPLG ape Sentence be ce Se AP ueI ate A Sine Mame icon het er eat ++++++ + ++ +++ 44+ 44+ 4+ 4 +++ + ot+ttteetteettt+ ++ Ft+t+e+ + + + +44 -+ ++ ++ 4+ 260 Cape Cod the quahog is now the most valu- able of the clams. The soft-shelled clam has, however, been used for the same general purpose as the quahog—steaming, frying, chowder, fritters, pie—but in this case the stomach of the soft-shelled clam is usually removed because of its size and soft texture. This species is not stored because of its poor keeping qualities. It has also been used for bait. After the hurricane and tidal wave of 1938, the soft-shelled clams practi- cally disappeared from the shores of Menemsha Pond. It is believed that they were buried and smothered. In any case this recent and sudden disappearance sug- gests that similar natural phenomena may be the explanation for variations in the composition of shells in the local kitchen middens from one period of accumulation to another. Byers ‘and Johnson (1940) ex- plained in part the variations in the com- position of shell heaps studied by them as a function of the ease of obtaining certain species at certain times. Molluscan popu- lations are known to fluctuate in abundance from time to time to a great degree, some- times in a cyclical pattern. Some observa- tions of this nature have been published by Dexter (1944). Over long periods of time the ecological balance may change dras- tically. Thus, for example, in 1931-32 the. eelgrass completely disappeared from Me- nemsha Pond as it did in nearly all other localities along the Eastern Seaboard as the result of a wasting disease. There is evi- dence that eelgrass decline has been peri- odic. According to Linus Jeffers the eel- grass returned to Menemsha Pond in 1945. A note on the status of eelgrass in this pond in the summer of 1947 and its relation to the mollusks there has been published by Dexter (1947). Such drastic changes in the natural resources and the consequences of an upset ecological balance are bound to be reflected in the economy of a people who depend wholly or largely on local resources such as the Wampanoag did at one time. Periodic failure of marine populations may account for such conditions as reported by Miller (1880) who wrote that “this lack of food at Massasoit’s home indicates a pre- carious state of subsistence with the Indians.” JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 8 The sea clam or hen clam (Spisula solidis- | sima) has been used for chowder and some- times for clam pie, after being finely — chopped up, but for little else because of its tough texture. It has been used exten- sively, however, for bait, especially for taking codfish. These clams are dug at low water during the perigee tides. The shells were formerly used for hoes and scrapers. Several other species of bivalves have also been used occasionally for food, but pri- marily for bait. These include the blue mus- sel (Mytilus edulis), the razor clam (Ensis directus), and the ribbed mussel (Volsella demissa). The intertidal bivalves were dug out of the muds and sands during times of low tide. In places where the sediments were unusually soft, making standing and | walking difficult, the Indians sat down and slid over the flats to obtain the shellfish. Oysters, scallops, and quahogs are some- times eaten raw. Possibly this practice was more common in older times. In the past century shellfish have been prepared by steaming, frying, stewing, and baking. At one time they were fried in skunk, ground- hog, and bird grease. In recent times the shells of bivalves have been burned and used for liming the soil. One bivalve, the common jingle shell (Anomia simplex), played a part in local (Gay Head) Wampanoag fables and myths, in which the shells are referred to as “Granny Squanit’s toe nails.” These were doubtless used as toys for children because of their bright golden and silver colors and the jingle sounds which they make. On the Chesapeake Bay region the modern Indians string them to make necklaces for their costumes. Two species of bivalves were recovered from the Vineyard Shell Heap by Byers and Johnson (1940) for which no special use is known. They are Tagelus gibbus and the combed ark shell, Argina campechiensis pexata. Not many have been recovered, and since they are subtidal forms, they may have been acquired only incidentally along with the collection of common food mol- lusks. One species which has been used only in recent times is the deep-sea scallop (Pec- ten grandis) which the aboriginal inhabi- tants doubtless had no means of securing. | | _ Aua. 15, 1948 spECK & DEXTER: MARINE LIFE AND WAMPANOAG INDIANS It is interesting that fresh-water clams, common in Mashpee Pond, and probably in others as well, never seem to have been utilized either in former or in recent times. Many of the present-day Indians believe them to be poisonous, and the easily avail- able and more palatable marine clams left the fresh-water forms without value. The marine gastropods or snails also played a leading part in the economy of the Wampanoag. The winkles or pear conchs (Busycon canaliculatum and B. carica) were ground up, made into a paste, and eaten on bread. A hash and a chowder were also pre- pared by boiling the chopped snails with vegetables. These snails were also used for bait, and the largest of the shells were used for trumpets. White wampum was manu- factured from the columella of these shells. The sand collar snails (Polinices heros and P. duplicata) and, in recent times at least, the whelk (Buccinum undatum), were like- wise utilized for food and bait. Boatshells (Crepidula fornicata) have long been eaten and are commonly called ‘‘sweetmeats.” Three species of snails, the sand snail (Nas- sarius trivittata), the mud snail (NV. obsole- tus), and the oyster drill (Urosalpinz cinereus) have been found in shell heaps, but there is no evidence as to the nature of their use, if any. The last species named probably reached the refuse piles acciden- tally on the shells of oysters through which it drills to obtain its food. The other two species may also have been collected inci- dentally when the food mollusks were gathered. It is not clear as to what species Chase (1885) refers to by the name of ‘‘periwinkle”’ which he found in Wampanoag shell heaps. Besides having found them in shell deposits, some of the shells perforated for stringing, he reported on a skeleton discovered in South Wellfleet with a necklace consisting of ‘‘a double row of common periwinkles.” Chase (1885), Byers and Johnson (1940), and Bullen and Brooks (1947) all reported finding small clusters of land snails among the marine shells. Some of these land shells may have been eaten by the natives and possibly some may have been strung for ornaments. However, Ingram (1944) has described the underground storage of land 261 snails by shrews, which behavior should not be overlooked as a possible explanation for the occurrence of such shells in kitchen middens. The two species recovered by Byers and Johnson (1940) and Bullen and Brooks (1947) are among those cited by Ingram in his study. Also, the notation by Byers and Johnson (ibid.) that recent shells of a third species of a land snail were found in the heaps indicates without question that they were deposited by some subter- ranean animal, and very possibly by a shrew. Fig. 1.—Basket made from shells of the horse- shoe crab by Grover Ryan of the Gay Head band. Drawing made by Ernest 8S. Dodge. Specimen in collection of Peabody Museum of Salem. In recent times a new species has been added to the fauna of the Eastern Seaboard which has been utilized by the modern Wampanoag. The English periwinkle (Lizt- torina littorea), which was introduced into North America at the Gulf of St. Lawrence, spread southward very rapidly. According to Morse (1880), this snail was collected at Barnstable on Cape Cod Bay in large quan- tities in 1875. That year it was rare at Woods Hole on the southern shore of Cape Cod, but by the following year it had be- come a common species there. These were eaten by the coastal Wampanoag as boiled snails and, after being cooked with vege- tables, in the form of hash. Present-day Indians also eat the common squid (Loligo pealzz), a cephalopod mollusk. We have no information as to how far back 262 in time this practice extended. The internal pen or skeleton of this animal would not likely remain preserved in rubbish heaps. Although the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), one of the most primitive forms of arthropods alive, goes untouched today, it was used extensively in the nine- teenth century, if not earlier. First of all it was an item of food. It was boiled and the ege’s or roe were eaten much as lobster eggs were eaten at one time. Some also ate the meat from the legs. Then too the shells were used as boat bailers. Other shells, matched for size, were tied together rim to rim to make baskets (Fig. 1). The tails were used as needles and awls. They were also SSS Fig. 2.—Spear made from tail of the horse- shoe crab by Jerry Diamond of the Gay Head band. Nearly natural size. Drawing made by Er- nest 8. Dodge. Specimen in collection of Peabody Museum of Salem. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 fastened on sticks and used as improvised spears by hunters wading at low tide in shoal water, for the capture of bottom fishes, especially the flounder (Fig. 2). Finally, the chelicerae of the males were saved, polished with repeated rubbing, and carried as good-luck charms. These were commonly called “‘lucky bones” (Fig. 3). Fie. 3.—‘‘Lucky bones,” or chelicerae of the horseshoe crab. Natural size. Drawing made by L. R. Tcherky. Specimens in collection of Pea- body Museum of Salem. One informant (Ambrose Pells) reported that he has eaten rock barnacles (Balanus balanoides). It is known that in certain areas where large species of barnacles grow they are used to prepare a stew, especially when they are filled with eggs. Probably barnacles were little used by the Massachusetts Indians, however, except possibly as an emergency food. Byers and Johnson (1940) list what is believed to be the ivory bar- nacle (Balanus eburneus) from a shell heap excavated by them. This is a subtidal spe- cies, and without question owes its presence in the shell heap to the fact that 1t was at- tached to a mollusk shell and hence was collected only incidentally. Other crusta- ceans, on the other hand, have been valu- able items in the food of the Wampanoag. The lobster (Homarus americanus) has long been a choice sea food. It was reported by Mrs. Bessie Sturgis that her husband’s grandfather was known to capture lobsters with an iron hook in the 1840’s and 1850’s. These he placed in a back-basket of woven ash while he continued to fish out more of Ave. 15, 1948 them from the sand and among the rocks. Later the Indians adopted the white man’s method of using lobster pots. For the latter, skate slash was used as bait, the skates being taken by spearing them from a boat with a single-barbed iron spear. Crabs were also captured for food, usually by spearing. The blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) has been the most valuable one, but green crabs (Carcinides maenas) and rock crabs (Cancer irroratus) have been eaten somewhat as well as being used for bait. The fiddler crabs (Uca spp.) have been used for bait only. ; In spite of the large number of marine invertebrates that have been utilized in one form or another by the Wampanoag, no in- dication has ever been made of using the echinoderms, the only major group of marine animals for which no information on utility is available. While the white man who settled and has lived on the coast of North America has likewise neglected pos- sible uses of the echinoderms, Europeans have long relished the food value of the sea- urchins, and the sea-cucumbers are eaten in the Far East. The marine vertebrates, especially the fishes, have also been a very important group in the economy of the Wampanoag people. The most valuable one was the ale- wife (Pomolobus pseudo-harengus), more commonly called locally the fresh-water herring. This should not be confused with the true herring (Clupea harengus). The fresh-water herring is an anadromous fish, penetrating into fresh-water ponds from the sea for spawning. It was at such times of migration that the Indians caught them in great quantities and preserved them for future use. Smoked herring was a stable winter food on Cape Cod for many years. During the “run” of the herring, nets were placed in the streams leading to the breed- ing ponds. The nets were made of twine with a mesh two fingers in width. Only the fingers were and still are used in measuring the mesh, not a wooden gauge. One type of net was square with the corners and center tied to a pole which served to lift the net from the water. Stone sinkers were attached to submerge the nets. Notched sinkers have been recovered from a number of excava- SPECK & DEXTER: MARINE LIFE AND WAMPANOAG INDIANS 263 tions, and Byers and Johnson (1940) re- ported that such sinkers are still in use to- day at Gay Head. The herring were salted on the streambank at the time of collection and placed in barrels for four days. They were then dried for three days, after which they were smoked in a smoke house. The fish were suspended on a stick pushed through the eyes, with a dozen or so spaced on one stick. White oak, sugar maple, and sweet fern were burned to produce the smoke. At one time a thousand barrels were taken each season from the Mashpee River. A generation ago each family at Mashpee consumed on the average 300 smoked her- ring a year. Today the average is no more than two or three dozen. In recent times herring have been smoked by Edward Amos, Tom and Russell Mingo, and George Avant at Mashpee. The first named is the only one continuing the practice today. As far as can be learned, fresh-water herring were never smoked at Gay Head. The eel (Anguilla bostoniensis) was speared in shallow water and salted for preservation. Chase (1885) mentioned that the Indians at Mashpee sought the eels at night from a canoe with the aid of a torch. The flatfish or flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) and the striped bass (Roccus saxatilis) were speared with the tail of a horseshoe crab attached to a stick as men- tioned earlier, or with a stick having a short, sharp side branch at the bottom which served as a barb. Codfishing has been pursued off No Man’s Land for many years and continues to the present time, although to a much less extent in recent years. In addition to the flesh, the liver and the sounds (air sacs) are boiled for food. When fish chowder is made, the sounds are left in the fish. The roe is fried. Lucky bones (prob- ably otoliths) were formerly obtained from the head of the cod and carried as a charm. Mrs. Bessie Sturges of Mashpee recalls her grandfather, George Oakley, carrying two such lucky bones. The liver of the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) was collected for extraction of oil for lamps. Fred Gardner claims that toadfish or puffer (Opsanus tau) was given to sick people to eat because it was believed to be very easily digested. Other fishes in the diet of the Wampanoag 264 include the following: Skates (Raja spp.); smelt (Osmerus mordax); mackerel (Scomber scombrus); bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) ; white perch (Morone americana); sea bass (Centropristes striatus); porgy (Stenatomus chrysops); cunner, or choksi (tcdékse), as it is called by the Wampanoag (T'autogolabrus adspersus); tautog (Tautoga onitis); and whiting (Merluccius bilinearis). Miscellane- ous and unidentified fish bones have been found in many of the shell heaps which have been studied. Remains of one fish have been found in these refuse piles which no longer lives in the area—Byers and Johnson (1940) uncovered scales of a sturgeon (Aczpenser sp.). Fish weirs were built in shallow water with nets having notched stone sinkers tied to them for anchorage. Guernsey (1916) quotes from the Massachusetts Historical Collections which describe another method of capturing fish by the Wampanoag as follows. A passage was opened from the sea to Great Pond (now called Squibnocket Pond). Hurdles were sunk to the bottom of the connecting channel in a horizontal posi- tion. After the fish had entered the pond, the hurdles were raised to prevent the es- cape of the fish, which were then sought by spearing from canoes in the shallow water of the pond. Rock seaweeds (Fucus vesiculosis, As- cophyllum nodosum) have been used for keeping the catch of marine animals cool and moist until they were ready for use. This practice is continued today at Glouces- ter by the world’s largest distributor of lobsters, who ships live lobsters all over North America packed in barrels of rock seaweeds. Also, these algae have long been used as packing materials for the famous New England clam bakes. Guernsey (1916) discovered a bundle of seaweed at the bot- tom of a pit which he believed may have been used as a mattress. The red alga known as Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) was used as a source of gelatin. While there is no archeological evidence that sea turtles were ever captured, such have been eaten in modern times at least. The tooth of a sperm whale (Physeter cato- don) found by Byers and Johnson (1940) indicates that stranded whales were utilized by the ancient Wampanoag. Remains of a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 smaller whale, the blackfish (Globicephala ventricosa) have also been recovered from shell heaps, and there are historical records which give further information. Chase (1885) quotes an observation made by an exploring party of Gov. John Carver which discovered Wampanoag cutting up a black- fish on the shore of what is now called Blackfish Bay. Both the flesh and the oil were used. When the whaling industry of Massachusetts developed, Wampanoag from Cape Cod and Marthas Vineyard were among the whaling crews. On their trips, porpoises, among other things, were cap- tured for food. Bones of the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) and the gray seal (Hali- choerus grypus) have been identified from shell heaps, but these animals have not been used for many years, and the gray seal is no longer found in the region. An ancient tribal festival of the Indians at Gay Head has persisted to the present day. The annual occasion, once a week-long affair, is now referred to as Cranberry Day. The Indians come to the town cranberry bogs for harvesting the crop at the height of the season and to have a social gathering of the townspeople. The youths entertain themselves with games, sports, and con- tests, and a feast is prepared with shellfish taken from Menemsha Pond nearby. Qua- hogs, scallops, and clams have been the main foods for some time, but formerly oysters were gathered as well. Guernsey (1916) found two small shell heaps in the dunes close by the cranberry bogs and be- lieved they contained the refuse from such an occasion. In the old wigwam days the inhabitants assembled after driving to the bogs in ox carts. One of the tribal rites at these affairs has come down to recent times, within the memory of living Indians. At the feast, a child was given a basket of food to carry into the dunes to set down at a lonely spot as a gift to old Granny Squa- nit, and cautioned to hurry away without ever looking back. LITERATURE CITED BieELow, H. B., and WetsH, W. W. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. 40 (for 1924): part 1, 567 pp. 1925. BuLuten, R. P., and Brooks, E. The Squam Pond Indian site, Nantucket, Massachusetts. Ave. 15, 1948 Bull. Massachusetts Arch. Soc. 8(4): 56-59. 1947. Byers, D. §., and Jounson, F. Two sites on Martha’s Vineyard. Papers Robert 8. Pea- body Foundation for Archeology 1(1): 1-104. 1940. § Cuast, H. E. Notes on the Wampanoag Indians. Ann. Rept. Smithsonian Institution for 1883: 878-907. 1885. DeExTER, RauepH W. Annual fluctuation of abundance of some marine mollusks. Nautilus 58(1): 18-24. 1944. . Status of eelgrass in the Annisquam tidal river and Menemsha saltwater pond in Massa- chusetts during the summer of 1947. Plant Disease Reporter 31(11): 448-449. 1947. GuERNSEY, S. J. Notes on explorations of Martha’s Vineyard. Amer. Anthrop. 18(1): 81-97. 1916. INGRAM, W1LLIAM M, Snails hoarded by Blarina VINAL: TRANSITION TO ABSOLUTE ELECTRICAL UNITS 265 at Ithaca, New York. Nautilus 57(4): 135- 137. 1944. Lez, R. E. A quantitative survey of the inverte- brate bottom fauna in Menemsha Bight. Biol. Bull. 86(2): 83-97. 1944. Mi.tuir, W. J. Notes concerning the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, etc., 148 pp. 1880. Morsze, Epwarp 8. The gradual dispersion of certain mollusks in New England. Bull. Essex Inst. 12: 3-8. 1880. Speck, FRANK G. Territorial subdivisions and boundaries of the Wampanoag, Massachusett, and Nauset Indians. Indian Notes and Monographs No. 44. Museum of the Ameri- can Indian, Heye Foundation, 152 pp. 1928. Sumner, F. B., Ospurn, R. C., and Cos, L. J., with Davis, B. M. A biological survey of the waters of Woods Hole and vicinity. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 31 (for 1911): parts 1 and 2, 860 pp. 1913. PHYSICS.—Transition from international to absolute electrical units as it affects the physical chemist. Revised values of the units of electricity and light, effective January 1, 1948, have been adopted pursuant to decisions of the International Committee on Weights and Measures. The definitions of the new ‘‘ab- solute” units and the methods of fixing their magnitudes are quite different from those formerly employed for the practical system of units in use from 1911 to 1947, but the actual changes in magnitude are small and affect only measurements of high precision. The object of this paper is to indicate briefly (1) what has been done; (2) why a change was made at that time; (3) how much the units are altered; and (4) how the change does or does not affect calculations of the physical chemist in such matters as electrode potentials, activity coefficients, pH, the calorie, free energy, conductivity, and other items. The absolute system of electrical units is derived from fundamental mechanical units of length, mass, and time by the use of ac- cepted principles of electromagnetism, with the permeability of space taken as unity in the centimeter-gram-second units or as 10~7 in the corresponding meter-kilogram- second units. Electrical measurements are thus made concordant with measurements 1 This paper was presented on April 19, 1948, at a symposium on batteries and galvanic cells, American Chemical Society, Chicago, Ill. Re- ceived June 10, 1948. GEORGE W. ViINAL, National Bureau of Standards. in other fields of science and engineering. This is a guiding principle which has been recognized as desirable since Weber pro- posed it in 1851. Theoretically this principle is most important, but practically the difficulties in making precise electrical measurements in terms of mechanical units were very great. An electrical congress, comprising official delegates (Fig. 1) from various countries, met at the World’s Fair in Chicago in 1893 and agreed upon definitions for electrical units, recognizing in principle the absolute system but providing concrete standards to represent them. Public law No. 105, 53d Congress, approved July 12, 1894, embodies the decisions of this international body but contains ambiguities which were not recog- nized until many years later. As time went on greater accuracy of the standards was needed, and an International Conference on Electrical Units and Stand- ards, meeting in London in 1908, took definitive action to recognize the absolute system of units, but established for practical purposes a separate and independent system based on concrete standards, the mercury ohm, the silver voltameter, and the stand- ard cell. The electromotive force of the Weston Normal Cell was determined experimentally by a committee, including representatives from four countries who met at the National Sievers Scena Orn Dr ca Trovanse LuMeEeR Vorr ViouLe Fennanis Avatesn Vow HE. emourz JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 8 Airenis WENKMAN Trury i / Payas Hasmtauirn CARMABT SP, Taomeson E. Tomson ROWLAND MES DE Nm ALE Fic. 1.—Official delegates to the International Electrical Congress held at Chicago, 18938. (Courtesy of ‘‘Weston Engineering Notes’’.) Bureau of Standards in April 1910 (Fig. 2). The international electrical units, in use from 1911 to 1947, were based on these standards. Subsequent measurements of the ohm and ampere revealed differences between the units as realized from these concrete standards and the absolute units based on length, mass and time. The largest discrepancy was in the ohm, amounting to about 1 part in 2,000. Precise measurements of the present day make it very desirable, therefore, that a readjust- ment should be made. This step has not been taken without mature deliberation. The American In- stitute of Electrical Engineers recom- mended it 20 years ago. The National Bureau of Standards, charged with main- taining the units in this country, consulted an advisory committee consisting of repre- sentatives appointed by leading scientific and engineering bodies. The Eighth General Conference on Weights and Measures (an international body) approved the change, which was set for 1940, but for obvious reasons postponed until the present time. The relation of the fundamental units to the measurement of power and energy in both the new and former systems of units is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3. The left half represents functions of the National Bureau of Standards, the right half the units and certified standards as you use them in the laboratory. Details of the steps taken may be found in Circular C459 of the National Bureau of Standards, issued May 15, 1947. MAGNITUDE OF THE CHANGE Units of the new system will be main- tained, as in the past, by standard resistors and standard cells with reassigned values. The relative magnitudes of the ohms and volts in the two systems as accepted by the International Committee on Weights and Measures in October 1946 are as follows: 1 mean international ohm =1.00049 absolute ohms 1 mean international volt =1.00034 absolute volts Ave. 15, 1948 These are averages of units maintained in national laboratories of France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, U.S.S.R., and the United States, which took part in the work before the outbreak of the war. Specifically, the units maintained in the United States by the National Bureau of Standards have differed from the above averages by a few parts in a million, so that the conversion factors for adjusting the above and other values in this country are as follows: 1 international ohm (US) =1.000495 absolute ohms 1 " volt (US) =1.00033 £ volts 1 « ampere (US) =0.99)835 . ampere 1 é coulomb (US) =0.999835 & coulomb 1 & henry (US) =1.000495 = henries il farad (US) =0.999505 - farad 1 & watt (US) =1.000165 « watts iL a joule (US) =1.000165 « joules These factors should be used in con- verting values in certificates of the NBS VINAL: TRANSITION TO ABSOLUTE ELECTRICAL UNITS 267 issued previous to January 1, 1948, to the present absolute units. EFFECT ON CALCULATIONS OF THE PHYSICAL CHEMIST The calory and thermodynamic quantities. —At various times, quantities of heat energy have been measured in mechanical units, in electrical units, and in thermal units. Various calories, specifically defined, as units of heat energy and based on the ab- sorption of heat by water were measured thermally until about 1910, when it became more usual to measure them in international joules. Difficulties were encountered in in- troducing the joule as a substitute for the traditional calory and this led to the adop- tion of an artificial calory? for thermochemi- cal purposes. It was defined without refer- ence to water as— 2H. F. Muevuer and F. D. Rossint1, The calory and the joule in thermodynamics and thermochem- astry. Amer. Journ. Phys. 12: 1. 1944. Fic. 2.—Members (*) of the International Technical Committee of 1910 and assistants at the Na- tional Bureau of Standards. Left to right. F. Laporte* of France, Sir Frank Smith* of England, Dr. F. A. Wolff*, Dr. W. Jaeger* of Germany, M. P. Shoemaker, Dr. S. W. Stratton*, Director N.B.S., Dr. F. Wenner, Dr. A. S. McDaniel, G. E. Post, Dr. F. W. Grover, Dr. E. B. Rosa*, Dr. G. W. Vinal. 268 1 calory =4.1833 international joules (NBS). With the transition from international to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1.—CorRECTION Facrors ‘ . | Unit of Correction absolute units, the calory remains the same Caantats | corresponding Saiton int tet but the above relation becomes |. dimensions abs. units J calory = 4.1840 absolute joules. Activity coefficient | (dimensionless) no change Likewise various thermodynamic quantities Gs constant R joule, deg™ mole | 1.000165 ja eee : £3 l : Cee Faraday F coulomb, g-equiv™! «0.999835 such as the increment of internal or intrinsic — yactor RT/nF oak 1.00033 energy, AH; increment of heat energy, Stand. elec. pot.E° | volt X1.00033 AH; the product of absolute temperature Redox potentials ) ver 1.00033 5 Tonization constant | (dimensionless) no change by the change in entropy, TAS; the increase Energy & work | soule 1.000165 of free energy, AP: are unchanging physical Values of pH (dimensionless) no change sy: : . Brit. Therm. unit joule 1.000165 quantities expressed numerically as joules Resistivere gees i ona per mole. Old values in international joules Conductivity (elec) | ohm-}, em- +1.000495 can be converted to corresponding absolute Ampere-hour | coulomb X0. 999835 : l b Iti ina b th f t 1 000 Electric potential volt X1.00033 Joules by Multiplying by € factor I. F Electric field strength | volt, em7 1.00033 165. Ionic mobility | volt, em?, sec! +1.00033 Table of corrections. —A considerable Free energy change | volt, coulomb 1.000165 etre 5 Led é Electron charge (emu) | coulomb X0.999835 number of quantities with which the physi- Electron volt (emu) coulomb, volt 1.000165 cal chemist has to deal is listed in Table 1. LENGTH VOL. 38, No. 8 INT. OHM Secondary Std. rs team INT. OHM INT. OHM Mercury Ohm Wire Stondard \\ INT. AMPERE ~~~ “Silver Ampere‘ THE FORMER LENGTH OHM Wire Standard THE PRESENT. ABSOEUTE INT. VOLT Saturated Cell INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL UNITS OHM Secondary Std. IN USE Fia. 3 INT. VOLT Unsaturated Cell UNETS . OF (Stic @ SINCE JANUARY INT. AMPERE INT. WATT a a (Power) eS INT. JOULE (Energy) 1947 WATT (Power) JOULE (Energy) I948 | st Ave. 15, 1948 The corrections given in the last column are factors by which values in international units are to be multiplied (X) or divided (+) to give the corresponding value in ab- solute units, provided that electrical meas- urements are involved. Doubtless the list might be considerably extended but enough are reported to illustrate the principles in- volved. The international temperature scale.— Measurements on the international temper- BOTAN Y.—Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species." LirtLe, Jr., U. S. Forest Service. Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake (family Compositae), common name ‘‘chil- cuague,’ is a Mexican herbaceous plant species of possible commercial value as a source of insecticide. In testing various wild plants for new insecticides during the late war, the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, found root extracts from this species to have the same order of paralyzing action and toxicity to house flies as pyrethrins and to be toxic also to other insects. The dried roots without botanical mate- rial for identification had been submitted from a Mexican company under the name Erigeron affinis DC. (family Compositae), common names “pelitre del pais’ and “chilcudn.’”’ Acree, Jacobson, and Haller (1, 2, 5), of the bureau mentioned, isolated from the roots the toxic principle, which they identified as N-isobutyl-2, 6, 8-deca- trienoamide and which they named ‘‘afinin,”’ from the reported scientific name, Toxicity tests against house flies, mos- quitoes, and other insects were made by McGovran and others (6), of the same bureau. On the basis of these investigations, R. C. Roark (11a), also of this bureau, re- cently included this species among promis- ing insecticidal plants meriting further re- search. It seems appropriate, therefore, to report upon the botanical aspects of this insecticide, especially since the scientific 1 This study was made while the author was employed in Mexico in 1945 as production special- ist (drugs), by the United States Commercial Company, an agency of the United States Gov- ernment. Received May 25, 1948, LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES 269 ature scale by the use of electric thermom- eters are little, if at all, affected by the change in units. Platinum resistance ther- mometers involve a ratio of resistances. This is obviously dimensionless and in- dependent of the units. Thermocouple measurements are affected only at high temperatures. At the gold point the correc- tion is 4 microvolts and from this correc- tions at lower temperatures can be estimated. ELBERT L. name has been confused and not previously known. The name Erigeron affinis for the samples tested apparently was taken from the reference books on Mexican plant names, useful plants, and medicinal plants by Martinez (7, 8, 9, 10), who also cited older publications. The early physician Dr. Francisco Hernandez (1514-1578), in a work first published in 1615, described a plant, ‘“‘chilmecatl” or “ychcha,”’ the slender roots of which relieved the toothache and other pains (4, pp. 383-384; 15, p..121). His description, which Martinez referred to Erigeron affinis, is not that of Heliopsis longipes. Erigeron affinis was mentioned in 1902 in Noriega’s (117, p. 419) Mexican reference on medicinal plants as a substitute for “‘peritre de Africa,” Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. and Anthemis pyrethrum L., used for rheuma- tism, neuralgia, toothache, etc., in the fol- lowing statement (translated from Spanish): “Substituted for it is the root of “‘chileuam’ or ‘peritre del pais,’ Erygeron affinis, which is abundant in the surroundings of Mexico City and is probably the same root abun- dant in the Sierra de Querétaro, known by the name of ‘chilcudn’ and Spilanthes leccabunga [beccabunga]| DC., found in Tizapan; their properties appear to be iden- tical.” The following year a chemical analysis of the root of chileuan (Erigeron affinis) by Prof. D. Miguel Cordero (14, pp. 237-254) was reported. Escobar (3, 1: 1015, 1194; 3: 93) in his encyclopedia on agriculture mentioned Hrigeron affinis, with the com- 270 mon names “‘chileudn,” ‘‘chalehuan,”’ ‘‘pe- litre,’ “pelitre del pais,” and ‘‘peritre del pafs.”’ Santamaria (12, 1: 492-493; 2: 450; 3: 450) listed for this species the common names ‘“chalchudn,” ‘‘chileagtie,” ‘‘chil- cuague,” ‘‘chilcuahui,” ‘‘chilcudn,” ‘“‘pe- litre,’ and ‘‘peritre,”’ and associated Spz- lanthes beccabunga with some of these names also. Martinez’ .(7, pp. 152-155; 9; pp. 110— 112) description of ‘‘chileuan,”’ ‘‘chileuam,”’ or “chileuague,” Hrigeron affinis DC., as a plant with alternate leaves and white or violet flowers agrees with Erigeron and not Heliopsis longipes. However, his drawing shows a group of 10 small flower heads on a peduncle, while Hrzgeron affinis has large, solitary, long-peduncled heads. He men- tioned various uses for the roots, including stimulation of flow of saliva, relief from toothache, as a dentrifrice, as an insec- ticide (from the smoke produced: by burn- ing), and as a spice substituted for chile in flavoring foods. In San Luis Potosf an alcoholic tincture was applied for pimples, itch, and lice. Apparently the roots of two or mere genera of Compositae with similar prop- erties and similar common names have been confused in the absence of complete botani- cal specimens. As Erigeron affinis was not included in my study, there is no reason to doubt the descriptions of its properties by the authors cited. In May, June, and July, 1945, I made field studies of ‘“‘chileuague”’ in northeastern Guanajuato and collected flowering material, which Dr. 8. F. Blake kindly determined as Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake. Earlier references of “chilcuan” from Querétaro, Guanajuato, and San Luis Potosi may apply in part to the same species. A different kind of “pelitre’’ or ‘“‘chileuague,” with weaker properties, collected for me by Henry W. Turner at Zamora, Michoacan, was identi- fied by Dr. Blake as Spilanthes ocymifolia (Lam.) A. H. Moore. A compound similar to affinin, spilanthol, has been isolated from flower heads of another species of Spilanthes. The discovery of an _ insecticide in Heliopsis longipes is of special interest, as apparently there are no previous reports of insecticidal or medicinal properties in this JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 genus. Heliopsis Pers., a genus closely re- lated to Zinnia L., consists of about 10 species of American herbs, distributed from Canada and the United States south through Mexico and Central America to Peru. Two of the four species native in the United States, H. helianthoides (L.) Sweet and H. scabra Dunal, are widely distributed weeds with yellow flower heads resembling sunflowers and have been cultivated as hardy ornamentals. It would be desirable to determine whether other species of this genus have insecticidal properties. DESCRIPTION OF HELIOPSIS LONGIPES Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 608. 1924. Philactis longipes A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 15: 35. 1879. Common names: ‘‘chilcuague, ‘‘pelitre.”’ 9 66 chilicuague,”’ Perennial herb or with stems slightly woody and shrubby at base, 2 to 5 dm tall, hirtellous, with one or more stems, spreading and curved to nearly erect, usually unbranched above base, 3 to 7 dm long. Leaves opposite, few, short- petioled, the blades ovate, about 2 to 4 cm long, dentate-serrate. Peduncles 1 to several, terminal, elongate, 10 to 25 cm long, each with a solitary flower head. Involucre of 7 to 9 green ovate or lance-ovate bracts 7 to 10 mm long. Receptable columnar elongated, 10 to 20 mm long. Flowers yellow, rays fertile, about 10, the lamina sessile, about 15 to 18 mm long and 6 mm broad, achenes trigonous—ob- compressed, without pappus. Disk flowers fertile, quadrangular and few ribbed, without pappus or with 2 or 4 minute teeth. Bracts of the receptacle 6 to 7 mm long, yellow or orange- tipped, projecting beyond the disk flowers. This description based upon my addi- tional specimens is modified slightly from that by 8. F. Blake (13, p. 1527) of the two previous collections, in which the leaves were smaller (to 2.5 em long) and the rays shorter (about 1 cm long). Heliopsis longipes is generally a perennial herb form- ing new shoots each year from the perennial root system but was properly included by Blake as a “suffrutescent’’ species in the Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Though most stems die back to the ground each autumn, a few of the lowest, purplish internodes, or Ave. 15, 1948 sometimes more, may survive the winter and dry spring. Old stems in protected places beneath shrubs may be as long as 6 to 7 dm and only about 1.5 mm in diameter throughout their length. There are also horizontal stems, or rhizomes, near the sur- face or in leaf litter. The roots are distinctive, usually fascicled or sometimes single, slightly fleshy, light brown, about 1.5 to 3 dm long and 3 to 4 mm in diameter. These slightly fleshy roots are unbranched, except for a few fibrous lateral roots, and spread out and down at angles in the soil. The leaves are variable, from ovate to oval and from nearly entire to conspicuously toothed. Small, young leaves have relatively denser whitish pubescence. Though usually there are only 1 or 2 flower heads, large plants may have as many as 10 or more flower heads borne on separate elongated peduncles, to which the speciic name alludes. Field recognition of chilcuague in the dormant season is difficult because the plants are low and inconspicuous, with nearly dead stems. However, positive iden- tification can be made by a taste of the roots. In the spring small, immature leaves less than 1 cm long appear on short axillary branches. Growth of stems and leaves is most active in the growing season of sum- mer rains from June to September. Flowers are produced from July to September. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION Heliopsis longipes is known from southern San Luis Potosi and northeastern Guana- juato and has been reported from northern Querétaro. It is so restricted in geographic distribution and so infrequent that it was known previously to botanists from only two collections in San Luis Potosi, both deposited in the United States National Herbarium. These are the type, collected by ©. C. Parry and Edward Palmer (No. 465) in 1878 “in valleys along the foot- hills of the mountains near San Luis Potosi” and the second, by J. G. Schaffner (No. 763/338) in 1879. Herb dealers in the city of San Luis Potosi told me in October 1945 that chilcuague grows in the mountainous area south and southeast towards Alvarez. In the State of San Luis Potosi it is re- LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES 271 stricted apparently to the mountains in the southern part, near the border of Guana- juato, as most of the State is too low in elevation and too arid for it. In Guanajuato I located Heliopsis longipes only in the mountainous area east and north of San Luis de la Paz, about 40 kilometers (25 miles) square. Scattered colonies occur near the highway from San Luis de la Paz east to Xicht. Localities near which this species occurs include: Hacienda de la Mesa, Palmillas, Vergel, Macuala, Ahorcados, La Cueva, Charco Azul, and Santa Catarina. My specimens from several localities have been deposited in the United States National Herbarium and Herbarium of the National Arboretum. The altitudinal zone of chilcuague in northeastern Guanajuato is from about 1,825 to 2,250 meters (about 6,000 to 7,400 feet). This mountainous area just east of the Continental Divide in the headwaters of the Atlantic drainages is exposed to the easterly winds and receives a higher pre- cipitation than the plateau area around San Luis de la Paz and westward. San Luis de la Paz, elevation 2,020 meters (6,626 feet), is in the semidesert zone and has an annual rainfall of about 370 mm (15 inches). The oak-forest zone, in which chilcuague occurs, extends down the eastern slopes to about 1,825 meters (6,000 feet) near Xichu, elevation 1,400 meters (4,600 feet) and on the western slope near San Luis de la Paz to about 2,125 meters (7,000 feet). HABITAT “Chileuague”’ (Heliopsis longipes) is an undergrowth species of the oak forest, or oak-pine forest, though neither widely dis- tributed nor characteristic. This forest, generally open, is characterized by small oaks (‘‘encinos’’) 5 to 12 meters or more in height and about 10 to 40 cm. D. B. H., with small to large, thick, evergreen leaves. In some areas the larger trees have been cut for charcoal. The species represented include Quercus rugulosa Mart. & Gal., Q. lanceolata Humb. & Bonpl., and Q. macrc- phylla Née. Occasionally pines (‘‘pinos’’; Pinus teocote Schlecht. & Cham.) are as- sociated with the oaks. “Tejocote”’ (Cra- taegus sp.) is common in places, and 272 ‘“madrono” (Arbutus ralapensis H. B. K.) is relatively sparse. The undergrowth in- cludes scattered herbs and low shrubs, and grasses are characteristic of the open slopes. A few widespread herbaceous species of Compositae resemble chilcuague in having similar yellow flowers and opposite leaves but may be distinguished readily by their smaller, fibrous roots without the peculiar, burning and numbing taste. Rare and scattered in the oak forests, chileuague generally is found on the best sites, where the trees are larger and denser, such as gradual to steep, well-drained slopes of mountain sides and canyons. In one area chileuague plants were observed in open pastures and shrub thickets where the oaks had been cleared. Preliminary observations indicate that plants in partial sunlight grow more rapidly, become larger, flower earlier in the season, and have better-developed root systems than plants in dense shade. This species has been found only in areas with fertile top soil and adequate soil moisture, usually with a litter of oak leaves, humus, and organic loam soil 10 cm or more in depth. The mineral soil varies from sandy to clay and may be rocky. The entire soil layer on these slopes is only about 30 cm deep, overlying purplish volcanic rock. Chilcuague was not observed on the poorer sites, such as eroded slopes with mineral soil exposed and areas where the under- growth had been damaged by recent fires. Soil samples from five localities were analyzed with the Lamotte field tests. The soils were slightly acid, with pH of 6.4 to 6.8. The only serious deficiency was the low nitrogen content of most samples. Phos- phorus was average, potassium average to high, sulphates low, and replaceable cal- cium high. Small black beetles about 3 mm long and common on the flower heads were deter- mined by H. 8. Barber, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, as Pristocelis sp. (family Dasytidae). ACTIVE PRINCIPLE When a very small piece (1 or 2 mm long) of fresh or dried chilcuague root is chewed, there is a strong numbing, burning sensa- tion, somewhat anesthetic or paralyzing, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 in the adjacent parts of the mouth and tongue, lasting for several minutes. Secre- tion of saliva is stimulated also. In the roots this peculiar, strong taste is nearly all in the outer fleshy part, the pericycle, and very slight in the smaller, fibrous, inner part, mostly xylem. Cut fresh roots have a weak odor similar to the taste. If it is associated with this taste, the active insecticidal principle is almost limited to the under- ground parts, both the fleshy roots and rhizomes. Green stems of the current year show a weak but characteristic taste test through- out their length to the flowers. This taste was not detected in old, woody stems of the previous year nor in the leaves. However, the leaves, green stems, and flowers do have a slightly resinous taste common to many composites. The flower heads, in- cluding bracts and rays, have a stronger taste than the green stems but weaker than the roots. It would be desirable to test the flowers to determine whether the active principle is present in significant quantities. It is not known whether the active principle varies significantly in different plants or with age or season. USES Use of chilcuague roots is small and mostly restricted to the localities where the species is native. Persons living in the mountains bring in a few bunches to town on the weekly market day. The roots are dug with a pointed steel bar about 0.6 meter long or a similar tool. In being air dried, the roots lose in moisture about two- thirds their weight. Small bunches of nearly dried, bees roots weighing about 25 bunches to a kilo sold retail at local markets in 1945 for about 20 to 30 centavos (about 5 or 6 cents U. S. currency) a bunch. This retail price was about $6.25 (pesos) a kilo, or 59 cents (U.S. currency) a pound. The main use is as a sort of spice, because of the property of the root to make the mouth and tongue numb and burn when minute pieces are chewed. The roots are used, like chile, to flavor beans and other foods and to strengthen alcoholic drinks. Aua. 15, 1948 It was reported that an extract of the root is used for colds and pneumonia. The root is chewed to relieve toothache. However, there is danger of choking if too much is eaten, and deaths have been reported from this cause. A small quantity of chilcuague roots is shipped to Mexico City for use in making a local insecticide. The ground root put in a dish of milk has been employed also to kill flies drinking the milk. It is said that larvae of warble flies in the skin of cattle may be killed by putting powdered root in the wound. In the United States use of chilcuague roots in insecticides has been confined to experiments by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Possibly medicinal or other uses may be discovered. An alcoholic extract of the root has been tested successfully by dentists as an anesthetic in the extraction of teeth. PROPAGATION Preliminary tests of propagating Heliopsis longipes were made in Mexico in 1945. If this species should become im- portant commercially, cultivation would be necessary because of the rather limited and poorly accessible supply of the rare wild plants. At four localities with eleva- tions from about 1,800 to 2,400 meters, wild plants were transplanted successfully in rows and beds on a small scale. The plants were dug with picks, most of the tops were cut off, and the roots were trimmed. However, where it was necessary to retain the plants up to a week before transplant- ing, even though kept moist, survival was low. In spite of the succulent character of the roots, ordinary care must be used in transplanting. When exposed to the air the succulent roots dry out rapidly and shrivel within a week. In tests, cut fleshy roots planted in the ground did not grow, though they remained fleshy as long as a month or more before dying. The marketed dried roots with bases of stems attached will not grow. As the rhizomes sprout readily at the nodes, propagation by rhizome cut- tings might be successful. Doubtless chil- cuague could be propagated commercially by seeds also, though there was no oppor- tunity to test this method. Roots of suitable LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES 273 size and quantity for harvest should be ready within 2 or 3 years after planting. Under care, transplants grew better than wild plants. One small plant with a few short stems about 5 cm long in a block of soil 15 cm square and 10 cm thick was transplanted in Mexico City on June 8. It grew rapidly and opened its first flower head on July 21. By July 30, 5 flower heads were open, and by the end of August there were 10 open heads and about 10 more flower buds. More than 40 flower heads had matured by October 5, when 2 flower heads were still open. SUMMARY “‘Chilcuague,”’ a Mexican herbaceous plant species of possible commercial value as a source of insecticide and previously designated as ‘“Erigeron affinis,’ has been identified as Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake (family Compositae). This species of restricted geographic «distribution was known botanically from only two collections in southern San Luis Potosi but now has been found also in northeastern Guanajuato and has been reported from northern Querétaro. In Guanajuato it is rare and scattered in forests of Quercus spp. at about 1,825 to 2,250 meters in altitude. The fleshy roots, which produce a strong numb- ing, burning sensation in the mouth when chewed, are used locally as a spice and are the source of the insecticidal principle. Because of the limited occurrence, cultiva- tion would be necessary to supply com- mercial quantities of the roots. Wild plants were transplanted successfully on a small scale. LITERATURE CITED (1) Acres, Frep, Jr., Jacopson, Martin, and HauuER, H. L. An amide possess- ing insecticidal properties from the roots of Erigeron affinis DC. Journ. Org. Chem. 10: 236-242, illus. 1945. (2) —————_.._ The structure of affinin, the insecticidal amide from Erigeron affinis DC. Journ. Org. Chem. 10: 449-451. 1945. (3) Escospar, Romuto. Enciclopedia agricola y de conocimientos afines, 3 vols., illus. Eo ead | (4) HernAnpEz, Francisco. De historia plantarum Novae Hispaniae, 3 vols. Matriti, 1790. 274 (5) Jacopson, Martin, AcREE, FReEp, Jr., and Hauuer, H. L. Correction of the source of ‘“‘affinin” (N-isobutyl-2, 6, 8- decatrienoamide). Journ. Org. Chem. 12: 731-732. 1947. (6) McGovran, EK. R., Borrerr, G. T., Gers- porFF, W. A., and Fauss, J. H. In- secticidal action of Heliopsis longipes and Krigeron spp. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Entom. Plant Quar., E-736. 5 pp. 1947. [Processed.] (7) Martinez, Maximino. Plantas utiles de México, ed. 2, 400 pp., illus. México, 1936. (8) Catdlogo de nombres vulgares y cientificos de plantas mexicanas, 551 pp. México, 1937. (9) Las plantas medicinales de Méx- ico, ed. 3, 630 pp., illus. México, 1944. (10) Mexico, SecRETARIA DE AGRICULTURA Y FomrEntTo. Catdlogo alfabético de nom- bres vulgares y cientificos de plantas que JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 existen en México, 670 pp. 1923-1929. (11) Norieca, JuAN Manugu. Curso de his- toria de drogas, 837 pp. México, 1902. (lla) Roark, R. C. Some promising insectict- dal plants. Keon. Bot. 1: 437-445, illus. 1947. (12) SanrTaMARIA, Francisco J. Diccionario general de Americanismos, 3 vols. México, D. F., 1942. (13) Sranpuey, Paut C. Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 1,721 pp. 1920-1926. (14) Vrntuasenor, F. F. Chilcudn (Erigeron affinis). Inst. Méd. Nac. [Méx.] An. 6 (1): 237-254. 1903. (15) XimpNzEZ, Francisco. Cuatro libros de la naturaleza y virtudes de las plantas y ani- males, de uso medicinal en la Nueva Es- pana, 342 pp. México, 1888. (Re- _ printed from edition published in Mex- ico in 1615.) México, ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid beetles from the West Indies.' This paper contains the description of six new black or dark metallic colored spe- cies of Metachroma Dejean, a small pale spe- cies of Aphthona Dejean, and the second species of Megasus Jacoby to be described, all of which are from the West Indies. Megasus semivittatus, n. sp. Fig. 1 Length 3 mm, faintly shining, pale yellow- brown with a dark median spot extending from occiput down front of head, a dark stripe on each side of prothorax bordering on the expla- nate margin and a stripe along the sides of the elytra, a short sutural vitta at base and another interrupted one at the middle; also running diagonally across each elytron from apex to humerus a faint orange band. Basal sulcus on prothorax not very distinct and not limited at the ends. Antennae as long as beetle. Head with interocular space a little more than half its width; occiput smooth, impunc- tate, a broad median dark stripe extending to above tubercles; tubercles faintly marked, without median groove, bulging slightly over antennal sockets: a fovea on each side near eye. Below antennal sockets on each side a shallow excavation divided in the middle by a narrow, slightly produced carina. Antennae as 1 Received April 21, 1948. Doris H. Buaxs, Arlington, Va. long as body, joints 2 and 3 short, joints 4-7 long, remainder a little shorter; the basal joints pale, apices of joints 4-11 slightly darker. Pro- thorax approximately twice as broad as long, with slightly rounded sides, obtuse anteriorly and a sharp tooth at basal angle; a very in- distinct and shallow basal groove, not limited at the ends by a longitudinal fovea; surface impunctate, pale, with a dark stripe along the side next to the explanate margin. Elytra a little broader than prothorax and also with a dark stripe along the side extending to the suture at the apex, and at base extending around and down suture but not to th: middle, also a short interrupted median stripe at base and middle, and a faint orange diagonal stripe across the elytron; surface impunctate and faintly shining. Body beneath pale, with paler legs. Anterior coxal cavities open, hind femora enlarged, hind tibiae slightly grooved, a short spur at the tip, first tarsal joint long, claws ap- pendiculate. Length 3 mm, width 1.3 mm. Type male, U.S.N.M. no. 58777, Type locality—Mandeville, Jamaica, col- lected by Van Duzee in April 1906 (from the Wickham collection). Remarks.—The genus Megasus was described by Jacoby? to accommodate a beetle from Gua- 2 Jacosy, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Coleop- tera, 6(pt. 1): 321. 1884. Ava. 15, 1948 BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA 27 A i} } Z f \ , x hi i l. Megasus semivitiatus 2. Metachroma schwarzi 5. Aphthona elachia 4. Metachroma piceum 9. Metachroma hottense 6. Metachroma nigroviride : d-b 4 1 Metachroma felis 8.™Metachroma longitarsum (ark form) 9. “Metachroma Flavolimbatum Figs. 1-9.—New West Indian Chrysomelidae. Or 276 temala that did not quite fit into the genus Lactica because of its very long antennae and the thoracic groove, which was not limited at the ends by a longitudinal fovea. This second species closely corresponds with Megasus bi- maculatus in all but marks of coloration. The strikingly long antennae, the head with its poorly developed frontal tubercles and closely set antennae, the transverse thorax with its ob- tuse anterior angles, and with the basal groove in this species rather more indistinct than in bimaculatus and without limiting side fovea, the large scutellum, the legs with the hind tibiae grooved and with a spur at the end, the appendiculate claws, the open anterior coxal cavities, all fit into this genus erected by Jacoby. I have compared the beetle with a specimen labeled by Jacoby as M. bimaculatus in the Bowditch collection at Cambridge. Aphthona elachia, n. sp. Fig. 3 About 1.3 mm. in length, ovate, shining pale yellow-brown, eighth and ninth antennal joints dark; thorax finely punctate, elytral striae fine and disappearing before the apex. Head polished, a short sulcus on each side of front, interantennal carina narrow, slightly produced, interocular space about half width of head. Antennae not reaching the middle of the elytra, pale yellow with eighth and ninth joints and tip of last black. Prothorax not quite twice as broad as long, moderately convex with rounded sides and obliquely cut anterior angles, basal margin at sides obtusely angulate; sur- face shining, finely and shallowly punctate. Elytra broad and somewhat convex, shining, striate punctures fine and becoming indistinct at apex. Body beneath pale, shining, lightly pubescent. Length 1.3-1.4 mm; width 0.7 mm. Type female and one female paratype, M.C.Z. type no. 27828. Type locality —Morne:Trou d’Eau, Haiti, col- lected by P. J. Darlington, November 19, 1934. Other locality: Port-au-Prince, Haiti, collected by P. J. Darlington, October 6, 1934. Remarks.—This is a smaller, paler, less con- vex species than A. fraterna Blake and has only the eighth and ninth and tip of the last joint of the antennae dark; in that species joints 6-9 are dark. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 Metachroma schwarzi, n. sp. Fig. 2 About 4.5 mm in length, oblong, shining black with reddish-brown mouthparts, anten- nae, and tarsi; elytral striae distinct to the apex. Head with interocular space about half its width, shining above, alutaceous in lower front, densely punctate, no distinct transverse line between antennal sockets, groove about inner side of eye distinct. Antennae not extending halfway down the elytra, deep reddish brown, of the usual proportions. Prothorax not twice as wide as long, with arcuate sides and a small tooth at apical and basal angles, an impressed line along basal margin and behind the eyes on the anterior margin; surface polished, finely punctate. Elytra entirely dark, shining, a very slight lateral depression below the humerus, striate punctures coarse and distinct to the apex and rather deeply impressed. Epipleura distinct almost to the apex. Body beneath shining, piceous with the tip of the abdomen a little paler, legs dark with pale tarsi, a tiny tooth on hind femora. Length 4.4-4.5 mm; width 2.5 mm. Type female, U.S.N.M. no. 58778, and one female paratype in M.C.Z. Type locality —Cayamas, Santa Clara Prov- ince, Cuba, collected by E. A. Schwarz. Remarks.—Dr. Schwarz himself labeled this as a new species. It strongly resembles M. adus- tum Suffrian but has entirely black elytra and black legs. The elytral punctation is coarser and distinct to the apex and the eyes are smaller and more widely set. There is a series of seven specimens taken by Darlington at Soledad (Cienfuegos), Cuba, in 1929 and 1936 that also have entirely dark elytra, but which are clearly very closely re- lated to M. adustum, if not a color variety. They seem a little less deeply and coarsely striate-punctate than M. adustum, and the tip of the aedeagus is a little thinner. Whether this is a subspecies of adustum Suffrian or merely a color form is not clear. Metachroma felis, n. sp. Fig. 7 About 5 mm in length, oblong, shining black with pale antennae, legs, and elytral apex. Aug. 15, 1948 Head with interocular space less than half the width, shining on occiput and front, more alutaceous on lower front, densely punctate, no distinct transverse line between antennal sockets, a slight, short, median vertical groove and the usual groove around eye, labrum and mouthparts reddish or yellowish brown. An- tennae pale, extending about to the middle of the elytra, of the usual proportions. Prothorax not twice as wide as long with arcuate sides and a small tooth at each corner, and an im- pressed line along the sides and basal margin and up behind the eyes on anterior margin; surface polished, with obsolete and moderately dense punctation. Elytra very shining, rows of punctures distinct in basal half but becoming indistinct after the middle and vanishing at the apex, the striate punctures on the sides regular but short. Elytra entirely dark except for a narrow strip along the apex. Epipleura vanishing shortly before the apex. Body be- - neath deep brown, shining, legs pale with the narrowed apex of femora dark and a dark streak down the tibiae. Hind femora with a small tooth. Length 4.7-5.5 mm; width 2.5- 3mm. Type male and one female paratype, M.C.Z. type no. 27827. Type locality—Arthurstown, Cat Island, Bahamas, collected July 23, 1935, by W. J. Clench. Remarks.—This is one of the species very closely related to M. adustum Suffrian. It dif- fers from the others in having only a narrow pale apex to the elytra and no pale area along the sides or on the humeri, which are usually pale in the Florida and Cuban beetles. It is also slightly larger than either-of them, and the tip of the aedeagus is broader than that of M. adustum and more like that of M. terminale Horn. The elytral striae are not so impressed as in the other closely related species. There is one specimen, a female, in the National Mu- seum collection from Eleuthera, Bahamas, col- lected in July by H. F. Wickham, that seems to be the same species. A single specimen, a female, from Constanza, Dominican Republic, elevation 3000—4000 feet, collected in August 1938 by P. J. Darlington, represents another closely allied species or sub- species. In this specimen the head is more BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA 277 polished and finely punctate, the punctures of the elytral striae are not so dense, and the pale area on the elytra extends broadly along the sides and at the apex. This single specimen, however, does not present such distinct dif- ferences as occur in M. schwarzi and felts. Metachroma flavolimbatum, n. sp. Fig. 9 About 5 mm in length, oblong, shining pice- ous with head in part, basal antennal joints, anterior margin of prothorax, margin of elytra and legs reddish, femora banded near apex. Head with interocular space less than half its width, no distinct line between clypeus and front, a median depression on front, the usual groove around eye; surface alutaceous and rather densely and obsoletely punctate, the oc- ciput and a median area down front piceous, rest reddish brown, jaws piceous. Antennae extending to the middle of the elytra, second and third joints subequal, remainder longer and with only apices pale. Prothorax not twice as broad as long with arcuate sides and a small tooth at basal and anterior angles, an impressed line along basal margin and on sides of anterior margin behind the eyes; surface very finely and obsoletely punctate, mostly shining piceous but reddish brown anteriorly. Elytra with small humeri and a slight basal callosity and depres- sion below it, striate punctures deeply im- pressed and dense, becoming finer and shallower in apical half, in short, regular rows on sides; shining piceous with the sides from humerus to apex pale, the pale area wider at apex. Body beneath reddish brown, shining, almost glabrous, legs pale yellow with a dark band around narrowed part of femora and a dark streak down tibiae; hind femora with a faint trace of tooth. Length 5 mm.; width 2.8 mm. Type male U.S.N.M. no. 58779. Type locality—Mess Castle near Antully, St. Thomas Parish, Jamaica, collected No- vember 5, 1928, by C. R. Orcutt. Remarks.