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Cs? : ‘ hee CTU AlN Wt a Re ee ee Ea Ad vas eae a ly ’ N CRORE atte Fp aT een VE kea yay Te HG AT ROR RT aga Ath Varia ae f AY SER vate Oa: ; * rf ney) ay Vey Wace Lake ol Mia Sed S$ cThs Fa 4 vate bark eda ae8 409 SU f8 ta Con maa CI : Cth RS “ Pei erent Cee et ) Neat ALA hay ia Weta wh , \ Hi 4 Ad aD at Nera he yee bir be b 9 et yd A PY WP RLM Mee RB \s NEMS a Oe AERA a aleieg POR OK) 4 sain tf ites ane wht ny ! ‘a 8 eho cer arte wee Riera te ee Ec is ae N the xt) cada ais Wile | 34 ‘it Dae ORR ‘ WG oe Wout Pa Gt = ¥ on 5) i ‘ / te yee Bo: enw : F he 4 ele iy 1 y : 4 i : = eh nA JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 45, 1955 BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE, JR. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrmMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. Cowles PuHitiep DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DuNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WASHINGTON 25. D.C- PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royaut & GUILFORD AVEs. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 45 No. 1, pp. 1-32, January 28, 1955. No. 2, pp. 33-64, March 14, 1955. No. 3, pp. 65-100, March 30, 1955. No. 4, pp. 101-132, April 25, 1955. No. 5, pp. 1383-164, May 23, 1955. No. 6, pp. 165-200, July 7, 1955. No. 7, pp. 201-232, August 5, 1955. No. 8, pp. 233-268, August 23, 1955. No. 9, pp. 269-300, October 4, 1955. No. 10, pp. 301-332, October 31, 1955. No. 11, pp. 333-860, December 9, 1955. No. 12, pp. 361-388, December 29, 1955. Vot. 45 JANUARY 1955 No. 1 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Joun C. Ewnrrs R. K. Coox FrENNER A, CHACE U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. CowirE PuHitip DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuILFoRD AVEs. Battimorr, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Rappinyn, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C. Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 January 1955 No. 1 PALEONTOLOGY .—NVew genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Car- boniferous. RopeRt H. Cummines, University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Com- municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) As part of a study of the British Carbonif- erous Foraminifera a revision of the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera in the British Museum (Natural History) has been completed. One of the most important results has been the recognition of new genera and species that not only are of stratigraphical value but also assist in the interpretation of the mor- phogeny and phylogeny of the Upper Paleo- zoic Foraminifera. Since some aspects of the major study are incomplete as yet and in order that the information on the new genera may be made available to other workers, a detailed description of three new genera and their type species are given here. It is interesting to note that no closely similar forms have been recorded from the American Mississippian, and it is hoped that this publication will lead others to confirm their presence or absence in extra-British areas. The writer would like to acknowledge the continued support of Prof. Neville George in this research and the valued co- operation and assistance from Dr. Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr., Dr. Helen Tappan, and other American experts and friends. Family ENDOTHYRIDAE Subfamily BrRaDYININAE ENDOTHYRANOPSIS, n. gen. Involutina (pars) Brady, 1869 (non Terquem, 1862). Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores. Type species (here designated): Involutina crassa Brady, 1869. Description.—Test free, relatively large, sub- globular to nautiloid; coiled with a slight degree of axial rotation and hence somewhat asym- metrical; relatively few whorls and moderate number of crescentiform chambers; almost or entirely involute with simple, slight sutures and rounded peripheral margin; granular surface; wall of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement with small but varying proportion of adventitious material; apertural face inflated with low, lunate opening at base. Comparison and affinities—The genus Endo- thyranopsis differs from members of the Endo- thyrinae in several features. In the latter the wall is composed solely of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement and is imperforate whilst, in the case of the new genus, the wall is not only relatively thicker and typically perforate but has a varying subordinate quantity of ad- ventitious material, usually in the form of quartz- grains and iron oxides. Other and more minor differences are to be found in the mode of coiling, number and form of chambers, and possibly in septal construction. The inclusion of Hndothyranopsis within the Bradyininae is based on obvious similarities of wall-structure and form to other members of the subfamily. Morphologically the simplest and stratigraphically the oldest, Hndothyranopsis appears to occupy a near ancestral position within the group and may represent an early develop- ment toward Bradyina Moller and Cribrospira Moller from the agglutinate ancestral stock. In the thin-sections of sagittal type, Endo- thyranopsis may be recognized by the relatively thick wall of characteristic composition, the few whorls and moderate number of chambers, the ploughsharelike or ax-shaped septal outlines, and the slight irregularity of coiling (Fig. 1, A). In transverse section it is often difficult to dis- tinguish from other members of the Bradyininae, for the strong obliquity of septal curvature in y, JOURNAL OF THE B C Fig. 1.—Endothyranopsis sp. Diagrams based on actual specimens showing typical appearance in thin-section: A, sagittal section; B, transverse section showing apparent lateral chamberlets due to septal curvature and axial rotation; C, oblique excentric tangential section. All x 35. Endothyranopsis may produce apparent lateral chamberlets in the umbilical region (Fig. 1, B) that appear identical to the sutural chamberlets of Bradyina when seen in the same section. How- ever, other morphological differences, such as the presence of axial rotation of coiling in Endo- thyranopsis in contrast to the planispiral coiling of Bradyina, allow a distinction to be made in most cases. Preservation matrix.—While the true nature of the wall structure is clearly demonstra- ble in well-preserved material, the large number of specimens that have undergone secondary alteration during the diagenesis of the host sedi- ment have led to confusion in the past. The perforate nature of the wall was noted by Méller (1878, p. 94), and though examples have been found in British material these are few in number. It would appear that one of the first stages in the alteration of the wall leads to the recrystallization of the caleareous matrix within the perforations and the production of granular calcite of similar texture of that of the primary wall. Hence an and WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1 apparently uniform development of calcite results that is superficially identical to that of the primary wall structure of the Endothyrinae. Quartz grains and fragments of several oxides of iron are the dominant types of adventitious material, and it may be that the nature of the environment determines the choice. Thus iron oxides are rather common in specimens from a host rock with a high iron content. Such evidence is by no means conclusive, however, for the factor of secondary iron enrichment in both sediment and specimen must not be overlooked. The distinction between quartz-grains of the primary wall-structure and crystalline quartz | introduced by partial silicifieation during di- | agenesis is difficult and is possible only after study of both specimen and host sediment. Rarely perfect steinkerns of silica are produced (Fig. 5, C) which are valuable in the analysis of internal morphology. Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis is a com- mon and characteristic genus occurring in a wide variety of limestone and calcareous shale en- | vironments in the upper part of the British Lower | Carboniferous. It has been recorded, as Endo- | thyra crassa Brady, at similar horizons in Belgium, central Europe, and the U.S.S.R. In addition to the type species the following may be referred to Endothyranopsis: Endothyra conspicua Howchin, 1888; Hndothyra crassa var. compressa Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, | sphaerica | 1936; and Endothyra crassa var. Rauser-Chernoussova and Reitlinger, 1936. A B Fie. 2.—Loeblichia sp. Diagrams based on actual specimens showing typical appearance in thin-section: A, sagittal section slightly excentric with variation in wall thickness due to distortion of specimen; B, axial section showing position of septa in some whorls. Both X 75. | JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady) Fig. 5, A-C Involutina crassa (pars) Brady, 1869. Endothyra crassa (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores. Description—Test free, relatively large, nautiloid, subglobular, slightly asymmetrical; some degree of axial rotation of coiling resulting in rather small, shallow umbilical depression on one side and involute condition on other; usually three whorls present, increasing moderately in height as added and almost complete embrace- ment throughout; proloculum varies from 0.02 to 0.05 mm in diameter; 28 to 35 chambers in com- plete test and 10 in final whorl; chambers erescentiform with maximum width on median plane and tapering toward umbilical regions, having squarish outline in median section and with no marked inflation; somewhat incon- spicuous slightly depressed sutures, crenulated in parts and losing identity toward umbilici; radially aligned septa varying in shape from periphery to umbilici having a maximum thick- ness about one-third that of adjacent chambers; septal tunnel some one-third height of adjacent chambers; peripheral margin broadly and smoothly rounded with faint lobulation; surface rugose or granular; wall of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement with a varying amount of adventitious material, usually quartz grains and more rarely oxides of iron, perforate in an irregular manner; apertural face broad, convex, slightly inflated shield with low, lunate opening at base on periphery. Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P. 41651) and paratypes (slide P. 35439) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural His- tory), from the upper part of the Lower Carbon- iferous, Great Orme’s Head, Caernarvonshire, North Wales (ex Dr. Holl’s collection) (Brady locality no. 36). Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter 1.41 mm; minimum diameter 1.29 mm; maximum width 0.91 mm; width of apertural face 1.1 mm; height of apertural face 0.5 mm. Comparison and affinities—The species, as redefined here on the basis of the type material, differs markedly from other forms in the British ‘Lower Carboniferous as yet undescribed and hitherto included by previous authors in . Endothyra crassa Brady. It differs from Endo- _thyranopsis conspicuus (Howchin) in having a NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA 3 lower degree of axial rotation of coiling, a broader cross section and more tapering chambers. Preservation and matrix.—Brady (1876, p. 97) notes the presence of small tubercles in the umbilical regions of Hndothyranopsis crassus but these appear to be remnants of the original matrix in the type material (Fig. 5, A) and products of secondary alteration in other in- stances. Probably owing to a thinner wall the last chamber of the species 1s most commonly broken away. This is so in the case of the figured lectotype (Fig. 5, B), also figured by Brady (1876, pl. 5, fig. 16). Horizon and facies —Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady) is confined to the lower part of the Lower Limestone group in the Scottish Lower Carboniferous, being very common in the Dockra limestone and other contemporaneous limestones in the west of the Midland Valley and in the No. 2 limestone in the east. It occurs in the lower part of the Upper Dibunophyllum zone in the English Avonian. Earlier records of Endothyra crassa Brady occurring outside this stratigraphical range are based on specimens referable to the genus Endothyranopsis but not to the type species, Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady). LOEBLICHINAE, n. subfam. Tests characterized by small size, planispiral or subplanispiral mode of coiling and evolute condition, short axis of rotation, numerous whorls and chambers, wall of unknown primary composi- tion and structure, aperture of indistinct nature and usually terminal. This subfamily includes the new genus Loeblichia and is probably related to the Ozawainellinae. Reasons for the recognition of this new taxonomic unit are outlined below. LOEBLICHIA, n. gen. Endothyra (pars) Brady, 1873, 1876, et auctores. Type species (here designated): Hndothyra ammonoides Brady, 1873. Description—Test free, relatively small, discoidal or complanate; numerous whorls coiled in a planispiral manner though axial rotation may occur in early or late stages of growth; chambers numerous, crescentiform, regularly arranged, square to rectangular in sagittal section; sutures distinct and depressed in later portion only and internal septa normal to peripheral margin in sagittal section; periphery usually — slightly lobulate; primary structure of wall unknown— 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON usually preserved in recrystallized calcite, amorphous or crystalline silica; no chomata or secondary deposits present; aperture terminal, lunate opening at base of apertural face. Comparison and affinities—The genus Loeblichia does not appear to be related to any of the contemporary Endothyrinae of the Lower Carboniferous. It differs from Endothyra Brown, 1843, Endothyra Phillips, 1846, Plectogyra Zeller, 1950, and Mullerella Thompson, 1942, in the structure of the wall, the manner of coiling, and the chamberal arrangement. Certain morphological similarities exist be- tween Loeblichia and Nanicella Henbest, 1935, originally described from the Devonian of Iowa by Thomas (1931). It is doubtful, however, whether the degree of isomorphism is sufficient to indicate a common ancestry. Indeed the con- trasting dissimilarities in number of chambers, number of whorls, rate of chamberal growth, septal form and alignment suggest an analogous rather than homologous relationship between the two genera. The same conclusions can be made in a comparison of Loeblichia and Rhenothyra Beckmann, 1950, from the Rhenish Devonian where the morphological differences are even greater. Though Loeblichia might be considered an aberrant specialization of the Endothyrinae, as is the case of Paraendothyra Tchernysheva, 1940, both the stratigraphical and morphological evidence tells against its inclusion, and hence it is classified separately within the Loeblichinae. This may prove to be the ancestral stock from which such problematical fusulinids as Ozawa- inella Thompson, 1935, Nankinella Lee, 1933, and Nummulostegina Schubert, 907, arose. In sagittal section Loeblichia is distinguished by the characteristically altered wall structure, the numerous whorls and chambers, the nor- mality of septal alignment to the peripheral margin, and septal form (Fig. 2, A). In transverse section the planispiral coiling, wall-structure, septal intersections, mode of chamberal growth, and absence of chomata are criteria for its distinction from both representatives of the Endothyrinae and the Ammodiscidae. Preservation and matrix—Brady (1876, p. 95) notes that the test-wall of the type material of Endothyra ammonoides has a “compact arenace- ous texture” in thin-section, and Wood (1949, p. 239), describing the same material, writes: “When the tests are certainly recrystallized (as ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 1 for instance in the specimens of H. ammonoides figured by Brady 1876, pl. V, fig. 6) the grain size is much greater, and the specimen is less dark in transmitted light than the infilling.”’ These descriptions are inadequate, for they fail to reveal that all specimens from the type locality are secondarily silicified and that the test-wall is composed of either amorphous or crystalline silica. Examples of the latter show ‘‘a compact arenaceous texture,’ and, should this be associ- ated with an internal matrix of recrystallized calcite, as is often the case, the optical properties noted by Wood would be illustrated. Numerous specimens of Loeblichia have been examined from both English and Scottish areas, and in every case the microstructure of the wall has been altered from its primary condition. Often silicification of the host sediment has led—as in the case of the type material—to the production of crystalline quartz of irregular and comparatively large grain size which might be misinterpreted as a primary arenaceous ag- glutinate structure. The production of amorphous silica could be mistakenly identified as an original siliceous structure if no reference was made to the diagenesis of the host sediment. In certain Ayrshire localities replacement of the test-wall by cryptoerystalline silica of the chalcedonic variety has produced, by its fibrous structure, a superficial similarity to the hyalime perforate condition. ; The usual mode of preservation is in second- arily recrystallized calcite though examples are known where the wall is formed by an irregular dolomitic growth. Alteration of the calcareous structure is illustrated by the absence of cement, the irregularity and relatively large size of the constituent particles and the arrangement of the particles in relation to septal form (Fig. 3). Except in a few cases the products of altera- tion differ in the test-wall and the matrix, indi- cating a difference in original composition or physical structure or both between the test and | the host sediment. This proneness to alteration in Loeblichia, seen in numerous specimens from a variety of limestone and calcareous shale environments, is in direct contrast to the resistance to alteration shown by the Lower Carboniferous Endothyrinae, e.g., in EHndothyra, Plectogyra, or Mullerella. While examples of alteration are not unknown and are not uncommon in some areas, owing to local diagenetic phenomena, the permanence of JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: microstructure in the Endothyrinae is demon- strable in several ways; by the regularity of fine grain size in wall texture over wide areas and in a variety of facies, or again, by the maintenance of layering within the wall to the same propor- tions in each particular group. Many examples have been noted where altered specimens of Loeblichia occur, in the same sample, alongside unaltered members of the Endothyrinae. Hence the wall-structure of Loeblichia, in its original condition, must differ fundamentally from that of the Endothyrinae. It is for this reason that the new genus is included in the Loeblichinae. Horizon and facies —Loeblichia is comparatively tare in the British Lower Carboniferous and is eonfined to the upper horizons. It has been re- corded from the upper part of the Yoredale series in Northumberland, the Upper Dibuno- phyllum Zone of Northwest England, and both the Lower Limestone group and the Upper Limestone group of Scotland. Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady) Fig. 5, D, E Endothyra ammonoides Brady, 1873, 1876, et auc- tores. Description —Test free, relatively small, laterally compressed, of a complanate or bicon- eave form; coiling planispiral throughout the greater part though some indication of axial rotation in the first half whorl after the pro- Fic. 3.—Diagrams of texture of wall structure illustrating the effect of alteration, based on actual specimens. A, In Loeblichia (recrystallized) showing the irregularity of grain size and pattern. B, In Endothyra (unaltered) showing regularity of grain size and pattern which leads to retention of original septal margin. Both xX 400. NEW GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA Sr Fic. 4.—Fourstonella sp. Diagram based on actual specimen showing typical appearance in thin-section; longitudinal section of specimen at- tached to ecrinoid ossicles (black) showing in- equality of septal and layer wall and differing size of chamberlets on either side of foreign body—latter feature due to obliquity of section on right side. < 60. loculum and again toward the apertural region, where it leads to a slightly asymmetrical ar- rangement of the last four or five chambers; broad, shallow umbilici; whorls increase very slowly in height and embracement of one-quarter at any point; 10 whorls with numerous, small, slightly inflated, subcuboidal chambers in each, 23 in final whorl; in early part sutures thin, depressed lines, but in later portion depressed broad, possibly limbate, and with a sutural curvature away from the apertural region; septa about three-quarters height of whorl in length and one-quarter width of adjacent chambers in thickness; peripheral margin smoothly rounded and faintly lobulate outline; smooth or finely granular surface; wall of unknown primary composition—type material preserved in amorphous or crystalline silica; slightly inflated, terminal, shieldlike apertural face with low, lunate opening at base on median line with some indications of an original vestibular structure. Depository, etc.—Lectotype (slide P. 41650) and paratypes (slide P. 35438 and section P. 35500) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), from the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous, Keld Head Mines, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, England (Brady _lo- eality no. 29). Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum diameter 0.57 mm; minimum diameter 0.54 mm; maximum thickness 0.11 mm. Comparison and affinities—The species, as re- defined here on the basis of the type material, differs from other and as yet undescribed forms of 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Loeblichia, from the upper part of the British Lower Carboniferous, that hitherto have been grouped under Hndothyra ammonoides Brady. Preservation and matrix.— Vide supra. Horizon and facies —Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady) appears to be confined to the Lower Limestone group in the Scottish Lower Carbo- niferous and to equivalent horizons in England. Limited to a calcareous shale facies it has a spasmodic mode of occurrence and is never abundant or widespread. Family TROCHAMMINIDAE Subfamily TETRATAXINAE FOURSTONELLA, n. gen. Stacheia (pars) Brady, 1876, et auctores. Type species (here designated): Stacheia fusiformis Brady, 1876. Description.—Test attached, rarely free, small, fusiform, or globular; composed of series of layered chamberlets or subdivided segments arranged regularly around a foreign body such as VOL. 45, No. I crinoid ossicle, brachiopod spine, plant, etc.; layers subconical in form and concentric in ar- rangement, overlapping at margins, thin and numerous; chamberlets separated within layers. by secondary septa which are thinner than walls of layers; often faint sutures concentrically ar- ranged on exterior surface marking termination of laminae, otherwise smooth surface and peripheral outline; wall of calcareous granules bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct, terminal, basal, at margin of test and foreign body. Comparison and affinities: Fourstonella and Stacheia, as typified by Stacheia marginulinoides Brady, 1876, are distinguished by the fusiform shape, regularity and pattern of layer arrange- ment, and unequal thickness of septal and layer wall of the former to the irregular or acervuline mode of growth and equality of septal and layer wall thickness of the latter. Both Fourstonella and Stacheia appear to be independent derivatives of Valvulinella Schubert, 1907, which is undoubtedly developed from Fie. 5.—A, B (both X 35), Endothyranopsis crassus (Brady): A, Lateral view of lectotype (Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. P. 41651) showing original matrix in umbilicus; B, ‘Apertural view of lectotype showing broken final chamber. Coll. P: 1000) showing internal morphology. C (X 35), Endothyranopsis sp.: Steinkern in silica (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. D, E (X 75), Loeblichia ammonoides (Brady): D, Lat- eral view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1002) showing side of specimen and adhesion of matrix in parts; E, Apertural view of paratype. F, G (X 65), Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady): F, Dorsal view of paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. Coll. P. 1001); G, Ventral view of same specimen with position of original foreign body shown in form of test. JANUARY 1955 CUMMINGS: NEW Tetrataxis Ehrenberg, 1843. This phylogenetic sequence from Tetrataxis is expressed morpho- genetically by an increasing subdivision of chambers and irregularity of form and accom- panies a transition to a fixed mode of life. Stacheia represents the culmination of this trend whilst Fourstonella expresses and represents an inde- pendent, partial fulfilment. In thin-section Fourstonella is characterized by its fusiform or circular outline, sessile habit, granular calcareous wall-structure, and in- equality of septal and layer wall thickness (Fig. 4). Preservation and matrix—With a few excep- tions all specimens of Fourstonella appear to have undergone little or no alteration and the primary structure of the wall is retained. Where silicifica- tion by chaleedonic varieties has taken place in both Fourstonella and Stachia concentric rings may develop on the exterior surface which are similar to, but independent of, the sutural pattern of Fourstonella. Horizon and facies.—A\though confined to the upper part of the British Avonian—the upper part of the Dibunophyllum zone and its equiva- lents—Fourstonella is a common and character- istic form of shelly limestone and calcareous shale facies. Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady) Fig. 5, F, G Stacheia fusiformis Brady, 1876, et auctores. Description —Test attached, short, stout, symmetrical, fusiform, round in cross-section, taperig at both ends, composed of layers of chamberlets—or subdivided segments—sym- metrically arranged around thin, columnar, foreign body; each layer embracing previous one at peripheral margin; chambers thin, numerous, subdivided by secondary septa into minute chamberlets; external suture lines thin, concen- tric, depressed; transverse secondary septa thin- ner than chamber or layer wall; periphery smoothly rounded and smooth or faintly granular surface; wall homogeneous, of calcareous granules bound by calcareous cement; aperture indistinct, terminal, basal. Depository, etc—Lectotype (slide P.41654) _ and paratypes (slide P.35458 and section P.35509) in the Brady collection of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), from the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous, Fourstones, Northumberland, GENERA OF FORAMINIFERA a England (ex Rev. W. Howchin’s collection) (Brady locality no 16). Dimensions.—Lectotype: maximum 0.67 mm; maximum breadth 0.51 mm. Comparison and affinities—Brady (1876, p. 114) suggests that this form is closely allied to Stacheia marginulinoides Brady. However, when all morphological features are considered such a relationship is more apparent than real. Preservation and matrix.—Vide supra. Horizon and facies.—Fourstonella fusiformis (Brady) is present in the upper part of the British Lower Carboniferous in all areas and is particularly common in the shelly limestone facies. length REFERENCES BrecKMANN, H. Rhenothyra, eine neue Foramini- ferengattung aus dem rheinishen Mitteldevon. Neues Jahrb. Geol. Pal. Monatshefte 6: 183-187. 1950. Bravy, H. B. Notes on the Foraminifera of Min- eral Veins and adjacent strata. 39th Meeting (Exeter) Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.: 379-381 1869. Explanation of Sheet 23. Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotland: 63, 95, ete. 1873. Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina excepted): 1-166, Palaeontographical Soc. London, 1876. Brown, T. The elements of fossil conchology. London, 1843. EHRENBERG, C. G. Meloniae of the Oolitic lime- stones of Germany and England. Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1843: 106. Hensest, L.G. Nanicella, a new genus of Devo- nian Foraminifera. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25: 34-35. 1935. Howcuin, W. Additions to the knowledge of the Carboniferous Foraminifera. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc. 1888: 533-545. Ler, J. 8S. Vaxonomic criteria of Fusulinidae with notes on seven new Permian genera. Nat. Res. Inst. China Geol. Mem. 14: 1-32. 1933. Mo.uter, V. von. Die spiral-gewundenen Fora- miniferen des russischen Kohlenkalkes. Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, ser. 7, 9: 1-147. 1878. Puruurps, J. On the remains of microscopic ani- mals in the rocks of Yorkshire. Proc. Geol. and Poly. Soc. W. Riding Yorks. 2: 274. 1849. RAvusER-CHERNOUSSOVA, D. M., Bewsary, G., AND ReErTLincer, R. The Upper Palaeozoic Foraminifera of Petschoraland (western margin of the northern Urals). Trans. Polar Comm. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 28: 159-232. 1936. Scuusert, H. J. Vérlaufige Mitteilung vwiber Foraminiferen und Kalkalgen aus dem dal- matinischen Karbon. Verh. Geol. Reichs. Wien, Jahrg 1907: 211-214. 1907. TcHERNYSHEVA, N. I. “On the stratigraphy of the Lower Carboniferous Foraminifera in the 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Makarovski District of the southern Urals.’ Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou 49: sec. geol. 18: 113-135. 1940. TrerQuEM, O. Recherches sur les foraminiferes du Lias. Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz 1862. Tuomas, A. O. Late Devonian Foraminifera from Iowa. Journ. Pal. 3: 40-41, 1931. Tuompson, M. L. The fusulinid genus Staffella in America. Journ. Pal. 9: 111-120. 1935. VOL. 45, No. | ——. New genera of Pennsylvanian fusulinids. Amer. Journ. Sci. 240: 403-420. 1942. Woop, A. The structure of the wall of the test in the Foraminifera; its value in classification. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 104: 229- 255. 1948. ZELLER, EX. Stratigraphic significance of Missis- sippian endothyranoid Foraminifera. Univ. Kansas Pal. Publ. art. 4, Protozoa, 1950. PALEONTOLOGY .—Foraminifera from some ‘Pliocene’ rocks of Egypt. Rusup1 Samp, Cairo University, Egypt. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) This paper lists some 40 species of Foram- inifera separated from marly limestones of a supposedly “Phocene” outcrop in Helwan, Egypt. The ‘‘Phocene” deposits in Egypt have been the subject of many discussions and the basis of an enormous amount of litera- ture. The best description of them is found in Blanckenhorn (1903 and 1921) and in Picard (1943). The most authentic and complete résumé on the Pliocene of the Nile Valley, with which this paper is con- cerned, is found in Sandford and Arkell (1939). The ‘‘Phocene” deposits of the Nile Valley occur in the form of isolated out- crops that extend along the sides of the valley in a thin strip stretching from Cairo to the vicinity of Aswan. The outcrops occupy a more or less uniform height above sea level—indicating that a narrow arm of the Mediterranean Sea occupied the Nile Valley, and on the basis of stratigraphic relations and marine macrofossils during Astian time. There are two main facies, a marine facies of limestones and marly lime- stones along the immediate sides of the valley in the north and a conglomeritic sandy facies in the south and in the outer fringes of this ancient ‘Pliocene’ gulf. The outcrop from which the following species of Foraminifera come les some 10 km south of Helwan, a village to the south of Cairo. Macrofossils found in the outcrop include some considered to be the most typ- ical guide fossils for the Egyptian Pliocene, such as Ostrea cucullata, Pecten benedictus, and Chlamys scabrellus. The section consists of beds of marly limestones and limestones some 25 meters thick unconformably over- lying Eocene rocks and overlain by a grav- elly terrace ascribed by Sandford and Arkell to the Plio-Pleistocene. This study shows many interesting con- clusions with regard to the age of this forma- tion and the origin of its fauna. Age.—The Foraminifera recorded in the area are decidedly Mediterranean in aspect. They compare well with the Plhocene and Pleistocene faunas of the Mediterranean region and many species are still living today in the Mediterranean. Four species Cibicides gibbosa, C. rhodiensis, Asterigerina rhodiensis, and Quinqueloculina foliacea are known from the lower Pleistocene de- posits of the Isle of Rhodes. Practically all other species are known and are typical of other such classical late Cenozoic localities of Italy and Spain. Unicosiphonia cf. U crenulata is a characteristic fossil of the Pleistocene which is here recorded for the first time in the Mediterranean region. There are some interesting points about the assemblage. The majority of the species are cold-water forms. In fact this as- semblage, mainly composed of representa- tives of the families Textulariidae and Buli- minidae, can well be compared with that. living today in the deeper waters of the Recent Mediterranean (see for example the ecological studies of Colom (1942) and Said and Kamel (in press) on the Recent Medi- terranean fauna). The presence of this deep-water fauna in the ancient shallow Nile Valley gulf can be interpreted only as indicating a cold climate in Egypt at the time of the deposition of this formation. The distribution of the detrital sandy facies in the gulf shows that the climate was also wet. | This type of cool wet climate compares | well with the climate of the Calabrian | | JANUARY 1955 stage, now regarded on the basis of this kind of climate as belonging to the lower Pleistocene (Migliorini, 1948, and Movius, 1949). This assemblage from Helwan includes many species that do not appear in the Pho- cene-Pleistocene succession of the Rovigo boring, Italy (di Napoli-Alliata, 1946), except in the Calabrian. These species that seem to indicate the onset of the Calabrian stage are: Textularia abbreviata, T. acicu- lata, T. sagittula, and Discorbis orbicularia. From these two interesting observations it would seem that the ‘‘Pliocene”’ outcrop of Helwan should be assigned to the Cala- brian stage that opens the Pleistocene period. Such an assignment would have far reaching implications inasmuch as it would put the entire evolutionary history of the River Nile m the post lower Pleistocene time. A reevaluation and re-dating of the terraces left behind the Nile in pre-human times should therefore be investigated in the light of this new evidence. Although this study has been restricted to the Helwan area, it is possible that all other outcrops of the Nile Valley described as Pliocene may also belong to the Calabrian stage since all can well be correlated on the basis of their fossil content and stratigraph- ical relations with those of Helwan. If such is the case the very presence of Plio- -cene marine deposits in Egypt is question- able. Work on the revision of the macro- fauna of the so-called Pliocene of Egypt is now in progress. Origin of the fawna—There can be no doubt that the foraminiferal fauna de- scribed here is Mediterranean in aspect. However two facts remain to be noted. The complete absence of Indo-Pacific species in the assemblage is interesting inasmuch as it confirms the conclusions reached by Cox (1929), Picard (1943) and Sandford and Arkell (1939) as to the absence of any con- nection between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea since Miocene times. On the other hand, Said and Yallouze (in press) have shown recently from an analysis of the ‘Miocene faunas of Gebel Oweibid, Egypt, that even though the fauna is overwhelm- ingly Mediterranean in aspect it also in- ‘cludes some elements of the Indo-Pacific SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 9 region—a fact which points to a temporary ingression of the Indo-Pacific. The com- position of the Helwan Calabrian foraminif- eral fauna seems to show that this con- nection ceased entirely during the Pliocene and lower Pleistocene time—contrary to Ball’s paleogeographic map (1939), which shows a connection between the Mediter- ranean and the Red Sea during the Pliocene. The second fact to be noted is the pres- ence of Cibicides gibbosa and C. rhodiensis, typical lower Pleistocene Mediterranean species in the Recent waters of the Red Sea. This can be explained only by assum- ing a temporary connection between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea in post lower Pleistocene time to allow for the mi- gration of these species. Such a connection must have been very temporary, since it did not substantially affect the aspect of the faunas of both seas which remain distinct. This assumed connection is confirmed by the presence of a marine level in the clysmic area common to both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea (as described by Hume and Little, 1928) and dated as Midde Paleolithic. Family TEXTULARIIDAE Genus Textularia Defrance, 1824 Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny Textularia abbreviata d’Orbigny, Foram. Foss. Vienne: 249, pl. 15, figs. 9-12. 1849. This distinct species occurs in small numbers in the samples from Helwan. This species has been noted from the Miocene of central Europe, but does not seem to appear in the Mediterranean until the Calabrian. It is also recorded from the Recent seas. Textularia cf. T. aciculata d’Orbigny Textularia aciculata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: pl. 11, figs. 1-4. 1826. A few specimens that seem to belong to this species occur in the Helwan material. Specimens are slightly longer and thinner particularly at their initial end than in the typical form. This species appears in the Mediterranean deposits only since the Calabrian. Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny Textularia candeiana d’Orbigny, in de la Sagra, Hist. Phys. Pol. Nat. Cuba, “Foraminiféres’’: 143, p. 1, figs. 25-27. 1839. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The distribution of this species in the Recent waters is cosmopolitan. In the modern Mediter- ranean it lives in the deeper waters, together with other representatives of the family Textulariidae. Textularia neorugosa Thalmann Textularia neorugosa Thalmann, Contr. Cushman Found. Foram. Res. 1: 45. 950. This cosmopolitan species occurs abundantly in the Helwan material. Test large, robust; chambers numerous with their lower margins excavated and with overhanging lateral lobula- tions; sutures irregularly rugose; peripheral mar- gin of the test subacute. Specimens resemble those recorded from the Red Sea (Said, Contr. Cush- man Found. Foram. Res., 1: 5, pl. 1, fig. 5, 1929.). Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix Textularia pseudorugosa Lacroix, Bull. Oceanogr. 582: 11, fig. 3 (in text). 1931. Inst. This is a Mediterranean species known from the deeper Recent waters of this Sea. It is a well- defined species with a rapidly expanding keeled test, distinct sutures, and numerous chambers three times as wide as high. Textularia sagittula Defrance Textularia sagittula Defrance, Dict. Sci. Nat. 32: 177. 1824; 53: 344. 1828; Atlas Conch.; pl. 18, fig. 5. 1824. This is a deep-water Mediterranean species that is recorded in small numbers in the outcrop studied. Family MInioLipar Genus Quinqueloculina d’Orbigny, 1826 Quinqueloculina foliacea (Terquem) Triloculina foliacea Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 60, pl. 6, figs. la-e. 1878. Specimens of this Lower Pleistocene species of the Mediterranean region are found in small numbers in the Helwan material. The test is somewhat foliated with the foliae extending in keel-like projections at the edge of the chambers. This is a distinct and well-defined species. Family Lacenrpan Genus Robulus Montfort, 1808 Robulus cultratus (Montfort) Robulina cultrata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 287, no. 1. 1826; Modéles no. 82. 1826. vou. 45, No. 1 This cosmopolitan species is found in small numbers in the Egyptian material. According to Cushman and McCulloch (Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 6 (6): 296, 1950) this species is re- corded from deep waters at an average depth of 65 to 90 fathoms. Our specimens lack the keeled periphery of specimens of many authors although they resemble the forms recorded from the late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region by the earlier workers. Genus Nodosaria Lamarck, 1812 Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny Nodosaria sulcata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 253, no. 21. 1826. Cushman, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 13: 12, pl. 2, fig. 2; pl. 3, fig. 2. 1945. A few specimens of this species, which is known from the Italian Pliocene and Recent Mediter- ranean, are recorded in Helwan. They are always 2-chambered and costate. Family NONIONIDAE Genus Nonion Montfort, 1808 Nonion ibericum Cushman Nonion ibericum Cushman, U. 8S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 191: 17, pl. 4, figs. 17, 18. 1939. A few typical specimens of this species are found in Helwan. The small test, the rounded periphery, the umbilical plug, and the sigmoidal sutures characterize this species. This is a Pleistocene species recorded previously from Malaga, Spain. Nonion pompiloides (Fichtel and Moll) Nonion umbilicatula d’Orbigny, Ann. Sei. Nat. 7: 293, pl. 15, figs. 10-12. 1826. Nonion pompiloides Cushman, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 191: 19, pl. 5, figs. 9-12. 1939. A few specimens of this species are recorded from Helwan. Specimens are smaller than is usual and are thinner. This is mainly a Mediterranean species known from the late Cenozoic and Recent waters of this region as well as from many other localities. Genus Elphidium Montfort, 1808 Elphidium crispum Linné Elphidium crispum Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 5: 20, pl. 4, figs. 3, 4. 1929. Several typical specimens of this Mediter- ranean species are recorded from the Helwan material. | | JANUARY 1955 Family PoLyMORPHINIDAE Genus Pyrulina d’Orbigny, 1830 Pyrulina fusiformis (Roemer) Polymorphina fusiformis Roemer, Neues Jahrb. fur Min., ete., 1838: 386, pl. 3, fig. 37. Pyrulina fusiformis Cushman and Ozawa, Proc. U. S: Nat. Mus. 77 (art. 6): 54, pl. 13) figs. 3-8. 1930. This deep-water species, recorded from modern seas and late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region, is noted in small numbers in the Helwan material. Specimens differ slightly from those of the deep Atlantic by having more depressed sutures. Family BULIMINIDAE Genus Bulimina d’Orbigny, 1826 Bulimina acanthia Costa Bulimina acanthia Costa, Atti. Accad. Pont. 8, pt. 2: 335, pl. 13, figs. 35, 36. 1856. A few specimens of this species occur in our material. The chambers are inflated particularly in the latter part of the test with sight overhang- ing but are not ornamented with any spines. This species Is common in the Italian Pliocene. Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny Bulimina buchiana d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles Bassin Vienne: 186, pl. 11, figs. 15-18. 1846. This Miocene Mediterranean species is found in the Helwan material in abundance. Specimens are smaller than usual and the test is ornamented with extremely fine longitudinal costae. The chambers are inflated and there is no overhanging. Bulimina costata d’Orbigny Bulimina costata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 269, no. 1, 1826. This species occurs in abundance in the Egyptian material. Specimens are typical. This species seems to be one of the autochthonous forms of the Mediterranean region that has been re- corded from since the Miocene to the Recent. It is also recorded off the coast of Ireland. Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 269, no. 9. 1826. This species is found in abundance in the Egyptian material. Specimens have an elongate slender test, inflated and angled chambers, and smooth polished wall. Our specimens resemble those recorded from the Mediterranean area. SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 11 This species ranges from the Eocene to the Re- cent and seems to have its origin in the Mediter- ranean region. Bulimina gibba Fornasini Bulimina gibba Fornasini, Mem. Accad. Sci. Ist. Bologna, ser. 5, 9: 378, pl. O, figs. 32-34. 1901. This species was recorded in the top part of the section. Specimens are typical except that very faint costae appear on the otherwise smooth and polished test. The terminal basal spine is lacking, but there are short spines that ornament the base. The chambers are distinct, regularly triserial, slightly inflated and offset so as to give a slight twist to the test. Bulimina inflata Seguenza Bulimina inflata Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 25, pl. 1, fig. 10. 1862. This Mediterranean and east Atlantic species occurs in the Egyptian material in small numbers. Test widest near top with the last whorl forming about one-third of the entire length. This species is characterized by having broad costae, a rapidly tapermg test and chambers that do not overhang. This is one of the species that has probably invaded the Mediterranean in a cold period. It is common in the Pleistocene of Italy. Records of this species in older sediments need revision. Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny, Foram. Fossiles Bassin Vienne: 185, pl. 11, figs. 11, 12. 1846. A few specimens of this species are found in the top beds of the Helwan section. They ap- proach in their structural detail those recorded from the Mediterranean region. Specimens lack, however, the lip and the tooth in the aperture. This species has a long record but is common in the late Cenozoic of the Mediterranean region. Genus Bolivina d’Orbigny Bolivina aenariensis (Costa) Brizalina aenariensis Costa, Atti Accad. Pont. 8, pt. 2: 297, pl. 15, figs. 1A, B. 1856. This is a late Tertiary Mediterranean species that has been much confused. Specimens look very much similar to those recorded from the Pliocene of Coroncina, Italy, in having an elon- gate test without a spine at the base, sutures slightly limbate and strongly curved, and the characteristic costae on the surface extending from the base to the middle of the test. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Bolivina catanensis Seguenza Bolivina catanensis Seguenza, Atti Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 18: 29, pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a, 3b. 1862. This is a typical Mediterranean species that is recorded from the Pleistocene of Italy. Speci- mens are compressed and have an elongate test which is occasionally twisted in its initial end. Bolivina cf. B. compacta Sidebottom Boliwina robusta var. compacta Sidebottom, Mem. Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 49 (5): 15, pl. 3, fig. 7. 1905. A few specimens that seem to belong to this species are found in Helwan. Specimens differ from typical in having a more roughened ex- terior, a rounded initial end, and a more elongate test. This is a Mediterranean species that has been recorded from many Recent seas at different depths. Genus Reussella Galloway, 1933 Reussella spinulosa (Reuss) Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850. Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 1: 374, pl. 47, fig. 12. 1850. A few typical specimens of this cosmopolitan species are found in the Helwan material. Genus Uvigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 Uvigerina costai Said, new name Uvigerina striata Costa (non d’Orbigny), Atti Accad. Pont. 7 (fase. 2): p. 266, pl. 15, fig. 3. 1856—Cushman and Todd, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17: 71, pl. 17, fig. 4. 1941. Specimens resembling Costa’s figures for this species have been found in the Helwan material. Test moderate in size for the genus, elongate, circular in transverse section, base tapering; chambers equal, rather large, slightly inflated; sutures distinct; wall with fine longitudinal striae interrupted at the sutures, extending through the length of the test equally; aperture at the end of a short neck, very slightly lipped. This species deserves a new name as U. striata has been used by d’Orbigny in 1826 for a Recent species. Genus Unicosiphonia Cushman, 1935 Unicosiphonia cf. U. crenulata Cushman Unicosiphonia crenulata Cushman, Contr. Cush- man Lab. Foram. Res. 11: 81, pl. 12, figs. 9, 10. 1935. vou. 45, No. 1 A few specimens of this species are found in Helwan section. Specimens are slightly different in having a more rounded initial end that does not show any traces of biseriality and in having more poorly developed crenulations. This is the first record of this species in the Mediterranean region. Family RoraiipAE Genus Discorbis Lamarck, 1804 Discorbis orbicularis (Terquem) Discorbina orbicularis H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zoology, 9: 647, pl. 88, figs. 4-8. 1884. This is mainly a Mediterranean east Atlantic species of wide geographical distribution in Recent waters. It is also recorded from the late Tertiary deposits of the Mediterranean region, although it seems not to have invaded the Recent Mediterranean except in the Calabrian time. Family AMPHISTEGINIDAE Genus Asterigerina d’Orbigny, 1839 Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem Asterigerina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3:31, pl. 3, figs. 1-4. 1878. © Typical specimens of this species recorded from the lower Pleistocene of the Isle of Rhodes are recorded in abundance in the Helwan material. Family GLOBIGERINIDAE Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci. Nat. 7: 277, no. 1. 1826; Modeles nos. 17, 76. 1826.— Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17: p. 38, pl. 10, figs. 1-13. 1941. Typical and well-preserved specimens of this species are recorded in large numbers at the top beds of the Helwan section. They agree in detail with d’Orbigny’s original descriptions and mod- els. The occurrence of this species in abundance indicates conditions where the effect of freshening of water was not felt. Family ANOMALINIDAE Genus Planulina d’Orbigny, 1826 Planulina sp. Test much compressed, partly evolute, earlier chambers visible from both sides; chambers JANUARY 1955 numerous; sutures distinct, flush with the surface, eurved slightly toward the periphery; ventral side umbilicate; wall perforate, smooth; aperture at the base of the last chamber at the median line. The compressed large test and the wide circular umbilicus of the ventral side distinguish this species found in very small numbers in the top bed of the Helwan section. Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808 Cibicides gibbosa (Terquem) Anomalina gibbosa Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3,1, pt. 3: 24, pl. 2, fig. 7. 1878. Cibicides gibbosa Said, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 26: 48, pl. 4, fig. 19. 1949. Typical specimens of this species hitherto re- corded from the Lower Pleistocene of the Isle of Rhodes and the Recent Red Sea are found in large numbers in the Helwan material. This species is biconvex and is coarsely perforate. It possesses the apertural characteristics of the genus Cibicidoides Brotzen, 1936. The author prefers to place this species in the genus Cibicides until the validity of the genus Cibicidoides is cleared (see Hofker, 1951, Siboga Exped. m1). Cibicides lobatulus (Walker and Jacob) Truncatulina lobatula H. B. Brady, Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zoology, 9: 660, pl. 92, fig. 10; pl. 93, figs. 1, 4, 5; pl. 95, figs. 4, 5. 1884. Typical specimens of this cosmopolitan species are found in the Helwan material. According to Cushman this is a ‘‘very common species in cool waters.” There are records, however, of this species in deeper tropical waters and in tropical shallow seas, but such records probably need revision. Cibicides refulgens Montfort Cibicides refulgens Cushman, U. 8. Nat. Mus., Bull. 104, pt. 8: 116 pl. 21, figs. 2a-c. 1931. This is a cosmopolitan species that is par- ticularly abundant in cool waters of the modern seas, according to H. B. Brady. SAID: FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT 13 Cibicides rhodiensis (Terquem) Truncatulina rhodiensis Terquem, Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, 1, pt. 3: 21, pl. 1, fig. 26. 1878. Cibicides rhodiensis Said, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 26: p. 42, pl. 4, fig. 16. 1949. This species recorded from the Lower Pleisto- cene of the Isle of Rhodes and the Recent Red Sea is found in abundance in Helwan. The dis- tribution of this species can be explained only if we assume a temporary connection to have existed between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea sometime in the Pleistocene. Specimens are typical and abundant. REFERENCES Batu, J. Contributions to the geography of Egypt: Survey of Egypt. 1939. BLANCKENHORN, M. Neues zur Geologie und Paleon- tologie Aegyptens: IV. Das Pliozan. Zeitschr. deutschen geol. Ges. 53: 307-502. 1903. . Handbuch der regionalen Geologie, Aegypten. Heidelberg, 1921. Cotom, G. Una contribucién al conocimiento de los foraminiferos de la Bahia de Palma de Mallorca. Notas y Res. Inst. Espaftiol Oceanografia, ser. 2, no. 108. 1942. Cox, L. R. Notes on the post-Miocene Ostereidae etc. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 48, pts. 4 and 5: 165-209. 1929. Hume, W. F., and Lirrin, O. H. Raised beaches and terraces of Egypt. C. R. Union Geogr. Intern., Paris (session 14, 1926) : 9-15. 1928. Movius, H. M. Villafranchian stratigraphy in southern and southwestern Europe. Journ. Geol. 57: 380-412. 1949. Napour-Auuiata, EK. Dr. Contributo all conoscenza della stratigrafia del Pliocene e del Calabriano nella regione di Rovigo. Riv. Ital. Paleontologia 52: 19-36. 1946. Picarp, L. The structure and evolution of Palestine. Bull. Geol. Dept. Hebrew University 4, Nos. 2-4. 1943. Sai, R., and Kame, T. Recent littoral Foraminif- era from the Egyptian Mediterranean coast between Saloum and Bardia. (In press.) Sarip, R., and YaunouzE. Miocene fauna from Gebel Oweibid, Egypt. Bull. Inst. Egypte. (In press.) Sanprorp, K.S., and ArkeL., W. J. Paleolithic man and the Nile Valley in Lower Egypt. Oriental Inst. Publ. 46. 1939. 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 1 PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. HARRELL L. Srrimeie, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) The form described below as Cymbio- crinus pitkini, n. sp., is from the Pitkin formation, Chester, of the Cookson Hills southeast of Fort Gibson, Okla. Strong affinity with Pennsylvanian representatives of the Ampelocrinidae is indicated. DENDROCRINOIDEA Bather AMPELOCRINIDAE Kirk Cymbiocrinus Kirk, 1944 Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp. Fig. 1 Description.—The crown of the holotype is 43 mm high; the dorsal cup is about 2.5 mm high by 9.6 mm wide. Dorsal cup is shallowly bowl-shaped, with shallow basal concavity. IBB small, confined to the basal concavity and entirely covered by the pentagonal shaped proximal columnals. BB are five, small, and form sides of the basal concavity but curve upward to participate slightly in the lateral walls of the cup. RR are five large elements with width slightly greater than length. The single anal plate is quadrangular, resting evenly on the truncated upper edge of post. B, and does not extend above the cup height. There are 10 long, slow-tapering, uniserial arms. PBr is low, wide, with lateral sides taper- ing slightly. Axillary PBre is large, lateral sides expanding for a short distance thence sloping rapidly to the apex of the plate. SBrBr are remarkably regular segments. Each SBr appears to have two well-developed though thin pinnules of moderate length, one on each lateral side. There is no demonstrated tendency toward fusion, or syzygy, other than between PBr; and PBro. The tegmen, or anal sac, has not been ob- served. Remarks.—The arms of C. pitkini serve most readily to distinguish it from other described species. The regularity of the relatively thick SBrBr, with no tendency toward cuneiformity or syzygial pairs, in unique for known species referred to this genus. C. gravis Strimple (1951), from the slightly older Fayetteville formation, has cuneiform arms, and the axillary PBrs has no lateral sides, so that the first SBr is in contact with PBr;. The basal plates of C. gravis are more pronounced and bulbous than those of C. pitkini. Both species have pentagonal stems and in that respect are distinct from all other known species of Cymbiocrinus. Occurrence.-—Approximately 4 miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake in bluff overlooking the Arkansas River, Cookson Hills, Okla.; upper Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, Mississip- pian. Types.—Holotype and paratype collected by the author. To be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. REFERENCES Kirk, Epwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 242: 233-245. 1944. Srrimpie, Harretrt L. Bull. Amer. Pal. Soc. 33(137): 18, 19, pl. 4, figs. 4-6. 1951. ae Fie. 1.—Cymbiocrinus pitkini, n. sp. View of holotype from the posterior, X 1.7 JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 15 ENTOMOLOGY —The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyi, 8. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VERNE F. Newnouse, Davin W. WaLker, and Mavricr T. JamrEs, State College of Washington. This paper describes the immature stages of three species of saprophagous flies, Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker, S. bullata Parker, and S. shermani Parker. These flies show an extremely close relationship to one another as adults, and this affinity is even more completely borne out by comparative study of their larval stages. Greene (1925) described briefly and illus- trated the puparia of Sarcophaga cooleyz and S. bullata. The larva of S. bullata, un- doubtedly third stage though not expressly so stated, is also briefly discussed and figured. Knipling (1936) described more fully the first instar of S. bullata, in com- parison with some other species of the same genus, and illustrated the cephalopharyngeal apparatus, the entire larva, and the pattern and morphology of the setulae. Root (1923) discussed the morphology and _ specific characters of sarcophagid larvae including bullata, with special emphasis on spiracular characters. As far as we can ascertain there has been no published study of the larval forms of S. shermani. This present study was initiated with the hope of distinguishing more clearly these important, closely related species and of facilitating their identification in the future. A great amount of the preliminary work on this study was done during the summer of 1951 by David W. Walker and presented in a thesis submitted as partial fulfillment of requirements for a M.S. degree in ento- mology at the State College of Washington. Material for Mr. Walker’s study, as well as for this one, was obtained through studies supported in part by funds provided for biological and medical research by the State of Washington, Initiative Measure no. 171. MATERIALS AND METHODS Material for study was taken from labora- tory colonies, reared at the State College of Washington, from stocks originally collected in various areas of the State. Samples were taken from well established colonies which had been carried through as many as 27 generations. Although larvae of all ages were examined, the most fully developed of each instar were selected wherever possible as it was felt that this would show most typically the anatomical characters of that instar. In all stages of all species except one (Sarcophaga bullata) second instar, of which 18 specimens were studied), at least 50 and as many as 300 specimens were ex- amined. For fixation, eggs and larvae were placed in water and heated to the boiling point for 30 seconds. The water was then decanted and the specimens were carried through 70 per cent alcohol for 24 hours, into abso- lute alcohol for a similar time period, drained, placed in xylene for 24 hours, and finally stored in clove oil. Those for gross examina- tion were retained in 70 per cent alcohol. Larvae for the purpose of illustration were removed from alcohol, cut in half, and boiled in concentrated potassium hydroxide until the integument was clear and the body contents removed. The cephalopharyngeal apparatus was examined under clove oil at magnification of 45 diameters, and all draw- ings were made with the aid of a micrometer grid. As sarcophagid flies are normally larviparous, eggs were obtained by dissec- tion or by forcing them from the abdomen of gravid flies before the development of the larvae. Sarcophaga cooleyi Parker Sarcophaga cooley: Parker, Can. Ent. 46: 417-423. 1914. Egg.—White; smooth; slightly curved, tapered moderately toward one end. Length 1.10 mm, diameter 0.333 mm. First stage larva.—White; muscidiform; length 1.50 to 4.75 mm, diameter 0.75 mm; cuticle nearly smooth. Anterior and/or posterior margin of each segment possessing many hooklike setulae arranged around the segmental circum- ference in the form of a band. Spinous bands very prominent; setulae dark brown in color; bands complete on segments 2 through 12. Band on segment 2 (first thoracic) very broad, especially ventrally just posterior to mouth hooks. Bands 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCEINCES on anterior margins usually complete on seg- ments 2 through 9; incomplete on segments 10 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; com- plete on segments 9 through 11; and incomplete on segments 5 through 8. Dorsal and lateral portions of bands on segments 5 through 12 not as heavy or dark as on the more anterior seg- ments. Larvae metapneustic; prothoracic spiracles non-functional but may be visible beneath integument, especially just before the molt. Caudal pair of spiracles situated in a shallow cavity, each unit consisting of two elongated spiracular openings lying side by side, their inner sides confluent and their axis dorsoventral. Distance between each spiracle approximately equal to the width of one spiracle. Peritreme absent. Posterior tubercles weakly developed; may appear to be absent. Opening of spiracular cavity bordered with nearly complete ring of setulae or darkened cuticular papillae. Anal tubercles small but prominent. Anal opening surrounded by patch of black setulae. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 1).—Labial sclerite well formed, heavily pigmented. Mouth hooks fused, or in process of fusing postero- ventrally. Hooks arising from anterodorsal corner of sclerite, extending forward in a smooth even curve, terminating in a sharp point above the median longitudinal axis of the sclerite.1 An- terior lower edge of sclerite more or less sharp and truncate. Hypostomal] sclerite small; from a lateral aspect wedge-shaped, broadened pos- teriorly, narrowed anteriorly; from a ventral aspect much less pigmented, broad and _ thick posteriorly, extending anteriorly as two thin lateral processes. Small accessory sclerite be- tween mouth hooks not visible. Dental sclerite apparently absent. Pharyngeal sclerite well de- veloped; well pigmented. Anterior process of ventral portion possessing a small sclerotized extension which protrudes posteriorly. Upper posterior end of ventral cornu heavily pigmented, protruding upward and outward beyond lower edge. Over-all length of skeleton 0.455 to 0.546 mm. Second stage larva——White; muscidiform; length 5.0 to 9.0 mm, diameter 0.75 to 1.75 mm. Entire cuticle covered with minute papillae 1 The median longitudinal axis is here defined as a line drawn through the body of the sclerite from back to front midway between the posterior corners and roughly parallel to the lower edge. vou. 45, No. 1 except the anterior margin of each segment which possesses many hookline setulae; anterior spinous bands prominent, setulae dark brown in color. Lateral margins of oral opening possessing minute ridges which radiate from the opening. Band on segment 2 sometimes divided, either with a heavy patch of setulae dorsally and ventrally, or with the band complete but with its lateral portions weakly developed; band some- times obscured as a result of retraction of the cephalic segment. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10; incomplete on segments 10 or 11 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Larvae amphipneustic; prothoracic spiracle near posterior margin of segment 2 (first thoracic), prominently divided into 12 to 15 digits, each terminating in an oval spiracular opening. Caudal spiracles, each composed of two slit-like openings, situated in a deep cavity; peritreme present but weakly developed. Spiracles almost contiguous at upper inner border. Posterior tubercles humplike; posterior cavity bordered with complete ring of setulae or darkened integumental papillae. Anal tubercles prominent and fingerlike. Anal opening surrounded by small patch of black setulae. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 2).—Labial sclerite heavy, deeply pigmented; hook extending from upper anterior corner of sclerite outward and downward in a smooth curve, but terminating above the median longitudinal axis of the sclerite. Lower anterior corner of sclerite possessing a rounded toothlike protuberance; the sliverlike dental sclerite clearly visible just posterior to this protuberance. Accessory sclerite slender, lying between posterior ends of labial sclerites, extend- ing downwards below the edge of the labial sclerite so as to give the impression of a small ventral process on the sclerite when viewed from a lateral aspect. Hypostomal sclerite narrowed anteriorly, fused basely to the pharyngeal sclerite. Paired infrahypostomal sclerites weakly developed, lightly pigmented; visible from dorsal aspect between anterior arms of hypostomal sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented; parastomal sclerite rather thick, blunt; dorso- pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented, flattened anteriorly. Ventral cornu thickened posteriorly; the upper edge bending dorsally and possessing a small, weakly developed fenestra, the lower edge JANUARY 1955 NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 17 Fias. 1-9.—Cephalopharyngeal skeletons of Sarcophaga, lateral (upper figure) and ventral (lower figure) views: 1, S. cooleyi, first instar; 2, same, second instar; 3, same, third instar. 4, S. bullata, first instar; 5, same, second instar; 6, same, third instar. 7, S. shermani, first instar; 8, same, second instar; ), same, third instar. Drawn by Verne F. Newhouse. Drawings in each case based on representative specimens of the series studied. 18 extending posteriorly. Over-all length of skeleton usually about 0.966 mm. Third stage larva.—White, muscidiform; length 8.75 to 20.25 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 19.17 mm. Diameter 1.5 to 4.5 mm. Entire cuticle covered with minute papillae except the anterior margin of each segment which possesses many hooklike setulae. Spinous band on segment 2 (first thoracic) incomplete; large patch of setulae posterior to mouth hooks, similar patch dorsally but lateral extensions of band incomplete. Oral margin posessing small ridges which radiate from the oral cavity, extending well laterally on the cephalic segment. Spious bands complete on segments 2 through 12. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 10; incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 8; and complete on segments 9 through 11. Pro- thoracic spiracles prominent, divided into 9 to 17 digits, but more commonly into 14 to 16. Caudal spiracles, each divided into three slit- like openings, situated in a deep cavity. Peritreme prominent, strongly developed; extending dorsally and medially to form a rather sharp upper inside angle, then laterally and ventrally in a rather regular curve to terminate directly beneath the innermost slit. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.77 to 3.75 (average of 10). Posterior tubercles slender and fingerlike. Spiracular cavity bordered by ring of microscopic setulae or dark papillae. Anal tubercles large and fingerlike, depending from a prominent anal process. Anal opening surrounded by small patch of black setulae in contrast to colorless setulae of body in general. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 3).—Labial sclerite strongly developed, heavily pigmented; hook arising from upper anterior angle of sclerite, extending straight outward, then bending down- ward in a rather sharp curve. Front angle below tooth sharp, truncate. Dental sclerite strongly developed. Accessory sclerite protrudes below lower edge of labia] sclerite, appearing from lateral aspect as a process of that sclerite. Hypostomal sclerite roughly rectangular, more narrowed anteriorly than posteriorly. Paired infrahy- postomal sclerites visible between and below arms of hypostomal sclerite. Pharyngeal sclerite heavily pigmented medially, but lightly pig- mented distally. Dorsopharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented except for extreme upper anterior JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1 flattened area. Parastomal sclerite rather heavy, blunt. Dorsal cornu possessing an elongated, narrow fenestra; ventral cornu thickened pos- teriorly, possessing a small, weakly developed fenestra in upper posterior corner. Lower edge of ventral cornu (sometimes almost indiscernible) convex. Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral cornu divergent posteriorly. Overall length of skeleton usually about 1.70 mm. Pupa.—Elliptical, dull dark red; 8.5 to 11 mm in length, 3 to 5 mm in diameter. Opening of spiracular cavity oval to elliptical. Spira- cular plate on roof of posterior cavity shining deep red-brown; slits almost white in contrast. Tubercles surrounding posterior cavity flat- tened, distorted. Ana] tubercles prominent. Posterior tubercles connected to anal tubercles by a broad, rounded ridge. Spinous bands complete on segments 3 through 12. Pro- throacic spiracles evident, but number of digits usually not discernible. Sarcophaga bullata Parker Sarcophaga bullata Parker, Can. Ent. 48: 359-364. 1916. Egg.—Unfertilized egg at time of copulation white, translucent; 0.49 mm in length, 0.30 mm in diameter. Shape almost as hen’s egg. Entire surface covered with minute depressions or pits.” Mature egg as in cooleyi; length 1.25 mm. Distinctly tapered anteriorly. Developing larva distinctly visible within. First stage larva—White, muscidiform, as in cooleyt. Newly hatched larva 2 to 2.5 mm in length; 0.5 mm in diameter. Spinous bands con- siderably more prominent than in cooleyi, almost black im color; not divided to as great an extent by plicae except ventrally. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 7; incomplete on segments 8 through 10; and absent on segments 11 and 12. Bands on pos- terior margins usually absent on segments 1 through 6; incomplete on segments 5 through 8; and complete on segments 9 through 11. Anal tubercles more fingerlike than in cooley. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 4).—Labial sclerite well developed. Mouth hook arising as in cooleyi, but more slender and raised higher from median longitudinal axis of sclerite. Posterior 2 This degree in development unfortunately © could not be accurately matched in the other species, therefore cannot be compared. JANUARY 1955 articulation process extending laterally, very slender. Accessory sclerite visible between labial sclerites. Hypostomal sclerite thickened pos- teriorly. Anterior extensions of ventral cornu not possessing a dorsal process. Pharyngeal sclerite smaller and lighter in pigment than in cooleyi. Ventral cornu not extending dorsally, but ap- pearing bifurcated apically as a result of in- complete sclerotization. Over-all length of skeleton 0.483 mm. Second stage larva—Much as in cooley?. Larva apparently slightly larger. Length 5.25 to 9.25 mm, diameter 0.75 to 2.25 mm. Setulae of cuticle black; bands on segments 2 through 12 complete. Band on segment 2 very broad, especially ventrally. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 7; incomplete on segments 10 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 8, complete on segments 9 through 11. Narrow band of setulae partially surrounding base of anal prominence. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 5).—Labial sclerite more slender than in cooleyi. Hook ex- tending below the median logitudinal] axis of the sclerite. Small tooth on lower anterior edge of sclerite more prominent, sharper than in cooley7. Dental sclerite obvious. Slender accessory sclerite larger, extending more ventrad and caudad, appearing from lateral aspect as a long pro- tuberance on labial sclerite. Hypostomal and infrahypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal sclerite lightly pigmented. Parastomal sclerite slender, usually bent up at the tip. Dorsopharyn- geal sclerite more heavily pigmented, anterior flattening more pronounced. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate; ventral cornu more slender, lower edge more straight than convex. Overall length of skeleton about 0.866 mm. Third stage larva——White, muscidiform, much as in cooleyi. Larva slightly larger; length 9.50 to 21.00 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 20.17 mm. Setulae of cuticle may show blackening of tips. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 8; incomplete on segments 9 through 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Posterior tubercles fingerlike; anal tubercles long and prominent. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.80 to 3.95 (average of 10). Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 6).—Labial NEWHOUSE ET AL.: IMMATURE SARCOPHAGIDAE 19 sclerites strongly developed. Hook arising from upper anterior angle, extending straight outward, then downward in a slightly more regular curve than in cooley?. Dental sclerite slightly less de- veloped. Accessory, hypostomal, and _ infra- hypostomal sclerites as in cooleyi. Pharyngeal sclerite much more compressed. Parastomal sclerite more slender, usually tilted upward anteriorly. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Lines of axis of dorsal and ventral cornu not divergent posteriorly, but roughly parallel. Over- all length of skeleton 1.56 mm. Pupa.—As in cooleyi; perhaps slightly larger. Length 9.5 to 11.5 mm. Sarcophaga shermani Parker Sarcophaga exuberans Authors (not Pandellé, Rev. Ent. 15: 186. 1896). Sarcophaga shermani Parker, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 14: 41-46. 1919; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9(11): 124. 1923. Egg.—Indistinguishable from cooleyi; length about 1.50 mm. First stage larva——As in cooleyi. Length of mature larva 5.50 mm, diameter 1.0 mm. Anal tubercles usually not as prominent as in cooleyi. Setulae of spinous bands black in color. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on seg- ments 2 through 11; absent on segment 12. Bands on posterior margins absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segment 5; complete on segments 6 through 11. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 7).—Labial sclerite more slender than in either cooleyi or bullata; tooth arising at higher angle in relation to axis of sclerite. Dorsal cornu of pharyngeal sclerite relatively longer and more slender. Overall length of skeleton 0.533 mm. Second stage larva-—As in cooleyi. Length 5.50 to 8.25 mm, diameter 1.0 to 1.75 mm. Spmous bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 9 or 10; in- complete on segments 10 or 11 through 12. Bands on posterior margins absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on segments 8 through 11. Bands on second and third segments sometimes incomplete and indistinct. Posterior tubercles humplike but prominent; anal tubercles more _fingerlike. Darkened band surrounding spiracular cavity not as prominent as in cooleyi. Narrow band of setulae at ventral base of anal tubercles. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 8).—Labial 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sclerite with hook arising at high angle. Dental, accessory, hypostomal and _ infrahypostomal sclerites prominent. Pharyngeal sclerite well formed and quite heavily pigmented. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Cornua sometimes divergent posteriorly. Lower surface of ventral cornu almost concave in outline. Over-all length of skeleton 1.05 mm. Third stage larva——As in cooleyt. Length 8.00 to 18.00 mm, diameter 1.5 to 4.0 mm; at maturity (average of 10) 16.79 mm. Setulae of cuticle may be black at tip or colorless. Bands on anterior margins usually complete on segments 2 through 10; incomplete on segments 11 and 12. Bands on posterior margins usually absent on segments 2 through 4; incomplete on segments 5 through 7; complete on 8 through 11. Ratio of width of one spiracle to distance between spiracles 5.4 to 2.5. (Average of 10) One specimen, obviously atypical, was observed with three slits in the left spiracle and two in the right. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 9).—Similar vou. 45, No. I to cooleyt. Mouth hook with small tooth on the underside at base. Dental sclerite robust. Parastomal sclerite slender and usually bent up at the tip. Pharyngeal sclerite quite heavily pigmented. Dorsal and ventral cornua fenestrate. Dorsal cornu comparatively more _ slender. Cornua divergent posteriorly. Lower edge of ventral cornu flattened or concave in profile. Over-all length of skeleton 1.43 mm. Pupa—As in cooleyi. Ridge connecting anal tubercles and posterior tubercles usually weakly developed or absent. LITERATURE CITED GREENE, CuHarutes T. The puparia and larvae of sarcophagid flies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 66 (29) : 1-26. 1925. Kntpuinc, Epwarp F. A comparative study of the first-instar larvae of the genus Sarcophaga (Calliphoridae: Diptera), with notes on the biology. Journ. Parasit. 22(5): 417-454. 1936. Root, Francts M. Notes on larval characters in the genus Sarcophaga. Journ. Parasit. 9(4): 227-229. 1923. ENTOMOLOGY Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by Paul H. Oehser.) The periodical or seventeen-year cicada, found only in North America, has a sub- terranean life years longer than that of numerous other cicadas and an aerial life of a few months. Joining these two major parts of its life history are two briefer links: a few weeks late in summer when the eggs left by females inside the wood of twigs develop into minute young nymphs, which enter the ground; and a few weeks in spring when the subterranean nymphs come near the surface and become ready to emerge and transform into adults or imagoes. Some of the work done by the surface dwellers as observed at Baltimore, Md., is here de- scribed. THE LAST DWELLING During their years under ground the young cicadas shed from time to time, grow rapidly, and make successive mud dwellings attached to roots from which the nymphs suck their nutriment, being parasites upon many trees. In Baltimore Potter (1839) observed the largest of these dwellings some 18 inches below the surface. Each was a rough ball of earth 114 to 2 inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, lined by smooth mud, and contained one nymph. Emerging from such last feeding chambers the nymphs dig up- ward and construct somewhat different dwellings (Fig. 1). Within the mud tubes they rest some weeks till ready for emergence and transforma- tion. These last dwellings have the advantage of safety some inches below the surface, along with quick access to the surface when the proper time comes. Each dwelling (Fig. 1) has rounded ends above and below as in previous subterranean dwellings, but these are connected by a long shaft and are commonly 150 to 350 mm long, though they may be longer or much shorter. In this shaft the lymph climbs up close to the surface or falls rapidly down to the bottom to escape attacks. In cross section the shaft is circular or sometimes elliptical, being wider than deep, and is about either 10 or 15 mm in diameter. Dwellings of these two sizes occur in the same places, but one or the other predominates, a fact that harmonizes with the occurrence here of a larger and a smaller variety of cicada of which one or the other is more abundant under certain trees. Also the larger bores were found where the larger cicadas emerged; that is, the bores were made to fit the cicadas. | January 1955 ANDREWS: _ The lining of the shaft is smooth mud a few : millimeters thick, sharply defined from the _ lumen, but fading off gradually into the surround- - ing earth. Shafts are by no means always straight, or of uniform diameter, but may be sinuous and present swollen regions 20 mm wide. But I have not seen regular swellings near the upper end, as noted in another part of Maryland by Snodgrass (1921). Following his method we filled shafts under a purple beech tree with plaster of Paris and obtained such demonstrations of the abun- dance and character of these dwellings as shown in Fig. 2. The topsoil was such a mass of small stones and roots as to indicate that the nymph must have cut off small roots in order to advance so many inches. Large obstacles were often Fic. 1.