—This is another of the adustwm group of species. It is slightly larger than adustum, and the aedeagus has a shorter point to the tip. Unlike most of the species in the adustum group it has the antennae mostly dark. 278 Metachroma piceum, n. sp. Fig. 4 About 4.5 mm in length, ovate, shining, deep reddish brown to piceous with pale legs, the femora banded at the narrowed apex, tibiae in part darkened, elytra with paler streaks along the basal margin and on humeri and pale along the sides at the apex, base of antennal joints 3-11 dark. All femora mucronate. Head with interocular space about half its width, rounded over occiput with broad front having a short median depression between the nearly obsolete frontal tubercles; dark piceous with a reddish-brown area on each side of front, lower front and labrum also reddish; surface dull and alutaceous with fine, shallow punc- tures. Antennae not reaching the middle of the elytra, third joint shorter than fourth, basal joints pale reddish and joints 3-11 darker at the base. Prothorax wider than long with arcu- ate sides, a small tooth at each corner and an impressed line along basal margin and behind the eyes on anterior margin; surface polished, very minutely punctate; piceous with deep reddish brown streaks along anterior and basal margins, possibly in pale specimens only a piceous transverse band. Elytra_ striately punctate, the punctures coarsest in transverse depression below basal callosity, becoming fine at apex; shining deep piceous with reddish brown streaks along short raised basal costae and on humeri and a pale margin along the apex, and partly along the sides. Epipleura disappearing before the apex. Body beneath deep reddish brown with tip of abdomen and legs paler, femora near apex banded and tibiae with deeper shading in basal half, all femora with a small tooth, tibiae ridged and emargi- nate in two hind pairs, claw joint very long. Length 4.4-4.6 mm; width 2.6 mm. Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27824; one paratype. Type locality—Main Range, Blue Moun- tains, 5,000—7,388 feet elevation, Jamaica, col- lected August 17-19, 1934, by P. J. Darlington; paratype collected at Whitfield Hall, Blue Mountains, near 4,500 feet elevation, Jamai- ca, August 138-20, 1934, by P. J. Darlington. Remarks.—Although the pale coloration at the apex of the elytra is suggestive of beetles of the M. adustum alliance, M. piceum does not belong to that group, being more oval and with JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 reddish-brown markings and with more widely set eyes. Metachroma longitarsum Blake (dark color form) Fig. 8 Metachroma longitarsum Blake, Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 36: 24. 1946. A dark color form of this species, represented by three black specimens not associated with the pale reddish-brown spotted female in the original working up of the material, has come to my notice. Except for the dark color these three specimens agree in every way with the pale spotted form, having similar size, shape, and punctation, and furthermore they were collected at the same time and place. They are entirely dark except for the mouthparts, frontal tubercles in part, antennae, and tarsi. Metachroma nigroviride, n. sp. Fig. 6 From 4 to 4.5 mm in length, broadly oblong, shining, deep reddish brown to dark metallic green with reddish antennae and legs varying from reddish brown to metallic green, pro- thorax lightly punctate; elytral striate punc- tures becoming very fine at apex. Head with interocular space about half its width, smoothly rounded over occiput and down front, no distinct transverse sulcus be- tween antennal sockets, a faint median vertical line down front in some specimens, the usual groove about inner side of eye; finely and ob- soletely punctate, more distinctly in lower front. Antennae reaching about to the middle of the elytra, reddish, the distal joints tending to be darker. Prothorax not quite twice as wide as long, smoothly convex, with arcuate sides and a small tooth at apical and basal angles, surface polished, finely and not densly punc- tate. Scutellum polished. Elytra with a slight basal callosity, well-marked humeri, and a short intrahumeral depression and slight trans- verse depression below basal callosity; rows of striate punctures distinct but not very coarse and becoming finer towards apex; epipleura disappearing shortly before apex. Body beneath deep reddish brown to piceous, shining, lightly pubescent, hind femora with a small tooth, tibiae ridged and in middle and posterior pair emarginate near apex. Length 4-4.5 mm; width 2.0-2.6 mm. Ava. 15, 1948 Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27825; 6 para- types, 1 paratype (no. 58781) in U.S. National Museum. Type locality—Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic, collected by Hurst. Other localities: Villa Altagracia, collected in July 1938 by P. J. Darlington; Constanza, elevation 3,000— 4,000 feet, collected in August 1938 by P. J. Darlington, both in Dominican Republic. Remarks.—Three of the eight specimens ex- amined are deep reddish brown without trace of the metallic green of the others. Possibly these are immature specimens. Metachroma hottense, n. sp. Fig. 5 About 3 mm in length, broadly oblong, polished dark metallic green with dark brown mouthparts, antennae, legs, and undersurface; head and thorax impunctate, striate punctures on elytra coarsest below basal callosity, on sides and at apex becoming indistinct. Head with interocular space more than half its width, front broad, flat, impunctate, no transverse groove between antennal sockets; the usual groove running up on inner side of DEIGNAN: RACES OF RED-WHISKERED BULBUL 279 eye. Labrum reddish brown. Antennae scarcely reaching the middle of the elytra, five basal joints reddish, distal joints deep piceous, joints 2-4 subequal and shorter than the remainder. Prothorax not twice as broad as long, moder- ately convex, with arcuate sides and small tooth at each angle, surface polished, im- punctate, basal margin lightly sinuate, an im- pressed line along it and behind the eyes on anterior margin. Elytra a little broader than prothorax with a short intrahumeral sulcus and a transverse depression below basal callosity, the striate punctures in this coarser than else- where, at sides and apex becoming rather in- distinct; surface polished. Epipleura disappear- ing shortly before apex; body beneath dark, shining, lightly pubescent, femora not toothed, tibiae ridged; middle and hind tibiae emargi- nate near apex. Length 3.2 mm; width 2 mm. Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27826. Type locality—Desbarriere, Morne La Hotte, Haiti, near 4,000 feet, collected Octo- ber 12—14, 1934, by P. J. Darlington. Remarks—This_ beetle is considerably smaller than M. nigroviride and the thorax differs in not being punctate at all. ORNITHOLOGY .—The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pyecnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus).1 H. G. Deianan, U.S. National Museum. The red-whiskered bulbuls may be con- veniently divided into two main groups, in one of which adults have the red feathers of the infraocular tuft long and. brighter, while in the other they have them short and darker. To the first category belong only fuscicaudatus, abuensis, pyrrhotis, emeria, and peguensis. A tentative arrangement of the races, with descriptions of two new forms, is offered below. For the privilege of examining their series of this species, my thanks are hereby tendered to the authorities of the American Museum of Natural History and of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia. 1. Pycnonotus jocosus fuscicaudatus (Gould) Otocompsa fuscicaudata Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, for 1865, pt. 3: 664. March 1866 (‘‘The 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 16, 1948. southern portion of the peninsula of India... very common in many parts of the Madras Presidency’’; type locality restricted to the Nilgiri Hills, Nilgiri Hills District, Madras Presidency, by Whistler and Kinnear, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 756. July 15, 1932). Range.—Western India, from the Tapti River south to Cape Comorin and the Salem District of the Madras Presidency. 2. Pycnonotus jocosus abuensis (Whistler) Otocompsa jocosa abuensis Whistler, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 52: 40. Dec. 1, 1931 (Mount Abu, Abu District, Sirohi State, South Rajputana Agency, India). Range.—Southeastern Rajputana. Remarks.—This race and the precedent one differ from all others in the absence of con- spicuous white tips from the outer tail feathers. 3. Pycnonotus jocosus pyrrhotis (Hodgson) [[xos] pyrrhotis Hodgson, in J. E. Gray, Zoological Miscellany, No. 3: 84. “June’’ 1844 (Nepal). Izxos jocosus v{el]. pyrrhotis “Hodgs.”’ J. E. Gray, 280 Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of Mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet: 89. 1846 (Nepal). I [xos]. pyrrhotis ‘““Hodgs.’’ Bonaparte, Conspec- tus generum avium 1: 265, 1850 (India; type locality here corrected to Nepal, ex Hodgson). Otocompsa jocosa provincialis Whistler, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 52: 40. Dec. 1, 1931 (‘‘Kumaon Bhabar,”’ United Provinces, India). Range.—The Valley of Nepal, and northern India from the eastern Punjab to Bihar. Remarks.—Under [Ixos] pyrrhotis Hodgson, 1844, we find “J. jocosus? viel]. pyrrhotis, 209.” This seems by the narrowest margin to validate the name from 1844; if, however, the reference is rejected, it seems certain that, by analogy with Opinion 53 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, the name must be taken from J. E. Gray, 1846. The first proper description attached to pyr- rhetis was given by Bonaparte in 1850. 4. Pycnonotus jocosus emeria (Linnaeus) [Motacilla] Emeria Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 187. 1758 (Bengal). [Lantus] Emerita Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 1387. 1766 (Bengal). [Muscicapa] Emeria Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 326. 1766 (Bengal). Haematornis erythrotts ‘‘Swains.” J. E. Gray, Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of Mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet: 89. 1846. Nomen nudum! I{xos]. erythrotis “Bp. ex Sw. Mus. Lugd.”’ Bona- parte, Conspectus generum avium 1: 265. 1850 (Java, error; type locality here corrected to Cal- cutta, Bengal Province, India). Range.——Lowlands of eastern India from Madras to Calcutta and possibly farther. Remarks.—The name erythrolis was, at its first appearance, a nomen nudum, treated as a synonym of ‘“‘yocosus”’ of J. E. Gray (not the true jocosus of Linnaeus), which equals pyr- rhotis of Hodgson. Since the specimen upon which Swainson based his MS. name is the same as served for type to Bonaparte and is, according to information courteously furnished me by Dr. G. C. A. Junge, almost certainly an example of emeria, I feel justified in sinking the name in synonymy with emeria rather than with pyrrhotis. Chasen (Handlist of Malaysian Birds: 204. 1935) altered the type locality of J[xos). ery- throtis Bonaparte from Java to Tavoy, Tavoy District, Tenasserim Division, Burma, but Dr. Junge’s examination of the type specimen has shown that this ‘‘correction” can not stand. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 5. Pycnonotus jocosus peguensis (Stuart Baker) Otocompsa emeria peguensis Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, Birds, ed. 2, 1: 396. Aug. 16, 1922 (Pegu Division, Burma, by implication, and so stated by Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, Birds, ed. 2, 7: 81. May 14, 1930; type locality here restricted to Rangoon, Rangoon Town District, Pegu Division, Burma). Range.—Lower Burma from Arakan (San- doway District) to Tenasserim (Thaton Dis- trict). Remarks.—The range given for this form at the original description was ‘South Chin Hills and South Kachin Hills to Tenasserim, Arrakan and the whole of the Central Hills of Burma, Siam and Shan States. Andamans and Nicobars.’”’ My material indicates that no less than four races divide this territory among themselves, of which one, the bird of Pegu, differs strikingly from the other three on its bright, elongated infraocular tufts. Although I have accepted peguensis as a valid subspecies here, I am not at all convinced that this name should not be synonymized with emerza. 6. Pycnonotus jocosus whistleri, n. subsp. Type.—U. S. N. M. no. 178729, adult male, collected at the Cinque Islands (southeast of Rutland Island), Andaman Islands, Bay of Bengal, on January 18, 1901, by William L. Abbott. Diagnosis.—Nearest P. j. peguensis in the brownish tone of the upperparts, but easily separable from that race by having the feath- ers of the infraocular tuft distinctly shorter and usually darker, and by having the bill, sex for sex, decidedly longer and more robust. Range.—Andaman Islands; Nicobar Islands (introduced, fide Davison, in Hume, Stray Feathers 2: 225. 1874). Remarks.—Thirteen winter-taken specimens of P. j. whistleri have been compared with 5 similar examples of P. 7. peguensis and 29 of the Malayo-Siamese race. For distinctions between the last-mentioned and whistlert, see below. 7. Pycnonotus jocosus pattani, n. subsp. Type—vU. 8S. N. M. no. 330406, adult male, collected at Pattani (lat. 6°50’ N., long. 101°- 15’ E.), Pattani Province, southernmost Siam, on January 26, 1931, by Hugh M. Smith (ori- ginal number 4479). Ava. 15, 1948 Diagnosis.—Nearest P. j. fuscicaudatus in the cold grayish-brown tone of the upperparts, but immediately separable from that race by having the feathers of the infraocular tuft short and dark and the majority of the rectrices con- spicuously tipped with white. From P. 7. whistleri distinguished by having the brown of the upperparts paler and grayer, and by having the bill, sex for sex, shorter and less robust. From P. 7. monticola easily separated by having the brown of the upperparts much paler and grayer. Range.—Indochine south of central Annam and Haut-Laos, all Siam, and Malaya south to Penang Island and Kelantan State. Remarks.—I can find no character by which southern birds can be distinguished from more northern ones. Specimens before me from the Malay Peninsula seem to have the broken pec- toral band more nearly joined across the breast, but this could easily result from their having the body less tightly stuffed with cotton. 8. Pycnonotus jocosus monticola (McClelland) Ixos monticola McClelland, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon- don, March 1840, pt. 7: 160 (‘‘Kossia moun- tains,’ Khasi and Jaintia Hills District, Surma Valley and Hill Division, Assam Province, India). Otocompsa jocosa hainanensis Hachisuka, Orn. *"S PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 281 Soc. Japan Supp]. Publ. No. 15: 74. Oct. 30, 1939 (Nauchan, Hainan Island). Range.—Sikkim; Bhutan; Assam; northern Burma and the Shan States; Yunnan; Indo- chine north of the range of P. 7. pattani. Remarks.—I was at first inclined to place all birds from localities between Sikkim and Hong- kong under the name jocosus, as has been done by British ornithologists, but three Kwantung specimens have the upperparts so much paler than the rest, that for the present I shall keep them apart. McClelland’s name is available for the darker populations, but it must be re- gretted that his type did not come from north- easternmost Assam, where the saturate colora- tion of the upperparts reaches its highest de- velopment. It is extremely difficult to believe that the unique specimen of hainanensis is anything but an escaped cage bird. Whether Hachisuka’s name should be synonymized with monticola or with jocosus cannot be decided without examination of the type. 9. Pycnonetus jocosus jocosus (Linnaeus) [Lanius] jocosus Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 95. 1758 (China; type locality here re- stricted to Canton, Kwangtung Province). Range.-—Hongkong, Kwangtung, and ad- jacent areas of Kwangsi. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 419th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS The 419th meeting of the Board of Mana- gers, held in the Cosmos Club, June 7, 1948, was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi- dent, Dr. Frepmrick D. Rossini. Others present were H. S. Rappiteye, H. A. Reuper, W. L. Scumitt, W. W. Dieut, F. M. Deran- porF, W. N. Fenton, WALTER RaMBERG, C. E. Wurtz, W. A. Darron, C. A. Berrs, F. B. SiusBEE, M. A. Mason, O. B. Frencg, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, FRANK THONE. The Secretary read the following minutes of the Executive Committee: The Executive Committee met in Dr. Rossini’s office at the Bureau of Standards at 8:05 p.m. on May 26, 1948. The President, Dr. F. D. Ros- SINI, presided. Others present were: WALTER RaMBERG, H. 8. Rappteys, W. L. Scumirt, and C. L. Gazin. The meeting was called to consider matters per- taining to the annual meeting, intersociety affairs, the Index to the JoURNAL, and the ‘“‘Red Book.” The subject of the annual meeting in January was discussed, and it was decided to recommend to the Board of Managers that instead of the cus- tomary lecture an Academy dinner be held in con- junction with the regular business of the annual meeting. Dr. Schmitt exhibited a page proof of the ‘‘Red Book”’ and announced that the cost of publication had been determined as follows: Cost of printing, slightly less than $2,000; incidental bills including typing, approximately $500; cost of cuts, a little over $900; totaling approximately $3,400. Dis- cussion then arose as to the adequacy of 1,000 copies and it was suggested that the approximately $200 difference from the maximum of $3,600 al- lowed for the publication of the ‘‘Red Book’’ be used to print extra copies and absorb the cost of distribution. The cost of additional copies was quoted as $584 per 1,000 and about 60 cents per copy for a smaller number. Upon further discus- sion it was proposed that a price of $1 be charged for outside purchases but that a prepublication 282 price of 75 cents per copy be offered to the Af- filiated Societies prior to a fixed date, up to which the printer will agree to keep the type set up. The motion was then approved that the Committee recommend to the Board of Managers that the number of copies above 1,000 to be printed be determined by the balance remaining from. the original $3,600 as stated above, allowing approxi- mately $75 for distribution costs, and increasing the number still-further by whatever quantity is ordered by the Affiliated Societies during the pre- publication period. The matter of an index to the first 40 volumes of the JouRNAL, referred to the Executive Com- mittee by the Board at its 418th meeting, was in- troduced. After considerable discussion, the Exec- utive Committee voted to recommend to the Board that it authorize, for the necessary expenses of preparing the manuscript, including the mate- rials, a sum not to exceed $2,000, dispersable as required during the period 1949 to 1951, inclusive. It was the feeling of the Committee that outside funds might be secured for the cost of publication. The matter of the request on the part of the Joint Committee on Press Relations that the Academy pay half of its operating expenses, re- ferred to the Executive Committee by the Board of Managers at its 418th meeting, was intro- duced. The Committee decided to recommend to the Board that the Academy appropriate to Dr. Frank Thone for discharge of the Academy obli- gation $62.10 covering the last part of 1947 and all of 1948. The Committee then recommended that the Affiliated Societies be approached con- cerning the future of the Science Calendar, and if the response accounts for at least 70 percent of the annual cost, that the Academy proceed to act as a collection agency for these contributions from the Affiliated Societies, add the necessary amount from its own funds, and continue to support its share of the project. The subject of the Science Fair for the sec- ondary-school children was introduced and after some discussion of past arrangements and the manner of its operation in certain other cities, the Executive Committee approved the motion that a recommendation be made to the Board that the Academy appropriate $100 to forward the Sci- ence Fair in Washington for 1949, provided that the Fair is sponsored by Science Service, and pro- vided that the necessary balance is secured from other soures. In consideration of the matter of the Science Calendar and of the Science Fair, discussion was introduced regarding implementation of inter- society activities, and the means whereby a closer coordination might be secured with the Affiliated Societies in such matters. The Executive Com- mittee then agreed to recommend to the Board that the president be authorized to appoint a com- mittee of vice-presidents to study the question of providing a more effective bond between the Academy and the Affiliated Societies. The Board of Managers considered sepa- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 rately the various recommendations of the Executive Committee and all were approved by vote of the Board, with the exception that, with regard to the recommendation of an annual dinner, the Board approved, providing the dinner be less than $5 per person and pre- ferably less than $3 per person. As a result of the discussion which ensued with respect to recommendations regarding the Joint Committee on Press Relations, the Sec- retary was instructed to write letters of ap- preciation to Mr. Darnell for his work in get- ting up the “Science Calendar’ and to the three Washington newspapers in which it has appeared for their cooperation in its publica- tion. The Secretary was also instructed to contact the Affiliated Societies in the fall, in an attempt to secure their cooperation in the matter of contributions to operating expenses of the Joint Committee on Press Relations, as outlined in the recommendation of the Exec- utive Committee. The 27 persons nominated for resident mem- bership in the Academy at the 418th meeting were elected. Upon recommendation of the Treasurer, Howarp S. Rapp.eyYe#, the following resolution was passed. RESOLVED, that the Washington Academy of Sciences transmit its certificates of stock owned in the Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. to the Washington Loan and Trust Co., Transfer Agent, for reissue on the basis of two shares of new stock for each share of old stock, in accordance with the plan outlined in the letter of the Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. under date of May 27, 1948, and that Howard S. Rappleye, Treasurer, be authorized to prepare the necessary transmit- tal letter, deliver the certificates, and receive the new certificates when issued. Dr. THONE, representing Science Service, recommended to the Board of Managers that the Academy extend its interests to participa- tion in the annual Science Talent Search for the District of Columbia. Upon discussion, the Board decided that before committing the Academy to this program a committee be appointed by the President to study the gen- eral matter of encouragement of Science Talent in the schools of the Washington area, the manner in which the Academy might partici- pate, and make recommendations to the Board. The meeting was adjourned at 10:20 P.M. C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary. Aug. 15, 1948 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1286th Meeting The 1286th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, October 11, 1947, President Mouumr presiding. Program: E. U. Conpon, National Bureau of Standards: Nuclear forces—There was pre- sented a general review of the present position of our knowledge with regard to the nonelec- tromagnetic forces of interaction between the fundamental particles of physics, electrons, protons, and neutrons. The different sources of experimental information about strength and range of such forces, such as nuclear mass defects and angular scattering data were cor- related. (Author’s abstract.) 1287th Meeting The 1287th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, October 25, 1947, President Mou.emr presiding. Program: Rosuey C. WiuuiAms, University of Michigan: Recent developments in electron microscopy.—Some of the recent developments in electron microscopy during the past three years have been: (1) the successful microtomy of sections thin enough to allow 60 kv electrons to penetrate them, (2) the tissue culture of cells of sufficient thinness to allow the nucleus to be observed, (3) the ‘“‘shadow-casting”’ of minute particulate specimens to improve the contrast between them and their substrate background, (4) the microincineration of biological specimens to afford an estimate of their ash content, (5) the improvement in substrate smoothness to allow particles of diam- eters less than 50A to be photographed, and (6) the beginnings of an electron lens technique to allow radioactive specimens to be photo- graphed by means of their own beta particles. Development (5) has particularly interested the author and his colleagues. They have found that glass is an almost perfectly smooth sub- strate, with maximum deviations of less than 10A from perfect smoothness. The technique most adaptable to the photography of ex- tremely small objects appears to be to cause the objects to adhere to a cleaned glass surface, shadow-cast them with uranium sulphide, and then strip the particles and the uranium sul- phide film from the glass with a thin film of collodion. (Author’s abstract.) PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 283 1288th Meeting The 1288th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, November §8, 1947, President Mou.er presiding. Program: D. C. Ginnines, National Bureau of Standards: The Bunsen ice calorimeter in modern heat measurements——There was de- scribed an improved form of a Bunsen ice calorimeter constructed for use in connection with measurements of specific heats at high temperatures (up to 1,000°C.). The ice calorim- eter was investigated carefully from the standpoint of high reproducibility and high accuracy. The calibration factor of the calorim- eter (from a large number of electrical cali- bration experiments) was established to be 270.37 +0.06 international joules per gram of mercury. Using this factor, the density of ice at 0°C. and one atmosphere pressure was cal- culated to be 0.91671 +0.00005 g/ml. The ice calorimeter was used to measure specific heats at high temperatures by the “drop” method, that is, heating the sample in a furnace to a known temperature, dropping the sample into the calorimeter, and measuring the heat given up by the sample to the calorim- eter. Measurements were made in this man- ner on uranium, uranium trichloride, uranium tetrachloride, aluminum oxide, p-xylene, and isopropyl] alcohol. Although the resulting values of enthalpy were reproducible to about 0.02 percent, an over-all accuracy of about 0.2 per- cent was estimated from consideration of sys- tematic errors such as temperature measure- ment, ete. (Author’s abstract.) A. I. Dau, National Bureau of Standards: Temperature measurements in gas streams.—The temperature indicated by a thermocouple junc- tion immersed in a stream of hot gas will not, in general, be that of the gas but will be an equilibrium temperature representing the state at which the heat transferred from the gas to the junction by convection and impact is balanced by the heat transferred from the junction to the surroundings by radiation and conduction. In applications involving temper- atures above 1,000°F. and velocities up to 200— 300 ft/sec, the radiation effect is generally the chief source of error. The effect of gas velocity on temperature measurements becomes appreciable at veloc- ities in excess of 300 ft/sec, and increases as the square of the velocity. At a gas velocity of 284 1,000 ft/sec, the difference between the total and the static temperature of an air stream is about 80°F. A thermocouple immersed in the stream will attain a temperature somewhere intermediate between the total and static tem- peratures—assuming no radiation or conduc- tion losses. The National Bureau of Standards is con- ducting a research project for the development of means of reducing and determining accu- rately the effects of radiation, conduction, and gas velocity on temperature measurements in large-velocity, high-temperature gas streams. (Author’s abstract.) 1289th Meeting The 1289th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, November 20, 1947, President Scumirr of the Academy pre- siding. Program: I. I. Raxsi, Columbia University: The hyperfine structure of the hydrogens and other atoms. 1290th Meeting The 1290th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, November 22, 1947, President Moutmr presiding. Program: J. Howard McMrtuan, Naval Ordnance Laboratory: Spark shadowgraphy in hydrodynamics.—The impact of an object on a water surface compresses the water and generates a compression wave which spreads out from the point of impact with the velocity of sound. If the wave is formed by a fast-mov- ing sphere, the wave travels as a shock wave and has a velocity greater than the acoustic velocity. These shock waves were investigated by obtaining their spark shadowgrams. Spheres were shot vertically downward from a rifle into a tank of water 12 x6 X12 inches with plexiglass sides. The spark was an electroni- cally operated noninductive discharge from a condenser. The shadowgrams have shown that when steel spheres with a velocity of 1,000 to 3,000 ft/sec strike the water a compression wave with a peak of several hundred atmospheres is generated. The distribution of pressure along the wave front can be inferred from the shadow- gram. These impact waves are very strong near the center of the wave and become quite weak (acoustic) near the water surface. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 A steel sphere is also set into vibration when it strikes the water. These vibrations have a frequency of nearly a megacycle per second, and a pattern of secondary shock waves ap- pears on the shadowgram. The frequency of the waves depends on the velocity of the elastic wave in the sphere and on the sphere diameter. By shooting two spheres simultaneously, these secondary waves interfere to produce areas of diminished intensity resembling the double- slit optical diffraction pattern. By permitting the shock waves in water to strike walls having varying acoustic impedanc- -es lower than that of water, the waves are observed to reflect with a change in phase. This change in phase also appears at glancing reflection for walls of large acoustic impedance. If specimens of various elastic media, such as steel and rock, are placed in the water and struck with a missile, dilatation waves and Rayleigh surface waves are produced in the elastic solid. These waves pass into the water and are recorded on the shadowgram. The orientation of the wave in water permits an evaluation of the elastic-wave velocity in the solids. Spheres shot into water at velocities of 7,000 ft/sec produced shadowgrams of supersonic travel in water, the velocity of sound in water being 5,000 ft/sec. From the refraction of the optical rays the pressure distribution around the missile and shock wave was inferred. It was observed that the pressure did not fall off monotonically in front of the sphere but showed evidence of small ripples in the pressure distri- bution. (Author’s abstract.) A.G. MeN1su, National Bureau of Standards, presented an informal communication on a new theory of the origin of cosmic radiation recently proposed by Menzel and Salisbury. He pointed out that the low frequency electromagnetic radiation from the sun, hypothesized for the theory, could not produce particles of cosmic- ray energies. Particles would have limiting velocities equal to that of light and could not fall far enough in the electric field of the radia-. tion to acquire the necessary energies. Charged particles, however, injected into an electro- magnetic wave at suitable velocities would travel with the wave in accordance with the laws of motion of a charge of particle in crossed electric and magnetic fields. Such par- ticles might acquire cosmic-ray energies, but the process could occur only in interstellar Ava. 15, 1948 space, not within the confines of the solar system. | 1291st Meeting The 1291st meeting, the 77th annual meet- ing, was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, December 6, 1947, President Mou.er presiding. The report of the Treasurer, confirmed by the report of the auditing committed, showed an income from dues and interest on invest- ments of $1,659.41 and expenditures of $1,683.22 leaving a net deficit of $23.81 on ordinary ex- penses. The ordinary expenses were at the rate of $3.75 per member. The total estimated as- sets of the Society showed a decrease of $403.01 from $16,377.48 as of December 1, 1946, to $15,974.42 as of December 1, 1947. The joint report of the Secretaries showed an active membership of 449 as of December 1, 1947, a net gain of 90 active members during the year. The following persons were elected to mem- bership during the year: P. ABrE.son, A. B. AuLEeNn, R. A. ALPHER, J. ARIsTEI, J. M. Asx- crorr, J. V. Aranasorr, W. H. Avery, T. F. Bai, L. I. Barsier, H. C. Beaman, W. G. Bert, C. L. M. Buocuer, F. G. BRAMMER, C. W. Brown, V. A. Brown, B. H. Buckine- HAM, S. A. BuckineHam, D.S. Carper, A. C. CuartTers, B. F. Coeypieur, E. U. Connon, J. H. Curtiss, R. K. Dauustrom, S. M. Darr, Bessiz B. Day, J. Dr Launay, M. F. Distap, R. L. Dolecek, R. B. Dow, W. H. Dusric, W. R. Douryes, G. E. Fark, 8. N. Foner, L. W. Frassr, R. C. Grsss, 8. GirHens, M. P. Givens, J. W. Granam, D. E. Gray, J: B. GREEN, S. Harris, G. K. Hartman, H. M. Hayuor, F. B. Haynes, R. C. Herman, H. G. Hertz, F. K. Hitt, W. B. Hotton, J. J. Hop- _ «kins, G. A. Hornbeck, C. R. Horner, B. M. Horton, J. J. JENSEN, Myrrte R. KELuING- TON, EvELYN M. Kennepy, R. B. KersHner, wy) WwW. Krrenens,-J. H. Kuck, C.. J. Lapp, P. J. Larsen, D. P. Le Gatiey, A. LEVINE, E. S. Manson, W. H. Marswatt, L. L. Mar- ton, H. Mason, F. T. McCuurs, E. E. Msr- KEL, 8. J. Merzimr, C. F. Meyer, H. R. Mrr- CHELL, T. F. C. Mucumors, G. C. Munro, D. Netson, P. G. Nuttine, Jr., R. M. Parkes, W. PERINE, B. Perxins, Jr., R. B. PeTeRsEn, H. H. Porter, J. W. Ray, Mina Ress, O. F. Ritzman, A. L. Ropertson, H. M. Ryper, S. N. Sampurorr, T. W. SHEPPARD, S. SILVER- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 285 MAN, EH. F. Smeviizn, E. H. Smiru, 8S. W. SmitTH, J. H. Srus, C. E. Swartz, H. Tatet, G. R. Tatum, H. A. Tetuman, H. A. Temr.in, A. L. THomas, C. A. TRUESDELL, E. A. TurR- NER, JR., A. J. Wapman, G. V. Wa.po, C. N. WaARFIELD, F. D. Werner, R. E. Witson, A. W. WUNDHEILER, C. F. Yost. The Secretaries reported the deaths of H. G. Avers, C. A. Bricas, H. 8. Roperts, GEORGE SINGER, D. F. WINDENBURG. Following the report of the Committee on Elections, the following officers were declared elected for the year 1948: President, WALTER RaMBERG; Vice Presidents, Francis E. JoHN- sTON and Frank C. KRraAceExK; Corresponding Secretary, Autvin G. McNisu; Treasurer, Arcute I. Manan; Members-at-large of the General Committee, A. E. Ruark and W. J. ROONEY. Program: SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN, Johns Hop- kins University Applied Physics Laboratory: A cinema-spectrograph for photographing rapid spectral sequences.—A simple spectrograph de- signed around a 16-mm camera was described. This spectrograph was built for the purpose of obtaining spectrograms from light sources showing transient phenomena, in particular such light sources as the new types of rocket and jet combustion engines. The study of the light emitted from an acetylene-oxygen flame as a function of time illustrated its usefulness. (Author’s abstract.) 1292d Meeting The 1292d meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, December 20, 1947, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: J. B. Green, Naval Ordnance Laboratory: The spectra of atoms.—During the past 50 years, the spectra of atoms have fur- nished the most fruitful sources of information regarding the structure of atoms. Even before the isolation of the electron, the discovery of the Zeeman effect and its explanation by Lor- entz gave the physicist a measure of the ratio e/m. The very rapid developments in the theory of atomic spectra, beginning with Bohr’s ex- planation of the spectrum of hydrogen on the basis of the Rutherford atom, and the similari- ties and dissimilarities of this spectrum with those of other atoms illustrate the correlation of spectra and atomic structure. The work of Hund on complex spectrashowed 286 how the entire electron configuration was neces- sary to define the problem. The variations in parameters which determine the coupling co- efficients among the electrons can be deter- mined theoretically, and measurements of the Zeeman effect can be used to verify the calcula- tions. The study of hyperfine structure and its Zeeman effect gave us the first clue that the nucleus of the atom had an intrinsic spin, just as the study of fine structure led to the first evidence of intrinsic spin of the electron. The ionization potentials of atoms were among the first successes of early theory. It is recommended that the investigation of broad lines excited by atoms in states with sufficient energy to cause auto-ionization be undertaken as a matter of immediate interest in the de- velopment of the theory. During the war great advances in the devel- opment of near infrared sensitive materials has given us a powerful tool for the study of atomic spectra in a region which has hitherto been practically unexplored. (A uthor’s abstract.) 1293d Meeting The 1293d meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, January 17, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. The retiring president, Frep L. Mouumr, National Bureau of Standards, delivered his presidential address on the subject Mass spectra of hydrocarbons. This address was published in this JOURNAL 38: 193-199. 1948. 1294th Meeting The 1294th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, January 31, 1948, Vice President JOHNSTON presiding. - Program: Auvin G. McNisu, National Bureau of Standards; Radio observations of meteor trails—Observations of radio echoes from meteor trails by various investigators were summarized. It was then explained how ionization produced by the*impact of meteors on the upper atmosphere affords a means for studying processes of recombination, diffusion, and attachment of electrons in the ionosphere. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1295th Meeting The 1295th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, February 14, 1948, President RamBeEre presiding. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 Program: FREDERICK Seitz, Carnegie Insti- tute of Technology: The theory of plastic flow in solids—The high degree of plasticity ex- hibited by single crystals of metals and close- packed salts presents a fore-front problem of the physics of solids. Elementary reasoning shows that this plasticity must be associated with the presence of lattice imperfections which either exist or can be induced with ease in even the most perfect and pure crystals which are available at the present time. It was suggested by Taylor and Orowan in the last decade that these imperfections are lattice dislocations of the type first introduced by Prandtl to explain internal damping in metals. The theory sur- rounding dislocations has gradually evolved since it was first proposed, important develop- ments being introduced by Burgers during the early years of the recent war. The relationship between the theory of dislocations and the observed phenomena of plastic flow in single crystals of metals is surveyed in a manner that places particular emphasis upon some of the most recent developments. (Author’s abstract.) A. G. McNisuH presented an informal com- munication describing the peculiar behavior of the F.-layer in the ionosphere over regions of the earth’s magnetic equator. 1296th Meeting The 1296th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, February 28, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: JoHN Strrone, Johns Hopkins University: An extension of the application of evaporated films.—In this illustrated lecture the extension of the applications of aluminizing the astronomical mirrors was traced from its be- ©— | ginnings, when amateur Philip 8. Fogg’s 6-inch reflector was aluminized in January 1931, to its culmination in the aluminization of the 200- inch Palomar reflector in November 1947. The first metal tank used to coat mirrors to 12-inch diameters was shown by lantern slides. The speaker, together with Dr. Enrique Gaviola, of the Observatory of Cérdoba, used this tank to develop methods of parabolizing spheric mir- rors, and of correcting the figure of imperfect reflectors, by the deposition of suitably non- uniform aluminum films. The 40-inch alumi- nizing tank was illustrated in which the mirrors of Dr. Hale’s observatory and many mirrors of the Mount Wilson Observatory were coated. The use of this equipment culminated in the Ave. 15, 1948 aluminizing of the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observatory in December 1933. The 108- inch aluminizing tank used for coating the 60- inch and 100-inch telescope mirrors of Mount Wilson Observatory in February 1935 was illustrated. Finally Mr. Porter’s excellent draw- ings of the new Palomar telescope were pro- jected together with photographs of the alu- minized 200-inch mirror. Various details of these large scale operations were discussed. (Author’s abstract.) In an informal communication, MIcHAEL GoupBERG, Navy Department, exhibited sev- eral models of surfaces resembling ellipsoids of large eccentricities which share with the sphere the property of being rotatable through all possible orientations in space while remaining in contact with the four faces of a regular tetra- hedron. The equations of the surfaces and a mathematical demonstration of their unusual property were shown. A second informal communication was pre- sented by Luoyp Jonns, Naval Gun Factory, on the use of certain misleading notations in vector analysis. 1297th Meeting The 1297th meeting was held in the audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, March 13, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: JoHn C. Huspparp,! Catholic Uni- versity of America: Ultrasonic propagation and its measurement.—The application of ultra- sonics during the late war to testing and loca- tion of faults in materials, the finding and continuous recording of depths in the sea, and the measurement of position and velocity of enemy ships, particularly submarines, has raised the subject to a level of popular appreci- ation and official support little dreamed of at the outbreak of hostilities. The great impor- tance of the subject as compared with audible sound lies in the range of wave lengths which, in general, are small compared even with the dimensions or ordinary tools or apparatus. The recent development at the University of Virginia of electric sparks of extremely short duration has made it possible to photograph progressive ultrasonic waves,” showing clearly the effects of diffraction and interference, the 1 Assisted by the Office of Naval Research. aa. © Hoursarp, I. F. ZARTMAN, and C. R. Larkin, Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 37: 832-836. 1947, PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 287 spacing of waves in a transparent medium, and the attenuation and change of form of the waves as they progress through the medium. All the experience in this field emphasizes the making of measurements, where accuracy is required, at the lowest possible level of inten- sity. The application of ultrasonics to the study of elastic and viscous properties of liquids and amorphous and crystalline solids was discussed briefly and the usefulness to the physicist and chemist of ultrasonic data of great precision was shown by means of a number of illustrative examples. 1298th Meeting The 1298th meeting was the occasion of the Seventeenth Joseph Henry Lecture and was held in the auditorium of the United States National Museum, March 27, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: Ropert B. Brops, University of California: Cosmic-ray mesotrons. This address will be published in full in this JouRNAL. 1299th Meeting The 1299th meeting was held in the audi- torlum of the Cosmos Club, April 10, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: F. ZeRNIcKE, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity: Tolerances in lens errors. Special Joint Meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences This meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, April 15, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: Puitipp FRANK, Harvard Univer- sity: Philosophical interpretations of physical theories. 1300th Meeting The 1300th meeting was held in the audito- rium of the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1948, President RAMBERG presiding. Program: Col. Lrsuiz E. Simon, Aberdeen Proving Ground: Organization and Adminis- tration of German research in World War II.— The physical conditions for German research in World War II, with emphasis on the most successful kind of research, 1.e., for the Air Force, were first discussed. Inasmuch as nearly all research during that time was war research, research agencies sought to identify themselves with the armed services; this, combined with competition between government offices for 288 research services, caused considerable confusion in the over-all organization for research. In order to appraise the German effort, the logical flow of contributions to new articles was next discussed. Three defects in the Ger- man system appear. First, organizations re- sponsible for development and manufacture did not take research into their confidence. Sec- ondly, research received too little over-all supervision, resulting in unwise duplication. Thirdly, research failed to establish com- munication with military plans and trends. Therefore, most new articles originated in the design state which was based on past research and were independent of contemporary re- search. Hence, an enormous amount of research was unremunerative in this respect. Study of Germany’s war research demon- strates that we can not continue to rely on re- sults of past research. It is the duty of indus- tries and government to support currently reasonable amounts of basic research. (Author’s abstract.) 1301st Meeting The 1301st meeting was held in the audito- rium of the Cosmos Club, May 8, 1948, Presi- dent RAMBERG presiding. Program: O. S. Durrenpack, Philips Lab- oratories, Inc.: Magnetic ferrites——Although it was known that certain ferrites have magnetic properties, systematic investigation by Snoek, Verwey, and their co-workers at the Research Laboratories of the Philips Company at Eind- hoven, Holland, resulted in the development of magnetic ferrites having desirable character- istics for use as cores of transformers and in- ductance coils. These ferrites, under the trade- name ‘‘Ferroxcube,”’ are of different’ types for different applications, but they are all char- acterized by high resistivities resulting in low eddy current losses without the necessity of laminating the cores. The hysteresis losses of these materials are low also and special types of ‘‘Ferroxcube”’ have considerable permeabil- ity at frequencies in the megacycle range. Typical characteristics of ‘“‘Ferroxcube III,” which is now in limited production in Eind- hoven, are: Initial permeability up 1,000 to 1,500. Losses, at 60 ke tan 6/u (9.08 to 0.12) X10. Hysteresis coefficient, at 2 ke (2 to 5) X10~%. (Author’s abstract.) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 8 — H. M. O’Bryan, Research and Development Board, presented an informal communication in which he demonstrated a special Perot- Fabry interferometer. = = 1302d Meeting The 1302d meeting was held in the audito- rium of the Cosmos Club, May 22, 1948, Presi- dent RAMBERG presiding. Program: Raurx E. ALpHER, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory: The origin of chemical elements.—It is generally accepted that the present relative abundance of elements was established in a prestellar stage of the universe. The direct correlation of rela- tive abundance with nuclear binding energies has suggested to several investigators that the elements were formed in thermodynamic equi- librium at some high temperature and density in this prestellar stage. However, without as- sumptions difficult to justify physically, it is not possible to explain the abundance of both light and heavy elements as corresponding to equilibrium at a given temperature and density. Because of the rapid change in physical con- ditions due to the universal expansion, Gamow suggested several years ago that some non- equilibrium process must have been respon- sible for the formation of elements. A process of successive neutron captures, with interven- ing beta-decay to correct the neutron-proton ratio, is indicated by the correlation of nuclei of large abundance with small neutron capture cross sections for these nuclei, and vice versa. Preliminary calculations indicate that a neu- tron-capture theory leads to the correct relative © abundances. The neutron-capture theory suggests that the cosmological model for the early stages of — the universe is one of black body radiation, — with a trace of matter present in the form of ~ neutrons, protons, and electrons. Some 300 — seconds after expansion began, the temperature ~ had dropped to 10°°K., below which tempera- | ture building up of nuclei by successive neutron | captures could go on. At this time the density — of matter was of the order 10~* gm/cm3. The © process was terminated in a time of the order of a neutron decay lifetime by neutron decay — and by the expansion. (Author’s abstract.) Water L. CHEnry, Recording Secretary. a a — te ne tale 75 a ¥. % Tee a ee og 2 Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences President...... fT lsea in cis aie .- FREDERICK D. Rossin1, National Bureau of Standards DPR OSES Seen Lie pe eats scp ales eleam « bares C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum TE Sea a a ie a st ca .-.- HOWARD S. RAppLEeYeE, Coast and Geodetic Survey REMI rns Es nig hE gy 5:'a00'S Sa. 0 bate NatTHan R. Suiru, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications...........0c cece cece ccc scces TTT ait cto wos iie' ees Hiss apemte Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington..............-2.000200% WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington.................... T. Dap STEWART Biological Society of Washington.............0cc cc eee ees JoHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington. .......... 000 cece cee ees CHaries E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington.................00- C. F. W. MuESEBECK National Geographic Society............c0evceees ipetaton = ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington...............000ceeees Wiiiiam W. Rusey Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK O. CoE Perret: HIsLOrical DOCIECY. 625.5 eos we ces boc ne ees 8a GILBERT GROSVENOR PoLanies! society of Washington. io... se ccc ewes eaes RONALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wiui1am A. Dayton Washington Society of Engineers............00e cece cecces CuirrorD A, BETTS Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... ec aia As ate of OF deh sia. Rte a sarc a ieee eee ie ase'e 8a OU 8 Francis B. SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... Meme laa e co cae less es a ee Bieié. via at Wa ao fetale nee in Gave Martin A. Mason Helminthological Society of Washington. Sey ididio Aatee WO. wcas eer AUREL QO. FosTER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH Elected Members of the Board of Managers: Meereeraary 1040 eT oo Si oe hee Cee we Max A. McCatu, Watpo L. Scumirr To Paouery 1950. c's ve ec eee ee F. G. BrRicKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL momentary 1951.6 of... ace t es Francis M. Dreranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON REGUS Of PICNAQETS 26. oo a sls ion oda ewe bine All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors......... 0c cece eee e eee eeee [See front cover] Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D.. Rossini (chairman), WaLTER RAMBERG, RM a a oon S's a Wa.po L. Scumirt, Howarp S. Rappieye, C. Lewis Gazin LEP RIE OR one 6 aig Ad a gi) cate “a. aw Bie ais wiv! dle wo 's.e Wie'ad wp o'brogan's Harotp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyrHE Cooxz, WILLIAM ...+.... W. DigeHL, Luoyp D. FEtton, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorcr G. Manov Committee PEL TSONAT, 2S te edhe the ong SOA Saha oe"s we RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman), he! ae FRANK P. CuLLINAN, Frep L. Mouumr, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONE Committee on M onographs: To January 1949.........0. Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), E>warp A. CHAPIN me nary L950... Wane cs bn eae ees RoitanD W. Brown, Haraup A. REHDER MME LOG) eae ak kaa ob we ae ee WiuuiaM N. FENTON, EMMETT W. PRICE Commitiee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeERzrE.p, general chairman): For A MORIUE DRINMEER foe's PL Oke ack ans wie ee a cele hea Undine Wailea agers C. F. W. Mursssecx (chairman), Harry S. BeERnNToN, CHESTER W. Emmons, — ELMER Hiceins, Mario Mo.uari, GoTrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum For the Engineering Bech i ho Oe ay eR UE se Harry Dramonpd (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan, HERBERT N. Eaton, Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scutrrz, W. D. SUTCLIFFE ITS ERC: CII WAN Ss ob, gG.c Gong Re vieleie oie acd 4s eke B ohare Ks ewan vb Sew cals Kart F,. Herzretp (chairman), NarHan L. Drake, Luoyp D. FEtton, HERBERT INSLEY, WiuuraM J. Rooney, RoBertT SimuHa, Micuarn X, SULLIVAN Committee on Grants-in-aid OME SEMPER A220 5 Py ered Sg aa Sg Bn wg 5 hee SU Wine ..F. H. H. Ropsrts, Jr. es ie ANNA E. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY Representative on Council of NN ews vin WRN wie Pye bina gots ek wa ae FRANK THONE EME SU RUIDIOT Se ak Cre arse lnc aS ws a's le ORS checks Wiss bp ie dias owed dale tne Witi1aM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER IEEE “MEMLEY Se gh ieee OO, ie ee os oa a hE OS Sh me we aks eee Cees .JoHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bares, Wituiam A. WILDHACKE CONTENTS ErHNOLOGY.— Utilization of marine life by the Wampanoag Indians of Massachusetts. Frank G. Speck and Ratpo W. DExTER..... Puysics.—Transition from international to absolute electrical units as it affects the physical chemist. GrorGE W. VINAL............ Botrany.—Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species. Evbert L. revi, di. os ee A ee ee EnToMOoLoGy.—New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid beetles from the West Indies. Dorts H. Buake.............. ORNITHOLOGY.—The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). H. G. DEIGNAN J AES 3 6% a er PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 2). fo 2322 De Vee ae ee eee PROCEEDINGS. PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY... .....-..2-cc+e cece tes uses Tuis JOURNAL IS INDEXED IN THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS 257 . 4 Supremper 15, 1948 No. 9 om NAL = TON ACADEMY SCIENCES 17+ eh, ae | | rohan _ BOARD OF EDITORS CpUgN ad _ ALAN STONE Frank C. Kracex ee BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND : GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY : PLANT QUARANTINE pote ASSOCIATE EDITORS | ; } RIcHARD FE. BiAcawerne ; we James §. WILLIAMS vay 5 Me ae La abe dea ey GEOLOGICAL. SOCIETY : _ Larris, Jn. AREAL ks ~Waxpo R:. WEpDEL ; : ‘ L SOCIETY» “8 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY : Irt C. ScHoonover . ye ea rin i & i : ‘PUBLISHED MONTHLY . aie cca BY THE | | | ON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ae 450 Annarp St, a | + hee Mmxas, WISCONSIN | ; pe eae = = an 1S 15 ; : Z ' Ng ee y he M , Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JoURNAL is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years, Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re- quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JouRNAL and conform their manuscripts to the usage found there as regards arrangement of title, subheads, syn- onymies, footnotes, tables, bibliography, legends for illustrations, and other matter. 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PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete..... Vaca wat nie aa bosib nbaia acer a Smele volumes, aan bound. sik see ols's wok Wc pec lala sa sialon Se eat ea a Sa ee Single numbersy. cs Gcweiswcee mea eie we de Pian aaitts + elena Ope es Lakh ey: ~20 Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Geena and addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. RaApPpLeYE, U.S. Coast and Geodetic SUEUEYs Wash- ington 25, D. C. Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of dtier societies. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vout. 38 SEPTEMBER 15, 1948 No. 9 GEOLOGY .—Some aspects of the geology, petrology, and mineralogy of Switzerland.1 Pau. Nieeu, Mineralogisches-Petrographisches Institut der Eidgenossischen Technische Hochschule und Universitat Zurich. T. Faust.) The Alps are the youngest mountain range of Europe. Deep valleys, due to river erosion, allow the study of sequences of rocks, their metamorphism and folding within a thickness of some 2,000 to 4,000 meters. In many places a sparse covering of forest, scree, or snow is present; bare rocks can be found everywhere. So by climbing up the cliffs and gullies, by following the contacts of the rocks, and by collecting samples of rocks, fossils, and minerals, Swiss geologists and mineralogists have been able to build up a geological and petro- graphical synthesis of their country, based on evidence that can be directly investi- gated in the field. Taken from north to south, the main zones found in Switzerland are as follows: (1) The southern part of the Schwarz- wald (Black Forest), a massif of Hercynian age, not folded in Tertiary times, upon which lies the Jura tableland. (2) The folded Jura or Jura Mountains proper, resembling a virgation of the Alps and composed of rocks varying from Trias- sic to Tertiary age. (3) The Swiss Plateau or Plain consisting of a huge thickness of relatively undisturbed marine and fresh water deposits dating from the Middle Tertiary. This rock assem- blage is called ‘‘Molasse,”’ a word originally meaning soft sandstone in the local Swiss dialect. Most of this material is derived from the Alps, in which erosion was setting in as folding and uplifting gradually began. Here also we find the more recent glacial 1 Presented before the Geological Society of Washington, January 14, 1948. (Communicated by GEORGE deposits. fluvioglacial gravels, and sands of Quaternary age, filling out the deeper part of the broad valleys which traverse the Swiss Plateau. : The southern part of the Molasse region has been affected by the northward push of the Alps. The layers are no longer hori- zontal but steeply tilted and sometimes folded. The Alpine mountain chain had started to override its own debris. (4) The fourth important zone in Swit- zerland is that of the High Calcareous Alps, which include rocks from the Perm or Trias to the Tertiary. These mountains belong to the main chain of the Alps. They show folds, nappes, and clean-cut thrusts of the sedi- mentary cover. The latter originates from the central massifs and is more or less autochthonous or may derive from the southern parts of these massifs. These sedi- ments are said to be of Helvetic origin. From a general petrographic standpoint we can unite with the Helvetic High Calcar- eous Alps the so-called Prealps. These con- stitute an overlying mass of Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, which in some cases are reduced to isolated outliers (Klippen), re- maining in certain synclines of the Helvetic Alps. In other cases they form mountain areas built of material entirely foreign to the district in which they stand. The Pre- alps are composed of nappes piled up on one another, and there seems to be no doubt that they must be considered as frontal parts of Pennine or east-Alpine nappes that have traveled far to the north in Oligocene and Miocene times. (5) In the western part of Switzerland, south of the Calcareous Alps, lies a broad 289 290 zone of little-altered old igneous rocks, eneisses, and schists of pre-Triassic age. These are interrupted by zones of meta- morphosed post-Triassic sediments. Con- spicuous in this zone are the so-called cen- tral massifs, which bear the names Aarmas- sif, Gotthardmassif, Mont Blanemassif, and Massif of the Aiguilles Rouges. These mas- sifs are composed of crystalline rocks of Hercynian age and were originally cov- ered by others of post-Hercynian age, rang- ing from Permian to Tertiary. The Alpine folding pushed up, often as a series of slices, the rigid part of the massifs with the granite nuclei and old schists, while the softer and more pliable sedimentary cover was thrown into the succession of folds and nappes just referred to in connection with the Helvetic High Calcareous Alps. Be- tween the crystalline wedges some of the roots of the Helvetic nappes are still to be found as more or less highly metamorphosed sedimentary synclinal zones. (6) On the whole, the central massifs with their original sedimentary cover of epi- continental post-Carbonic rocks belong to the foreland of the great alpine geosyncline. To the south of the central massifs, how- ever, we find the so-called Pennine Nappes, formed in the geosyncline itself. The rocks called ‘“‘schistes lustrées’ or ‘‘Bindner- schiefer’’ represent the metamorphosed sediments deposited in this geosyncline. But the older rocks now also form a series of nappes of which the Simplon-Ticino nappes are the lower elements. The Casanna schists of the higher nappes do not belong to the schistes lustrées of Triassic to Ter- tiary age, but are Paleozoic. Since they originate from similar sedimentary rocks, they often bear a strong resemblance in their metamorphic state to these schistes lustrées. (7) In the eastern Alps the Pennine Nappes are overridden by the thrusts and nappes of the Austrides or eastern Alps. The lower part of this great overlap is very well developed in the Canton of Grisons, whence the name Grisonides that has been given to these units. The main part of the Austride nappes belongs generally to the southern coast or Hinterland of the main Pennine Syncline. And elements of this JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 tectonic zone are also to be found in the western Alps in the zone of the nappe-roots and in the higher nappes. The Alpine geo- syncline had, perhaps, a highly complicated structure and was divided into two main parts. It seems likely that the Austro-Al- pine nappes belong to the so-called ‘‘Be- twixt-mountains” and not to the hinterland of only one syncline. In any case the sedi- ments of the Austrides are different in facies from the Pennine sediments, and there is no question of the foreward drive of these rocks over those of the northern main syncline and the northern foreland. (8) In the Canton of Ticino and to the south of the steeply tilted zone of nappe roots lies a complex of old and younger rocks in fairly undisturbed position. They are regarded as belonging to the Dinarides and are called in Switzerland the rocks of the ‘‘lake district’? (lakes of Lugano, Lo- carno, and Como). From the standpoint of sedimentary pe- trography five examples are to be found in Switzerland of sedimentary provinces of the following types: (1) The Alpine diluvial-alluvial type of continental sediments.