—Plaster cast of common or typical dwelling showing bottom chamber, long shaft, and dome above connected to surface by short exit passageway added by escaping larva. One- half natural size. WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 21 nine natural association, lengths, widths, and shapes, but with upper ends obscured in excess surface plaster. About half natural size. Photograph by Charles H. Weber. Fre. 2.—Plaster cast of dwellings in avoided by change of direction, but at times small stones or roots projected into the lumen, covered with lining mud, and reduced the cavity from its normal 15 mm to a mere 10 mm in diameter. Staining of the plaster casts by topsoil or by clay showed that the lining material came from that level and was not brought up from below, which is in harmony with descriptions of the way in which cicada dwellings are made, namely, by forcing the earth laterally aside into its walls and not by carrying it away, as is done by many burrowing animals. The chief implements used in making cavities in the earth, according to Marlatt (1907) and Snodgrass (1921), who observed the work in vessels of loose earth, are the big first legs (Fig. 3). Here, as in the other legs, the terminal segment is used chiefly in walking and may be folded down when not needed; the second segment from the tip is used to pick off particles of earth. The third segment is the largest and like a powerful thumb acts with the opposing second as a forceps to pick up pellets of earth and small stones. The minute particles picked loose from the earth are raked together by the tip segment to make a pellet, which the forceps can carry or shove into the walls of the cavity. However, all parts of the 22, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fie. 3. Snodgrass’s sketch of inner face of first right leg, or claw, of cicada pupa. The thickest segment is the femur, the next pointed segment the tibia, and the small final segment the tarsus. body may come into use, for the hind legs and the abdomen may help shove earth aside and the head may carry earth plastered upon it. In vertical] tunnels the animal braces its legs against the sides and, if disturbed, relaxes and drops down. Finally completed, the last dwelling (Fig. 1) ends above and below in swellings similar to the ends of the preceding feeding dwellings. The lower cavity may be called the chamber and the upper one the dome. The lower chamber is large enough to allow the nymph to turn about and commonly is flattened below, as if to allow the nymph to rest upon a fiat surface. Often the chamber slants upward to the shaft, as in Fig. 1, but sometimes the chamber is but the enlarged bottom of the vertical shaft and not turned to one side. The inner linings of both chamber and dome are of the same smoothness as in the shaft. Some measurements of these chambers were: Lengths, 24, 30, 60, 70 mm; widths and heights, 15 or 20 mm. The dome or top of such dwellings VOL. 45, No. 1 comes remarkably near the surface of the earth without breaking through, leaving but a few millimeters of earth till the time for transforma- tion, when the nymph digs its way out. The axis of the dome may be vertical, as in Fig. 4, or horizontal, as in Fig. 6. In the larger nymphs the claws may be stretched out 5 or 6 mm ahead of the animal, which so might receive sensory im- pressions of obstacles, or of the near surface, and then stop or turn aside; but when it turns aside horizontally, as in Fig. 6, when still 20 mm beneath the surface, it may be the warmth of the surface earth that influences the animal. Examination of very many tubular dwellings, as well as their plaster casts, shows that, as with many small boring animals, closely neighboring cavities do not interconnect, but each has its own individual upper end and exit and along its course avoids contact with other dwellings though they often run close together. In such shafts as shown in Fig. 5 a common exit might have easily been made. While some unusual dwellings do run horizontally close to the surface, IT saw none with the sharp U turn indicated in the picturesque illustration printed by Lander (1894). Yet there were some noteworthy abnormalities; thus in Fig. 7 the lower end of the dwelling is bifurcated; there is a normal chamber on the right and a supernumerary one on the left, as if two cicadas digging upward made two chambers that chanced to meet and were then continued as a single shaft. A second bifurcation was found in granular red subsoil that had lain some years over topsoil. In this example the more normal chamber was 20 mm long and 15 mm wide and deep and inclined as usual, but the smaller extra chamber was ee mht . A ate Jatt “ie i bar Fic. 4.—Upper end of shaft and dome coming up near to surface of soil. One-half natural size. JaNuARY 1955 Fie. 5—Two shafts ending in domes converg- ing as if to have a common exist at surface. One- half natural size. horizontal, at right angles to the shaft. Both chambers had flat bottoms roughened by par- ticles fallen down the shaft before plaster was poured in. IMPEDIMENTS TO THE MAKING OF DWELLINGS In the red clay subsoil a cicada encountered a large slab of partly decayed wood, 30 mm thick, and continued its shaft through it and on up near to the surface. Also, under a privet hedge cicadas coming up under stiff flat dead leaves lying close on the surface continued their shafts through the leaves. Under a copper beech tree we placed obstacles on the surface of the ground: sheets of writing paper, brown paper, and carton pieces. When these lay long in contact with moist earth the cicadas, concealed below, destroyed their domes and dug round holes through the obstacles, even when many sheets were together, though when the obstacle was thick carton with heavy brown-paper surface and thick corrugated in- terior the cicadas merely bored diagonally in but not through. Having perforated the obstacle, the cicadas deposited pellets and some liquid mud Fic. 6.—A 10-mm shaft turned nearly parallel to surface of earth. One-half natural size. ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 23 above the surface to form a new dome, as in the sectional view (Fig. 13). Stout paraffin paper lying under a pear tree was riddled with many round holes each surmounted with a thim- ble of mud. We observed that under brick walks a few cicadas managed to find a way between bricks to the surface, and under large stones, logs, and Fie. 7.—Plaster cast of abnormal dwelling with two chambers joined to a single shaft. One-half natural size. planks many came up and then turned off horizontally. It may be many inches before they chance to come to an edge of the obstacle, when they then build upward again on the free surface as a new dome, standing forth into the air, but attached to the face of the obstacle. Under a thin sheet of metal covering about 1 square foot we saw many straight and curved shafts running in all directions, intermingled but each independent of others, some coming shortly to a free edge and others wandering far. Here there seemed no indi- 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fia. 8.—Photograph of four aerial structures (upper right of red clay) showing size, surface, form, and closed tops (except lower right, open on other side). One-half natural size. Photograph by Charles H. Weber. cation that the cicadas found escape except by accident. But in some instances it seemed that the cicadas were guided by sunlight. Under a beehive, 40 by 50 cm, cicadas came up in six shafts, 11 to 85 em deep, and, encountering the bottom of the hive built on horizontally exten- sions of the shafts, stuck to and suspended from the hive bottom like the work of termites or certain wasps. Though the hive contacted the earth about most of its edge, the west face was held up by bricks about 25 mm, so that light entered on that side. Three or four of the hori- zontal structures were aimed more to the west, the others had little length and seemed closed; while the longer ones had opened at the west end. The structure of these suspended mud tubes was that of the mud towers to be deserived later, with only a very thin mud lining against the roofing wood and the other walls, the mud being brought there and manipulated. A long row of beehives rested upon two parallel joists, 314 by VOL. 45, NO. I 114 inches and 12 feet long, lying in contact with the earth and 10 inches apart and nearly east and west. When these joists were raised, many shafts were revealed, which turned off horizontally along under the joist. Under the northern joist, which was kept quite in the shade by the hives above it, 22 shafts ran from south to north and 19 from north to south, suggesting no guidance. Under the southerly joist, which early in spring received sunshine before an overhanging apple tree was in leaf, the number going north was 14, south 68—a decided preference for the south direction. As no light entered between joist and earth, we infer the sunlight influenced the cicadas by warming the face of the joist toward which they were thus guided. Temperatures ob- tained on April 14, 1954, when the joist still lay in place were-as follows: At noon along south side of joist in sunshine air read 34°C., along north side, in shade of joist, 28°C. Thermometer bulb under south edge of joist read 29°C. and under north side 28°C. However, late in May, when air was 21° to 24°, the temperature under the joist was 16° to 18°, with no difference between north and south, as leaf shade kept the earth cool. AERIAL DWELLINGS Thus the last dwelling of the subterranean nymph is not necessarily restricted to the earth but may be continued up into the air. In fact, aerial extensions maz be abundant and of great interest and are well known as turrets, towers, cones, chimneys, huts, and adobe houses. Perhaps the term ‘spigot holes” may refer to such aerial structures. If so, it is the earliest reference to ree wae Fic. 9.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling with shaft ending as a dome arched over with applied earth material. One-half natural size. JANUARY 1955 ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA bo or Fic. 10—Photograph of three aerial structures; lower left, with dead leaves in walls and showing where one was pulled off a hole into lumen of shaft. Lower right, a lump as wide as tall closed as yet at top; upper, a sample of thimble called forth by presence of sheets of paper on surface of earth. One-half natural size. them; it was used, as quoted by Marlatt (1907), by Thomas Mathews in 1705, writing of a swarm of cicadas in Virginia about the year 1675. Probably the first illustration of such aerial dwellings was the above mentioned sketch by Lander (1894). Since then good photographs have been published. As shown in Fig. 8, made in Baltimore in 1953, these are large cylinders or cones of mud rough externally as made of pellets stuck together. The material may be topsoil or subsoil or mixtures of both, and some of it seems to have been flowing when applied. Some towers lean over but do not break even when nearly horizontal, which recalls the surmise made by Lander (1894) that the mud material was mingled with some cement supplied by the cicada. Several hundred pellets are seen in one tower, but others are concealed or fused together into larger lumps. These mud houses are durable. Some made late in April 1953 were still recognizable late in January 1954 where protected by dead leaves under privet hedges, despite rain, snow, frost, and thawing. The walls (Fig. 9) are dense mud, not natural soil, externally more or less made of pellets but internally lined with the same smooth layer found in the underground parts of the dwelling. Rarely small sticks or leaves are incorporated in the walls, and stiff vertical dead leaves may form part of the lining, so that when torn away a hole is opened into the lumen, as in lower left of Fig. 10. When a tower was built up under layers of paper they were cut through and the tower com- pleted above them, leaving the dome sticking up above the paper as in Fig. 11. As seen by com- paring Figs. 9, 11, 12, and 13 with 4, the dome of aerial extensions is just like that of subterranean dwellings. In size these aerial dwellings vary much in any locality, and some localities show an average different from that of some other locality. Thus 159 under separated box trees ranged in height from 15 to 90 mm, in width from 15 to 40 mm; with bores from 9 to 15 mm, thickness of roof of dome from 1 to 5mm, exit hole from 6 to 15 mm. While under box trees grown as a hedge, 355 ranged in height from 30 to 100 mm, in width from 25 to 35 mm. Again under apple trees the range in height of 136 was from 15 to 100, in width from 10 to 40, with the bores from 7 by 9 to 15 mm. FUSED AERIAL DWELLINGS Often shafts are so close together that when extended into the air their walls stick together as one mass with from 2 to 10 separate domes. When but two (Fig. 14) they fuse all along one side only, though in exceptions (Figs. 15 and 16) a pair may lean together and fuse only above or may fuse below and diverge widely above. When several fuse a short dome may be overarched by a taller and so, apparently, the inmate cut off from escape except by digging through the taller neighboring dome. In fact, late in summer one such instance suggested that the inmate had died within unable to escape. However, several others 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES x Tiss f sf Fic. 11.—Vertical section of an aerial dwelling built up under three layers of paper through which it was continued to end as a dome. One-half natural size. were found closed with no such cause for failure to escape. Very rarely was there evidence that cicada nymphs ever made any use of their neighbors’ work; in one instance three shafts had but two exits since one inmate had opened its shaft into that of a neighbor. Fig. 14 shows a certain economy of building materia] resulting from the crowding of neighbors, there being no room for the usual thick wall, only a thin party wall was built between neighbors. Such economy may lead to the observed fact that in some aggregates the entire weight is less than the combined weights of as many separate structures of similar heights. ESTIMATES OF WORK DONE Cicadas are muscular animals; even the slow nymphs underground move from place to place, build feeding chambers, suck sap and inject liquid to aid in feeding, and finally construct elongated dwellings that may extend up into the Fra. 12.—Five layers of paper over a concealed shaft were cut through to end as a dome, not yet quite finished late in summer. One-half natural size. VOL. 45, No. I air. This enables one, by weighing the earth deposited, to estimate some of the energy ex- pended in carrying earth upward several inches. Some of these deposits under apple, beech, and English box trees were collected and weighed, with ranges from 4 to 274 grams each. In all, 1,116 of these came from under box trees, 149 in number, covering a sum of areas measured as about one-thirteenth of an acre. They weighed 16,578 grams, or about 28 pounds; 1.e., at the rate of 364 pounds per acre. However, a correction is necessary since the dwellings were weighed after air drying all summer, but when originally carried up by the cicadas they were wet. When 20 dry dwellings were dipped in water and drained it was found they had taken up 25 to 35 per cent of their weight. Again 20 were ground to powder and weighed as water was added. When the mass was plastic enough to be made into pellets with the fingers, 39 per cent water had been taken up; with more water the mass lost form and began Fig. 13.—Two layers of paper over a conceaeled dome were cut through to form a dome above those obstacles. One-half natural size. to flow when 48 per cent had been taken up. So we add at least one-third, or considering that some of the cicadas’ material is liquid, as much as 40 per cent to the above dry weights, making thus, roughly, 500 pounds per acre, mined, brought up some inches, and deposited as dwelling walls. AND CONDITIONS IN HOUSES ARE PLACES WHICH AERIAL MADE In this arable soil aerial dwellings appear only in places that were shaded in April, under a building supported on brick pillars; under its eastern eaves shaded by evergreen privet; under the wooden steps of east and west ends of ele- vated wooden porch; but not under the porch itself where abundant in 1936 when adjacent bushes had not been removed; under English ivy covering the ground; under dense growth of dead nettle (Lamiwm purpurem 1.), under north face JANUARY 1955 ANDREWS: of privet hedge, and under its south face where dead leaves had collected; under evergreen cane and bamboo; under apple, beech, and English box trees. Also in the following peculiar con- ditions: under a board 16 inches wide and 19 feet long, supported at the ends 27 inches above the earth, surrounded by apple trees showing no aerial structures at all. In this faint shade, es- pecially near its northerly edge, many fine dwellings were built up. When we moved this board 2 feet to the north, many soft new towers arose in the new shade. The making of aerial dwellings by providing artificial shade was evoked as follows: Early in April a large zine tub was overturned under one of the above apple trees known to have many sub- terranean dwellings under it and at length, April 29, a tower 2 inches in height arose under the Fic. 14.—Cross section of two narrow shafts of aerial dwellings that coalesced with only a thin party-wall between. One-half natural size. tub the night previous. This bent over nearly horizontally, and by May 3 the inmate had re- moved the old dome and added pellets making a new dome.! In a henyard, where there were only concealed dwellings, scraping the surface re- vealed 36 shafts thus opened, May 6; these were covered over with a large zinc tub making a dark space within which the next morning 30 soft dwellings had been built into the air, but outside the tub there were none. In the same region a number of chimneys arose from a square foot of hard earth when covered with a wooden trough. The previously described structures (p. 24), under joists, etc., are essentially aerial towers 1 Whether in light or darkness each aerial dwell- ing is closed above, and if the old dome is removed a new one is made at once. Thus under dense lamium shade removal of domes was followed the next night by the making of new ones in most all the dark cavities formed by placing small tin cans, 4 by 2 inches, over the opened shafts. And under apple trees where the earth was very wet removal of 40 towers to reveal open shafts resulted the next morning, May 3, in the appearance of nearly as many new structures made within such cans and 3-inch flowerpots. WORK OF “lI PERIODICAL CICADA yA, Fic. 15.—Two aerial dwellings leaning to- gether and coalescing above. Both closed above. Lining indicated by broken lines. One-half natural size. built in the dark and forced into horizontal postures. HOW ARE AERIAL DWELLINGS MADE? The aerial dwellings are built up rapidly in the night when no one has observed how, but we assume that they are made much as are the former feeding chambers, for knowledge of which we rely on the above-mentioned observations of Marlatt and Snodgrass. To this we add the fol- lowing: In 1902 we saw cicadas, placed in tubes Fia. 16.—Aerial dwellings of a larger and a smaller variety built close together and then diverging widely. The large on the left is open at top. A small stick was built into both where di- verging. One-half natural size. 28 of loose earth, place mud onto the right and the left sides of the face and so carried it up to make pellets; also some huts found late in summer, 1953, with partly finished still-open domes sug- gest how domes are made in the air. Each (Fig. 12) had across its summit an open slit about 10 by 5 and 6 mm with very thin edges, not more than 0.5 mm. As yet no pellets had been placed over the top of the dome. We imagine the claws would reach out of the slit to apply mud, that the slender tarsus would be used in troweling the mud, and that water was supplied by the cicada nymph. CONCLUSION The last dwellings of seventeen-year cicadas are of interest as showing what insects can do with tools; as examples in the comparative architecture of dwellings of small animals; as a means for estimating some of the energy ex- pended; and as beneficial factors in the life of these plant parasites. Also it is noteworthy that in the roofs of these last subterranean dwellings only a thin layer of earth remains to be per- forated for egress into the air above; and that this advantage is persistently maintained under the diverse conditions we have described and illustrated. When over 60 or more acres of woodland the earth is riddled with borings such as indicated in Fig. 2, the effects must be considerable, for these holes remain open for a year or more admitting air and surplus rain and serving for roots and for many insects, spiders, and other small forest creatures. Again, when towers of mud weighing perhaps 500 pounds per acre are deposited, ulti- mately to be disintegrated on the surface, thus “nlowing” the earth after the manner of earth- worms, there seems compensation for the injury done in sucking root sap and injury to twigs. Why at some times and places the last dwell- ings are extended as aerial structures, huts, or towers is a question needing solution through experimentation. It has been thought that these aerial dwellings were due to water, to peculiar soil, or to tempera- ture. But in Baltimore the earth was no wetter where towers appeared than in nearby regions where subterranean dwellings sufficed—except only one place where surface water under an apple tree made a wet basis for towers, but here there was also shade in April, and this as well as JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. I wetness may have acted by lowering the earth temperatures below that within the towers up in the warm air. Cicadas are parasites upon plants, drinking sap not only when young nymphs but when adults. That the oldest nymphs near the surface also drink sap is inferred but not demon- strated. That they are not necessarily restricted to sap for needed water is shown by the following experiment: Nymphs dug from their concealed shafts near the surface were kept some days in dry earth, each in a hole simulating a shaft, and then put onto garden earth. They at once thrust their beaks deep into the earth and, as if thirsty, stood long in the drinking attitude assumed by adults sucking sap from trees. Apparently they sucked moisture from the earth. Though they had been kept in darkness they had not erected aerial dwellings, nor had most of them even made domes over the holes they were in, presumably lacking sufficient water for such work. That liquid from the earth may be used by old nymphs for their building needs is implied in their long life near the surface when the earth is moist and there may be no roots to suck, as in the instance described above where they lived in granular red clay subsoil free from roots. It seems probable much of the liquid needed for mud making and even for self maintenance is derived from the earth. With water constituting a third or more of the aerial dwellings, it is evident wet soil is needed for such work. As part of these aerial structures seems to be liquid mud and as we do not know how cicadas can carry liquid mud, we assume that they made the earth liquid when they used it. All through cicada life liquid is freely drunk and freely expelled, since, as described by Myers (1928), the cicada has a remarkable filtering apparatus that lets liquid pass rapidly out. Hence, whenever cicadas have liquid to drink they have it to expel. When the actual process of hut-building is observed we anticipate it will be seen that the cicada uses both ends of its body, somewhat as we observed (1911) certain termites do when building in Jamaica. Temperature has much to do with emergence, as shown when pipes heated the earth and cicadas emerged a year in advance. Hopkins (1898) ob- served in West Virginia that emergence was earlier where warmth was greater, either from lower altitude or from a more southern location. JANUARY 1955 Krumbach (1917) kept detailed records of temperatures in part of a botanical garden in Austria-Hungary, watched 27 cicadas emerge during 27 days, and also noted they emerged later in the shade of a wall. He was of the opinion that temperature was the important factor in bringing them forth. During the period of emergence temperatures were as follows: a meter above ground 11.2° to 19.2° minimum and 31.6° to 35° maximum; at the surface 10.8° to 16.2° minimum; down in the earth 300 mm 25.3° to 26.6°; down 600 mm 21.4° to 26.2°; down 1 meter 19.7° to Bool. Applying the above to our cicadas it may be that they were influenced by temperature gradients in coming up toward the surface and by surface temperature in emergence; also that a cicada in a tower might well be warmer than one beneath the surface. Lander (1894) studied cicadas near Nyack, N. Y., and concluded that the chimneys were built as places to cool off in, for he argued the very warm spring had unduly heated the trap rock, smoothed by glaciers, underlying the thin soil. But as no thermometer readings are given we are free to assume that the thin clay soil would not drain well into the glaciated rock but would hold the melted winter snow and be cold from evaporation, whereas cicadas up in towers would be warmed by the sun- shine of an exceptionally warm spring. That cicadas may get higher temperatures up in towers than down below is indicated by some experiments made in February and March 1954 at one of the spots in which chimneys had arisen in April 1953, which showed that a thermometer placed in a dry chimney over a hole resembling a cicada shaft registered 4° or 5° higher than down 1 to 7 inches in the earth, but only 1° lower than the warmer air. Thus on March 29, 1954, when the surface temperature of the earth was 28° in full sunshine, the temperature of the air was 19°, within the chimney 18°, at the surface 13°, down 12 inches 12°C.: in the shade of the same evergreen privet in which chimneys were made in 1953. This makes credible the view that in 1953 cicadas there found temperatures in their chimneys higher than below ground and com- parable with that of the surface in full sunshine. Moreover, as described above (p. 23), cicadas meeting certain obstacles continued their shafts horizontally as modified chimneys to the limit of the obstacle and then upward again to end with a ANDREWS: WORK OF PERIODICAL CICADA 29 normal dome. Temperature taken there a year later showed that the sunshine warmed one face of the obstacle and that the cicadas, in the dark, ina majority of instances, built toward the higher temperature. We advance the hypothesis that the chief factor in inducing the cicada to extend its last dwelling into the air is temperature; in the shade or under other conditions when the surface earth is not warm enough, a higher temperature is at- tained up in turrets surrounded with warm air. Though most of the cicada’s life with its growth and shedding is spent down in lower temperatures, we assume that higher tempera- tures are attained and probably needed for the final perfection of internal organs not needed in previous subterranean life. To test this hypothe- sis, temperatures might be obtained in air, on the surface, and beneath the ground over an area where cicadas are expected to issue soon. Such data might well indicate where aerial dwellings would arise and where only subterranean dwell- ings would be found. LITERATURE CITED AnpREws, E. A. Observations on Jamaica. Journ. Animal Behavior 1: 228. 1911. Periodical cicadas in Baltimore, Md. Sei. Monthly 12: 310-320. 1921. . The seventeen year cicada, alias locust. Quart. Rev. Biol. 12: 271-293. 1937. Horxins, A. D. The periodical cicada in West Virginia. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 50: 46 pp., 23 figs., 1 map, 4 pls. 1898. Krumpacu, T. Zur Naturgeschichte der Sing- cicaden 1m Roten Istrien. Zool. Anz. 48: 241— 250. 1917. Lanper, B. Hut-building seventeen-year cicadas. Sci. American 71: 233-234. 1894. Maruattr, C. L. The periodical cicada. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Entomology, Bull. 71: 181 pp. 1907. Marruews, Tuomas. Swarms of cicadas as one of the three prodigies appearing in Virginia about 1675. (Quoted in ‘‘A Library of Ameri- can Literature,” ed. by E. C. Stedman and E. M. Hutchinson, vol. 1: 462-468. 1887.) Myers, J. G. The morphology of the Cicadidae (Homoptera). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1928: 365-472, 75 figs. Porter, N. Notes on the Locusta septentrionalis americanae decem septima: 27 pp., 1 pl. Baltimore, 1839. Snoperass, R. E. The _ seventeen-year locust. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Institution for 1919: 381-409, illus. 1921. termites in 193- 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1 ICHTHYOLOGY —Flatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Pau CuapaNnaup. (Translated by Mme. Patricia Isham.) (Communicated by Leonard P. Schultz.) Max Weber and L. F. de Beaufort,! who published the most recent summary of the fish fauna of the Indo-Australian Archi- pelago, mention only three species in the genus Symphurus: S. regant Weber and de Beaufort, S. giles? (Alcock), and S. micro- rhynchus Weber and de Beaufort. An additional species, S. marmoratus Fowler, was described from Jolo Island, Philippines. No less than six species are represented among the 139 Symphurus specimens captured between April 10, 1908, and December 16, 1909, in that archipelago or its immediate environs between lat. 20° 37 N., long. 115° 43” EK, and lat. 5° 24’ S., long. 122° 18’ 15” E., by the U. 5. Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross in the course of its successive cruises, which, altogether, constituted the Albatross Expedition to the Philippines (1907-1910). I cannot thank too warmly Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, Curator, Division of Fishes, U. 8. National Museum, for his favor in trusting to me the study of this material of exceptional scientific value and interest. Also I thank Mme. Patricia Isham for translating this paper. Among the three species captured by the Siboga in 1899-1900, and mentioned or described by Weber and de Beaufort, only Symphurus regani was found again by the Albatross. However, the investigations of the latter ship augmented the fauna of the Indo-Australian Archipelago by three species, S. woodmasoni (Alcock), S. sep- temstriatus (Alcock), and S. strictus Gilbert, that are more or less widely scattered in the tropical Indo-Pacific complex, and by two new species, S. schultzi and S. luzonensis, which are described in the lines that follow. In reality, S. woodmasoni was captured by the Szboga in the Banda Sea; but the unique specimen is mentioned by Weber, without determination (Szboga, Fishes, 1913: 445, No. 4). The following abbreviations are used: A, anal fin; C, caudal fin; D, dorsal fin (also the letter D indicates dissection); Mx, Maxillary; R precedes the meristic formula 1The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago 5: 208-211. 1929. determined from radiography; S, number of scales, counted between the vertical of the opercular opening and the base of the caudal fin; V, pelvic fin; n, blind side; z, eyed side. The position of the caudal extremity of the maxillary (Mx) on the eyed side is indicated in the following fashion: I, in front of the vertical of the anterior border of the fixed eye; II, underneath the anterior half of the fixed eye; III, underneath the posterior half of the fixed eye; IV, in back of the fixed eye. The intermediary positions are indicated IVAN UUAQUL, evare) INLAY The same symbols determine the position of the first dorsal ray (D 1), in relation to the movable eye. The formula for number of vertebrae conforms with the example: a 9 [3 + 6] + c44 = t53. The letter a means number of abdominal vertebrae. The letter c means number of caudal vertebrae. The letter ¢ indicates the total of the preceding numbers. The numbers put between brackets [38 + 6] analyze the composition of the abdominal vertebrae. The first number (3) is that of the vertebrae deprived of the hemal arch; the second (6) that of the vertebrae that possess that arch. In all the Symphurus, except individual abnormalities not yet found, all the abdominal hemal arches are closed by distal codssification of the two hemitoxes’. Symphurus woodmasoni (Alcock, 1889) D 91-99. A 78-86. C 14. V 4. 8 80-90 (+2). Mx: II-III (1I/IV*%). D 1: ILIII (IL/IV’®). In hundredths of the standard length: head 20- 25; height 23-26 (27-29). In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 12-14(15); space between the eyes 0; C 52-76 (90-115*). In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 36-45. In alcohol the eyed side is of bright reddish 2Cf. Chabanaud, Morphologie comparée des arcs hémaux abdominaux des téléostéens symétriques et dyssymétriques. C. R. Acad. Sci. 233: 1393, eff. 5. 1951. 3 Only one case. 4 When its length does not attain about 60 percent of that of the head, the caudal fin can be considered deteriorated. JANUARY 1955 brown, generally even, but often enough varied with dark brown marblelike veins. The fins are brown, more or less dark, but becoming lighter from front to back, so the caudal fin is often colorless. The blind side is colorless and the reddish tint of the musculature is readily visible. The peritoneum is generally black. Number of specimens studied: 85. Standard length (largest observed): #103 mm; 9121 mm. Sex ratio (82 observations): 28; 9254. Vertebrae (6 observations): 50-52, 9 of which {3 + 6] abdominal. Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations®: U.S.N.M. 138049, station 5247, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138058, station 5402, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388062, station 5403, 7 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138034, station 5404, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138035, station 5405, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138036, station 5409, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station 5412, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138039, station 5418, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138059, station 5501, a specimens; U.S.N.M. 138060, station 5502, specimens; Bee 138061, station 5503, 2 22 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station 5508, 1 specimen; U.S.N ae 138021, station 5516, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138048, station 5537, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138047, station 5538, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 188051, station 5623, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 188052, station 5626, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388056, 1 specimen from Philippines without locality. Symphurus schultzi, n. sp. D 85-87: A 72-75. C 14. V 4. 8S + 70-80. Mx IL. D 1: IJ/IIE-III/1IV. In hundredths of the standard length: head 21-25; height 24-30. In hundredths of the head length: eyes 17-19; interorbital space 0; C 50-62. In hundredths of the body height: height of D 42-47. In alcohol: The eyed side is an even reddish brown, now light, now dark; the fins are more or less brown or blackish, progressively lighter from front to back. The blind side is pale or pigmented. The peritoneum is black. On two dissected specimens, US.N.M. 138046 and 138057 the vertebrae number 48 of which a 9 [3 + 6] are abdominal. Named in honor of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, United States National Museum, S. schultzi differs from S. woodmasoni in the fewer rays, D (85-87, instead of 91-99); A (72-75 instead of 78-86), and by its eyes that ®> Albatross published in: Rept. 1-97. Nov. 29, 1910. dredging station records were Comm. Fish., 1910 (741): CHABANAUD: FLATFISHES OF GENUS SYMPHURUS 31 appear a little larger (17-19 hundredths of the head length instead of 12-15), also in fewer vertebrae (48 instead of 50-52), the formula of the abdominal vertebrae is the same 9 [3 + 6]. This species is described from 5 specimens, 2 #7 and 3 2°; maximum standard length # 70 mm., @ 64 mm. Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 138044, holotype; ¢@, sta- tion 5508. Paratypes: U.S.N.M. 138025, Station 5201; U.S.N.M. 138033, Station 5373; U.S.N.M. 138057, St. 5506; U.S.N.M. 138046, Station 5536. Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891) D 93-101. A 81-89. C 12. V 4. S 96-100. Mx, (1/II*) II-III. D 1: IL-II/III (IIs). In hundredths of the standard length: head 18-22; height 21-27. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye (12) 14-18 (19); interorbital space 0; C 60-86. In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 36-41. In alcohol, the eyed side is of reddish brown, more or less clear with nebulous dark brown areas, arranged in transverse bands; rarely indistinct, and numbering about 7 to 12, between the operculum and the base of C; fins brownish, pale towards the rear. The blind side is usually reddish brown, lighter than the eyed side, but always of uniform color. Peritoneum is black. Specimens studied numbered 38; maximum standard length # 78 mm. @ 77 mm. Sex ratio for 33 observations: @ 21, 9 12. Vertebrae (4 observations): a 9 [8 + 6] + c 44 = t 53 (3 individuals), a 9 [8 + 6] + c 45 = ¢ 54 (1 individual). Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 138026, station 5216, 4 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138023, station 5265, 2 specimens, U.S.N.M. 138043, station 5268, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138028, station 5298, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138029, station 5301, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. station 138040, station 5326, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138042, station 5387, 16 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138041, station 5388, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138031, station 5391, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138032, station 5392, 2 specimens; U.S.N.M. 138035, station 5405, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 1388037, station 5411, 1. specimen; U.S.N.M. 138038, station 5412, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138060, station 5502, 1 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138044, station 5508, 1 specimen. 5 Only one case. 32 Symphurus regani Weber and Beaufort, 1929 D 103-104. A 89-92. C 14. V 4.8 + 100. Mx III. D 1: I-II. In hundredths of the standard length: head 17; height 24-26. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 15; interorbital space 0; caudal fin + 73. In hundredths of the body height: height of D or of A: + 30. In alcohol, the eyed side is of an even reddish brown, not dark, the fins dark brown. The blind side is colorless or whitish. Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 1388045, station 5526, 1 @ specimen, 112 mm _ standard length, R:a 10 [8 + 7] + ¢ 47 = t 57; US.N.M. 188053, station 5646, 1 @ specimen, 122 mm, R:a 10 [8 + 7] + c¢ 47 = € 57; US.N.M. 138054, station 5647, 1 @ specimen, 96 mm. R:a 10 [8 +7] + c47 =t 57. Symphurus luzonensis, n. sp. Holotype &. Total length 80 mm. Standard length 72 mm. Length of the head 13 mm. D 99. A 84. C 12. V 4.8 104. Mx II. D 1:I1/UI. In hundredths of the standard length: head 18; height 23. In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 14; interorbital space 0; C 61. In hundredths of the body height, height of D or of A 38. In alcohol, the eyed side is of a light reddish brown; fins pale; blind side colorless. U.S.N.M. 138043, holotype from Station 5268, @ speci- men, R:a 10 [4 + 6] + c 42 5 ¢t 52. Captured near the island of Luzon, the holotype of Symphurus luzonensis differs from JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1 S. regani in the fewer rays of its three median fins, notably of C (12 instead of 14); also by its caudal vertebrae (42 instead of 46 or 47), the formula for abdominal vertebrae are the same, a 10 [4 + 6], proof of the close affinity existing between these two species. Symphurus strictus Gilbert, 1905 D 116-121. A 101-106. C (13) 14. V (8) 4.78 130-140. Mx II-III. D 1:I-II. In hundredths of the standard length: head 15-18; height 21-24 (27). In hundredths of the length of the head: eye 11-14; interorbital space 0; C ? Inhundredths of the body height: height of D or of A 33. In alcohol the eyed side is evenly bright red, with the fins brownish grey, becoming lighter from front to back. The peritoneum is black. Blind side same color as eyed side, but a little lighter. Seven specimens studied, 4 @ and 3 9Q. Standard length (maxima observed): @ 126 mm; ? 86mm. Record of specimens for Albatross dredging stations: U.S.N.M. 138024, station 5269, 1 ¢ specimen; U.S.N.M. 138027, station 5290, 1 ¢# specimen, R:a 9 [3 + 6] + ¢52 =t61; US.N.M. 138030, station 5294,1 2 specimen; U.S.N.M. 138022, station 5589, 1 o&, R:a 9 [8 + 6] + c 62 = t 61; US.N.M. 138050, station 5621, 1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 152779, station 5623, 1 @ specimen; U.S.N.M. 138055, station 5645, 1 & specimen. 7C 13, for U.S.N.M. 138024. V 3, for U.S.N.M. 138050. MALACOLOGY .—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. J. P. E. Morrison, U. 8. National Museum. The subgenus Gastridiwm Modeer (Sven- ska Vet.-Akad. Handl. (n. s.) 14: 196. 1793) includes a few relatively large but thin-shelled species of the genus Conus. It is probable that these species are more active and much more rapid in growth of shell than the great majority of cone species. One species somewhat smaller than the genotype of Gastridium (Conus geographus Linnaeus) but most closely related to it, and therefore to be handled with equal caution against its poison bite, is without a valid scientific name. The earliest name Conus geographus rosea Sowerby (Conch. Illus., pt. 32: fig. 33. 1833) was twice preoccupied by C. roseus Fischer, 1807, and Lamarck, 1810. The next name given, Conus intermedius Reeve (Conch. Icon.: pl. 28, fig. 129. 1843) is preoccupied by the name C. intermedius Lamarck, 1810. Likewise the third name Conus mappa Crosse (Rev. Mag. Zool. (2d ser.) 10: 200, 205. 1858), given as a nomen novum for intermedius Reeve, is preoccupied by the name Conus mappa Solander (in Humphrey, Portland Catalogue: 116, No. 2554. 1786). This poison cone is here given the new name Conus (Gastridium) eldredi, in honor of my brother Lt. Cmdr. R. Ray Eldred Morrison | (U.S.N.R.), who collected the species at Abamama in the Gilbert Islands in 1944. This new name may commemorate in a small way the considerable contributions to the knowledge of mollusks made by interested members of the United States Armed Forces (both regular and reserve) during World War II. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences Praslent 2256002 Se sesh eee Francis M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards Pavectdert-eleck.. 65. cece e Sees MarGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health SOTA es Seas ee eee ee Jason R. Swatuen, U.S. National Museum PUROGSUTET.<..- 25: : Howarp §S. Rappierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) ERREIC URS EAI on, oi NS ore SSS bee Gls NERO Sale « JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidenis Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington... ............5:. 26: eens ee: S. E. Forsuss Anthropological Society of Washington.................. ..Wituiam H. GILBERT Esolovical Society of Washingtone 02.2 eet esae eds ce ne Wiuuram A. Dayton MhemicaliSocieuy OL WaShINftON. o. 6 5. wesc ones whee nee JoHN KX. TAYLOR Baomolorical Society of Washington. ...-.-.2.-.---..s0-+22---- 56s F, W. Poos Netional Geographic Society.............20..eeeeene seed ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington......................--+0-: ARTHUR A. BAKER Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................. FREDERICK O. CoE Metumbra Historical ‘Society: ..... . 0s ccsee es eee eet ene GILBERT GROSVENOR Berimical society of Washington... .....<5..2400+52.-2omencues Ler M. Hutcuins Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGE F, GRAVATT Washmeaton Society of Engineers. ...: 22.0... .65 tee ek eet C. A. Betts Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers. ARNoLp H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DiuL Helminthological Society of Washington........ .............. L. A. SPINDLER Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......... GLENN SLocum Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers... ... HERBERT Grove DorsEy District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine Wauter C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals........... JoHN G. THOMPSON Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research. 1. G. Hamprp Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences...... F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society F. W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: Tip since Ta ere a ea ee R. G. Bares, W. W. Dirnt ramiearier any alObON. fo) ek et Ae sian as eo ee cd M. A. Mason, R. J. Srncer BREN PENT ATVI OD «5 o66 oie 68 oc oly crd cine sgt oesSee veers A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurney init! Op MGC ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor muurdomediuors and Associate Editors: i..2 3h. 286 352.08 th See ele: [See front cover] Executive Committee.............. F. M. Deranporr (chairman), MarGcarer PITTMAN, J. R. Swauuen, H. S. Rappieye, J. A. STEVENSON Committee on Membership....H1nz Specut (chairman), Myron 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cottam, Roger W. Curtis, JoHN Faser, J. J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, Wess HayMAkeR, CLARENCE H. Horrmann, Louis R. Maxweuu, Epwarp G. REINHARD, JOHN A. SANDERSON, LEo A. SHINN, FrRANcis A. SMITH, ALFRED WEISSLER Committee on Meetings............... Dortuanp J. Davis (chairman), ALLEN VY. ASTIN, GrorceE A. Hortrie, Martin A. Mason, Wituram W. Rusey Committee on Monographs (W1Lu1AM N. FENTON, chairman): Th@® diensmarenreye SOE ee eee ae ca ee eee eee er WitiramM N. Fenton, ALAN STONE SRomeNrATaVal QOO Kc esc, Awe ote sk: G. ArtHur Coopmr, James I. Horrman Tho Uinmtneinyy OGY Cee a ee eerie Haratp A. Rexper, Witi1aM A. Dayton Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (RoBERT C. DuNcAN, general chairman): For Biological Sciences......Byron J. OLSON (chairman), Sara E. BRANHAM, LEE M. Hurtcuins, FREDERICK W. Poos, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, T. Date Stewart For Engineering Sciences. . ELuioTtT B. RoBERTS (chairman), CLIFFORD A. BETTs, Josera M. CaLDWELL, MicnanLt Gotppere, Harte H. Kennarp ARNOLD H. Scott, Horace M. Trent For Physical Sciences......... FRANK C. Kracrxk (chairman), Winiiam HH. AVERY, Ricwarp §. Burineton, NatHan L. Drake, Luoyp G. Henpesr, EpeGar R. Smita, BrnsAMIN L. SNAVELY HOV NEAChiING Of SClences.. 2) saee M.A. Mason (chairman), Keita C. JoHNsoN Commitiee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Herpert N. Eaton (chairman), Mario Mozart, Francis O. Rice, J. Leon SHERESHEFSKY, JAMES H TAYLOR Committee on Policy and Planning: (FRANCIS B. SInsBEE, chairman): POPU ATU ATV ODD cise Ochs seth ata see sce eben L. W. Parr, Francis B. SILsBEE sowVanwaryelO5Gy ce a. eee ea he eee nes E. C. CRITTENDEN, A. WETMORE onianucany 1957 ot io. eee ee Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER Committee on Hncowragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuerson, chairman): owamiranyelQbory isres a eeacels tomatoe AGAR: McPHERSON, W. T. Reap PROM aT Vel OSG epee ee occa ince eure © AG ————_., J. H. McMrien PRowiamuanyslO57 6. .c0 0 Sl eee ce, L. Epwin Yocum, Wrut1am J. YoupEN EP LOSENLALZUCROTI (OUNCULIOSAMAMAN S Hanh nt ae er aelat shina seni an Watson Davis Gan mntlecnofeAUuaclonss <1. so sate ns oe ce ae Josperu P. E. Morrison (chairman), ; Gaten B. Scuuspaver, Easpert H. WALKER Committee of Tellers...Grorear H. Coons (chairman), SamuEL Levy, Watpo R. Wepre. CONTENTS PALEONTOLOGY.—New genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Carboniferous. Rorert Ho. CumMinGs.............- 9 PALEONTOLOGY.—Foraminifera from some ‘‘Pliocene” rocks of Egypt. RUSHDIPSAID. 26 oR asian ees 2 Le. PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pitkin. Har- Min) IDA SBORIOMHN, 26 beep 6o boos F485 varbiwne tee. EntomoLocy.—The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyz, S. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). VrERNE F. NewHouss, DAviIp > W. WALKER, and Maurice 2. JAMES......... >) ENnroMoLogy.—Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS. . IcuTrHyoLogy.—F latfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S8.8. Alba- tross Expedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. Paut CHABANAUD. MauacoLoey.—Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. PS INVORRISON: .. <6 caca80 0 ee nee okey sl sa. 2 This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. We Page 14 15 20 30 32 Von. 45 FrBRUARY 1955 No. 2 JOURNAL (lM? OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A, CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrmMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. Cowie Puitie Drucker PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DuNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuILForD AVEs. BaLTIMoRE, MarYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (8) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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Rappieye, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington ’ Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other societies. Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45. February 1955 No. 2 BIOLOGY .—The unitary principle. A. A. Wiut1AmMson, Washington, D. C. (Com- municated by Waldo L. Schmitt.) The greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something, and tell what it saw in a plain way ...To see clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion all in one——RuwsKIN. The Greeks, of course, “had a word for it.’ Contrasting magnitude with number, they said that magnitude is limited in the large but unlimited in the small, whereas number is limited in the small but unlimited in the large. For—with respect to the whole numbers only—the smallest is the unit, one. By addition it can always be enlarged with- out limit. However large it may be, it can be made still larger, as one thousand, by the addition of one, becomes one thousand one, and so on without limit. But magnitude is at its utmost when the universe is taken as a unit, as the Greeks did. It can, however, be divided and subdivided without limit. Therefore Aristotle denied that the atom of Leucippus and Democritus could be the ultimate small its name implied: even it must be divisible as modern physics has found it to be. But the ultimate large of magnitude still is the universe, the “turning to one’”’ indicated by its name. All of the world’s great religions, despite their differences, are in full agreement on one basic concept: the eternality and uni- _ versality of the divine. “Only its laws en- dure.” The theological religions of the | West see in their theoretic immortality of _ the human soul proof of its divinity, for the | immortal is divine. But the non-theological religions of the Far East teach how to lose the personal soul by union with the eternal soul of the universe from which (they say) come all incarnate souls. For everything _ that is manifest is transient; only the soul of the universe is immortal and therefore 33 divine. Thus, in both East and West, eternality—absolute independence of time— characterizes the divine and its abode, the universe. Today, the fundamental concept of the eternality of the universe is being questioned and, for some, disproved. Theories assign- ing a vast but nonetheless limited age to the heretofore ageless are being advanced and developed. But not only is the quality of eternality being questioned, the spatial extent of the cosmos itself is being conceived of as having limits. Although these theories raise as vital problems as they purport to settle, they are meeting with the wide- spread credence in scientific circles. If, for example, the cosmos had a beginning in time, what was there before it? And if it is to have an end, what will be there afterward? If it is spatially limited, what hes beyond those spatial boundaries? To all such questions Echo (but only Echo) answers, What? Modern cosmologies have one thing in common: all are mathematical. But mathe- matics is a branch of logic, and logic is concerned with proof, which is not neces- sarily synonymous with truth. It can confidently be said that when the proof of an axiological proposition is mathematical only, it is no proof of the truth-value, the factuality, of the proposition’s primary postulates, nor of the mathematically arrived at conclusions. The logical implica- tions of a proposition can be worked out in complete disregard of whether or not its primary postulates are factual: that is not the concern of mathematics. Something more than logic, even mathematical logic, is essential to the demonstration of truth. And truth, be it said, is simply nature, and MAR 1 7 1055 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON conformity to it, as science itself recognizes. That is why even Einstein’s theories have been and are being subjected to empirical test. Do lght rays bend when passing through a gravitational field, as they theo- retically should? Observation proved that they do. Then—but only then—the theory, the logic of its mathematics, could be accepted as, to that extent, true. But if observation had shown that no bending occurs, all the mathematical logic in the world would not have sufficed to overcome that discrepancy, that non-conformity of theory with nature. The mathematics might be above reproach, but the proposition would have to be rejected at once as untrue. Nature does not always accord with human reason; observation may be faulty, or crucial experiments not so perfectly ex- clusive of alternates as supposed. Witness the history of the phlogiston theory, con- firmed by thousands of experiments and everywhere accepted until Lavoisier dem- onstrated its falsity and founded modern chemistry. The extent to which mathematical cos- mologists now go is illustrated by Dr. George Gamow’s assertion that space is not only lmited but even changes shape with time, assuming convex, negative, and concave curvatures in a regular order.! The common sense questions of what, above suggested, are simply ignored. There is also the expanding universe theory, now widely accepted despite its reliance on the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent in a hypothetical syllogism (1.e., a non-sequitur which only may be true, not being at all necessarily so). Hubble, the discoverer of the ‘‘Doppler effect”? taken as indicative of dispersion, recognized that other factors might operate to produce it, but not all cosmologists are so conservatively cautious. The foregoing should not have a contempt for mathematics read into it. It is merely to assert that mathematics, while a powerful, an almost indispensable tool, is nevertheless only a tool and so, by itself, not enough. Its logically arrived at conclusions must, whenever possible, be checked against empirical observation or controlled experi- 1 Sei. Amer. 190(3) : 55. Mar. 1954. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 2 ment. Should that not be possible, then the logic of the theory must suffice as the best we can do. . The first and second laws of thermody- hamics as formulated by Clausius are examples of this, for we do not know—we cannot know—from experience that the total energy of the cosmos actually is con- stant, or that the entropy of the universe actually tends to a maximum. But the extrapolation of a future state from a present state is impossible without a governing constant, which makes the aforesaid laws logical necessities. Until proved factually erroneous, they will stand because of their scientific usefulness, a major consideration. If. however, the cosmos is actually sub- ject to the second law of thermodynamics; and if it is therefore running down like a clock which cannot be wound up, then it is logically false to associate eternality and divinity, and what all of the world’s great religions are agreed upon despite conflicting differences must be abandoned. For it is hardly conceivable that divinity can survive the loss of its most distinctive characteristic: infinity in space and time. Enters now a concept of which no scientific notice is taken but which nevertheless merits grave consideration because of its pertinence and apparent validity as a universal law. This is the artistic canon of Number, which first came to the present author’s attention in a book on architecture as one of three great canons in the grammar of design, the two others being the canons of Punctuation and Inflection.? Number, says Edwards, is of three categories: Unity, Duality, and Plurality. Of these three, the first and third are artistt cally correct and acceptable, but the second (Duality) is artistically abhorrent and not permissible. It never (he says) occurs un- resolved in nature. Edwards defines duality as the juxta- position of two equals. It causes the two to compete for supremacy, each over the other, with almost literally painful effect upon the eye of the beholder, whose mind demands that the duality be resolved, for duality is of > Epwarps, A. Trystan. The things which are seen: A revaluation of the visual arts. London, 1921. Feprvuary 1955 WILLIAMSON: the very essence of discord, just as a second is in music. It is the canon of Number, Edwards explains, which causes architects always to to support a Greek pediment with an even —never an odd—number of pillars. For an odd number would, for the sake of balance, bring a central pillar directly beneath the apex of the pediment and indicate a median line bisecting the whole into two laterally inverted but equal parts, producing true duality. The artistic effect would be ex- eruciating, especially if (as in some church- building fronts) there were a median-line- continuing steeple surmounting the whole. Although two’s occur abundantly in nature, there is always a duality-resolving inflection if there is juxtaposition of the units. Each unit then becomes half of a pair, requiring the other to make a unitary whole, as with our hands, our feet, our eyes. Ed- wards gives many other examples. The skyline of a land- or seascape should never be exactly half way between the top and bottom of the picture, nor should the ribbon on a man’s straw sailor hat be just half as wide as the height of the crown. If a rectangular room is twice as long as it is wide, people assembling in it in considerable number will instinctively form two groups, one in each half, as if an invisible wall separated them. That invisible wall is the artistic canon of Number, which all sense _ though they never so much as heard of it. There seems no limit to the range of power of this canon of design. In the present author’s opinion, it forced a triune God upon Christianity. For when, in A.D. 325, the Council of Nicea, by majority vote, made the Son coequal with the Father, it unwittingly violated that canon by bringing two equals inte juxtaposition. Immediately the question arose: Which of the two is really God? So great a furore of debate ensued that it soon became evident that something had to be done to stop it. Ac- cordingly, in A.D. 381, the Council of Constantinople was convened. If the re- ligion was to remain Christian, no retreat to Unity (the One God of rejected Arianism) was possible. Only one way, therefore, lay open, and that was to resolve the duality by changing it to plurality. This was accom- UNITARY PRINCIPLE 35 plished by the introduction of the Holy Spirit. The plurality of the Trinity resulted, and Plurality is itself a kind of Unity, the unity of a group, which made preservation of the unity of the God-head possible. But it is because the Holy Spirit is part of the Trinity for artistic and not for theological reasons that it is so difficult to explain and to understand on theological grounds. On the basis of the canon of Number, however, it is easily explamed and understood. This example is introduced here solely for the purpose of illustrating the univer- sality and compelling power of the great canon of Number. Its rule can be seen to extend even to spiritual matters, to the immortal, the divine. When Emerson, in his essay on Com- pensation, wrote: ‘‘An inevitable dualism bisects nature, so that each thing is a half, and suggests another thing to make it whole; as, spirit, matter; man, woman; odd, even; subjective, objective; in, out; upper, under; motion, rest; yea, nay,” he substituted in that sentence (and for the worse) the word, dualism, for the word, polarity, with which the paragraph begins. For what he referred to is not dualism in the sense of duality as defined by Edwards. As the term, polarity, implies, it is, rather, complementarity. For as Emerson says, “‘each thing is a half, and suggests another thing to make it whole.” Dualism, in Emerson’s sense, is an ancient truth. It was central to the religious doctrine taught by Zoroaster (6th century, B. C.) and still held by the Guebers and Parsees. It recognized two creative Powers: Ormuzd or Ahuramazda, the god of light and creator of all that is good; and Ahriman or Angra- mainyus, the god of darkness and creator of evil. That every rose has its thorn is a by- word of long standing. Something very much like dualism as complementarity has sound scientific stand- ing. Thus, it is recognized that if there are statistical laws, then there must also be non- statistical laws in over-all universal law. In the course of a discussion of probability in quantum mechanics, Filmer 8. C. Northrop says: ““...a general rule concerning the universality of statistical laws in nature can be stated. This rule is that if there are certain laws in science which are statistical 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES then there must also be laws in that science which are not statistical. Otherwise the concept of theoretical probability essential to the meaning of the statistical law in question cannot be defined.’’ Planck has written to the same effect. And essentially the same principle of complementarity underlies Aristotle’s concept of positive forms and forms by privation as reciprocals, the former having factual existence, the latter—implied by the former—only poten- tial existence. ‘“‘Cold,”’ says Emerson, ‘‘is the privation of heat.” But there are regions where cold becomes positive, and tempera- tures at which that disorder of energy which is heat, is stilled. The concept of complementarity leads to an interesting assumption. It is that if cos- mic energy is constantly being dissipated, then there must be some way in which it is just as constantly being accumulated or regenerated. But if so, what becomes of the second law of thermodynamics? It would be reduced to, at best, a half-truth. A corollary assumption is that this assumed restoration of energy to effective- ness must be through the operation of a process. And that would imply something more than the negative entropy (or ‘‘negen- tropy’’) whose mathematical formula is given by Erwin Schrédinger in section 60 of his little book What zs life? This brings us to a consequential ques- tion: Is there anywhere in nature an ob- servable process appearing to operate in the direction of the accumulation and restora- tion of energy? To this question an affirmative answer can—it is believed—be given with con- siderable assurance. This process was out- lined in a paper by the present author published in this JourNAL for October 1953 (vol. 43, no. 10), under the title “Speculation on the Cosmic Function of Life.” It was further developed in a second paper in the same JouRNAL for October 1954 (vol. 44, no. 10), entitled ‘Integration and Indi- viduation as Elements of Evolution.” Both dealt with what was called the Pyra- mid of Life Concept.* 3 NortHrop, The logic of the sciences and the humanities. New York, 1947. Fifth (1952) printing, p. 216.' 4 There are suggestions of a growing tendency VOL. 45, NO. 2 The purpose of those two papers was to indicate that life—by no means limited to this planet—actually does accumulate, transmute, concentrate, and refine energy, and does it systematically through bio- logical evolution. By its pyramid-building process, mechanical, chemical, thermo- dynamic, and electromagnetic energy are— in the level of national social organisms— brought to such a state of refinement that electromagnetic energy overwhelmingly pre- dominates, forming that body of thought- produced, ideological ‘‘margins of vitality” which are the glory of civilization. Theoret- ically, national social organisms carry the process over into the pyramid’s psychozoic realm of reality. On the basis of age-long established precedent in its physical organis- mal realm (which is composed of three successively superimposed levels), two addi- tional levels in the psychozoic realm are to be expected. They can, indeed, be seen in process of slow formation now, in current history. Here we may pause to note a fundamental difference between emergence as defined by William Morton Wheeler (this JouRNAL 43: 10) as it operates in the inanimate world and in the animate. In the former, emergents result from the specific interaction of unlikes, as atomic physics has found and as every chemical compound formula pro- claims (e.g., H2SO.). But in animate nature, emergents result from the specific interaction or organization of likes only. (All the cells of every multicellular physical organism are direct descendants of the original single fertilized ovum.) In this fundamental differ- ence lies the root cause of that minority group antipathy (often miscalled prejudice, bigotry, or whatnot) from which all nations (not America alone) unhappily suffer. It is old as the hills. Moses, the great Lawgiver of the Hebrews, knew and feared it. Con- trast the commandment Thou Shalt Not Kill, with the deeds recounted in Deuteron- omy 2, and find their reason in Numbers 33, verse 55: “But if ye will not drive out the to give thought to life as a cosmic phenomenon, as (negative) in Harold Blum’s T7me’s arrow and evolution, and (positive) George Wald’s article, “The Origin of Life,’’ in Scientific American for August 1954. Fepruary 1955 inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.” For those who remained would constitute a minority group, which spells trouble always. And it is significant that minority group antipathy is not basically a matter of superiority and inferiority. Always it is the conflict of difference, of unlikes in standard of living, or religion, or manners and cus- toms, or race, or whatnot. It arises when, and only when, there is (1) a marked differ- ence, and (2) numerical representation of that difference large enough to be con- spicuous. One swallow does not make a summer, nor does difference-representation by only a few arouse antipathy. Its root - eause is violation of the like-with-like rule - shown reconciliation of fundamental throughout animate nature and operative at the human societal level in family, clan, phratry, tribe, and nation, the antithesis of the rule fundamental to inani- mate nature. It is an antithesis having pro- found implications bearing on the refining, regenerative process working for the per- petuation of the cosmic unitary principle. In his two masterly works, The meeting of Fast and West and The taming of the nations, Dr. Filmer 8. C. Northrop, Sterling Profes- sor of Law and Philosophy at Yale, has that the greatest humanitarian problem facing mankind today is the the indigenous Asian (Far Eastern), nontheological religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and the purer Hinduism) with the theological religions prevalent in the Near East and the West (Judaism, Christianity, and Moham- -medanism). While the difficulties standing in the way of such a consummation are appalling, there is an element of hope in the fact which Northrop so clearly shows: that both categories of religion seek, by different ways, to show man how to relate himself to _ the timeless and the therefore divine. The - difference is that the nontheological religions concentrate on what Northrop aptly calls the aesthetic component of things and our knowledge of them—that apprehension of nature which is conveyed directly by the senses; whereas the theological religions WILLIAMSON: UNITARY PRINCIPLE 37 concentrate mainly on the theoretic com- ponent thereof, which cannot be known by direct perception. The two categories are opposed, therefore, in the doctrinal develop- ment by each of but one of the two compo- nents of the same thing: nature. Yet those two components are complementary aspects of the whole, and he who sees but one sees not the whole. To neglect the one is to exaggerate the other, with unhappy effect.° While Northrop has presented the problem with beautiful clarity and logic, backed by an astounding fund of thoroughly and fruit- fully analyzed information, he does not offer any unifying concept as a solvent. In this respect, but in it only, his work is deficient. (It does not, however, diminish the value of that work, nor lay it open to censure.) He brings the problem into clarifying focus, but does not tell us how to solve it—by what means. He does, however, make it clear that a new set of basic assumptions is required, in the discovery and formulation of which both imagination and speculation can play legitimate, even necessary, roles.® As has been intimated in the two JouRNAL papers hereinbefore mentioned, it is the firm belief of the present author that the Pyramid of Life Concept, if developed and elaborated as it can be, could furnish all that is needed to (1) place the social sciences and the humanities on a firmer foundation (for they have a schematic part in it, and in the complementarity of the integrative and individuative principles practical ethics and morals are rooted as derivatives); (2) to thus help raise those disciplines to a parity of authority with the physical sciences (for on its showing no mechanical universe could endure without life’s rejuvenating action); and (3) to show explicitly how that great humanitarian problem could be solved (by a general adoption of the Con- cept as the closing nexus of an improved, more adequate basic understanding). That belhef—that conviction—is the remoter, deeper-lying justification for the presenta- tion of these papers. They attempt to tell > Tt is interesting and encouraging that Pro- fessor Northrop’s major works have required re- peated reprinting to meet the demand for them. 5 Northrop. Op. cit. supra. Pp. 321, 124, 347. 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES what has been seen, and tell it ‘in a plain way.” The Pyramid of Life Concept challenges the truth of all those mathematical cos- mologies which, by limiting space and time, would make irrational man’s age-old asso- ciation of eternality and infinity with the divine. On the basis of that Concept, life does have meaning and cannot logically be neglected; eternality and infinity are ra- tional conceptual attributes of the divine; and assurance of validity comes whence it should: the broad field of Biology. For it is forees amassed, made inherent in, and systematically restored to power by life through the pyramid-building process that give movement to—that animate—the uni- verse as an indeterminate continuum and ensure its perpetuity. The cyclic character of the evolution of its distinguishable, determinate parts, together with the ap- parently direct relationship of those three great mysteries, magnetism, electricity, and mind, lends support to such a conclusion. The present author dares hope that if and when the scientific, philosophical, and even religious usefulness of the Pyramid of Life Concept is seen, the way may be opened to its general acceptance. For it offers a new VOL. 45, NO. 2 concept of history, superior in every way to the Hegelian concept out of which grew two world wars and on which Karl Marx drew heavily for the dialectic materialism theory underlying his communistic doctrines. Kmphasizing as it does the cooperative, organizing principle, especially in interna- tional affairs; stressing the irreversible evolutionary priority of importance of individual man rather than the State, be- cause of his sustenance-supplier status in relation thereto; finding in free intellectual inquiry the necessary basis for the ‘‘max- imization of human potentialities’ for the enrichment of that mental sustenance by which peoples and their nations live through their social institutions; and requiring of evolution only that it continue to operate just as it has for untold ages—it can fortify the democratic doctrine with a theoretic, philosophical justification such as it never had before and of which it stands in dire need today. It is a Justification which can be published to the world with no fear whatever of evil consequences to follow, but, on the con- trary, with the utmost confidence in its beneficial effects. MATHEMATICS.—-A pplication of two methods of numerical analysis to the com- putation of the reflected radiation of a point source. Peter Henricr, American University, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by John Todd.) Let a monochromatic source of light of intensity J be fixed at the point (0, 0, h) of a (a, y, z)-space and let the horizontal plane z = 0 reflect independently from the angle of view a constant fraction » of the incident radiation. Let a small horizontal plane p be located at the point (a, y, z). Then the illumination per unit area of p due to reflection at the planez = 0 is ul (h, r, 2), where r = (@ + y’)!? and | p dy Jo (h? + 7? + p? — 2rp cos ¢)*/?(p? + 27)? 1 This paper was prepared under a National Bureau of Standards contract with American University. 2 See [6], p. 1 + 3. Introducing the dimensionless quantities r jaligg h’ may we can express this function in terms of one of two variables by putting B(h, r, 2) = — WE 2) h and WE, 1) = 2 dt (1) C t dp 0 1+2+ 2 — 2teos¢)??2(2 + 7)" | In order to get some information about the | quantitative behavior of W(é, 7), this func-_ | Frespruary 1955 HENRICI: tion was tabulated for the two sets of values See l| .05(.05) 1.6 n = .05(.05)1.6 and 2 = SER 7 = .25(.25)8.0 In this paper we describe some of the pre- liminary analy tical work necessary for this computation. In §1 we reduce the integral (1) to a finite simple integral involving the hypergeometric function. The computation of this function, including an application of Aitken’s 6-method to speed up the con- vergence of its power series, is discussed in $2. In §3 we give a rigorous discussion of the error committed by evaluating the simple integral numerically. This part of our work is based on a method proposed recently by P. Davis and P. Rabinowitz [8, 4]. A major part of the subsequent analysis can be extended to the case where the orientation of the plane element p is arbi- trary. We do not, however, discuss these generalisations in the present paper. | 1. TRANSFORMATION OF THE INTEGRAL (1). 1.1 Reduction to a simple integral. Our first aim is to reduce the double inte- gral (1) to a simple integral by carrying out the integration with respect to g. This can be done with the aid of hypergeometric func- tions. Although these functions are not ele- | mentary, they can be computed numerically to any desired accuracy, as will be shown in §2. By an elementary trigonometric identity we have Piet — 22 cos ¢ =1+ (t+ &) — 4té (co ae We expand the integrand in terms of _ powers of 4té tes (cor a where X = Too Gabe and observe that |. * The numerical results have been computed * on SEAC and are on file at the Computation Lab- - oratory. REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 39 of ¢ and &. Integrating term by term, we ob- tain® , 270 | (1+ f+ — 2 cos ¢) *” dy Dit 4 @ +6 Bare? © By 7 I (3/2), X" ' cos” dd 0 n=0 nN ! Qr[l + (¢ + €)) PRG, 351; X), (2) where (3) F(a, b; @3 ZB) = Ss (a)n (bd), as A=0 (One is the hypergeometric function. Hence W(E, n) = 2n i (7 +t)” -( + (t+ €)) PRG, 351; X)tdt (4) This integral can be simplified further by using the transformation theory of the hypergeometric functions. Applying the formula’ 2 —b ING, (03 Pos 2) = (1 — 5) bb+1- ao ge oe) to the hypergeometric function in (4) and introducing the new variable° = (le ey, (4) becomes | ate tat fee X HG, 251; Zz dz, (5) where now Ae # Z=Z = - : 6 OO} ete oe 08 = bh Op =a(a+1)--- (a +n —1), nm = 5 Bidelyi [5], eq. 2.11(28). ‘ This will not be confounded with the geo- metrical coordinate z used in the introduction. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In order to avoid the numerically undesirable improper integration, we put, denoting the integrand in (5) by f(z), be j@) ee = i jie + = (4) ab Since in view of (6) Z(z) = z(4), the hypergeometric function in (5) has the same value for z and 1/z, and we can there- fore write | gle)lgale) + gile)P(Z) dz, (7) where we have put for brevity q(z) = 21+ 2)" (8a) g(z)=[n ++ 8)e]° (8b) gs(z) = [ne +1 + &] 2" (8¢) jaa) = 1G ep 118 A). (9) 1.2 Special cases. 1.21 & = 0. By direct integration e.g. of (4) one finds 1 f 9 37? A OO NCU et Te ym a Qsyy\7 V1 — -+ anhV/1 — 7, Sat SS = fa, or, using (12) and (19), 2v/2 Gerais xr 1-Z open 8n3(1 — Z)?’ which yields log 62 + 2log(1 — Z) + 3 logn is 7 (20) ar —log Z This is for fixed Z and n large ~ C log n, where the constant C = —3/log Z can be- come arbitrarily large if Z is close to 1. 2.32 Savings for a given accuracy. Upper bounds 7 (Z, ¢) for the number of terms n necessary to attain with §, a given accuracy € can be computed from (19) by trial and error methods. In the following table we give these values 7 for several typical values of Z and for an accuracy of 10-*. They are contrasted with the lower bounds m, computed from (12), for the number of terms necessary when _ the speed-up is not used. Z nN m l 5 df 5 15 27 9 92 196 .99 953 2279 2.33 Ratio of practical convergence. The situation that the number of terms of an infinite series necessary for a given ac- curacy is either not known a priori or can only be determined by the solution of a transcendental equation arises frequently in practice. In such cases one usually proceeds with the summation until one or several terms of the series become smaller than a preassigned quantity, and the last partial sum is then taken to be the sum of the series. This ‘‘practical convergence” of the series has obviously nothing to do with mathematical convergence, unless some re- VOL. 45, No. 2 lationship between the first neglected term and the remainder of the series is established. To this end we define as ratio of practical convergence (r.p.c.) for any series DAs, the quantity 3 = & he T° (21) For series of type (13) we find under the assumptions of (vi) §2.2, and it follows from (16) and (18) that under the same assumptions (22) ies S 9, | where p, is the r.p.c. of the transformed series. The r.p.c. is thus not affected ad- versely by the 6-method. For our present problem it results that a uniform accuracy ¢ in the hypergeometric function is obtained if the summation is extended until AS, = 61 — 2): 2.34 Savings in computation time. In general, the time needed for the com- putation of s, will be negligible in compari- son with the time needed for the computa- tion of the original sequence s, . In a case like the present one, however, where the computation of s, itself is very simple, the question can be raised if it pays to apply the 6-method. In order to make it pay, it was decided here to compute §, not for every n but only for a set of equidistant values = kN, N > ik — 2 eee se if N is large enough® the additional time used for the computation of s, becomes negligible in comparison with the time con- sumed for the computation of s,, and the savings in computation time are of the same order as the savings in the number of terms.’ If the assumptions of (vi), §2.2 are satisfied, then AS, > 0, AS, — O monotonically, and we obtain for the r.p.c. of the sequence s, = Sy the estimate 8’ N = 8 was found convenient in the present case. 8 An alternate procedure would be to apply the 6?-method to the sequence t; = sxy. For this and various other practical aspects of the 6?-method see [9]. FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICT: = Si Sev S — Sauyy fs Ss == = a 1 S&iDN — SkN SG+DN — Skv Ze SaqpN lik ges é =. =e +l= = P(k+t)N ap ll. N AS(41)N N For the present case it results that a uniform accuracy © is guaranteed if the summation is carried out until Ne(1 — Z) ol N= Ne 3. ESTIMATION OF THE QUADRATURE ERROR. 3.1 Description of the method. On the basis of the discussions of the last section the integrand in {7) may be con- sidered as known for numerical purposes. It remains to estimate the error induced by carrying out the simple integration (7) numerically. Since the integrand is an analytic function of z on the path of inte- gration, this can be done by a method which has been devised recently by P. Davis and P. Rabinowitz and which can be summarized as follows: Suppose the function f(z) (2 = x + ty) is regular analytic in a domain © containing the segment [—1, 1] of the real axis, and denote by &, the ellipse with foci at +1 and semiaxes a and b = ‘a — 1)"? such that (a + b) = p. If now the integral f(z) dz is evaluated numerically by a given integra- tion rule R (e.g. by the trapezoidal rule, by Weddle’s rule, or by a Gaussian n-point rule), then the quadrature error is bounded by the quantity Min || f |lg, ozo), (PlGpeD} (24) where ik. = ff \v@ Pardy ees) and or(p) is a numerical coefficient depend- ing only on the integration rule and on p, but not on the particular function f. The values of « have been tabulated for various 1 Tt follows that Di. < Ptin) if Pern z= N/(N — 1). REFLECTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 43 values of p and various integration rules in [4]. If this method is applied in practice, the quantity || f||/g,, which is hard to obtain exactly, will usually have to be replaced by a suitable upper bound, such as VrabMeg,, (26) where Mg, is an upper bound of | f(z) | in & - Moreover, instead of taking the mini- mum of (24) with respect to the continuous variable p, one will in general have to be satisfied with the minimum for a few dis- tinct values of p. It will be seen that in complicated cases such as the present one still further simplifications have to be made in order to get a working estimate. 3.2 The singularities of the integrand. In order to determine the ellipses €, at our disposal, we first have to locate the singu- larities of the integrand in (7). Singularities arise (a) from gi(z) at the points 21,2 = +1; (b) from g2(z) at the points (c) from g;(z) at the points VTA Sel 25,6 = 2 ; n 24,3 (d) from the hypergeometric function, which is singular at Z = 1, at the points z satisfying Z Danleeee Ga) Bae 1.€., at kE +7 CUS = 7 —=———1 V1i+ 2 where all four combinations of signs are possible. The ellipse &, , which encloses the path of integration, has in the present case its foci at 2 = 0 and z = 1. It is clear that if there are singularities near the path of integration, the choice of available ellipses &, is re- 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON stricted and, since the coefficients o are comparatively large for very slender el- lipses, the integration will be less accurate. In our problem this will happen when é is large, in particular when simultaneously 7 is small, because then the points 23,4 and two of the points 27, ... 1 are near to the points z = Oandz = 1 respectively. 3.3 The rectangle R,. In view of the complexity of our integrand the task of obtainng Mg, for a given &, exactly is a difficult one. A particular com- plication arises from the fact that a working estimate for the function F defined by (9) is available only for | Z| < 1. In this case we find, using results of 2.1, EG 2) see) In order to overcome these two difficulties, we again forego some accuracy and consider in place of the ellipse 6 the smallest rectangle with sides parallel to the axes con- taining it. If a and b are the major and the minor semiaxes of €,, the corners of this rectangle R, are situated at 1g + a + ib. An upper bound for the modulus of the integrand in R, will clearly also be an upper bound in §,. The rectangle R,, then, must have the following two properties: (a) None of the singularities z; must lie 1004 JfH 8 (DS) |Fi-< W aa Condition (a) is easy to check and yields the inequality (27) b < min Bb,, (28) i=1,2,3 where aE NS, Ip ES Vise Vila Pe ”" iat) ee aa nN Aer If this is satisfied, then we have for the functions g;(z) ( = 1, 2,3) the upper bounds [nl S oh =(% tay +o)70—b)? (9) el S & =[" —(+8)b)~ (29) ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2 lgs| S 9s =[0g +4) +0? + = 70) Condition (b) requires some closer in- vestigation. It is certainly satisfied for a sufficiently flat ellipse, since for z real, | Z| < 1. The condition will thus result in another upper bound for 6, namely, ~?, (295) UD) 07 | PAB) |< Al}. pee OS @ S OPO. Since e Lea Y a peers eS AO ae ea the problem of determining 6, is equivalent to that of finding for a given value of now 1+2 the largest value y = y, with the property that the function h(x, y) = | 46@ + Ie) f satisfied the inequality h(x, y)