—This is found in the topographically young region of high moun- tains and in the elevated features surround- ing the Swiss Plateau. It is an association of residual and talus breccia, cave deposits, landslide deposits, cobble and boulder beds deriving from mountain rivers, pebble beds of fluviatile or fluvioglacial character, glacial boulder layers of various types, glacial drifts, grits, sands and silts of fluvia- tile, lacustrine, glacial, and aeolian deriva- tion, loam of the slopes, muds, marls and clays, and freshwater or lake marls called ‘‘Seekreide”’ (that is, ‘ake chalk’’) with layers of peat and schistose lignites. These sediments are more or less unconsolidated and lend themselves readily to the study of mechanical and statistical analysis. Thus the shapes and mineralogical composition can be analyzed and determinations made of the origin and behavior of the material during the different kinds of transport. (2) The molassic or paralic type of sedi- mentation in a continental trough, the last marginal deep of the alpine belt. The matter brought down by rivers and streams from Sept. 15, 1948 the alpine ranges which had been folded and uplifted during and after the Oligocene epoch, provides the constituents of the Molasse. The coarser conglomeratic depos- its (Nagelfluh) are of the nature of shore or delta sediments, deposited under fresh-water or marine conditions. They play an impor- tant role in the topography, forming great cliffs as on the Righi. Sandstones, marls, and clays, sometimes with lignites and fresh-water limestones, are the other im- portant rocks. Two continental periods are separated by a marine transgression and ean be correlated with contemporaneous movements of the Alps. Interior compres- sion persisted in the Alps during the Plio- cene and led to the overthrust of the Hel- vetic Nappes over the Molasse. It can be seen from the nature of the pebbles and ? n is! (aa > < \ S 4 Ae zern {Taz 291 detritic minerals that the uplift and folding of the Alps began in the south. The first layers of the Molasse contain material from the higher tectonic elements only and were formed before the central massifs were pushed up and denuded of their sedi- ments. At the close of the Pliocene the Alps finally rose up as a huge and lofty mountain range subjected to erosion by glaciers and rivers. Much work has been done on the characterization of the pebbles and heavy minerals, the processes of diagenesis, lithi- fication, ete. (3) The true geosyncline (engeosyncline) type of sedimentation, represented by a comprehensive series of sediments of great thickness and persistent facies, called schistes lustrées, Biindnerschiefer, and the younger Flysch. Interbedded in these sedi- + % caf Schaffhausen (65> > fr L x = ‘os 10 20 30 60 S0hkm Fig. 1.—Sketch map showing the tectonic zones of Switzerland: Zone 1: Swiss Plateau (Molasse Region) Zone 2: Zone of folded Molasse Zone 3: Jura Mountains Zone 4: Black Forest-Massif (Hercynian) Zone 5: High Caleareous Alps Zone 6: Zone of the Prealps: Zones 7, 8, 9: Central Massifs (7, Aarmassif; 8, Gotthardmassif; 9, Aiguilles-Rouges Massif) Zone 10: Zone of the Pennine Nappes Zone 11: Zone of the East Alpine Nappes Zone 12: Lake District Mountains (Dinarides) Zone 13: Tertiary Granite of Val Bregaglia, 292 ments are layers of basic igneous rocks, The whole mass was afterward folded and transformed into calcareous phyllites, and greenstones or ophiolites. The series in- cludes representatives of Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and in some regions also of Tertiary formations. Radiolarites with man- ganese ores and greenstones are found in some places, but a typical abyssal or bathyal facies is lacking. During the sedimentation the basin was steadily sinking, but in some zones the folding began to form islands, arches, and geanticlines. The Flysch fur- nishes ample proof that in the Eocene some folded chains were raised up and subjected to denudation. ; (4) The epicontinental type of sedimenta- tion 1s especially to be found in the Calear- eous Alps and the Jura Mountains. It is characterized by regressions and trans- gressions and cyclical changes of facies. The sediments were laid down on continental shelfs and are of more or less neritic facies with frequent reef limestones, greensands, and oolithic rocks. The Perm and Trias of northern Switzer- land include continental and desert sand- stones, dolomites, beds of gypsum and salt. They make it probable that evaporations occurred in lagoons and basins shut off from the sea. This great variety of sedimentary prov- inces, the remarkable changes of facies, and the stratigraphical sequences have been an invaluable aid for the geological syn- thesis of the country. But for the petrolo- gist the metamorphism of rocks during the Alpine orogenic cycle and the formation of mineral parageneses of a peculiar type have provided the more fascinating subjects to study. As the Swiss part of the Alps is, from a tectonic point of view, one of the best- known young mountain ranges, it seemed a promising undertaking to study the rela- tions between the tectonic events and what is called alpine dynamic and dynamic-re- gional metamorphism (dislocation meta- morphism of the Swiss petrologists). It is to be remembered that we find in the Alps rocks of pre- and postcarbonic age and that many of the older rocks were folded in Hercynian time. This period of the Upper JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 Carboniferous was also a time of great mag- matic intrusions. All rocks older than Per- mian have for this reason undergone not only the Mesozoic-Tertiary dislocation, but at least one older dislocation metamor- phism as well. In addition to these, an old contact metamorphism has left its traces at many places. The rocks are, therefore, typically poly- metamorphic, and at first sight it seems difficult to establish which of their present features are due to the influence of the young Alpine tectonic movements. Three groups of observations have in the course of time helped in unraveling of the phenomena: (1) In the Schwarzwald are to be found old rocks quite similar to those occurring in the central massifs and in the cores of many nappes. As the Schwarzwald region lay outside the Alpine orogenic area, such rocks have there been practically undis- turbed since Carboniferous times. A com- parison of the two regions gives clear indi- cation of any changes the rocks have under- gone since that time. (2) Many of the great magmatic intru- sions in the central massifs and in the nappes are in respect to the Hercynian folding of postorogenic character. The magma in- truded at the end of the Hercynian folding and remained more or less unaffected by the latter. Analogous rocks in the Schwarzwald are true, unmetamorphosed igneous rocks. All changes suffered by their alpine coun- terparts must be ascribed to the alpine oro- genic cycle. (3) There can be no doubt that in many parts of the Alps the great masses of solid rock piled up to form the various nappes prevented magmatic solutions from ascend- - ing during the main period of mountain building and tectonic activity. Triassic and Mesozoic rocks are wedged between or folded as a whole into the older rocks and their metamorphism can only be of the pure Alpine dislocation type without any influencing by truly magmatic solutions. In other parts, especially in the zone of nappe roots, magmatic migration was con- temporaneous with some phases of the tectonic movements. There we find Triassic and Mesozoic rocks bearing the signs of Sept. 15, 1948 magmatic contact metamorphism com- bined with dislocation-metamorphism. These indications will suffice to show that Swiss petrologists have a splendid working field in which to study the metamorphism of rock masses, subjected to external stress forces and when brought under new condi- tions of load and temperature. You know that the results arrived at during the petrological exploration of the Alps have brought with them great ad- vances in the science of metamorphism. I need only mention the names of Heim, Duparc, Grubenmann, and Koenigsberger in this connection. The post-Permian rocks of the superficial nappes of the High Calcareous Alps, the Prealps, and the Eastern Alpine thrusts — include dolomites, limestones, marls, clays, sandstones, and siliceous limestones. They have generally not suffered much alteration and resemble normal consolidated sedi- ments. They do, however, show greater lithification and hardening than the rocks of the same age in the Jura Mountains and are often superior as building stones. But at the same time they have suffered an ap- parently plastic deformation and often exhibit very fine folding and overfolding. Such folding is often unharmonious, hard limestones or sandstones being frequently thrown into few large folds while marls and clays are puckered into numerous smaller ones. Harder strata also show the tendency to glide over the marls and clays and to fold separately or to break into pieces. But even in the folded rocks with flowage textures, joints, and fissures are everywhere to be found. When the latter occur in limestone, they are filled with calcite, while those in siliceous limestones, cherts, and sandstones predominantly contain quartz. Taken as a whole the rocks were during the period of folding a solid aggregate of crystals with increasing diagenesis. To a large extent the plastic behavior of the rocks was not due to the plasticity of the individual crystals. Different parts of each crystal and different crystals suffered different stresses. There was not only a differential movement of the grains, but also a recrystallization pro- moted by an interstitial liquid solvent, present in all these rocks. The solubility NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 293 of a crystal is very sensibly increased under the influencing of shearing stress. Material can thus be dissolved where minerals or parts of minerals are under high stress and added to others or other parts, which at a given moment are not subjected to the Same shearing stress. That solutions are effective even under these epithermal and not hypabyssal conditions is proved by new erystallizations out of solutions along cracks and fissures and in the pressure shadow of larger crystals or pebbles. Quite commonly open cavities or crevices were formed by tensional stresses in the anticlines and synclines of small folds and were then suddenly filled with crystallizing solutions. This seems to be analogous to the well- known quartz-filled saddle reefs, but the crystallizing material is always of the same nature as the rock minerals. There is no essential transport of material from depth, no material foreign to the rock to be found in such formations. This is the first what we may call embryonic stage in the forma- tion of the so-called Alpine mineral fissures, taking place in this case under strongly epi- thermal conditions. Indeed at many places in the zone of the Calcareous Alps larger fissures are met with containing great crystals of calcite and sometimes of fluorite or quartz. Even in the Jura Mountains fissures occur with fine specimens of calcite, quartz, fluorite, pyrite, marcasite, celes- tite, and strontianite. There can be no doubt that they are the product of lateral secretion. In normal,sedimentary rocks and in the small fissures only the minerals typi- cal of diagenetically altered sediments are found. The temperature was too low to give more varied reaction products. But in some intercalations of peculiar composition, the same filled fissures, originally produced by stress, now contain a paragenesis of special minerals which can only derive from the surrounding medium. Thus at the Gonzen for example a bedded layer of iron man- ganese minerals, including hematite, mag- netite, ferroan-calcite, hausmannite, rhodo- chrosite, calcite, and quartz, is intercalated between limestones belonging to the Malm. The Alpine dislocation metamorphism pro- duced folding and fracture with a system of fine joints, cracks, and fissures in the ore 294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 Fig. 2.—Typical alpine mineral fissure. Note the quartzband and the more or less vertical position in respect to the schistosity of the country rock. deposit and adjoining rocks. In the iron ore the small veins and joints contain: (1) Quartz, siderite, calcite, sometimes pyrite, or (2) Stilpnomelane or ripidolite with cal- cite + quartz. In fissures within the manganese-rich part, the minerals are rhodochrosite and calcite, while in the limestone itself the filling of the fissures is restricted to calcite and sometimes a little quartz. Stilpnome- lane, ripidolite, siderite and rhodochrosite are in this case the new epithermal vein minerals and correspond in composition to that of the mother rock. A slightly higher degree of deformation is met with in an east Alpine complex of radio- larites, red shales, and aptychus-limestones with a concordant intercalation of man- ganese minerals, chiefly braunite. The fer- ruginous shales and the radiolarite (con- taining some amounts of sodium) are the rocks directly adjoining the manganese de- posit. Within the radiolarites many of the very small fissures are filled with milky quartz; but in the manganese-ore, quartz 1s accompanied by new and peculiar hydro- thermal minerals such as piedmontite, sur- sassite (a peculiar Mn-zoisite), parsettens- ite, manganiferous stilpnomelane, tinzen- ite, a Ca-Mn-silicate with water, sometimes rhodochrosite, magnanocalcite and rhodo- nite, also occasionally albite. Some of these minerals were first found in the fissures of this locality. As the dislocation and defor- mation of the rocks took place in several phases, veins of slightly different age can be observed with a normal succession of the minerals quoted. This is due to the fact that the temperature also was changing during the period of deformation. Some illustrations will give you a good insight into the fissure system and its con- tent of crystals. It must be added that the manganese minerals are only found in the fractured massive ore rock. Thus we see that the content of the solu- tions had its origin in the rock itself and that the local formation of such solutions proceeded side by side with the processes of deformation and metamorphism which in this particular case was slight (forma- tion of braunite out of silica- and manganif- erous gels and recrystallization of the radiolarian ooze with partial destruction of the organic structure). The filling of and crystallization within the fissures and open- ings along the lines of fracture took place as temperatures tended to fall as a result of the gradual cessation of the mechanical strains and of increasing denudation by erosion. This is, as we can prove by many exam- ples, also the history of the formation of the Alpine fissures in the crystalline rocks of the central massifs and the pennine nappes. And it is these which contain the beautifully developed crystals so characteristic of the Alpine region, which have found their way into mineral collections all over the world. Sept. 15, 1948 Before giving a short summary of the parageneses of these interesting fissure- deposits (clefts) or ‘‘Zerrklifte,”’ as they are called in Switzerland, we must deal with the alpine metamorphism as manifested by the rocks in the central massifs and pennine region. To what extent the meta- morphism assumes different grades accord- ing to the position within the system of uplifts and foldings, is best seen by a study of the wedged in or folded in syncliness of younger sediments. Between the Aar- and Gotthardmassifs occurs a steeply tilted syncline composed of Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic strata. A crystalline thrust-wedge, the Tavetsch- massif, divides the eastern part of this syncline into two parts. The southern part is called the zone of Tavetsch or Urseren and can be followed over a distance of more than 90 km along the northern edge of the Gotthardmassif from the Alp Nadels in the Canton of Grisons to the valley of the Rhone. The passes of the Oberalp and Furka as well as the Urseren valley have been carved out of it or the schists of the Ta- vetschmassif. The sediments are those of the normal cover of the Gotthardmassif with a SR. ESE NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 295 thick layer of Permain facies called Ver- rucano, made up of detritus deriving from the Hercynian folding. The Trias is repre- sented by quartzites, dolomites and dolo- mitic marls, and to the Lias belong sandy, often ferruginous limestones, sandstones, shales, echinodermal breccia, or compact limestones. The same strata, but without the Permian, are present in a sedimentary zone called the Nufenen Piora zone on the south side of the Gotthardmassif. Especially at the east end of the Gotthard pass, in the neighborhood of Lake Piora and Mount Scopi, parts of this zone are intensively folded and squeezed between the rising Gotthardmassif and the partly inverted frontal units of the deepest Pennine nappes. The push exerted by these nappes was very intensive in this region, and the erosion enables us to gain an insight into regions which were originally covered by higher elements of the upper Pennine nappes. There can be no doubt that this southern zone and also the southern parts of the crystalline rocks of the Gotthard- massif were subjected to higher stress and temperatures than were the zone of Ta- vetsch, Urseren, and the Aarmassif. Fig. 3.—Quartzband with mineral fissures which have been opened up and emptied. 296 The metamorphic derivatives of the Triassic and Liassic sediments with rem- nants of fossils are as follows: Northern zone: Dolomite: sometimes converted to marble, sometimes crushed. Dolomite marls: metamorphosed to chloritoid schist with chloritoid porphyroblasts and a groundmass of quartz, sericite, chlorite, hematite. Calcareous sandstones and argillaceous sand- stones: metamorphosed to: so-called cipo- lin, a sericite quartzite with or without carbo- nate. Clays: converted to phyllite. Limestones: slight formation of marble and some crushing. Southern zone with higher grade of metamorphism: Dolomites: mainly converted to marble, some- times squeezed out into lenses. Newly formed minerals include grammatite, actinolite and in some places phlogopite. Dolomite marls: metamorphosed to mica- schists with biotite, hornblende and often garnet as porphyroblasts with often a little sodic plagioclase. In some zones it can be ob- served that chlorite and biotite were formed together while in a transitional zone sericite- albite-chlorite schists occur. Calcareous marls and limestones: newly formed minerals are zoisite, epidote, garnet. Sandstones furnish mica quartzites. Clays: are transformed into beautiful mica- schists with biotite or cyanite and staurolite or garnet as large porphyroblasts. Sometimes hematite is replaced by magnetite. All these schists have a freely developed crystalloblastic, porphyroblastic, or poicilo- blastic structure with crystal growth under stress. As a result of differential movement the growing porphyroblasts often show a marked rotation with S-shaped inclusions. The same is true of the chloritoid porphyro- blasts in the chloritoid schists of the north- ern zone. Indeed, the movement of the chloritoid porphyroblasts in respect to the fine-grained ground mass may be so pro- nounced as to lead to the formation of crevices on both sides of the porphyroblast crystals. Such spaces became filled with solutions out of which crystallized un- strained individuals of quartz, chlorite, or sericite. This is another proof that already in the stage of metamorphism solvents were active and that solution followed by re- newed crystallization was proceeding on a considerable scale. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 In the southern zone the metamorphosed sediments are often of a coarse-grained nature and show no relicts of the original textures. Typical isometric porphyroblasts such as garnet may have diameters of 1 to 3cm, whereas the length of cyanite, stauro- lite, or hornblende crystals may attain several centimeters in length. But in some of the folded and twisted rocks irregular open spaces are frequently found. They were filled with solutions from which quartz, idiomorphic cyanite, staurolite, and garnet free from inclusions have crystallized. So here again there can be no doubt that sol- vents were active during the period of meta- morphism. Nevertheless, the succession of different metamorphic rocks, even when extreme folding has occurred, accurately reflects the original sedimentary sequence with very sharp boundaries between the original layers. No signs of long distance diffusions or metasomatism with solutions coming from below are to be found, and all observations point to recrystallizations from locally formed solutions during a long period of deformation. Swiss petrologists call metamorphism of the type found in the northern zone of the Gotthardmassif epimetamorphis. The rocks there constitute an epithermal metamorphic facies. The metamorphism found on the southern border of the Massif and especially in the Lukamnier-Piora region, is termed mesometamorphism, and produces a meso- thermal metamorphic facies. A study of the pre-Permain rocks in the Massif itself and of the rocks of the deepest Pennine nappes shows that the tectonic events there are correspondingly more intense. Judged from the same point of view it is to be expected that the metamorphism of the higher and more superficial Austride nappes will be of epizonal character, while in the Pennine roots katametamorphism is likely to prevail. For here intrusions of magma (basic at first, acidic later on) took place during the folding and invaded areas in which a slackening of pressure made itself felt. The reason for the latter was the squeezing out by the compressing forces of material, which making its way northward went to build the nappes. | It is not possible in this paper to discuss <=. _ Supt. 15, 1948 in detail the correctness of these deductions. We must limit ourselves to an examination of the metamorphism exhibited by the old crystalline units of the central massifs, these being important as containing the chief localities at which fissure-minerals are found. The older rocks of these massifs are as follows: . (1) Great complexes of diorites, grano- diorites, granites and quartz-porphyries of the post-Hercynian epoch were found in upper carboniferous times. In the Aarmassif they are accompanied by syenites and mon- zonites with an intrusion of related magmas of rather greater age. Pegmatites, aplites and lamprophyres as well as porphyritic rocks are plentiful. (2) The Hercynian magma was intruded into old paragneisses and mica schists with basic intrusions of amphibolitic or perido- titic character. (3) A series of old orthogneisses with local occurrences of old hornfelses, conglomer- atic gneisses, eclogites, and rarely of Paleo- zoic limestones. Apophyses of the old orthogneisses and of the younger intrusive rocks have pene- trated, digested and metamorphosed the schists. At some places fine examples of an old magmatization are visible and old in- jection gneisses are frequent. (4) The permocarboniferous is often con- cordantly enwrapped and consists of sericite and muscovite gneisses and schists, con- glomeratic gneisses, psammitic to pelitic eneisses with intercalations of permocar- boniferous quartz porphyries, spilites and diabases. The rigid masses of the Hercynian in- trusive rocks and a great part of the old gneisses were not folded by the Alpine tec- tonic movements, which merely compressed these old Hercynian massifs. The push of the Pennine nappes from the Alpine geosyncline was naturally stronger in the more southern massifs of the Mont Blane and Gotthard than in those of the Aiguilles Rouges and Aar farther to the north. The old massifs were uplifted and de- veloped a more or less vertical schistosity. - However as the push made itself most felt NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 297 at the base, a fan-shaped structure has been produced at many places. Phenomena of destructive metamor- phism in the epizone are very widespread and include the formation slices, zones of mylonitic or crushed rocks, etc., features which are very conspicuous in the present morphology. Every massif has one or two transversal anticlines, that is, culminations in the up- lift, whose axes sink down on each side, pro- ducing a domelike shape. The greatest cul- minations are situated on a line running from north to south, from the valley of the Reuss to the valley of the Ticino and the Simplon-Ticino culmination. To the south of these massif culminations the deepest nappes outcrop in the depressions, while on each side the highest nappes are exposed at the surface and the deeper ones remain in- visible in depth. But the schists of the massifs have, as a result of the compression, everywhere been brought into a more or less vertical position. Only at the east end of the Gotthardmassif could the Pennine and Austrian nappes in the course of their northward movement thrust the sinking massif over the rocks of the Aarmassif. In the main part of the Gotthardmassif the metamorphism of the old rocks often exhibits the following typical features: In rocks of massive texture quartz has suf- fered internal fracturing and possesses a cataclastic structure with some signs of re- crystallization. Along the planes of strong differential movements the relicts of larger quartz crystals have assumed a lenticular or eye shape (augen) with mortar-structure in a finely crushed and sometimes recrys- tallized ground mass. In the mylonites the intensive crushing is combined with a schistose texture. But everywhere the de- structive processes are followed by construc- tive ones, comprising not only recrystalliza- tion of the original constituents such as quartz, but also chemical reactions giving rise to new minerals. Sericite or muscovite is formed from alkali-rich feldspar, zoisite, and epidote from plagioclase, the mixture of these minerals with newly formed albite constituting what is called saussurite. Chlorite develops at the expense of biotite, 298 serpentine and tale from olivine and ortho- pyroxene, actinolite from augites and the more complex hornblendes etc. Many min- erals of complex composition suffer un- mixing accompanied by the formulation of iron-ore minerals, rutile, etc. Analogous mineral changes accompany the metamor- phism of already metamorphic rocks and, as we have seen, the newly formed minerals in the younger sediments exhibit the same epimetamorphic character. In the southern part of the Gotthard- massif in the so-called ‘“Tremola-schists”’ and also in the deepest Pennine nappes a complete recrystallization of old and young rocks has taken place under mesozonal conditions. Granites have been transformed into two-mica gneisses. And in the zone of the nappe-roots where pegmatites strike across the schists, contact metamorphism of katazonal character is combined with the dislocation metamorphism. One effect of the strain of the great tec- tonic movements, especially in the regions of the greatest uplifts, was the formation of torsion cracks and fissures. These developed in directions more or less perpendicular to the foliation or schistosity of the rocks and consequently lie horizontally in the central massifs and nearly vertically in the nappe- regions. Larger fissures resulted in massive rocks under relatively small loads than in finely foliated paragneisses or paraschists or in the region of the deepest nappes. Rela- tively large dimensions were attained by the fissures especially in the slightly epi- metamorphic granites of the central mas- sifs. Here open cavities of the size of caves were sometimes formed. The solutions cir- culating in the pores of the metamorphosed rocks filled the crevices and effected a very marked decomposition of the surrounding rocks. It thus often happens that the crev- ices are surrounded by narrow zones of altered or leached rocks. As the tectonic stresses gradually diminished and increas- ing erosion resulted in a reduction both in load and temperature, conditions were attained under which crystallization could take place out of these solutions or from others of low temperature which had joined them. The resulting crystals were able freely to develop into the spaces occu- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 pied by the solutions and thus to attain the size and perfection often characteristic of the alpine specimens. In many cases the leached zone became impregnated with newly formed crystals. This had the effect of sealing off the cavities and the contained solutions from their surroundings. Koenigs- berger was the first to prove that the newly formed minerals found in the fissures are derived chiefly from the surrounding rocks. Lateral secretion during the period of tec- tonic deformations followed by ecrystalliza- tion from the cooling solutions are the fac- tors leading to their formation. According to his estimates crystallization may have started at temperatures of about 350° and proceeded at intervals down to tempera- tures of 100° or lower. Many investigations (some not yet published) by students of the Federal School of Technology at Ziirich have confirmed his results and furnished many additional details about the processes involved. The best description and systematic ar- rangement of the various mineral paragen- eses found in the alpine fissures were given in the book published in 1940, Die Mzne- ralien der Schweizeralpen, by my friend and collaborator Prof. R. L. Parker, who is also keeper of the well-known collection of Swiss minerals at the Swiss Federal Insti- tute of Technology in Ziirich. He divides the Swiss section of the Alps into twelve characteristic areas as follows: 1. Maderanertal . Guttannen-Goppenstein . Fellital-Giuf Géschenera]p and Grimsel . Oberwallis and Urserental Tavetsch and Vorderrheintal . Gotthardpass and Greina . Adula . Southern and easterly Grisons 10. Ticino 11. Binnental-Simplon 12. Zermatt OWOIAD MNP ww In each region he distinguishes a number of groups of localities comprising occurrences belonging to the same mother rock and of similar paragenesis. The connection that is thus brought out between mother-rock and mineral assemblages, is a typical feature of the Alpine-type localities and one that is only to be expected if Koenigsberger’s Sper. 15, 1948 theory of lateral secretion is correct. Of the _ 58 groups described in the book only a few can be selected for mention here as illus- trating the occurrence of typical Alpine minerals. In the Maderanertal area, which is situ- ated in the northern zone of schists in the Aarmassif, fissures in the paraschists show the following paragenesis of minerals: Quartz, adularia, albite, calcite, brookite, anatase, rutile, apatite, ilmenite, pyrite, sphene, and monazite. Of the TiO, minerals brookite is certainly the most conspicuous and these localities, which include the famous Grieserntal, furnish the best Swiss specimens today. Anatase is also frequent and the two minerals frequently show the phenomenon known as differentiation in the fissures. That is to say they either occur on different walls of the same fissure, or else appear separately in adjoining fissures. Cases are, however, frequent in which both minerals occur in close association, and are even joined by the third TiO. mineral, rutile. This is a quite anomalous state of affairs as according to physical chemical theory only one of these phases can be stable. Investigations in the laboratory has proved rutile to be the actually stable phase, and this is borne out by the obser- vation that both brookite and anatase may be wholly or partially changed into aggre- gates of fine acicular crystals of rutile. Of the other minerals quartz may be men- tioned as very frequently showing ghosts or phantoms as many as seven or eight be- ing sometimes visible within a single crys- tal. The importance of the Ti02 minerals in the fissures of para-rocks is confirmed by the reappearance of similar parageneses in other areas. Thus in the now largely ex- hausted fissures of the Adula (area of Vals Platz) magnificent brookites 3 to 4 cm in length were found. Here also anatase oc- curred, and rutile often contained as needles in the quartz crystals has been found in superb specimens of rutilated quartz. In the Tavetsch valley, again, a similar paragenesis is found in para schists, though in this case anatase and rutile are generally far more important than brookite. The same is true of the fissures in the para- NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 299 rocks of the famous Alpe Lercheltini near the village of Binn in the Valais. Here the conditions for the crystallization of anatase must have been ideal ones, for crystals of a size and richness in form development are found, which surpass anything found at other Swiss localities. It is thus seen that while a given para- genesis may repeat itself at several or even many widely separated localities, each one of these exhibits its own local particularities as regards the mineral selection, form and habit development. Returning to the Maderanertal, we find intercalated between the schists amphibo- lites deriving from basic igneous rocks. The assemblage carried by the fissures in these rocks is totally different from that just mentioned and can be given as follows: Calcite, adularia, quartz, albite, chlorite, amiant,? sphene, epidote, apatite, prehnite, pyrite. Especially the appearance of amiant, sphene, and epidote accurately reflects the change in chemical composition of the mother rock and gives rise to crystalliza- tions as interesting in their way as the ones just described. In many of the valleys and ravines at the west end of the Maderanertal quite unusually rich crystallizations of amiant occur. The mineral is often of al- most hairlike habit and may occur in loose heaps or in a more or less fluffy or felted state of aggregation, often resembling ani- mal fur. On the other hand, it may also assume a more leathery consistence. At some localities in the west, but especially to the east of the Maderanertal at the Alp Cavrein, epidote is found in large crystals rich in faces and the same is true for crystal lizations found in the frame work of this paragenesis in other areas, for instance at the Kammegg near Guttannen. But quite the most famous instance of this type of epidote occurrence lies in the Tyrolese Alps in the eastern Alps. The Knappen- wald locality in the Untersulzbachtal pro- duced what were certainly Europes finest epidotes in exactly the association given above and formed under just the conditions and in a similar mother rock as at the Swiss localities. 2 An exceedingly fine silky variety of asbestos. 300 Sphene is a very notable constituent of fissures of this type in some areas, three well-known examples being the Drun Tobel just north of Sedrun in the Tavetsch valley, the Motta Nera in the val Nalps and the Alpe della Sella. The first and last named of these places have been famous for large sphene crystals, in fine V-shaped twins, for many years. They are often of yellow color. passing abruptly to green at the ends where the binary axis passes through the crystal. The Motta Nera area is a comparatively recent discovery which has supplied not only excellent dark brown sphene but also prehnite in profusion and sometimes very large crusty specimens. An interesting feature of the calcite found in this paragen- esis is the fact that the early crystallizations are tabular in habit, while at later stages the chief rhombohedron tends to develop strongly. Thus calcite plates are sometimes found covered by rhombohedral elevations. Rather similar to the amphibolite para- genesis is that carried by the fissures in the _ so-called potash-syenite of the Piz Giuf area. The following list of minerals shows, however, that the zeolite minerals are often much more plentifully represented than in the last case where they are of more inci- dental occurrence. The mineral assemblage for syenite fissures is as follows: quartz, adularia, calcite, chlorite, desmine, scole- cite, stilbite, apophyllite, laumontite, chab- azite, amiant, apatite, sphene, epidote, mil- arite, etc. Amiant is one of the first minerals to crystallize and in these fissures is often shorter and stiffer in form that in the oc- currences mentioned just now. A point of genetic interest is the very intimate rela- tionship between this fissure mineral and the hornblende in the rock which some- times shows signs of recrystallization on the fissure walls with transitions into amiant fibers. At the other end of the sequence of crystallization lie the zeolites which are among the last minerals to separate. In rich associations comprising all the species just mentioned, they form crusts covering the other minerals and especially the quartz crystals, following every detail of their contour. It is as though a semiplastic mass had been molded around the earlier formed JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 minerals. An interesting specimen in the Ziirich collection is a fairly large quartz crystal which, having attained a certain weight, broke off from the wall of the fissure at the bottom of which it was found. The fractured surface has become covered by aggregates of desmine which proves that the break occurred while crystallization was still in progress. It is in fissures of all types a common occurrence for quartz to break off and then regenerate the fractured sur- face, producing finally crystals without any apparent center of growth. In the syenite fissures the quartz crystals are colorless to dark brown or even black, the latter being called morion. These vari- eties appear at quite different localities, the general rule being that the darkest col- ored crystals come from the highest points and usually from such at least 3,000 m above sea level. This peculiar fact is ex- plained by Koenigsberger as follows: The dark coloration is produced by the radio- active influence of certain constituents in the mother rock. In order for these to be effective, low temperatures are required which is, of course, the case at the highest localities. Strict comparisons on these lines are only possible when, as in the Giuf area, higher and lower localities within the same mother rock are available. Many of the quartzes from here are beautifully de- veloped with several broad trapezohedron. forms beside the S-faces. They nearly always show signs of Dauphiné twinning, the com- bination of two right crystals being, as several statistical counts have shown, of the same frequency as the left+left combina- tion. It must, however, be added that ex- tensive research, carried out on quartzes from these and other Swiss localities, have shown the individuals to possess a very much more complicated system of twin- ning (including the brazil law) than can be inferred from the face development alone. The Giuf localities are one of the main sources of what Swiss collectors call ‘“‘Gwin- del,” that is, twisted quartz crystals. These, as is well known, consist of a series of indi- viduals each slightly rotated in position against their neighbors. The degree to which these various crystals are intergrown varies very much from specimen to specimen. Supt. 15, 1948 Some show very clearly where each indi- vidual ends and the next one begins and are called ‘‘open’’ specimens. ‘‘Closed”’ speci- mens are those in which the intergrowth is so complete that all individual points have disappeared and have been substituted by one long curved edge. In some fissures from marginal areas of the syenite the quartz crystals often con- tain long hollow cavities of rectangular cross section. It has been shown that they originally contained anhydrite which has, however, been redissolved, leaving the hol- low shape of its crystal form. This redis- solution took place fairly early as zeolite minerals have often been deposited within these ‘‘air pipes” as we call them. Let us finish this brief survey of the Val Giuf minerals with a mention of the inter- esting mineral milarite, so-named by one of my predecessors in Zirich after the Val Milar. Unfortunately the mineral does not occur at the locality after which it is named, Professor Kenngott having been the victim of a deception on the part of the original finder. The actual locality, as is now known, was the Giuf glacier, and a pupil of mine, Mr. Huber, has recently found new occurrences with some excep- tionally large crystals. Milarite was orig- inally considered to be a potassium-cal- cium-aluminium-silicate, but Prof. Charles Palache in 1931 showed that it contains beryllium in addition to these elements. Of the greatest importance for their mineral fissures are the great granite areas of the Aar and Gotthard massifs. In the Aarmassif the granite forms one connected mass, stretching from the Grimsel area in the west to beyond the Reuss valley in the east. The fissures throughout this broad expanse of mountains all bear much the Same paragenesis consisting of: Quartz, calcite, chlorite, fluorite, apatite, hematite, pyrite. Adularia and albite are not plentiful in these fissures, which in this respect form a contrast to most others. Accessory min- erals are zeolites, epidote, sphene, Ti02- minerals, and, rather strangely, galena, a clump or two of which is often found with the ordinary minerals. The fissures in this area are often of quite exceptional size and have sometimes at- NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 301 tained the dimensions of caves in the rock. This was the case at the famous locality found in 1866 at the Tiefenglacier and again at a spot quite recently discovered in the same neighborhood. It must not be thought however that on entering such a cavern the discoverers found the walls covered by beau- tiful crystals. Quite the reverse was the case. For in the available free space the quartzes had grown to a size and weight Ausheutung der Kryliallhéhle * ? : « Siefertglet{cber , Carlow ‘Lat «tte Quicjiiot iS; Fie. 4.—Exploitation of the large mineral fis- sure on the Tiefenglacier in August 1866 (con- temporary etching). which caused them to break off from the walls and fall on to the floors of the cavities. However, as there had previously been copious crystallizations of sandy chlorite material, they feel on to a soft yielding mass and so remained imbedded in this material and quite undamaged. Crystals from the old Tiefenglacier locality attained a length of 23 to 3 feet and in some cases a weight of 250 to 260 pounds. These very large fissures are remarkable also for their very broad quartzbands. These consist of granular or massive quartz which forms as an early crystallization at the tapering ends and around the fissure- 302 cavities proper. Most fissures possess more or less quartzband and are frequently dis- covered by the appearance of this massive quartz on the rock surface. But in these cases the bands attained unusual dimen- sions, sometimes as much as 7 feet. The exploitation of this fissure assumed the proportions of a small mining operation, regular adits being driven into the rock. That was late in the seventeenth century, a time when the collectors were only in- terested in the rock crystal. What is really the most beautiful mineral of this paragen- esis, the fluorite, they threw aside and it has remained for collectors of later generations to appreciate and study this mineral. It possesses a very remarkable rose red or pink color quite unlike the fluorite found else- where. Many crystals are uniform in color, but in a beautiful lot of specimens in the Ziirich collection the cores of the crystals are pink and the surrounding layers quite colorless. The commonest form is the octa- hedron, though the bicolored crystals just mentioned show the cube also, and others a trace of the rhombic dodecahedron. It was long believed that the Aarmassif alone pos- sessed these pink fluorites, but material of similar color has been found in pennine series of the Adula, and in an occurrence in the Gotthardmassif (Nalps glacier) which aroused much interest in 1938. The granite of the Gotthardmassif is (in contrast to the Aarmassif) not one con- nected mass, but divided into several sepa- rate units of rather different mineralogical and structural composition. To the min- eralogist one of the most interesting varie- ties is the Fibbia granite, a rather por- phyritic rock, building the mountains sur- rounding the Hostel on the Gotthard pass. It contains many fissures whose character- istic paragenesis is as follows: Adularia, quartz, albite, muscovite, chlo- rite, hematite or apatite (these minerals very seldom occur together), and accessories such as zeolites, pyrite, some Ti02-minerals, etc. The term adularia as we understand it generally applies to a colorless transparent potash feldspar with rather pronounced pearly luster and a typical crystal habit dominated by (110)(101) and small to medium faces of the basal plane (001). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 38, No. 9 The general aspect is sometimes rather pseudorhombohedral in character. But many occurrences of adularia show that these features do not always appear to- gether. Thus many fissures contain milky white crystals of only translucent or even nontransparent character. On the other hand, the fissures of the Gotthard granites show that typically transparent adularia may assume the elongated prismatic habit of the Baveno type. The fine crystals found in this area are very often complex twins, consisting of four individuals of which ad- jacent ones are twinned on the Baveno law while opposite ones show twinning after Manebach. The appearance of muscovite in the paragenesis is a characteristic feature not found in the more northerly Aarmassif. But undoubtedly the main interest of these occurrences concentrates on the minerals hematite and apatite which are found in specimens of outstanding quality. The hematite of the Gotthard pass is of pronouncedly tabular habit and on the whole not very rich in faces. It shows the tendency to form subparallel aggregates much resembling the arrangement of petals in a filled rose bloom, and this comparison has caught the imagination of the collectors, who have long since chosen the name of iron roses for these groupings. Very notable specimens have come from these fissures, some of the finest being as big as a fist and showing brilliant metallic luster. Comparisons could be made between these hematite crystals and the crystallo- graphically very much more complex speci- mens occurring at the Alp Cavradi south of Tschamutt in the Tavetsch valley, but this would take more time than we can spare now. Turning to the apatite crystals, we can only suppose that the conditions for the formation of this mineral were quite ideal ones, for in some fissures it occurs in very numerous individuals, of sometimes large size and always very complex development. It is no rare thing to find 50 or 60 per- fectly reflecting faces on one small crystal which may be tabular, short or long, pris- matic or occasionally bipyramidal in habit. The crystals are colorless or sometimes of a pale violet color which, however, like the Sep. 15, 1948 violet of the rare Swiss amethyst, fades in sunlight. Some recently found large crystals are practically opaque and milky white. In a granite area farther east called the Cristalina granite, a paragenesis of other character is found in rather plentiful oc- currences. It contains the following min- erals: Adularia, albite, quartz, chlorite, calcite, muscovite, axinite, apatite, epidote, sphene. It is the axinite which distinguishes these localities and often appears in excel- lent large-sized crystals. Many of them are chlorite covered and then gray green in color and without luster; but on specimens free of chlorite the crystals are of a brilli- ant purplish to reddish-violet color, and in every respect equal to the famous ones from Bourg d’Oisans in the French (Dauphiné) Alps. The appearance of this boron-silicate in some quantity is interesting and not easy to explain satisfactorily out of the mineral and chemical composition of the mother rock. To the south of these granites follows the zone of the so-called Tremola schists, which have many fissures with the following min- eral assemblage: Albite, quartz, calcite, siderite, ripidolite, rutile, tremolite or amiant, tourmaline, pyrite, etc. A remark- able feature of the specimens from these localities is the morphological development of the quartz crystals which contrast sharply with those found in all the more northerly occurrences. The faces of the prisms and of the unit rhombohedra are often reduced to fairly small dimensions, while those of numerous acute rhombohedra dominate the habit. This gives the erystals a peculiar tapering aspect, which is quite typical for the zone 1n question, but is also found in the Pennine areas of the Ticino. The habit has therefore been called the Ticino-habit and constitutes a classical example of how the development of a crystal habit depends upon the surroundings and circumstances under which it is formed. These quartzes are of quite unusual limpidity in spite of the fact that they are often full of inclusions, these latter consisting chiefly of chlorite, tremo- lite and tourmaline. Passing to the fissures of the Pennine nappes, we can only briefly mention the famous locality of Campo Lungo, where NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 303 the white saccharoid dolomite marble con- tains many fissures with grey grammatite, bright green tourmaline, reddish or bluish crystals of corundum, diaspore and beauti- fully developed and twinned crystals of dolomite. Near here a unique paragenesis was found in fissures of a calcareous phyl- lite. It contained scapolite crystals of gem quality which are quite unlike any other alpine occurrence of this mineral. A few words must be devoted to the contents of the fissures found during the ‘3 <& Fig. 5.—Iron rose (Binnental area). Typical subparallel aggregate of tabular hematite crystals. construction of the Simplon tunnel. The paragenesis included very rich crystalliza- tions of calcite, dolomite, and siderite be- side beautiful violet crystals of anhydrite. Quartz, adularia, albite, chlorite, rutile, muscovite, and the rare hamlinite (Al-Sr- phosphate) were other minerals. Both in composition and aspect these crystalliza- tions are markedly different from the min- eral assemblages found in more superficial fissures. It is worth remarking, however, that in other tunnels such as the Gotthard and also in some underground workings as for instance at Monte Piottino, rather simi- lar formations have been met with. This raises the question whether with increasing depth the character of the fissure fillings undergoes a certain change and whether these ‘‘tunnel parageneses’”” as we some- times call them, are indicative of the type of mineral formation prevalent in lower levels than those usually accessible. 304 The most famous locality in the Pennine area west of the Ticino is, of course, the Binnental. Reference has already been made to the superb anatase crystals from here and I shall presently return to the unique mineral assemblage found in the white saccharoid dolomite rock at Lengen- bach. Let us now conclude this very rapid sur- vey of the Alpine fissure deposits with a brief glance at the famous minerals from the Zermatt area. These are contained in fis- sures of basic rocks (metamorphosed gab- bros, peridotites, etc.) and also in rocks pro- duced by contact metamorphism of the basic igneous rocks on limestones. Garnets, both red and green, the latter sometimes in large nodular masses, idocrase in lustrous beautifully developed green or brown crys- tals, epidote and large well-developed pseu- dorhombohedral crystals of pennine are among the minerals more commonly met with. Perovskite is rarer but also of fairly frequent occurrence, sometimes in honey yellow or orange colored nodular masses, sometimes in well formed reddish brown cubes. Another mineral sometimes met with is lasulite in sky blue masses, which can be cut and polished to make attractive gem stones. It is in general true to say that all the important chemical elements found in the rocks are also represented in the fissure JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 minerals. In what particular mineral or minerals each element is contained, can best be seen from Table 1. Under epi to meso conditions the metamorphic processes run more or less concurrently with the for- mation of the crystals in the fissures. The general succession of order of crys- tallization of the fissure minerals is given in Table 2. The observed facts can be summarized as follows: The crystallizations often begin with the formation of alkali feldspar or epi- dote or amiant. In later stages water-rich minerals such as muscovite and the zeolites are formed beside oxides such as hematite, rutile, etc. From the residual solutions which have become poor in alkalis and rich in Mg and earbonate ions, chlorite and the ear- bonates are the chief minerals to crystallize. Quartz is in the fissures of silica-rich rocks, an ‘‘ubiquitous”’ mineral, that is to say one that can appear in practically all paragen- eses and at all periods of the crystallization. In especially quartz-rich rocks, quartz is without doubt the dominant fissure-min- eral. Fluid and gaseous inclusions in which the bubbles disappear on heating, some- times enable estimates to be made of the temperatures and pressures prevailing at the time of crystallization. The fissure minerals of the Alpine type are scarcely found elsewhere in the same parageneses and development. Even in the TABLE 1. CuHreF PRocESSES LEADING TO THE FORMATION oF FissuRE MINERALS Original minerals Processes Alkali-feldspars. . . tion Biotite x ist =a: ay oxides; release of potash Augites and hornblendes........ decomposition and solution Olinvaner jobs pee Hydrolysis, loss of Fe oxida- tion Quartagias. genes Partial solution Carbonates "57 2 of Partial solution Decomposition of the calcian feldspar molecules; solution Unmixing and partial solu- Separation of TiO, and Fe- Loss of Al, Ti, Ca, often Fe- Crystallization of: Epidote, prehnite, calcian zeolites. albite, carbonates, quartz Potassian feldspar (adularia) and sodian feldspar (albite), rarely of alkali-zeolites Chlorite, hematite, limonite, Ti-oxides, be- side adularia and quartz; sometimes forma- tion of Fe- and Mg-carbonates Epidote, hornblende asbestos, calcian zeo- lites, calcite, dolomite, Fe- and Ti-oxides, or titanite, quartz Serpentine or tale and magnesite together with Fe-oxides Renewed crystallization of quartz Renewed crystallization of carbonates Sept. 15, 1948 NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 305 TABLE 2. SEQUENCE OF CRYSTALLIZATION OF MINERALS IN FISSURES OF GNEISSES AND Mica-ScHISTs (Early stages of crystallization: First succession: Water-free or water-poor silicates sometimes hematite, anhydrite. Muscovite, titanite, -( Second succession: fluorite, chlorite, carbonates. Water-rich silicates, oxides, carbonates Final crystallization: Calcite, chlorite, prehnite, zeolites. Alps conditions favorable for their forma- tions were not everywhere present. They are found especially in the following regions: The central massifs from Pelvoux, Grandes Rousses; Belledone in the Dauphiné to the Mont Blanc-, the Gotthard- and Aar-mas- sifs, the Pennine nappes from the Simplon to the Adula and the great culminations of the Zillertal alps, Grossvenediger and Sonn- blick-Hochalm in the eastern Alps. All these regions are transversal culminations or anti- clines of the Alpine arc. In the neighborhood of these great anticlines (and not in the tec- tonic depressions) conditions were favor- able for the formation of open fissures dur- ing the uplift. This in turn was a necessary condition for the circulation of the solutions which having gathered their material, were able to deposit it in the open spaces and give rise to the mineral specimens we now admire. As the chief rocks of the Alps are of nor- mal chemical composition, the common fissure minerals themselves are of quite usual composition also. But where rocks of special character and chemical composition were concerned, the peculiar genesis of the fissure minerals finds its expression in the appearance of rare mineral species. This has already been pointed out in connection with the manganese ore de- posits and further confirmation is furnished by the classic mineral locality of Binn in the Canton of Valais. With the Triassic dolo- mite rock, found there, is incorporated a sulphide layer containing as primary min- Albite, tourmaline, apatite, rutile, anatase, Amphibole-asbestos, epidote, adularia, usually also quartz. [Continued crystallization jot adularia and epidote | Continued crystallization of quartz hematite, beomaaites some minerals of the | Continued Pere ee Wel J ) first succession erals pyrite, a little argentiferous galena and blende, chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite. During the Alpine metamorphism the dolo- mite was converted into a_ saccharoidal marble while in small cavities new minerals of the sulpho-salt-type were formed which are for the most part exceedingly rare spe- cies. They include lengenbachite, rathite, hutchinsonite, seligmanite, baumhauerite, dufrenoysite, jordanite, and sartorite, most of which were first described from this local- ity and some of which have never been found elsewhere. Tennantite, realgar, orpi- ment, proustite, barite, hyalophane, and dolomite are other minerals occurring in these fissures. Such special paragenes allow a compari- son to be made with those of the ore de- posits, as given for instance in Lindgren’s classification. Judged by their mineral con- tent and temperature of crystallization the alpine fissures may be called an autoch- thonous hydrothermal type of deposit of meso- to epithermal character. They are related to ore deposits formed near the sur- face and also to the deposits of native cop- per and zeolites in the Lake Superior region. What is essential is the recognition of the fact that the fissure minerals were formed in a more or less closed system during the dis- location and metamorphism of the rocks without the participation of substances contained in solution by ascending waters or liquors. Let us recapitulate: After the chief system of nappes had 306 already developed in the Alps, a very pro- nounced longitudinal corrugation came into being during the last phase of the compres- sion of the Alpine chain. As a result of the obstruction offered by the crustal masses in the foreland great culminations and de- pressions gradually took shape while the flat mountain land was erected into a sys- tem of high mountains. Erosion set in and became increasingly active, though it could not keep pace with the uplift or carry away what the folding had built up. In the cul- mination zones and particularly on the flanks of the chief uplifts fissures were formed and quickly filled with aqueous solutions. These thermal waters had _ be- come charged with substances previously dissolved from the surrounding rocks. Crys- tallization from these solutions set in as the effects of gradually diminishing pressure and BIOLOGY.—The principle of priority in biological nomenclature.' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 temperature made themselves felt. In the course of long crystallization processes crys- tals of unusual perfection were formed which today are the ornaments of the high Alps. The composition and associations of these minerals give indications as to the temperatures which must have prevailed in the mountain area at the time of their for- mation. Crystal species which at an earlier period had been formed in the rocks are found to have become unstable and to have undergone unmixing and decomposition, thus giving rise to other minerals. The search for and collection of these crystals not only provide aesthetic pleasure but also furnish much valuable information about the formation of the Alps themselves, of the mountain range, which is the backbone of Switzerland. RIcHARD E. BLACKWELDER, U.S. National Museum. An article under this title by Dr. A. C. Smith of the Arnold Arboretum appeared in Chronica Botanica 9: 114-119. 1945. It consists largely of a critical review of a paper from the zoological viewpoint by Franz Heikertinger, published in 1942 in Germany” which is ‘‘an undisguised attack on the principle of priority’”® Both Dr. Heikertinger’s proposal of a principle of continuity and Dr. Smith’s critique are of interest to taxonomists in zoology as well as in botany. The present remarks are intended to expand Dr. Smith’s review and to carry on the arguments against Heikertinger’s proposal. The goal which Dr. Heikertinger hopes to attain with his new proposal is very at- tractive. It is that within 30 years every species of animal will have one single uni- versal name in use. This is the millennium in nomenclature, the goal of complete sta- bility which has seemed so far away to most taxonomists. This goal is to be at- 1 Received May 14, 1948. * HEIKERTINGER, FRANz. Das Nomenklatur- problem der Gegenwart. Zugleich ein Aufruf an alle Biologen. Der Biologe, 1942: pp. 20-27. § Direct quotations are from Dr. Smith’s paper. tained by discarding the principle of pri- ority and substituting for it the so-called principle of continuity, that ‘“‘the valid name of a genus or species is the one which the monographer finds in scientific usage, regardless of whether or not this is the ear- liest name.” This statement of principle immediately raises several questions which must be satisfactorily answered before the principle could be applied in actual practice. (1) Who is to be accorded the status of monog- rapher with authority so much above the ordinary taxonomist? (2) If monographers disagree, which is to be accepted? (3) How can biological considerations be kept sepa- rate from nomenclatural ones, or, as Dr. Smith implies, are biological facts to fall at the monographer’s whim along with the nomenclatural ones? (4) What will happen when the monographer bases his work on- totally inadequate bibliographic or taxo- nomic research and makes an obvious and demonstrable error? (5) Would complete stability be reached even with the elimina- tion of purely nomenclatural changes? (1) Apparently the question of who is a monographer is not discussed by Heiker- Sept. 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: PRIORITY IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE tinger. There is an implication that the monographer is someone special, readily distinguished from other workers. One group of “monographs’”’ is mentioned that may give us a clue. Heikertinger states that zoological nomenclature was more or less established about 1850, because of the thorough monographs of that _ period. Since Heikertinger is an entomologist, these monographs were probably the large regional works such as the Naturgeschichte der Insecten Deutschlands, and the nu- merous large works of Erichson, Kraatz, Redtenbacher, Mulsant, and others. These works were of restricted geographi- cal scope, being in fact not true monographs at all but revisions of the species of one re- gion. They doubtless helped to fix names in use locally for a few years, but their in- fluence in the long run depended upon their accuracy in a broad sense. Stable nomen- clature can not be based upon the names in use in one region, and it is to works of this sort, based on less than a world viewpoint, that we owe much of the confusion in names with which we now contend, because the names were thereby brought into common usage. A monograph of a genus or large group for the world will give the only sound results, both taxonomically and nomenclaturally. There have been works of this nature in many groups and at many times, but no decade produced enough to claim a stabilizing effect on all zoological nomenclature. A publication that has the appearance of being a monographic study may fall far short of complete or adequate treatment. For example, a recent work on a world- wide genus of insects, purported to deal with all the known species. It gives keys and descriptions and distribution and was based on extensive material obtained from all over the world. The work thus purports to be a monograph of the genus. Yet on closer examination it appears that at least half of the specific names that had previously been used in the genus are not mentioned, and numerous cases of homonymy and ob- jective synonymy are completely over- looked. Even if the zoological aspect of this study is thoroughly and competently treated, the nomenclatural treatment is so 307 bad that the revision is nearly useless. It is even possible to find the genotype of one subgenus listed in a different subgenus! To accept this work as a monograph for the purpose of stabilizing names would mean throwing overboard not only the principle of priority but also the concept of geno- types as the anchor of generic names and the requirement of thoroughness and ac- curacy for general acceptance. In short, the only way to define a mono- graph in the sense of Heikertinger would be to set up an authority to pass on each publication. Acceptance of any given work as a monograph on a certain group of ani- mals would automatically set up a list of nomina conservanda for both genera and species in that group, except for changes required on taxonomic grounds, as will be discussed under question 5. (2) Disagreement between monographers would be taken care of by the authority mentioned above. If the acceptance of one work as a ‘“‘monograph”’ did not serve to discourage a later work on the same subject, the authority would have to pass on the later work when it appeared. Rejection of the later work would uphold the earlier one, but acceptance of the later one would per- haps reverse some nomenclatural as well as taxonomic decisions and cause name changes. (3) Many apparently nomenclatural de- cisions are based at least in part on purely taxonomic considerations. Under the law of priority, the correct name for any species is the oldest nonpreoccupied name that has been applied to it, assuming that un- recognized biological 1dentity with another so- called species does not exist. This assumption is seldom expressed but always exists. When it can be demonstrated that there zs taxo- nomic identity, there is certain to be a change in the status of one of the names. This change is nomenclatural and is made because of the law of priority, and yet abolition of that law would not prevent the change because of the biological considera- tions. Nomenclaturally we hold that each genus must have a type species. The actual identity of that species cannot be deter- mined nomenclaturally, however, for it is 308 necessary to make at least a morphological study of the type specimens of that species to demonstrate its characteristics. Under a recent interpretation, apparently em- ployed by the International Commission in Opinions 168, 169, 173, 175, 177, 179, and 181, it is even necessary to examine the specimens that were before the worker who subsequently selected the genotype. These are biological considerations, although the problem of genotype fixation is generally thought of as primarily nomenclatural. It is simply impossible in many cases to separate taxonomic from nomenclatural considerations, and if nomenclatural prob- lems are to be decided by the whim of a monographer, it is difficult to see how we can prevent confusion of the taxonomic facts. Dr. Smith interprets Heikertinger’s position thus: “These zoological mono- graphs, one is led to believe, should be preferred to the older often superficial works, even when the monographic con- cept of a species differs from the original concept, and even when this difference in concept is caused by the monographer’s misinterpretation of an earlier writer’s type specimen.”’ (4) Heikertinger appears to believe that a monographer will always be in a position to make a sound decision on which name is in current use. Yet very few studies take into account all the previous literature and all the previous specimens. In actuality our monographs vary from this down to mere compilations or condensations which critically evaluate none of the previous work. Some decisions of some monographers would inevitably be demonstrated to be based on inadequate or erroneous data. To refuse to reverse such a decision would be ridiculous, yet the principle of continuity would require just that. If writer Jones finds that P. niger is in use and is to be retained over the older P. obscurus, does this decision give perma- nence to P. niger even when it is pointed out that Jones failed to note that niger is a junior homonym? This is a strictly nomen- clatural change, but if both nzgers are in current use, continuity could save only one of them. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 In view of the low quality of the biblio- graphic work of some monographers, it is likely that in some cases a later monog- rapher would be able to prove that the first monographer failed to consider a large number of pertinent works which would tend to reverse his decision. One world authority on a family of insects is unable to keep track of even his own proposals. He has repeatedly used a name in one genus not twice but three times. In one case, dis- covering the homonymy of two of his names he renamed the younger. The new name was promptly recognized (by another worker) as a homonym of another of his and renamed. Several years later this writer rediscovered the original homonymy and again renamed it, using the same new name as before, now twice a homonym as well as a junior synonym. This same writer habitually pays no attention to genotypes. It is not difficult to believe that any nomenclatural decision he made in a mono- graph or elsewhere is at least likely to be seriously defective. (5) It is a popular pastime among cer- tain biologists to ridicule the taxonomists for the large number of name changes that are made, generally implying that it is because of religious fervor for certain Rules of Nomenclature that such changes are proposed. In this way nomenclature is often made to take the blame for all changes of name. There can be little doubt that this is a most misleading assumption. Many names are changed because of discovery of older synonyms or the recognition of forgotten homonyms of prior date. These are the only truly nomenclatural changes. But many more changes are made (at least in some groups of organisms) because of generic transfer, proposal of segregate genera, recognition of generic equivalence, and similar purely biological considerations. And many are made because of nomen- clatural requirements growing out of zoo- logical actions, such as renaming of con- current homonyms produced by union of genera. In many groups it is not difficult to demonstrate that a substantial majority of changes of names over a period of years has been caused by the second and third means listed above, namely those involving zoo- Sept. 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: PRIORITY IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE logical actions rather than exclusively nomenclatural ones. These changes can not be prevented at all by the ‘‘principle of con- tinuity.” If Heikertinger’s proposition were to be adopted and means provided to make it work, we would still have changes of names as long as students search out new facts of relationships of organisms. Some changes would be prevented, it is true, but these could probably be prevented more easily by other means. The overemphasis on the need for com- plete stability of nomenclature is demon- strated by a quotation by Dr. Smith from a German botanist. This botanist contends that we fail in our responsibility to our studying youth by making them unlearn the names each semester to follow the latest changes. Dr. Smith replies that this exaggerated statement “‘scarcely causes us to shed a tear, since this same (student) is expected to discard preconceived notions of all other branches of biological science at the drop of a chromosome. Why is it that workers in other fields of biology expect ab- solute stability of systematics (that is, ~ comparative morphology and its attendant nomenclatural expression), while they are willing to accept any degree of flux in the fields of genetics, physiology, cytology, and ... sociology?” The reason for this emphasis on stability is doubtless the desire of these scientists to have means of tying their experiments and theories definitely to specific kinds of organisms, in order to use them for synthesis and generalization. But this desire for fixed names is impossible of gratification under any system as yet dreamed of and should not be given consideration over the neces- sity of the science of taxonomy for growth and development itself. All means should be found to prevent unnecessary changes of names, but it is not to be expected that a rapidly growing science like taxonomy can 309 be for long conducted with an unchanging set of tools. Nomenclature will become stable only when monographs of high quality have been produced, based on all possible material, bibliographic sources, and techniques, and even these cannot be expected to stand indefinitely against new information and conceptions. Dr. Smith criticizes the attitude of cer- tain non-taxonomists as follows: ‘“Too many criticisms of the present Rules of Nomen- clature are based upon the assumption that professional systematists are playing a ma- licious game which has no relation to the biological sciences. The authors of these criticisms tacitly assume that systematists already have reached all the conclusions necessary regarding the classification of plants and animals, and that only their innate perversity prevents them from pub- lishing a final and immutable list of the “correct”? names of all living things. Im- mutability is not to be found in science, least of all in a virile branch like sys- tematics, which builds upon facts disclosed by many other disciplines, each of which in itself is vigorous and, as human endeavor goes, young.” Systematists can find many reasons for wanting to reduce to a minimum the changes of scientific names, but this does not mean that absolute stability is the principal goal of systematics or of nomen- clature. The goal of systematics is to dis- cover the relationships between organisms so they may be classified in a usable system. The goal of nomenclature is to provide a method of designating the organisms ex- plicitly, with as much uniformity and permanence as the growth of the classifica- tion permits. Any proposal that rates stability ahead of the advancement of the science of systematics or the development of one of its myriad components is a backward step and one doomed to ultimate failure and discard. 310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, IV: The Lonchocarpus rugosus complex and additional Middle American species.' FREDERICK J. HERMANN, U.S. Department of Agriculture. In Part IT of this study (Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 38: 11-14. 1948) an attempt was made to dispose of the various species of Lonchocarpus described from Middle America since.the publication in 1917 of Pittier’s monograph of the species known from that area. Because of lack of herbar- ium material, however, 17 of these names could not at that time be taken into con- sideration. Specimens of 10 of these have subsequently become available, through the courtesy of Dr. C. L. Lundell and of the Chicago Natural History Museum, and the result of their study is presented herewith. Several of the names prove to be referable to the protean L. rugosus Benth., so a brief discussion of the variations exhibited by that species is appended. Lonchocarpus apricus Lundell, Lloydia 2: 90. 1939 = L. Rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc. 4:92. 1860; Standley & Steyermark, Fieldi- ana, Botany, 24(5): 283-284. 1946. It was not found possible to correlate with other characters the “numerous approximate lateral veins of the leaflets” by which L. apricus was originally set off from L. rugosus and L. hintoni, nor is this character constant or of geographical significance. Further ‘‘differences in pubescence flower size, number of ovules, and leaf form’’ ascribed to the plant were not detected except in so far as the cited material showed a somewhat more appressed pubescence than most of the collections from Campeche where Bentham’s type originated. This, how- ever, is clearly a tendency only and is appar- ently an ecologic response rather than the result of geographic factors. Lonchocarpus belizensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55.1945 = L. LUTEOMACULATUS Pittier, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64. 1917. Although the petals of ZL. belizensis are de- scribed in the original description merely as dark red, the standard shows a well-defined yel- low area in the center. This and the large size of the standard indicate that the alliance of the plant is with ZL. luteomaculatus rather than with L. latifolius. 1 Received June 15, 1948. Pittier’s key (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 51-52. 1917) does not satisfactorily separate L. latifolius from L. luteomaculatus. One of the few reliable differences between the two ap- pears to be in the shape of the pods. In L. latifolius these are elliptic and pointed at both ends; in L. luteomaculatus they vary from al- most circular to oblong with rounded ends. The length of the standard (6 mm in L. lati- folius, 10 mm in L. luteomaculatus) also seems to be constant. L. latifolius frequently has a yellow-centered standard like that of L. luteo- maculatus but when it does it is a less well- defined ‘‘spot’”’ or area and shades off into the red background. The inflorescence in L. lati- folius tends to be in the form of simple racemes in the upper leaf axils; in L. luteomaculatus the racemes are more often compound, or the upper internodes are so greatly shortened that the numerous racemes become crowded and appear to be fastigiate and terminal or nearly so, and at times the inflorescence actually be- comes a terminal panicle. Lonchocarpus chiapensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 152. 1946 =L. PENINSULARIS (Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917. The specimen (Inst. Fis. Geogr. Costa Rica 13966) from which the characteristics of the fruit in Pittier’s description of L. peninsularis were drawn. (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 57. 1917) has ovate, 1-seeded pods only (and these, incidentally, are decidedly overripe, hence the “remarkably recurved carinal margin” which is consequently an infrequently seen condition). Plants with oblong, 2- and 3-seeded legumes are also common, and often both types are found in a single inflorescence as in the type of L. chiapensis (Matuda 5008). A similar situation obtains in L. luteomaculatus. The leaflets in ZL. chiapensis are conspicuously punctate, a characteristic omitted from the original description. In other respects, as well, the type collection closely matches authentic material of L. peninsularis. Lonchocarpus cruentus Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55. 1945 =L. spricreus (Poir.) HBK. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 6: 383. 1823. The type of L. cruentus has the nerves on the Sepr. 15, 1948 upper surfaces of some of the leaflets as strongly impressed as any to be found in L. sericeus. Truly impressed nerves in L. sericeus, however, are not the prevailing condition; only in un- usual cases can they be said to be plainly im- pressed. The one difference detected between L. cruentus and the prevalent form of L. seri- ceus was in the calyx length of 2.5-4 mm, rather than 5 mm, but the form with shorter calyx not infrequently turns up elsewhere, as in Eggers 1432 from Trinidad (calyx 3 mm long). Lonchocarpus gillyi Lundell, Wrightia 1: 56. 1945 =L. rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: 92. 1860. Leaflet size appears to be an altogether un- reliable diagnostic feature in L. rugosus. In the majority of instances they may be larger in that species than are those in the form proposed as L. gillyt, yet in some specimens of otherwise typical L. rugosus they are even smaller. The fact that the racemes are borne on the old wood in the type of L. gillyi is taxonomically meaningless. Among others Matuda 4020, re- ferred by the author of L. gillyi to his L. apri- cus, likewise has the racemes borne on the old wood; and the type of L. hidalgensis Lundell has inflorescences on both the old and the new branches. Lonchocarpus hidalgensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 153. 1946 = L. Rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: 92. 1860. The purportedly distinguishing character of axillary racemes in L. hidalgensis is found also in L. gillyz; in the Chicago Natural History Museum sheet of Lundell 857, referred by its collector (Lloydia 2: 92. 1939) to typical L. rugosus, and in Matuda 4525, referred in the same paper to L. apricus. Other peculiarities characterizing L. hidalgensis represent varia- tions too unstable to merit nomenclatorial recognition. Lonchocarpus hintoni Sandwith, Kew Bull. Mise. Inf. 1936: 4. 19836 =L. RuGosuUS var. hintoni (Sandwith) comb. nov. This appears to be the only variant of L. rugosus, of the several recently proposed as specifically distinct, deserving of taxonomic status. So far as known, it is geographically segregated in the Mexican States of Michoacan, Guerrero, and México, and is distinguished from typical L. rugosus by the cinereous stri- HERMANN: THE LONCHOCARPUS RUGOSUS COMPLEX oll gosity of the leaves (except the upper surfaces of the leaflets which tend to be glabrous and shining at maturity)and inflorescence, this being especially pronounced on the pods which are firmer and more coriaceous than in other forms, and by flowering before the leaves ex- pand. These characteristics are striking in their extreme form, particularly in flowering or fruiting specimens, but they show considerable > variation and sterile material very often is decidedly intermediate. The locality cited for the Langlassé collection (No. 108) in the original description of L. hintont apparently is in southeastern Michoa- can rather than in Guerrero. Lonchocarpus nicaraguensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. -1946=L. PENINSULARIS (Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917. The nonimpressed nerves and the clearly punctate leaflets (the latter feature, however, not noted in the original description) of the type material of L. nicaraguensis may well have been the reason for its affinity having been surmised to be with L. michelianus rather than with L. peninsularis. The misplacement of the latter species in Pittier’s key (Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20:51, where it is placed under section Spongoptert of series Impressinervi instead of under section Punctati of series Planinervi) was the apparent cause of the proposal of at least two other synonyms, L. kerberi Harms and L. purpusiit Brandegee (cf. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 38: 13. 1948), of this common species. Lonchocarpus phlebophyllus Standl. & Stey- erm., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 23(2): 56. 1944. This appears to differ from L. ertocarinalis Micheli only in its apparently consistently 5-leaflets (rather than 7-11) with more numer- ous nerves. The vein-number has proved to be of negligible diagnostic value in the closely related L. rugosus, but it is possible that when flowering material of L. phlebophyilus has been collected additional characters may be found which could be correlated with the anomalous leaflet number. Lonchocarpus whitei Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. 1946 =L. mMinimiFLoRUS Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 44: 110. 1907. In the publication of this name no affinity with other species was suggested, but the type 312 material (in fruit) compares well in all respects with typical L. minimiflorus, and White & Gilly 5367 shows the very short, densely sericeus standard which sets off this species from its allies in the Series Pubiflort. LONCHOCARPUS RUGOSUS Benth. This is the most plentiful of the Middle Amer- ican Lonchocarpi. It is also the most poly- morphic of all the species in the genus, not only in shape, size and venation of the leaflets, in vesture and in stipule characteristics but also strikingly so in its pods. Consequently its variations include much greater extremes than those that have been singled out as the bases for most of the recently proposed segregates. On the basis of a single character most of the specimens may be readily assorted into two groups, but the substitution of a second, equal- ly well-marked, characteristic results in a very different composition of the two groups. Furthermore, as soon as a correlation is at- tempted between two or more of the differ- entiating features (with the single exception of var. hintont), the number of recalcitrant in- termediates becomes disconcerting, as has been pointed out by Standley and Steyermark in their discussion of LZ. apricus (Fieldiana, Bot- any, 24(5): 284. 1946). Among the most outstanding forms of the species are those characterized by divergence in type of pubescence. A copious, shaggy type of villosity found in combination with very large (9X2.5 cm), few-nerved leaflets and large, widely divaricate, persistent stipules in Steyermark 45744 from Guatemala is so striking that this plant at first appears to have little in common with L. rugosus. This villosity BOTAN Y.—New species of Salix from Szechwan, China. tional Szechwan University, Chengtu, Ee@srert H. WALKER.) The four new species of willows de- scribed herein were found among the nu- merous collections that have been made in Szechwan Province, China, in recent years. The types are deposited in the herbarium of the National Szechwan University at Chengtu. Duplicates are being distributed to various herbaria in China and the United States. 1 Received April 22, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 reappears in a similarly pronounced degree in Schipp 508 from British Honduras, but is here associated with small, ascending caducous stipules and moderately nerved leaflets of average size (4X2 cm). Between this overde- veloped villosity and the prevalent form with short, only moderately dense villosity, an extensive series of transitional stages is found in innumerable combinations with other char- acters. In other collections the vesture fluc- tuates toward either of two additional ex- tremes; a dense tomentum in such individual plants as Hinton 6325 from Mexico and Steyer- mark 51554 from Guatamala, or a compara- tively sparse strigosity represented by Standley 19254 from El Salvador. A similarly extensive range of fluctuation is evident from a comparison of the legumes, from the standpoint of their shape, size, texture, type of pubescence or number of seeds; of the leaflets, from the standpoint of number, size, texture, venation, or type of apex or base; or of the characteristics of the inflorescence. And in each case a similar lack of consistency, a refusal to submit to the taxonomist’s pen- chant for pigeon-holing, will be noted. Extensive field acquaintance with Loncho- carpus rugosus would doubtless be helpful in suggesting explanations for its seemingly un- predictable behavior. From herbarium evi- dence alone conjectures are risky, but it seems not altogether improbable that frequently suf- ficient allowance has not been made for the influence of environmental factors upon the species, since it is not only one of the most widely distributed of the Lonchocarpi but is to be found in a greater diversity of habitats than the majority of its congeners. WeEN-PEI Fane, Na- Szechwan. (Communicated by 1. Salix triandroides Fang, sp. nov. Frutex parvus, 2 m altus, cortico laevi, flavescenti- vel fusco-cinereo. Ramuli erect, cylindrici, hiemales dense nigrescenti- vel fusco-tomentosi, vernales glabrescentes. Gem- mae ovoideae, 8 mm longae, perulis late ovatis extrinsecus dense cinereo-tomentosis. Folia alterna, chartacea, glabra, lanceolata vel oblanceolata, rarius oblongo-ovata vel oblongo- obovata, 8-5 cm, rarius ad 12 cm longa, 1-1.5 Sept. 15, 1948 em, rarius ad 2.2 cm lata, apice caudato- acuminata vel breviter acuminata, basi late cuneata, margine glanduloso-serrulata, supra atroviridia, subtus pallidiora; costa media supra obscura subtus prominens; nervi laterales utrinsecus 5-20, obsoleti; petioli cylindrici, 8 mm longi, glabri, supra canaliculati, subtus rotundati. Flores coetanei, amenta mascula 2-2.5 cm, rarius ad 3 em longa, flava vel viridi- flava, densiflora, rhachi albo-pilosa et albo- pubescente; pedunculi 5-8 mm longi, pube- scentes, foliis 2 vel 3 suffulti; bracteae flavae vel fusco-flavae, obovatae, 2 mm _ longae, utrinque pilosae. Stamina 3, filamentis gracili- bus 3 mm longis basi villosis, antheris flavis ovalibus, glandula ventrali simplici flava oblongo-conicali, glandula dorsali simplici flava oblonga. Amenta feminea alterna, 2.5-3 cm longa, viridia, densiflora, rhachi cinereo-pube- scenti vel pilosa; pedunculi 1-1.5 cm longi, foliis obovatis 2 vel 3 suffulti; bracteae flave- scenti-virides, oblongae, 2-3 mm longae, ex- trinsecus albo-pilosae, intrinsecus glabrae; ovaria conico-ovoidea, 5 mm longa, viridia, glabra; pedicelli 1-1.5 mm longi, glabri; stylus brevior; stigmata divergentia; glandula ven- tralis flava, oblongo-ovoidea. Amenta fructifera 3-3.5 cm longa, capsulis conico-ovoideis 5 mm longis flavescenti-viridibus: bractea extus albo- pilosa; pedicelli 1-1.5 mm, longi, tenues, glabri. East or CueEnctu: Tsing-chu-ssu, W. P. Fang 194279, 19598 3, K. Y. Ning 76602; Kuan-ying-chiao, W. P. Fang 19411 4%; Wu- kuai-chiao, K. Y. Ning 79109, 79189. SOUTHEAST OF CHENGTU: Near Wang-kiang- meee YY. Ning 7953. 0, 79548, 7955 2; campus of National Szechwan University, W. P. Fang 19604 9, 19605 2, 19605A 3%, 19606 &, 19608 #, 19611 9, 19617 9; T’ou-wa-you, W. foi 769% 9, 7695 9, W. P. Fang 19876.9, MOHGO 19/15 S, 19417 @, 194184, K. Y. Ning 7917 3, 7938 3, 7939 3; Chung-shu-chiao W. K. Hu 76383 3, 7639 %; Kao-pan-chiao, W. Eee rong 1939/70 8, 19879 0, 198838 9, 19885 (type) 9, 19435 2, 19516 9, 19637 9. SouTH or New VILLAGE or Cuenectu: W. P. Fang 19322 9, 19393 %, 19440 2. West oF CHENGTU: Chia-tien-tzu, K. Y. Ning 7962 7. NorTHWEST of CurEeneTu: Tu-chu-miao, K. Y. Ning TILT SF, TE48 So. This new species is nearly always found by a stream, occasionally by the roadside. All the cited specimens were collected in the month of FANG: NEW SPECIES OF SALIX FROM SZECHWAN 313 March, 1945-1947, except K. Y. Ning 7917 and 7933, staminate specimens collected on February 16, 1946. Fruiting specimens may be found late in March. This species is quite distinct from all the known species. It may be near Salix triandra L., from which it differs in its shrubby habit with blackish-gray, densely tomentose branch- lets in winter, in its short staminate catkins with oblanceolate bracts which are pilose on the outer surface, in its pistillate catkins with glabrous ovaries and oblanceolate bracts which are longer than the pedicels, and in the lanceo- late leaves which are pale green but not glau- cous below. Salix triandra L. is widely dis- tributed in Europe, northern Asia, and north- ern Africa, but in China it occurs only along the eastern coast from Manchuria to. Kiangsu. This new species is fairly common along the streams in the vicinity of Chengtu. The young leaves of the flowering branchlets are ovate or obovate, but adult ones on the leafy branches are usually lanceolate, and those from the stout branches are exceptionally large in size. 2. Salix neowilsonii Fang, sp. nov. Arbor 6-15 m alta, cortice fusco-cinereo sulcato. Ramuli erecti, teretes, graciles, glabri; hornotini purpureo-virides, annotini fusco- virides vel pallido-virides. Gemmae conoideae, 6 mm longae, perulis late ovatis fuscis pube- scentibus; bracteae 2, obovatae, membrana- ceae, fusco-virides. Folia alterna, chartacea, glabra, lanceolata, 6-14 cm longa, 2.5-4 cm lata, apice acuminata vel abrupte acuminata, basi cuneata, margine adpresse glanduloso- serrulata, supra atroviridia, subtus pallidiora, costa media supra distincta, subtus prominente, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 25-30 obsoletis; petioli graciles, 1-2 cm longi, supra canaliculati, primum pubescentes et purpurescentes, adulti glabri et virides, tandem rubri, apice 2- rarius 4-olandulosi; stipulae deciduae. Flores coetanei; amenta mascula viridi-flava, cylindrica, 3.5—4.5 em, rarius ad 6.5 em longa, laxiflora; rhachis albo-pubescens; pedunculi 7-10 mm _ longi, albo-pubescentes, foliis 2—6 suffulti; bracteae oblongae, 2 mm longae, flavescenti-virides, ex- trinsecus sparse pubescentes, intrinsecus pube- scentes et margine ciliatae. Stamina 3-5, in- aequalia, plerumque 2 longiora circa 4 mm longa, 3 breviora circa 2 mm longa; filamenta gracilia, sursum glabra, basi villosa; antherae subovoideae, flavae, glandulis ventralibus et 314 dorsalibus flavis pseudodiscum formantibus. Amenta feminea et fructus ignoti. Kast oF Cuenetu: Near Tsing-chu-ssu, W. P. Fang 19408 (type). SoUTHEAST OF CHENGTU: Wang-kiang-lau, near Lei-shun-miao, K. Y. Ning 7956, W. P. Fang 19616, 19628, 19378, 19405; campus of National Szechwan Univer- sity, W. P. Fang 19414, 19610; T’ou-wa-you, Ke iin Ning TOSI 7982,. 7984, We Phang 19414: near the Arsenal, K. Y. Ning 7937, W. P. Fang 19438, 19434; Kao-pan-chiao, K. Y. Ning 7948. SouTH oF CuENGTu: Outside the new south gate, W. P. Fang 19390; Hua-hsi-pa, W. P. Fang 19390A. West oF CHENGTU: Tsing-young-kon, K. Y. Ning 7981; Tao-chu- miao, K. Y. Ning 7949; Cha-tien-tzu, K. Y. Ning 7964; King-niu-pa K. Y. Ning 7972, 7976. NoRTHWEsST OF CHENGTU: Chiang-chun- pao, kK. Y. Ning 7981; Chung-cheng Memorial Park of Chengtu, W. P. Fang 19634 (culti- vated). SouTHWEST OF CHENGTU: Pei hua- tan; WoPR. Fang, 12041, 18272: This new species is closely related to Salix wilsonit Seemen but is separated easily from that species by the branches and leaves which are glabrous even during the young stage, by the petioles which are provided with 2 or 4 glands near the apex, and by the oblong bracts which are pubescent on the inner surface. Al- though we have not yet found the pistillate flowers, the material on hand is sufficient to indicate an undescribed species. The tree is usually cultivated as an avenue-tree in the vicinity of Chengtu. 3. Salix hsinhsuaniana Fang, sp. nov. Frutex 1 vel 2 m altus, cortice nigrescenti- cinereo laevi. Ramuli graciles, teretes; horno- tini pubescentes; annotini glabrescentes, pur- pureo-virides. Gemmae conicae, fusco-pur- pureae, glabrescentes. Folia decidua, alterna, chartacea, elliptica vel elliptico-oblonga vel elliptico-oblanceolata, 2-2.5 em longa, 8-10 mm lata, apice obtussa vel subrotundata, basi obtusa vel late cuneata, margine integra, supra atroviridia, glabra, costa media puberula ex- cepta, subtus viridia, juvenilia sparse tomentosa vel villosa, maturitate glabrescentia; costa media supra depressa subtus conspicua; nervi laterales utrinsecus 8-10 supra obsoleti, subtus conspicul; petioli 2-3 mm longi, juveniles pubescentes, maturitate glabri. Flores sero- tini; amenta masculina fusco-flava, densiflora, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 cylindrica, 2—2.5 em longa, 7 mm crassa, rhachi albo-villosa; pedunculi 1-1.2 cm longi, pube- scentes, foliis normalibus 3—4 suffulti. Stamina 2 plerumque 3 mm longa; filamenta gracilis, glabra nisiad medium villosum; antherae sub- globosae, fusco-purpureae; bracteae ovatae, 0.8 mm longae, glabrae, margine ciliatae; glandulae ventrales purpurescenti-flavae, ob- longae, plerumque 0.2 mm longae. Amenta feminea densiflora, cylindrica, 3-4 em longa, 6 mm crassa, rhachi villosa; pedunculi 1—1.5 em longi, cinereo-villosi, foliis normalibus 2-3 suffulti; ovaria sessilia longo-conico-ovoidea, 2 mm longa, fusca, glabra, stylis gracilibus 2-lobatis, stigmate subcapitato; bracteae sub- orbiculares, 0.4 mm longae, glabrae, margine sparse ciliatae; glandulae ventrales flavae oblongae, quam bracteae breviores. Capsulae sessiles, 5 mm longae. SzEcHWAN: Mount Omei: Chin-ting, alt. 3135 m, H. C. Chow 7670 June 27, 1938 (pistil- late flower, type); en route from Chin-ting to Chien-fu-ting, alt. 3150, common in thickets, C. L. Sun 445, June 10, 1939, Chien-fu-ting, alt. 3,150 m,-T..C.. Lee. 28467 July cameo (typical of fruit), W. P. Fang 19002, June 18, 1942 (typical of staminate flower). Srtkana: Tien-chun-hsien (formerly known as Mupin), K.0G. Chu_2317,2Apmiai 2 ieee This new species is near Salix luctuosa Léveillé, from which it differs in the bracts of both staminate and pistillate flowers, which are glabrous on both surfaces, although they are ciliate on the margin, and in the ventral glands which are much shorter than the bracts. This new species is named in honor of Prof. Hsin-hsuan Chung, of the National Wuhan University, under whose direction H. C. Chow made several expeditions on Mount Omei. The pistillate flower is here described from a duplicate set of their collections kindly sent by Professor Chung. 4, Salix chuniana Fang, sp. nov. Frutex 38-5 m altus, cortice nigro-fusco. Ramuli graciles, teretes; hornotini virides vel purpureo-virides, pubescentes; annotini flave- scenti-fusci vel nigro-fusci, glabri. Gemmae conicae, 7 mm longae, fuscae, sparse pube- rulae. Folia alterna, chartacea, lanceolata, basi late cuneata vel subrotundata, margine leviter appresso-serrulata, supra atroviridia, juvenilia sparse pubescentia, maturitate glabrescentia, Sept. 15, 1948 costa media pubescenti excepta; nervi laterales plerumque obsoleti; folia subtus cinerescenti- viridia, leviter glauca, flavescenti- vel albo- sericeo-tomentosa; costa media prominens; nervi laterales utrinsecus 11-13, conspicui, incurvati; petioli graciles, 5-8 mm longi, supra canaliculati, subtus rotundati, tomentosi vel pubescentes. Flores serotini; amenta masculina ignota; amenta feminea laxiflora cylindrica, 4.5-5 em longa, 4 mm lata, basi efoliosa; rhachis pubescens; pedunculi 5-7 mm longi albo- vel flavescenti-pubescentes; bractae ob- longo-ovatae 0.5-0.8 mm longae, utrinsecus albo- vel flavescenti-sericeo-tomentosae; ovaria subsessilia, conico-ovoidea, 2 mm longa, sparse glandulosa ad basin et plerumque sparse vil- losa, stigmate 3- vel 4-lobato, glandula ven- trali flava, lineari, 1 mm longa, plerumque quam bractae longiore ovarium medium ae- quante. Fructus subsessilis; capsula 5 mm longa sparse villosa. SzecHWAN: Mount Omei: Tsuan-tien-po, alt. 2000 m, in thickets, C. L. Sun 284 (type); Opien-hsien, Wa-shan, in forests, C. L. Sun FOX: TWO NEW ITHOMIINAE O15 1073; Mount Omei, W. C. Cheng 10314, C. W. Yao 2315, 2345, 3866. All were pistillate specimens collected in May except Sun 1073 in fruit collected in August. Although the staminate flower has not been seen, this is a very distinct new species in the section Chingianae Hao. It is near Salix reh- deriana Schneider in general appearance but differs in the habit of flowering after the leaves and in the pedunculate long and narrow pistil- late catkins, which are leafless at the base. The flowers of Salix rehderiana are precocious and the sessile catkin is just 2.5 cm in length and 8 mm in width, and provided with two or three normal lanceolate leaves at the base of the inflorescence. This new species is named in honor of my former teacher, Prof. Woon-Young Chun, the founder of the Botanical Institute of the Na- tional Sun Yatsen University at Canton, and the leading systematic botanist in China, for his unceasing devotion to floristic investigation and his encouragement to young botanists. ENTOMOLOGY .—Two new Ithomiinae in the Schaus collection (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) EK. A. CHAPIN.) The two butterflies described here are from the collection of the late Dr. William Schaus, which is now part of the United States National Museum collection of Lepidoptera. A few years ago the writer was invited by Dr. Schaus to study the itho- mines he had accumulated, and through the courtesy of the National Museum and of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was enabled to do so. Some of the species and subspecies discovered among this material already have been published upon.’ | Pteronymia schausi, n. sp. This series, labeled ‘‘Colombia,’”’ approxi- mates P. tucuna (Bates),? a number of speci- mens of which I have seen from northern Peru. 1 Received March 7, 1948. * Fox, R. M. New Ithomiinae, Sci. Publ. Read- ing Public Mus. 2: 34 pp., 2 pls. 1941. 3 Bates, H. W. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 23: 544. 1862. (SAo Paulo, Amazons.) Ricoarp M. Fox, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Communicated by There are many points of difference, however: The opaque costal spot of the forewing is less briliantly yellow, is only half as long as in tucuna, and is cut off by the brown R, (this is yellow in tucuna). The end of the cell, is yellow- transparent, the base yellow-orange-transpar- ent and R and the cubitus are very narrowly red-tawny. The spots in the transparent areas of the rest of the wing are smaller, more trans- lucent than in tucuna; these are located as follows: A yellow-transparent spot beyond the narrow, pointed brown discocellular band, crossing the base of My, cut off at M2; a tiny yellow-white-transparent spot halfway to the margin in M.-M3; a series of submarginal whitish-transparent spots R, to Cus, the last of these elongated. The anal border fills the space posterior of cubitus-Cus. The hind wing has an even border, brown- black, 1 to 2 mm wide, the cell and part of the disc toward the anal margin suffused with yellow-orange, the veins here yellow-brown. Between this suffused area and the opaque 316 marginal color there is a colorless transparent lunate line traversed by brown veins running from Cuz to the wing apex. Beneath as above, but the borders filled with rusty-tawny; three tiny white admarginal spots in the forewing apex; the hind wing with a series of oval white admarginal spots M, to Fig. 1.—Pteronymia schaust, n. sp.: Type male, from Colombia; collection William Schaus. Fic. 2.—Hypoleria meridana, n. sp. Type female, from Mérida, Venezuela. (Detached wings on left are under sides; wings on right are upper sides.) ZOOLOGY.—A new subspecies of tree frog from Pernambuco, Brazzil." CocHran, U.S. National Museum. While studying the small hylas of Brazil, I noted differences between examples of Hyla bipunctata Spix from the state of Rio de Janeiro and four Pernambuco examples received from Dr. Thomas Barbour likewise identified as bzpunctata. The Museum of Comparative Zoology kindly lent 16 addi- tional frogs of the original series from Pernambuco. Their characters are stable enough to warrant their description as a new subspecies. Hyla bipunctata branneri, n. subsp. Diagnosis —Closely related to Hyla wh- punctata Spix, differing from it mainly in the 1 Received May 12, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 9 2A, paired Cu.-2A; costal margin rusty-tawny, the humeral angle yellowed. Antennae black with orange-brown clubs; thorax black-brown with white scaling; abdo- men brown above, yellow beneath. Type.—Male; Colombia; coll. Wm. Schaus; U.S.N.M. no. 58560. Paratypes.—5 males, same data; 2 Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 2 U. S. National Museum. Hypoleria meridana, n. sp. This is related to H. vanilia (Herrich- Schaffer), and might be taken for an aberrant individual. The postdiscal dark band is placed farther apicad, however, reducing the size of the subapical transparent spots R; to My» and eliminating entirely the one in M,-M;3. The white discal band is stronger; the tawny on the hind wing is reduced to a narrow edging on the proximal side of the border between Cu; and 2A. The white band of the forewing crosses Rs, Mi, and Mo, whitening these veins proximad and nearly filling the cells between the disco- cellular band and the postdiscal band, entirely filling M3-Cuy, although M3; is narrowly black. In other respects the colors and markings are exactly as in H. vanilia, of which this may be relegated eventually as a subspecies. Type.—Female; Mérida, Venezuela; U.S.N.M. no. 58561. 4 HERRICH-SCHAFFER, G. A. W. Corr.-Blatt. Regensburg 18: 175. 1864. (New Grenada.) Doris M. ¥ absence of the purple areolate pattern on the sides of the snout, in the presence of a single silvery-white spot under the eye, in a less pro- nounced dorsal pattern, and apparently in smaller adult size (21.5 mm for 9, 18 mm for 3 in branneri, compared to 25 mm for 9, 25.5 mm for & in typical bipunctata). Type-—U.8.N.M. no. 48861, an adult fe- male from Bonito, Pernambuco, Brazil, col- lected by J. C. Branner for the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and donated to the U. S. National Museum in 1912. Paratypes: U.S.N.M. Nos. 48862-4 and M.C.Z. nos. 2827A—P, all with the same data as the type. Description of the type—Vomerine teeth in two small, well-separated patches between the choanae; tongue a little more than half as wide Supt. 15, 1948 as mouth-opening, rounded, notched and slightly free behind; snout short and rounded when viewed from above, truncate in profile, the upper jaw extending only slightly beyond the lower; nostrils superolateral, projecting, their distance from end of snout about one- third that to anterior border of eye, separated from each other by an interval equal to their distance from eye. Canthus rostralis not well defined, merging with the loreal region which is flat. Eye large, prominent, its diameter equal to its distance from end of snout; interorbital diameter about 1? times the width of upper eyelid, greater than distance between nostrils. Tympanum distinct, about one-third the eye diameter, separated from eye by an interval equal to two-thirds its own diameter. Fingers ~ one-third webbed, fourth considerably longer than second; disk of third finger just covering tympanum; no rudiment of a pollex visible; toes three-fourths webbed, third a little longer than fifth; disk of fourth toe covering tym- panum; a distinct, projecting inner meta- tarsal tubercle, but no outer one; no true tarsal ridges or heel appendages; metacarpal and metatarsal tubercles present. Body somewhat elongate, in the postaxillary region slightly nar- rower than greatest width of head; when hind leg is adpressed, heel reaches to nostril; when limbs are laid along the sides, knee and elbow COCHRAN: A NEW TREE FROG FROM PERNAMBUCO o17 touch; when hind legs are bent at right angles to body, heels considerably overlap. Skin of upperparts nearly smooth, with small pustules on shoulders and back of head; no pronounced ridge encircling upper part of tympanum; skin of throat and chest smooth in the female; in the male the throat is finely plicate because of the large vocal sac which covers the center and sides of the throat; skin of belly coarsely granu- lar, that of posterior femur and anal region less heavily granular. A skin fold across the chest. Color (in alcohol): Dorsum pinkish vinaceous to fawn color; a light-brown cross bar between the eyes, followed by a pale )(-shaped mark on the back extending to the sacral region. A metallic white mark below the eye extending to the upper lip border; remainder of upper lip finely punctate with gray dots, but with no alveolar pattern like that found in bipunctata; a wide dark canthal line edged narrowly with white above, continuing behind the ear and along the side of the body where it becomes less distinct as it approaches the groin; femur im- maculate; upper surface of tibia with faint darker markings. Variations: The white spot below the eye is very prominent in 18 of the 20 specimens at hand; in the remaining 2 it is somewhat. re- duced. The heel reaches from between center of eye to tip of snout, most often to nostril. In 3 TaBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS OF 20 SPECIMENS OF HYLA BIPUNCTATA BRANNERI, N. SUBSP. % % Specimen ee a ees | ead seal repiat Woot)| Hand || Head aa % | % | % % length} length| width || : Femur} Tibia} Foot | Hand | length width | U.S.N.M. 48861 2 PALS GE5 Gro |e LOsou | ll s5 9 5.5 SOPAelsOs2 te on lt Osean) 4109 51-2526 48862 Q 20 5.5 6 Visi yh ala! 8.5 6 Zed 0020) |eAeo. C5020) | 42/25) | 300 48863 Q 19 - 6 6.5 9 11 8 6 SG Of 20 14704 Dee On 42 le STAG 48864 Q 14.5 4.5 5 7 1.5 5.0 4 Se ten ete Olen nlinond sons urate M.C.Z. 2827 A Q 18 6 GES 9 10 8 HAs Soon OOO mOOLON ODED E | 440 sOno 2827 B Q 16.5 5 6 8 9 a 4.5 30.3 | 36.4 | 48.5 | 54.6 | 42.5 | 27.3 2827 C fof eG 3.0 3.5 8 8.5 7 5 || 32.4 | 32.4 | 47.1 | 50.0 | 41.2 | 29.4 2827 D Q 19 6.5 6 9 9.5 8 Ro 34.2 | 31.6 | 47.4 | 50.0 | 42.1 | 29.0 2827 E of 17 5 SO 8 8 7.5 5 ZORA Soham |e Ad | AAs 2 OR: 2827 F ot 17 5 5.5 8 9 G5 5 QORSY |e So2eoy ptt |p oocO) | 44 cial 2OR4: 2827 G of 16 5 5.5 (AR) 8 7 4.5 SISSeoteo |) 4059 15020. 4358) (2 28n 1 2827 H 2 19.5 6 6 QSsy HOSE ((Be) 5.5 || 30.8 | 30.8 | 48.7-| 53.9 | 38.5 | 28.2 2827 I fof 17/ 5.5 5.5 8 9 @ 5 S2he) | oso +ie8 | ooLOn|) 4he2 2954 2827 J ot 16.5 5.5 20 7.5 8 C5 4.5 333358) |) Goes || eas |) Zkesaks 4) G5) A768 2827 K fof 16 5.5 DEO 8 9 7 5 SFOuIOs oO. | OOROmmoOe Zn Ao on |ilese 2827 L of i765 5.5 Deo 8 9 7 5 31.4 | 31.4 | 45.7 | 51.4 | 40.0 | 28.6 2827 M e) lp fei59 5.5 5.5 9 10 Uo 5 Sle olee | oN S242 97 286 2827 N oe 16 5 5.5 8 9 7 5 Sl OMIMOA on OOO MmoOGrom| roo cure ise 2827 O on 18 6 6 (hee 9 6.5 5 S08) [Peace |) ZBL | SOO | S1ORO) yh Az/ ote: 2827 P ofl 17 5.5 5.5 8 8.5 8 4.5 So soa Ome aie se OOs OnE aye. lonte Ome N =20 MC SSW BL PSAs Wh eb ore | bere i) Abe Ss Bf o 1.6 2.0 2.98) 2.3 eS: Nes} 4.2 Ne7/ 5.4 5.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 318 specimens no dorsal pattern was visible; in 3, faint mottlings appeared; in 2, scattered spots occurred, while in the remaining 12, the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 9 )(-shaped pattern found in the type was fairly apparent. ZOOLOGY.—American Caudata IV: Allocation of the name Bolitoglossa mexi- cana.! HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) The most .recent discussion (Smith, Herpetologica 3: 17. 1945) of Bolztoglossa mexicana Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril 1845 (Erp. Gen. 9: 93, pls. 104. 1845) con- cludes by allocating the name with B. platydactyla Gray, an earlier (1831) name. This action was based chiefly upon Brocchi (Miss. Sci. au Mexique, Batr., livr. 3: 113, pl. 18 bis. 1883), who illustrated four speci- mens, presumably cotypes of mexicana, one of which was indicated as “type,” while each of the others was called “‘variété.”’ All were stated to be from Veracruz, where only platydactyla (of the involved species) occurs. In reality, as discovered by the senior author, the locality citation in the plate explanation is obviously in error. On page 114 Broecchi clearly selects (from the ex- traordinary mixture of specimens of belliz, platydactyla, and a species from Petén, Guatemala, that together comprise the co- types of B. mexicana) the two Petén speci- mens as types. Brocchi’s text may be trans- lated literally as follows (1883: 114): Coloration.—The coloration varies considera- bly. In the type, the body is a uniform reddish brown; the same coloration is found on the upper parts, but there may be made out numerous spots of a distinct light hue. These spots, which are orange, are disposed to form three longitudinal and parallel bands in one of the examples sent by M. Morelet, and form a kind of mantle in the other specimen; in this latter, there are on the surface of the mantle a number of spots which again show the basic reddish brown color (figs. 3 and 4). That Brocchi in this discussion actually se- lected one of the two as the type is debat- able, but he may be considered to have clearly indicated his type through a com- bination of the above text, plus the legend to his plate 18 bis, and figure 3 of this plate, which the legend designates as the type from ‘‘Vera Cruz.’ This figure exactly matches the description for the first Morelet specimen (‘‘These spots, which are orange, are disposed to form three longitu- t Received June 4, 1948, M. B. MirrteEMAN and Hospartr M. Smiru. (Communicated by dinal and parallel bands in one of the ex- amples sent by M. Morelet.’”). Brocchi’s reference to figures 3 and 4 in the passage quoted above, as well as his ascribing a Veracruzan origin to the type, figure 3, in the accompanying legend, seems explain- able as a simple lapsus. That this is the case is borne out by comparing his figure 4 with - his description of “Variété I,” which fits the figure very well. This specimen is listed, under ‘“Variété I,” as coming from ‘‘Mexico”’ (although the plate legend states “Vera Cruz’’), and of it Brocchi says, ““it is a dark gray, and not reddish brown as in the specimens of M. Morelet. All of the upper surface of the body and tail is covered with an orange mantle, the surface of which has a few dark gray spots.”’ Brocchi thus succinctly summarizes the difference be- tween this specimen and that figured above it on the same plate (figure 3). Figure 1 of Brocchi’s plate is listed on the legend as being from ‘‘Vera Cruz,” and is similarly cited in his discussion of “‘Variété II,” which almost certainly refers to the specimen illustrated as figure 1, since the discussion states that the specimen—unlike the others shown—has distinct orange mac- ulations on its limbs, and the delineation in figure 1 clearly shows this. Figure 2 of the plate is described in Brocchi’s text under “Variété III.’ The description given there fits the figure perfectly, even to the strongly annulated tail shown in the plate, and which Brocchi specifically mentions as “les annu- lations de la queue sont tres marquées (hee 2) 2’ Figures 1, 2, and 4 of Brocchi’s plate 18 bis are clearly Bolitoglossa platydactyla. Figure 3, although described in the plate legend as being from ‘‘Vera Cruz,” is clearly associated through textual reference with one of those sent to Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril by Morelet from Dolores, Ptéen, Guatemala. Moreover, the specimen de- scribed by Brocchi as the first of the two sent by Morelet, and which we believe is Sept. 15, 1948 MITTLEMAN AND SMITH: THE NAME BOLITOGLOSSA MEXICANA depicted in figure 3 of Brocchi’s plate, is described by the original authors in much the same terms: ‘‘...in the other, these spots are united to form two black bands on the trunk, and between these bands there are distributed many spots of the same eolor.”’ Brocchi of course described three orange bands, while Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril described the dark ground color between the orange bands. In either case, the general effect is the same, namely alternating bands of orange and black. So far as Brocchi is concerned, then, the conclusion that he validly restricted the name mexicana to the Petén species is not reasonably contestable. Even if the word “type” in the plate explanation is con- strued to mean only ‘“‘typical’’ instead of “the type’’—as indeed is implied by various facts, including citation of the other figures as ‘‘variété’’—the restriction of the name to at least the series from Petén is unequivo- eal. Smith’s conclusion, on the basis stated, that mexicana is a synonym of platydactyla is therefore incorrect. On the evidence given it is a valid name for the Petén species and moreletz (Smith, 1945) is a later synonym. If Brocchi’s action were the only one to be considered the nomenclature of these species would be clearly evident. Un- fortunately, two other factors throw doubt upon the permanence of any conclusion now reached. First, Duméril et al. (1854, p. 94), after discussing the “‘Caractéres”’ of B. mexicana, cite the following: ‘“Synonymre. 1838. Oedipus platydactylus? Tschudi, Class. Batrach. p. 93, no. 7.’’ Had the question mark not been included, there is little doubt that this citation could automatically place mexicana in the synonymy of platydactyla. The question mark actually, however, in- troduces a situation for which there is no policy recommended by either the Opinions or Rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Moreover the identity of Oedipus platydactylus Tschudi is not absolutely clear, inasmuch as he cites a nomen nudum (Salamandra_ platydactyla Cuvier) for the source of the specific name, although the genus Oedipus (monotypic) was new. One realizes that the reference is to Gray’s work (Reptilia, in Griffith’s Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, 1831, p. 107), in 319 which ‘‘Salamandra platydactyla Cuvier” is very briefly described. In reality Cuvier never described the species; Gray was, apparently, accepting the names on certain museum labels of Cuvier. So far as Cuvier is concerned, the name may be considered a nomen nudum, although most authors, even a recent monographer of the group (Dunn, Salam. Fam. Plethodontidae, 1926, p. 400) have accepted Cuvier as the author of the name. The point is perhaps academic, but as long as it remains a debatable point the proper allocation of the name mexicana remains in doubt. A second complicating factor is the action of Boulenger in 1882 (Cat. Batr. Grad. Caud. Batr. Apoda Brit. Mus., ed. 2), one year prior to the publication of Brocchi’s work. In the synonymy of Spelerpes belliz Gray 1850 (p. 68) he cites the following: ‘“‘Bolitoglossa mexicana Dum. & Bibr., p. 93, pl. 104, f. 2.” The allocation is correct; certain specimens, including the one whose figure was cited, did belong to Spelerpes belliz Gray [=Pseudoeurycea belliz (Gray) as of today]. But on page 73 he cites the following in the synonymy of Spelerpes variegata Gray |=Bolitoglossa platydactyla Gray]: “‘Bolitoglossa mexicana, part., Dum. & Bibr., pl. 104. fig. 1.’’ Actually the figure cited does not belong to platydactyla, but to the Petén species. Not until 1936, however, was it realized that the Petén species was different from platydactyla; even a recent monographer (Dunn, Salam. Fam. Pletho- dontidae, 1926, p. 400) was not aware of their distinctness. Whether Boulenger was correct at all, or correct even by the in- terpretation of his time, in allocation of the cotypes of mexicana other than those repre- senting belli: is perhaps immaterial; the point is one, again, open for debate since no procedure is specified by taxonomic rules. This is certain: that as the species was then (1882 up to 1936) thought of, all the cotypes of mexicana, other than those of belliz, were correctly placed by Boulenger with platy- dactyla. The really important action by Boulenger, however, was the inclusion of the word “part” with reference to Duméril et al. under variegata, and omission of any qualification in the reference under bellzz. Does this constitute a restriction of the name to the synonymy of belli: by Bou- lenger? It seems quite possible. Is Bou- 320 lenger’s restriction, if admitted, superseded by Brocchi’s? Until these questions are settled, there is absolutely no certainty whatever of the proper name, under the Rules, for the Petén species. A request has been submitted, ac- cordingly, to the International Commission fora ruling on each of the three chief princi- ples involved on which a decision is necessary prior to definite establishment of the name. CONCLUSIONS 1. The name _ Bolitoglossa mexicana Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril is not a synonym of b. platydactyla because of any JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 38, No. 9 action by Brocchi. 2. Said name may, however, possibly be regarded a synonym of Bb. platydactyla on the basis of inclusion of the latter name in the synonymy of B. mexicana by Duméril et al. 3. Said name may also, if No. 2 is not true, be regarded a synonym of Pseudo- eurycea bellit, on the basis of the supposed restriction of that name by Boulenger. 4. Said name, finally, if neither No. 2 nor No. 3 is true, may be regarded as a valid name for the Petén species (of which B. moreleti would then be a synonym) on the basis of type designation by Brocchi. Obituary Harry Diamonp, chief of the Electronics Di- vision of the National Bureau of Standards, died suddenly at his Washington home on June 21, 1948. Mr. Diamond was -born on February 12, 1900, and attended schools in and around Quincy and Boston, Mass. He received his bachelor of science degree from the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology in 1922, where he served in the SATC during World War I, and took his master’s degree in electrical en- gineering from Lehigh University in 1925. After Mr. Diamond joined the staff of the National Bureau of Standards as a radio en- gineer in 1927, his brilliant scientific achieve- ments led to rapid advancement. He was chief of the Bureau’s Ordnance Development Divi- sion during the war, and later of the Electronics Division, which now includes the ordnance work. During the five years between gradua- tion from M.I.T. and entry on the bureau staff, he was at first employed by various industrial concerns in the Boston area and later taught for four years at Lehigh University, where he or- ganized the first radio course at the Univer- sity. His work at the National Bureau of Stand- ards was diversified, including aviation radio, radio aids to meteorological observations, radio direction finding, electronic ordnance, and gen- eral electronics. One of the inventors of the radio proximity fuze (No. 2 secret weapon of World War II), Mr. Diamond was widely honored for his work. Among the acknowledg- ments he had received were the 1940 Award for Engineering Achievement of the Washington Academy of Sciences; the Naval Ordnance Development Award for Exceptional Service, 1945; and the War Department Certificate for Outstanding Service, 1945. He was a fellow of the Institute of Radio Engineers; a fellow of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers; a division member of the National Defense Re- search Committee; a panel member of the Joint Research and Development Board; a director of the American Ordnance Association; and a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences and Sigma Xi. Mr. Diamond played a large part in the de- velopment of the Instrument Landing System (ILS) and participated in the first completely blind flight and landing of an aircraft in March 1933. His ILS is now operating at many airports, and wide adoption throughout the world is planned. Another development of world-wide importance in which he had a major role is the radiosonde, which automatically col- lects weather information from the upper at- mosphere. This device was a vital element in weather forecasting during the past war. Late in 1942 Mr. Diamond was asked to form a new division within the Bureau of Stand- ards, primarily for research and development on electronic devices for Government and in- dustry. It was this division that worked on the radio proximity fuze for bombs, rockets, and mortar shells. Other contributions of the divi- sion to the radio art include visual beacons for aircraft guidance, antenna systems, range- beacon course-alignment procedures, a simul- taneous phone and range-beacon system, air- craft-engine ignition shielding, automatic weather stations, upper-air wind-velocity de-. termination by radio, a method for measuring direction-finder polarization errors, and an electronic bomb director. = 4 | ; -', - SS EE Se ES Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences President..........++++++++.FREDERICK D. Rossrnt, National Bureau of Standards Secretary...... PEDLS Wi a whic ask otal a's Wetteyal ¢ i C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum PP CREMT OR ir iia sis ne ois dc on eh vegies LLOWARD ©. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey PMMIRE De at ls ioial ale Sct ols we sible els So NaTHAN R. Smita, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of FUMRERIONS oe NEC ae ial a Ris 6 Wk aka a Nr rm NE Coser ss sc hla pee uke . HARALD A, REHDER, U. S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the A ‘filiated Socteties: Philosophical Society of Washington.......... wigan shake Oe ..... WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington Cire os seers ERSTE EY T. DaLE STEWART Biological Society of Washington............... Dat das ae apa mins JOHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington..... Baebes ste oie Pee aiatwte Wie CHARLES E, WHITE Entomological Society of Washington................ ...C. F. W. MursEBEcK National Geographic Society............ee00- »ee2eeee.- ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington................ veecesss WILLIAM W. RUBEY Medical Society of the District of Columbia....... sesee.--FREDERICK QO. Cor Columbia Historical Society.............. ee eee eeeveese» GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanical Society of Washington. 3... 62. de cee enc celeess RONALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.....-.. WiLi1aAM A. Dayton Washington Society OE SP MRPRCEIS gt bd mele ela Gon ee ata 2 bs CuiFForD A. BEetTTs Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... PN ay ee parte AV. dn MIR ahs Brera Bid te wie als a cw Om Ara a FRANCIS B, SILSBEE Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... Meee aig att ine) aia sale aisrelaly ia are. ala le stay duties dt wiv ee 6's MLABTIN: A MEASON Helminthological Society OR W ASHI ETON. ee Oia takes ation ..- AUREL O. FostER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RocErrs Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DorsEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH Elected Members of the Board of M dake PRIMEY AOA ec eee av cewek Max A. McCaut, Waupo L. Scumitt eer ariery 1950.5. oc ee PeBLG Lox F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DirHu To January 1951..... athe ecckalent es Francis M. Deranporr, WiLLiAM N. Fenton AGP OF DI OHGGESS), .. ioie vice niu sv cacces All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Peara a, westors and Associate Fditors.. 