14 independent of a and is repre- sented analytically by 1+ wae T= 4, hoe ee (31) @= oy) = Te ion Wappen Sy = 1 This is evidently a continuous, strictly monotonically decreasing function of y in [0, 1] with h(O) = 1, h(1) = O. The function y = Yp is the inverse of the function p = h(y) and hence given by FEBRUARY 1955 HENRICI: REFLFCTED RADIATION OF A POINT SOURCE 45 In a rectangle Rp with b < by the hypergeo- metric function is thus by (27) bounded by F = 1/(1 — p/h(b)), (33) where h(b) is given by (31) with b = y. Finally, the norm || f ||g, of the integrand will be bounded by IF || =V rab giGe+ 9s)F. 3.4 Numerical results. The material is now at hand to compute upper bounds for the quadrature error for given values of — and 7 and for any rule for which the coefficients o are tabulated. The practical computation proceeds as fol- lows: First the upper bounds 6; for the minor semiaxis of the ellipse have to be ascertained according to (28) and (30). Then an ellipse has to be selected which meets the geo- metrical conditions and for which cr(p) is known. Experience shows that this ellipse should be chosen rather large, since with increasing p,cr(p) seems to decrease much more rapidly than the norm increases. For this ellipse the norm || f || has to be com- puted by (34). An upper bound for the error induced by the rule RF is then given by lf | oR(p). The following is a table of error bounds for the function W(é, 7) (including the factor in front of the integral sign in (7)) for a few representative values of & and 7, if Gauss’s 16-point rule is applied. (34) E n 22 1 5 1 4.37(—14) 1.40(—10) 2.48(—2) 5 6.24(—5) 6.46(—5) 4.78(—5) ; (a) = 104 Concerning this table, two remarks are in order. 1. If the above error bounds are computed for small values of 7, it turns out that only exceedingly flat ellipses &, are available, for which the values of o are either bad or are not tabulated at all. This is an indication that in these cases the simple application of even a high-powered integration rule is in- adequate and that the interval has to be subdivided. If this is done, the above method is still explicitly applicable to each subinter- val, although, of course, the computations become more and more involved. 2. It is likely that in view of the numerous simplifications made the above error esti- mates are much too large. We base this remark on the two following empirical facts: (a) The results of the computations of (7) by one and by two Gaussian 16-point rules, carrying eight digits after the decimal point, agreed completely for & = 0(.05)1.6, 7 = .3(.05)1.6; (b) The value V(O, 1) = .4 (see $1.2) was obtained exactly. Nevertheless it will be observed that at least for moderate values of € and 7 the estimates are still very practical. To establish bounds of the same quality by conventional real-variable tech- niques is probably not easy. Acknowledgment—The author wishes to acknowledge a number of stimulating discus- sions with J. Todd, P. Davis, and L. Joel. on the subject of this paper. Credit must also go to L. Joel for the successful computa- tion of (1) on SEAC along the lines indicated in §1 and §2. : BIBLIOGRAPHY (1] ArrKen, A. C. On Bernoulli’s numerical solu- tion of algebraic equations. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 46: 289-305. 1926. . Studies in practical mathematics IT. The evaluation of the latent roots and latent vectors of a matrix. Proc. Roy. Soe. Edinburgh 57: 269-304. 1936-37. [3] Davis, P. Errors of numerical approximations for analytic functions. Journ. Rational Mech. Anal. 2: 303-313. 1953. [4] Davis, P., and Rapinowrtz, P. On the estima- tion of quadrature errors for analytic func- tions. Math. Tables and Other Aids to Com- putation 8: 193-203. 1954. [5] Erppiyr, A., pr au. Higher transcendental functions, 1: New York, 1953. [6] Fusseuyu, W. L. The reflected radiation from an infinite Lambert plane. NRL Memorandum report no. 122. 1953. [7] Lusxin, 8. A method of summing infinite series. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 48: 228-254. 1952. [8] STEFFENSEN, J. F. Remarks on iteration. Skand. Aktuarietidskr. 16: 64-72. 1933. [9] Experiments in the computation of conformal maps. Nat. Bur. Standards Applied Math. Ser. no. 42. Papers by J. Todd, 8S. E. Warshawski, G. Blanch, L. K. Jackson. [2] 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2 METEOROLOGY .— Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather.’ H. WeExLeR, U.S. Weather Bureau. Improved predictions of the large-scale westerly flow pattern for 24-48 hours on a routine basis will soon be available. A denser network of radiosonde stations, a better understanding of the dynamics of atmospheric flow, and availability of fast, large capacity computers have combined to make possible for the first time a useful mathematical prediction of the future positions and intensities of the major troughs, ridges, and cyclonic and _ anti- cyclonic eddies in the midlatitude flow pattern. There remains the problem of predicting the weather pattern from the predicted flow patterns. Since an important part of what we mean by ‘‘weather” is cloudiness and precipitation, which are dependent on vertical velocities and water vapor, it is necessary to know the field of vertical motions. This has already been done in several cases treated dynamically, the vertical velocities being expressed as average horizontal values over 200-mile squares (which is the basic data mesh used) and over several hundred millibars in the vertical. The results of these calculations (e.g., for the November 5-6, 1953, storm on the east coast of the United States) show good agree- ment with precipitation amounts averaged over large areas, but not with individual amounts (7). In other words, the large-scale westerly flow pattern leads to large-scale fields of vertical velocities which, combined with the predicted moisture content, will delineate the associated large-scale pre- cipitation patterns. However important this information is, the meteorologist must know more about the smaller-scale fine-grained — structure which he observes as ‘‘weather,’’ not only visually by cloud formations and distribution but also as radar displays of precipitating clouds. These show an amazing amount of “organization” in weather patterns, with p) 1 Summary of remarks presented before Con- ference on High-Speed Computing Applications to Meteorology and Oceanography, sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the University of California at Los Angeles, May 13-15, 1954. cellular, eddy, and line phenomena present whose sizes or widths are much smaller than the westerly wave lengths and in fact, smaller even than the average 200-mile mesh length used in present dynamic prediction methods (2). These smaller-scale phenomena which have principal effect on most human activities cannot be delineated by present larger-scale predictions of average vertical velocities and, therefore, average precipitation over 200-mile squares. For example, precipitation cellular pat- terns of scale 10 by 10 miles (corresponding to thunderstorms) are often found super- imposed on the general large-scale warm- front precipitation area when the ascending tropical air is convectively unstable, and account for the heavier bursts of precipita- tion amounts hitting some spots and missing others a few miles away—which makes so difficult agreement of precipitation amounts predicted with those observed. Line phenomena in weather have been long observed as the terms: line-squall or squall-line, front, instability line, and pres- sure jump line indicate. These lines, which may be hundreds of miles long, have widths measured in tens of miles. A very large percentage of violent weather, such as severe thunderstorms, windstorms, and the small but violent vortices known as torna- does, is located on these lines (3). The general location in space and time of weather phenomena is controlled mainly by the large-scale westerly flow pattern in that “weather” usually occurs between the planetary wave trough and the ridge sonie hundreds of miles to the east. The extent and average intensity of the associated large- scale weather pattern will depend on the flow, thermal, and moisture properties of these westerly waves and are amenable to quantitative prediction as discussed earlier; but there is as yet no quantitative method of predicting the scale and ‘‘unsmoothed”’ intensity of the fine-grained structure of weather. More must be learned of dynamic links connecting the large-scale flow pattern with FEBRUARY 1955 WEXLER: WESTERLY the fine-grained weather pattern. The front was one of the first dynamic links discovered which connected atmospheric energy sources and surface weather; the recent concept of the pressure-jump line as an explanation of certain types of squall-lines provides another example. There is some evidence that the front owes its origin and maintenance to transverse air motions associated with the jet-stream aloft. The pressure-jump line has been shown to be a gravity wave on an internal surface; it may move faster than the surrounding winds and by its violent lifting of air causes the release of precipita- tion and latent energy, forming severe storms of small-scale. Such gravity waves may also play an important part in the initiation and propagation of cellular pre- cipitation patterns. In the present large-scale dynamic meth- ods gravity waves are considered to be meteorologically unimportant noise, and are automatically eliminated by the geo- strophic assumption. In the case of the large-scale planetary waves with which dynamic methods are presently concerned, the elimination of gravity waves may be entirely justified, but not for the finer- grained weather. Recent work has emphasized the earlier discovery by O. Reynolds (4) regarding the direction of flow of kinetic energy from eddies to zonal currents and vice versa. It appears that under certain conditions, usually fulfilled in middle latitudes, the large-scale eddies of the size of conventional “highs” and “lows” transfer their energy to the maintenance of zonal currents, the smaller eddies serving to diffuse some of the energy of the zonal currents. Thus the flow of energy from large zonal motions to small motions is important not only as regards the atmospheric energy cycle but in creating the fine-grained structure of weather. Some likely areas of investigation are suggested: (a) Deepening or motion of an upper trough in the westerlies and consequent unbalanced ac- celeration of low-level currents which by their induced lateral motions produce line phenomena. This may be considered as an extension of the Rossby-Cahn effect and recent work by Tepper WAVES AND WEATHER 47 (5) indicates that this model, treated as non- linear, causes ‘‘shocks”’ or pressure jumps propa- gating eastward if the basic unbalanced current is from the south. This may create squall-lines at the time of deepening or moving troughs in the westerly waves aloft. The linearized model of Rossby-Cahn did not yield such shocks or pres- sure-jump lines. Solution of this problem would also apply to Hawaiian precipitation, most of which apparently comes from warm clouds bounded by an inversion at 5,000 to 8,000 feet, where air temperatures are well above freezing. The appearance of a westerly wave trough at 30,000 feet aloft induces an upward motion in the inversion, thickening the clouds sufficiently to allow coagulation of cloud drops into larger drops which can precipitate to the ground. This process may also lead to formation of line phenomena, traveling away from the initial disturbance. (b) Effect of mountainous and hilly terrain in producing moving discontinuities requires further investigation. The maximum frequency of tornadoes east of the Rocky Mountains may be a direct effect of the disturbance of air flowing over the mountains, or what seems more likely, the usual formation of troughs to the lee of the mountains tends to deepen the westerly wave trough as it passes east of the mountains. Never- theless, the tendency of line phenomena to appear on the east side of the mountains without a pronounced trough aloft indicates that at times there may be a direct mountain effect on atmos- pheric pulsations. The strong convective activity on a hot summer afternoon over the Rockies for example seems to generate travelling cloud lines which may cause nocturnal showers and thunder- storms farther east. Also the strong tendency for cold air drainage at night down the mountain and foot-hill slopes may cause Rossby-Cahn effects to the right of the unbalanced current. For example, the average vector difference at 1,000 meters at Oklahoma City in summer from 4 p. m. and 4 a. m. winds is 20 mph from the southwest, which might create line phenomena propagating to the southeast. (c) Effect of sudden changes in air density caused, for example, by cooling by precipitation produces oscillations of a quasistationary front. A marked case of this sort occurred in May 1953 and created among others, the famous Waco, Tex., tornado (6). 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (d) Spiralform bands in the hurricane present a fine example of curved line phenomena (2) similar in appearance to a spiral nebula. The first or ‘forerunner’ squall-lnes often appear 200-300 miles in advance of the hurricane. The occasional occurrence of tornadoes in hurricanes may also be associated with these bands, since most of the hurricane rain and squally winds are also concentrated there. The explanation of these marked bands is still lacking; they may be as- sociated with the “pumping”’ of the hurricane itself, generating waves which travel outward from the center and rotate or the entrainment and intensification of the cloud ‘streets’ often found over the tropical oceans. VOL. 45, No. 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) SMacorinsky, J., and Couuins, G. O. The numerical prediction of precipitation. (To be published in Monthly Weather Rev.) (2) Wexurr, H. Structure of hurricanes as deter- mined by radar. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 48: 821. 1947. (3) Tepprr, M., etal. Pressure jump lines in mid- western United States, January—August 1951. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Research Paper no. 37. 1954. (4) Reynoups, O. Dynamical theory of incom- pressible viscous fluids, etc. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A186: 123. 1895. (5) Tepper, M. On the generation of pressure jump lines by the impulsive addition of momentum, etc. (To be published in Journ. Meterology.) (6) Wexuer, H. Readjustment of a front after cooling by precipitation Monthly Weather Rev. 81: 152. 1953. PALEONTOLOGY .—A new Pleistocene bat (Corynorhinus) from Mexico. CHARLES O. Hanpuey, Jr., United States National Museum. Vertebrate remains in large quantities were collected by the late Chester Stock in San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leén, Mexico. These have been reported in part by Cushing (1945), Findley (1958), Furlong (1943), Miller (1940, 1942, 1943), and Stock (1948). A portion of this material is temporarily at the University of Kansas, on loan from the California Institute of Technology. I am indebted to the authorities of the De- partment of Geological Sciences, California Institute of Technology, and to E. Raymond Hall of the University of Kansas for the opportunity to study a skull of the big- eared bat, Corynorhinus, from this collec- tion. It proves to differ significantly from other known forms and may be described as follows: Corynorhinus tetralophodon n. sp. Type.—California Institute of Technology (Vert. Pal.) no. 192/2989; well-preserved skull with worn teeth, lacking mandibles, auditory bullae, hamular processes, all incisors, right canine, and the minute premolar, P!, from both maxillae; collected by Chester Stock in Pleisto- cene deposits of San Josecito Cave, near the town of Aramberri, southern Nuevo Leén, Mexico, elevation 7,400 feet. Diagnosis —Resembles Recent Corynorhinus in most cranial details. Rostrum broad and flattened; anterior nares, relative to greatest length of skull, small and rounded in outlne (dorsal view); skull relatively narrow; braincase relatively shallow; zygoma with postorbital ex- pansion in posterior third of arch; supraorbital ridges lacking; temporal ridges prominent and converging posteriorly, so that they meet, but do not completely merge; intermaxillary notch relatively small; extension of palate posterior to M2? relatively short; median postpalatal process styliform, basial pits deep and well-defined. Tooth rows crowded; teeth relatively fragile (not robust); canine with small internal cingular cusp; P* wider than long, with anterointernal cingular cusp only slightly indicated; no trace of hypocone cusp on molars; M* with well-developed fourth commissure, almost equaling third commissure in length. Measurements.—In millimeters, taken with dial calipers with aid of bmocular microscope. Great- est length (incisors excluded), 15.6; zygomatic breadth, 8.2; interorbital breadth, 3.4; breadth of brain case, 7.7; cranial depth, 5.3; maxillary tooth row (anterior edge of canine to posterior edge of M*), 5.0; postpalatal length (posterior margin of palate, excluding median process, to anteroventral lip of foramen magnum), 5.9; palatal breadth (at M3), 5.7. Comparisons.—Closely resembles Recent spe- cies of Corynorhinus, but the retention of a well- developed fourth commissure on M* distinguishes tetralophodon from these as well as from all other species of plecotine bats. The fourth commissure Fesruary 1955 of MS is barely indicated in Barbastella, Huderma, Tdionycteris, Recent Corynorhinus, and in the Pleistocene C. alleganiensis, but there is no trace of it in Eurasian Plecotus, which shows some re- duction even of the third commissure of M°. Shallowness of the brain case is a feature ob- served in Plecotus, Euderma, Idionycteris, and possibly in C. alleganiensis (uncertain because of the likelihood that the only known almost com- plete skull has suffered dorsoventral compres- sion). This degree of shallowness (cranial depth equals 34 per cent of greatest length) is equaled in Recent Corynorhinus only by extreme variants. Failure of the temporal ridges to merge com- pletely to form a sagittal crest is a character chared with C. alleganiensis, Idionycteris, and Euderma. However, in these forms the ridges remain farther apart. Occasional specimens of Recent Corynorhinus resemble C. tetralophodon in this respect. Specimen examined.—One, the type. HANDLEY: A NEW PLEISTOCENE BAT FROM MEXICO 49 LITERATURE CITED Cusuine, J. E., Jr. Quaternary rodents and lago- morphs of San Josecito Cave, Nwevo Leon, Mexico. Journ. Mamm. 26(2): 182-185. 1945. FinpueEy, J. 8. Pletstocene Soricidae from San Josecito Cave, Nwevo Leon, Mexico. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 5(36) : 633-639. 1953. Furtone, E. L. The Pleistocene antelope, Stocko- ceros conklingi, from San Josecito Cave, Mexico. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 551: 1-8, 5 pls. 1943. Mitier, L. A new Pleistocene turkey from Mexico. Condor 42: 154-156. 1940. Two new bird genera from the Pleistocene of Mexico. Univ. California Publ. Zool. 47(8): 43-46. 1942. The Pleistocene birds of San Josecito Cavern, Mexico. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 47(5): 148-168. 1948. Stock, C. The cave of San Josecito, Mexico. New discoveries of the vertebrate life of the ice age. Engineering Sci. Monthly, California Inst. Tech., Baleh Grad. School Geol. Sci. Contrib. no. 361, 5 pp. September 1943. MYCOLOGY —A southern Basidiobolus forming many sporangia from globose and from elongated adhesive conidia. CHARLES DREcHSLER, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. During more than 30 years the Petri plate cultures that I prepared for the isolation of parasitic fungi from decaying roots and stems of various cultivated plants collected in the District of Columbia and in neighboring localities within Maryland and Virginia have now and then shown some limited development of smooth-walled zygo- spores which from their paired juxtaposed protuberances were recognizable as_ per- taining to a species of Basidiobolus. Since the zygospores, often badly contaminated with bacteria and miscellaneous molds, never germinated after their transfer to a fresh agar medium, and never were found accom- panied by conidia, my efforts to obtain the adventitious phycomycete in pure culture long remained unsuccessful. In recent years, however, unquestionably the same fungus has been isolated many times from numerous mycelia found developing in maize-meal agar plate cultures canopied with leaf mold taken from deciduous woods near Beltsville, Maryland, and Arlington, Vir- ginia. These cultures yielded, besides, an even larger number of separate isolations referable to a second species of Basidiobolus differing from the first in the strongly musty odor it emitted (Drechsler, 1953), in its much earlier production of globose conidia, in its readier conversion of globose as well as of elongated adhesive conidia into sporangia, and in the strongly undulating outer con- tour of the frequently two-layered wall surrounding its mature zygospore. Because of similarity to B. ranarum Eidam (1886), especially in the character of its zygospore wall, the widely distributed second species— I have obtained it also from decaying plant detritus collected in New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, and Louisiana—awaits comparison with congeneric isolations from the excrement or stomach contents of frogs and other am- phibians. The varied asexual reproduction displayed under ordinary cultural conditions by the species with zygospores of undulate profile takes place rather more abundantly in still another species of Baszdiobolus that came to light in several Petri plate cultures that had been canopied with small quantities of decaying plant detritus gathered in north- eastern Florida, on January 1, 1954. When iad growing on maize-meal agar this third species does not give off the musty odor emitted by many species of Streptomyces. As its zygospores are typically smooth it would seem Clearly distinct from B. ranarwm. For the same reason it would appear separate also from B. myxophilus R. E. Fries (1899) the zygospores of which were described as being provided with “‘episporio undulato”’; and this separateness would hold true whether the doubts expressed by Levisohn (1927), and later by Fries (1929) himself, concerning the independence of B. myz- ophilus were justified or not. Its smooth zygospores presumably distinguishes the Florida phycomycete lkewise from B. intestinalis (Léger and Hesse), for the statement by Léger (1927) that the ‘‘oeuf sphérique” of the fungus inhabiting the trout imtestine becomes surrounded by a wall composed of ‘‘écailles concentriques”’ must almost certainly imply the presence of numerous convex contour markings similar to the wavy peripheral markings shown in Eidam’s (1886, pl. 12, fig. 7-9, 12-14) and Thaxter’s (1888, pl. X XI, fig. 413) illustra- tions of the mature undulate zygospores of B. ranarum. Although Levisohn found the Basidiobolus developing from the excrement of lizards to agree with the single species infesting the digestive tracts of frogs, toads, salamanders, and blindworms, and _ there- fore held B. lacertae Eidam to be identical with B. ranarum, it yet seems expedient to note here that very short and consistently unseptate protuberances such as Hidam set forth as being characteristic of conjugating segments in B. lacertae are not usually observable in the Florida fungus. In view of the readiness with which its conidia are converted into sporangia this fungus may appropriately be described under an epithet compounded of two words pepioros, oropa meaning “‘divided” and ‘‘seed,”’ respectively. Basidiobolus meristosporus, sp. nov. My- celium mediocriter conspicuum, saepe in aerem visibiliter crescens, incoloratum; hyphis sterilibus ramosis, plerumque 3-20 crassis, mox septatis, hic illic disjunctis, cellulis eorum plerumque 30- 230u longis, uno nucleo visibili praeditis. Primi- formibus fertilibus hyphis singulatim ex cellulis myceli vel ex conidiis vel ex zygosporis surgenti- bus, incoloratis, simplicibus, basi 4-9 latis, in 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 2 aerem vulgo 60—200u ad lucem protendentibus, sursum in tumorem jaculatorium 35-60u longum et 15-30u latum inflatis, apice unum primiforme conidium ferentibus, denique hoe violenter ab- jicientibus; primiformibus conidiis globosis sed basi ad instar mammiculae leviter prominulis, plerumque 20—45y in diametro, nune uno nucleo nune duobus nucleis praeditis, interdum in sporangium transeuntibus denique 5-90 sporas intus gignantibus. Hyphis formae gracilis fertili- bus ex primiformibus vel tenacibus conidiis nec umquam ex cellulis mycelii surgentibus, incolora- tis, rectis, saepius 75—200u longis, basi 1 .5-3 .5u latis, sursum leniter attenuatis, apice 1—2y latis, ibi unum conidium tenax ferentibus. Tenacibus conidiis omnino 20-70u longis, 6-20 latis, ex infera viventi cellula et supero glutinoso rostro constantibus; glutinoso rostro flavido, tubulato, 3-10.54 longo, sursum 1—2.7y lato, apice vulgo guttula materiae glutinosae flavae 3-10u crassa vestito; viventi cellula imeolorata, elongato- ellipsoidea, recta vel leviter curvata, pleurumque 17-55u longa, uno nucleo vel duobus nucleis in- structa, interdum in sporangium transeunte denique 1-50 sporas intus gignantibus. Sporis incoloratis, globosis vel elongato-ellipsoideis vel rotundo angulatis, plerumque 7—15y longis, 6— 12, latis, uno nucleo praeditis. Zygosporis ex con- jugio duabus cellularum contiguarum in hyphis mycelii etiam in conidiis ortis, globosis vel elongato-ellipsoideis, plerumque 23-35, longis, 20-32, latis, in maturitate uno nucleo instructis, muro levi saepe aliquid flavido 2-8 crasso cir- cumdatis. Habitat in materiis plantarum putrescentibus prope Palatka, Florida. Mycelium usually readily visible, growing noticeably into the air, colorless; assimilative hyphae branched, mostly 3 to 20u wide, early be- coming divided by cross-walls; hyphal segments mostly 30 to 230u long, in many instances soon becoming separated from their neighbors, in the living state showing a single nucleus. Primary conidiophores arising singly from hyphal seg- ments or from conidia or from germinating zygospores, colorless, unbranched, proximally 4 to 9 wide, commonly extending to 60 to 200z into the air and toward the main source of light, inflated distally into a propulsive swelling 35 to 60un long and 15 to 30u wide, bearing at the tip a single primary conidium and forcibly shoot- ing it off; primary conidia globose, but with a wide mammiform protrusion at the base, mostly 20 to 45u in diameter, colorless, containing 1 or FEBRUARY 1955 DRECHSLER: 2 discernible nuclei, rather often functioning as sporangia in forming 5 to 90 spores internally. Conidiophores of slender type arising singly either from primary or from adhesive conidia but never originating from hyphal segments, color- less, straight, mostly 75 to 200z long, 1.5 to 3.5; wide at the base, tapering gradually upward, 1 to 2u wide near the tip on which a single adhesive eonidium is borne in axial alignment. Adhesive conidia mostly 20 to 70x in total length and 6 to 20u in greatest width, composed of a living cell and an apical adhesive beak; the adhesive beak yellowish, tubular, 3 to 10.5 long, 1 to 2.7u wide above its broad attachment, at the tip com- monly surrounded by a globose mass of golden yellow glutinous material 3 to 10u in diameter; living cell colorless, elongated-ellipsoidal, straight or slightly curved, mostly 17 to 55y long, con- taining 1 or 2 clearly visible nuclei, often func- tioning as sporangia in forming 1 to 50 spores internally. Spores colorless, globose or elongate- ellipsoidal or somewhat angular, mostly 7 to 15u long and 6 to 12u wide. Zygospores originating from union of 2 contiguous cells in mycelial hyphae or in conidia, mostly globose or elongate- ellipsoidal, often 23 to 35y long and 20 to 32u wide, in mature resting state apparently contain- ing a single nucleus and surrounded by a smooth, slightly yellowish wall 2 to 3u thick. Occurring in decaying plant materials near Palatka, Florida. In the readily visible character of its mycelium and in its tendency toward aerial development Basidiobolus meristospsrus differs markedly from the two congeneric forms ubiquitous on leaf mold near the District of Columbia, both of which are often virtually indiscernible on maize-meal agar, and are little given to production of aerial hyphae on this substratum despite their robust sub- merged growth. Yet under the microscope a young mycelium of B. meristosporus looks much like young mycelia of the two congeneric species with respect to branching habit, cellular dimen- sions, and protoplasmic texture. Where vegeta- tive growth takes place in an ample expanse of unoccupied agar substratum the terminal seg- ments (Fig. 1, A) at the advancing forefront are commonly 8 to 10 wide. Fluctuations between 9 and 13 are usual in the penultimate and ante- penultimate segments, and prevail rather gener- ally also among the older segments to the rear. However, the short proximal segments near the empty envelope of the conidium from which a sizable mycelium has originated often measure SPORANGIA FROM CONIDIA 51 15 to 20u in width. In tube cultures 10 to 15 days old elongated ellipsoidal segments 50 to 125 long and 25 to 30u wide can sometimes be found in large numbers 4 or 5 millimeters below the sur- face, but as these massive cells are often wholly disconnected or have only meager contact with any neighbor they give somewhat the appearance of resting bodies. Filaments conspicuously nar- rower than the axial hyphae at the margin of an expanding mycelium may originate as lateral branches given off by axial segments in positions well back from the advancing forefront, or as germ hyphae extended from conidia that have happened to fall on substratum already occupied by mycelium. Many such filaments measuring only 3 or 4y in width are commonly present in cultures several weeks old. The individual hyphal segment, irrespective of width, contains a single nucleus which with the relatively large endosome is, as a rule, clearly visible in an unstained living condition. Many hyphal segments in an actively growing mycelium of Basidiobolus meristosporus expend their protoplasmic contents in asexual or in sexual reproduction within a few hours after their for- mation. In initiating asexual reproduction the individual segment puts forth a stout branch (Fig. 1, B, a; C, a) usually from a median posi- tion. If the segment is on the surface of the sub- stratum this branch sometimes ascends at once into the air, directing its growth toward the main source of light. After ascending about 100, (Fig. 1, D, a), or sometimes no more than 25u (Fig. 1, E, a), the branch, or conidiophore, may widen out terminally to form the propulsive enlarge- ment (Fig. 1 D, b; E, b) characteristic of the genus. When the enlargement has received much of the protoplasm originally contained in the underlying segment it gives rise at its tip to a single globose conidium (Fig. 1, E, c). Rather commonly the branch extended from the hyphal segment is considerably longer than 25 or 100xz, for in the many instances where it originates under the substratum it must first make its way to the surface before it can grow into the air. Besides, on reaching the surface the conidio- phorous branch in B. meristosporus often elon- gates procumbently before its tip ascends to form the propulsive enlargement and the conidium (Fig. 1, F, a). A growing branch several hundred microns in length contains in its forward portion all the protoplasm of the whole reproductive unit. Successive stages in the forward movement of the granular material and single nucleus may be 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON marked by deposition of retaining septa in the rear. When finally all the protoplasm has been received into the terminal conidium the empty wall of the hyphal segment and an extensive proximal portion of the empty membrane of the conidiophorous branch may have collapsed badly or have otherwise become unrecognizable. If a conidiophore bearing a globose conidium nearly ready for discharge (Fig. 1, F, a) is mounted in a moist preparation under a cover glass normal discharge does not take place, but the terminal enlargement slowly undergoes some changes that presumably are similar to those oc- curring when it serves as a propulsive mechanism. An irregular fissure appears in the lower portion of the enlargement (Fig. 1, F, b), where in nor- mal discharge the membranous envelope is torn apart. Through contraction of the membrane in a zone a little above the equator of the enlargement the main portion of membrane normally shot off with the conidium acquires the curious tower-and- cupola outline first made known in Eidam’s ac- count of Basidiobolus ranarum. The proximal portion of membrane represented in the tower- like profile sometimes is markedly thinner than the distal portion making up the cupola-like com- ponent (Fig. 1, F, b) and may then be expected to vanish from sight relatively early. Although in many instances the empty membranous piece remains attached to the conidium (Fig. 1, G) it more often becomes disengaged in flight and reaches the substratum separately. If its lower ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2 portion has evanesced it presents a conical shape (Fig. 1, H, a-e) rather than the more familiar tower-and-cupola conformation (Fig. 1, H, fm). The globose conidia found scattered abun- dantly on maize-meal agar cultures 3 or 4 days old are mostly about 30u in diameter, and in un- stained living material usually show, even if somewhat indistinctly, a single nucleus near the center (Fig. 1, I, a-d; Fig. 2, A-C), yet here and there an individual conidium (Fig. 2, D) may reveal 2 nuclei. On fresh unoccunied agar globose conidia commonly germinate by extending indi- vidually a broad germ hypha (Fig. 1, J, a, b) from which a new mycelium may originate. A relatively narrow germ hypha (Fig. 1, K), as has been men- tioned, may be put forth from a globose conidium that has fallen on a tract of agar substratum already permeated with mycelium of the fungus. Often a globose conidium gives rise to a germ conidiophore (Fig. 1, L, a; M, a) that ascends into the air and forms a propulsive enlargement (Fig. 1, L, b; M, b) on which another globose conidium (Fig. 1, L, ce; M, ¢) is produced. After the new conidium has been shot off similar repe- titional development may ensue again and again, each successive generation being accompanied by noticeable reduction in size. Many of the globose conidia formed in maize- meal agar cultures of Basidiobolus meristosporus become converted into sporangia (Fig. 2, E—H) through three-dimensional segmentation of their contents. In slanted tube cultures, where conidia Fie. 1.—Basidiobolus meristosporus as found developing in maize-meal agar; X 500 throughout. A, Terminal portion of hypha at margin of an actively growing mycelium. B, C, Submerged hyphal seg- ments from each of which a conidiophorous branch, a, is being extended upward. D, Portion of hypha at surface of culture showing an intercalary segment from which has been extended a short conidiophore, a, with a terminal propulsive swelling, b. E, Unusually wide hyphal segment at surface of culture that has become emptied in forming a unit of asexual reproductive apparatus: a, unusually short empty conidio- phore; b, propulsive swelling, c, globose conidium ready to be shot off. F, Globose conidium on propul- sive enlargement terminating a long condiophore sent up from a submerged hyphal segment: a, condition when newly mounted in a moist preparation under a cover glass; b, condition 20 minutes later. G, Dis= charged conidium with attached piece of envelope of propulsive swelling. H, Pieces of envelopes of propulsive swellings left detached on substratum: a-e, short conical pieces; f-m, longer pieces of tower- and-cupola design. I, Detached globose conidia, a-d. J, Two conidia, a-b, germinating on fresh un- occupied maize-meal agar. K, Conidium germinating on surface of agar already occupied by mycelium of fungus. L, M, Globose conidia that are giving rise to other globose conidia: a, germ conidiophore; b, propulsive terminal swelling; c, young secondary conidium. N, Detached globose conidium that in part has undergone conversion into a sporangium: a, condition observed in a moist, newly prepared mount; b, condition observed 30 minutes later, showing production of a germ hypha from the large residual cell not included in the sporangium. O-Q, Empty membranous envelopes of globose conidia from each of which has been sent up an erect slender conidiophore, a, that bears aloft an elongated adhesive conidium, b. R, Detached adhesive conidia, a-d.S, Adhesive conidium germinating on fresh unoccupied agar. T, Empty envelope of an adhesive conidium from which has been sent up an erect slender conidio- phore bearing aloft a secondary adhesive conidium. U, Detached adhesive conidia, a-c, each of which has been converted into a sporangium. V, Detached adhesive conidium in part converted into a spo- rangium: a, condition observed in a moist, newly prepared mount; b, condition 20 minutes later, showing production of a broad germ hypha from the residual cell not included in the sporangium. W, Adhesive sporangium that has released from its basal opening all except one of its spores. X, Spores after libera- tion from sporangium: a-l, individual spores; m-o, spores united in pairs; p, spores united in a group of three. Y, Unit of sexual reproductive apparatus at early stage of conjugation. Z, Mature zygospores, a-c. FEBRUARY 1955 DRECHSLER: are often propelled onto the glass ceiling in such large numbers that they make up a coating readily visible to the naked eye, a greater pro- portion of conidia are converted into sporangia on the ceiling than on the agar floor. Sporangial development thus takes place under ordinary conditions of culture and in a wholly spontaneous manner. As a rule the sporangial envelope re- mains intact for some time after the delimited spores have begun rounding up, but eventually C. Drechsler del. SPORANGIA FROM CONIDIA 53 it ruptures irregularly. The size of the parent conidium largely determines the number of spores that are produced but does not greatly affect their size. Globose conidia of unusually large dimensions (Fig. 2, H) may yield from 60 to 90 spores, those of average size commonly yield about 25 spores, and those of unusually small size may form only about 5 spores. Some conidia (Fig. 1, N, a) are converted into sporangia only in part, the residual portion in such instances 504 10 20,30 ,40 ce) ) Fia. 1.—(See opposite page for legend). 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON retaining its coarsely granular texture as well as its capacity to germinate promptly by emission of a broad germ tube (Fig. 1, N, b). In maize-meal agar cultures of Basidiobolus meristosporus numerous globose conidia (Fig. 1, O-Q) give rise individually to a tall slender co- nidiophore (Fig. 1, O-Q: a) bearing a solitary elongated conidium (Fig. 1, O-Q: b). This co- nidium is of the unusually distinctive secondary type described earlier (Drechsler, 1947) in an- other member of the genus. It is prolonged dis- tally into a yellowish beak that normally termi- nates in a globular mass of golden yellow adhesive substance, though sometimes under the dry con- ditions prevailing on the glass ceiling of a slanted tube culture no adhesive globule is secreted (Fig. 1, R, a). The elongated conidia are not forcibly shot off but become detached (Fig. 1, R, b-d; Fig. 2, I-M) on slight disturbance. In a living unstained condition they show one (Fig. 1, R, a-d; Fig. 2, I-L) or two (Fig. 2, M) nuclei. Like the primary conidia they often put forth a broad germ tube (Fig. 1, 8) capable of growing either into an extensive assimilative mycelium or into a phototropic conidiophore that even- tually shoots off a globose conidum. In aging cultures, and more especially in the presence of alien molds, they are much given to repetitional development, each sending up a slender conidio- phore (Fig. 1, T, a) on which a new adhesive conidium is borne. They readily become con- verted into sporangia (Fig. 1, U, a-c; Fig. 2, N-R) through segmentation of their contents. Like sporangia generally they produce spores in numbers approximately proportional to their size. Tn the few instances where an adhesive conidium is only partially converted into a sporangium (Fig. 1, V, a) the unconverted residual portion retains its capacity for promptly putting forth a broad germ hypha (Fig. 1, V, b). Many adhesive sporangia in the later stage of their development show one or two transverse markings (Fig. 1, U, b, c; Fig. 2, O) in the portion of envelope sur- rounding the basal spore. These markings apparently indicate definite modifications for dehiscense, since elongated sporangial envelopes ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 2 are often found that are wide open at the basal end (Fig. 1, W) and are either wholly empty or occupied by only 1 or 2 spores. The spores (Fig. 1, X, a-p; Fig. 2, 8, a-e) formed in the two types of sporangia appear in- distinguishable. In unstained living condition they show clearly a single nucleus surrounded by very finely granular protoplasm wholly devoid of vacuoles. The individuals that have rounded up into a nearly spherical shape commonly measure about 10 in diameter. Owing to imperfect sepa- ration within some sporangia 2 spores (Fig. 1, X, m-o) or even 3 spores (Fig. 1, X, p; Fig. 2,8, e) are occasionally found united after they have been released. Sexual reproduction takes place early and abundantly in maize-meal agar cultures of Basidiobolus meristosporus. As in other members of the genus conjugation is initiated by the pro- duction of 2 juxtaposed protuberances from the adjoining ends of paired neighboring cells (Fig. 1, Y). The mature resting zygospore is sur- rounded by a thick smooth wall that usually ap- pears intimately united with the thin enveloping membrane of the parent gametangium (Fig. 1, Z, a-c; Fig. 2, T, U). However, in small areas of some cultures many zygospores were found rather loosely surrounded by the wall of the parent gametangium, so that the gametangium envelope was partially (Fig. 2, V) or wholly (Fig. 2, W) separated from the zygospore wall proper and presented an irregularly wavy profile. In these reproductive units the separation observed did not correspond accurately to that usual in repro- ductive units of the musty-smelling congeneric form abundant in our middle latitudes, for in the latter, as also in sexual apparatus of Conidiobolus osmcdes Drechsler (1954), extensive separation is found between the 2 layers making up the zygo- spore wall proper. Localized separation between an outer and an inner layer of the zygospore wall proper is sometimes noticeable in reproductive units of B. meristosporus, especially at the proxi- mal or the distal end (Fig. 1, Z, ec; Fig. 2, V), but the smoothness of the outer contour is never affected thereby. Fia. 2.—Basidiobolus meristosporus as found developing in maize-meal agar cultures; X 1000 through- out. A-C, Uninucleated globose conidia. D, Binucleated globose conidium. H-H, Sporangia formed from globose conidia. I-L, Uninucleated adhesive conidia, M, Binucleated adhesive conidum. N-R, Sporangia formed from adhesive conidia. 8, Spores after release from sporangia: a-d, individual spores; e, group of 3 united spores. T-W, Mature zygospores with adjacent portions of hyphal membranes. X, Ad hesive conidium divided into 2 cells preliminary to sexual development. Y, Adhesive conidium that has formed a zygospore in which 2 nuclei are visible. Z, Adhesive conidium that has formed a zygospore showing a single nucleus. NIDIA SPORANGIA FROM CO DRECHSLER Frepruary 1955 nt Sa st OL S$ O Fig. 2.—(See opposite page for legend). Zygospores are produced rather often in maize-meal agar tube cultures of Basidiobolus meristosporus through conjugation of segments resulting from median division of a globose or of an elongated conidium (Fig. 2, X). In instances where an elongated conidium serves as parent, reproductive units of bizarre design (Fig. 2, Y, Z) are brought into being. Except for their greater irregularity in outward shape and their somewhat smaller size the zygospores of conidial origin ap- pear similar to those of mycelial origin, some- times being filled with coarsely granular proto- plasm (Fig. 1, Z, a, b; Fig. 2, U, Y) and at other times containing granular protoplasm inter- spersed with many small reserve globules (Fig. 1, Z, c: Fig. 2, T; V, W, Z). A mature zygospore in its resting state appears to contain only a single nucleus, so that the presence of two nuclei (Fig. 2, Y) indicates either an early immature state or a late after-ripened state prior to germination. REFERENCES Drecusuier, C. A Basidiobolus producing elon- gated secondary conidia with adhesive beaks. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 74: 403-413. 1947. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2 ———. Production by Basidiobolus spp of odor. familiar in Streptomyces spp. and in benzene hexachloride. (Abstract.) Phytopathology 43: 405. 1953. Two species of Conidiobolus with minutely ridged zygospores. Amer. Journ. Bot. 41: 567- 575. 1954. Erpam, E. Basidiobolus, eine newe Gattung der Entomophthoraceen. Beitrage Biol. Pflanzen 4: 181-251. 1886. Fries, R. E. Basidiobolus myxophilus, en ny phycomycet. Bih. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 25: Afd. III, no. 3: 1-15. 1899. Vad dr Basidiobolus myxophilus? Svensk. Bot. Tidskr. 23: 149-150. 1929. Liécer, L. Sur la nature et Ulévolution des ““sphérules”’ décrite chez les Ichthyophones, phycomycetes parasites de la truite. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris) 184: 1268-1271. 1927. LevisoHn, Ina. Beitrag Entwickelungsge- schichte und Biologie von Basidiobolus rana- rum Eidam. Jahrb. Wis. Bot. 66: 513-555. 1927. Tuaxter, R. The Entomophthoreae of the United States. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 4: 133- 201. 1888. zur ZOOLOGY .—The genus Ogyrides (Crustacea: Caridea) in North Carolina. AusTIN B. WruutaMs, University of North Carolina Institute of Fisheries Research, Morehead City, N. C. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) In 1879 J. 8. Kingsley described a small caridean shrimp, Ogyris alphaerostris, from the eastern shore of Northampton County, Va. He based his description on a single specimen that was in poor condition. Hay and Shore (1918) redescribed the species on the basis of another specimen, which was collected near Beaufort, N. C. They placed this aberrant genus in a family of its own, setting aside previous assignments to the families Hippolytidae and Alphaeidae apparently unaware of a change in the generic nomenclature. The genus Ogyris was proposed by Stimpson (1860) on the basis of an oriental species, but Stebbing (1914) found this name to be preoccupied and proposed the name Ogyrides to supplant it. The family status of the group remains undecided. Two species of Ogyrides have been found in North Carolina in the past three years. One of these is apparently O. alphaerostris (Kingsley). The second is different from any known species of Ogyrides and is described herein as a new species. Un- fortunately, the status of the new species depends upon a clear definition of Kingsley’s species, and circumstances make such a definition difficult.” Neither Kingsley’s description nor the accompanying figure exactly agrees with either of the species considered here. Kingsley did not mention any spines on the dorsal surface of the carapace, whereas both of the species treated here possess sucht spines. His figure shows the blade of the antennal scale extended as a small distal lobe instead of tapering toward the terminal spine as in both of the North Carolina species. This figure does not exactly fit the short description, and moreover, the type (an ovigerous female formerly housed at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., and now at the U.S. National Museum) almost 1 For many suggestions and for the historical information I am indebted to Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., and Dr. L. B. Holthuis. W. A. Van Engel gave information on the type locality of O. alphaerostris. FEBRUARY 1955 WILLIAMS: GENUS certainly belongs to the same species as the one described below. This ‘type’? specimen has a dubious history. It was probably identified by Kingsley as O. alphaerostris, and he stated that there was but one specimen in the collection. The specimen was sent to Coutiére in Paris when he was working on alphaeids. The locality label is in another handwriting and may have been written on the assumption that it was the type specimen. A slip in the vial bears the number 417; Kingsley gave the catalogue number of the type of O. alphaerostris as 407. The circumstantial evidence is strong that this specimen is the type, but Kingsley’s statement that this species differs from the genotype QO. orientalis (Stimpson) in lacking a carina on the carapace leads to doubt as to the validity of this specimen as the type. Hay and Shore did not have access to the type of OQ. alphaerostris when they made their redescription, for at that time it was in the hands of Coutiére. Their description and figures clearly show a single movable spine on the dorsal surface of the carapace. This and other characters described by them are shown by 35 specimens of Ogyrides, mostly juveniles, now available for study from the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C. From these facts two conclusions may be drawn. First, there are two species of Ogyrides on the east coast of the United States. One was described and inadequately figured by Kingsley; the type was lost and a new type was designated. Unfortunately, the new type belonged to an unrecognized and undescribed second species. Second, there are three species of Ogyrides on the east coast of the United States: (a) One was described and figured by Kingsley, and subsequently the type was lost. The species has not been rediscovered. (b) A new type was designated for Kingsley’s species by accident, but unfortunately the specimen chosen belonged to an unrecognized and undescribed second species. (c) Hay and Shore referred their redescription to Kings- ley’s name alphaerostris, but in reality they were describing a third form which is fairly common in the Beaufort, N. C., area. The matter will not be settled until topotypes of Kingsley’s species are collected OGYRIDES IN NORTH CAROLINA 57 and studied. For the present it seems per- missible to refer Kingsley’s and Hay and Shore’s species to the name alphaerostris on the basis of circumstantial evidence. O. alphaerostris in the Beaufort region attains a slightly larger size than the species described below, and this larger size agrees with the total length measurement given by Kingsley. The original description of the carapace more nearly fits that of Hay and Shore’s species than it does the form herein de- seribed. O. alphaerostris in the Beaufort region has invariably been taken near Beaufort Inlet in water with a high salinity (above 25%). The type locality for the species seems to be somewhat like the Beaufort Inlet region in this respect. Fig. 1 Description Rostrum short, depressed, equi- laterally triangular; postrostral carina with 11 teeth, flanked on each side by row of setae ex- tending to rostrum tip; eyestalks long, hghtly setiferous dorsally and mesiodorsally, narrowest in middle, exceeding antennular peduncles by approximately 214 times corneal length; antennal Ogyrides limicola, n. sp. Fie. 1.—Ogyrides limicola: (a) Carapace and anterior appendages, lateral view; (b) terminal segment appendages, dorsal view; (c) anterior appendages and portion of carapace, dorsal view. Approximate magnification X11. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and antennular peduncles nearly equal in length, second antennular segment three times as long as third segment; stylocerites terminating in two strong acuminate spines of nearly equal length; antennal scales and second segment of antennular peduncles reaching nearly same level distally, scales evenly rounded mesially, three times longer than greatest width, greatest width in basal half; third maxillipeds when extended exceeding eyestalks; pterygostomian area broadly obtuse; first legs exceeding midlength of antennal peduncles by full length of chelae; fingers of chelae pointed, agape when closed; telson with anterior pair of spines placed well behind lateral prominences; uropods with exopods slightly falciform, lateral borders nearly straight; telson with three horny ridges at proximolateral corners ventrally and uropods with an interlocking horny eminence on basal segment dorsally. Types.—The holotype (an ovigerous female, U.S.N.M. no. 96675) and a series of 14 paratypes, as well as 11 other specimens, have been de- posited in the U. 8S. National Museum. A second series of nine paratypes has been placed in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. The carapace length of the holotype is 514 mm, and the total length from tip of rostrum to tip of telson is 16 mm. Type locality Mouth of Far Creek at Engel- hard, Hyde County, N. C. The creek at this locality is a shallow mud-bottomed estuarine stream which is not subject to periodic tides. The depth varies from 1 to 8 feet. The holotype was taken from the channel near the white light beacon. Variations —The chief individual differences observed in this species are the variable number of spines on the postrostral crest (11 in the illustrated specimen, 8-14 in other specimens), and variations in the lengths of the stylocerite spines. Color of females (from females at type locality, May 17, 1954).—General body structure color- less, clear, internal organs visible, gut dark, hepatopancreas light brown. Eyestalks, antennal and antennular peduncles, and distal portions of anterior appendages with red and yellow spots. Uropods and sixth segment of abdomen with scattered red spots. Ovigerous females with yellow-green (chartreuse) colored eggs on swim- merets. One small female, apparently not com- pletely spawned out, with chartreuse colored ova inside ovary; these ova smaller than external eggs. VOL. 45, NO. 2 Relationships.—This species seems to be most closely related to Ogyrides yaquiensis Armstrong (1949), differmg from it chiefly in having shorter eyestalks and antennal peduncles. Specimens examined.—Thirty-five as follows: NortH Carourna: Carteret County: Newport River Narrows approximately 4 miles northwest of Morehead City; White Oak River, near mouth; Adams Creek near mouths of Jonaquin and Cedar Creeks; Hyde County: Far Creek at Engelhard; west side of upper Wysocking Bay; Onslow County: Hall Creek, tributary of Queen Creek. A few specimens were not properly labeled when collected. They are known to come from some of the Carteret County estuaries listed above and from South River, Carteret County, N.C. Remarks.—Ogyrides limicola has invariably been found on (or in) the bottom of muddy estuarine streams. The specimens were collected with a small beam trawl equipped with a bag and codend made of 14-inch bar mesh. A tickler chain was used to stir the bottom ahead of the net. The shrimp collected could have come from the surface of the mud or from shallow burrows in the surface layer of mud. The length of the eyestalks indicates that the animals may live in shallow burrows with only the tips of the eyestalks projecting above the surface. The paucity of specimens taken in over 600 collec- tions from estuaries further indicates that the form is a burrower and may have a light popula- tion density. The Hyde County localities show the greatest population densities. , The collections of O. limicola have been made in a bottom salinity range of 9-31%>. Samples were taken throughout the year at most of the localities listed, but O. limicola has been col- lected only in February and from April to September. Ovigerous females are known to occur from May to September. The chief crustacean associates found with O. limicola are juveniles of Penaeus setiferus, P. duorarum, P. aztecus, and Callinectes sapidus. LITERATURE CITED ARMSTRONG, JOHN C. New Caridea from the Domini- can Republic. Amer. Mus. Nov. no. 1410: 1-27, 9 figs. 1949. Hay, W. P., and SHorg, C. A. The decapod crusta- ceans of Beaufort, N. C., and the surrounding region. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 35 (1915-16): 371-475, 20 figs., pls. 25-39. 1918. Fespruary 1955 Kinestey, J. 8. On a collection of Crustacea from Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida, with a revision of the genera of Crangonidae and Palaemonidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila- delphia 31: 383-427, 1 pl. 1879. SressineG, THomas R.R. Part VII of South African SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON AMPHIPOD CRUSTACEAN 59 Crustacea, for the marine investigations in South Africa. 15 (1914-16): 1-55, 8 pls. 1914. Strueson, W. Prodromus descriptionis animalium evertebratorum ... observavit et descripsit. Pars VIIT. Crustacea macrura. Proce. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 22-47. 1860. ZOOLOGY .— Notes on the amphipod crustacean Maeroides thompsoni Walker. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, Smithsonian Institution. A. O. Walker in 1898 described a species of amphipod, Maerozdes thompsoni, from two males, not fully mature, from Puget Sound, Wash., creating the genus to re- ceive it. It is now known that the male of this species exhibits marked changes in some of its characters as growth advances toward full maturity. For this reason Walker’s species appears to have been over- looked, and its immature stages have been at times described as distinct species. It is a widely distributed species and has been recorded from Puget Sound down to the Gulf of California. T. R. R. Stebbing in 1899 transferred Walker’s species to the genus Gammaropsis. In 1904 S. J. Holmes described it as a new species, Gammaropsis tenuicornis, from Puget Sound. T. R. R. Stebbing in 1906, in Das Tierreich, placed Walker’s species in the genus Eurystheus. In 1913 Vinnie R. Stout described it from Laguna Beach, Calif., as Fimbriella robusta, making the new genus for it. C. R. Shoemaker in 1916 described it as a new species, Podoceropsis concava, from Venice, Calif. In 1931 Shoemaker re- described and figured the fully mature male of Eurystheus tenuicornis (Holmes), giving its geographical range, and making Podo- ceropsis concava a synonym of it. A. L. Alderman, in 1936, recorded Hurystheus tenuicornis (Holmes) from Moss Beach, San Mateo County, Calif. In 1942 Shoe- maker recorded EHurystheus tenuicornis (Holmes) from Magdalena Bay, Lower California. It now appears that Gammaropsis tenui- cornis Holmes, 1904, Fimbriella robusta Stout, 1913, and Podoceropsis concava Shoe- maker, 1916, are synonyms of the earliest species, Hurystheus thompsoni (Walker), 1898. LITERATURE CITED Waker, A. O. Crustacea collected by W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., in Puget Sound, Pacific coast of North America, September 1897. Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 12 (session 1897-98) : 268-287, pls. 15, 16. 1898. STEBBING, T. R. R. Revision of Amphipoda. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7): 3: 350. 1899. Das Tierreich. Amphipoda: I, Gamma- ridea: 612. 1906. Hormes, 8. J. Amphipod crustaceans of the Expedition. Harriman Alaska Expedition 10: 233-246, figs. 118-128. 1904. Strout, V. R. Studies in Laguna Amphipoda. Zool. Jahrb. 34: 633-659. 1913. SHOEMAKER, C. R. Descriptions of three new species of amphipods from southern California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 29: 157-160. 1916. . A new species of amphipod crustacean (Acanthonotozomatidae) from California, and notes on Eurystheus tenuicornis. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.: 78 (art. 18): 1-8, figs. 1-4. 1931. Amphipod crustaceans collected on the Presidential Cruise of 1938. Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 101 (11): 1-52, figs. 1-17. 1942. ALDERMAN, A. L. Some new and little known amphipods of California. Univ. California. Publ. Zool. 41 (7): 53-74, 51 figs. 1936. ORNITHOLOGY —Description of a new chipping sparrow from Canada. Harry C. OBERHOLSER, Cleveland, Ohio. Several years ago, in the course of a survey of the races of Spizella passerina to determine those that occur in Texas, a new Canadian form seemed worthy of recognition. This is now put into print, particularly at the request of a prominent ornithologist of Canada. Spizella passerina boreophila, n. subsp. CANADIAN CHIPPING SPARROW Subspecific characters—Similar to Spizella passerina passerina, but larger, and ground color of upper surface, except pileum, paler, more erayish, near drab. Like Spizella passerina 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES arizonae, but darker above, particularly the pileum; sides of head and the hind neck more clearly gray (less brownish) and somewhat darker; postocular streak wider. Measurements in millimeters —Adult Wing, 70.0-74.0 (average, 72.0); tail, 59.5- 65.0 (62.3); exposed culmen, 9.0-10.0 (9.3); tarsus, 17.0-18.0 (17.3); middle toe without claw, 11.5-13.0 (12.3). Adult female: Wing, 65.0-69.5 (67.8); tail, 57.0-61.0 (58.8); ex- posed culmen, 9.0-10.0 (9.5); tarsus, 16.0— 17.5 (16.8); middle toe without claw, 11.5-12.8 (i2%3)2 Type.—Adult male, U. 8. National Museum no. 194942, Biological foo collection; Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, Canada; May 23, 1904; Edward A. Preble, original number, 1761. Geographical distribution Breeds north to northeastern Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, northeastern Alberta, central southern and central western Mackenzie, central western Yukon, and east-central Alaska; west to east central Alaska, western British Columbia, south- western Montana, western Wyoming, southern Idaho, and northern Utah; south to northern Utah, northern Colorado, and western Nebraska; and east to middle Nebraska, middle South male: Dakota, middle North Dakota, west central Ontario, and northeastern Manitoba. Winters north to north central Texas, northern Sonora, and southern California; and south to Michoa- cin, State of Mexico, and Puebla. Accidental in central northern Alaska (Point Barrow). Remarks.—As evidenced by the range given above, this race occupies a wide area in Canada and sufficiently different from both Spizella passerina passerina and Sprzella pas- serina arizonae to make its subspecific separation desirable. The original description of the Eastern Chipping Sparrow, Fringilla passerina Bech- stein,? was based on the bird from Canada. Since seems ‘ In comparison, average measurements of male Spizella passerina passerina are: wing, 69.3; tail, 56.6; exposed culmen, 9.1; tarsus 16.3; middle toe without claw, 11.7. 2 Fringilla passerina Bechstein (Borkhausen VOL. 45, No. 2 at that time most of the Canadian specimens that found their way to Europe came from the vicinity of Quebec, it is now, therefore, thought proper, as is herewith done, to designate the city of Quebec in the province of Quebec, Canada, as the type locality of Fringilla passerina Bechstein. Birds from this area have been examined and found to be identical with birds from the eastern United States, so that the eastern chipping sparrow is properly entitled to the name Spizella passerina passerina (Bechstein) 2 The Fringilla socialis of Alexander Wilson? was described without locality, but the specimen that Wilson examined was ‘‘Peale’s Museum No. 6571.” Therefore it is reasonable to suppose that Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the place at which this specimen was obtained. By fixing the type locality of Fringilla socialis Wilson as Philadelphia, Pa., which is now here done, in accordance also with the characters shown by Wilson’s plate in the work above cited, the name becomes of course a synonym of Spizella passerina passerina (Bechstein). Therefore neither of these two is applicable to the bird from middle Canada, now described; nor is this northern race the same as Spizella passerina stridula Grinnell* from California, from which it differs in its longer wing and tail, and somewhat lighter upper parts. From Spizella passerina atremaea Moore’, of northern Mexico, it is readily distinguished by its lighter, less heavily steaked upper parts and lighter lower surface. Breeding birds of this species from southern Idaho and northern Utah belong to the present race, although they are somewhat intermediate between it and Spvzella passerina arizonae. MS.), in Latham’s Algem. Uebers. Végel 6 ay pt. 2): 544, pl. 120, fig 1. 1798 (‘‘Canada’’). 3 American ornithology 2: 127, pl. 16, fig. 5. 1810 [preface, Jan. 1]. 4 Condor 29(1):81. Jan. 15, 1927. 5 Spizella passerina ,atremaeus Moore, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 50: 203. Nov. 26, 1937. (‘‘Los Frailes, Chihuahua, Mexico, near Durango- Chihuahua state line, ten miles east of Sinaloa state line, Mexico’’). Frepruary 1955 FITCH: NEW SCORPAENID FISH 61 ICHTHYOLOGY .—Pontinus clemensi, a new scorpaenid fish from the tropical eastern Pacific. JoHN E. Frrcn,! California Department of Fish and Game. (Communicated by Leonard P. Schultz.) The single specimen upon which this description is based was one of several fish species taken with hook and line in 300 feet of water by H. B. Clemens, May 3, 1954, lat. 02° 25’ N., long. 79° 00’ W. Clemens, a guest aboard the tuna clipper Mayflower, was biologist in charge on an official tuna tagging trip for the California Department of Fish and Game. This new scorpaenid is referable to the genus Pontinus, which is predominantly deep-sea and tropical. Five species of the genus have previously been described from the eastern Pacific: Pontinus sierra (Gilbert, 1890), from specimens taken in 71 to 112 fathoms by the Albatross in the Gulf of California; P. furcirhinus Garman, 1899, from numerous specimens taken in 66 to 210 fathoms by the Albatross off Panama, and near Cocos and Malpelo Islands; P. dubius Steindachner, 1902, from a specimen taken at Paita, Peru; P. strigatus Heller and Snodgrass, 1903, from a single individual found in the stomach of a shark taken near Wenman Island, Galapagos; and finally P. vaughani Barnhart and Hubbs, 1946, from an adult caught off Cedros Island, Baja California, in relatively shallow water. Diagnosis—Pontinus differs from other genera in the family Scorpaenidae in having all pectoral rays simple. The eighth ray of the left pectoral of the present specimen is branched for most of its length. This throws doubt upon the value of using ‘‘absence of branched pectoral rays” as a character for distinguishing Pontinus from Helicolenus, Hozukius, and Neomerinthe, closely related genera having few to several upper pectoral rays branched. Large series of Pontinus would have to be examined before one could 1The author is especially grateful to Jack Schott, California Department of Fish and Game, for taking the excellent photograph of the holo- type; to Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif., for his encourage- ment and helpful suggestions during preparation of the manuscript and to Arthur O. Flechsig, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, for the time and effort he spent looking for the type of P. vaughani. properly evaluate the taxonomic significance of this occurrence. The greatly produced second and third dorsal spines, which are largely free from their mem- branes, distinguish Pontinus clemenst from all species within the genus except P. vaughant. The large eye (contained 4.5 times in head), the large head (contained 2.1 times in standard length), the more numerous pored scales on lateral line (33 as compared to 28), and the generally red coloration, numerous dark spots over the entire head, body and fins, and numerous other charac- ters (Table 1) readily distinguish clemensi from vaughani. Description.—The holotype, a well-preserved specimen 282 mm in standard length, has been deposited in the collections of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. (no. 163597). Because of the greatly produced second and third dorsal spines, which suggest a close affinity to P. vaughani, a direct comparison of the two species would have been desirable; however, a search through the Barnhart collection at Scripps Institution of Oceanography as well as a careful check of other preserved material at that institu- tion failed to produce the holotype (and only known specimen) of vaughant. As a result, for ease in comparing clemensi to vaughani, the en- suing description purposely closely parallels that of Barnhart and Hubbs (1946) for P. vaughani. Head relatively large (468)? contained 2.1 times in standard length; length of orbit (104) enters head 4.5 times; greatest diameter across cornea (83) contained in head 5.7 times; length of snout (154) measures 3.0 times in head; least bony interorbital (66) measures 7.1 times; fleshy suborbital width (59) measures 8.1 times in head. When mouth is tightly closed tip of mandible fails to extend to a vertical from margin of upper lip by approximately one millimeter. The maxil- lary (247) extends to nearly vertically beneath 2 Corresponding figures in parenthesis through- out the description represent the proportional measurements expressed in thousandths of stand- ard length. Measurements, unless otherwise indi- cated, were taken according to the recommenda- tions of Hubbs and Lagler (1941). 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY posterior margin of cornea and in greatest width (63) is contained 7.4 times in head length. Spines of head are moderately strong and for the most part closely agree with the arrangement ascribed by Barnhart and Hubbs (1946) for P. vaughani. The strong, slightly convergent nasal spines are separated at their tips by a distance (33) equal to one-half bony interorbital width; tips of trifid left and simple right pre- orbital spines separated by a distance (70) only slightly less than separation (71) of blunt supra- orbital spines; right postorbital bifid as is left tympanic; left postorbital, right tympanic, and TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF PONTINUS CLEMENSI WITH P. VAUGHANI Measurements and counts P. clemensi |\P. vaughani2 M®ASUREMENTS:! Standard length. ........ by pet roe 282 427 Motalélenethwerrna sees reer 1227 Head length.... Baer cer 468 417 Eye diameter (cornea)........... 83 61 INEM iia couksussosanvocsmends 104 81 Maxillary length................. 247 244 Least suborbital width. .......... 59 70 Bony interorbital width.......... 66 56 Snoutelensthyeer eens 154 136 Third dorsal spine (longest)... . 221 208 Second anal spine (longest)....... 152 126 Fourth dorsal ray (longest).. . . 156 169 Second anal ray (longest)...... 197 221 Eleventh pectoral ray (longest)... 248 246 Relyicilensthersee re cena ; 230 254 Snout to first dorsal insertion..... 431 Snout to second dorsal insertion. 741 Snout to anal insertion........... 738 Snout to pelvie insertion......... 429 Snout to pectoral insertion. . .. 426 Pectoral insertion to first dorsal IMsentionveree reer Bye sip bn oo} 241 Pelvic insertion to first dorsal in- sertion ; eee 355 Anal insertion to dorsal contour (perpendicular). ... Laan ehh eye 266 Least caudal peduncle depth... . 106 Greatest body width (shoulders). 202 168 Dorsal peduncle length......... 142 Anal peduncle length. . Oe ee 181 First gill raker below angle (length) 32 Counts: DOrsali het ers ae re Dy Met) XI, I, 9 Anal. SNabatuaae ust 5 Ill, 5 III, 5 Pectoral ti. ola ae Er ere eee 19 20 Pel Vai gs Aaa sige ee I, 5 1,5 Caudal (principal rays)........... 7+ 6 13 Lateral line scales (pored)........ 33 28 Oblique scale rows above and parallel to lateral line........... 50 39 Seales down and back from D1 in- sertion to lateral line. ......... 10 8 Gill rakers (functional)...........| 4+ 1+ 8 2+14+49 1 Standard length in millimeters, all others expressed in thousandths of standard length. 2 From Barnhart and Hubbs (1946). OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 2. both parietal and nuchal spines simple; tips of these spines separated by distances slightly greater than least bony interorbital (80, 73, 67, and 78, respectively); below and behind tympanic spine is a thick, prominent ridge somewhat less than one-fourth as long (23) as orbit but does not end in a spine; below this ridge, near edge of orbit, behind and slightly above middle of eye lies a cluster of tiny spines (5 on the left side, 4 on the right); these spines not connected with definite ridges, but they he in advance of and just below a strong horizontal ridge that ends in a spine and that lies just above upper end of preopercle; two spines lie on shoulder near upper edge of opercle and just anterior to lateral line; more anterior of these quite strong and in length (80) enters orbit 3.5 times; posterior spine scarcely noticeable; shoulder girdle above base of pectoral fin bears a very flat bony ridge directed more upward than backward and ends in a single flat spine, tip of which is a distance (63) above pectoral insertion nearly equal to least bony in- terorbital width; the rather strong suborbital keel bears four spines on right side and only three definite spines on the left; first of these, weak on right and obsolescent on left, lies slightly behind and on a vertical beneath hind margin of pos- terior nostril; between first and second spines the ridge arched upward; second spine, bifid on right side, lies almost directly beneath center of eye; third and strongest lies on a vertical below pos- terior margin of orbit; fourth, almost at margin of preopercle, slightly above and anterior to up- per preopercular spine; before origin of sub- orbital ridge on preorbital are two other, non- spinous ridges, divergent forward; three strong, triangular spines on preorbital margin project downward, central one slightly forward and other two slightly backward; uppermost of the five preopercular spines by far strongest, ridge of the right side bears a secondary spine at its base; broadly triangular third spine next strong- est; second, much nearer first than third (roughly one-third distance between the two), also rather strong; fifth spine, obsolescent on right and weak on left, partially embedded on both sides; two strong opercular spines lie at end of slightly divergent ridges. The teeth are in villiform bands on jaws, vomer and palatines; medially premaxulary band strongly arched; anteriorly, under cover of upper lip, it becomes moderately expanded; anterior process of premaxillary tooth band somewhat Fesruary 1955 FITCH: NEW extroverted yet lies posterior to and somewhat concealed by thick, upper lip; premanillary teeth lie outside those of mandible when mouth is closed; vomerine band very narrow posteriorly but broadens anteriorly just behind anterior semicircular section; palatine band, weakly arched inward, is narrow though slightly ex- panded toward posterior end and moderately dilated at mward-hooked anterior end. Six branchiostegals; pseudobranchiae short; gill rakers on outer arch number 8 + 1 + 14 = 23; of these, ten may be considered rudimentary or non-functional (4 on upper limb and 6 on lower); On right side first raker below angle bi- furcate and its length (32) measures 3.3 times in diameter of orbit. Body covered with finely ctenoid scales; on average about one-half of surface of each scale covered by small accessory scales, also strongly etenoid; oblique rows, rather irregular and diffi- eult to count, number 50 just above and parallel to lateral line; 10 scales in series running obliquely downward and backward between first dorsal insertion and lateral line; lateral line has 33 pores _ to caudal base; scales like those of body, but somewhat smaller, cover all opercles, postorbital region and cheeks; ctenoid accessory scales occur over these areas in abundance and somewhat similar minute ctenoid scales cover interorbital ‘ a ~~ SCORPAENID FISH 63 region and extend thence forward to near nasal spines; such scales also occur on suborbital and preorbital regions; before nasal spines, on the lips, and on anterior half of mandible are numerous somewhat scalelike villi and fimbriae; small to minute ctenoid scales cover most of maxillary except near edges; small scales roughen the upper surface of eyeball and edge of bran- chiostegal rays; minute ctenoid scales cover most of outer surfaces of nearly all fin rays, including dorsal spines and also pectoral rays except where 9 of 10 lower rays are thickened. Two forward directed, round pores open at tip of lower jaw, one on either side of symphyseal knob; following this five pairs of slitlke pores from anterior to posterior are located as follows: under tip of lower jaw; under margin of lower lip half-way between first and third pairs; on center of dentary at a distance equal to half length of maxillary; behind and on a level with lower edge of maxillary; and between fourth and fifth preopercular spines; of these pores, those on dentary are largest and most obvious. Dermal filaments consist primarily of a slender supraorbital cirrus somewhat flattened at its tip (length, 12), posterior border of anterior nostril produced into a flat, fimbriated flap, no cirri apparent on body. Dorsal rays number XI, I, 9; all soft rays i he Fic. 1.