0. he oe ee nee cease [See front cover] Executive Committee......... FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, seta Relat IN Wate: x xe’ ww ws Watpo L. Scumirt, Howarp 8. Raprpieys, C. Lewis GazIn Committee on M Sachorslie Pune eRe EEO Le aD Ata ate eaaye od sede eat fe fel adetkOdiw b's aera Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), LEwis W. Butz, C. WYTHE Cooxs, WILLIAM ......- W. Dies, Luoyp D. Fetton, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov Commiitee on M MCA IRM Diet ATbha Noh iRe a aiid) va sdhfafdie ogre, 6 RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), . FRANK P. CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Rice, FRanK THONB Committee on M pag uphe To January 1949. .....-LEWIs V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN To January ET UU Ee ee Roitanpd W. Brown, Haraup A. REHDER MRR BOs ei. iS inikie ome, ble Wiui1aM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman): MOE MAIICHE OMIONERS. O05. Pe res els eine gic elocaisiad be Welded cia lea SSK wikis C. F. W. Mursrpeck (chairman), Harry §. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons, EuMER Hiaeins, Mario Mo.uuari, GorrHoLpD STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum For the Engineering Bee er ast wiekahs Mme Ue rig eatin | Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, RopErT C. DUNCAN, HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNO C., FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. Surciirre For the Physical SE od OS GEOR RETR TE Sie UE Tal ee aR Kart F. Herzre vp (chairman), Naraan L. Draxe, Luoyp D. FELTON, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. RooNEyY, ROBERT SIMBA, Micuazt X. SULLIVAN enero AIT ANtS-1N-O40 JOP WeSEArChe ou bs aie og d alee dle a vices dine eice ue dueeee dices ..F. H. H. Rozsrts, Jr. (chairman), ANNA E. Jenkins, J. Lron SHERESHEVSKY Representative on Council of PUES UNH eNO EO kel sigle ict miele aus « FRANK THONE BONS SIGS MIDAS: SECT 8 CV CTR cede Sn Se en URL PERO DI se raga WiiuiaAM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER Pesenitier Shey PSS Thy AS TE pt LE Cale moa a a Ph Aen eC OO .. JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bates, Wiuiiam A. WILDHACK Hi ; +f aR AE Way a poeta z* a A. 44 7 7 > rariete |, 75. ‘ > . . . % 3 GREP ba Lol aay co} bk Gade ie anes rilge he at: Va ; Pee ha twas oe a. ’ 4: ” ¢ P } 7 ‘ ie he ’ ve" v4 me y: Mee Mel Gre | vY oF i : , ue } 6 7 ‘ , ee fi ’ 4 ; A > ‘ { Vien ’ yy 1. - 4 Be , : ra By os i Nat 42) | \ 14 ? ; i i , ’ t ; as CONTENTS ! : + , 4 yy i \ 7 Gua, —Some aspects of he geology, petrology, and as of Switzerland. as ibe ccc weed me Beuillee'; in Tohchpostons aa dbiteldy genera, IV: _chocarpus rugosus complex and additional arin America aM a Aes. Frmpmrion, J) HERMANN. aon ered eereeee \ | } * ay _ Borany. —New species of Salix from Suechwan, hina. — WAAING foci in wih & adage te ala ee ea sae cs ENnToMmonoey. Cries 4 new Ithomiinae i in the Schaus ode 1 doptera: Nymphalidae). (Ricnanp- M. Fox. Bieta PPLE, - Zoowoey. —A new subspecies L tree frog from. » Pemambu 10, 1 Bra 1 py ee gts Mi COCHRAN I. ie Bite el oo UE gut tat ee Bai - Zoouoey. =A mericain Caalee IV: Ailapatia of te . mexicana. M. B. MrrrLEMan and Hoparr M. ‘Oprrvary: Harry Diamond. copimcave ie bed sere ante ne es ; Tus Journa 1s INDEXED taf goreul Tovrecepaeeohea INDEX ° TO 4 “Aso Tae VoL. 38 OcToBER 15, 1948 No. 10 JOURNAL OF THE _ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS James I. HorrmMan ALAN STONE Frank C. Kracex NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY PLANT QUARANTINE ASSOCIATE EDITORS LAWRENCE A, Woop RicHARD E. BLAcK WELDER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. P. E. Morrison James §. WILLIAMS BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Evsert L. Lirtte, Jr. Watpo R. WEDEL BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Irt C. ScHOONOVER CHEMICAL SOCIETY Be NOVZ< iGo. | ‘ L— a PUBLISHED MONTHLY Pag A>. | 5 eerie: eee ’ BY THE yee WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 AuNalp Sr. aT Menasua, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 . Authorised January 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JoURNAL is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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Wh ‘4 ‘Landt vanBacham 1? an Cfopeus 2 > wy, | Wagdalenen Evlunt ee ¥ ‘ een Cylant aEEt Pazgqusnack bi a Ie ar i TS beeen os a \ 3. eu prenia ts F wi $ »& ea i oo ° pF br oghs 9 was Os Vg - 2 Conitte iste LSche- Ipinatkonck a Rf .NcAichle Se B- : VAN AL é Dimes vA er a fo ! chaise Pe: havenakonck Ge : Tappaaens Hs gins Wanichte/tuwuck FF kor eet ass: Qe \HEER NE ol” Yo, = 2 sat ae. ieee g / ~ “FP Lan Teneakers Ra Auverstreo og Pruae Rivier a 20 achter Kal cy = : BA Lange Evlandt ata: Sanlucans eva et Gorekey Mi Matouwacs Me enyiee Sickele Wachly a aie & tt pes . myn k sia een ques Pruy maithe k iis —Abispennick, Jt t re Ermomex Yj uv By Amucarenck a4 4 Sas Ka azo speyenburgh hee Natatcors a a =3 Soe SS = $ i ape oh SO) MAIP OF NEW NETHERLANDS, With a view of New Amsterdam, ( now New-York,) A. D.165 6. Copied for the . VY. 3° Tiist. Suc. from the Wap of A. Vander Deuck.) Fig. 1.—Map of New Netherlands, a.p. 1656. From A. Van der Donck, Description of New Netherlands. Ocr. 15, 1948 colonization of New Netherland, as it did everywhere on New England, and Indian survivors into the eighteenth century were few indeed. THE FIREPLACE The .site of the fireplace was located between what was formerly known as Shanty Man’s Creek and Maspeth Creek, or Mespat Kill, on the road to old Aern- heim. The present road is called Maspeth Avenue. The fireplace faced the northeast about 30 feet south of Maspeth Avenue in line with Milton Street. When found, the fireplace was covered (Fig. 2, F) except fora corner of yellow brick protruding from the slope, by an eroded sand bank 3 feet deep. The hearth and back and sides of the fire- place were uncovered easily in the sandy soil. It was 34 feet long and 14 feet high. A 6-inch layer of wood ashes and black earth was found at the top, lying over a care- fully laid arrangement of yellow bricks on the left side of the hearth. Directly be- neath them was a large flat oblong stone, weighing about 150 pounds. To the right of it, at the same level, were several smaller flagstones, obviously part of the hearth also. The bricks and paving stones were sur- rounded by ashes and charcoal. The major- ity of the specimens recovered were found in the ash bed above the floor of the fire- place. In clearing around the outside on a level with the fireplace, we found the remains of what probably had been a shelter at the southwest side. To judge from the amount of ashes and charcoal present, this shelter had evidently burned down. Enough identi- fiable wood material remained to ascertain that pine was used in the structure. Un- fortunately, more could not be determined about it, as the sand bank had been con- siderably eroded in this part of the area. An iron hammer resembling a cobbler’s ham- mer with iron shanks at the handle end was found in association with the ashes. Both native Indian and Colonial mate- rials were found in the fireplace. The Indian material consisted of 25 flakes and chips of red and black flint, and a broken reject artifact of dark flint. Among the European material were 22 SOLECKI: A 18TH-CENTURY FIREPLACE AT MASPETH, L. I. 327 pieces of white kaolin pipestems, 7 complete pipe bowls of which three were marked with the initials PG on the heel, 1 fragmentary pipe bowl, 17 lead buckshot balls about .26 caliber, 8 balls about .38 caliber, 2 lead balls about .70 caliber, a dark gunflint, 6 small pieces of blue china plate, 39 hand-wrought iron nails, and 26 pieces of clay bricks, mentioned above. These were crudely fash- ioned, not all of the same dimensions and somewhat smaller than modern building bricks. There were five whole bricks in the collection. There were also found two pieces of reddish-clay pipe bowls, which seem to have been fashioned in crude imitation of the European kaolin pipes. Leisure time at the hearth was not only spent in “‘drinking smoke,” as the custom was known in the early seventeenth century but apparently also in more artistic pur- suits. This evidence we find in the form of a flat bit of diamond-shaped bone, three quarters of an inch in length, carefully cut to shape and carved on its face with a sharp tool Fig. 2, D). The dating of this fireplace may be brack- eted by the finds through comparing the specimens with similar objects of known date. It is a matter of history that the Dutch, during the colonization of New Netherland, imported numerous lots of bricks from the Continent. These bricks served as ballast in the holds of their ships, which went back laden with products of the New World, especially furs. The white kaolin pipes, how- ever, are a more sensitive time indicator, because clay pipes are not so indestructible as the bricks. In addition, it is known and recorded that several styles of pipes were in vogue among the pipemakers since the first “Hlizabethan” or ‘‘fairy’’ pipes appeared in the latter part of the sixteenth century, with the introduction of the smoking habit by Ralph Lane in 1586. Tobacco at this early date was quite an expensive luxury, and pipe bowls were thus necessarily small. The pipe bowl illustrated (Fig. 2, A) is one of the typical bowls found in the fireplace. The bowl is barrel-shaped, slanting upward obliquely from the stem. It has a milled edge around the rim, as if made with a small coin. The bottom of the bowl terminates in 328 a flat “‘heel,’’ which was typical of the seven- teenth-century pipes and was supposed to hold the pipe in an upright positon when placed on a flat surface. The fact that this heel changed its shape into a pointed spur a century later may belie the efficacy of the TOP VIEW JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 heel for supporting the pipe. Of particular interest for the antiquarian are the pipe- makers’ trade marks, generally found on the heel (Fig. 2, C). These were usually the pipemaker’s initials impressed in relief with- in a circle. A search through the lists of ’s impres- s. C, Heel of pipe bowl with maker VERTICAL SECTION SCALE- FEET rought-iron nails. F, Top view and vertical section of the fireplace. , B, European pipe bowl and stem al SCALE - INCHES ia. 2.—The Maspeth fireplace and artifacts: A sion “PG.” D, Worked bit of bone. I 4y Oct. 15, 1948 pipemakers of Hull and Bristol, England, will identify many of the pipes brought to America. A good many of these were used in the Indian trade. The Dutch had lively pipe manufactories also, which they seem to have copied from the English. They also kept a brisk business in pipes overseas. We do not have any data on the pipemaker “PG,” whose stamp was found on three of the pipebowl heels, but from comparison of the type bowl with pipes of known date we can place the date of manufacture about the middle of the seventeenth century. The fleur-de-lis design found on eight of the pipestem pieces (Fig. 2, B) is also a good time marker, as it was popularly impressed on stems about this period. The holes in the pipestems were large, and the stems were about 8 inches long, tapering toward the mouthpiece. The so-called ‘‘church-warden”’ pipes, with the long stems for the cool smoke, did not make their appearance until considerably later in pipemaking history. CONCLUSION We may well speculate whether this fire- place had been part of Reverend Doughty’s settlement and had been destroyed by the CHEMISTRY.—A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium. MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM 329 Indians during their depredations here, as the material evidence seems to be coeval. This is important to the historian, but of interest and significance to the archeologist is the presence of the flint chips. These point to associations of the whites with the Indians. We cannot say definitely that the fireplace was not of Indian construction, but from what we know of early Colonial and Indian fireplaces, the possibilities are greater that this fireplace had been made by the settlers. How to explain the presence of the flint chips other than that they demonstrate the contact period between the whites and Indians is a moot point. This borderline phase of our early history had not received the research and attention it justly deserves by archeologists. REFERENCES Boiron, REGINALD PELHAM. IJndian paths in the Great Metropolis. Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of American Indian. New York, 1922. RimKER, JAMES. Annals of Newtown. 1852. VAN DER Donck, A. erlands (1656). Soc., new ser., l. New York, A description of New Neth- Collections New York Hist. 1841. Irvine May? and JAMES I. HorrMan, Lecturer in Chemistry at The George Washington Uni- versity. Indium is generally found in nature as a trace constituent of zinc ores and is ob- tained commercially from the residues of zinc distillations. Sensitive methods for de- termining indium in the presence of zinc are therefore of importance in the analysis of indium-bearing materials. The spectrographic method is the most common one in use for determining small amounts of indium, and only a few colori- metric methods are described. Therald Moeller (1) developed a colori- 1 From a thesis submitted by Irving May to the faculty of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de- gree of master of science, February 1948. Re- ceived August 13, 1948. 2 Present address, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington 25, D. C. metric procedure for estimating small a- mounts of indium based upon a chloroform extraction of the indium derivative of 8- hydroxyquinoline. This method has the disadvantages of being somewhat insensi- tive and of being subject to numerous inter- ferences. Nevertheless, it is capable of effect- ing a number of important separations and is useful for isolating indium from many metals. The reaction of dithizone with mdium was first reported by Hellmut Fischer in a brief statement which is given in transla- tion: Indium is one of the few trivalent cations which react with dithizone. To be sure, solutions of tri- valent indium salts, upon shaking with a solution of dithizone dissolved in carbon tetrachloride, give a red coloration in the carbon tetrachloride 3900 phase only when a very definite and narrow pH range (between 5 and 6) is maintained. The reac- tion also proceeds in the presence of cyanide ion, if the solution is previously brought to the above mentioned pH range. The dithizone complex is decomposed merely by washing with a dilute am- monia solution (1 part of ammonia to 1000 parts of distilled water). Further investigation of the composition of the complex and its analytical ap- plication have not yet been carried out (2). Subsequent investigators of the dithi- zone reagent have not published any ad- ditional material on its reaction with in- dium. Wichmann (3), in a comprehensive review of the dithizone system, stated that indium, as well as ferrous iron, manganese, and trivalent thallium “react with dithi- zone under certain conditions, but their dithizonates are of limited stability and probably of no analytical significance. The field for further investigation is still wide open.”’ It was thought that a more thorough in- vestigation of the reaction of indium with dithizone than had been made by Fischer might lead to a useful method for the deter- mination of indium. A general study was therefore made of the reaction of indium with dithizone. Tentative procedures were then developed for separating indium from other metals and its determination with dithizone. The authors are aware of the fact that further work on this subject would be highly desirable. Unfortunately, it is unlikely that they will be in a position to pursue this study any further, but enough new informa- tion concerning the reaction of indium with dithizone has been developed to make its publication of value to others interested in this subject. It is believed that the tenta- tive methods developed will be useful for determining indium in many types of ma- terials. THE REACTION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE IN CARBON TETRACHLORIDE SOLUTION The optimum conditions for the extrac- tion of indium by carbon tetrachloride solu- tions of dithizone were determined. The ab- sorption characteristics and the stability of indium dithizonate were next investigated. Similar studies were also made employing chloroform as the solvent. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 10 The color of indium dithizonate in carbon tetrachloride and in chloroform solutions is rose-red. It was observed that carbon tetra- chloride solutions of indium dithizonate underwent a visible reddening in color on standing exposed to afternoon room light. The absorption curve of indium dithizo- nate in carbon tetrachloride medium was measured. A solution for this purpose was prepared by shaking a carbon tetrachloride solution of dithizone (0.001 percent wt/vol, that is, carbon tetrachloride containing 10 mg. of dithizone in a liter) with an excess of an indium nitrate solution at pH 5.8, avoid- ing any exposure to light. Part of the dithi- zone layer was drawn off and the absorption curve was measured. The absorption curve was also determined on another portion of the sample which had been permitted to stand for 22 hours in the absence of light. These curves are shown in Fig. 1 as is the curve of the 0.001 percent dithizone solu- tion. The curve for the dithizone solution agrees closely with similar ones previously published (4, 5). The absorption curves for indium dithizonate are very similar to those for other metal dithizonates. The maximum absorption of indium dithizonate is at 510muy, at which wavelength dithizone has a minimum absorption. Comparison of the two indium dithizo- nate curves reveals that, on standing, there is a small but definite increase in optical density in the regions of 510 and 600mu. The aging effect over a short period of time, such as an hour or less, is not likely to result in serious errors in quantitative work. Indium dithizonate solutions in carbon tetrachloride were found to be sensitive to light. A portion of indium dithizonate solu- tion, prepared as described above, was ex- exposed to afternoon room light for 13 - hours. The optical density at 510 my changed from 0.688 to 0.713, whereas an unexposed portion of the sample changed to 0.693. Exposure to the intense light of a 750 W projection bulb resulted in appreciable de- composition of the dithizonate. The light was focused on the sample, and heat was removed by heat-absorbing filters. Samples were exposed for 5 and for 15 minutes. The Ocr. 15, 1948 samples looked green when first removed from the light, and some recovery of color was apparent in the short interval that elapsed before the measurements could be made. The optical density changed from an initial value of 0.688 to 0.664 for a 5-minute 1.00 .5O OPTICAL DENSITY 500 MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM 331 exposure and to 0.465 for a 15-minute ex- posure. After standing in the instrument for 10 minutes, the density of the 15-minute sample increased to 0.512 and then re- mained unchanged. This behavior is similar to that of mercury dithizonate. 600 700 WAVELENGTH (mz) Fig. 1.—Absorption curve of indium dithizonate in carbon tetrachloride solution: a, Absorption curve of freshly prepared indium dithizonate solution; 6, Absorption curve of indium dithizonate solution after standing for 22 hours; c, Absorption curve of the dithizone reagent, in carbon tetrachloride. (The same general form of curve is obtained with chloroform as the solvent.) 1.00 .§0 OPTICAL DENSITY 00 400 500 WAVELENGTH (mz) Fig. 2.—Absorption curve of indium dithizonate in chloroform solution. 600 700 302 The optimum pH range for the extrac- tion of indium by carbon tetrachloride solu- tions of dithizone was found to be between 5.2 and 6.3, agreeing with the values given by Fischer (pH 5-6). Some extraction oc- curs on either side of this range. Thus, at a pH of 4.8 or 6.7, about 60 percent as much indium could be extracted bya givenvolume of dithizone, compared with what would extract at the optimum pH. There was some evidence that small amounts of indium would extract at as low a pH as 2 and possi- bly even at as high a pH as 8. Indium dithizonate in carbon tetrachlo- ride solution was found to obey Beer’s Law. Solutions containing 0 to 14 micrograms of indium at a pH of 5.5 were extracted with 15-ml portions of a carbon tetrachloride solution of dithizone (16 mg of dithizone per liter of carbon tetrachloride). A plot of the transmittancies of the dithizone layers at 490 my against concentration of indium showed that the solutions adhered to Beer’s Law. It was found that the presence of citrates or tartrates prevented the extraction of indium by dithizone, but extraction did proceed readily in the presence of hydroxyl- amine-hydrochloride. The conditions which were established for the optimum extraction of indium by carbon tetrachloride solutions of dithizone are the very ones which favor the extraction of zinc. Attempts to find a complexing rea- gent which would prevent extraction of zine and yet allow indium to be extracted by the dithizone solution were fruitless. A method, however, was desired for indium in the presence of zinc. Since there was nothing in the literature on the extraction of indium with chloroform solutions of dithizone, it was decided to investigate the extraction, employing chloroform as the solvent. THE REACTION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE IN CHLOROFORM SOLUTION Investigation of the reaction of indium with chloroform solutions of dithizone re- vealed that indium formed a dithizonate in the presence of moderate concentrations of cyanide, at a higher alkalinity than in the ease of the carbon tetrachloride medium. Maximum extraction of indium occurred JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 in the pH range 8.3 to 9.6. Extraction of indium was very incomplete at pH below 7 and above 10. The absorption curve of a chloroform so- lution of indium dithizonate was measured (Fig. 2). The dithizonate was prepared by extracting a solution of indium nitrate containing potassium cyanide (pH=9.1) with chloroform containing 10 mg of dithi- zone in a liter. The absorption peak of the dithizonate in chloroform is at 510-—520muz. The hump in the curve in the region of 600 my is probably caused by the presence of unreacted dithizone. A study was made of the stability of indium dithizonate in chloroform solution. On standing in the absence of light, there was a slow decrease in optical density at 510mu, accompanied by a slight increase in density at 620my. At 510myu the density dropped from an initial value of 0.845 to 0.822 after a lapse of 37 minutes, and to 0.798 after 22 hours. Unlike carbon-tetrachloride solutions of indium dithizonate, chloroform solutions of the dithizonate were found to be fairly sta- ble to light. Exposure to room light for 45 minutes resulted in no greater change in density at 510 my than in the case of the sample standing for a similar period pro- tected from light. Exposure to intense light resulted in a change in density at 510 mu from an initial value of 0.839 to 0.862 after a 5-minute exposure, and from 0.820 to 0.840 after a 15-minute exposure. CUPFERRON AS AN AID TO THE EXTRAC- TION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE It was discovered that if cupferron is present and dithizone absent in aqueous cyanide solutions of indium, lead, or bis- muth, all these metals could be readily extracted by chloroform at pH 8.5 The re- sulting chloroform solutions are colorless. It was then observed that if dithizone solu- tions were added to the chloroform-cupfer- ron extracts, the corresponding dithizonate colors were obtained. The dithizonates are therefore stronger complexes than the cup- ferrates. As a result of a number of experi- ments, the following conclusions were reached concerning the extraction of indium Oct. 15, 1948 from solutions at a pH of 8.5 containing cyanide: (1) In the presence of cupferron, but in the absence of citrate, indium is extracted by chloroform even if no dithizone is pres- ent. (2) In the presence of both citrate and cupferron, the extraction is sufficiently re- tarded to require dithizone in the chloro- form for efficient extraction of indium. (3) Indium is extracted more readily with chloroform solutions of dithizone in the presence of cupferron and moderate concentrations of citrate than when both are absent. When extractions are made from alka- line solutions with dithizone, it is generally advantageous to have citrates (or tartrates) present to avoid the precipitation of a large number of metals. The use of cupferron en- ables one to overcome the very pronounced retarding effect of citrates on the extrac- tion of indium by dithizone. SEPARATION OF INDIUM FROM ZINC AND OTHER METALS The conditions established above for the extraction of indium by chloroform solu- tions of dithizone are essentially those gen- erally employed for the extraction of lead. Bismuth, bivalent tin, and univalent thal- lum also form dithizonates under these conditions. Zinc, in moderate concentra- tions, is not extracted with this group. It was determined that concentrations of cyanide greater than 0.3 g of KCN in 60 ml of solution at a pH of 8.5 hinder the ex- traction of indium by chloroform solutions of dithizone. It was also found that at this pH and in the presence of 0.3 g of KCN in 60 ml of solution, up to 10 mg of zine may be present without any zinc being ex- tracted by chloroform solutions containing 10 mg of dithizone in a liter. Moeller (1) found that on extraction of indium with chloroform solutions of 8- hydroxyquinoline (oxine) at a pH range of 3.2 to 4.5 the interfering ions were alumi- num, gallium, thallic, stannous, bismuth, cupric, ferrous, nickel, and cobalt. He re- ported that the ions not extracted under these conditions were magnesium, calcium, strontium, zinc, cadmium, mercuric, stan- MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM 339 nic, lead, manganous, chromic, and silver. It can be seen that, with the exception of bismuth, extraction with oxine will separate indium from the metals which otherwise would interfere with the extraction of in- dium by dithizone. A procedure published by Hubbard (6) for the separation of bis- muth from lead by extracting bismuth with dithizone from a solution at a pH of 3 would also serve to separate bismuth from indium. On the basis of the foregoing considera- tions, tentative procedures for determining indium were evolved. The general plan was to first extract indium at a pH of 4 witha chloroform solution of oxine, free indium from the oxine complex, and then deter- mine indium by extraction with a chloro- form solution of dithizone. PROCEDURES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF INDIUM Detailed instructions for the preparation and purification of most of the following reagents are to be found in papers by Clifford and Wichmann (4), and Bambach and Burkey (7). Water—Double-distilled in an _ all-Pyrex still, or otherwise prepared so that it yields a satisfactory blank. Nitric acid, conc.——Reagent nitric acid dis- tilled in a Pyrex still. Nitric acid, 1:99——Ten ml of conc nitric acid made up to a liter with water. Sulphuric acid, conc.—Select a bottle having a low blank value for lead and indium. Perchloric acid, 60 percent. Potassium cyanide, 10 percent.—Potassium cyanide frequently has a high metal content and may require purification. Ammonium hydroxide, conc. (sp. gr. 0.9).— May be purified by distilling reagent am- monium hydroxide into double-distilled water. Ammonia-cyanide mixture—Two hundred ml of a 10-percent solution of KCN and 150 ml of concentrated ammonium hydroxide made up to 1,000 ml. Chloroform.—U.S.P. or C.P. grades are gen- erally satisfactory. Dithizone solution. 0.001 percent.—Ten mg of dithizone dissolved in 1,000 ml of chloroform. 8-Hydroxyquinoline. 0.02 M.—Diissolve 1.5 g of reagent in 500 ml of chloroform. Buffer. pH 4.—Dilute 115 ml of acetic acid 334 with about 500 ml of water, titrate with am- monium hydroxide to a pH of 4.0, and dilute to 2 liters with water. Cupferron, 1 percent.—Dissolve 1 g of cup- ferron in 100 ml of water. A clear colorless solu- tion should be obtained with a good grade of cupferron. Prepare immediately before use. Sodium citrate, 20 percent—Two hundred grams of the dihydrate in a liter of water. M-Cresol purple wndicator, 0.1 percent. Methyl orange indicator, 0.1 percent. DOUBLE EXTRACTION PROCEDURE WITH OXINE SEPARATION The following procedure permits the presence of more than 10 mg of zinc. Lead, thallium, and tin are separated from in- dium and do not interfere. The presence of large amounts of tin and aluminum may give low results. 1. Dissolve the sample in nitric acid and evaporate. If tin is present, dissolve in hydro- chloric acid, add bromine, and evaporate to dryness. 2. Dissolve the residue in a few drops of nitric acid (hydrochloric, if used in no. 1) add 0.5 ml of sodium citrate solution and 10 ml of water. (If thallium is present and the treatment of the sample has resulted in its oxidation, add 1 ml of 20-percent hydroxylamine-hydrochlo- ride.) 3. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator and adjust to orange color (pH 4) with 1:4 am- monium hydroxide. 4. Add 25 ml of the buffer solution and transfer the sample to a separatory funnel. 5. Extract with four 5-ml portions of a 0.02- M chloroform solution of oxine. 6. Wash the oxine extracts with 25 ml of the buffer solution. 7. Drain the oxine extracts into a 100-ml Kjeldahl flask, wash the buffer solution with a 5-ml portion of the oxine solution, and add the oxine wash to the flask. 8. Add 1 ml of sulphuric acid and heat until the chloroform is volatilized. Destroy organic matter by adding 1 ml of nitric acid and heating gently until the reaction subsides. Add 1 ml of perchloric acid, heating gently at first and then vigorously until fumes of sulphuric acid are evolved. 9. Add 25 ml of water and 1 ml of 20-percent JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 sodium citrate solution. If iron is present, add 1 ml of 20 percent hydroxylamine-hydro- chloride. Heat the solution and boil gently for a few minutes. 10. Cool and add 2 drops of m-cresol purple indicator and then ammonium hydroxide until the indicator turns orange. Add 3 ml of 10-per- cent potassium-cyanide solution and then add ammonium hydroxide until a purple color is obtained. 11. Wash the sample into a separatory fun- nel and add 5 ml of a 1-percent cupferron solu- tion. 12. Extract with 5-ml portions of 0.001-per- cent chloroform solution of dithizone until the dithizone no longer changes color. 13. Add 50 ml of 1:99 nitrie acid to the di- thizone extracts and shake for 1 minute. 14. Discard the dithizone layer, wash the nitric acid extract with 5 ml of chloroform, and then remove the chloroform completely. 15. Add 5 ml of the ammonia-cyanide mix- ture to the nitric acid extract, or to an aliquot of it made up to 50 ml with 1:99 nitric acid. 16. Add 15.0 ml of a standardized 0.001-per- cent dithizone solution and shake for 1 minute. 17. Read the dithizone layer in a spectro- photometer at 510mu. The dithizone solution is standardized by taking solutions containing 0 to 15 micro- grams of indium and 1 ml of sulfuric acid through the procedure, beginning at step no. 9. A blank determination should be run through the entire procedure. If bismuth is to be separated, the above procedure should be followed through step no. 14. Then adjust the pH to 3.0 by adding dilute ammonium hydroxide, using m- cresol purple indicator. Extract the bis- muth with dithizone (the extraction is slow). Wash the aqueous layer with chloroform. Add the proper volumes of ammonium hy- droxide and potassium cyanide solutions to bring conditions to step no. 16 and continue with steps nos. 16-17. SINGLE EXTRACTION PROCEDURES In many cases it would be quite possible to use a simpler procedure than the one outlined above. Thus, the following modi- fications could be made in a limit test for indium in zine samples: TRANSMITTANCY (%) 510 mp Oct. 15, 1948 A dilute nitric-acid solution of the sample is adjusted with ammonium hydroxide (m- cresol purple) to an orange color. Three ml of 10-percent potassium-cyanide solution are added, and the adjustment of pH is continued until a purple color is obtained. The sample is extracted for 3 minutes with 15.0 ml of 0.001 -percent dithizone solution. The dithizone extract is then compared with indium standards, 0 to 15 micrograms of indium, which have been taken through the same procedure. This comparison may be made visually, or in a spectrophotometer at 510 mu. Lead, bismuth, and thallium, if present, would be read as indium. High concentrations of tin, iron, and aluminum would probably cause low results. A varia- ation of this simplified procedure would be the addition of sodium citrate before neu- tralization, and cupferron before extrac- bons * Another variation in the procedure may be employed where the greatest accuracy and sensitivity are not necessary. The pro- cedure outlined above is followed through step no. 11. Then the sample, or a suitable 100 50 30 20 to) 10 15 INDIUM (MICROGRAMS) Fig. 3.—Indium dithizonate standards: a, Single extraction procedure. Extraction in presence of sulphate, citrate, cyanide, and cupfer- fon; -b, Double extraction procedure; c, Single extraction procedure. Extraction in the presence of citrate, cyanide, and cupferron (sul- phate absent). MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM 3390 aliquot thereof, is extracted with 15.0 ml of dithizone-chloroform solution, and the transmittancy is read at 510 my. Standards, containing 1 ml of sulphuric acid, should be run beginning with step no. 9. TABLE 1 Foreign metal | initially present Indium Indium sats added found Metal Amount micrograms micrograms — — 1.0 ie? — — 33 0) 3.0 —— — 5.0 5 — — 9.0 8.7 — — 10.0 9.2 — — 14.0 13} 311 Cu 10 mg 10.0 10.5 Pb 10 10.0 9.3 Fe Oo 10.0 10.2 Ni 5 10.0 9.3 Co 5 10.0 9.0 Zn 10 10.0 9.0 Ga 5 10.0 Wi se) Sn 10 10.0 5.0 Al 5 10.0 aay Al 10 10.0 68) Mn 5 10.0 8.4 Cd 5 10.0 8.4 “bi 5 10.0 8.1 RECOVERY OF KNOWN AMOUNTS OF INDIUM Standardization of the same batch of dithizone solution by three of the above- mentioned procedures is shown in Fig. 3. Comparison of curves a and ¢ indicates that there is a loss of sensitivity when the extraction is performed in the presence of high concentrations of ammonium sulphate. The results for the recovery of known amounts of indium obtained with the pro- cedure employing an oxine separation fol- lowed by a single extraction of indium are given in Table 1. It will be observed that poor recoveries of indium were obtained in the presence of high concentrations of tin and aluminum. Samples containing much tin could prob- ably best be handled by completely vol- atilizing the tin as stannic bromide from perchloric acid solution by the procedure of Wichmann and Clifford (8). SUMMARY The extraction of indium by carbon tetra- chloride and chloroform solutions of dithiz- 306 one has been studied. Indium was found to be extracted with chloroform solutions of dithizone under the same conditions as the lead, tin, thalhum, and bismuth group. Tentative procedures have been presented for the separation of indium from various metals and its determination by dithizone methods. LITERATURE CITED (1) MoELLER, T. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 15: 270. 1948. (2) FiscHeR, H. Angewandte Chemie 50: 919. 1937. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 10 (3) WicuMANN, H. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 11:66. 1939. (4) CuirForp, P. A., and WicumMann, H. J. Journ. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 19: 130. 1936. (5) FiscHer, H., and Wryt, W. Wiss. Verdf- fentlich. Siemens-Konzern 14: 41. 1935. (6) Huspsparp, D. M. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 11: 344. 1939. (7) BampBacn, K., and BrukeEy, R. E. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 14: 904. 1942. (8) WicoMANN, H. J., and Cuirrorp, P. A. Journ. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 18: 315. 1935. Ind. PLANT PATHOLOGY.—Bacillus megaterium de Bary from the interior of healthy potato tubers... BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LUTMAN and Harry E. WHEELER, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Louisiana State University. (Communicated by NATHAN R. SMITH.) For several years the writers have been attempting to grow microorganisms from the filamentous plant intercellular inclu- sions which had been described by Lutman (6, 7). Various methods were used to induce them to leave their intercellular habitat and grow in another medium, but without suc- cess. Although a few actinomycetes were occasionally obtained, no assurance could be given that they were not accidentally introduced in the transfer of material from tubers to medium. The technique that was used in the fol- lowing work was neither new nor compli- cated. Burbank Russet tubers, grown in Idaho, were used for much of this work be- cause they were available in the market and their long shape made them easy to break. At the time most of these trials were made these mature tubers showed sprouts, indi- cating that the rest period had been passed. Clean, selected tubers were disinfected for 2 hours in 0.5 percent formaldehyde solu- tion. They were dried and then cut on one side so that they could be broken readily. Disks of tuber tissue were removed with a sterile cork borer and a scalpel. Usually three or four of these circular disks (1 cm across and 1—2 mm thick) were taken from the broken surfaces and removed to bottles 1 Received August 5, 1948. of sterile water. After washing they were placed in a small, sterile porcelain mortar, ground to a fine paste, and transferred to another similar flask of sterile water. The material from these flasks was plated out on nutrient agar to which had been added 2 per- cent dextrose and 1 percent yeast extract. The broken tubers were placed between layers of sterile filter paper in a glass dish for five or six days, and then they were again used for samples. In this time the cut sur- faces had developed a new cork layer from a cork cambium. The walls of the new cork cambium were filled with strands of hyphae, indicating that the microorganism had re- newed its activity after being dormant in the tuber. The broken surfaces were washed off in 95 percent alcohol and the adhering alcohol burned off. Tissue disks, removed as just described, were broken up in the mortar to a fine paste and diluted 1 to 10,000 before plating. The number of organisms obtained in the 3 operations varied widely with the tubers used. In one set of trials were 100 colonies per disk from the wash water, 700 colonies after the disk had been broken into frag- ments, and 33,000 from the disks taken from the regenerated skin. In another trial the numbers were 300 from a washed disk, 1,200 from a ground-up one, and 48,000 from a disk from a regenerated skin layer. Oct. 15, 1948 The organisms obtained, however, were not actinomycetes, but a large, curved-rod bacillus which was easily identified as the highly pleomorphic de Bary organism, Bacillus megaterium.* Occasionally, colonies of other organisms appeared on the plates, but the predominant form was always this bacillus. For a long time these organisms were re- garded as intruders from the soil and were disregarded. But, since they were so fre- quent, even with all precautions taken against the introduction of soil bacteria, a more careful examination was made of the colonies and of the individuals composing them. For this purpose the colonies that re- sulted from plating out the tissues were used, their age usually being 24 to 72 hours. Colony margin.—The filaments protrud- ing from the margins of the colony fre- quently showed branching, although in some colonies the individuals were pressed together in parallel, concentric circles to form a smooth margin. The most striking variation from an ordinary bacterial colony was the long filaments that would break away from the colony margin to push out across the agar to some distance, where they would bud off a new, small daughter colony. Rettger and Gillespie (9) gave the appropriate name of “‘runners”’ to these long nonseptate and unfragmented hyphae and offered the explanation that their appear- ance was stimulated by a lack of oxygen in the parent colony. Reproduction and unusual individuals.— The unusually large size. of the organisms (1.2 to 1.7 microns in width and averaging 5 to 10 microns in length) gave an oppor- tunity to observe the details of cell repro- duction by budding. Smith, Gordon, and Clark (10) in their monograph of this group state that B. megatercum produces apical and side buds. This description of bud formation is shorter and clearer than that of de Bary (2) who goes into consider- able detail in the growth of the buds and the curvature of the rods: ‘‘The rods divide by the formation of a transverse septum into two members, the transverse septa are 2 The authors will use the original de Bary spelling. LUTMAN AND WHEELER: BACILLUS MEGATERIUM FROM POTATO Oo” extremely delicate when young. When two sister rods begin to separate transversely from one another, the curvature usually becomes more pronounced at the extremi- ties where division takes place, and the ends of the rods become slightly oblique to one another and overlap each other a little, or one thrusts itself laterally past the other, like the short commencement of a so-called false branch in Syctonema and similar genera of the Nostcaceae.”’ His figure, however, shows clearly side buds, although all buds origi- nate near cell apices. Budding would automatically deny the name of the group to which it had been - assigned, the Schizomycetes (fission-fungi). As a result of the buds and continued apical growth, true branching is common in the cells of these colonies derived directly from potato tissue. On replating these colonies, however, the branches or buds were shorter, so that the curved rods usually considered typical for this species now predominated. Rettger and Gillespie (9) had noted that these so-called ‘‘abnormalities” were always more frequent near the colony margins where oxygen supply was more abundant. At the centers and in the depths of the colonies fragmentation into short curved rods introduced the ‘‘normal,” i.e., the lab- oratory type, of the species. The long fila- ments, branching cells, etc. were not per- manent, but would resume their normal form if returned to any of the standard media (4). Spore formation and sheath.—Occasional long filaments may be seen in the colonies. They fragment by the introduction of bi- convex vacuoles. The protoplasm retreats and the empty space enlarges and becomes biconcave. This fragmentation is marked near the end of a filament where the proto- plasm frequently fragments in a_ short branch into three or four capsule-shaped spores enclosed in a clear sheath. These short rows of spores are usually curved as are those of the actinomycetes. These spores would be the conidia of these latter filamentous species and are to be distin- guished from the endospores described in some strains of B. megatervwm but which are absent in other strains, and may be lost occasionally from those having them (8). 398 No endospores were observed on these strains when grown on dextrose agar.’ Rettger and Gillespie (8) noted so-called “empty sausage” skins (sheaths empty of protoplasm) but did not consider them of special importance, presenting their ob- servations ‘‘as a matter of general interest, rather than as evidence of the occurrence of a highly specialized cell membrane or en- velope in bacteria.”’ They did not call atten- tion to the fact that the actinomycetes have such an envelope or sheath, even if other microorganisms do not. This envelope or skin has been investigated by a number of electron microscope workers. Dubin and Sharp (3) arrived at the conclusion that “electron micrographs indicate plainly the presence of two structures constituting the bacterial cell, an inner dense substance and outer less dense substance. The outer sub- stance of the bacterial cell is invisible in light micrographs.” To the latter statement, the authors would in part disagree, since this sheath may often be seen between the fragments of protoplasm, especially after dense staining. Germination of the intercellular strands.— The best proof of the origin of the colonies from the intercellular filaments would be to grow them from between the cells out into a culture medium. In order to demonstrate this point a somewhat different technique was used. Some of the ground-up regenerated cork layer in a 100-cc water suspension was pipetted on large (24 by 50 mm) cover glasses, where it was allowed to air dry. A thin layer of the nutrient agar used in the plates was then spread over these dried tis- sue fragments. After it had hardened the cover glass was inverted over a slide, the ends of the cover glass being suspended by fine glass rods. The slide was then placed in a damp chamber. In a warm room germination would be- gin in about two to three hours. Probably more than 90 percent of the germinations would have no connection with bits of tis- 3The writers wish to thank Dr. Nathan R. Smith for the additional information that the three isolations sent to him after this work was done readily produced spores on the ordinary beef agar. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 sue. They seemed to originate in frag- ments of mycelium loosened from their intercellular attachments by the pounding in the mortar. No indication of remains of a spore could be seen even in the early 1- and 2-celled stages. They were bits of mycelium free from all tissue connections. This fact would indicate that the mycelium is not deeply imbedded in the pectin of the inter- cellular region. An occasional filament can be traced back into strands inside the tuber tissue. Such a filament will be seen to break up in the culture medium into the rods of B. megaterium. In the two figures shown, the dried tissue had been covered with agar at 11:30 a.m. When examined and _ photo- graphed at 2:30 p.m. the filament was pro- jecting into the medium and had thrown off a long bud, which lay parallel to it. The growth was rapid during the first half hour, but a series of five exposures were made of which only one, that at 4:30 is reproduced. At this time the true point of origin of the cluster of bacilli could be determined only by referring back to the earlier stage. A careful study of such filaments ger- minating from tissue showed that in every case the part in the tissue lay close to the margin and that all connection with the hyphae of the cells had been broken. In no instance was a germination observed from | the end of a hyphae extending unbroken back into the tissue. Occurrence in other parts of the potato plant and in other plants—No extended efforts were made to isolate B. megaterium from other parts of the potato or from other plants. It was noted that, with the same technique used, this organism was common in disinfected sweet potatoes and also in potato roots after they had been washed and dipped in 95 percent alcohol from 10 to 15 seconds before crushing them up in the mortar. The same is true of garden carrots. Since the Burbank Russet potatoes were mature and had been in storage for at least four months, the same technic was used on small Bliss’ Triumph tubers taken fresh from the soil and larger tubers of the same variety grown in Florida. The same organ- isms appeared as when the storage tubers had been used. Oct. 15, 1948 Sheath on the hyphae in the tubers.—No note was taken of the occurrence of a sheath on the filaments stained in the intercellular regions of the potato tuber by Lutman (7), but such a sheath shows distinctly in many of the photographs, especially those of sec- tions of mature tubers. In one of the illus- trations of these filaments in the turnip, the tube is shown cut through in such a manner that the organism inside it was missed and the tube in part seemed empty. As shown in the same paper the enclosed filaments were also Gram-positive, although a special timing and technique had to be used to demonstrate them. Tissue cultures with sterile matertal.—The interior of healthy plants was formerly held to be free from bacteria and sterile. Tissue cultures have been made of many organs without any evidence of bacterial growths on the bits of tissue. The reason for this apparent freedom from bacteria is due, so far as B. megaterzwm is concerned at any rate, to its marked aerobic habit. It will not grow in a stab in a solid culture medium to a depth of much more than two millimeters. In tissue-culture technique, the bits of tissue are covered with the nutrient fluid to a depth sufficient to stifle the growth of this highly aerobic species. If growth should start, the colonies would be so small owing to lack of oxygen that they have been over- looked. Systematic position of the organism.—The question arises at once in the mind of any systematist of microorganisms of the nam- ing and grouping of the. pleomorphic spe- cies which lives part of its life as a branching mycelium inside plants and breaks up into short, motile bacilli in culture media. In the sixth edition of Bergey’s Manual of determinative bacteriology (1), Order II. Actinomycetales Buchanan has as family I. Mycobacteriaceae Chester, a single genus: I. Mycobactervxum Lehmann and Neumann. This group contains many important or- ganisms such as those associated with tuber- culosis and leprosy. These organisms are also filamentous at times but break up readily into nonmotile rods. Bacillus mega- tercum would not fit into such a genus since the organisms are typically motile. It can not be regarded as a true Actinomyces, LUTMAN AND WHEELER: BACILLUS MEGATERIUM FROM POTATO 339 although it has a sheath and the rest- ing spores are similar to those of the latter group. No member of the Actinomyces Figs. 1-12.—Pleomorphic forms assumed by Bacillus megateritum in culture media, aqueous crystal violet stain: 1, ‘‘Runner” type with vacu- oles; 2, types of short bacilli; 3, budding, and 4, bud almost separated; 5, extreme branching with variation in size of branches; 6, end of filament with empty “sausage’’ skin; 7-10, resting spores formed by fragmentation, spores still enclosed or connected by clear-walled sheath; 11, filament arising from a bit of potato tuber tissue with a parallel branch or bud at right, taken at 2:30 P.M.; 12, same, at 4:30 p.m. (Figs. 1 and 5-9 mag- nified 1,100 times, Figs. 2-4 magnified 1,350 times; 11 and 12, 400 times.) 340 is known, however, to have a motile stage or endospores. The intermediate position of this microorganism is clearer than its dis- position in any present classification. The middle lamellae.—To the botanist the fundamental contribution of these obser- vations is that the denser material between plant cell walls is not a chemical (calcium pectate), as suggested by Mangin who dis- covered these bodies, but living microor- ganisms that may be grown in culture media outside the plant. Further, the old conception that the interior of plants is sterile is not tenable. The role which these microorganisms play in the physiology of the higher plants will have to be determined by future experiments, but the abundance of the filaments in enlarged roots (carrots, beets, turnips) and tubers (potato, sweet- potato, and Jerusalem artichoke) suggests the formation of some type of growth- stimulating substances. It may be pointed out that the invasion of the cork cambium of young potato tubers by a similar microor- ganism stimulates the cork cells to produce hypertrophied tissue known as common or corky scab. ADDENDUM The day following the receipt of the manu- script for transmittal to the editors of the JOURNAL, word was received of the fatal illness of the senior author of this paper. In the mean- time it has come to my attention that G. B. Sanford recently published a paper in Scientific Agriculture, vol. 28, pp. 23-25, 1948, entitled The occurrence of bacteria in normal potato plants and legumes. In addition, I am informed that a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 manuscript by Tervet and Hollis along the same line has been accepted for publication and will shortly appear in Phytopathology. These and former papers seem to leave little doubt that healthy plant tissues may contain micro- organisms. The frequency of their occurrence and their function still remain to be discovered. —NatTpan R. SMITH. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Berery’s Manual of determinative bacteriol- ogy, ed. 6. Baltimore, 1948. (2) pE Bary, AnToN. Vergleichende Morpholo- gie der Pilze, Mycetozoan und Bakterien. Leipzig, 1884. (English translation of same, Oxford Press, 1887.) (3) Dupin, I. N., and SHarp, D. G. Compari- son of the morphology of Bacillus megathe- rium with light and electron microscopy. Journ. Bact. 48: 313-328. 1944. (4) GILLESPIE, Hazeu B., and Retrcer, Leo F. Bacterial variation: formation and fate of certain variant cells of Bacillus megathe- rium. Journ. Bact. 39: 41-60. 1939. (5) Knaysi, GEorGE. Morphological and cul- tural studies of Bacillus megatherium. Journ. Bact. 26: 623-644. 1933. (6) Lurman, BENJAMIN F. Actinomyces in po- tato tubers. Phytopath. 31: 702-717. 1941. (7) Actinomycetes in various parts of the potato and other plants. Vermont Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. 522. 1945. (8) Rerreer, LEo F., and GILLESPIE, HazeEu B. Bacterial variation with special reference to pleomorphism and _ filirabtlity. Journ. Bact. 26: 289-318. 1933. (9) ——————.._ Bacterial variation: an inquiry into the underlying principles concerning the cell morphology of Bacillus megathe- rium. Journ. Bact. 30: 213-234. 1935. (10) SmitH, NaTHaNn R., Gorpon, Ruta E., and CLARK, Franotis E. Aerobic mesophilic sporeforming bacteria. U.S. Dept. Agr. Mise. Publ. 559. 1946. ZOOLOGY.—Hesperochernes thomomysi, a new species of chernetid pseudoscor- pion from California. C. Cuayton Horr, University of New Mexico. (Communicated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.) Pseudoscorpions are common in the nests of burrowing rodents. The species found in rodent nests have received relatively little attention, however, perhaps as a result of difficulties encountered in making species determinations in the groups to which most of these forms belong. In the present paper, 1 Received June 7, 1948. a new species of the genus Hesperochernes is described from the nest of Thomomys monticola from California, the description being based on material submitted by Dr. Edward A. Chapin, of the United States National Museum. The type specimens mounted on microscope slides are deposited in the National Museum. As a result of our very inadequate knowledge of chernetid Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA pseudoscorpions, the inclusion of the generic description is considered advisable. Suborder MonospHyronipA Chamberlin, 1929 Family CHERNETIDAE Menge, 1855 Genus Hesperochernes Chamberlin, 1924 Hesperochernes Chamberlin, Pan-Pacific Ent. 1: 89-90. 1924; Beier, Das Tierreich 58: 174. 1932; Hoff, Bull. Ilinois Nat. Hist. Survey. (In press. ) Cephalothorax clearly longer than wide; carapace granular, with two transverse cara- pacal furrows. Tergites divided, granular. Palpi stout, femur with well-defined pedicle. Setae of body and palps usually lightly, but clearly clavate. Flagellum with four setae; setae b and sb of hand of chelicera thickened and denticulate. The sensory seta ist of the fixed chelal finger is distal to est; st of the mov- able chelal finger is found nearer to ¢t than to sb. The tarsus of the fourth leg is without a true sensory seta, although a short toothed pseudotactile seta may be present. Genotype: H. laurae Chamberlin, (through original designation). 1924 Hesperochernes thomomysi, new species Female.—The description of the female is based on two specimens, the holotype and a paratype. The measurements of various struc- tures of the holotype are followed in parenthe- ses by the corresponding measurements of the paratype whenever the two differ significantly. Body stout, light yellowish brown in color; palpi deeper brown, often golden brown to reddish brown, and moderately stout; body length 3.1 (2.7) mm. Carapace light yellowish brown to golden brown, transverse furrows well marked, posterior furrow nearer to the posterior carapacal margin than to the median furrow; posterior margin well rounded, lateral margins convex and passing without interrup- tion into the anterior margin; carapace some- what subtriangular in shape; dorsal surface of carapace virtually smooth except for very fine netlike markings, lateral surfaces moderately granulate; setae very numerous, well scattered, terminally denticulate, not clavate; eyes not distinguished; length of carapace 0.98 (0.92) mm, width 0.96 (0.83) mm; greatest width in the posterior half of the carapace. Abdomen oval in shape, very stout; tergal halves well separated by rugose and nonsclerotic areas; 041 setae small, mostly nonclavate, terminally denticulate, similar to those of the carapace; each tergal half of tergite 1 with eight or nine setae, maximum number of setae on any tergal half is 10; tergite 11 not divided; surface of tergites marked much like the dorsal surface of the carapace. Ventral surface of abdomen with the sternal halves well separated medially; halves of sternite 4 with two setae in holotype, with three or four in paratype; each half of sternite 5 with seven to nine setae; maximum number of setae on any sternal half is 10; setae longer and more conspicuous than on the tergites; setae of sternites acuminate. Each anterior stigmatic plate with two or three acuminate setae; each posterior plate with one seta; pleural membranes with rugose and wavy parallel striations. Abdomen 2.1 (1.8) mm in length; width 1.73 (1.42) mm. Chelicera: Yellow in color; moderately stout; 0.28 (0.27) mm long, base 0.17 mm wide; subbasal seta of base stout, widened, with numerous terminal and subterminal denticu- lations; basal seta more slender and with fewer denticulations, in some instances the denticulations are difficult to observe; internal and laminal setae very long and acuminate; surface of hand unsculptured except for a roughened area in the region of the insertion of the subbasal seta; flagellum with the largest seta distinctly bladelike, a little curved, and deeply serrate along one margin throughout almost the entire length of the blade; the two proximally placed setae subequal in length and each longer than half the length of the longest blade of the flagellum. Fixed cheliceral finger with well-developed lamina exterior, markedly convex near the center of the finger; apical tooth with three or four small and rounded denticles on the inner margin; inner finger margin with four or five denticles in the distal third of the margin, the distal two heavy and conical in shape, the proximal two or three more weakly developed and more retroconical; serrula interior with four distal plates free, others fused. Movable finger stout, little curved; 0.22 (0.23) mm long; serrula exterior of 17 to 19 ligulate plates, of which the proximal one is much longer than the others; galeal seta almost reaching the tip of the galea; galea with a stout base, antlerlike, with six somewhat curved branches confined to the distal half of the galea; apical tooth sclerotic and terminally 342 bicuspid; subapical lobe just basal to the apical tooth and distal to the base of the galeal seta, somewhat smaller than the apical tooth and frequently blunt. Palpus: Moderately stout; surface of podo- meres virtually unmarked and almost non- granulate except the maxilla; maxilla with weakly granulate surface and with numerous, short and stout setae, many of which have a few terminal denticulations; setae of podo- meres in general subclavate and fairly stout on the proximal podomeres, longer, more slender, and nonclavate on the distal podo- meres, each seta with a few terminal and sub- terminal denticulations; investing setae of chelal fingers acuminate; color variable, deep golden brown in holotype to light yellowish brown in paratype. Maxilla 0.48 (0.43) mm long, 0.34 (0.31) mm wide. Trochanter some- what club-shaped; pedicle stout, two protu- berances present, 0.44 mm long, 0.26 (0.24) mm wide in strict dorsal view. Femur with pedicle about as long as wide and well set-off from the rest of the podomere; extensor margin very little convex in the center, more convex near the ends; flexor margin weakly S-shaped femur widest near the center; greatest over-all length 0.74 (0.73) mm, length along either the extensor or flexor margin 0.68 (0.66) mm; width 0.275 (0.26) mm. Tibia with stout pedicle; flexor margin somewhat evenly convex except towards the distal end and in the region of the pedicle; extensor margin markedly convex near the ends; length 0.67 (0.64) mm, width 0.28 (0.26) mm. Chela with hand stout and fingers fairly well separated from the hand; extensor margin of hand flatly convex, flexor margin more or less evenly and distinctly convex; hand somewhat bulging in the flexor-basal angle and the pedicle far displaced towards the extensor margin; fingers gently curved and narrowed regularly and decisively from base to distal end; length of chela 1.14 (1.08 )mm, width 0.43 (0.40) mm; length of hand 0.57 (0.55) mm; length of movable finger 0.57 (0.55) mm. From the side, the chela has a subrectangular hand, with the pedicle almost at the ventral-basal corner; ventral margin weakly and evenly convex; dorsal margin more convex and, with the basal margin, forming a well-rounded angle; depth of hand 0.43 (0.41) mm; fixed finger nearly straight, more or less cone-shaped in outline and broadly joined JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 to the hand; external aspect of fixed finger near the inner margin is conspicuously granulate; the movable finger less stout but well curved, especially in the proximal third of the finger. Each finger with between 40 and 45 marginal teeth, all with cusps and contiguous; the mar- ginal teeth of the distal end of the row more acute and with better developed cusps than those at the proximal end of the row; fixed finger with four or five internal and four or five external accessory teeth, all confined to the distal one-half of the finger; movable finger with two internal and three to five external accessory teeth, all found in less than the distal half of the finger; nodus ramosus of movable finger somewhat nearer tactile seta ¢ than st in the holotype and nearer st than ¢ in the para- type. Tactile setae as usual in the genus; st varying from a little (holotype) to consider- ably (paratype) closer to ¢ than to sb; other tactile setae as shown in the figure. Legs: Moderately ‘stout; yellowish brown, often very light in color; surface of podomeres nongranular; setae except on tarsi fairly heavy, subclavate, with numerous subterminal and terminal denticulations; setae of tarsi like those of other podomeres basally and on the extensor surface, but distally and on the flexor surface relatively stout and acuminate; ter- minal tarsal claws well curved and slender. First leg with trochanter subquadrate, 0.185 mm long, 0.147 mm deep; pars basalis distally deepened, flexor margin more or less evenly rounded, length measured along the flexor margin 0.245 (0.24) mm, depth 0.175 (0.165) mm; pars tibialis with both flexor and extensor margins evenly convex, deepest near the center, length measured along the extensor margin 0.37 (0.36) mm, depth 0.147 (0.135) mm; tibia with extensor margin weakly S-shaped, flexor margin somewhat evenly convex, 0.405 (0.39) mm long, 0.118 (0.105) mm deep; tarsus sub- cylindrical, flexor margin a little convex, length 0.41 (0.40) mm, depth 0.083 (0.076) mm. Fourth leg with trochanter having a very weakly but evenly convex flexor margin, extensor margin much more convex, especially in the central portion, entire podomore somewhat quadrate in outline, length 0.34 mm, depth 0.195 (0.178) mm: pars basalis subtriangular, flexor margin weakly convex to almost straight, length meas- ured along the flexor margin 0.27 (0.25) mm, depth 0.18 (0.17) mm; pars tibialis with Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA flexor margin nearly straight, extensor margin evenly or flatly convex, deepest near the center, length measured along the extensor margin 0.52 (0.50) mm, depth 0.20 (0.18) mm; length of entire femur 0.73 (0.70) mm; tibia shaped much as in the first leg but much more slender, very weakly S-shaped or extensor margin virtually straight except near the proximal end, length 0.60 (0.61) mm, depth 0.125 (0.12) mm; tarsus subcylindrical but the flexor margin 343 somewhat convex, podomere deepest near the center, length 0.47 (0.46) mm, depth 0.095 (0.09) mm. External genitalia: Simple; anterior oper- culum with 14 closely clustered setae, posterior to which is found a group of 13 (11) well-spaced and well-separated setae; posterior operculum with a single row of eight (13) setae. Male.