—Pontinus clemensi, n. sp., holotype (U.S.N.M. 163597), from 50 fathoms, 22 miles off the coast of Colombia (lat. 02° 25’ N., long. 79° 00’ W); 282 mm in standard length. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES branched and in last one the two elements widely separated; anal rays III, 5 and all soft rays branched; principal caudal rays number 138, 11 branched and two unbranched rays extend nearly to tips of lobes; pelvic fin has one stiff spine and five branched rays; pectoral fin of 19 rays. Second and third dorsal spines greatly elon- gated, second almost completely exserted; mem- brane behind second spine deeply indented and on distal one-half reduced to a shght mem- braneous keel, terminating in a leathery flap that projects beyond bony point; behind third spine membrane curves gently for entire length to con- nect with fourth spine approximately two-thirds distance from base to tip; distally membrane of third spine terminates in a flap similar to that of second; lengths of dorsal spies in thousandths of standard length are respectively: 47, 207, 221, 128, 119, 111, 111, 106, 89, 67, 53, 99. Soft dorsal fin abruptly higher than last dorsal spines; fourth ray longest but its length (156) scarcely greater than that of either third or fifth. Second anal spine slightly longer than third and both somewhat more than twice as long as first, in thousandths of standard length these measure, respectively, 57, 152 and 131; first and second soft anal rays longest, essentially of equal length (197). Width of pectoral base (111) considerably less than half lengths (248) of tenth and eleventh (longest) rays; eighth ray on left side branched for much of its length, all others simple; all mem- branes incised to varying degrees, particularly between lowermost 10 pectoral rays; first nine of lowermost ten rays swollen distally. Length (230) of pelvic fin somewhat less than that of pectoral, contained 2.0 times in head length. Spinous dorsal, pectoral and pelvic fins in- serted almost equal distances from tip of snout (431, 429, and 426, respectively); similarly distances from tip of snout to anterior insertion of dorsal spine XII (second dorsal insertion) and insertion of first spine of anal almost equal (741 and 788). An examination of the otoliths (sagittae) indi- cates an age of eight years. When fresh the specimen was generally rose pink over most of head, back and sides, grading to silvery pink on belly; body and fins were pro- fusely spotted; most of spots were dark brown, VOL. 45, NO. 2 and sharply outlined with rust-orange rings; there were several yellow-orange blotches on and around head; most noticeable of these were on posterior part of maxillary; on cheek just pos- terior to maxillary, directly beneath eye; on nape, between dorsal insertion and a point above opercle, thence ventrally almost to a level with pectoral fin; lips were a bright orange with some yellow, membrane at hind border of eye was yellow, cirri on supraorbitals and anterior nostrils were a bright scarlet; dark brown blotches on interspinal membranes of dorsal bore overcolors of greenish yellow; otherwise, all fins had a pinkish-red cast; lining of buccal cavity was clear white; areas under opercles and around pseudo- branchiae were a dusty pink. It is an especial pleasure to be able to associate with this new and interesting scorpaenid the name of Harold B. Clemens, a biologist with the California Department of Fish and Game, whose untirmg collecting efforts have resulted in quantities of exceedingly fine specimens. LITERATURE CITED BarRNuHART, Percy 8., and Huspps, Cart L. Pon- tinus vaughani a new scorpaenid fish from Baja California. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. 5 (5): 371-390, 1 fig. 1946. GARMAN, SAMUEL. feports of an exploration off the west coasts of Mexico, Central and South American, and off the Galapagos Islands, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross, during 1891, Lieut. Commander Z. L. Tanner, U. S..N., commanding. No. 26: The Fishes. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 24: 432 pp., 85 pls. 1899. GILBERT, CHARLES Henry. Scientific results of explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross. No. 12: A preliminary report on the fishes collected by the steamer Albatross on the Pacific coast of North America during the year 1889, with descriptions of twelve new genera and ninety-two new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 13: 49-126. 1890. Hewtiter, Epmunp, and Snoparass, RosBert Evans. Papers from the Hopkins Stanford Galapagos Expedition, 1898-1899 No. 15: New fishes. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci. 5: 189-229, pls. 2-20. 1903. Husss, Cari L., and Lagimr, Karu F. Gwide to the fishes of the Great Lakes and tributary waters. Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. 18: xi + 100, 118 figs. 1941. STEINDACHNER, FRANZ. Herpetologische und ich- thyologische Ergebnisse einer Reise nach Sudamerika. Denkschr. Acad. Wiss. Wien (math.-nat. Cl.) 72: 89-148, 5 pls. 1902. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences President. ......................... MarGaret Pittman, National Institutes of Health PAVOSRHENT CLEC: aim nye sc he oe odes Fleas RaupH E. Grsson, Applied Physics Laboratory DOA A Baca te bene Se Cree re eee see Heinz Speecut, National Institutes of Health Preasurer.........-; Howakp 8. Rappnere, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) DURIEQESE oo Aen A ree Sc Sas ears CES Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications ; Harautp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... LAWRENCE A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington...................... Biological Society of Washington........................-. Hersert G. Direnan Chemical Society of Washington.................--..4 ee eee Wiiu1am W. Watton Hatomolorical Socieby of Washington... 20.2... 0--.. ees ee eee wee seers eWeekoos NeanronalGeorraphic Society.........-.-.--2-228e senate ALEXANDER WETMORE Gecolorical Society of Washington... ....25-..-.2525: +22. dee Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cor Wolambia Historical Society. ......6. 2.500. feet ee ta eee ves GILBERT GROSVENOR Borinical society of Washington... 2.0.22... ece ee ee eee ee S. L. EmMswEeLuer Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorce F. Gravatr Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT Grove Dorsey Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers........ Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers... . Helminthological Society of Washington........ eu contind sous ome Joun §. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.......Luoyp A. BuRKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houeu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers... . District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. DigcEs Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. StrppHan Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences....... F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. ReicHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: PibepeUEaT ayn O00 tio, We tse Ce tee scl nae qian ® M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER pReamiemrrany 1 OD (2. hc.3 oacksuc. oe ae oe eee ow eel A. T. McPHerson, A. B. Gurney ‘Thay disinireniy ie IGS ae ee ec, APS repack clone ere et W. W. Russy, J. R. SWALLEN BOR Of WAC Gh All the above officers plus the Senior Editor MS RIRUL EMCI TMB TELE COTES PM PF ce case US oe ails Ging WEP GATS OL Eo Ll NOE [See front cover] PRECCULIUC | COMMULEE.. .. cc ce ee ees M. Prrrman (chairman), R. E. Greson, H. Specut, H. S. Rappieysz, J. R. SwaAuLen Committee on Membership....RoGgpR W. Curtis (chairman), JoHN W. ALprRicH, GEORGE Anastos, Haroup T. Cook, Josppu J. FAHEY, FRaNcots N. FRENKIBL, PETER KING, Gorpon M. Kunz, Louis R. Maxwestu, Frorence M. Mears, Curtis W. SABROSKY, BENJAMIN ScHwartz, Bancrort W. Sitteriy, Wiuure W. SuitH, Harry WexLER Commitiee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scorr (chairman), Harry 8. Brernron, Harry R. Bortuwick, Herpert G. Drergnan, Wayne C. Hauu, AtBert M. Srone MOTE CHOWMVONOGTADRS... 01... 2.25.6 ee nor aen seas dss G. ArruHur Cooper (chairman) Mowwamuanyel956.6 5... co ts5 nas feces G. Artuur Coopmr, JamrEs I. Horrman pikyeUmery pLOOMs See cies ese ee Sn era ne: Harawtp A. Reaper, Witiiam A. Dayton omianuany: 1958. 2. os. ne ee Dean B. Cowin, JosepyH P. EK. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement... FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara EH. BranHam (chairman), JoHN S. ANDREWS, James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Groree, Bernice G. Scuupert, W. R. WevEeu For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosppH M. CaLpWwELL, R.S. Diit, T. J. Hickury, T. J. Kintian, Gorpon W. McBrips, EH. R. Priore For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn, Scorr E. Forsusu, Marearer D. Foster, M. HE. Freeman, J. K. Tayior For Teaching of Science....Monror H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. Jounson, Loutss H. MarsHanu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwEns Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis O. Rick (chairman), HeRMAN Branson, CHarues K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrirtenpDEN (chairman) Ihe digmueyane IO. an eednecsaascondoee E. C. CrittenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE sRopdonuUaryelO5 (ee a) eee. a a ose cs ee JouHN EH. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER oyJamuaryl G58ie eee ee ease eee Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. SerzLer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHiIBALD T. McPHerson (chairman) SOV ANU ATI 81 OSG iet nie clsdts setts souk Ge dieses Harowp H. Finuey, J. H. McMitien Mowanuanyl O57 oye heer ek Ans teae L. Epwin Yocum, Wruiiam J. YOUDEN pow amianvel OOS ames tiger eis setae ocean: A. T. McPumrson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education. ... RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RonALD BAmrForD, R. Percy Barnes, Wauiace R. Bropr, LeEonarp CarmicuaEL, Huenu L. Drypen, Reeina FuanNeRy, Rautpn E. Grsson, Furoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Winuiam W. Rusey, Wiuiiam H. Sespreti, Watpo L. Scumrrr, B. D. Van Evera, Wititiam EH. Wratuer, Francrs EK. JOHNSTON LUCDESCHILMLOUE OTC OUNCULOf PALALAl Sun. tm. eeeituse eos set ey Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...Francis E. Jounsvron, (chairman), S. D. Conuins, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers...Raupu P. Tirrsumr (chairman), E. G. Hamer, J. G. THoompson’ CONTENTS Brotocy.—The unitary principle. A. A. WILLIAMSON............... Matuematics.—Application of two methods of numerical analysis to the computation of the reflected radiation of a point source. PETER HENRICI Merrrorotocy.—Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather. EL WABSRUDBR fc Gh she bs MeO, ete ea csrgts ee er PALEONTOLOGY.—A new Pleistocene bat (Corynorhinus) from Mexico. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR. 2. 25/660...) «oo dle Ce oe Mycotoey.—A southern Basidiobolus forming many sporangia from globose and from elongated adhesive conidia. CHARLES DRECHSLER ZooLocy.—The genus Ogyrides (Crustacea: Caridea) in North Carolina. AUSTIN, B. WILLIAMS... 2.60006 cule seen ss de cee Zootoacy.—Notes on the amphipod crustacean Maeroides thompsoni Walker (CuARENCE Ri SHOEMAKER, =-oe-)- --e eee oe OrnitHoLoGy.—Description of a new chipping sparrow from Canada. Harry ©: OBERHOLSER:.......-c8 6.0... tsaleneink ae oe IcutHyoLocy.—Pontinus clemensi, a new scorpaenoid fish from the trop- ical ‘eastern Pacific, JoHN By Hitch]. ---.. 25. 45-eeee This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. Page 38 46 48 49 56 59 Von. 45 Marca 1955 No. 3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A, CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. Ll. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. Cowie Puitip DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuiLrorp AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 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MonocraPu No. 1, ‘‘The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa,’’ by Herbert Friedmann $4.50 INDEX to JOURNAL (vols. 1-40) and PROCEEDINGS............... OP arc cc $7.50 PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete........................-2005- $25.00 Single: volumes} unbound <1/2.4. . cyaeeee t eeicte igs neste sme) ahold Re 2.00 Single numibers)2 code cease woe ater ee ele iain ene Peerage Prices on request Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made payable to ‘“‘Washington Academy of Sciences’? and addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. RappLeys, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wor. 45 Marcu 1955 No. 3 MATHEMATICS.—Vote concerning the number of directions which, in a given motion, suffer no instantaneous rotation. J. L. EricksEn, Naval Research Laboratory. Let » denote! the velocity vector associ- ated with a motion in a three-dimensional Euclidean space. In order that the element of are in the direction of the unit vector \° be suffering no instantaneous rotation, it is necessary and sufficient that there exist a real scalar k such that @; — ko’)? = 0. (1) Thus-/ must be a real root of the cubic det (v'; — ks';) = 0. Truesdell’ calculated the discriminant D of this cubic, obtaining Me “181K. —41L + 2K? —4K® —2717 where : a Me: 2 i iE = D ; : K = 1667.1 iv = He then concluded that the number of dis- tinct directions suffering no instantaneous rotation is determined by the sign of D and that (a) If D > O there are exactly three such directions. (b) If D < 0 there is exactly one such direction. (ec) If D = O there may be one, two, three or an infinite number of such directions. He remarks that it is difficult to obtain other kinematical interpretations for the condi- mons) > (), DP) — 0, D < 0: We obtam a ' Standard tensor notation is used throughout. > TRUESDELL, C. The kinematics of vorticity. Indiana Uniy. Publ. Sci. Ser. no. 19. 1954. 65 reformulation of his conditions which should make this task easier. Let V'; = v ; — 4l6;, so that V’; = 0. We note that / is a real root of (1) if and only if 1 = k — 14/ isa real root of det (V’; — 15';) = 0, (2) from which it follows that either both of the discriminants of these two cubies vanish, or both are nonzero and of the same sign. Thus, in a, b, ¢ we may replace D by the discriminant F# of (2). Using Truesdell’s re- sults, we easily obtain E = 4M° — 27N’, where M = —45%1V'V'; = 4V*V';, N = det V';. For an isochoric motion, J = 0, so V'; = y,. At a pomt, an arbitrary motion can be decomposed into an isochoric motion for which V'; are the velocity gradients and a pure expansion or contraction, for which 12/6; are the velocity gradients, and only the isochoric part influences EH. In trying to obtain local characterizations of the three types of motions described in a, b, ¢, it is thus sufficient to consider only isochoric motions, a fact which is not obvious from Truesdell’s analysis. One conclusion is easy to obtain. Letting D;; = 4(V.; + Vy), Wi; = ’Vi; — Vis), we obtain M=ViD"D; — WW. A necessary condition that H > 0 is that M > O. The latter condition holds if and only if 66 JOURNAL OF 0 ANDY Din << Ik, DY Ds > 0, wnere We is the kinematical vorticity num- 2 Mf mn 2 3 ber introduced and studied by Truesdell” °, calculated for the isochoric part of the * TRUESDELL, C. Two measures of vorticity. Journ. Rational Mech. Anal. 2: 173-217. 1953. MINERALOGY —Thermal analysis and Faust, U.S. Geological Survey. Griffthite was described by Larsen and Steiger in 1917 as a new member of the chlorite group. It was found as fillings in the amyegdules of a basalt from Cahuenga Pass, Griffith Park, Los Angeles, Calif. They noted that griffithite ‘differs so greatly, both opti- cally and chemically, from any of the chlo- rites previously described as to require a new name... .” In 1928 Larsen and Steiger restudied erifithite, investigating in particular the dehydration and rehydration phenomena. They noted the parallel behavior of non- tronite and griffthite on thermal treatment but did not suggest that they might be members of the same group of minerals. A. N. Winchell (Winchell and Winchell, 1927) considered griffiithite to be a member of his leverrierite-stilpnomelane system, closely related to jefferisite. Orcel (1927) in his comprehensive study of the chlorite group included griffithite within the group, but he was not too con- vineed, for he writes (p. 307): ‘Elle posséde le clivage habituel des chlorites et renferme une grande quantité d’eau s’échappant a 100°. Il serait interessant d’etudier a nouveau sa déshydration.” (Italics G.T.F.) Turner and Hutton (1935) described a second occurrence of griffithite in ‘‘a fine grained red schist which outcrops in the bed of Twelve-mile Creek Lake Wakatipu District”? of Western Otago, New Zealand. This schist contains about 50 percent highly ferruginous green epidote, percent erifithite, 15 percent fine-grained quartz, 8 percent hematite, and, as accessory minerals, a uniaxial pennine, opaque iron ores, and calcite. Berman (1937), probably following Win- 25 _ | Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 motion. It can be shown that the kinematical vorticity number calculated for the actual motion is never larger than that mentioned above, so it too must be less than one in order that H > 0. A motion for which H > 0 is less rotational than a simple shearing motion, for which Wx = 1 and F = 0. X-ray studies of griffithite.s Groren T chell’s classification (1927), classified grif- fithite as a member of the vermiculite group. In 1945 Faust (unpublished data), using differential thermal analysis equipment and the tube sample used by Steiger, proved erifithite to be a member of the mont- morillonite group. Ross (1946) independently had arrived at the same conclusion from optical data and classified griffiithite as an iron-rich saponite. He recalculated Steiger’s analysis in the now conventional form for a member of the montmorillonite group, that is: (Ca)o.50 Nao. 9) 1G = 01 T [Mei ss Feo.s2 Feo.a Alo.osl [Alo 81 Sis.19] OwlOH|> and noted that the presence of 7.83 percent of FeO is the highest recorded for any member of the montmorillonite group. DESCRIPTION AND CHEMICAL Griffithite locality: Cahuenga Pass, Griffith Park, Los Angeles, Calif. Tube sample prepared ANALYSES by Steiger for analysis, U.S.G.S. Record no. 3112-B (Steiger’s No. 1444-b). Analysis 1, Table 1. Saponite locality: Cathkin, Carmunnock Parish, County Lanarkshire, Scotland, U.S.G.S. Record no. D-67. Analysis 2, Table 1. Thuringite locality: Schmiedefeld, near Saal- feld, Thuringia, Germany, U.S.N.M. no. R-4554. Analysis 8, Table 1, is on similar material de- scribed by Jung and Kohler (1930). Chlorite (Prochlorite?) locality: Prince’s Soap- stone Quarry, on the Schuylkill River, approxi- mately one-quarter mile south of Lafayette Station, Philadelphia County, Pa. No analyses. Leuchtenbergite locality: Nevada Tungsten mine near Gabbs, Nev. Analysis 4, Table 1. Marcu 1955 FAUST: Taste 1—CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF GRIFFITHITE, SAPONITE, THURINGITE, AND LEUCHTENBERGITE No. 1 2 3 | 4 Mineral | Griffithite Saponite | Thuringite graces we | Sete | Cai | eter | ne Locality Angeles, Lanarkshire, eet mines near * Calif. Scotland Gaananv Gabbs, Nev. SiO, 39.64 | 40.16 ZOSSZ a eee OZ, AlsO; 9.05 8.03 ACL Nee ZORC9 Fe.0; eae, Soa) |! S70 4) 0.04 FeO 7.83 SECO Se OG 1.20 MgO 15.80 AQEAON S| 45 34.25 MnO — a — trace CaO 2.93 iQ} 0.02 Na.O| 0.71 | — | = 0.51 K.0 none | — | — 0.07 TiO. | — — | trace | trace Sa | | 001 HsO> | 12.31 1 || Oe?” |) O83 H:O7 4.90 7.60 10.31 12.77 > 100.49 | 100.58 | 99.65 | 100.71 Analyst: 1. G. Steiger, 2. L. T. Richardson, 3. H. Jung and E. Kohler, 4. C. Milton. DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS The differential thermal analysis appara- tus used in this study is a modification of that designed by Alexander, Hendricks, and Nelson (1939). A description of the tech- niques used in the Geochemistry and Petrol- ogy Laboratory, U.S. Geological Survey, has been given by Faust (1948) and (1950). The samples were heated at the rate of 12°C. per minute. The records were obtained as photographs. Differential thermal analyses curves of eriffithite, saponite, thuringite, chlorite, and leuchtenbergite were prepared under the same experimental conditions. In addition a sample of thuringite was placed in the furnace and vented with two holes by means of a stiff wire. Venting a charge, after it has been tamped in place, produces a group of holes in the charge so that a series of paths are available for the escape of gases from the charge or the passage of the furnace gases into the vent holes. The results of the DTA experiments are given in Fig. 1, and the data are summarized in table 2. GRIFFITHITE 67 The selection of the chlorites, thuringite, chlorite, and leuchtenbergite for study was to provide for comparison an iron-rich chlorite, thuringite, and two other chlorites giving typical curves for the chlorite group. Orcel (1927, 1929) has published curves for typical chlorites that he studied which are similar to the curves for chlorite and leuch- tenbergite shown in Fig. 1. A study of these curves shows conclusively that griffithite is related to saponite and is thus a member of the montmorillonite group. The differential thermal analysis curve for griffithite is totally unrelated to the curves of the chlorites. Chlorites differ C-180 347 207 922 164 c-82 TE ee 634 860 240 904 179 c-588 707 SS aN eee rt en ree 534274 c-589 707 593 573 535 C-198 86890! 822 am 7 842 883 682 87I C-193 919 810 = 898 851 ® 5 7. oD a € \ 2 \ X=) 5 3 = 694 [S) > Increasing temperature Fia. 1.—Differential thermal analysis curves for griffithite, C-180; saponite, C-82; thuringite, C-588; thuringite, vented with two holes, C-589; chlorite, C-198; leuchtenbergite, C-193. The tem- perature on the left is about 25°C, the temperature at the termination of the curves, on the right, is about 1000°C. 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 3 TABLE 2.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE THERMAL ANALYSIS CuRVEsS! OF GRIFFITHITE, SAPONITE, THURINGITE, CHLORITE, AND LEUCHTENBERGITE Temperature of Peaks (°C) Record | Low temperature Mineral Intermediate temperature Weight High temperature of Locality sample Endother- J Exother- mic i ie Endothermic used Endo- (grams) ther- mic Endo-) Exo- ther- mic Exo- ther- mic Exo- ther- mic Griffithite..| C-180 | 164 | 207 347 = = — C-82 179 | 240 | Present — — | 634 (Broad hump) | Saponite... Thuringite | C-588 | — | — — 534 | 574 | 584 CAD |) = = 535 | 573 | 593 C-198 | — = Thuringite Chlorite.... Leuchten- bergite...| C-193 | — — = — = ay = == S00 — | 904 = = || cor — | 822 | 842 | 868 | 883 | 901 — | 810 | 851 | 871 | 898 | 919 Cahuenga Pass, | 0.4625 | Griffith Park, Los Angeles, Calif. Cathkin, Car- munnock Parish, County Lan- arkshire, Scotland, Schmiedefeld, near Saalfeld, Thuringia, Germany. Same as above. Prince’s Quarry Lafayette Station, Philadelphia County, Pa. 0.5290 0.5323 0.5905 0.5185 Nevada Tung- 0.5540 sten mine neat Gabbs, Nev. 1 These curves were all obtained with a resistance of 600 ohms in the galvanometer circuit. from montmorillonite in that they have only a negligible amount of “‘low-tempera- ture’ water and that they undergo their ereatest loss in water content at an inter- mediate temperature. For the curves given in Fig. 1, the temperature range is from 535 to 695°C. It is interesting to compare the dehydra- tion data of Larsen and Steiger (1928) with the DTA curves given in this paper. Their studies required 5 to 7 hours to raise the temperature of the sample from 25°C. to 290°C., after which most of the water had been driven off. Optical examination of the erifithite heated to 290°C. led them to conclude: “Their crystal structure does not break down even when heated at about 300°C. at which temperatures nearly all their water is driven off.’ Their conclusions are in accord with the present work. The DTA studies show lower temperatures for the peaks representing the loss of the ‘‘low- temperature’? water, as would be expected when more rapid rates of heating are em- ployed. X-RAY STUDIES X-ray data for griffithite—The X-ray data on griffithite were obtained using a portion of the tube sample prepared by Steiger. This material had been kept tightly corked and represents the air-dried mineral. The samples for X-ray analysis were pre- pared as spindles with Duco cement as the mounting medium. The patterns were made using filtered copper radiation. The indices were assigned following the methods given by Brindley (1951). The value of the b parameter was calculated from the 06 reflection. The results of this work are given in table 3 along with data for saponite (Faust, 1951) and thuringite (Von Engel- hardt, 1942). A comparison of the data in Table 3 shows that the X-ray powder diffraction data for griffithite and saponite are in good agreement, allowing for differences in com- position, whereas the data for the iron-rich chlorite, thuringite, are totally unrelated to these montmorillonite minerals. A portion of the griffithite was treated with ethylene Marca 1955 FAUST: glycol, packed into a Lindemann glass capillary tube, and examined by X-ray techniques. The resulting X-ray powder diffraction pattern showed that the positions of the basal reflections (001) had shifted. The value for (001) was found to be 18.0 + A. The results of the study by X-ray meth- ods show that griffithite is a member of the montmorillonite group. Identification of the phases formed from the dissociated minerals——X-ray powder dif- fraction patterns were obtained from the products remaining after the dissociation had taken place and the samples had been TasBLe 3—X-RAY PowpeR Dtirrraction Data For GRIFFITHITE, SAPONITE, AND THURINGITE (Cu/Ni; } = 1.5418A) Thuringite Griffithite Saponite Schmiedefeld, Cahuenga Pass, Cathkin near Germany; after Calif. Glasgow, Scotland Von Engelhardt, 1942 Indices | d(A) | I | Indices | d(A) it |) lepiBees (exe) || it | | 001 [15.4 |vs | 001 {14.8 | vs | | | C01 13.6 |ms 002 7.9 |m 002 Hott || yest) | 002 | 6.89 lvs 003 | 5.28 \vw| 003 | 5.14 | vw 11, 02 | 4.6C |m | 11, G2 | 4.59 | ms b} 003, 020) 4.62 |s 4.34 | vw 004 3.93 ivw 004 3.79 | vw | | 13, 20 | 2.613) m = 006 m 202, 131] 2.602|ms 560 006 =| 2.545] md _ 2.452 |lvw 203, 132) 2.451/ms 202, 133] 2.384/ms 04, 22 | 2.298 lvw 204, 133] 2.259|ms | 204, 135) 1.995|s 1.852| vw | 206, 135] 1.875|/mw | 205, 136] 1.809|w 15, 24, | 1.740 |vw |15, 24, | 1.747|w 31 31 207, 136] 1.713|vw 206, 137] 1.654|w 06, 33 | 1.541 |ms | C6, 33 | 1.543] sb | 060, 331] 1.551\s ‘ 062, 331,| 1.513|mw 1.495) vw 333 1.458)vw |209, 138,| 1.419|vw 333 0.0.10 1.405|\ vw 208, 139) 1.386|m 26, 40 | 1.330 |w | 26, 40 | 1.327) m b | 400 1.332|w 17 1.278] vw b 19, 46, | 1.001 |vw 53 19, 46,| 0.999] vw d 53 60, 39 | 0.888 |vw | 60, 39 | 0.890) vw b b = broad d = diffuse GRIFFITHITE 69 heated to about 1000°C. The results are as follows: 1. Dissociated griffthite, sample C-180, consists of maghemite, cristobalite, and hypersthene. The quality of the X-ray powder pattern obtained from this material is fair. 2. Dissociated saponite, sample C-82, consists of hypersthene, hematite, and cristobalite. The quality of the X-ray powder pattern is fairly good. 3. Dissociated thuringite, samples C-588 and C-589, seems to contain a spinel-group mineral, probably maghemite. The X-ray patterns obtained from these two samples are rather poor, and they both contain the same lines, but the number of lines present is small and they are rather broad and diffuse. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This paper presents the experimental evidence for classifying griffthite as a member of the montmorillonite group and withdrawing it from the chlorite group. The inclusion of griffthite and cron- stedtite in the chlorite group of minerals has always posed some difficulties in the correlation of their optical properties with those of the other members. The strong birefringence of cronstedtite and griffithite (y — a = 0.087) can not be correlated with the low birefringence of the chlorites. Hendricks (1939) showed that the crystal structure of cronstedtite (2FeO-Fe.O3-SiO,- 2H.O) is related to that of kaolinite. With the reclassification of griffithite as a mont- morillonite, two of the principal enigmas have been removed from the puzzling accumulated data on the chlorites. The recent experimental demonstration of poly- morphism in this group by Brindley, Oughton, and Robinson (1950) will further simplify the relationships. REFERENCES ALEXANDER, Lyte T., Henpricks, STERLING B., and Neuson, R. A. Minerals present in soil colloids; II, Estimation in some representative soils. Soil Sci. 48: 273-279. 1939. BerMAN, Harry. Constitution and classification of the natural silicates. Amer. Min. 22: 342- 408. 1937. Brinpiey, G. W., editor. X-ray identification and 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES crystal structures of clay minerals: Chapters 4 and 12 London, Mineral. Soe. 1951. Brinpiey, G. W., Oucutron, B. M., and Rostn- son, K. Polymorphism of the chlorites. I, Or- dered structures. Acta Cryst. 8: 408-416. 1950. ENGELHARDT, WoLtr von. Die Strukturen von Thuringit, Bavalit und Chamosit und thre Stellung in der Chloritgruppe. Zeit. Krist. 104: 142-159. 1942. Faust, Groren T. Thermal analysis of quartz and its use in calibration in thermal analysis studies. Amer. Min. 88: 337-345. 1948. Thermal analysis studies on carbonates: I, Aragonite and calcite. Amer. Min. 85: p. 207-224. 1950. Thermal analysis and X-ray studies of sauconite and of some zinc minerals of the same paragenetic association. Amer. Min. 386: 795-822. 1951. HENDRICKS, STERLING B. Random structures of layer minerals as illustrated by cronstedtite (2FeO: Fe.O;-SiOz:2H»O0). Possible iron con- tent of kaolin. Amer. Min. 24: 529-539. 1939. Henpricks, Stertine B. and ALpxanpErR, LYLE T. Minerals present in soil colloids. I, De- scriptions and methods for identification. Soil Sci. 48: 257-272. 1939. vol. 45, No. 3 June, H., and Kéuupr, E. Untersuchungen tiber den Thuringit von Schmiedefeld in Thiiringen. Chemie der Erde 5: 182-200. 1930. Larsen, Esper S., and Steiger, Georar Minera- logic notes. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci. 7: 6-12. 1917. Dehydration and optical studies of alunogen, nontronite and griffithite. Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 15: 1-19. 1928. OrRcEL, JEAN Recherches sur la composition chimi- que des chlorites. Bull. Soc. Francaise Min. 50: 75-456. 1927. . Recherches sur la déshydratation des chlo- rites. Congrés Soc. Savantes, Comptes Ren- dus 1927: 75-80. 1929. Ross, CLarence 8. Sauconite, a clay mineral of the montmorillonite group. Amer. Min. 31: 411-424. 1946. Turner, F. J., and Hurron, C. O. Stilpnomelane and related minerals as constituents of schists from western Otago, New Zealand. Geol. Mag. 72: p. 1-8. 1935. WincHetu, N. H., and WincHetu, A. N. Elements of optical mineralogy; An introduction to micro- scopic petrography; ed. 2, 2: 424 pp. New York, 1927. PALEONTOLOGY .—Notes on Permian rhynchonelliids. FRANcIS G. STEHLI, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.! (Communicated by David H. Dunkle.) Attention has frequently been called to the intensive diversification of Jurassic rhynchonellids. Cooper and Williams (1952, p. 330) have pomted out, however, that this expansion is in part an artifact of the literature resulting from the contrast be- tween the intensive splitting of Jurassic forms and a more conservative treatment of those of the Triassic. These investigators have also noted that the rhynchonellid deployment actually began at least as early as the Triassic. This observation is readily confirmed by a survey of literature on Triassic brachiopods, for it indicates the presence of a large number of still unrecog- nized rhynchonellid genera. The Mesozoic expansion may have resulted from reduced competition concomitant with the termina- tion or severe reduction of many brachiopod lines at the close of the Paleozoic. Such a condition would have favored the rapid expansion of pre-adapted rhynchonellid phyla. Whether or not this was the case, the 1 Publications of the Division of the Geological Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Contribution No. 702. late Paleozoic, and particularly Permian rhynchonellid faunas, are of unusual sig- nificance for here are to be found the stocks ancestral to the Mesozoic diversification. Rhynchonellids are not common in the Permian of North America. They are, however, more diverse than the present literature indicates. Recent collecting in the Wordian rocks of the Guadalupe Mountains, Tex., has revealed the presence of several new forms and allows increased detail in our knowledge of some previously described forms. Because of the unusual evolutionary interest attaching to Permian rhyncho- nellids, those forms represented by suffi- ciently abundant and perfect material are described below. All the specimens studied are siliceous replacements prepared by acid etching of material collected in the upper part of the lower Getaway member of the Cherry Canyon formation. The collections were made near Pine Springs Camp, Tex., be- tween U. 8. Highway 62 and the Pasotex pipeline road on the west side of a road leading from U.S. 62 to the Airways Station. Marcu 1955 The best silicified material was found on the ridge crest south of the middle gully of a eroup of three running east-west and drain- ing into the water course parallel to the road. All the easily accessible worthwhile material has been collected. The etched faunas are housed at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, the United States National Museum in Wash- ington, D. C., and at the California Insti- tute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif. The deposits from which the fossils were collected appear to represent a detrital fan adjacent to a small reef, though the latter has been largely removed by erosion. Some specimens are in position of growth, but much of the material is detrital. The locality is remarkable for the diversity of its fauna. Invertebrate groups represented in the approximate order of abundance are Bra- chiopoda, Fusulinidae, Bryozoa, Porifera, Gastropoda, Pelecypoda, Echinoidea, Tetra- coralla, Crinoidea, Ammonoidea, Nauti- loidea, Trilobita, Amphineura, and Seaphopoda. The rhynchonellid brachiopods are found largely in the detrital material about the reef, but occur sparingly in blocks in which much of the material is in position of growth. The material here described and figured is housed in the paleontological collections of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Superfamily RHYNCHONELLACEA Schuchert, 1896 ? Family CAMAROTOECHIIDAE Schuchert, 1929 Genus Fascicosta? Stehli, n. gen. Genotype—Rhynchonella ? longaeva Girty. Diagnosis—Small impunctate uniplicate in- cipiently fascicostate Permian rhynchonellids ornamented with fine concentric lines; foramen small, subapical; deltidial plates large; pedicle interior with dental plates; brachial interior with hinge plate undivided and supported by a broad median ridge or low septum; teeth and sockets denticulate. Range—Wordian to Capitanian. Discussion—The incipiently fasciostate rib- bing of this genus is very unusual for a rhyn- chonellid. Insofar as the writer is aware it is approached among upper Paleozoic members of 2 Lat. fascis, bundle; Lat. costa, rib. STEHLI: PERMIAN RHYNCHONELLIDS 71 the group only by Allorhynchus ramosum Bell from the Windsor group of Nova Scotia in which there is bifurcation of the costae. The form described by Bittner (1890, p. 192) as Rhyn- chonellina juvavica from the Triassic deposits in the Alps also exhibits fasciocostation but bears a divided hinge plate and is thus generically dis- tinct. The strong denticulation of the hmge teeth and sockets is not unusual in Permian rhyn- chonellids and has been noted in several genera by Cloud (1944, p. 55). Extensive and detailed studies will be necessary to determine its presence or absence in other genera and its taxonomic significance. Fascicosta longaeva (Girty) Figs. 1-17 Rhynchonella ? longaeva Girty, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 58: 322-323, pl. 15, figs. 18-19. 1909. Material—This species is represented by two complete specimens, AMNH 27904:1 and AMNH 27904:2. In addition there are seven pedicle and four brachial valves, all of which are more or less complete, which collectively bear the designation AMNH 27904. Diagnosis—Small subpentagonal rhyncho- nelliform shells. Pedicle valve slightly convex; sulcus well developed, beginning near midlength and containing 2 to 4 costae on the floor of the valve, while each lateral margin usually bears a smaller one; beak long, little incurved; foramen small, subapical, limited by large conjunct deltidial plates. Brachial valve strongly convex; fold low with 3 to 5 costae on top and a smaller one at each side. Each valve ornamented with 15 to 25 fine high rounded costae extending to the beak and increasing toward the front by bifurca- tion and implantation; the entire shell surface bearing fine concentric lines. Pedicle interior with small dental plates; posi- tion of the muscle insertions indeterminable. Brachial interior with a raised undivided hinge plate separated from the lateral shell walls by deep denticulate sockets; hinge plate bearing posteriorly a slight depression which received the diductor muscles; hinge plate supported by a low broad ridge or rarely by a low but well developed septum; crura not observed; anterior adductor sears depressed, elongate, located at either side of the ridge or septum near its anterior end; posterior adductor scars raised, located posterior to the other pair and anterolaterally directed. “I i) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 Measurements in millimeters of two specimens on Capitan Peak and from several somewhat are as follows: questionable localities in the vicinity. It is un- ; 9.8 2 known outside the Guadalupe Mountains. Length 9.8 10.2 Width 10.2 11.2 Discussion.