—The collection contains four males, one of which is designated the allotype. The HESPEROCHERNES THOMOMYSI, NEW SPECIES Fic. 1.—Tip of movable finger of chelicera, female holotype; scale 0.05 mm. Fie. 2.—Dorsal view of palpus, female holotype; scale0.6 mm. Fic. 3.—Lateral view of chelal hand, female holotype; scale as in Fig. 2; marginal and accessory teeth omitted. Fic. 4.—Dorsal view of tibia and chela of palpus, male allotype; scale as in Fig. 5. marginal and accessory teeth omitted. Fic. 5.—Lateral view of chelal hand, male allotype; scale 0.5 mm; 344 measurements given are the limits of range of the four specimens. In general, male similar to female but smaller; body length 2.0—-2.4 mm; earapace 0.76—-0.82 mm long, 0.62-0.73 mm wide. Abdomen usually with seven setae on each half of tergite 1, other tergal halves usually with eight or nine setae; each half of sternite 4 with three to four acuminate setae, each half of sternite 5 with seven to ten setae, maximum number of setae on any sternal half is ten, In some specimens only eight or nine; anterior stigmatic plate with three setae, © posterior plate with one seta; length of ab- domen 1.19—-1.60 mm. Chelicera: Much as in the female; serrula exterior with 17 to 19, but usually 18, ligulate plates; length of chelicera about 0.24 mm, width of base between 0.14 and 0.15 mm, length of movable cheliceral finger 0.18—0.195 mm. Palpus: Variable but much like that of the female except podomeres a little smaller, tibia and chela distinctly stouter and of different shape, and a tendency for the flexor surfaces of the femur and tibia to be very weakly gran- ulate. Some specimens with palpi dark reddish- brown in color. Maxilla 0.38-0.43 mm long, 0.27-0.28 mm wide. Trochanter 0.37-0.39 mm long, 0.195-0.23 mm wide. Femur with flexor margin more S-shaped and extensor margin more irregular and more flattened near the center than in the female; greatest length 0.57-0.66 mm, length measured along either margin 0.53-0.58 mm, width 0.23-0.25 mm, greatest length between 2.5 and 2.8 times the width, length along either margin 2.25 to 2.5 times the width. Tibia with slight to well- marked concavity just proximal to the distal end of the flexor margin, length 0.53-0.59 mm, width 0.24—0.26 mm, length 2.2 to 2.3 times the width. Chela very stout;extensor margin evenly and markedly convex, the flexor margin more rounded and convex, giving the hand a sub- spherical appearance when viewed from the dorsad; flexor-basal corner distinctly swollen; fingers from the dorsad as in the female; length of chela without pedicle 0.97-1.07 mm, width 0.415-0.52 mm, length 2.05 to 2.35 times the width; length of hand 0.50-0.53 mm, length of movable finger 0.53-0.62 mm. From the side, the chela of the male relatively deeper than in the female, depth 0.44-0.55 mm; ventral margin evenly but not greatly convex, dorsal JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 margin bulging and rounded, especially in the area where it merges with the basal margin; marginal teeth about 40, varying from 35 to 45; accessory teeth extremely variable, each row with three (in one instance two) to as many as eight accessory teeth; on movable finger tactile seta st is nearer to ¢ than to sb and the nodus ramosus in most individuals is conspicuously nearer to st than to ¢; tactile setae somewhat variable in the fixed finger but in general as shown in the figure. Legs: Conspicuously smaller than in the female, otherwise very similar; some podo- meres possibly a little more slender but limited material precludes definite statement regarding the condition in all podomeres. First leg with trochanter 0.14-0.155 mm long, 0.12-0.135 mm deep, length 1.15 to 1.25 times the depth; pars basalis 0.185—-0.2 mm long, 0.135-0.15 mm deep, length 1.3 to 1.4 times the depth; pars tibialis 0.29-0.31 mm long, 0.12—0.13 mm deep; length 2.35 to 2.5 times the depth; tibia 0.31- 0.35 mm long, 0.09-0.105 mm deep, length 3.3 to 3.4 times the depth; tarsus 0.32-0.345 mm long, 0.07—-0.075 mm deep, length 4.55 to 4.75 times the depth. Fourth leg with trochanter 0.25-0.275 mm long, 0.135-0.155 mm deep, length 1.7 to 1.85 times the depth; pars basalis 0.195-0.22 mm long, 0.135-0.155 mm deep, length 1.35 to 1.4 times the depth; pars tibialis 0.39-0.46 mm long, 0.155-0.175 mm deep, length 2.45 to 2.65 times the depth; entire femur 0.54-0.62 mm long, length 3.35 to 3.65 times the depth; tibia 0.45-0.55 mm long, 0.10-0.122 mm deep, length 4.4 to 4.7 times the depth; tarsus 0.39-0.41 mm long, 0.08—0.09 mm deep, length 4.55 to 5.0 times the depth. External genitalia: 20 to 25 fine and acu- minate setae on the anterior operculum anterior and lateral to the genital slit; the posterior operculum with four setae in a row immedi- ately posterior to the genital slit and 16 to 25 setae, many in a single row but a few scat- tered, behind the four setae; chaetotaxy vari- able. “+e Tritonymph.—Measurements are given as the limits of variation of five individuals. Measurements of the legs are not included since these may be considered of little importance to the species description. Tritonymph much like the female but smaller and lighter in color; length of body 1.9-2.5 mm. Carapace possibly a little more granulate than in the female and Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA the investing setae a little more clavate; length of carapace 0.67—0.76 mm, width 0.51—0.62 mm. Abdomen with each half of tergite 1 having five to seven setae, other tergal halves usually with six to eight setae; each half of sternite 4 with two to five setae, of sternite 5 with six or seven setae; maximum number of setae on any sternal half is seven; each anterior stigmatic plate with one or two setae; posterior stigmatic plate with one seta; abdomen other- wise much as in the female; length 1.35-1.8 mm, width 0.9-1.4 mm. Chelicera: General structure like that of the female. Tactile seta b noticeably smaller than sb, less stout and with very few denticulations or appearing acuminate perhaps as a result of being in a position unfavorable for study; inner margin of fixed finger sometimes with three or six teeth but usually four or five; galea rela- tively stouter than in the female, four or five antlerlike branches in the distal half; 14 to 16, usually 15, plates in the serrula exterior; length of movable cheliceral finger 0.17—0.18 mm. Palpus: In general like that of the female but on the average lighter in color; podomeres smaller in size; tibia and femur stouter; setae much less numerous but of the same type as in the adult; surface of all podomeres, especially the flexor surfaces, moderately granular; pedicle of all podomeres relatively stouter than in the adult; pedicle of chela nearer the center of the base of the hand than in the adult; trochanter 0.28-0.32 mm long, width 0.175—0.20 mm, length 1.6 to 1.75 times the width; femur 0.48-0.54 mm long, 0.195-0.21 mm _ wide, length 2.25 to 2.55 times the width; tibia 0.40- 0.49 mm long, 0.20—0.23 mm wide, length 2.0 to 2.25 times the width; chela 0.72-0.85 mm long, 0.27—-0.32 mm wide, length 2.6 to 2.7 times the width; length of hand 0.34—0.43 mm, depth of hand 0.31—0.34 mm; movable chelal 045 finger 0.39-0.45 mm in length. From the side, the chelal hand is much more like that of the fe- male than the male; marginal teeth of fingers nsually between 30 and 35 in a number; acces- sory teeth variable, one to four in each row. Movable chelal finger with nodus ramosus just proximal to tactile seta ¢; one tactile seta absent; the center one of the three tactile setae may be closer to the basal (6 or sb?) or to the distal seta t. Fixed finger with ist missing; other tac- tile setae much as in the adult except it is relatively farther removed from et. Legs: Lighter in color, with fewer setae, smaller, and stouter than in the adult, but otherwise very similar. Tarsus of first and fourth legs somewhat fusiform, narrowed dis- tally. Type Locality—Fresno County, Calif. The female holotype, one female paratype, the male allotype, three male paratypes, and five trito- nymph paratypes were taken from a nest of Thomomys monticola on January 27, 1947, at Huntington Lake, elevation 7,000 feet, by I. G. Ingles. Remarks.—Our new species, H. thomomysi, may be separated from other species of the genus by the shape and size of the palpal podo- meres as well as other characteristics. The species seems somewhat closely related to H. sanborni (Hagen, 1869) from the New Eng- land states and to H. pallipes (Banks, 1893) from California. No difficulty is experienced in separating this form from the two closely re- lated species on the basis of characteristics given in the above description. From the type of the genus, H. lawrae Chamberlin, 1924, our form is easily separated by the smaller and stouter palpal podomeres. Only two species, H. laurae and H. pallipes, have been reported previously from California. 346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 ZOOLOGY .—Three new eastern millipeds of the family Xystodesmidae.! RicHARD L. Horrman, Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Communi- cated by E. A. CHAPIN.) Through the kindness of Drs. Edward A. Chapin, Waldo L. Schmitt, and Alexander Wetmore, I have been enabled to carry on extended work on the diplopod collection of the U. 8. National Museum. During the course of identifying and arranging ma- terial, a number of undescribed species have been discovered. Three of these are de- scribed below, representing three genera of the large Holarctic family Xystodesmidae. In one instance personal field work has resulted in the independent discovery of one of the new forms, and in this case my specimen has been designated holotype, since it is a fresh one and in better condi- tion. It has been deposited in the National Museum collection. Two of the species are of considerable interest from a systematic standpoint, and remarks on their relationships are included. A key to the known species of the genus Tucoria, based on males, is also appended. The figures illustrate the configuration of the left male gonopod, and are made from cephalic and mesial aspects following re- moval and orientation of the appendage. Setae have been removed in order to show basal structure. Apheloria intermedia, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2 Diagnosis.—Male gonopod with lateral proc- ess produced upward in the manner of Delto- tarva, lateral spine scarcely perceptible at end; mesial process low, rounded; blade of telopo- dite forming a loose curve, tip of blade not bent out of line with rest of the structure. Description of male holotype—Length 34, width 8.2 mm. Body rather slender, gently tapering caudad, more abruptly cephalad. Segments 4 through 14 of full width. Collum large, almost semicircular in dorsal aspect, caudal margin almost straight (lateral portion swept slightly forward), cephalic margin rather evenly rounded and swept back. Marginal ridge perceptible on lateral extrem- ities of collum. 1 Received July 28, 1948. Second and third segments with cephalo- lateral corners of keels widely rounded, margi- nal ridges well developed. Posterior edges of tergites straight except in being tapered for- ward on keels. Segments 4 through 14 subsimilar, anterior corners rounded, slightly lobed cephalad; lateral margins of keels somewhat convex in dorsal aspect, marginal thickenings prominent, smooth. Posterior corners of keels not pro- duced; caudal margins of keels but little caudad of rest of tergite across body. Dorsum well arched, keels not especially wide, but con- tinuing slope of dorsum, particularly on the anterior half of the body. Repugnatorial pores dorsal in position. Segments 15 through 19 with keels becoming increasingly produced caudad, those of nine- teenth being small, somewhat angular lobes. Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect, somewhat longer than broad; distally truncate. Anal valves inflated, smooth, glabrous; mesial ridges conspicuous. Preanal scale semicircular, terminal lobe sharp, lateral tubercules small. Bases of last pair of legs almost in contact. Sternites between other legs wide, those poste- rior to seventh pair of legs smooth and glabrous, not produced into lobes or spines. Trochanti and femora bearing large and sharp ventral spines. Distal tarsal joint equal in length to basal two, much shorter than femur. Legs bearing slender curved terminal claws. Coxae of second legs of males with the usual cylindrical distally flattened seminal processes. Gonopods large, protruding from large oval aperture; at rest retracted snugly against sternites and lying against one another, usually with the blades interlocked. Lateral process unusual for the genus, strongly produced up- ward suggesting the development found in the genus Deltotaria; basal spine represented by a slight acumen at the terminal end of the process; mesial process low, rounded, rather large, the cephalic margin very setiferous. Blade of telopodite highly arched, slightly compressed dorsoventrally toward the end; distal portion not bent either laterally or mesially. Ocr. 15, 1948 Color in life not known, appearing to have been blackish with most if not all of the dorsal surface of keels yellow or red. Description of female allotype-—Agreeing in most respects with the male. Differs as follows: Body more arched and compact; keels of seg- ment 19 more rounded; femoral spines longer. Length 35, width 7.6 mm. Type locality —Asheville, Ashe County, N.C. Type specimens.—Male holotype and female allotype, and a paratype of each sex in the HOFFMAN: THREE NEW EASTERN MILLIPEDS 347 U. 8. National Museum collection, no. 1833. These specimens were collected in August 1896, presumably by Dr. L. M. Underwood, of Syracuse University, although no collector is indicated on the label. Underwood collected many specimens in the Southeast during the summer of 1896. Remarks.—The discovery of this strikingly disjunct form of Apheloria is of considerable importance. In addition to providing a link be- tween the hitherto widely separated coriacea + Figs. 1-6.—1, Cephalic view of left gonopod of male type, Apheloria intermedia, from Asheville, N. C.; 2, mesial view of same; 3, cephalic view of left gonopod of male paratype, Nannaria morri- soni, from Page County, Va.; 4, mesial view of same; 5, cephalic view of left gonopod of male type, Tucoria viridicolens, from Greensburg, Ky.; 6, mesial view of same. Pubescence has been re- moved from all structures figured. 348 and trimaculata sections of the genus (hence the specific name), A. intermedia seems to represent an ancestral stock from which the genera Apheloria and Deltotaria have been derived. It furthermore inhabits an area where one would expect just such a form to be found —western North Carolina, from whence many species of both genera have been described. Detailed information on the relationships and phylogeny of this species is reserved for in- clusion in a future publication treating the entire genus A pheloria. Nannaria morrisoni, Nn. sp. Figs. 3, 4 Diagnosis.—Size small; processes between fourth pair of legs greatly developed; gonopods of male with main branch of telopodite distally bifurcated, and lateral branch long, flattened, and directed mesiad. Description of holotype-—Length 21, width 4.1 mm. Body with sides subparallel, both ends abruptly tapering; segments 3 through 16 of full width. Collum large, trapezoidal, almost as long as succeeding two segments; lateral marginal thickenings large; lateral extremities slightly rounded; posterior margin straight across body. Segments 2 through 4 similar, dorsal margi- nal ridges large, posterior edges of keels swept forward, caudal margins of tergites slightly con- cave. Segments 5 through 15 subsimiiar, ante- rior corners rounded, posterior corners right- angled or somewhat acutely angled, with a weakly indicated dentation; tergites about same width at edges of keels as at midline, and keels well separated, giving impression of evenly rectangular segments; segments 16 through 19 with keels becoming more produced caudad, those of segment 19 into subangular lobes about equal in length to one-half the distance between their bases. Dorsum not strongly arched, keels rather small, continuing slope of dorsum, the lateral edges directed cephaloventrad. Repugnatorial pores very small, not in a noticeable depression, on the ventral side of the edge of the keel. Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect, its sides concave, the usual subterminal lateral tubercules prominent, the tip more truncate than usual, directed ventrad. Anal valves sub- plane, finely wrinkled, the usual setiferous JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 tubercules not observed, mesial ridges very large. Preanal scale large, subtriangular, the median terminal lobe largest and well set off. Bases of last pair of legs well separated. Legs of segments 8 through 18 subsimilar, sternites broad, glabrous, produced into conspicous sharp lobes at bases of legs; coxae and tro- chanti unarmed, femoral spines large, becoming more elongated caudad. Those of last several pairs of legs as long as femora; tarsal joints with terminal as long as basal two, almost as long as femur, tarsal claw short, strongly curved at right angle to axis of legs. Coxae of second pair of legs with the usual seminal projections, these unusual in becoming swollen distally; sternites between fourth pair of legs with two greatly developed lobes, these being as long as seminal projections but evenly tapered distad. Pregenital limbs hairy and lack- ing femoral armature, tarsal claws heavy, blunt. Gonopods project from a large oval aperture, directed cephalad between bases of fifth pair of legs; in situ with the telopodite blades crossed at midline, the entire appendages twisted so that the small accessory branch is lowermost, in contact with the sternites. When in use the gonopods are forced out slightly and stand parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the sternites, with the smaller branch lateral in position. Coxal joint of gonopod rela- tively undifferentiated, higher (longer) than broad; telopodite with 4 somewhat elongated basal portion, mesial process or shoulder large, heavily setiferous, merging into blade of the appendage; lateral process small, inconspicu- ous, much lower than mesial; a narrow groove between the two, extending distad; blade of telopodite long, slender, curved cephalad over base, distally bifurcated into a larger, lateral, apically mucronate branch and a smaller, spiniform, mesial one. A secondary division of the telopodite, arising from the lateral side of the basal portion is elongated, flattened slightly expanded distally, and bent mesiad from the base across the larger branch. For exact configuration of the. gonopods, coasult the accompanying figure. Color in life as follows: tergites dark olive, suffused with black, a suggestion of a median dark line on the posterior part of the body; anterior and posterior corners of keels, lateral ends of collum, and distal half of anal segment Ocr. 15, 1948 bright pink; top of head light brown to about level of antennal sockets, front of head, includ- ing sockets and first antennal segment very dilute brown; antennae mostly olive with last article dark gray in striking contrast. Under- parts entirely whitish gray. Type locality—Saddle Hollow, about 3 miles west of Crozet, Albemarle County, Va., elevation about 2,000 feet, on the east side of the Blue Ridge. Dominant vegetation Lirioden- dron tulipifera, Quercus spp., and Cercis cana- densis. Type specumens.—Male holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 1834, collected on March 28, 1948, by the writer; two male paratypes collected in April 1936 by Drs. Irving Fox and J. P. E. Morrison, U.S.N.M. no. 1836. Remarks—The paratypes were collected along Skyline Drive, 4 miles north of Thornton Gap, Page County, Va., and still another locality is afforded by a female tentatively as- signed to this form, collected on the Blue Ridge about 5 miles southeast of Charlestown, Jeffer- son County, W. Va. The range is thus seen to be restricted to the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province between the Potomac and James Rivers, but of course the species may be found elsewhere as well. The Blue Ridge in Virginia is occupied by several distinct, probably endemic, forms of animals, so that the addition of this milliped to the list is interesting but not surprising. Nannaria morrisoni is so manifestly different from most of the other members of the genus, such as media, minor, conservata, fowleri, and terricola, that its inclusion in that genus may be questioned. I place it here for the following reasons: except for the greatly produced sternal processes morrisoni can be separated from other forms only by the small size and nature of the gonopods. These processes are present in other species as small lobes and probably will be found to vary in size in the different forms. As regards the gonopods, while they seem very dis- junct, I am describing elsewhere a species from Mountain Lake, Va., which is perhaps inter- mediate between morrison and the other spe- cies. Judged from the material I have exam- ined, and from species figured in the literature, Nannaria can be divided into several groups on the basis of the gonopods—one based on media and its relatives, one on scutellaria, and one to include morrisoni and the related HOFFMAN: THREE NEW EASTERN MILLIPEDS 349 species mentioned above. Recognition of those groups as genera may become convenient when numerous species have been described in Nannaria. A thorough treatment of the genus is much needed, and in fact is contemplated, but must be preceded by extensive field work. This species is named in honor of Dr. Joseph P. E. Morrison, of the U. 8. National Museum, whose diligence and interest in securing myriapods incidentally to collection of land snails have enriched the Museum collection with much valuable material. Tucoria viridicolens, n. sp Figs. 5, 6 Diagnosis.—Size small for the genus; gono- pods of the splendida type, apical process small, upper part of telopodite distad of constriction bearing three sharp teeth. Description of holotype —Body robust, length about 40 mm (specimen broken), width 9.3 mm; sides subparallel, segments 4 through 14 of full width; body tapering abruptly cephalad, very gradually caudad. Tergites well arched, keels wide, continuing slope of dorsum. Collum crescentic in dorsal aspect, caudo- lateral edges tapering slightly cephalad; lateral marginal thickenings absent. Segments 2, 3, and 4 similar, caudal margins of tergites straight, of keels swept forward, smoothly rounded; dorsal marginal thickenings present only on fourth, very obscure. Segments 5 through 14 similar, caudal mar- gins of keels produced slightly caudad, caudo- lateral corners of keels not produced into lobes; sides of keels smooth, rounded, somewhat con- vex; cephalolateral corners broadly rounded off. Dorsal marginal thickenings rather poorly developed, smooth; upper surface of keel finely granular, of dorsum slightly wrinkled. Segments posterior to twelfth agree with those preceding, but with keels becoming in- creasingly produced caudad, and segments be- coming narrower; keels of the nineteenth form short, bluntly triangular lobes. Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect, tip slightly truncated, two tiny subterminal lateral tubercules present. Anal valves slightly in- flated, smooth, the setiferous tubercules almost obsolete; mesial ridges very prominent. Preanal seale broadly triangular. Bases of last pair of legs separated. All sternites smooth, glabrous, very weakly pro- 350 duced into lobes at bases of legs, those posterior to gonopods broad, those between third, fourth, and fifth pairs of legs with conspicuous, low, pointed lobes. Coxae small, unarmed; trochanti weakly armed; femora with well developed spines. Terminal tarsal joint shorter than proximal two, but slightly longer than the unu- sually short femur. Gonopods large, conspicious, projecting cephalad and in contact mesially. Mesial process large, very setiferous, area immediately posterior on the mesial side trilobed; lateral process very small, not produced apically; blade of telopodite flat, curved forward over base, strongly constricted about one-third its length from distal end; terminal portion bent laterad, very flattened, a small apical projection, outer surface with three conspicuous sharp teeth in an oblique row. Configuration of gonopods as shown in the accompanying draw- ings. Second pair of legs with the usual cylindrical distally truncate seminal lobes. Pregenital limbs hairy, without spines on the femora; tarsal claws short, heavy, blunt. Color faded from long preservation, but ap- pears to have been black or very dark brown in life with caudolateral halves of the keels orange or yellow. Type locality—Trace Creek, Greensburg, Green County, Ky. Type specuomen.—Male holotype, U.S.N.M. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10 no. 1835, collected by L. Garman on July 15 (no year given). Remarks.—This species is the smallest mem- ber of the genus to be described so far. Its rela- tionships seem to be clearly with T. ken- tuckiana and T. splendida rather than with T. dynama. Following is a key to the known species of Tucoria, based on males. Females of all of the species are not known, and the genitalia of the others not figured. KEY TO SPECIES OF TUCORIA 1. Lateral process of male gonopod small, incon- spicuous, not produced upward nto any sort of spine or projection ~~ ....+..49) 1. 2 Lateral process of male gonopod larger, pro- duced upward into a noticeable, occasionally sharp, projection... }.2 5%. = 2.20 eee ) 2. Apical process on telopodite of gonopod small, simple; distal portion of telopodite with three denticies on outer side............... oe eyes 2 ep ace a viridicolens, n. sp. Apical process larger, curved, slightly crenu- late; distal portion of telopodite without denticles):3 445% ae kentuckiana (Causey) 3. Lateral process of gonopod produced into a broadly triangular spine; distal portion gently curved; dorsum black, trimaculate with yellowiit See os ee splendida (Causey) Lateral process of gonopod produced into an upright slender peg, distally slightly acumi- nate; distal portion of telopodite strongly re- curved toward base, much expanded; dorsum with yellow cross bands........... » Shoes ee eee dynama Chamberlin ZOOLOGY .—More about Mexican urocoptid mollusks.1 Pauu Bartscu, U. §. National Museum. The tireless efforts of Miss Marie E. Bourgeois in personally collecting mollusks and interesting her friends in this group have brought to light two species of urocops not heretofore known to science. These are here diagnosed. A detailed description of Oligostylus hegeweschi is also made possible from topotypes that she collected. Oligostylus hegewischi Bartsch In my paper Notes on some Mexican urocoptid mollusks, with the description of new species in this JourNAL.2 I renamed Bulimus truncatus 1 Received July 8, 1948. * Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 37: 284-288, 1947. Pfeiffer, 1841 (preoccupied by Bulimus trun- catus Bruguiére, 1792), calling it Oligostylus? hegewischt. No material from the type locality being available, I placed a query after the gen- eric designation. I closed my remarks under that species with the statement: ‘“‘It is to be hoped that Miss Bourgeois will rediscover it at Angangueo.”’ Miss Bourgeois took this to heart and paid a visit to Angangueo, Michoa- cAn, and secured a fine series of specimens of this species and donated a splendid lot (No. 488018) to the U. S. National Museum which makes it possible for me to confirm the state- ment made in my paper and to remove the question mark after the generic name, for these topotypes prove to be a typical Olzgostylus. Ocr. 15, 1948 Miss Bourgeois tells us that the specimens were found ‘‘well buried in the leaf mold, or humus (perhaps they were depositing eggs) under dead agave leaves, always well buried in the earth, near the roots, or center of almost every agave (or maguey plant).’’ These plants, she says, “strange to say, were far up on the mountainside of Cerro Guadalupe, just north of town.” This mountain contains no limestone, and the superintendent of the mines told her that there was no limestone within 40 kilo- meters of Angangueo, which is 2,800 meters above sea level. Fic. 1.—Coelocentrum anconai, n. sp. Fie. 2.— Inocentrum wilmoti, n. sp. To my translation of Pfeiffer’s description I may now add: The eggs are white, symmetrically oval, finely, microscopically granulose, measuring in length 4.2 mm, diameter 2.3 mm. The first 5 whorls of the shell form a cylindri- eal apex; beyond this the shell gains very gradually. The apex is blunt. The first turn and a half are smooth; the whorls thereafter be- come axially ribbed and are at first weakly, then more strongly, retractively curved. The BARTSCH: MORE ABOUT MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS Jol ribs are sinuous and average about half the width of the spaces that separate them. They are strongest in the middle turns and weaken toward the end, where the surface shows irregu- lar, small malleations. Fifty of them are present on the last turn of the young speci- mens here figured. Suture well impressed, Periphery of the last whorl weakly angulated. Base short, with a small umbilical chink, well rounded, and marked by the continuations of the axial ribs. Aperture subcircular. Peristome white, thickened at the outer margin, adnate to the preceding whorl. The columella is slen- der. The shell on the later turns is chestnut brown, gradually paling to horn color near the summit of the whorls, contrasting markedly with the yellowish-white peristome. The young specimen figured has 10.1 whorls and measures: Length 10.3 mm, diameter 4.1 mm. The adult shell figured has 7.5 whorls re- maining and measures: Length 29.2 mm, diam- eter 10 mm. This species resembles Olzgostylus mariae Bartsch but is readily distinguished from it by its much weaker ribs and by the malleation of the later turns. Coelocentrum anconai, n. sp. Pies Shell large, elongate-turreted. Our bleached specimens are yellowish white with the peri- stome buff. Early whorls decollated. The 9.5 whorls remaining in the type are slightly rounded and crossed by numerous closely spaced, retractively curved axial ribs, which are best developed near the periphery and summit of the whorls, becoming decidedly reduced on the middle of the turns. More than 200 of these are present upon the penultimate turn. Suture weakly impressed. Periphery obscurely angulated. Base well rounded, with an umbili- cal chink, marked by the feeble continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture subquadrate. Peri- stome slightly thickened and reflected at the edge, free for about 1 mm from the preceding whorl. There is a slight carina present on the outside at the posterior angle. A fold is appar- ent on the columella deep within the aperture. Columella narrow with a decided twist, bearing distantly spaced, sigmoid, and sublamellar folds. The type, U. S. N. M. no. 589052, has 9.5 whorls remaining and measures: Length 61 mm; diameter 20 mm. It was collected in the 352 woods of Ocote, at Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, and donated to the Museum by Prof. I. Ancona, whose name I am pleased to attach to the species. A second specimen somewhat less perfect is in Professor Ancona’s collection. The large size and slender columella will readily distinguish this from the other known species of Coelocentrum. In the narrowness of the columella it re- sembles Coelocentrum pfeiffert Dall from the same general region. That species, however, is very much smaller. The type measures: Length 38 mm, diameter 16 mm. The largest specimen, a topotype, having 8.2 whorls, measures: Length 44.8 mm, diameter 16 mm. Liocentrum wilmoti, n. sp Fig. 2 Shell of medium size, white. The truncated specimen almost cylindric. The remaining whorls are slightly rounded and marked by numerous slightly curved, retractively slanting JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 10 axial ribs separated by spaces about as wide as the ribs, of which 140 are present upon the penultimate whorl. These riblets pass un- diminished from the summit to the periphery. Suture slightly impressed. Periphery with a weak keel. Base short, well rounded, with an umbilical chink, marked by the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture obliquely subcircular with a columellar fold deep within; peristome adnate to the preceding whorl at the parietal wall. Columella slender, twisted, smooth. The type U.S.N.M. no. 589051, was collected by George Wilmot in Oaxaca, on a mountainside near the auto highway, between the cities of Oaxaca and Tehuantepec. It has 8.1 whorls re- maining and measures: Length 27.3 mm; diameter 10.4 mm. In outline it somewhat resembles von Martens’ Coelocentrum champion: from the Cerro Zunil, Guatemala, differing from this, however, in the aperture, which is solute in von Martens’ species, the size of columella, and other details. ACADEMY’S ANNIVERSARY “RED BOOK” DISTRIBUTED The thirty-third edition of the Academy’s Directory, or ‘‘Red Book,”’ commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Academy and containing pictures of 499 of its members, was published in July and distributed to the membership. This is the first Directory so illustrated to appear. Car- rying as it does halftone reproductions of portraits of many of the leading scientists and engineers of the Washington area, it forms a pictorial and historical record that should increase in interest and value over the years. As usual, The Directory carries a com- plete list of Academy members and mem- bers of affiliated societies, with addresses. Also given are names of the officers, text of the bylaws and constitutions, and brief his- torical résumés of the organization of each of the 19 societies affiliated with the Acad- emy. The book aggregates 300 pages. Less than 90 copies remain available for sale. They are priced at $1 per copy to indi- viduals. Orders and remittances should be addressed to Howarp 8. RAppLEye, Treas- urer of the Washington Academy of Sci- ences, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington 25, D. C. as < it Sty ee hig gt SIE RR ee ta Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences Peenhas: see ecceceseesss++-PREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards De ic dik cacela seks eee KE hs C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Museum PMEUNI as oc nv se leh ce pe os es HOWARD DO, RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey EMM eo ke ek Use we. NaTHAN R Suiru, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription iM anager of Banh irie: SUR gue” Oi in ee anc Meea oai arate O81 OR (BEES GOR es BO eR aaa Ra Haraup A, Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington...... PERE E> ¢eeeceess WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington....... i phar s wsaasee een a ae T. DALE STEWART Paoioeical pociety of. Washinrton. 2... ceo ec ec vena ees ... JOHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington...... ae ein a Nene Br gee CuHarues E. WHITE Entomological Society of Washington...... Or Le A .....C. F. W. Murseseck National Geographic Society................ seeeeeees+ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington.............. SPs sean WiiuiaAM W. 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Karu F. Herzreip (chairman), Naruan L. Drake, Liorp D. FELTON, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. RoonzEy, RoBERT S1MHA4, Micuany X. SULLIVAN Committee on Grants-in-aid LOT LESCOTEUD gives seis lace aide ae eee LU Ree Spumiaia tks rahe Bink ..F. H. H. Roserts, Jr. eee Anna KE. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY Representative on Council of Mp A ah ee tala gate So as nid ce ape ece «Wie eae FRANK THONB IRIE EOF A ULATIONS 1 Agen Ss Nie ow ate olds foie aula» okie ts tee via ens Meld en ageimictaeg ‘ay Witi1am G. BroMBACHER (chairman), Harotp F. Stimson, HerBert L. HALLER ee GRU NEUET Se po oe Cee leis Dae Wial Swiss nie uersaneelnalh gies com Gee wee pga ..JOHN W. McBurnny (chairman), Rocmr G. BatTss, WILLIAM A. WILDHACK CONTENTS ARCHEOLOGY.—Palachacolas Town, Hampton County, South Caro- — lina.-. Josepa: KR. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 38 DECEMBER 15, 1948 No. 12 ETHNOLOGY .—The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem pole. PHiLir DRUCKER, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. The problem of the antiquity of the so- called “totem pole’ on the Northwest coast is not a simple one, and yet it is of impor- tance from several points of view: for in- terpretations of art history of the area; and for appraisals of interareal relationships as well. Barbeau has in various papers as- sembled evidence which he interprets as indicating the very recent inception of the complex. Other writers have been influenced by his conclusions: Herskovits, for instance, in a discussion of cultural dynamics in his recently published work, was led by Barbeau’s view to cite the Northwest coast totem pole as a particularly neat example of a historically documented product of ac- culturative influences deriving from Euro- pean contacts.? Likewise, Quimby, in a well-considered appraisal of sources and types of extraneous influences on North- west coast culture during the period of the maritime fur trade, weakens his position slightly by citing the debatable point of historic period origin of the totem pole as a fact along with the far more certain de- velopments he points out.? As far as Quimby’s thesis is concerned, this one item is of slight importance; the significant points he himself develops as to varieties of racial types and sources of cultural in- 1 Published by permission of the Smithsonian Institution. The writer wishes to express his _ thanks to the director of the Massachusetts His- torical Society, Boston, and the director of the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass., for permission to examine and utilize materials from the invalu- able records in the archives under their charge. Received October 12, 1948. 2M. J. Hersxovirs, Man and his works: 480-481. New York, 1948. . 3 GEORGE QuimBy, Culture contact on the North- west coast, 1785-1795. Amer. Anthrop. n. s., 50: _ 247-255 (254). 1948, 389 RE i OR Ea fluence are for the most part beyond dis- pute. However, because of this dangerous tendency for interpretations to be accepted as proved facts, it seems important to point out available evidence that suggests a con- clusion quite different from Barbeau’s. The aim of the present paper will be to review critically what information can be as- sembled on the problem. Barbeau’s views as to the recent (historic) beginnings of the art of carving the totem poles on the northern Northwest coast are pretty well summarized in one of his earlier discussions of the problem: The art of carving poles is not really as ancient as is generally believed. Its growth to its present proportions is largely confined to the nineteenth century, that is, after the traders had introduced Kuropean tools, the steel ax, the adze, and the curved knife, in large numbers among the natives. The lack of suitable tools, wealth, and leisure in earlier times precluded the existence of elaborate structures. The benefits that accrued from the fur trade, besides, stimulated ambitions and rivalries between the leading families. Their only desire was to outdo the others in wealth and the display of prestige. The totem pole became, after 1830, the fashionable way of showing one’s power and crests, while commemorating the dead or decorating the houses. The size of the pole and the beauty of its imagery published abroad the fame of those it represented. That is really a pretty moderate state- ment especially if the phrase “its growth to its present proportions” is stressed, for few persons familiar with Northwest coast culture of the historic period would deny that the tall carved poles, with their in- 4M. Barseav, Totem poles of the Gitksan, Upper Skeena River, British Columbia. Nat. Mus. Canada Bull. 61 (Anthropological Ser. no. 12): 12. Ottawa, 1929. JAN 6 1949 390 volved, stylized, but powerful motifs, be- came most abundant after 1830, just as Barbeau says, as one of the results of the breakdown of native social patterns brought about on the one hand by the decimation of population (from disease and from in- creased efficiency of intergroup warfare due to introduction of firearms) and on the other by the enormous influx of new riches brought about by European trade. We know fairly certainly that the pole complex spread southward to Coast Salish territory during historic times.® Yet elsewhere Bar- beau indicates that he believes the entire complex of carving poles must have come into being since the ‘‘day of the early cir- cumnavigators, that is, after 1778’ and points to a possible source of influence in the ‘‘Kanakas’”’ (whom he describes in a footnote as “Slaves or serfs from the Sand- wich Islands who were used in fairly large numbers by the ancient traders,” doing something of an injustice to the adven- turous spirit that led many Hawaiians to ship aboard the trading vessels to see some- thing more of the world): We may wonder whether the insertion of aba- lone pearl segments as decoration for wood carv- ings—and this is a notable feature of many of the finest Haida, Tsimsyan, and Tlingit carvings—is not to be traced to this source, since the large, deep sea, shells themselves, from which they are cut, were imported, so we understand from the south sea in the course of transoceanic trade.’ And in another place he states: . . we may draw the attention of the reader to the close similarities existing between the plastic arts of the North West Coast and those of various people around the edges of the Pacific ocean. An instance will suffice here. The early navigators noticed, about 1780-1790, the striking resem- blances between the fortresses of the Haidas, the Kwakiutl, and other coast natives, to the hippah of the New Zealand natives. The totem poles, as fairly recently carved and erected on both sides of - the Pacific, offer the same compelling evidence 5H. G. Barnert, The southern extent of totem pole carving. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 33: 379-889. 1942. 6 M. BarBEAU, Alaska beckons: 248. Caldwell, Idaho, 1947. 7 BARBEAU, 1929, p. 24. ““Kanaka”’ influence is also stressed in Barbeau’s paper The modern growth of the totem pole on the Northwest coast. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 385-398. 1938. (Also in Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. for 1939: 491—498. 1940.) e . .* sets Hab wl * , JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 (See Plate xxx figures 2—5 [reference is to figures showing Northwest Coast totem poles and Maori carved poles and house entry-posts, the latter re- produced from Best’s ‘‘The Pa Maori, New Zea- land.”’ PD]). The technique for their erection was also identical (See Plate xxx1, figures 1, 2) (figures showing strikingly similar methods of raising a tall pole, from Tsimshian and Maori. PD].§ There appear to be several flaws in the argued derivation from ‘‘Kanaka”’ sources, to which we shall return later on. More important is the line of reasoning that Barbeau follows in arriving at his conclu- sions. One of his basic points is that totem poles are not described in the accounts left by early European and American explorers. The other is that while aboriginal tools may have sufficed for the carving of small objects, massive carvings such as those of the totem poles were not practicable until the introduction of iron and steel tools by the maritime traders. The reader is in some- thing of a quandary, in regard to the first point, when he reads the quotations from Bartlett and Fleurieu that Barbeau him- self cites, describing tall elaborately carved entry-poles of Haida winter houses in the vicinity of Cloak Bay, seen in 1791.° It appears, however, that Barbeau draws a distinction between the detached memorial poles, which are his “totem poles,” and carvings which were integral parts of the houses, such as the carved house posts, and the entry or frontal-poles that con- tained the doorway by means of which one entered the house. We may perhaps grant him the distinction between carved house posts, and the much taller memorial and entry-poles, carved with multiple figures, but to separate the memorial or com- memorative poles from the entry-poles rather vitiates his argument as to the neces- sity for iron or steel tools for the carving of the former. While from the functional point of view the two varieties of tall carved poles may have been distinct, they were stylistically alike, and one type in- 8 Barbeau, 1929, pp. 26-27. ° Op. cit., pp. 16, 17. The Bartlett drawing is in a manuscript in the possession of Col. L. R. Jenkins, Director of the Peabody Museum, Salem. It has been published in E. Snow’s The sea, the ship, and the sailor, Salem, 1925. Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER: ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE volved no more labor than the other in its execution. It is worth noting that the dis- tribution of the entry-pole, set against the outside of the house with the open mouth of a huge figure forming the doorway, had a rather wide if sporadic distribution (and the sporadicity may be due in part to in- completeness of our information from the early historic period). In addition to its oc- currence among the Haida,’° it is reported by a number of observers among the Central Nootkan Clayoquot: Meares, in 1788, and Haswell and Boit, in 1799, were all impressed by the Clayoquot portal pole in “Wikannannish’s” house." Haswell’s peculiarly punctuated but graphic descrip- tion of the Clayoquot village is worth quoting: Their Towns are larger and much more numer- ously inhabited than those of the Sound (i.e., Nootka Sound. PD) they are better bult. And are cleaner their Clumas or carved pillers are more numerous and better exicuted some of these are so large that the Mouth serves as doarway into their houses some of their ridgpoals which are of incredable length and bulk are neatly Fluted others are painted in resemblance of various sorts of beasts and birds we met with resemblences of the Sun both painted and carved the rays shoot from every side of the orb which like our Country Sign painters they pictur with eyes nose and mouth and a round plump face.” In addition to the fact that the memorial poles and the entry-poles must be accounted as essentially the same, technologically, at least, there is the fact that memorial poles themselves are reported from several local- ities during the 1790’s. Barbeau himself quotes a passage from Ingraham’s Journal of the Hope in which Ingraham relates that he went to see ‘2 pillars in front of a Haida village .. . about 40 feet in height, carved in a very curious manner, indeed, represent- 10 Marchand, Bartlett, and others have given us descriptions of tall Haida portal poles, elabo- rately carved, seen in the early 1790’s. These de- scriptions, which Barbeau (1929) has reproduced in full, make clear that the objects were tall poles, not “posts through which a round mouthlike en- trance had been cut,” as Barbeau phrases it (1947, p. 235). 11 Meares, quoted by Barbeau, loc. cit., p. 16; Haswell and Boit in: F. W. Howay, Voyages of the Columbia, Massachusetts Hist. Soc. Publ. 61, 69 pp. Boston, 1941. 12 HASWELL, loc. cit. O91 ing Men, Toads, etc... .’’!® There can be little doubt that these were totem pole; of the same type as those erected in the middle of the 19th century. Fleurieu refers somewhat vaguely to ‘‘monuments in honor of the dead” seen at several Haida villages, but does not make clear whether these are the ‘‘mausolea or tombs”’ he de- scribed elsewhere (platforms on top of 10- foot poles, and boxes ‘“‘wrought with art” supported on four short posts). At Lituya Bay, in 1793, the Malaspina expedition saw, and the artist Tomas de Suria sketched, a huge mortuary carving, very clearly rep- resenting a grizzly bear, set up alongside of some elaborately carved mortuary boxes raised on poles. In 1794 there occurred the interesting circumstance of a trading ship captain’s assisting a Haida chief in setting up a memorial pole. The captain was Josiah Roberts, of the ship Jefferson, out of Boston; the Haida chief was ‘‘Cunneah,”’ a well-known personage among the mari- time traders of the day, whose village was situated on North Island, on Parry Passage. Howay has summarized the very interest- ing journal of this voyage, which was kept by Bernard Magee, the first officer. Thanks to the courtesy of the director of the Massachusetts Historical Society, where the original manuscript journal is preserved, I was permitted to read and ex- tract pertinent passages from Magee’s ac- count. They run as follows: [June 17th, 1794]. . . in the afternoon the Capt. with the Carpenters & some hands in the pinnace went to the village at the request of Cunneah to Me INGRAHAM, quoted in Barbeau, 1939, p. 496. 14 FLEURIEU, quoted by Barbeau, op. cit., pp. 17-18, 203. 14 This Suria drawing was noted some years ago by Wagner in a paper on Suria’s journal (H. R. Wa@neER, The voyage of Tomas de Suria to the Northwest coast, 1791-1793, Pacific Hist. Rev. 5: 234-276. 1936. The drawing appears in a publica- tion of the Museo Naval de Madrid, 1932; it has recently been reproduced by Wolfgang Paalen in a very enlightened article on Northwest coast art published in the magazine DYN (no. 4-5, Mexico, 1943). 16 F, W. Howay, A Yankee trader on the North- west coast, 1791-1795, Washington Hist. Quarterly 21: 83-94. 1930. Barbeau, 1947, p. 250, appar- ently refers to this incident when he speaks of “‘a seaman named Jefferson” who helped the Haidas erect a carved pole. 392 plane and smooth a monumental pillar of wood— previous to its erection on the morrow—in the evening returned on board... [18th] . . . in the morning I went in the pinnace with the Carpenters and 2 hands to the village took along with us 2 spair topmasts for sheers & sufficient Tackling to set up the pillar—which in the afternoon got in its place—after finishing the necessary requisites for its intended purpose of sepulture of a daughter of Cunneah’s—I returned to the’ ship. /':) * On the 19th, Cunneah and his wife in- vited Captain Roberts and his officers to the village. The captain, the ship’s doctor, and the supercargo attended the mortuary potlatch. Cunneah gave each of the officers a sea-otter skin, the dead child’s father (Magee seems to have erred in his state- ment of the relationship made the previous day) likewise made them gifts, and other chiefs followed suit. Cunneah then re- quested the captain to have the pole painted. This passage with the description of the potlatch has been published ver- batim by Howay in his paper on the journal. Some days later, Magee was again sent by the captain to the village: [July 8th] ...in the afternoon I went to the village with some hands at the desire of Cunneah in the morning—to raise an image on the monu- ment lately set up—which they cut and carved with a great deal of art—being the representation of some wild anemile—unknown to us—somewhat the resemblance of a tode... Several interesting details may be re- marked in this account in addition to the fact of the erection of a mortuary pole, which we may suppose to have been (and as a slightly later journal makes clear definitely was) a pole like the famous re- cent Old Kasaan Bear pole, with the addi- tion of having a small excavation chopped out in the back to contain the dead child’s body, Haida-fashion. We note that even in 1794, after some years of contact and trade in the Parry Passage vicinity, where nearly all ships that made the coast put in, the Indians, despite their appreciation of white carpenters’ and riggers’ superior techniques, had not acquired the manual dexterity to use the European tools, which of course require a completely different set of motor habits. As a matter of fact, ethnographic accounts show that the adz in one or JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 another of its local forms remained in use until the latter part of the nineteenth century. It persisted despite the fact that for close work it is a much more laborious and a much slower implement than the ~ plane and spokeshave. The same _per- sistence of old tool patterns is documented at Nootka Sound, not far to the south, where white contact was even more intense than in Haida territory. Jewitt relates that during his enforced stay at Nootka, 1803 to 1805, the natives continued felling trees with their iron-bladed chisels, although it took several of them two or three days to fell a tree, chipping away around and around it beaver-fashion, that he and Thompson could have laid low in a few hours with their axes. And yet, being a practical people, the Northwest coast na- tives recognized the advantages of the superior tools it took them so long to get the knack of using. It should be noted too, in Magee’s ac- count, that the initiative in the matter came from Cunneah; Captain Roberts simply had the base pole cut and “‘planed”’ and set up as the Haida chief wanted it done. Roberts’s aim was clear. All he cared about was cultivating the chief’s goodwill, in the hope of being given preference when the latter had furs for trade. The ‘“‘wild anemile”’ figure that surmounted the post was carved by native craftsmen; certainly there is no intimation that the ship’s car- penters had the least thing to do with it. We are fortunate in having a description of this same pole from the pen of a more articulate writer than Magee. In 1799, the ship Hliza, Captain James Rowan, out of Boston, was trading along the Queen Charlotte Islands. On March 22 of that year, her ship’s clerk, whose journal is preserved in the Massachusetts Historical Society archives, went ashore to spend the night at Cunneah’s invitation.!”7 The journal gives a lively sketch of Haida house-life, as 17 As Howay has pointed out (in the Voyages of the Columbia, p. 96, note 3. 1941), the attribution of this journal to William Sturgis is incorrect. Sturgis was first officer of the Eliza on this voyage, and his log is in the same archives, but it is a real deck log—his ‘‘Remarks”’ columns contain almost nothing but winds, sails set, depth of water and type of ground at anchorages, and the like. 393 ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER "AZOIDOY [BOLIOFSIFT SPPOSNYOVsse ay} Jo Asoz.1n09 oY} YSnoIyy poonpoidoy (6621) 02274 drys 94} Jo [eurnol oy} wos ‘oseTTIA _.s,MvouuNngD,, Jo Y Ped es ee “st Pty MIA—T “OWT 394 witnessed on that occasion, then under the date of March 23, goes on to say: In the morning I rose early to examine the village, and take a sketch of it... [this sketch s reproduced in Fig. 1 of the present paper. PD] the village consisted of 8 houses of which Cun- neaws was the largest, being about 50 feet long, 30 broad and 15 to the rise of the roof. to the peak of it I suppose was about 22 or 3 feet. At the right hand of the village as you go to it were a number of wooden structures raised I suppose over the bodies of their dead chiefs. some were exactly like a gallows, some a solid square piece of timber about 15 feet high on which were carved the figures of men and children. but the only thing I saw which had any idea of proportion, was a Pillar by the side of Cunneaw’s house on top of which was a figure intended to represent a bear; the figure and Pillar were both painted red with Ochre. the teeth, eyes, nostrils, and the inside of the ears (which were stuck forward) of the animal were made of mother of Pear] shell; which gave it a very beautiful appearance, in comparison to what North West Sculpture generally has... This pole, consisting of an animal figure surmounting a straight plain shaft, along- side the same chief’s house, must have been the one Magee told of, even though he thought the ‘‘wild anemile”’ figure repre- sented a ‘‘tode.’”? His remark that it was “carved with a great deal of art’ is signifi- cant. In other words, the bear figure, which called forth both men’s admiration, was a pretty gaudy, not to say garish, item. This fact, together with the utter lack of com- ment on the other carved poles by most writers (and the very casual mention by the writer of the journal just quoted), suggests that the few data we have on Northwest coast carving from the early historic period are more justly to be attributed to the poor artistic taste of the seafarers than to the nonexistence of the sculptures at that time. A few days before the writing of the above passage, the journal has a description of ‘‘Altatsee’s village of Ta- tanee,’”? near Cloak Bay, which, we are informed, ‘‘consisted of the large Number of two Houses...’ Going ashore in the evening, the keeper of the journal spent the night, and then, under the date of March 11, relates: I rose at daybreak and having taken a sketch of the two houses, to save the length of descrip- tion [this sketch unfortunately is missing from the journal. PD], and seen two images that were JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 at a short distance from them which Altatsee told me were intended to represent two Chiefs, that were his relatives (or rather they were his ancestors for they looked as if they were upwards of a hundred years of age) that had been killed in battle... (etc.) In addition to the lack of appreciation of native art, we have so few mentions of carved poles for another very obvious reason. The winter villages, where such poles stood, were situated in sheltered coves with sloping sand or gravel beaches on which canoes were easily landed and launched. These sites are often actually partly drowned alluvial fans. The sailing- ship people sought anchorages in coves and harbors of quite another sort: they needed sheltered but deep water, so that they could pay out plenty of cable and swing with the tides without going aground. Sometimes they moored, of course, usually by a bower anchor and a hawser run from aft to the shore, made fast to a tree, but this was an emergency measure, really, and dangerous because at times the Indians cut the hawsers, either to steal them or with the hope of wrecking the vessel. Ac- tually few people on board, aside from those who deliberately went by boat or canoe for the purpose, ever saw the winter villages. In addition, many of the traders stayed on the coast only through the summer season, and lay to off localities where the summer camps of the natives were, running down to the Hawaiian Islands to winter if they wanted to trade a second season. However, even from the few accounts mentioned, it seems fairly clear that in the 1790’s, when the traders first began to comb the coast, and visited the winter villages, there were not only elaborately carved portal or entry poles in Haida ter- ritory (and at Clayoquot), but there were also mortuary and memorial poles standing at the Haida villages and among the northern Tlingit. It seems that such poles were more common!y to one side of the village (among the Haida and at Lituya Bay), rather than directly in front of it, as the later custom developed, but they were being put up, nonetheless. I am not familiar with any journal that describes Tsimshian winter villages of this period. The Eliza Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER: ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE appears to have been one of the first trading vessels, if not the first, to trade with the Nisga up Observatory Inlet, but her people never went up the mouth of the river to the village and have left no description of it. There is another line of evidence con- cerning use of memorial poles which may be considered. De Laguna has recently traced use of such features—most of them are, to be sure, less ornate than those of the northern Northwest coast, but many of them involved some carving of simple figures, and/or painting—from as far south as the Columbia River Basin northward along the coast to southwest Alaska and down the coast of northeast Asia.!® On the basis of such a distribution, the Tlingit- Haida-Tsimshian memorial pole complex (and the intimately related entry-pole pat- tern) would seem to be but a local in- tensification and elaboration of what has all the earmarks of a moderately old trait. To return a moment to the question of “Kanaka”’ influence on Northwest coast art, it is necessary to consider the route of the English and American traders. After beating their way around Cape Horn they sometimes put in for wood and water at islands off the South American coast. The Americans were a little chary of doing this, the English dared not, for their ships were sure to be confiscated and they themselves interned by the jealous Spanish authorities. Whether they put in there or not, however, they stood for the Hawaiian Islands run- ning before the Southeast Trade Winds, where they were sure of plenty of water, fresh stores, and wood. Many ships that planned to spend several seasons trading on the Coast ran down to the Islands to winter. By and large the traders main- tained good relations with the Hawaiians, being very conscious of the latter’s numbers and warlike proclivities—besides those natives had no treasures by which the traders might be tempted. The captains soon learned that when they were short a hand or two, replacements could be re- cruited easily (very early in the trade, a 18 F, pE Lacuna, The prehistory of northern North America as seen from the Yukon. Soc. Amer. Arch. Mem. 3 (Suppl. to Amer. Antiquity 12: no. 3), pp. 90 ff. 1947. 395 chief’s son who wanted to see the world was taken to the Coast, to China, and back to Hawaii, which may have set a precedent), and the Hawaiians seem to have made good hands. We know that several Hawaiians made more than one voyage to the North- west coast, for at times they acted as in- terpreters between Indians and whites.! Yet there seem to be no records—at least I know of none—of Maori being taken to the Northwest coast. Yet the Maori carved portal poles and carved house fronts are the ones whose similarity to Northwest coast totem poles is pointed out by Bar- beau; the Hawaiians, so far as we know, did no such elaborate monumental carving. The use of abalone-shell inlays is more easily understood as the transfer of the inlay technique from sea-otter teeth and the opercula of a sea snail, which was noted by the earliest voyagers on the Northwest coast,?° to a new and attractive material. The shells themselves seem to have been imported from California by the Spanish— not from the ‘South Seas’—they are usually referred to in the accounts as ‘“Monterrey shells.” Barbeau also brings up the question of Russian influence on the Northwest coast at a very early period.”! That too is a doubt- ful point. The Russians were in ‘‘Alaska”’ by the middle of the eighteenth century, but the part of Alaska they were in is a long way from the Northwest coast. They were reaping a golden harvest in southwest Alaska, and so far as available records go made no attempt to cross the Gulf of Alaska until well along in the 1790’s (estab- lishing a short-lived post at Yakutat 1796 and an ill-fated fort near Sitka, in 1799). Native trade along this wide unfriendly reach of coast did occur—as witness the Cross Sound atlatls, Aleut in type carved with Tlingit designs, and the wmzak, per- haps Chugachmiut in origin, seen at Port Mulgrave by La Perouse,” but there is no 19 QuiMBY, 1948, refers to a number of cases of Hawaiians who shipped to the coast. 20 Cf. JAMES Cook, Voyage to the Pacific Ocean (etc.) 2: 327. 21 BARBEAU, 1929. p. 22. 22'The atlatls are figured by O. M. Datron, Ethnographic collections from the northern coast of North America. Internat. Archiv fiir Ethnogr. 396 evidence that such trade occurred on a scale sufficient to account for the abun- dance of iron on the Northwest coast as having simply been passed on from the Russian establishment on Kodiak: Island. After all, Nootka Sound is many miles and a multitude of hands, in hand to hand ex- change, from Kodiak Island, and it was at Nootka that Cook saw iron-bladed tools to the practical exclusion of all other forms. There is no evidence, in short, that the Russian influence on Tlingit and other Northwest coast tribes was of any impor- tance until the very end of the eighteenth century, by which time the natives had learned a smattering of English and had acquired vast quantities of American and British-made trade goods. Nor can trade from Hudson’s Bay Com- pany posts be considered a very likely source. For one thing, in Cook’s time, and for some years, the nearest Hudson’s Bay post was many days’ travel inland, to the east of the Rockies. For another, the types of the iron implements themselves—the heavy-bladed, rapidly tapering daggers (on the northern coasts, at least, double- pointed ones were in vogue at the time of first European visits) and the well-known curved knives—do not appear to have been forms made and traded by Hudson’s Bay Company. And finally, if any coureur de bois who had any contact with outlying Hudson’s Bay posts had ever crossed the mountains, Mackenzie, who was a practical as well as a bold explorer, would surely have got information that would have saved him many of the painful mistakes he made on his heartbreaking “journey to the Pacific Ocean.” It seems evident, in short, that the source of Northwest coast iron tools can not be attributed either to Russian or to Hudson’s Bay Company sources but must have Jain in some earlier iron-using contact, from which the precious pieces came along well- 10: 227-245, pl. 15. 1897. C. H. Reap, Account of a collection ..., Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. 21: 99-108, fig. 3, 1891. A. P. NipuacKk, The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska..., U.S. Nat. Mus. Rept. for 1888, pp. 225-386. 1890. The umiak is described and figured by La Perouse, Voyage autour le monde... , 1: 390. Paris, 1797. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 established trade channels, dribbling slowly down the length of the coast. One is tempted to suggest some late (A.D.) Siberian ‘Iron Age’’ culture as a source, despite present lack of knowledge of the eastward extent of such cultures. Collins has discussed in some detail the most likely source of the iron found in the Punuk horizon of western Eskimo culture; the metal made its ap- pearance at the beginning of that period, more than a thousand years ago.” Iron from the same Asiatic source may have been transmitted along a route that even- tually brought it to the natives of the Northwest coast in ancient times. That iron from a non-European source was in use in the Alaska Peninsula at the begin- ning of the historic period is made clear by Steller’s remarks concerning the iron knives carried by the natives he saw on the Shumagin Islands in 1741. He states: From the distance I observed the nature of the knife very carefully as one of the Americans un- sheathed it .... It was easy to see that it was of iron, and, besides, that it was not like any Euro- pean product.”4 The persistent tradition among North- west coast natives that their forefathers first obtained iron from timbers containing spikes or bolts or other fittings that drifted up on the beach—presumably timbers of wrecked vessels—has suggested to some writers that this material may have come from junks—Chinese or Japanese—swept from the Asiatic coast by the Japanese Current. The possibility of such craft reaching the Northwest coast periodically, with iron implements aboard, and perhaps survivors of their crews to teach the use of them, can not be dismissed. We have not only the evidence of the Japanese glass net floats, and more recently, mines, that drift ashore in quantities on the outer beaches from the Queen Charlotte Islands to the Oregon, and perhaps northern Cali- fornia coasts, but there is the well-docu- mented incident of the Japanese junk 23 Henry B. Coxuuins, Jr., Archeology of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 96, no. 1, pp. 304-305, 329. 1937. 24 STELLER, 2n F. A. Golder, Bering’s voyages, Amer. Geogr. Soc. Research Ser. No. 2, 2: 97. 1922. ——— Duc. 15, 1948 MILLER: ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF BUGGS ISLAND RESERVOIR wrecked on Cape Flattery with three crew- men still alive.” Or perhaps both these possible sources were involved, including the Siberian Iron Age one. This discussion seems to have gone pretty far afield from its avowed theme of Northwest coast totem poles. Yet all the facts are pertinent. Even if the hypothesis is allowed that the origin of Northwest coast art was intimately linked with the use of metal tools, it is not necessary to as- sume that these tools, and the beginnings of the art style and even its maximum ex- pression in the great carved poles, mus! be 2 C. M. Drury, Early American contacts with the Japanese. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 36: 319-330. 1945. However, despite Quimby’s statements (1948, p. 247), there are no known records of Japanese reaching the coast during the period of the mari- time trade, let alone before. As for timbers with iron in them, however, wrecks of junks seem doubtful possibilities. At least it is my under- standing that one of the characteristics of junks, in addition to their bluff lines, shallow keels, and lug sails, is the lack of metal involved in their construction. For iron-bearing timbers the best possibility would seem to be wreckage from the occasional lost ‘‘nao de Manila’’—the galleons that plied between Manila and Acapulco begin- ning nearly two centuries before Cook stood in to Nootka Sound. 397 dated after the period of first European con- tacts in the closing decades of the eight- eenth century. Three separate sets of facts indicate that Northwest coast art, and the carving of totem poles themselves, antedated all European influences in the area. First, not only small objects carved in best Northwest coast style but totem poles themselves were seen by the first Europeans who had the curiosity to go visit the winter villages where such poles might be found, in northern Tlingit coun- try, among the Haida, and in a related form, among the Nootkan Clayoquot. Second, these poles, or at least the poles in their memorial function, seem to represent an elaboration of a burial complex involving use of memorial poles set up by the graves that extended from the Northwestern United States clear around the Pacific rim into northeastern Asia. And finally, even if such carving was dependent on the use of iron (as of course can not be conclusively proved), it seems most probable that the tribes of the Northwest coast obtained their iron from some Asiatic source long before the entry of Europeans or Russians into the North Pacific. | ARCHEOLOGY .—Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeological survey of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina. CaRL F. Miuuier, River Basin Surveys, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. During the months of February through April 1947, three governmental agencies, the Corps of Engineers, the National Park Service, and the Smithsonian Institution conducted an archeological survey of the area to be flooded by the Buggs Island dam. The dam is being constructed 178.7 river miles above the mouth of the Roanoke River in Mecklenburg County, Va., about 20.3 miles downstream from Clarksville, Va., and 18 miles upstream from the Virginia—North Carolina boundary, taking in part of Mecklenburg, Halifax, and Charlotte Counties in Virginia and Warren, Vance, and Granville Counties in North Carolina. ! Received September 2, 1948. (Communicated by MarruHEw W. STIRLING.) The Roanoke River rises on the eastern slopes of the Appalachian Mountains, flows in a southeasterly direction toward the Atlantic coast, and empties into Albemarle Sound, N. C. The principal tributary, the Dan River, rises in Patrick County, Va., flows into North Carolina, and ultimately returns to Virginia where it enters the Roanoke at Clarksville. A small portion of the drainage basin lies in the rugged terrain of the Allegheny and Blue Ridge Moun- tains, the remainder is in the Piedmont Plateau. The latter is a rolling to hilly country with elevations ranging from 300 to 900 feet above mean sea level. The river channel varies in width from 100 feet in the upper to about 800 feet in the lower reaches. Ninety-four sites were listed by the 398 survey, these comprising 34 village sites, 17 camp sites, 41 flint work shops, and 2 historic iron-working sites. In addition, eight other sites were located outside of the reservoir proper, which will be affected by the reservoir action. The survey shows that most of the in- habitants preferred to settle on the bottom lands usually on’ ground high enough to aftord enough drainage yet close to the river or its tributaries. It is upon the hills away from the streams that the oldest manifesta- tions were found. No mounds were noted within the Basin. Evidence gathered during the survey points to two main cultural horizons, an extremely early culture characterized by an eastern variant of Folsom, as dis- tinguished from the true Folsom found in the western part of the United States, and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 accompanying groups, besides a very much later pottery-making group. Evidence of early man is not new, as former workers have noted his remains in Virginia and other parts of the Kast. Large numbers of points (Fig. 1, a-d) attributed to the east- ern variant of Folsom have been noted as coming from this particular section of Virginia and North Carolina. The possibil- ity of two Folsom camp sites within the basin makes the area more interesting. In the interval between the Folsom oc- cupation and the later occupants of the area, it seems that other early groups were present. This evidence occurs in the form of projectile points having characteristic out- lines, peculiarities of chipping—readily rec- ognized out of context, and are comparable to a number found in sites in the western part of the United States. Fig. 1.—Types of early projectile points from the Buggs Island Reservoir: a—d, eastern variant of the Folsom; e-g, Gypsum Cave; h-l, pentagonal; m, n, Manzano points. 7 Saas ilinak dia orien Dec. 15, 1948 STONE: SIMULIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES Harrington? in his exploration of the Gypsum Cave in Nevada located a number of points attributed by him to early oc- cupants of the cave and were called Gypsum Cave points. These resemble a number of points, similar in outline and chipping, found in southern Spain and assigned to the Solutrean Period. Points resembling these were recovered from the surface of sites in the Buggs Island basin; the best of these are shown in Fig. 1, e-g. Hibben,’ while excavating a cave in the Manzano Mountains in New Mexico, found another distinctive type of point which he attributes to early man in that section. Similar points (Fig. 1, m. n) were recovered from the surface of a site in the Buggs Island basin. These points resemble those found by Harrington at Gypsum Caves with the exception that the Manzano specimens seem to have considerably more flare and definition of shoulder and appar- ently can be assigned to the same relative period, that is, later than Folsom. In this ease the makers of this type of point came into southern Virginia and northern North 2 HARRINGTON, MarK RAYMOND, Gypsum Cave Nevada. Southwest Museum Papers, no. 8. 1933. 3 HipBEN, FRANK C. Evidences of early occupa- tion in Sandia Cave, New Mezico, and other sites in the Sandia-Manzano region. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 99 (23). 1941. ENTOMOLOGY .—Simulium virgatum (Diptera: Simuliidae).! ALAN STONE, Quarantine. Since considerable confusion exists as to the identity of the simuliid fly Simulzwm virgatum Coquillett, this paper is offered to facilitate determination of the species and to describe a closely related new species that has been confused with it. The species here treated fall into the subgenus Dyarella Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946) (type, Simulium mexicanum Bellardi), and this paper deals with the only two species of the subgenus now known from the United States. This subgenus may be diagnosed as follows: Usually rather large species; antenna with 11 segments; anterior veins of wing with 1 Received October 8, 1948. 399 Carolina at a time when Folsom points were no longer manufactured and possibly when Folsom man had vacated this section of the country. Various pentagonal types are found as- sociated with the eastern variant of the Folsom which show fluting and comparable base treatment. These are best illustrated by types h, 2,7, k, and l, of Fig. 1. Apparently there was a time, after these early occupants, when no settlements were established in the area. At a much later date a possible prepottery group infiltrated and occupied certain sections of Virginia and North Carolina which in turn were fol- lowed by pottery-making groups whose cul- ture compares favorably with that of the Watts Bar and Candy Creek Foci of Tennessee. At the time of the coming of white man a Siouan group is reported to have occupied the Occaneechi Island at the confluence of the Dan and Roanoke Rivers. This site was abandoned before or about 1700 for in 1701 they were reported to be occupying sites in northern North Carolina. The archeology of this section of the East is practically unknown, and until actual ex- cavation of the various sites has been ac- complished and a thorough study of the data obtained, no definite tie-in with known cultures can be made. Coquillett and a new related species U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant both hairs and spines; vein R with or with- out setae; radial sector not forked; vein Cu. curved; postnotum without pilosity; hind basitarsus with a_ well-developed calcipala; second hind tarsal segment with a distinct pedisulcus; each claw of hind tarsus of female with a subbasal tooth; anterior gonapophyses of female genitalia large, their inner margins subparallel; para- procts small; dististyle of male genitalia large and somewhat flattened. not more than 3 times as long as wide with no basal process but with lateral margin sinuous. The species of this subgenus are not known to attack man, but several have been found feeding on horses. +00 The references given in this paper are by no means complete, only those of real signifi- cance being listed. Simulium (Dyarella) virgatum Coquillett Simulium virgatum Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 25: 97. 1902 (9, o); Dyar and Shannon, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 69(10): 39, figs. 82, 83, 126, 127, 128. 1927 (9, o); Fairchild, Ann. nt. Soc. Amer. 33(4) 718, figs. 5, 7, 32. 1940 (2, pupa); Stains and Knowlton, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 36(2): 274, fig. 75. 1943 (9 only). Simulium hippovorum Malloch, U. S. Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. no. 26: 28, pl. 2, fig. 12. 1914 (9). Simulium rubicundulum Knab, Insecutor In- scitiae Menstruus 2(12): 178. 1914 (9); Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz, Rev. Inst. Salub. y Enferm. Trop. 7(3): 105, 106, 111, 163, 179, figs. 1382, 160. 1946 (<7, larva). Simulium virgatum chiapense Hoffmann, [Mex.] Univ. Nac. An. Inst. Biol. 1(4): 293-297, figs. 2, 9. 1930 (2 pupa). Simulium mathesont Vargas, Rev. Inst. Salub. y Enferm. Trop. 4(4): 360, figs. 39-43. 1943 (7) (new synonymy). Simulium virgatum may be distinguished from all of the species now placed in the sub- genus Dyarella by the following diagnostic characters: Male: Scutum with stripes, when viewed posteriorly the pale stripes broad and distinct to the prescutellar depression; wing at least 3.5 mm long; all hairs at base of costa dark. Genitalia: Adminiculum (Fig. 3) with a strong median projection from the posterior border nearly half as long as dististyle; lateral angle of adminiculum a rounded rectangle, the space between central process and lateral margin not strongly concave; dististyle (Fig. 5) when flat- tened with inner margin nearly straight, outer margin distinctly curved; distal spine very small. Female: Scutum with distinct curved stripes; wing at least 3.5 mm long; hairs at base of costa on dorsal surface dark; tibiae rather broadly orange-brown medially, not mostly dark with a narrow subbasal pale ring. The female is not separable externally from bricefiot V.M. & D., or hinmani V.M. & D. Genital fork (Fig. 1) with strong inwardly directed tooth from each arm near base as well as a strong outwardly directed projection; handle with swollen knob at end; paraprocts with strong hairs confined to posterior margin. Pupa: Respiratory filaments (Fig. 9) 8 (6 in two groups of 8, 2 single); dorsum of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 12 thorax smooth, not strongly reticulated. Co- coon (Fig. 7) with dorsal aperture surrounded | by numerous projections connected distally. Type data: Simulium virgatum Coquillett: 27°9%,29 9, Las Vegas Hot Springs, N. Mex. August 4 to 14 (H. 8. Barber). U.S.N.M. no. 6183. The male, collected August 4 with the genitalia mounted on a slide and bearing the label “Type” and Coquillett’s determination label, is here designated lectotype. Simulium hippovorum Malloch: One female in ear of horse, head of Rio Piedras Verdes, altitude about 7,300 feet, Sierra Madre, Mexico (C. H. T. Townsend). U.S.N.M. no. 15407. Simulium rubicundulum Knab: Cérdoba, Mexico, December 17, 1907, one 2 (F. Knab); Las Vegas Hot Springs, N. Mex., August 7, one 92 (H. S. Barber), U.S.N.M. no. 19112 The Cérdoba specimen was selected by Dyar and Shannon (1927) as type. The other speci- men is presumably one of the females of the type series of virgatum, only the specimen of virgatum here selected as lectotype having received a type label. Simulium virgatum chiapense Hoffmann: Only the female originally described. As far as I can discover no lectotype has been selected for this nor is it certain where the original material is now. The pupal filaments of vir- gatum were first figured in this paper under the name virgatum chiapense. Stmulium mathesoni Vargas: Holotype male, 1,400-1,500 m elevation, November 21, 1943, Temixco, Morelos, Mexico (A. Martinez P.). Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales, Mexico. In addition to the holotype two pupae were also described. DIsTRIBUTION. United States: California: Alameda, Calaveras, Fresno, Lake, Los Angeles, Madera, Mariposa, Monterey, Napa, Placer, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Clara, Siskiyou, and Solano Counties. New Mexico: San Miguel County. South Dakota: Fall River County. Texas: Edwards, Medina, Travis, Uvalde, Williamson, and Zavala Coun- ties. Utah: Grand, Utah, and Washington Counties. Washington: Yakima County. Mez-- ico: States of Chiapas, Veracruz, and Chi- huahua. The above distribution is based only on specimens actually seen by me. Fairchild also reports it from Guatemala and Panama and Stains and Knowlton from Oregon. A recent Dec. 15, 1948 STONE: SIMILIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES 401 communication from Dr. Dfaz N. lists the species under the name rubicundulum only from the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Vera- cruz in Mexico. In view of the wide distribution 8 of the species in the Western United States, it is strange that it has not been collected in the more northern states of Mexico. The extensive California records are mostly due to the col- Figs. 1-10.—Simulium virgatum Coquillett and S. solarti, n. sp.: Genital fork of 1, virgatum; 2, solarzi. Adminiculum of 3, virgatum, 4, solariz. Dististyle of 5, virgatum, 6, solariz. Cocoon of 7, vir- gatum, 8, solariz. Respiratory filaments of 9, virgatum, 10, solariz. Figs. 1-6 drawn to same scale. 402 lecting of T. H. G. Aitken and Bernard Brook- man to whom I am indebted for material. Most of the Texas specimens were collected by me in April 1941. Malloch placed Simulium hippovorum in a different group of species from virgatum be- cause of the presence of hairs on the pleuron in addition to and anterior to the pleural tuft. It is true that the type of hippovorum does show distinct pale hairs at the top of the anterior anepisternum, while these are not present in the specimens of virgatum from Las Vegas Hot Springs. Material from Texas reared from ap- parently identical pupae shows these hairs present or absent and it is my opinion that this character has no real significance. Dyar and Shannon (1927) also mentioned the variability in this character. Malloch also stated that the claw of hippovorum is untoothed, but a distinct but small tooth is visible on all three pairs of legs. The type of hippovorum would go to virgatum in the key to females of Vargas and Diaz (1948). The genital fork of the female is exactly as figured by Hoffmann (1930) for Simulium virgatum chiapense and agrees with that of one of the females of the type series of virgatum, and with those of two specimens from Chiapas, Mexico. The type of rubicundulum shows a few fine hairs on the anterior anepisternum on one side. The genital fork of the female is exactly as in hippovorum and the other examples cited in the preceding paragraph. It runs to hinmani in the key of Vargas and Diaz (1948), but in that species the handle of the genital fork has no knob at the base. It is not certain what specimen was used by Dyar and Shannon (1927) in figuring the geni- tal fork of virgatum, but it could have beer. from the type series. The figure is slightly in- accurate since it fails to show the abrupt knob at the base of the handle. The male genitalia are also poorly drawn, and it is impossible to determine from what specimen the drawings were made. The specimen listed from Clio. Calif., is not now in the virgatum collection, and so its identity can not be verified. That from Devils River, Tex., is the new species described in this paper. The description and illustrations of vzrgatum chiapense show this to agree in every detail with the females of the type series of virgatum. It is not clear what Hoffmann took to be the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 type of virgatum when he compared chiapense with it, but he probably thought that Dyar and Shannon’s figures were accurate. There seems to be nothing to distinguish Simulium mathesoni from virgatum, the slightly more rounded shoulders of the adminiculum, as figured by Vargas, being found in some speci- mens of virgatum. A comparison of the species here treated as virgatum with males, females, pupae, and larvae of specimens from Cérdoba. Mexico, determined as mathesont by Vargas, and kindly sent to me for that purpose, show no differences of any consequence. The female description and the distribution of the species as given by Stains and Knowlton (1943) agree with virgaltum, but the male is the following species and will be discussed there. Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946) made two errors in discussing Simulium virgatum. The first was in stating that the name virgatum was proposed to replace the preoccupied name Simulium cinereum Bellardi. This was not the case, since it was described as a new species with no mention of cinerewm. Secondly, they assumed that the figures by Stains and Knowl- ton of the male of virgatum were correct so they based their identification of virgatum on the wrong species and resurrected rubicundulum for the true virgatum. It is possible that tephrodes Speiser (1904), a substitute name for cinereum Bellardi, is the same as virgatum since Morelia, the type locality of cinereum, is not outside the range of virgatum, but until the type of cinereum can be dissected and studied there seems to be no possibility of fixing its identity. It is outside the known range of the new species here described, but not of several of the other species of the group. The topotype females of virgatum run to hinmani in the key of Vargas and Diaz (1948), differing from that species in the same manner as did rubicundulum previously discussed. Simulium (Dyarella) Solarii, n. sp. Simulium virgaium Coquillett: Stains and Knowl- ton, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 36(2): 274, figs. 90, 91. 1943 (o@ only); Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz, Rev. Inst. Salub. y Enferm. Trop. 7(3): 106, 111, 164, 180, figs. 161, 162. 1948 (2, larva). Male: Thoracic length 1.3 mm; wing length 3 mm. Antenna yellow-brown, the scape and pedicel paler; clypeus gray-pollinose with pale hair; proboscis yellow; palpus brown with Dec. 15, 1948 brown hair. Scutum dark reddish brown, with fine, pale yellow, appressed hairs, the humeri pale yellowish; a slender median and a pair of curved submedian dark lines on scutum; when viewed from in front a small, subrec- tangular pollinose spot on each side of the median line at anterior margin of scutum, and sublaterally a short curved pollinose line just outside of the curved dark line but extending posteriorly only a short distance; a velvety - dark brown spot in front of wing base; scutel- lum slightly paler than scutum, with longer, nearly white hairs; postnotum dark brown with gray pollinosity: pleuron yellowish to dark brown with thin grayish pollen; no anepisternal hair tuft, the mesepimeral tuft pale yellow; stem of halter yellow-brown, knob white. Wing veins yellowish brown; hairs at base of costa mostly pale yellow, a few dorsally darker; hairs of basal vein brown; no hairs on vein R; fore coxa yellow, mid and hind brown; femora yellow, narrowly, obliquely darkened apically; fore tibia yellow-brown sometimes somewhat variegated with yellow, with pale pile; mid and _ hind tibiae yellow-brown, with basal and sub- basal paler rings; fore tarsus dark; mid tarsus with basal three-fifths of first segment white, the rest dark; hind tarsus with basal halves of first and second segments white, the rest dark. First abdominal tergite yellow, the rest brown; sublateral spots of whitish pollen on some of the segments; sternites pale yellow. Genitalia dark brown, the dististyle large, broad, with both margins curved (Fig. 6); adminiculum with a short median projection and acutely pointed lateral angles (Fig. 4). Female: Thoracic length 1.5 mm; wing 3.5 mm. Antenna yellow-brown, the scape and pedicel yellow; frons grayish-pollinose; clypeus yellowish brown with thin gray pollen and pale hair: palpus brown with brown hair. Scutum when viewed from in front pale reddish brown, with a very slender median dark line and a pair of narrow curved dark lines merging with a dark prescutellar area, and usually connected at their closest proximity near anterior third of scutum by a narrow dark, transverse line; viewed from behind the dark pattern becomes nearly white on a darker ground; humeri pale yellow; a dark brown, rather small, velvety patch in front of wing base; pleuron yellowish to brown. with whitish pollinosity; no anepise ternal hairs; mesepimeral tuft yellowish: halter STONE: SIMULIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES 403 yellow, the stem darkened. Wing veins yel- lowish brown; hairs at base of costa mostly pale yellow, some dorsally darkened; hairs of stem vein dark. Leg color essentially as in male, but foretibia more frequently somewhat varie- gated. Abdomen dark brown, with grayish posterolateral bands on most segments; last three tergites subshining, brown; paraprocts with coarse hairs over most of surface; genital fork as figured (Fig. 2); the end of the handle may be somewhat swollen, but usually not as abruptly or strongly so as in virgatum. Pupa: Respiratory filaments (Fig. 10) 15, (14 paired and 1 single) about 1 mm long, held in a tight, forward-curving clump. Dorsum of thorax smooth with no spicules or rugosities. Cocoon (Fig. 8) with a smooth anterior rim and no narrow projections. Total length 4 mm; dorsal length 3 mm. Larva: This is not described in full at this time because my knowledge of simuliid larvae is not sufficient to evaluate the significant characters. The submentum of this species, lacking strong, sublateral teeth has been figured by Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946, figs. 161 and 162) under the name of virgatum and that of virgatum, with strong sublateral teeth (fig. 160) under the name of rubicun- dulum. Holotype: Male, San Saba River, Menard County, Tex. April 23, 1941 (A. Stone no. 68). Paratypes: Texas: Same as holotype, 270, 19; Los Morros Creek, Menard, May 22, 1939, 92 @ (Roy Melvin), April 12-14, 1943, lo, 22° 9 (C. L. Smith); August 10, 1942, 2% (Roy Melvin); Menard, June 21, 1939, 27%, 102 9 (Roy Melvin); Upper Little Walnut Creek, Austin, 19386,1¢,49 9 (A. B. Griffen); Nueces River, Uvalde County, April 21, 1941, 1o, 32 9 (A. Stone no. 57); Frio River at Con Can, Uvalde County, April 21, 1941, 27% o%, 119 9 (A. Stone no. 59-60); ex breast of horse, Con Can, July 29, 1914,; 25959 (DP Co Parman & > ©) Bishopp): Uvalde, June 7, 1938, 8a oa (W. L. Barrett, Jr.), April 18, 19389, 27¢%, 22 2 (Deonier & Barrett); at light, Devils River, Valverde County, May 5, 1997, 1 @ (Bishopp & Pratt); Junction, Kimble County, February 21, 1938, 1¢, 12 (F. C. Bishopp); Kerrville, Kerr County, April 6, 1948 (C. W. Sabrosky) 1 ¢: Shovel Mount, Burnet County, April 12,3 ¢ 9. Mexico: Xicotencatl, Tamaulipas, May 1944, 404 io, 19 (M. Macias G.); Las Cascadas, San Luis Potosf, December 22, 1943 (A. Diaz N.); wings, legs, and genitalia of male and female on slides. Holotype and paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 58956; paratypes, Instituto Salubridade y Enfermedades Tropicales, Mexico. Also in the Museum but not designated as paratypes are numerous larvae and pupae from Uvalde, Edwards, and Menard Counties, and the male genitalia from Austin mentioned below. Then or terrace in the sun. most abundant in t of Texas. The figures of the ame is derived from solarium, a balcony This species appears to be he Balcones Escarpment male genitalia of virgatum published by Stains and Knowlton (1943) were apparently based upon a specimen of solari from Austin, Tex. The slide from which I believe the drawings were made is labeled “Simulium virgatum Coq. Det. G. 8. Stains 194, Austin, Tex. 10.18.22. Painter No. 60.” Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz accepted these figures as correct and determined solariz in Mexico as virgatum. The male of this species can be most readily ZOOLOGY. poda), PAUL ScHMITT.) s Pharodes, instituted by C. B. assigned to the family The species proposed then, P. tortugensis, alludes to the vicinity of the Tortugas Laboratory, the locality of the original collection of six female speci- mens. These came from three common species of host fish. The series is preserved in the U.S. National Museum and has been used in the present study to provide ampli- fication of generic and specific characteris- tics. This report adds to the genus Pharodes biakensis, based upon a single pair. These were found as parasites of a small reef fish, Caracanthus unipinnus (Gray), collected at Biak, New Guinea, by F. M. Bayer. Par- asites and host have been deposited in the and a des The genu Wilson in 1935, was Chondracanthidae. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received August 5, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 12 distinguished from virgatum by the pale hhivs at base of costa, the scutal pattern, the shape of the dististyle, and the acute inter an (a of the adminiculum. The female may be dis. tinguished by the narrower curved stripes of the scutum, the usual connection between these near front of scutum, the usually paler hair at base of costa, the more extensivel distributed hairs on the paraproct, and the shape of the genital fork. LITERATURE CITED Dyak, H. G., and SHANNON, R. C. The North ne ae flies of the family imuliidae. Proc. U. 8. N : saver at. Mus. 69(10): Spreiser, P. Zur Nomenklatur blut é saugender Di teren Amerikas. Insectenbérse 21: i Stains, G. S., and Know.tton, G. F. A taxonomic and distributional study of Simuliidae of Western United States. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer 2 36(2): 259-280. 1948. Tarcas, L., Martinez P., A., and Diaz N Simulides de Mezico. Rev. Inst. Salub * vag Enferm Trop. 7(3): 101-192. 1946. /aRGAS, L., an faz N., A. Notas sobre la identi- fication de los Simulidos de Mézico. El bt & genero Mallochianella n. n. Rev. Inst. Salub y. Enferm. Trop. 9(1): 65-75. 1948. ‘f __Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracanthidae (Crustacea: Cope- cription of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from New Guinea. 1-alid.G. we aere National Museum. (Communicated by WaLpo = National Museum. The identification of the host was provided by Dr. L. P. Schultz curator, division of fishes. Dr. Schultz ie made available a series of examples of the host from various Pacific locations, but examination of these failed to yield Pestle specimens of the parasite. The Biak speci- mens furnish the first description of the male for the genus. | The assignment of the genus to the Chondracanthidae is accepted, but the characters of Pharodes are so strongly dis- tinctive and several represent sufficient departure from the anatomical details of hitherto described chondracanthids that it is considered appropriate to set forth its basic features as diagnostic of a new sub- family. The definition of the family Chon- dracanthidae then requires emendation to include these characters. Dec. 15, 1948 ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 405 Family CHONDRACANTHIDAE Milne Edwards Cyzlopoida; in the female presenting sup- pression of segmentation and great expansion of the body into a fleshy mass with various protrusions. Body regions a cephalothorax, trunk and abdomen. Antennules inflated or prolonged, not prehensile. Antennae terminat- ing in prehensile uncirate claws or tripartite anchoring structures. Upper lip a flat plate or produced medially as a proboscis-like tube. No lower lip. Mandibles reduced, falciform, usually two-segmented, margins with or without serra- tions, in some cases bearing rows of spinules. Maxillules reduced, palplike, or absent. First pereiopods prominent maxillipeds, borne on the cephalothorax. Swimming pereiopods vari- ously reduced. Abdomen with caudal rami, of one or more segments; these may be unarmed or ornamented with one to several inconspicu- ous setae. Marked sexual dimorphism. Male body conforming more to the cyclopoid facies, but dwarfed and with great reduction of seg- mentation and: appendages. Maxillae and ~ maxillipeds of more prehensile nature than those of female. Abdomen small, segmentation suppressed. This definition is mainly based on that of Oakley, 1930. A very slight departure from the earlier diagnosis is the acceptance here of the recently widely prevailing view of the second oral appendage as the vestigial maxillule, rather than as a mandibular palp. The infor- mation contained in the present study has no bearing on the partition by Leigh-Sharpe and Oakley of the chondracanthids known in 1928 as two subfamilies, the Chondracanthinae and the Lernentominae. These groups are here ac- cepted as completing the family subdivision. PHARODINAE, n. subfamily In the female, great expansion and inflation of the thoracic portion of the body, the abdo- men reduced to a vestige placed relatively near to the midpoint of the thoracic mass. Oviducal openings ventral on the thorax at the level of the abdomen. Upper lip produced at its center into a prolonged, distinctly proboscislike tube, prolonging ventrally the food opening. Man- dibles reduced, no marginal ornamentation. Maxillules absent. In the male, great inflation of the cephalothorax. Antennules and antennae ind placed well ventrally. A single pair of pereio- pods, the maxillipeds. One genus included, the type of the sub- family, Pharodes C. B. Wilson, 1935. Genus Pharodes Wilson Generic characters.—Female, head fused with segment of the maxilliped to ferm a cephalo- thorax. Dorsal carapace present. Main mass of body a trunk formed of thoracic segments coalesced and produced laterally and posteri- orly as lobes and extensions. Abdomen borne ventrally as a vestige at about the midpoint of the trunk. Two pairs of pereiopods on the trunk, consisting of inflated, sac-like lobes. Male a dwarf, although not necessarily at- tached to the body of the female. Two main body regions, a roughly hemispherical cephalo- thorax and a narrow, short, curled, tail-like trunk. Antennule as in the female. Maxillae and maxillipeds of markedly prehensile nature. Genotype.—Pharodes tortugensis Wilson, 1935. Pharodes tortugensis Wilson Only the female of this species has so far been collected. A partial revision of the characters as originally described as well as the addition of a number of details have been provided by the present study. The usual chondracanthid character of great fleshy expansion and inflation of the body, ac- companied by suppression and simplification of the appendages, is borne out in this form. Visi- ble segmentation delimits two body regions—a head, actually a cephalothorax, since it bears maxillipeds, and a trunk, consisting of ex- panded thoracic somites. There is a sharply constricted neck. The characteristic appear- ance of the head is due to its expansion later- ally, producing the aspect described originally as that of an inverted triangle. The middorsal surface of the head is set off as a highly chiti- nized carapace, apparently serving in part as a site of attachment for the considerably de- veloped oral appendages. The head is apparently freely moveable on the neck articulation. A position noted in sev- eral specimens was one of dorsal flexion, in the extreme producing nearly a right angle between the plane of the oral surface and the main axis of the body. In this position, the antennules and antennae protrude prominently, as seen in dorsal view. When the axis of the head is 406 aligned with that of the trunk, none of the ap- pendages is visible dorsally. The trunk, which actually is the free thorax, in dorsal view could be interpreted as a series of three globose enlargements, separated by con- strictions and expanded laterally into vari- ously developed lobes. Each of these three di- visions, further, bears dorsally a rounded knob. The lateral processes of the first division are extremely extensive and flare out widely to the sides and then posteriorly, each nearly equal- ling in bulk the main mass of the thorax proper. The much less produced lateral processes of the second division are slightly curved, posteriorly directed, lappets. The lateral processes of the third division are just like those of the second, but exceed the latter somewhat in length. A posterior lappet, protruding directly posteri- orly, also arises from the third division. This terminal division, with its pair of lateral lobes and single median projection, was interpreted originally as the abdomen. This view will be seen to be contradicted by further details of the present study. All the contours of the dorsal surface are rounded and fleshy, as is characteristic among chondracanthids. In the original description, and cited as a generic character, it is stated that the posterior portion of the body is covered. by two tripartite plates. The accom- panying figure supported the description as given. However, comparison of the figure with the type specimen readily resolves the de- picted appearance as the oversimplified linear rendition of the dorsally knobbed globular di- visions with their lateral lobes and the pos- terior process. In agreement with other mem- bers of the Chondracanthidae, this genus pos- sesses no rigid cuticular structures which might be interpreted as plates. Ventrally, the subdivision of the free thorax or trunk is complicated by the inflated pereio- pods and their basal structure. The expanded bases of the largest lateral lobes meet medially forming a ridge, the posterior edge of which roughly bisects the longitudinal axis of the trunk. Just anterior to this margin are the two flattened knobs which form the ornamentation of the oviducal openings, and between these is the slight eminence which is the vestigial ab- domen. The posterior ventral portion of the trunk does not show distinct demarcation into globose segments as seen in dorsal view. The antennules are very much unlike the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 usual inflated sacs characteristic of the family, bearing, rather, a greater resemblance to those found among the ergasilid parasites of fishes or among some of the chondracanthid males. They are strongly chitinized. The complicated articu- lations make it difficult to establish the seg- mentation accurately, but apparently there are four segments. The most distal segments are inconspicuously ornamented with a number of rather reduced setae. The antennae (Fig. 1) are 2-segmented and strongly prehensile. The distal portion is a heavily chitinized, stout hook. As was pointed out in the original description, there is an in- conspicuous outgrowth on the basal segment, representing perhaps a modified seta. The upper lip is a most distinctive structure in the genus. It differs strikingly from the flattened crescentic plate of all the other mem- bers of the Chondracanthidae. Here there is a prolonged proboscislike structure, supported by a complicated chitinous framework and ap- parently capable of a limited amount of ma- nipulation, as indicated by the presence of two slender muscle strands. The lateral margins are rolled and folded inward as thin chitinous flaps, forming a considerably prolonged mouth tube (Fig. 2). There is no comparable elaboration of an under lip. Posterior to the oral opening there is only an abrupt edge formed by the inturning of the integument of ventral surface of body. The mandibles (Fig. 3) are so located that their bases are just lateral to the mouth. They are minute and inconspicuous, but distinctly of cyclopoid type. They differ from those of all other chondracanthids in the absence of mar- ginal serration or spinulation. The surface of the mandible is very much thickened, but the constant appearance, in all preparations seen, of a much crumpled and wrinkled aspect would seem to indicate great flexibility rather than rigidity of the integument. The exact subdivi- sion of the appendage, due to this wrinkling, is impossible to determine, but the appearance most consistently seems to indicate a 2-seg- mented condition, corresponding to the usual arrangement in nearly related copepods. Examination of the limited material pro- duced no evidence of the presence of maxillules. More refined dissections, when a la: g2r number of specimens is available, may disclose the rudi- ments of these appendages among the com- plicated structures formed by the bases and chitinous supports of the mouthparts. The Dec. 15, 1948 ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 407 0.25MM -_—+——__+—__+—__| 8 ——*\ fae Sone CISEY) 5 Le, Ficgs. 1-6.—Pharodes tortugensis Wilson, female: 1, antenna; 2, oral area, showing upper lip and mandibles; 3, mandible; 4, maxilla; 5, maxilliped; 6, caudal ramus. Figs. 7-15.—P. biakensis, n. sp., holotypic female: 7, dorsal view; 8, semidiagrammatic drawing of ventral view; 9, antennule; 10, mandible; 11, maxilla; 12, maxilliped; 13, caudal ramus; allotypic male: 14, ventral view; 15, antennule. The 0.25-mm scale refers to Figs. 1 and 15; the 0.2-mm scale to Figs. 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12; the 0.05-mm scale to Figs. 3, 6, 10, 13; the 0.5-mm scale to Fig. 14. ~ 408 maxillae (Fig. 4) were described originally as maxillules (first maxillae). These are bimerous and heavily chitinized. The terminal segment is apparently rigid. It is tapered and presents a curved outline, faintly resembling the spout of a teapot. The tip is concavely truncate. This segment bears at its expanded base a minute accessory structure which may represent a modified seta. : The maxilliped (second maxilla of Wilson) is stout and is the most conspicuous of the mouth- parts (Fig. 5). The highly irregular, thickly chitinized surface and the complicated articula- tions cause difficulty in determining the seg- mentation. There would seem to be three seg- ments, the most distal produced into a strong, slightly curved, apical hook. The second seg- ment bears a reduced, apparently articulated process. The posterior limit of the area bearing the mouthparts is strongly set off by a prominent, rounded ridge, running in a gentle curve. In- dentation at the midline produces a bilobed appearance of this ridge. It was interpreted in the original description as the vestige of the first pair of so-called swimming legs, that is, the non-oral pereiopods. There seems to be little ground to interpret these inconspicuous prominences as limb rudiments, although final decision will have to await the determination of the sequence of development in the larval stages. A necklike constriction Just behind the described ridge strongly delimits the cephalo- thorax from the more posterior free thoracic region. The ventral outgrowths of the trunk were interpreted originally as two pairs of thoracic limbs. There is no strong evidence other than their occurrence in pairs that these are limbs, but such a convention is regularly applied to other chondracanthids with similar structures. The first of these processes or limbs are set just to each side of the midline immediately pos- terior to the neck constriction. These are small knobs protruding considerably ventrally. More lateral to these, in fact well out toward the edges of the lateral processes of the first tho- racic division, are the very much inflated second pair of trunk limbs. These are long and thick and directed slightly posteriorly. | Posterior to the pereiopods and slightly to each side of the midline are the oviducal open- ings. These are set off conspicuously by much enlarged perforated, disklike structures, to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 12 which the ovisacs are attached. Just between the oviducal structures is the rudiment of the abdomen, a minute eminence bearing tiny, but setiferous, caudal rami. These are most incon- spicuous and very difficult of detection when the ovisacs are present. The reduced abdom- inal remnant is significant in the clarification it affords of the unique modification of the thorax. Among all the bizarre body forms seen in chondracanthid genera there is no other in which there is a comparable expansion of the thorax posterior to the genital openings. The enlargement is obviously occupied to a great extent by reproductive structures or tissues. The determination of the true segmentation of this region, if such could be derived from study of the ontogenetic stadia, should be of great theoretical interest. The caudal rami (Fig. 6) are compressed, monomerous laminae. They are ornamented with small, but well-developed, simple setae. Each bears three setae, the stoutest of which is apically placed. Of the subterminal and most proximal of the setae, it was impossible to de- termine from available preparations which was dorsal and which ventral. The caudal rami are placed terminally on the reduced convexity which is the abdominal vestige. The six specimens of the original series have been measured to establish roughly the char- acteristic proportions of the species. The total length and greatest width (to the edges of the lateral processes) of each were as follows: type specimen—3 mm long, 4.4 mm wide; specimen 2—3 mm long, 3.9 mm wide: specimen 3— 3 mm long, 3.3 mm wide; specimen 4—2.8 mm long, 3.3 mm wide; specimen 5—2.8 mm long, 2.9 mm wide; specimen 6—3 mm long, 3.8 mm wide. In every case the greatest width was measured at a point practically at the pos- terior extent of the wide-flaring lateral processes of the first division of the trunk. A truncate triangular outline of the trunk mass would thus be seen to be characteristic for the spe- cies. In every specimen the lateral processes of the second trunk division were well developed and conspicuous. An unpublished distribution record of the species is provided from the National collection. A single female was collected from the gills of Scoliodon terrae-novae, from the Gulf of Mexico, by C. B. Wilson, exact date and locality not known. A new host record is established also. As the specimen at some time had been sub- Dec. 15, 1948 jected to drying, it was not feasible to attempt to measure the bodily proportions. Pharodes biakensis, n. sp. Female (holotype).—The body consists of the head and trunk, a characteristic aspect be- ing produced by the presence of expansions and lobes. The head bears a pair of processes which protrude considerably anteriorly as well as laterally, with the appearance of ear-like lobes. A middorsal chitinized carapace is present. -Ventrally there is an elevation of the posterior margin of the cephalothorax as a low ridge, with a suggestion of bilobed division in the central portion. The trunk in dorsal view is a series of three globular sections, all in their main masses of roughly equivalent size. Of these, however, the first and third are further produced into processes. The processes of the first division are extended widely laterally and then produced posteriorly to an extent nearly equalling the length of the central trunk proper. Three low dorsal knobs appear serially along the longitudinal axis of each process. The sec- ond division of the trunk appears dorsally as a simple globe. The third division is globose, but is also produced posteriorly as an unpaired wide lobe. Further, it bears a pair of blunt lateral lobes, which curve considerably poste- riorly as well as extending laterally. Fig. 7 de- picts these details. On the ventral side, the apparent segmenta- tion is more complicated (Fig. 8). There is a distinct limit ventrally between the cephalo- thorax and the trunk but this juncture is com- pressed to a tightly closed groove in the type specimen. Just posterior to this is a transverse ridge, in extent of about half the width of one of the central trunk divisions. Laterally on this ridge are the paired ventral protrusions which represent the second pereiopods (counting the maxillipeds as first). Immediately posterior to this ridge is a second which extends across the main portion of the trunk and extends almost to the outer margin of each of the large lateral processes. This ridge is produced at its sides as the two large third pereiopods. These take a broad basal origin and protrude posteriorly and ventrally as long, thick, blunt lobes. In the ovigerous female these processes partially en- fold the egg sacs. The medial portion of the second ridge cuts across the trunk at a level which would be about midway on the length of the second central division. However, the ven- ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 409 tral segmentation of the anterior portion of the trunk is obscured by the complicated ar- rangement of ridges and outgrowths. Lying at an oblique angle, directed ventrally and posteriorly, and fitted tightly against the posterior face of the second ridge, are the two prominences which surround the oviducal aper- tures. These thus are set on the ventral side of the posterior half of the second trunk division. Between the oviducal structures is the vestigial abdomen, bearing minute caudal rami. The constriction between the second and third central trunk divisions is fully visible ventrally. There is no complication of structures on the ventral side of the third trunk section. : The ovisacs are firmly attached on the discs surrounding the openings of the oviducts and are most characteristic in outline and position. The egg sac is a long, slightly tapering cylinder with a rounded tip and is curved along the longitudinal axis. Each thus extends laterally outward from just back of the midpoint of the body, protrudes considerably beyond the sides, and extends anteriorly to a level markedly in front of the point of origin. The eggs are mi- nute and arranged in numerous, slightly irregu- lar rows. The eggs contained in the pair of Ovisacs number well into the thousands. The dimensions (as well as the described as- pect) of the single available specimen cannot be given with precision because of the markedly contracted position in which it is fixed. An at- tempt at establishing the relative proportions of the various parts and regions has been made, however. The total length is 8 mm. The great- est width is just slightly less than this. The parallel outer edges of the lateral processes give the outline of the main portion of the body pro- nouncedly squarish proportions. The lateral processes are 2.2 mm in length. The width of the head, from the edges of its processes, is 1.8 mm. The length of the head, along the central axis is .45 mm. The tips of the processes extend anteriorly about .15 mm beyond the central margin of the head. The width of the central globular mass of each of the trunk subdivisions is roughly 1 mm. The egg sacs measure 2.55 mm along the main axis and have a maximum diameter of about .75 mm. The antennules (Fig. 9) are 4-segmented. The basal segment is longer than the terminal three together. It is three times as long as its greatest width, which is seen at two thirds of the length of the segment from its base. The 410 second segment is slightly longer than the third and about equal in length to the fourth. The segments decrease in their greatest widths in linear order. The antennule is not conspicu- ously inflated or saclike. A fairly heavy degree of chitinization is apparent and the articula- tions between segments are very complicated, indicating possibly some restriction as to planes of freedom of motion. There is a slight degree of compression of the appendage in the frontal plane of the body. The ornamentation consists only of reduced, inconspicuous setae. The basal segment seemingly lacks setae: the second and third each bear a lateral and medial seta at the distal corners. The terminal segment has a distal row of four, perhaps more, setae. The length of the antennule is 4385 micra. The single female specimen (as well as the accompanying male) had lost the antennae. Evidently these were sufficiently effective pre- hensile organs that they were completely torn away in the removal of the parasites from the host. Large, circular, articulating bases remain to indicate the proportion of the basal segment. It seems reasonable to assume that these ap- pendages differ slightly, if any, from those of Pharodes tortugensis. The upper lip is prolonged in the midline as a proboscis-like organ, with a folded-over, cir- cular tip. In the intact specimen, the structure was held at approximately right angles to the body axis. The mouth opening lies just pos- terior to the upper lip with the bases of the mandibles set well to each side. The condition of the integument of the mandibles makes de- termination of the number of segments dubious but there are probably two. The base is rather stout and short, slightly longer than wide. The terminal portion is narrower and longer than the base, and consists of a slightly tapering cylinder with a bluntly rounded tip (Fig. 10). There is no serration of the margins, nor any detectable ornamentation. The length of each mandible is approximately 125 micra. No maxillules could be found. The bimerous maxillae (Fig. 11) are much larger than the mandibles. The proximal seg- ment is wide and short, its articulation with the main body mass forming a steep slant across its breadth. The length of the segment along its center axis is about 100 micra. The integu- ment is heavily sclerotized. Internally are numerous bands of muscle attached to the base of the terminal segment, which forms an angle JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 of attachment of about 90 degrees. The distal] segment is expanded basally, then constricted sharply to a prolonged, slightly tapered, rigid terminal process, 200 micra in length over all. The tip is truncate and sharply indented. A short, stout seta is borne on the base of this seg- ment. The maxillipeds (Fig. 12) are characterized by great thickening of the integument. This causes difficulty in establishing the segmenta- tion accurately. There is a large, clearly de- limited basal segment, 1£0 micra long, with a ~ width of 45 micra. This roughly rectangular, slightly curved, segment has a distinctly sub- terminal articulation with the remaining por- tion of the appendage, which is of the same total length. The most probable interpretation of this distal section would be as a single seg- ment, 110 micra in length, bearing distally a distinctly articulated, blunt spine 40 micra long. At a level about 75 micra from its base this section exhibits transverse furrows of the integument and interruptions of the internal bands of muscle which would seem strong evi- dence of coalescence of an originally bimerous structure. The greatest width of the terminal section is slightly greater than half that of the proximal segment. The distal half of the ter- minal section is tapered sharply to the base of the articulated spine. ; The trunk pereiopods are fleshy lobes, with little semblance remaining of articulated ap- pendages. Those of the anterior pair are placed close to the midline and are far anterior on the trunk. They are very short lobes protruding directly ventrally. The slightly more posterior third perieopods (second pair of trunk appen- dages) are very long fleshy lobes, 1.1 mm in length, and each is placed well out on the ap- - terior lateral process of the trunk. The caudal rami (Fig. 13) are laminae, com- pressed in the sagittal plane of the body. The ornamentation of each consists of two ter- minal setae, placed close together; a rounded process, which is possibly a modified seta, placed somewhat subterminally; and a long slender seta placed slightly. beyond the mid- point of the ramus. Whether this most proximal seta is dorsal or ventral on the ramus could not be made out from the available preparation. Each caudal ramus is 55 micra long, with the greatest dorsoventral measurement slightly over 40 micra. The rami are borne very close together on a low convexity, placed between Dec. 15, 1948 the eminences bearing the oviducal apertures. This convexity, with its appendages, consti- tutes the vestige of the abdomen. At a point one fourth of its length from its base each ramus is conspicuously marked on the surface by elabo- rate chitinous convolutions. These do not seem to constitute a complete subdivision of the ramus into a bimerous condition. The exact significance of this complicated integumentary pattern remains doubtful. Male (allotype)—vThe cephalothorax is greatly arched and rounded dorsally, and its general outline is ellipsoidal. The narrow trunk, consisting of an indeterminable number of thoracic and abdominal segments forms a curled tail-like process, of only a quarter of the width of the cephalothorax. The greatest width of the cephalothorax is 1.4 mm. The length along the central axis is 1.1 mm. The trunk is nearly parallel-sided, 0.41 mm in length and about 0.3 mm in width, with a short wide flar- ing at the point of juncture with the cephalo- thorax. All the appendages of the cephalothorax are placed well on the ventral side (Fig. 14). The antennules (Fig. 15) are markedly subapical and their bases are widely spaced laterally. Each is 650 micra long. The number of seg- ments is here interpreted to be four, although complicated grooving of the integument dis- tally makes it impossible to determine the ar- ticulations exactly. The basal segment is distinctly set off. It is slightly longer than the rest of the segments together. It is 350 micra in length and the width at the most expanded point is just one third of this measurement. The second segment is 100 micra long and 85 micra wide at the widest point. The third segment is markedly narrower than the preceding, measur- ing 55 micra in width and 80 micra in length. The remainder of the appendage is 135 micra long and measures 45 micra at the greatest width, at the base. This sector tapers gradually and terminates, by a sharp constriction, in a slender spine. The exact metamerism is ob- secure, but this portion seems to represent a coalescence of three segments or perhaps of two segments and an articulated spine with a greatly expanded base. Complete details of the ornamentation were not made out. The second and third segments each bear a distal seta. The distal segment, in addition to its apical spine, bears two reduced subterminal setae. The antennae of the single specimen were ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 411 lost in removal from the host. Of considerable significance here is the fact that this male was not attached to the body of the female as is the usual case among the chondracanthids. The basal sears left by the tearing away of the antennae were comparable to the same arte- facts in the case of the female. The upper lip is produced considerably ventrally, but does not take the tubular pro- boscislike form like that seen in the female. The mandibles, as in the female, are inconspicu- ously placed anterior to the bases of the larger and more prominent remaining oral appen- dages, and are set to each side of the rather large mouth opening. The mandibles measure about 120 micra in length. They are slender, tapering falciform appendages, with no orna- mentation. No trace of maxillules detected. The maxillae present the appearance of ex- ceedingly powerful prehensile organs. The basal portion is a stout segment, about 300 micra in length and of slightly greater width. Set at nearly right angles on the distal surface of this segment and directed medially is a very massive claw, 400 micra long. This claw tapers from a base about 275 micra in width to a keenly pointed, stoutly spinous apex. The whole ap- pendage is heavily sclerotized, and the ter- minal claw appears to be nearly completely solid. The maxillipeds are tripartite. The basal segment is about 450 micra long and has a maximum width of about 300 micra. The out- line of the segment is roughly rectangular. The second segment is so articulated or the first as to be directed considerably medially and ven- trally. It is about 200 micra long and its width is about 175 micra. On its distal surface is set a strong, tapered claw. The base of the claw is about 125 micra in extent. Its length is 25) micra and it curves in a smooth taper to a stout point. This appendage, like the preceding, is heavily sclerotized. No other thoracic ap- pendages could be made out. The caudal rami are minute, roughly rec- tangular, about 90 micra long, and each bears apically a rather stout, short, tapered seta. The rami are borne on a broadly flattened area at the tip of the tail-like trunk. There is no evidence from the adult condition for deter- mining the degree of inclusion of anatomically thoracic or abdominal segments in the trunk structure; except, of course, that the tip, in bearing the caudal rami, is marked as of ab- dominal origin. 412 Type locality—Biak Island, Schouten Is- lands, Netherlands New Guinea. Types.—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no. 86009, and allotypic male, U.S.N.M. no. 86010; from the gill cavity of Caracanthus unipinnus (Gray), collected April 3, 1945, by F. M. Bayer. Remarks.—The two species of Pharodes un- fortunately must be based upon an extremely small number of representatives. When more adequate series are available and the range of variability of the two forms is established, it may well be that some of the distinguishing features found here will be discarded as no longer significant. However, the consistent con- formation to the structure of the chondracan- thids in general, in various forms of which extensive information as to variability is avail- able, is good grounds for the prediction that the differentiation of these forms will continue to be supportable. Pharodes biakensis is easily separated from P. tortugensis by a number of features of body form. The more extreme production of the lateral processes of the head, the much more nearly quadrate aspect of the main mass of the body with its expansions, and the lack of a pair of lateral processes on the second division of the trunk provide a ready basis of recognition of the former. The differentiation of the appendages in the two species is in the main a series of subtle variations on a basic plan of structure. In the female Pharodes biakensis, as compared to its congener, the mandible is shorter in propor- tion and somewhat more blunt apically. The maxilla bears a well-developed accessory seta, represented in P. tortugensis by a modified ele- ment of characteristic appearance. The maxilli- ped exhibits a greater suppression of segmen- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 12 tation and the terminal spine is somewhat slighter and simpler. The caudal rami have a different pattern of armature and an indication of subdivision. The sexual dimorphism in Pharodes biakensis has a number of features of interest by com- parison with the condition in other chondra- canthids. The general rule is a by far greater absolute size disparity. The male is typically a minute dwarf and usually is to be found at- tached on or near the genital aperture of the female. In Pharodes the male is of large size and obviously is capable of independent existence on the host. Also worthy of note is the fact that the antennule, maxilla, and maxilliped of the male reach actually greater absolute dimensions than the counterparts in the fe- male. The basically similar pattern of structure of the antennules in the two sexes is a contrast to the usual chondracanthid situation of an inflated sac-like appendage in females and a less modified male antennule. The scars re- maining indicate that the antennae were of about equivalent size, at least at the base, in the two sexes. The mandibles show little dis- parity. The different degree of development of the tubular upper lip indicates the highly spe- cial character of the modification as seen in the female. REFERENCES (1) EIGH-SHARPE, W. H., and OakLeEy, C. L. Lernentominae, a new subfamily of Chondra- canthidae (Crustacea: Copepoda), with a de- scriplion of Oralien triglae (Blainville 1822). Parasitology 19: 455-467, figs. 1-7. 1928. (2) OaKLEy, C. L. The Chondracanthidae (Crus- iacea: Copepoda); with a description of five new genera and one new species. Parasitol- ogy 22: 182-201, figs. 1-8. 1930. (3) Wiuson, C. B. Parasitic copepods from the Dry Tortugas. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 452: 329-347, pls. 1-6. 1935. ZOOLOGY.—Two new species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from Puget Sound and San Juan Archipelago.’ Marian H. Perrispone, University of Washington. (Communicated by Wa.po L. Scumirt.) The two new species of Polynoidae herein described were obtained in connection with a study of the scaled Polychaeta in the San Juan and Puget Sound region. The work was carried out at the University of Wash- ington Oceanographic Laboratories, Friday Harbor, Wash. Dredging was carried out 1 Received September 8, 1948. from the M.S. Catalyst and M.S. Medea. The types are deposited in the United States National Museum. Family Polynoidae Genus Harmothoé Kinberg Harmothoé hartmanae, n. sp. Fig. 1, a-f This species is represented by three speci- Dec. 15, 1948 mens from material dredged in the San Juan Archipelago. I take pleasure in naming it after Dr. Olga Hartman, who has done so much to add to our knowledge of the Polychaeta. Description —Thetype(U.S.N.M.no.21101), the largest of the three specimens, has 37 seg- ments. It is 23 mm long, 6.5 mm wide exclusive of setae, and 9.5 mm wide inclusive of setae. The smallest of the paratypes is 8.5 mm long and 2 mm wide exclusive of setae. The body is short, nearly linear, widest in segments 12-23, tapering slightly anteriorly and posteriorly. The body is without color in the middorsum, greenish on the cirrophores and the parapodia. The ventral surface is shiny iridescent and without color except for a dark coloration around the mouth. Fifteen pairs of elytra nearly cover the dorsum and are slightly imbricated, arranged on segments 2, 4, 5, 7,9... 23, 26, 29, and 32. The elytra are subcircular to subreniform in shape, thin, and shiny, appearing smooth, but furnished with conical blunt microtubercles (Fig. 1, c-d). A dark border completely en- circles the first pair of elytra and around the posterior, median, and lateral borders of the other elytra. Microscopically, this border ap- pears as darker polygonal areas (Fig. 1, d).— not present on Harmothoé imbricata (Linnaeus) —the widespread cosmopolitan species. The elytral border is smooth except for a few short filiform and clavate papillae. The bilobed prostomium is wider than long, has a wide anterior median sulcus and prom- inent cephalic peaks; the four eyes are large, the anterior pair situated anteroventrally and slightly posterior to the peaks (Fig. 1, a). The median antenna has a large brown ceratophore and a long slender style with a slight subter- minal enlargement and very short scattered clavate papillae; the style is dark, especially above and below the enlargement. The lateral antennae have short brown ceratophores, in- serted ventrally on the prostomium; the styles are brown, short, tapering gradually to filiform white tips and furnished with very small papillae. The palpi are long—up to five times the length of the prostomium, slender, and with short papillae. The proboscis has the usual polynoid form, with nine pairs of distal papillae and two pairs of amber-colored interlocking jaws; it extends the length of the first 12 segments; the proximal half may be darkly colored. The segmental PETTIBONE: TWO NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 413 papillae begin on segment 6 and continue pos- teriorly; they are very small and bulbous in the more anterior and posterior segments but long and cylindrical in the segments of the middle third of the body. The basal lobes of the tentacular segment are elongated, each bearing two setae; the tentac- ular cirri are similar to the median antenna (Fig. 1, a). The dorsal cirri have elongated cirrophores with a bulbous base and narrower distal part; the styles are long, slender, similar to the median antenna, and extend beyond the tips of the setae. The dorsal tubercles of the cirri-bearing segments are prominent conical lobes. The ventral cirri are thick proximally, tapering to filamentous tips (Fig. 1, b). The parapodia are biramous. The noto- podium is a rounded lobe on the anterodorsal face of the neuropodium, extending out into an acicular lobe from which the aciculum pro- jects (Fig. 1, 6). The notosetae are golden, moderate in number (about 40), forming a spreading bundle, thicker than the neurosetae (45-62u in greatest diameter), slightly arched, with long spinous regions—about half the exposed length—and bare pointed tips (Fig. 1, 6, e). The neuropodium tapers distally to a thick acicular lobe from which the aciculum projects (Fig. 1, 6). The neurosetae are golden, moderate in number, and more slender than the notosetae (16—-44u in diameter in the stem region: 22—48u in the enlarged distal part). The supraacicular group of neurosetae (about 12 in number) are the longest, with long spinous regions (20-24 rows), and a strong secondary tooth on all the setae; the subacicular group (about 26) range from longer dorsal to shorter ventral ones, with short spinous regions (12- 14 rows), and with a strong secondary tooth except on the lower ventral ones (Fig. 1, f). Remarks—Harmothoé hartmanae resembles the cosmopolitan species, H. imbricata (Lin- naeus). It differs chiefly in the character of the elytra as described above. Locality —The specimens were dredged west of Crane Island in the San Juan Archipelago in 20 fathoms on a shelly bottom. Genus Lepidasthenia Malmgren Lepidasthenia berkeleyae, n. sp. Fig. 2, a-f This species is represented by three speci- mens taken from three places in the south end of Puget Sound—in Carr and Case Inlets. I am 414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 Fig. 1.—Harmothoé hartmanae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments, elytra removed; b, sixteenth left parapodium, anterior view; c, fourth left elytron; d, part of posterior border of elytron, enlarged; e, tip of notoseta; f, tip of middle subacicular neuroseta. Fia. 2.—Lepidasthenia berkeleyae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium, first two segments, and ex- tended proboscis, with elytra removed; 6, dorsal view two segments from anterior third of body; ¢, twenty-second left parapodium, anterior view; d, dorsal neuroseta; e, middle neuroseta; f, tip of same. Seale measurements as follows: la, 1b, 2c=0.43 mm; 2a, 2b, lc=0.95 mm; 1d=30y; le=48y; If =38u; 2d =9u; 2e=15y. Dec. 15, 1948 naming this species after Edith Berkeley. She and her husband, Cyril Berkeley, are workers on the Polychaeta and have established the commensal host of this species. Lepidasthenia berkeleyae resembles L. longicirrata Berkeley (Berkeley, 1923, 1942), a species that has been found in the Puget Sound region also. The differences are referred to in the text. E. and C. Berkeley consider L. berkeleyae to be the com- mensal form of L. longicirrata and not a distinct species (Canadian Pacific Fauna: Polychaeta Errantia. In press). They have found it com- mensal with the mud tube-dwelling polychaete, Prazxilella affinis (Sars) var. pacifica Berkeley (family Maldanidae). Description—The type (U.S.N.M._ no. 21099), of some 100 segments, is complete, al- though the posterior end of 23 segments was regenerating. The two paratypes are incom- plete anterior ends (70 and 54 segments). The type, of 100 segments, is 75 mm long, 4 mm wide excluding setae, and 6 mm wide including setae. The body is flattened dorsoventrally, long, narrow, with sides nearly parallel, taper- ing slightly anteriorly and posteriorly. Each segment has a wide transverse middorsal brown band, the anterior and posterior part of which may be darker. The basal part of the parapodia, the cirrophores and elytrophores are darkly pigmented. The body is more darkly pigmented anteriorly than posteriorly. The ventral surface is without color. (The ventral surface lacks the globose papillae found on L. longicirrata.) The 37 pairs of elytra of the type are ar- ranged on segments 2, 4, 5, 7,9... 23, 26, 29, 32, 34, 37, 40... every third segment to the end of the body. The elytra are small, oval, and do not nearly cover the dorsum but leave a median longitudinal zone uncovered—about equal to the width of an elytron (Fig. 2, 5). (In L. longicirrata, the elytral pairs are larger and practically cover the dorsum.) The elytra are thin, transparent, blotched with brown pigment, especially around the place of attach- ment to the elytrophore and the area medial to it. The bilobed prostomium is much wider than long, with a distinct anterior median sulcus (Fig. 2, a). The four eyes are large, the anterior pair being larger and located just anterior to the greatest width of the prostomium. The lateral antennae are inserted terminally on short anterior prolongations of the prosto- PETTIBONE: TWO NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 415 mium; the styles are slender, approximately equal in length to the greatest prostomial width, and have slight subterminal enlarge- ments and filamentous tips. The median an- tenna has a short ceratophore; the style is slender, long—about twice the prostomial width—and with a fine filamentous tip. The palps of one paratype are missing; those of the type and the other paratype have one long slender palp—about three times the greatest prostomial width—and one shorter one (prob- ably regenerating). Antennae and palps are without color or papillae. The proboscis has the usual polynoid form, with nine pairs of distal papillae and two pairs of dark amber-colored interlocking jaws; it extends the length of approximately the first 12 segments. The paired segmental papillae begin on segment 6 and continue posteriorly; they are short and bulbous. The large basal lobes of the tentacular seg- ment are each furnished with an aciculum which projects in a short achaetous fingerlike process; the paired tentacular cirri are similar to the median antenna (Fig. 2, a). The anterior few pairs of dorsal cirri resemble the median antenna; the more posterior cirri are slender, transparent, evenly tapered, and extend slightly beyond the tips of the setae (Fig. 2, c). The paired ventral cirri of the second segment are long, slender, similar to the tentacular cirri (Fig. 2, a); those of the following segments are short and subulate (Fig. 2, c). The paired anal cirri are similar to the dorsal cirri. The parapodia are moderately long and slender. The notopodium is a short, fingerlike, achaetous lobe, furnished only with an acicu- lum; the tip of the lobe does not nearly reach the dorsal cleft of the neuropodium (Fig. 2, c). (This is in contrast to L. longicirrata in which the notopodial lobe is more elongate and the tip extends to the dorsal cleft of the neuropo- dium.) The distal end of the neuropodium has a dorsal cleft; the lobe anterior to the cleft and the one which contains the aciculum is only slightly longer than the posterior lobe (Fig. 2, b-c). (In L. longicirrata, the anterior lobe is decidedly longer than the posterior lobe.) The neurosetae are of two kinds: (1) a dorsal group of setae (about four in number) are elongated, slender (10 uw in greatest diameter), with long spinous regions, tapering distally to fine tips (Fig. 2, d); (2) a median and ventral group of setae (18-25 in number) are shorter, stouter 416 (10-19 in greatest diameter—the more ven- tral ones being shorter and thinner); they have short spinous regions (8-12 rows), with no bare distal tips; the distal tips are bifid—the second- ary tooth blends in with the spinous rows or it may be inconspicuous (Fig. 2, e-f). (This is in contrast to L. longicirrata in which the middle neuropodial setae are distinctly bifid, with bare distal tips.) Habitat—The specimens were dredged from mud in 35 to 70 fathoms. E. and C. Berkeley (in correspondence) have found them commen- sal in the mud tubes of the polychaete Praz- ilella affinis (Sars) var. pacifica Berkeley. (This is in contrast to L. longicirrata which is usually found free in dredge material. However, on two occasions, I found them within parch- mentlike tubes, agglutinated with bits of shell JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 and rock—a tube evidently of their own mak- ing.) The extreme delicacy of the elytra and body would indicate a somewhat protected habitat for both species, Locality —Type: off Green Point, Carr Inlet, 51 fathoms in mud. Paratypes: near Gertrude Island, Carr Inlet, 70 fathoms in mud; off Herron Island, Case Inlet, 35 fathoms in mud. LITERATURE CITED BERKELEY, Epita. Polychaetous annelids from the Nanaimo district. Pt. 1: Syllidae to Sigalioni- dae. Contr. Can. Biol. and Fish., new ser., 1(11): 205-218, 1 pl. 1923. BERKELEY, EpiTH and Cyrriu. North Pacific Poly- chaeta, chiefly from the west coast of Vancouver Island, Alaska and Bering Sea. Can. Journ. Res., D, 20(7): 183-208. 1942. ZOOLOGY .—American Caudata, V: Notes on certain Appalachian salamanders of the genus Plethodon.! M. B. Mirrteman, New Rochelle, N. Y. (Communi- cated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) The action of Pope and Hairston (1948: 106-107) in describing two nominally new races of salamanders, Plethodon shermani rabunensis and P. s. melaventris, reflects a taxonomic viewpoint radically opposed to that of Grobman (1944) and some other workers. As pointed out by their describers, rabunensts and melaventris have been “for many years... identified as P. metcalfi: more recently by Grobman as P. clemsonae.”’ Obviously, the status and proper allocation of Pope and Hairston’s new forms are con- tingent upon the definitions of the species clemsonae and metcalfi. Based on topotypic material, the struc- tural characters of clemsonae may be sum- marized as follows: Costal grooves 15 or 16 (including inguinal and axillary branches of the first and last grooves); appressed toes sometimes meeting, but more often sepa- rated by one or two costal folds; vomerine teeth 9-12 per series. The color charac- teristics of clemsonae, which are so im- portant in differentiating it from certain other related species of Plethodon, have been subject to considerable discussion. Brimley’s original description (1927: 73- 1 Received September 9, 1948. 74) shows that some of his type specimens had white or grayish dorsal markings when fresh, while others were uniformly black on all dorsal surfaces. Two topotypes col- lected by Arnold Grobman and myself possessed whitish-gray (ashy) lichenoid markings in life, which were particularly prominent along the sides of the head and body (see Bishop, 1943: fig. 64). Grobman has discussed (1944: 294) the possibility that the absence or presence of light pig- ments in clemsonae may be associated with the length of preservation, as is occasionally the case in such species as Plethodon rich- mond’, P. nettingt, and P. welleri. This is, of course, a distinct possibility, but it is likewise true that some clemsonae are quite immaculate; pigmentation in clemsonae is evidently subject to some variation, as in other species of Plethodon. The color char- acteristics of clemsonae are a black dorsum and belly (belly varying from almost pure black to a very dark slaty gray), with the throat (and occasionally the anterior part of the breast) whitish or grayish, with a grayish white pattern of irregular lichenoid maculations sometimes present on the dorsum and sides of the head and body. Brimley’s type of metcalfi is an adult Dec. 15, 1948 MITTLEMAN: APPALACHIAN SALAMANDERS OF GENUS PLETHODON male (snout-vent 60 mm), with 15 costal grooves, no costal folds between the ap- pressed toes, 11 or 10 vomerine teeth, uniform bluish above and grayish tan or fawn below. Salamanders agreeing closely with this type are known from southwest- ern North Carolina (Haywood County) north through the southern Blue Ridge Province to Beartown Mountain (4,500- 4,700 feet) near Burkes Garden, Tazewell County, Va. (Hoffman and Kleinpeter, 1948: 603), and Mount Rogers (5,000-5,600 feet); Grayson County, Va. (collected by Hoffman and Kleinpeter). On the other hand, specimens from more southerly and westerly points in the Carolinas and Geor- gia possess characteristics that identify them with clemsonae, as described above. As pointed out originally by Grobman (1944), these dark-bellied ‘‘metcalfi’”’ are in fact conspecific with Brimley’s clem- sonae, and the two forms—the light-bel- lied metcalfi and the dark-bellied clem- sonae—occupy predominantly vicarious ranges (1944: fig. 5). The distribution of clemsonae extends from Macon, Jackson, and Transylvania Counties, N. C., to Pickens and Greenville Counties, 8. C., and Rabun and Habersham Counties, Ga. Pope and Hairston (loc. cit.) have de- scribed certain specimens of the dark- bellied clemsonae from Rabun Bald Moun- tain, Rabun County, Ga., as Plethodon shermant rabunensis, diagnosing their new salamander as ‘‘a member of the jordani- metcalfi group with white spots on the cheeks and along the sides of the body. The legs are never red asin B. s. shermani.”’ The description points out further that the type (adult female, 118 mm total length, snout-vent 62 mm) has 13 costal grooves and vomerines 10-7, and that “‘the color is black above, shading into dark gray below; the throat is paler than the belly.” As given, the description of rabunensis offers no tenable point of difference to distinguish this nominal subspecies of P. shermaniz from P. clemsonae, except for the presence of 13 costal grooves (as compared to 15 or 16 in clemsonae). Yet even this apparent difference is illusory, and arises as a result of the method used in counting costal grooves, rather than indicating a true 417 meristic difference. In order to obtain the full costal groove count in clemsonae the axillary and inguinal branches of the first and last grooves must be counted. Some- times these are poorly developed or ob- scure as a result of preservation; if they are not included, a count of 13 or 14 is ob- tained, rather than 15 or 16. In practice, most herpetologists use the “‘maximum count’’ method, which includes the axillary and inguinal branches. Hence, with the apparent costal groove count difference negated, there appears to be no salient difference between rabunensts and clem- sonae, and I conclude that these forms are identical. The status of Pope and Hairston’s new P. shermant melaventris likewise seems poorly established. In this instance the race is diagnosed as “‘An immaculate member of the jordani-metcalfi group with a black belly.” The type is further described as being an adult male (total length 116 mm, snout-vent 60 mm), with 14 costal grooves, 10 or 11 vomerine teeth, body and limbs immaculate black above and below, throat gray; Pope and Hairston state also that their 112 paratypes from Macon, Jackson, and Transylvania Counties, N. C., exhibit no significant variation. The range of melaventris is given as extending from Swannanoa, Buncombe County, N. C., to Greenville County, S. C., and westward to Highlands, Macon County, N. C. As in the case of rabunensis, the description of melaventris offers no characters to set it apart from clemsonae, save for the costal groove count, and this again reflects a method of counting rather than a real differ- ence. The fundamental difference between metcalfi and clemsonae lies in the ventral pigmentation, as previously discussed. In addition, metcalfi is a slightly longer-toed form, occasionally having one costal groove between the appressed toes, but more often none, while in clemsonae there is usually at least one groove between the toes, and only rarely do the toes meet or overlap (in adult specimens). Of the two, metcalfi tends to have shorter vomerine series, the range of vomerine teeth counts in speci- mens I have seen being 6-12, average 8.1, 418 whereas in clemsonae the variation is 6-16, average 9.1. The examination of several series of salamanders from the vicinity of Highlands, Macon County, N. C., reveals considerable variation in the degree of in- tensity of the belly pigment. For example, in a series of specimens from Mirror Lake, near Highlands, U.S.N.M. no. 88010, female (snout-vent 58 mm), has an immaculately black back and belly, as do also U.S.N.M. no. 88014 male (snout-vent 56 mm), and no. 88016, female (snout-vent 58 mm). On the other hand, three smaller specimens taken at the same time and locality (U.S.N.M. nos. 88011—138, all males, snout-vent 40, 49, 46 mm) have black dorsums and light grayish throats, but dark yellowish gray bellies. Similarly, in U.S.N.M. nos. 104527-31, from Little Yellow Mountain, 4,100 feet, near High- lands, two large females and a male (snout- vent 50, 63, and 60 mm, respectively) have black backs and bellies, while two smaller females (snout-vent 39 and 44 mm) have gray bellies. Another specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 72825, female, Whiteside Mountain, near Highlands (snout-vent 67 mm), is black above and dark slaty gray below. Specimens I have seen from Rabun and Habersham Counties, Ga., and Pickens County, S. C., are uniformly black above and below (except for the throat), from im- maturity (snout-vent 35 mm) to maximum adult size (snout-vent 80 mm), although they occasionally have grayish or grayish- white fleckings on the head and body. Taken in their entirety, the variations of metcalfi and clemsonae, as well as the vicarious ranges and apparent intergradation in Macon County, N. C., make it evident that these two forms are allopatric races of the same species and accordingly should be recognized as Plethodon metcalfi metcalfi and P. m. clemsonae. The consistent types of ventral pigmentation that characterize the two races within their respective ranges, and the apparent association in part between size (age) and degree of belly pigmentation in some Highlands specimens, may indicate not only intergradation in the vicinity of Highlands but may also be taken to indicate in ontogenetic fashion the phylogenetic JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 process which has resulted in the deriva- tion of clemsonae from metcal/fi. While the arrangement suggested above satisfies the situation so far as the majority of known specimens is concerned, two speci- mens are known that fall completely out- side this system. These two examples, U.S.N.M. nos. 127523-4, were collected by H. J. Cole, on Black Mountain, ca. 4,000 feet, Harlan County, Ky. One (no. 127523) is a sexually mature female (snout-vent 56 mm), while the other (no. 127524) is an im- mature male (snout-vent 39 mm). Both specimens are a uniform rich black above and below, including the chin, throat, and breast, except for a very few tiny, isolated light flecks, and have whitish palms and soles. In both specimens the costal count is - 15, and the toes overlap, while the vo- merine count is 12—i4 in the female speci- men and 10-10 in the male. In colorand dentition these specimens are indistinguish- able from clemsonae, except for the uni-~ formly black throat, while the overlapping toes might suggest metcalfi. On purely geo- graphic grounds it would be expected that they would fall in the scope of metcalfi; that they do not, and appear instead to be more nearly identifiable with clemsonae, raises a point of major importance. It is possible that additional specimens from this locality would provide sufficient charac- teristics to distinguish a separate form. But for the present, the status of these Kentucky specimens is not properly deter- minable; a reasonable decision as to their identity must await additional material from this critical area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Owing to the kindness of Dr. Doris M. Cochran I have had available the extensive collections and other facilities of the United States National Museum; for this, and many simi'ar courtesies, I am in Dr. Cochran’s debt. ; LITERATURE CITED BisHop, SHERMAN C. Handbook of salamanders, xiv+555 pp., 144 figs., 56 maps. 1943. BRIMLEY, CLEMENT S. An apparently new sala- mander (Plethodon clemsonae) from S. C. Copeia, no. 164: 73-75. 1927. Dec. 15, 1948 SCHULTZ AND WOODS: NEW NAME FOR SYNCHIROPUS ALTIVELIS GROBMAN, ARNOLD B. The distribution of the sala- manders of the genus Plethodon in eastern United States and Canada. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 45(7): 261-316, figs. 1-11. 1944. Horrann, Ricuarp L., and KLEINPETER, Hvu- BERT I. Amphibians from Burkes Garden, 419 Virginia. Amer. Midl. Nat. 39(3): 602-57. 1948. Pops, CLirrorp H., and Hatrston, NELSON G. Two new subspecies of the salamander Ple- thodon shermani. Copeia, 1948, no. 2: 106— 107. ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new name for Synchiropus altivelis Regan, with a key to the genera of the fish family Callionymidae. Woops, U.S. National Museum. During the course of our study of the fishes of the northern Marshall Islands it was necessary to review the genera of callio- nymid fishes of the world. We observed that Synchiropus altivelis Regan [Trans. Linn. Soc. London 12: 249, pl. 30, fig. 1. 1908 (Seychelles); Norman, John Murray Exped. 1933-34, Sci. Repts. Fishes, 7 (1): 75, fig. 27. 1939 (Gulf of Aden)] is preoccu- pied by Callionymus altivelis Temminck and Schlegel [Fauna Japonica, p. 155, pl. 79, fig. 1. 1845 (Japan)], now Synchiropus altwelis (T. and 8.). We herewith propose the new name Synchiropus normani to replace S. altivelis Regan, 1908. Although Fowler (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 90: 1-2. 1941) gave a key to the genera, new facts have been found that require us to present our different analysis, with syno- nyms of genera. The species of this family have not been revised, and they are in a general state of confusion, somewhat as a result of the differences between sexes. We do not have the time or the specimens nec- essary to revise carefully the several Cozen species named but believe our analysis of genera will aid in referring most or all of the species to a defined genus. We have examined the 54 lots of types and paratypes of this family along with numerous other nontype specimens in the National Museum. That material forms the basis of the follow- ing key: KEY TO THE GENERA OF CALLIONYMIDAE la. Two dorsal fins. 2a. No pelvic ray free or separate from others, all connected by membrane. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received August 13, 1948. LEONARD P. ScHuLTz and LOREN P. 3a. Two lateral lines, lower one represented by a fleshy keel or membranous fold along lower side of body beginning op- posite anterior base of anal fin; opercu- lar membrane ending in a free flap; posterior part of maxillary semitubu- lar in form, convex side inward, open side outward, with a very short ante- rior and outwardly projecting concave lobe, scarcely developed in small speci- mens; opercular opening superior in position, above opercle, in form of a small foramen; pelvic fins connected to pectoral base by a membrane attached opposite base of 4 to 6 pectoral rays from dorsal edge of fin; upper lateral line simple; no orbital tentacle; pre- opercular spine acute with small spines dorsally and a small antrorse spine basally; soft dorsal and anal rays all unbranched except last one in each fin which is branched to base........... Calymmichthys? Jordan and Thompson 3b. Asingle lateral line located mostly in dor- sal part of body, no thin fold of skin along lower side. 4a. An orbital tentacle in combination with a broad somewhat fleshy lower lip folded under chin; opercular opening a small foramen above oper- cle; no free opercular flap; pelvic membrane attached to base of pec- toral fin; lateral line simple; pre- opercular spine acute with spiny points dorsally and an antrorse spine ventrally and somewhat basally; all rays of soft dorsal and anal fins un- 2 Calymmichthys Jordan and Thompson, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 6(4): 296, pl. 36, fig. 2. 1914 (geno- type, C. xentcus Jordan and Thompson). Their figure lacks the lower lateral line described twice in the text. Diacallionymus Fowler, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 90: 29. 1941 (genotype, Callionymus goramensis Bleeker). Dermosteira Schultz, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 180: 267, fig. 26. 1943 (genotype, D. dorotheae Schultz) ; We believe C. cookez Giinther belongs in this genus. 420 branched except last one in both fins branched to its base. .. Amora’ Gray 4b. No orbital tentacle, or if a small one occurs the lower lip not broadly folded below chin. 5a. Pelvic fin membrane absent, no membrane connecting pelvic fin with pectoral base; preopercular spine without a basal antrorse spine. 5b. Pelvic membrane present and joined with base of pectoral fin near its middle; no free opercular flap; gill opening a small foramen above opercle; lateral line simple; no or- bital tentacle. 6a. Opercle ending in a free dermal flap; gill opening in a superior position at rear of opercle; lat- eral line without elongate side branchings; body very robust; all rays of soft dorsal and of anal unbranched except last one, which is branched to base 1M), OQ: PISS a eter Pech oe ere eR ee Eleutherochir* Bleeker 6b. No free opercular flap of skin; gill opening superior in position, above opercle; all rays of anal unbranched except last, which is branched to its base. 7a. Lateral line with short branches at right angles; all rays of soft dorsal unbranched except last, which is branched to its PASE: ose thc i Aol aee eee eee ..Paracallionymus® Barnard 3 Amora Gray, Illustrations of Indian zoology, Hardwicke, 2: pl. 90, fig. 1. 1833-34 (genotype, Amora tentaculata Gray =Anaora Gray, zbid., probably typographical error for Amora in direc- tions for arranging plates). (Reference copied.) We refer Synchiropus tentaculatus Herre (Philip- pine Journ. Sci. 35: 33, pl. 3. 1928) as asynonym of Amora tentaculatus Gray. S. tentaculatus Herre is a homonym also, but since we do not consider it as distinct from tentaculatus Gray, we see no rea- son to propose a new substitute name. In addition Callionymus fimbriatus Herre (Herre Philippine Exped. 1931: 94. 1934) is a synonym of both tentaculatus Gray and tentaculatus Herre, in our opinion. 4 Kleutherochir Bleeker, Versl. Medel. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam, ser. 2, 14: 103. 1879 (genotype, C. opercularioides Bleeker). Brachycallionymus Herre and Myers, in Herre, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 49: 12. 1936 (geno- type, B. mirus Herre = C. opercularioides Bleeker). 5 Paracallionymus Barnard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, 20: 69. 1927, and Ann. South African JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 7b. Lateral line simple; soft dorsal rays branched and last one to its base... . Yerutius* Whitley 8a. Preopercular spine with a basal antrorse spine or one near its ventral edge; all rays of dorsal and of anal fins unbranched ex- cept the last one in both fins which is branched to its base.. . Sie a Callionymus’ Linnaeus 8b. No antrorse spine at base or on ventral side of preopercular spine; first soft dorsal ray usu- ally unbranched, all _ rest branched (except in young), the last one to its base; anal rays unbranched except last one, which is branched to its base. . bewtale 2 phew Synchiropus® Gill 2b. First pelvic ray not connected by a mem- brane with the next ray; gill opening be- hind oOpercie “2s oe Dactylophus® Gill 1b. Dorsal fin single, spiny part lacking; gill open- ing superior in position at rear of opercle; pelvic membrane not connected with pec- toral base; lateral line simple; orbital ten- tacle lacking; no antrorse spine near basal part of preopercular spine; soft dorsal rays branched, last one to its base; anal rays un- branched, except last one, which is branched t0:its' base. 2. se ee eee Draculo'® Snyder Mus. 21: 448. 1927 (genotype, C. costatus Bou- lenger). 6 Yerutius Whitley, Rec. Austral. Mus. 18: 115. 1931 (genotype, C. apricus McCulloch). 7 Callionymus Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, ed. 10: 249. 1758 (genotype, C. lyra Linnaeus). Calliurichthys Jordan and Fowler, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 25: 941. 1903 (genotype, C.japonicus Houttuyn). Repomucenus Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6: 323. 1931 (genotype, C. calcaratus Macleay). Callimucenus Whitley, Suppl. checklist fishes New South Wales, ed. 3, no. 398: 418. 1934 (geno- type, C. macdonaldi Ogilby). Velestonymus Whitley, zbid.: 418 (genotype, C. limiceps Ogilby). 8 Synchiropus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, 1859: 129. 1860 (genotype, C. lateralis Richardson). Foetorepus Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6: 323. 1931 (genotype, C. calauropomus Richardson). ® Dactylophus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia 1859: 130. 1860 (genotype, C. dactylophus Bennett =D. benneiti Gill). Vulsus Giinther, Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum 3: 15. 1861 (genotype, C. dacty- lophus Bennett). 10 Draculo Snyder, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 40: 545. 1911 (genotype, Dracule mirabilis Snyder). INDEX TO VOLUME 38 An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washington. 191. Philosophical Society of Washington. 25, 283. Washington Academy of Sciences. 23, 79, 112, 188, 213, 254, 281, 382. AUTHOR INDEX AspEetson, P. H. *The transuranic elements. 30. ALEXANDER, 8S. N. *High-speed digital comput- ing machines, Pt. 2. 26. ALPHER, RatpH E. *The origin of chemical ele- ments. 288. Avery, W.H. *Infrared spectra at low temper- atures. 31. Bartscu, Paut. More about Mexican urocop- tid mollusks. 350. Bates, Rocer G., and SmiTtH, EpGar REYNOLDs. Standardization of the pH scale. 61. BayYER, FrepERICcCK M. See Cuarx, Austin H. 143. BEEBE, RatpH A. Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s con- tributions in the field of adsorption. 117. Bennett, A. H. *The phase contrast micro- scope. 30. Birancourt, A. A. See JENKINS, ANNAE. 362. BLACKWELDER, RicHArRD E. An analysis of spe- cific homonyms in zoological nomenclature. 206. The principle of priority in biological nomenclature. 306. BuakKE, Doris H. New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid beetles from the West Indies. 274. Bricker, C.E. See Furman, N. Howey. 159. BRIDGMAN, Percy W. General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure physics. 145. . Science and freedom: Reflections of a physicist. 156. BuRINGTON, RicHARD STEVENS. The role of the concept of equivalence in the study of physical and mathematical systems. 1. CALDWELL, JOSEPH R. Palachacolas Town, Hampton County, South Carolina. 321. Cxiark, Austin H. Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis in the mid-Atlantic. 75. and BayER, FREDERICK M. Some echi- noderms from Biak, Schouten Islands. 143 CocHRAN, Doris M. A new subspecies of tree frog from Pernambuco, Brazil. 316. Connon, E. U. *Nuclear forces. 283. CurTIN, CHARLES B. The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia. 251. Curtiss, J. H. *High-speed digital computing machines, Pt.1. 26. Daunt, A. I. *Temperature measurements in gas streams. 283. DeranporFr, F. M. The measurement of high voltage. 33. Dertenan, H. G. Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield). 245. . Some races of the babbling thrush, Malacocincla abbott Blyth. 184. . The races of the black-throated sun- bird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). 21. The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). 279. The races of the silver-breasted broad- bill, Serilophus lunatus (Gould). 108. Deuacour, J. Note on the races of the black- throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodg- son). 1883. DExTER, RatpH W. See Speck, FRANK G. 257. Drucker, Puiurp. The antiquity of the North- west coast totem pole. 389. DuFFENDACK, O. 8S. *Magnetic ferrites. 288. DunkKLE, Davin H. An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West Virginia. 130. On two previously unreported selachians from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. 173. DuryEE, W. R. *A film on the mechanism of cell division. 31. Euuiott, Evucense W. The _ swarm-cells of Myxomyeetes. 133. Ewers, JOHN C. Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance. 166. Fanc, Wen-Per. New species of Salix from Szechwan, China. 312. Fano, U. *Contributions of physics to biology, PRSE 229. Forsusu, 8. E. *Cosmic rays from the sun? 30. Fox, Ricoarp M. Two new Ithomiinae in the Schaus collection (Lepidoptera: Nymphali- dae). 315. FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. A small collection of birds from Eritrea. 137. Furman, N. Howey; Bricker, C. E.; and Mc- DuFFi£, Bruce. A method for the de- termination of certain metals present in minor concentration in various substances. 159. GauHan, A. B. The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American Chalcidoidea described by W.H. Ashmead. 243. Gamow, G. *Contributions of physics to bi- ology, Pt. 2. 29. Ginnines, D.C. *The Bunsen ice calorimeter in modern heat measurements. 283. Goeain, JoHn M. Florida archeology and re- eent ecological changes. 225. 421 422 GREEN, J. B. *The spectra of atoms. 285. HERMANN, FrepErRiIcK J. Notes on North American Leguminosae. 236. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, II: Miscellaneous Middle American Lonchocarpi. 11. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humboldtiella and Callistylon. 72. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, IV: The Lonchocarpus rugosus com- plex and additional Middle American spe- cies. 310. Hosss, Horton H., Jr. On the crayfishes of the Limosus section of the genus Orconectes (Decapoda: Astacidae). 14. Horr, C. Cuayton. Hesperochernes thomomysi, a new species of chernetid pseudoscorpion from California. 340. Horrman, James I. Purification of uranium oxide. 238. See also May,-IRvinG. 329. HorrMan, Ricuarp L. Three new eastern milli- peds of the family Xystodesmidae. 346. and KLEINPETER, HuBEerT I. A collec- tion of salamanders from Mount Rogers, Virginia. 106. HvuBBARD, JoHNC. *Ultrasonic propagation and its measurement. 287. Humpureys, W. J. Loose usage of weather words. 123. Inte, Paut L. Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracanthidae (Crustacea: Copepoda), and a description of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from New Guinea. 404. JENKINS, ANNA E., and BiTaNncourt, A. A. Diagnosis of the Elsinoé on flowering dog- wood. 362. KELLER, E. *Airborne magnetometer in geo- physical explorations, Pt. 2. 28. Kuaassk, JAMES M. *Airborne magnetometer in geophysical exploration, Pt. 1. 28. KLEINPETER, Husert I. See Horrman, Ricu- ARD L. 106. Larsen, EstHerR L. New species of Achaeto- geron (Compositae) from Mexico. 199. LirrLte, Evpert L., Jr. Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species. 269. . New species of treesfrom Ecuador. 87. Loomis, H. F. Two new millipeds of Jamaica. 185. LutTMaN, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, and WHEELER, Harry E. Bacillus megatersum de Bary from the interior of healthy potato tubers. 336. Martin, G W. Two new species of Physarum. 238. May, Irvine, and Horrman, JAMES I. A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium. 329. McDurriz, Bruce. See Furman, N. Howe Lt. 159. McMituan, J. Howarp. *Spark shadowgraphy in hydrodynamics. 284. MenzeEL, D. H. *Problems of the sun. 32. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 Mixer, Cart F. Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeological survey of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina. 397. Miuiuiegan, L. H. Robert Hamilton Lombard (obituary). 112. MitrrLEMAN, M. B. American Caudata, Y: Notes on certain Appalachian salamanders of the genus Plethodon. 416. and SmitH, Hopart M. American Cau- data, IV: Allocation of the name Bolito- glossa mexicana. 318. Mou_er, Frep L. Mass spectra of hydrocar- bons. 1983. NEwELL, H. E. *Exploration of the upper at- mosphere by rockets, Pt. 2. 28. Nicer, Paut. Some aspects of the geology, petrology, and mineralogy of Switzerland. 289. Peterson, R. P. *Exploration of the upper at- mosphere by rockets, Pt. 1. 27. PETTIBONE, Marran H. Two new species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from Puget Sound and San Juan Archi- pelago. 412. Ricuarps, O. W. *Applications of the phase contrast microscope. 30. RicHarps, RaupH W. George Rogers Mansfield (obituary). 223. Ross, Herspert H. Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera). 201. SaBrosky, Curtis W. A synopsis of the Nearc- tic species of Elachiptera and related genera (Diptera, Chloropidae). 365. SaYLor, LAWRENCE W. Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the sub- family Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dynastini, and Phileurini. 176. Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera. 240. Scuuttz, Leonarp P., and Woops, Loren P. Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acan- thuridae, with notes on related forms. 248. . A new name for Synchiropus altivelis Regan, with a key to the genera of the fish family Callionymidae. 419. SEEGER, R. J. *Shock-wave phenomena. 26. Seitz, FREDERICK. *The theory of plastic flow in solids. 286. SILVERMAN, SHIRLEIGH. *A _ cinema-spectro- graph for photographing rapid spectral se- quences. 285. Simmons, Perez. English-language surnames of biological origin. 81. Simon, Lesitiz E. *Organization and adminis- tration of German research in World War II. 287. SmiTH, EpGAR REYNOLDS. 61. SmirH, Hopart M. See Mitrieman, M. B. 318. SmitH, Newsorn. *Longitude effect in F2- layer characteristics. 25. See BaTEs, RocEr G. Dec. 15, 1948 SoLEcKI, Raupu 8. A seventeenth-century fire- place at Maspeth, Long Island. 324. Speck, Frank G., and DeExtTrerR, RautpH W. Utilization of marine life by the Wam- panoag Indians of Massachusetts. 257. Stewart, T. D. The true form of the cranial deformity originally described under the name “téte trilobée.” 66. Stone, ALan. Simulium virgatum Coquillett and a new related species (Diptera: Simu- hiidae). 399. _ STRONG, JoHN. *An extension of the application of evaporated films. 286. SuMNER, JAMES BATCHELLER. ture of enzymes. 113. VinaL, Grorce W. Transition from The chemical na- inter- INDEX 423 national to absolute electrical units as it affects the physical chemist. 265. Wacker, Pau. F. *Heat capacities of gases. 31. Weis, H. W. *Panoramic ionospheric re- corder. 25. Wey, F. J. *Optical analysis of supersonic flow. 27. WHEELER, Harry E. See LutMan, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 336. WiuuiaMs, RoBLEy C. *Recent developments in electron microscopy. 283. WoopBRIDGE, HENSLEY C. Glossary of names used in colonial Latin America for crosses among Indians, Negroes, and Whites. 3583. Woops, Loren P. See Scuuutz, Leonarp P. 248. SUBJECT INDEX Academy awards for scientific achievement, 1947. 255. Anthropology. Glossary of names used in co- lonial Latin America for crosses among Indians, Negroes, and Whites. HENSLEY C. WoopBRIDGE. 353. The true form of the cranial deformity origi- nally described under the name ‘‘téte trilobée.” T.D.Stewart. 66. Archeology. A seventeenth-century fireplace at Maspeth, Long Island. Raupu §S. So- LECKI. 324. Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeological survey of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina. Caru F. MIL- LER. 397. Florida archeology and recent ecological changes. JOHN M. Goaain. 225. Palachacolas Town, Hampton County, South Carolina. JosEPH R. CALDWELL. 321. Astronomy. *Problems of the sun. D. H. MENZEL. 32. Biochemistry. The chemical nature of enzymes. JAMES BATCHELLER SUMNER. 113. Biology. The principle of priority in biological nomenclature. RIcHARD E. BLacK- WELDER. 306. Biophysics. *A film on the mechanism of cell division. W. R. DuryYeEE. 31. *Contributions of physics to biology, Pt. 1. U. Fano. 29. *Contributions of physics to biology, Pt. 2. G. Gamow. 29. Botany. Diagnosis of the Elsinoé on flowering dogwood. ANNA E. JENKINS and A. A. BiITaANcouRT. 362. Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species. Expert L. Litre, Jr. 269. Botany. New species of Achaetogeron (Composi- tae) from Mexico. EstHer L. Larsen. 199. New species of Salix from Szechwan, China. WeEnN-PEI Fane. 312. New species of trees from western Ecuador. Evsert L. Littxe, Jr. 87. Notes in North American Leguminosae. FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 236. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, Il: Miscellaneous Middle American Lon- chocarpi. FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 11. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humboldtiella and Callistylon. FREp- ERICK J. HERMANN. 72. Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, IV: The Lonchocarpus rugosus complex and additional Middle American _ species. FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 310. Chemistry. A method for the determination of certain metals present in minor concentra- tion in various substances. N. HowE.u FurMAN, C. E. Bricker, and Bruce Mc- Durriz£. 159. A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium. Irvine May and James I. Horrman. 329. Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the field of adsorption. RaupH A. BEEBE. Tle: Purification of uranium oxide. JAMmEs I. HoFFMaANn. 233. Standardization of the pH scale. RoGeEr G. Bates and EpGar REYNOLDS SMITH. 61. *The transuranic elements. P. H. ABEL- son. 30. © Entomology. A synopsis of the Nearctic species of Hlachiptera and related genera (Dip- tera, Chloropidae). Curtis W. Sasros- KY. 365. ; Entomology. New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid beetles from the West Indies. Doris H. BLake. 274. Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hy- droptilidae (Trichoptera). HERBERT H. Ross. 201. Simulium virgatum Coquillett and a new related species (Diptera: Simuliidae). ALAN STONE. 399. Synoptic revision of the United States 424 scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynas- tinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dy- nastini, and Phileurini. Lawrence W. Sartor. 176. Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera. LAWRENCE W. Saytor. 240. The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American Chalcidoidea described by W. H. Ashmead. A. B. GAHAN. 248. Two new Ithomiinae in the Schaus collection (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). RicHarp NM Box.) Pop: Ethnology. Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance. JoHN C. Ewers. 166. The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem pole. Puitip Drucker. 389. Utilization of marine life by the Wam- panoag Indians of Massachusetts. FRANK G. Speck and RautpH W. DExTER. 257. General science. *Organization and administra- tion of German research in World’ War II. LesuiE E. Simon. 287. Science and freedom: Reflections of a physi- cist. Percy W. BripamMan. 156. Geology. Some aspects of the geology, petrology, and mineralogy of Switzerland. Pauvu Nicer. 289. Herpetology. A collection of salamanders from Mount Rogers, Virginia. Ricuarp L. HorrmMan and Huspert J. KLEeInpeTer. 106. Ichthyology. Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on_ related forms. LronarRD P. Scuuttz and LoREN P. Woops. 248. A new name for Synchiropus altivelis Regan, with a key to the genera of the fish family Callionymidae. Lronarp P. ScuHuttz and Loren P. Woops. 419. Mathematics. The role of the concept of equiva- lence in the study of physical and mathe- matical systems. RIcHARD STEVENS BuR- INGTON. l. Meteorolegy. Loose usage of weather words. W. J. Humpureys. 123. Mycology. The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes. EucEnsE W. Exuuiott. 133. Two new species of Physarum. G. W. MartTIn. 238. Obituaries. Harry Diamonp. 320. RoBERT HAMILTON LOMBARD. GEORGE RoGEerRsS MANSFIELD. 223. Ornithology. A small collection of birds from Eritrea. HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 137. Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield). H. G. Der8IGNAN. 245. Note on the races of the black-throated sun- bird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). J. DELacourR. 183. 112. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12 Some races of the babbling thrush, Malaco- cincla abbotti Blyth. H. G. Derrenan. 184. The races of the black-throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). H. G. DEIGNAN. 21. The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). H. G. DEIGNAN. 279. The races of the silver-breasted broadbill, Sertlophus lunatus (Gould). H. G. Dete- NAN. 108. Paleontology. An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West Virginia. Davin H. Dunk«KLE. 130. On two previously unreported selachians from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. Davin H. DuNKLE. 173. Philology. English-language surnames of bio- logical origin. PEREZ Simmons. 81. Physics. *A cinema-spectrograph for photo- graphing rapid spectral sequences. SuHtIR- LEIGH SILVERMAN. 285. *Airborne magnetometer in geophysical ex- ploration, Pt. 1. James M. KiaasseE. 28. *Airborne magnetometer in geophysical ex- plorations, Pt. 2. F. KELLER. 28. *An extension of the application of evapo- rated films. JOHN STRONG. 286. *Applications of the phase contrast micro- scope. O. W. RicHarps. 30. *Cosmic raysfrom the sun? §S. E. Forsusu. 30. *Exploration of the upper atmosphere by rockets, Pt.1. R.P. PETERson. 27. *Exploration of the upper atmosphere by rockets, Pt. 2. H.E. NEwELL. 28, General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure physics. Percy W. BripGMAN. 145. *Heat capacities of gases. Paun F. Wack- ER. —31. *High-speed digital computing machines, Pt. 1... J. H. - Curtiss. 20: é *High-speed digital computing machines, Pt..2" 3S. N. ALEXANDER. | 26: *Infrared spectra at low temperatures. W. H. Avery. 31. *Longitude effect in F2-layer characteris- tics. NEWBORN SMITH. 25. *Magnetic ferrites. O. S. DUFFENDACK. 288. Mass spectra of hydrocarbons. FRrRep L. Mouser. 193. *Nuclear forces. E. U. Connon. 283. *Optical analysis of supersonic flow. F. J. Wey. 27. Physics. *Panoramic ionospheric H.W. Weis, -/25. *Recent developments in electron micros- copy. Rospuiey C. WiLuiaMs. 283. *Shock-wave phenomena. R. J. SEEGER. 26. *Spark shadowgraphy in hydrodynamics. J. Howarp McMiuian. 284. recorder. Dec. 15, 1948 INDEX *Temperature measurements in gas streams. AI. Dann. 283. *The Bunsen ice calorimeter in modern heat measurements. D.C. GINNINGS. 283. The measurement of high voltage. F. M. DEFANDORF. 33. *The origin of chemical elements. RawupuH E. ALPHER. 288. *The phase contrast microscope. A. H. BENNETT. 30. *The spectra of atoms. J. B. GREEN. 285. *The theory of plastic flow in solids. FREpD- ERICK SEITZ. 286. Transition from international to absolute electrical units as it affects the physical chemist. GrEoRrGE W. VINAL. 265. *Ultrasonic propagation and its measure- ment. JoHN C. HupBarp. 287. Plant pathology. Bacillus megaterium de Bary from the interior of healthy potato tuber. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LuTMAN and Harry E. WHEELER. 336. Zoology. American Caudata, IV: Allocation of the name Belitoglossa mexicana. M. B. MirTLeMAN and Hopart M. SmirH. 318. American Caudata, V: Notes on certain Appalachian salamanders of the genus Plethodon. M.B. Mirtiteman. 416. Zoology. An analysis of specific homonyms in zoological nomenclature. RicHarp E. BLACKWELDER. 206. 425 A new subspecies of tree frog from Pernam. buco, Brazil. Doris M. Cocuran. 316- Hesperochernes thomomyst, a new species of chernetid pseudoscorpion from California. C. Cuayton Horr, 340. More about Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Pau. BartscH. 350. On the crayfishes of the Limosus section of the genus Orconectes (Decapoda: Asta- cidae). Horton H. Hosss, Jr. 14. Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracan- thidae (Crustacea: Copepoda), and a de- scription of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from New Guinea. PautL. Inia. 404. Some echinoderms from Biak, Schouten Islands. Austin H. CiarkK and FREpD- ERICK M. Bayer. 1438. Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis in the mid- Atlantic. Austin H. CiarK. 75. The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia. CHARLES B. CurTIN. 251. Three new eastern millipeds of the family Xystodesmidae. RicHarp L. HOFFMAN. 346. Two new millipeds of Jamaica. H. F. Loomis. 185. Two new species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from Puget Sound and San Juan Archipelago. Marian H. Perr- TIBONE. 412, de “2 § ule 4 ean) v° one. > = 1 ee : . es : es oy as 2 >. Dae i] : _ oe wee va G : os ’ Aare yo rs A igs es | =a SS “t tea. -) Sveplee W islelosbe aigca Vedi Aaa Ask }. dea | as a re Ai one ae ie. ‘rst tedeal ar aeponile ee 94 ad a Ww ‘ered! estar! Hitiis rien, A Oi 4c! ? Wits ~ “at ae - whan ey iar _ thks yi DE tert Téa 4. aN os me " vf : Rana OWES «ae cnt ieee eel. Aad le ‘ thd nomteall tials = 4 ent ates ae ot! acuey « oh / t)) ee i Kero tt,. comdiet coy: . -* *% a) aa eae ails alt eet, Pave. at, ts areta | mage eat. ~tae -.“ ain a woh OORT i BRE At lier 4 eis t fur earigre ; ; ox | unin? we “Slow oe texto Maieaktens vac 4) “HU HMI oe itey igi aula, “Hk ih* ei Sry, ol GR, vi oy Daa _fis i, Latah i) Lai Tes et 4 igNttT: HM wid 193 + 7 al, tent haat s ART M 3 be nian ne ae Orbe! i uta J riba dy j ria i 52 Let " p RIVAL BT wt 4 ‘Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences President............+.+.-++-FREDERICK D. Rossrn1, National Bureau of Standards IRENE GE acy ctu ss wile an ee an bine wa akan se C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum MME air. os tan k's) oid ath es eee ...- Howarp S. Rappers, Coast and Geodetic Survey WME aoe ie 2g Le/alel foe's wigs a's ace en NatHan R. Smits, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications..........0cc0ccceeescccee Sk oie og Sets bs Haraup A. REHDER, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidents ‘Representing the Affiltated Socteties: Philosophical Society of Washington.......... Se cuba oan eniat .... WALTER RAMBERG Anthropological Society of Washington....... ME RGB ge EB AL T. Dae STEWART Biological Society of Washington..... ph, EE OE ek Lae EOS. JOHN W. ALDRICH Chemical Society of Washington...... Bre ess “aA ed wissais Stance Cuarues E, WHITE Entomological Society of Washington.........5....... ...C. F. W. MursesBreck National Geographic Society..... SS elite: Marae atc eae eit 1avello Gas ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington............... oeeeeee-. WILLIAM W. RUBEY Medical Society of the District of Columbia......... ....... FREDERICK O. CoE Columbia Historical Society.............. See ose 's 4 . GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanical Society of Washington... 2... ine eee sec c eae eee- RoNALD BAMFORD Washington Section, Society of American Foresters. . . WittiamM A. Dayton Washington Society GigenOMCera GL ie. car a ides Gey cc Regrets Ge CuirrorD A, Betts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers............... PE Re ME OES POR AG as URNS ees ola Francis B, SILSBEE Washington Section, ‘American Society of Mechanical Engineers............... ER SNe © stan os vinnie spice iri! oe SEM uy Ries ow Meee al Martin A. Mason Helminthological Society of Washington................0.25. AUREL O. FostTER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERs Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.....QwEN B. FRENcH Elected Members of the Board of Managers: PEPE 1 DAS i ee a he to Sie. wane Max A. McCatu, Waxtpo L. Scumitrr To January 1950....... PS Gla wihiataaa wecainio 8 F, G. Brick wEpDE, WILLIAM W. Di1EHL remremnery LOOT, eS cid ww ene eee Francis M. DeranporrFr, WILLIAM N. FENTON PPREIAEE) PP RA ERE oi ooo aig os ne sv ape tay All the above officers plus the Senior Editor Board of Editors and Associate Editors..........ccccececnccesccess [See front cover] Executive Commitiee......... Freperick D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG, SRN Sa. aia ss g' Watpo L. Scumitt, Howarp 8. Rappieys, C. Lewis Gazin Commiitee Ree LN MARTI POEMS SEALE, GN a vey eae whale Bau ae Us we Uy pace Ae 8 ie hie heraialete _ Harowp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Burz, C. WytHe Cooxks, WILLIAM ee ee W. Diext, Luoyp D. Fe.iron, Recina FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov Committee on Meetings.....5...0...cccccecccvenes RayMonp J. SEEGER (chairman), ....- FRANK P. CULLINAN, Frep L. Monier, Francis O. Rice, FRanK THONB Committee on M pace oehes, To January 1949. .....- LEWIS V. JuDSON (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN To January BOSON Cu Ce Lee ecen Routanp W. Brown, HarRauD A. REHDER Pee ROD ae Pata oa eee 5 kcare WiiuiaM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (KARL F. HerzFrexp, general chairman): REO ICAL GINGER. 65 ON aa vie Me A ahs « Hike Mea Sek es Late tee aieteo nna s0% C. F. W. Mugsmsecx (chairman), Harry §. Bernton, Coester W. Emmons, Eimer Hiecins, Mario Moiuari, GorrHoLDp STEINER, L. Epw1in Yocum For the Engineering CEES A TG ete Sig ks RU Re Pe Ue Fran nso) Te a co Luorp V. Berxner, (chairman), Ropert C. Duncan, Hersert N. Eaton, Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scuzerz, W. D. SutcuiFrrs For the Physical Se Se Re ee eee, eats ci Vt I Kari F. Herzre.p (chairman), NarHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FELTon, HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. ROONEY, RoBERT SIMBA, Micuart X. SULLIVAN Committee on Grants-in-aid SOP UIUCSEOTE I OU NS Mh e es va eek ke Aas 8 6m aati ae ..F. H. H. Rozgerts, Jr. ar aa aBA Anna E. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSEY eo Representative on Council of MAW CeCe tie cereal ares Gy Sa SM Cie eb FRANK THONE rn SRNR Ee Abt UACLONS So oc gt ie ww 0 a'd Main SA wee. 0's Dain eter shdia bs heads Skee ae eo ree Witi1amM G. BroMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. STIMSON, Hersert L. HALLER fa ees CP RIL ORE er cs We ea oh ee Ae Me eae a nmeecrgak Sass Ret TS gi -- JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. Barrs, WiLiiam A. WILDHACK CONTENTS 4 | Erunotocy.—The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem pole. PHILIP DRVCK BR oe RP i eR err Ta. tak ie ee ARcHEOLOGY.—Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeo- logical survey of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina. Carn F. MILupR.............. EnTomoLoey.—Simulium virgatum Coquillett and a new related spe- cies (Diptera; Simuliidae).. ALAN STONE, .). 2.5.0.0. ...00. 02% ZooLoGy.—Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracanthidae (Crus- tacea: Copepoda), and a description of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from..New Guinea. (“PAUL Tae en ZooLoay.—T wo new species of polychaete worms of the family Poly- noidae from Puget Sound and San J van Archipelago. Marian H. PEPTIBONE oii g ur eUC as: eR AMOR CARON UNE TE UN SLURS rit ee a a ZooLtocy.—American Caudata, V: Notes on certain Appalachian sala- manders of the genus Plethodon. M.B. MIrrLeMaNn........... IcnHTHyoLocy.—A new name for Synchiropus altwelis Regan, with a key to the genera of the fish family pee ed ie LEONARD P. ScHULTZand Loren P- Woops: 2.0 oe so een ee ENDIUXLO VOLUMES eae Aga teint Rep bate ie. Turis JoURNAL 18 INDEXED IN THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS Page 397 399 404 412 416 = ze i sé : ee pickin y Aes we a J " wining 3 9088 01303 1919