—In his original description of the Thickness 6.9 7.8 species Girty (1909, p. 322) expressed doubt as to Range.—I have found this species in the lower its exact generic placement. He placed it ques- part of the Getaway member of the Cherry — tionably with Rhynchonella. It is so distinctive as Canyon formation. It has been reported by to deserve a position as the genotype and only Girty (1909, p. 323) from the Capitan limestone known species of a new genus. Fascicosta longaeva (Girty) Fre. 1.—Pedicle exterior showing fascicostation and prolongation of costae onto the umbo. AMNH 27904:1 (X2). Fig. 2.—Pedicle exterior showing increase of costae by bifurcation. AMNH. 27904:2 C<2ye Fig. 3.—Exterior of brachial valve showing the fine concentric ornamentation characteristic of the species. AMNH 27904:1 (X7). Fic. 4.—Brachial exterior showing increase of costae by im- plantation and the extension of costation onto the umbo. AMNH 27904:1 (X2). Fie. 5.—Brachial exterior showing extension of costae onto the umbo and the small pedicle foramen and large deltidial plates of the pedicle beak. AMNH 27904:2 (x2). Fra. 6.—Brachial interior showing the reflection of the external ornamentation and also the undivided hinge plate. AMNH 27904:3 (x2). Fie. 7.— Profile showing the strong convexity of the brachial valve and the lesser convexity of the pedicle valve. AMNH 27904:1 (X2). Fie. 8.—Posterior showing extension of costation onto the umbo, pedicle valve slightly broken. AMNH 27904:2 (x2). Fria. 9.—Posterior view showing the increase anteriorly of the costae. AMNH 27904:1 (x2). Fig. 10.—Anterior showing irregular lamination of the valves near the front and the nature of the fold and sulcus. AMNH 27904:2 (x2). Fra. 11.—Profile showing unequal convexity of the two valves. AMNH 27904:2 (X2). Fie. 12.—Anterior showing irregular laminae and the nature of the fold and suleus. AMNH 27904:1 (2). Fria. 13.—Pedicle interior showing hinge teeth and dental plates and unusual plate partly shutting off the rostral cavity. AMNH 27904:4 (X2). Fria. 14.—Brachial interior of a specimen with a small median septum, showing the undivided hinge plate. AMNH 27904:7 (X2). Fre. 15.—Hinge plate showing denticulation of dental sceket. AMNH 27904:6 (X5). Fia. 16.—Pedicle interior showing the small pedicle foramen and large deltidial plates and the adductor and diductor muscle scars. AMNH 27904:4 (2). Fic. 17.—Brachial interior of a specimen without a median septum showing the undivided hinge plate and depressed posterior adductor scars and raised anterior adductor scars. AMNH. 27904:5 (X2). Allorhynchus ? permianus Stehli, n. sp. Fra. 18.—Pedicle exterior of a specimen with the pedicle beak missing but paucicostate ornamenta~ tion evident. AMNH 27905:1 (x2). Fra. 19.—Brachial exterior showing paucicostate ornamentation. AMNH 27905:1 (X2). Fia. 20.—Profile of specimen with the pedicle beak missing and the two valves gaping slightly. AMNH 27905:1 (X2). osterior showing the extension of paucicostation onto the umbo. AMNH 27905:1 (x2). Fra. 22.—Hinge plate showing its divided nature and at the left the teeth in the denticulate hinge socket. AMNH 27905:2 (x7). Fie. 23.—Anterior view showing the nature of the fold and suleus. AMNH 27905:1 (X2). Fig. 24.—Umbo of the brachial valve and underside of the beak of the pedicle valve showing the large pedicle foramen and the very small deltidial plates, which fail to close above the brachial valve. AMNH 27905:3 (x5). Fra. 25.—Brachial interior showing the divided hinge plate and the internal reflection of costation. AMNH 27905:2 (X2). Fra. 26.—Pedicle interior showing the well developed dental plates. AMNH 27905:4 (X2). Fie. 27. Pedicle exterior showing paucicostate ornamentation extending onto the umbo. The holotype, AMNH 27905:5 (x2). Fra. 28.—Profile showing the unequal convexity of the valves. The holotype AMNH 27905:5 (X2). Fre. 29.—Brachial exterior showing paucicostate ornament and the large almost unrestricted pedicle foramen. The holotype AMNH 27905:5 (X2). Fic. 30.—Posterior view showifig extension of costation onto the umbones. The holotype AMNH 27905:5 (x2). Fig. 31.—Anterior view showing the nature of the fold and sulcus. The holotype AMNH 27905:5 (X2). Leiorhynchoidea cloudi Cooper Fig. 32.—Brachial interior showing hinge plate and median septum as well as adductor muscle scars- AMNH 27906:3 (X2). i ate and dental socket showing denticulation. AMNH 27906:1 (X65). Fre. 34.—Interior of beak region of the pedicle valve showing the central raised adductor scars, the 2 Sepressee diductor sears and in the rostral cavity the tracks and scars of the median pedicle muscles. 1 Note also the absolescence of dental plates. AMNH 27906:2 (x2). Fia. 35.—Pedicle exterior showing ie strong paucicostate ornamentation and its obsolescence at the umbo. AMNH 27906:4 (X1). Fre. 36.—Detail of the hinge region of the brachial valve showing the medial trough, the median septum, the insertions of the brachial pedicle muscles and the special triangular insertions of the diductor mus- cles. AMNH 27906:3 (<5). Wellerella ? sp. Fic. 37.—Hinge plate and dental socket showing fine denticulation. AMNH 27907:1 (X5). Fia. 38.—Brachial interior showing entire hinge plate, and strong median septum. The floor of the valve shows the adductor sears. AMNH 27907:1 (X2). Fig. 39.—Exterior of brachial valve showing the relatively few costae and their obsolescence on the umbo. AMNH 27907:1 (X2). Marcu 1955 STEHLI: PERMIAN RHYNCHONELLIDS 73 Fias. 1-39.—(See opposite page for explanation). 14 JOURNAL OF THE Genus Allorhynchus Weller, 1910 Discussion—Means for distinguishing this genus from other Mississipian rhynchonellids have been pointed out by Weller (1914, p. 197). There are few known Pennsylvanian or Permian genera with which Allorhynchus might be con- fused. It most nearly approaches Terebratuloidea from which it is distinguished by the presence of dental plates. It bears some resemblance to Uncinunellina ? pulchra Cooper from the middle Permian of Sonora, Mexico, but differs in the absence of concentric surface ornament and a brachial median septum. Allorhynchus ? permianus Stehli, n. sp. Figs. 18-31 Material.—This species is known from 15 more or less complete specimens and from 9 brachial and 11 pedicle valves. Holotype, AMNH 27905:5. Paratypes, AMNH 27905. Diagnosis.—Small subpentagonal rhyncho- nelliform shells. Pedicle valve slightly convex; sulcus shallow, arising near midlength and con- taining 3 through 4 costae; lateral slopes bearing 5 through 8 costae; beak long, not incurved; delthyrium mostly open, deltidial plates reduced to small triangular projections which may or may not meet above the brachial beak. Brachial valve moderately convex; fold generally low with 4 through 5 costae; beak short and hidden beneath that of the other valves. Both valves paucicostate with 15 to 20 fine angular costae extending to the beak; no other surface ornamentation is present. Pedicle interior with dental plates and large flat topped denticulate hinge teeth; position of muscle insertions uncertain. Brachial interior with a deeply divided hinge plate; median septum absent; crura long and recurved; sockets dentic- ulate; position of muscle insertions uncertain. Measurements in millimeters of seven speci- mens are as follows: WEVAvoos Gol 19 1G WhO Wd O38 BA WCW ccc. 109 m8 M7 iB 0.0 O68 7.0 Thickness... 6.8 7.0 6.6 8.4 5.7 5.6 5.5 Range:—Lower Getaway member of — the Cherry Canyon formation (Wordian). Discussion:—The generic reference of this species is made with some reservations for Allorhynchus is unknown in the Pennsylvanian, and in addition there are noteworthy differences between A. ? permianus and Mississippian species placed in the genus. Among these is the absence in A. ? permianus of concentric striae on the shell WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 surface and the presence of well developed dental plates and strong hinge teeth. In addition, some details of the morphology of the genotype are unknown and make comparison difficult. It is unknown, for instance, whether or not the teeth and sockets of A. heteropsis are denticulate. Should they prove not to be, A. ? permianus represents a new genus. MORPHOLOGY OF OTHER PERMIAN RHYNCHONELLIDS Leiorhynchoidea cloudi was described by Cooper (1953, p. 44) from the middle Permian of Sonora, Mexico. Additional material is present in the Getaway member of the Cherry Canyon formation in the Guadalupe Mountains, and though largely fragmentary shows excellent de- tail. The sockets in Cooper’s material did not show denticulation, but it is clearly present in the material at hand. Its absence in the Mexican specimens is probably due to poor preservation. Cooper noted that the dental plates were greatly reduced in his specimens. In the Guada- lupe Mountains specimens they are united in adults with the wall of the rostral cavity. In addi- tion to the muscle scars noted by Cloud (1944, p. 57) in Leiorhynchoidea, Guadalupe Mountains material shows in the rostral cavity the pair of small median pedicle muscle scars characteristic of modern rhynchonellids. The examination of a large number of speci- mens of various rhynchonellid species currently assigned to Wellerella and taken from various Permian horizons has shown that the teeth and sockets are denticulate. Insofar as I am aware, the nature of the teeth and sockets has not been ascertained for the genotype, W. tetrahedra, and the question deserves further study in the in- terests of achievement of a natural classification. REFERENCES y Birrner, A. Brachiopoden der Alpinen Trias. Abh. Geol. Reichs. 14: 1890. Croup, P. E. Jn R. E. King et al., Geology and paleontology of the Permian area northwest of Las Delicias, southwestern Coahuila, Mexico. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 52. 1944. Cooprr, G. A. In Cooper et al., Permian fauna at El Antimonio, western Sonora, Mexico. Smith- sonian Mise. Coll. 119 (2). 1953. Coopger, G. A., and Wriuiams, A. The signifi- cance of the stratigraphic distribution of bra- chiopods. Journ. Pal. 26: 326-337. 1952. Girty,G.H. The Guadalupian fauna. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 58. 1909. Wetter, S. The Mississippian Brachiopoda of the Mississippi Valley basin. Illinois State Geol. Surv. Monogr. 1. 1914. Marcu 1955 REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALA 75 ZOOLOGY —Some Rhizocephala found on brachyuran crabs in the West Indian region. Epwarp G. ReinHaArb, Catholic University of America. The present paper contains notes on six species of the genus Sacculina which occur in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Two of these are described as new and are named Sacculina americana and Sac- eulina boschmai. The specimens reported on are chiefly recent accessions of the United States National Museum which were lent to the writer for study. The drawings (except Fig.1) were made by Miss Pei-Tsing Liu. In addition to the species treated here, there are two other members of the genus reported for the West Indian region. These are Sacculina hirsuta Boschma, which occurs on Pilumnus caribaeus and Pilumnus dasypodus (Boschma 1925, 1931; Reinhard 1950), and Sacculina schmitti Boschma 1933, 1950) known only from the type speci- ment found on Anomalothir furcillatus. Sacculina bicuspidata Boschma Fig. 1 Sacculina bicuspidata Boschma, 1931, pp. 342- 344, fig. 7, 1 (external appearance), fig. 31 (longitudinal sections), fig. 32 (external cuticle) ; 1937, pp. 212-213, fig. 8 (male organs and col- leteric glands). Type specimen on WMicrophrys bicornutus (Latreille). Tobago, British West Indies. Material examined.—Eastern shore, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, St. Thomas Harbor, station 23, April 4, 1937; two specimens on two Microphrys bicornutus (Latreille). Smithsonian- Hartford Expedition. U.S.N.M. 92179. Gulf of Mexico, Oregon station 279, 29° 11’ N.., 86° 52.5’ W., 305 fathoms; February 24, 1950; one specimen on Trachycarcinus spinulifer Rathbun. U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service coll. U.S.N.M. 92355. The larger of the two specimens from St. Thomas measures 5 mm in length, 5.5 mm in breadth, and 2 mm in thickness; the smaller one, 3 by 3 by 1.5 mm. In both cases the mantle open- ing is elevated but not conspicuously so. The pos- terior angles of the larger specimen are drawn out into lappets. The external cuticle bears delicate rugae resembling a fingerprint pattern. Both specimens have eggs in the mantle cavity and are therefore mature. Sections were made of the smaller specimen. The thick-walled, cylindrical testes, located out- side the visceral mass, are separate tubes of approximately equal size that merge gradually into short vasa deferentia. The vasa twist slightly near their terminations. A muscular sheath sur- rounds each testis. The colleteric glands are one or two rows in thickness with about 20 tubes visible in the most divided portion. The inner- most tubes, where the gland is thickest, form large sinuslike spaces. The specimen from Oregon station 279 meas- ures 5.5 mm in length, 6 mm in breadth, and 2 mm in thickness, dimensions which correspond almost exactly with those given for the type specimen. It is also similar to the type in having a straight posterior border and the mantle open- ing at the summit of a rather prominent tube. The testes occur in the stalk region in a muscular portion outside the visceral mass. They Fie. t.—Sacculina bicuspidata Boschma. Longi- tudinal section of parasite found on Microphrys bicornutus (Latreille). m. op., mantle opening; col. gl., colleteric gland; |. test.. left testis. 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON are approximately of the same size and compara- tively large and thick-walled. At first they are solid; a lumen appears only in the proximal half from which the vasa deferentia originate. They run a straight course close together, then later they touch but never become fused. The vasa deferentia appear gradually, run straight at first in a ventral direction, then di- verge to the right and left and become slightly twisted as they terminate on either side of the posterior tip of the visceral mass. The colleteric glands, located in the anterior half of the visceral mass, consist, in the main, of one row of tubes with a few large sinuses toward the interior. The maximum number of tubes seen in any one section is 20 to 22. The eggs in the visceral mass are extremely small and no embryos are present in the mantle cavity. This, in conjunction with the fact that the testes are in part solid, indicates an immature animal. DUALS PRERAZ TES RG TNS 1) y aw @ go) JU LQMWYALIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 3 Sacculina americana, n. sp. Fig. 2 Cotypes.—Gulf of Mexico, Oregon station 319, 29° 20’ N., 87° 25’ W., April 28, 1951; four speci- mens on one T'rachycarcinus spinulifer Rathbun. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service coll. U.S. N. M. 96988. Diagnosis—Sac broadest in anterior half, tapering to stalk posteriorly. Male genital organs outside the visceral mass. Testes globular, thin- walled, completely separated, one larger than the other. Vasa deferentia narrow, emerging abruptly from the testes. Colleteric glands shallow with a comparatively small number of tubes. External cuticle etched with short irregular branching grooves. Internal cuticle with retinacula consist- ing of one or two spindles, particularly abundant in the vicinity of the mantle opening. Description.—This species of Sacculina has a rather unusual shape. All four specimens are Fic. 2.—Sacculina americana, n. sp.: A, Longitudinal section; B, External appearance of the smallest specimen, X 3. C, External appearance of the largest specimen X 2. D, Longitudinal sections of the colleteric glands. E, Surface of the external cuticle. F, Retinacula. G, Series of transverse sections of the male genital organs starting from the distal end of the right testis (a) and ending with the proximal end of the left testis (7) and the vasa deferentia (g, h, 7). Marca 1955 broadest in the anterior half and taper gradually to the stalk. The prominent mantle opening, surrounded by a thick pad, is in the center of the anterior surface but turned to the left side. The smallest specimen measures 10 mm in length, 9 mm in breadth and 4 mm in thickness; the largest 15 by 13 by 5 mm. One parasite was treated with KOH for a study of the cuticulas and the largest member of the group was selected for sectioning. The external euticle has a thickness of 24 to 32u. Its surface is engraved with minute sinuous grooves that have short side branches. This pattern is broken by more widely spaced deeper grooves. In cross section the external cuticle has a ragged appear- ance and its surface takes a darker stain than the interior. The internal cuticle has sparse retinac- ula except in the vicinity of the mantle opening where they are extremely abundant and crowded together in islandlike groups. Each retinaculum consists of an elevation bearing one or two pointed spindles. The spindle measure 20 to 30y in length. The globular testes, located near the base of the stalk outside the visceral mass are thin-walled and lhe directly alongside each other. The right testis is noticeably larger and longer than the left, but spermatozoa are present in both. The slender vasa deferentia emerge from the upper end of the testes as straight tubes that quickly diverge in an antero-ventral direction and be- come slightly twisted as they terminate. The colleteric glands are shallow, with 20 to 23 tubes in the region of maximum division. They contain a chitin lining. Sacculina reniformis Boschma 1Dsex yy JANG 183, (GO Sacculina reniformis Boschma, 1933, p. 227, fig. 9 (external cuticle); 1937, pp. 300-301, fig. 75 (male organs and colleteric glands); 1950, p. 19, fig. 1, 1 (external appearance), fig. 6, (longitudinal section). Type specimen on Podochela riisei Stimpson, off Cape Sable, Fla. Material examined.—Gulf of Mexico, Oregon station 36; 28° 30’ N., 85° 36’ W., 120 fathoms; June 27, 1950; two specimens on two Collodes leptocheles Rathbun. U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service coll. U.S. N. M. 91107. The larger specimen measures 4.5 mm _ in length, 7 mm in width and about 4 mm in thick- ness; the smaller one, 4 by 6 by 3.5 mm. Both are slightly larger than the type specimen. The man- REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALA Oe tle opening, described in the type as lying ‘‘at the extremity of a very short, rather wide tube,” is relatively small and inconspicuous in these ex- amples, but protrudes a little above the surface. The presence of Liriopsid parasites in the mantle cavity of both specimens has apparently caused some distortion in the shape of the sacs. Their contour, although reniform, is somewhat angular. The external cuticle of both specimens is covered with small dentate excrescences about 6 to 8u in height. Except for the presence of a few short hairs on the tip and sides of these processes, they are exactly like those illustrated for the type specimen (Boschma, 19838, fig. 9). The numerous retinacula found on the internal cuticle are single spindles, extremely variable in size and shape and ranging from 14 to 35y in length. No retinacula were seen in the type speci- men, but failure to find them is not always proof that they do not exist. The testes lie outside the visceral mass in the posterior region of the body. They begin on the dorsal side of the animal not far from the edge of the stalk. At first they are completely fused so that there is only one lumen. Then two lumena appear, but the intervening walls remain united. Shortly after, without diverging, they gradually pass into the vasa deferentia that become smaller as they approach their terminations. The vasa deferentia are relatively short tubes, slightly coiled just before they terminate. The colleteric glands occur in the anterior half of the visceral mass and contain only a few tubes. About 10 tubes appear in the most divided por- tion of the gland. The glands project slightly from the surface of the visceral mass. Sacculina boschmai, n. sp. Figs. 3, 4 Type.—Gulf of Mexico, west coast of Florida, Albatross station 2401, 28° 38’ 30” N., 85° 53’ 30” W., 142 fathoms, March 14, 1885; one speci- men on Acanthocarpus alexandri Stimpson. Albatross coll. U.S. N. M. 96989. Diagnosis—Sac broadly oval, with greatest diameter along dorso-ventral axis; mantle open- ing and stalk prominent. Male genital organs outside visceral mass; testes cylindrical, separate; right testis enlarged, left rudimentary. Vasa deferentia slightly coiled at terminations. Col- leteric glands in anterior half of visceral mass with a moderate number of tubes. External cuticle of mantle with short papillae approximately 12 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES long, covered with minute hairs and staining more darkly than the rest of the cuticle. Retinac- ula consisting of a basal part and one or two smooth spindles about 15u long. Description —The parasite measures 9 mm in length, 12 mm in width and 5 mm in thickness. The sac, one-third broader than long, is convex at the anterior and posterior margins and strongly arched at the dorsal and ventral margins. The thick stalk arises from a depression on the left side of the animal near the posterior end. The mantle opening, also shifted slightly to the left, is at the center of the anterior surface opposite the stalk. It is encircled by a heavy ridge with prominent folds. In surface view the external cuticle has a rough “shark-skin”’ appearance due to innumerable ex- crescences set close together. These are short, pointed papillae or denticles, covered with minute hairs. The excrescences have a length of 10 to 15y and in sections it may be seen that they take a darker hematoxylin stain than the subsurface cuticle. For the most part, the external cuticle is 50 to 70u in thickness. Retinacula, consisting of a basal hump and 3 VOL. 45, No. 3 one or two smooth spindles, are present on the internal cuticle. They have a length of 14 to 17. The testes occur in the thick mesentery of the stalk region completely outside the visceral mass. The right testis is greatly enlarged while the left testis is rudimentary and attached to the wall of the right testis. Hach testis is surrounded by a muscular sheath. A peculiar feature of the histology of the right testis is the unusually large number of nutritive or supporting cells present. These are very large clear cells, one to three rows deep, around which the spermatocytes and spermatids are clustered. The functional testis has the shape of a wide cylindrical sac, tapering at both ends. The wall appears to be of rather delicate construction and presumably, because it lacks any firm tissue, yields to contractions in such a way that im cross-section this testis has an irregular rather than a smoothly rounded outline. The vasa deferentia emerge gradually from the ventral extremities of both testes. They are rather narrow tubes, straight for most of their course, becoming coiled only at their termina- tions. F Fig. 3.—Sacculina boschmai, n. sp.: A, Longitudinal section. B, Series of transverse sections of the male genital organs starting from the distal end of the right testis (a) and ending with the vasa defer- entia (h). The rudimentary left testis appears in c, d and e. C, Excrescences of the external cuticle. D, Longitudinal sections of the colleteric glands. , Retinacula. F, External appearance seen from the left side. Marcu 1955 PS ; ae REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALA 79 Fic. 4.—Sacculina boschmai, n. sp. Photomicrograph showing the histological structure of the testes The colleteric glands occur in the anterior half of the visceral mass. Each gland consists of three rows of tubes. These are not gathered into com- partments. The maximum number of tubes seen in a cross-section of one gland is 24. The ovary of this specimen appears to be ex- hausted, but there are numberous eggs in the mantle cavity, particularly on the right side of the visceral mass, where the cavity is con- siderably more voluminous. At the exit from the mantle cavity the body wall increases more than three times in thickness where it forms thick folds around the mantle opening. A prominent sphincter muscle is present here and a series of blood lacunae occur in the space between the sphincter and the external cuticle. Remarks.—This is the specimen recorded by Rathbun (1937, p. 227) in her monograph on oxystomatous crabs, where it is referred to as “Peltogaster.” Sacculina pustulata Boschma Fig. 5, D Sacculina pustulata Boschma, 1925, pp. 11-12, text figs. 2 and 3 (external cuticle), pl. 2, fig. 2 (external appearance), fig. 6 (longitudinal sec- tion), fig. 7 (vas deferens); 1937, pp. 298-299, fig. 73 (male organs and colleteric gland). Type specimen on Hemus cristulipes A. Milne Edwards. Type locality: Spanish Water, Curagao. Material examined.—10 miles southeast of Alligator Point, Franklin County, Fla., 6 fathoms, November 28, 1952; one specimen on Hemus cristulipes A. Milne Edwards. M. L. Wass coll. U.S. N. M. 94050. This is a very small parasite, although fully mature. It has a length of 2 mm, a breadth of 2 mm, and a thickness of 1 mm. In external ap- pearance it agrees with Boschma’s description of the somewhat larger type specimen both with respect to shape and to the fact that the eggs in the mantle cavity are visible through the thin mantle and impress upon it a hexagonal pattern. The testes are completely separated, unequal in size, and located outside the visceral mass. The short vasa deferentia become quite narrow and contorted near their terminations and have a heavy chitin lining. The colleteric glands have few tubes. The host, a small crab measuring only 5.5 mm in carapace length and 4.0 mm in carapace width, shows marked effects of sacculinization. It is a modified male with prominent copulatory pleopods but possessing additional pleopods of the female type and a broad abdomen. 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Sacculina rathbunae Boschma Fig. 5, E Sacculina rathbunt Boschma, 1933, pp. 222-223, fig. 4 (external cuticle); 1937, pp. 299-800, fig. 74 (male organs and colleteric gland). Sacculina rathbunae Boschma, 1950, pp. 9-10, fig. 1, d (external appearance). Type specimen on Arachnopsis filipes Stimp- son, west coast of Florida. Material examined.—Los Roques Islands, Venezuela, one specimen on one Stenorynchus seticornis (Herbst). Sociedad de Sciencas Natura- les La Salle coll. U.'S.N.M. 195031. This new host belongs to the same family (Majidae) and subfamily (Inachinae) as the host of the type specimen. ike. A ie SESS URS ff () B Osan fl ae () DW 2 5 Fie. 5.—A-C, Sacculina reniformis Boschma. A, External appearance X 5. B, Excrescences of the external cuticle, surface view. C, Types of retinacula. D, External appearance of Sacculina pustulata Boschma X 12. E, External appearance of Sacculina rathbunae Boschma X 15. The parasite is a small one, measuring only 1.5 mm in length, 2.56 mm in breadth and 1 mm in thickness. The dorsal and ventral margins form nipplelike prominences and the term “‘lozenge- shaped,”’ applied to the type specimen, is also appropriate here. Sections of this animal revealed that it con- forms to the type specimen with respect to the VOL. 45, No. 3 male genital organs. The testes, equal in size, are separate, although in part contiguous and are located in the visceral mass close to the mesen- tery. They are straight and gradually pass into vasa deferentia, comparatively narrow tubes that also run a straight course. The colleteric glands are made up of a small number of tubes, 5 to 10 in most sections, ar- ranged in a single row. One gland, however, in the region of maximum division, has 12 tubes forming a double row. The specimen is a juvenile one, with the mantle cavity appearing as a mere cleft. The sac was still enveloped by the thin chitinous sheath which covers young rhizocephalids previous to the un- veiling of the mantle opening. This loose sheath was removed before sectioning the animal and beneath it were found four ecypris larvae. They were attached to the inner surface of the sheath near the anterior end. A collection of cypris larvae fixed to a young sacculinid under similar circumstances was observed by Boschma (1931, p. 367) in the case of Loxothylacus panopei (Gissler). LITERATURE CITED Boscuma, H. Rhizocephala of Curacao. Dier Kunde 24: 2-14. 1925. Rhizocephala. Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition, 1914-16. Vid. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren. 89: 297-380. 1931. Bijd. New Species of Sacculinidae in the collec- tion of the United States National Museum. Tijdschr. dierk. Ver. (Leiden) 3: 219-241. 1933. The species of the genus Sacculina. Zool. Mededeel. (Leiden) 19: 187-328. 1937. Notes on Sacculinidae, chiefly in_ the collections of the United States National Museum. Zool. Verhand. (Leiden) no. 7: 3-55. 1950. Rarusun, M. J. Oxystomatous and allied crabs of America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 166. 1937. RemnHARD, £. G. Two species of Lernaeodiscus (Crustacea: Rhizocephala) from North Carolina and Florida. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 17: 126-131. 1950. Marca 1955 NEMATOLOGY —A new nematode, Rotylenchus melancholicus, 7. LORDELLO: NEW NEMATODE 81 sp., found associated with grass roots, and its sexual dimorphism. Luiz Gonzaca E. Lor- DELLO, Escola Superior de Agricultura ‘“‘Luiz de Queiroz,’ Universidade de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil. (Communicated by G. Steiner.) A new species of the genus Rotylenchus Filipjev, 1934, was obtained among several hundred other nemas from soil sample sub- mitted for examination and collected at the Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” of the University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil. This species is of par- ticular imterest because of its outspoken sexual dimorphism. Rotylenchus melancholicus, n. sp. Male—Body slightly tapering to anterior extremity and more sharply posteriorly to an elongate and ventrally arcuated tail. Cuticle weakly transversely annulated; lateral fields made up of four incisures extending from the level of the stylet to the tail, being 3.3u wide at the middle of the body. Head cupolate and prac- tically continuous with neck contour, bearing extremely faint annules. Cephalic and cervical papillae and amphids not seen. Stylet weak and without basal knobs; oesophageal glands well defined, their posterior limit lying at 108u from the head. Intestinal cells filled with dark and granulated bodies. Testis one, spicules ventrally arcuated and slightly cephalated; gubernaculum curved, well defined. As far as seen, the bursa is represented only by a faint membrane, which does not comprise all the tail. Therefore, the bursa is vestigial and really in process of disap- pearence. Phasmids very pronounced and located on the middle of the tail or a little in front. Excretory pore located as in the female. Female—Body forming a more or less open spiral, shghtly tapermg at extremities. Cuticle strongly annulated; annules convex. Lateral fields made up of three more or less undulated incisures extending from the region of the stylet to a little below the middle bulb of the esophagus. At that point, the central incisure bifurcates and the fields continue to tail terminus with four equidistant incisures. At terminus, the two external incisures join, as illustrated; location of the union of the two middle incisures not deter- mined. At level of vulva, the lateral fields are 4.3-5.0u wide. Head cupolate, bearing four post labial annules, contmuous with neck contour. Stylet quite strong, very slightly curved, with somewhat compressed knobs. Vestibulum wall thickened, providing well defined guiding tube for stylet and base for attachment of muscles that move the stylet. Tissues surrounding the oesopha- geal canal with a slight constriction a little in front of the fusion with middle bulb. This bulb is elongate and smal], being 9-10u long and 6-Su wide. Outlet of dorsal oesophageal gland very obscure, its exact location not made out. Details of junction of oesophagus with intestine also difficult to see. Dorsal gland well developed, overlapping intestine. Its posterior end lies at about 103 from head end. Intestine opaque; intestinal cells filled with granulated substance. Ovaries two, outstretched, equally developed, each bearing a well defined and spherical re- ceptaculum seminis, usually filled with sper- matozoa. Vagina extending almost half way across body. No eggs seen in uterus; oocytes forming a single line, except at the end portion, where a double line is seen. The reproductive apparatus of female of R. melancholicus has about the same organization as that figured by Goodey (1940) for R. erythrinae (Zimmermann, 1904) Goodey, 1951. Tail ventrally arcuated, comprising from 9 to 10 annules, with a pomted and not annulated ter- minus. Phasmids located at level of anus or in front. Measurements —Male: total length = 422.0— 471.54; width = 13.3-15.0 yu; stylet = 10.0u; tail = 25.0-28.0u; spicules = 18.3-20.0u; gubernaculum = 8.84; a = 31.7; b= ?; c= 16.7-16.8. Female: total length =514.6-533.0 uy; width = 18.3-21.6u; stylet = 23.3-25.0u; tail = 21.64; a= 24.6-28.1; bi= 7.5-7.6; ¢ = 23.8- 24.6; V = 61.6-62.3 percent. Diagnosis—The long and deeply ventrally arcuated tail of the male, with only a rudimentary bursa, separates R. melancholicus n. sp. from all the other known species. The female has simi- larities with that of R. erythrinae (Zimmermann, 1904) Goodey, 1951, and of Helicotylenchus nannus Steiner, 1945. The separation of the female from R. erythrinae can be made by the total length (R. melancholicus isa smaller species, 514-533 uv: 610-920) and by the longer tail (c = 41-64: c= 23.8-24.6); actually, those differences could be considered 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES insufficient if the male tails were not so diverse. In addition, R. erythrinae male has a normal stylet while in R. melancholicus this organ is somewhat degenerated. From H. nannus, the female of R. melancholicus differs by the presence of a receptaculum seminis in the two branches of the amphidelphic sexual apparatus, and by its longer tail (¢c = 37-41: ¢ = 23.8-24.6). Type locality —Grounds of the Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz,” Piracicaba, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, living possibly as parasites of the roots of grasses not identified. Taig: pill i I " |) fay) ‘a } if /y 1 Fi al | rH, 15U VOL. 45, NO. 3 Sexual dimorphism.—The general structure appears to be the only common character of the two sexes. Since the individuals were collected together on the same day and they were the only tylenchids present among hundreds of other nemas, the writer considers them as of the same species. The male has a longer tail and is smaller, and more slender than the female. The most interest- ing feature, however, is the degenerated stylet, which in the female is quite strong and possesses very well developed knobs. The visible guiding Fic. 1.—Rotylenchus melancholicus n. sp.: A, esophagus of female; B, head of male; C, tail end of female vi (ph, phasmid); D, tail end of male (rud brs, rudimentary bursa; ph, phasmid); #, male; F, female. Marcu 1955 ease of the female stylet could not be seen in the male, and it is quite possible that it is not pres- ent; the protrudor muscles are also much less developed in the latter. The oesophagus of the male, being very ob- seure, could not be studied in all the desired de- tails. According to the writer’s opinion, the re- duced stylet does not mean that the males do not feed during the adult stage, since in one of the individuals of that sex three normal salivary elands were plainly visible. This supposition that the male does not cease to feed after developing into the adult stage is in opposition to what has been supposed for some other tylenchids (e. g., Neatylenchus abulbosus Stemer, 1931) (Steimer and Buhrer, 1932). R. melancholicus males are undoubtly func- tional, not only for having normal spicules and testis, but also for the presence of abundant spermatozoa filling the female receptaculum seminis. NEWMAN: NEW SALAMANDER FROM VIRGINIA 83 Another interesting feature of sexual dimor- phism may be found in the location of the phas- mids which, in the male, are on the tail but, in the female, at level with the anus or a little in front. LITERATURE CITED Fiurpyev, I. N. The classification of the free-living nematodes and their relation to the parasitic nematodes. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 89 (6): 1-63. 1934. Goopry, T. OnAnguillulina multicincta (Cobb) and other species of Anguillulina associated with the roots of plants. Journ. Helm. 18 (1): 21-88. 1940. Soil and freshwater nematodes, a mono- graph. London, 1951. STEINER, G. Helicotylenchus, a new genus of plant-parasitic nematodes and its relationships to Rotylenchus Filipjev. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 12 (2): 34-88. 1945. STEINER, G., and BuHreEerR, E.M. The male of the nematode species Neotylenchus abulbosus, Steiner, and its sexual dimorphism. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 22 (16-17): 482-484. 1932. HERPETOLOGY .—Desmognathus planiceps, a new salamander from Virginia. Water B. Newman, Hyattsville, Md. (Communicated by Doris M. Cochran.) During the course of herpetological investigations along the southern portion of the Blue Ridge in Virginia a number of very interesting specimens and records were obtained. Among the salamanders collected was a series of 19 Desmognathus that pos- sessed such unique characteristics and coloration that I feel that they are justifiably nameworthy and therefore propose that this new salamander be called: Desmognathus planiceps, n. sp. Diagnosis —A large, heavy-bodied Desmog- nathus with the following characteristics: broad, flattened head; spatulate and strongly depressed snout; enlarged and recurved premaxillary teeth in adult males; conspicuous, and normally straight-edged, dorsal band sharply margined with blackish; chest and anterior two-thirds of belly immaculate; chin, throat, and posterior third of belly lightly spotted with brownish-tan. Holotype—An adult male collected by Richard L. Hoffman and Walter B. Newman on May 12, 1951, from a portion of the stream (approximate elevation 2800 feet) dropping down into the gorge below the Dan River Dam near Meadows of Dan, Patrick County, Va. This specimen is at present in the personal collection of the author (WBN 1316), but it will eventually be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. Paratypes—One topotype, WBN 1318, in addition to the holotype, was collected from the Dan River gorge on May 12, 1951, by Richard L. Hoffman and Walter B Newman. Four topotypes, WBN 1322-4, were collected from this same site by Richard L. Hoffman, Walter B. Newman, and Jaine P. Newman on May 30, 1951. Five paratypes, WBN 1826-9, 1331, were col- lected in a mountain stream (approximate elevation 2,400 feet) along Route 8, 5.5 miles northwest of Woolwine, Patrick County, Va., by Richard L. Hoffman, Walter B. Newman, and Jaine P. Newman on May 30, 1951. Eight ad- ditional paratypes, WBN 1332-9, were collected from the same locality on August 27, 1951, by Richard L. Hoffman and Walter B. Newman. Description of holotype-—Snout spatulate; sides of head from anterior corner of eye to angle of jaw nearly parallel; cheeks noticeably swollen; head strongly depressed, sloping abruptly from the eyes to tip of snout; a short vertical groove from angle of jaw to a sinuous groove extending from the eye to the vertical extension of the gular 84. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON fold; tip of jaw with pointed mental gland; body broad, heavy, and quite flattened, with a distinct and impressed median dorsal line; tail subquad- rate in section near base, becoming slightly keeled above and rounded below posteriorly; posterior half of tail wanting. Legs stout, toes 4-5, those of the forefeet 1-4-2-3 in order of length from shortest to longest, hind feet 1-5-2-3-4; webbing between toes scarcely evident. Tongue roughly diamond-shaped in outline, shortened behind, free at sides and behind, the surface spongy. Vent slightly raised and papillate. Costal grooves 14, counting one each in the axilla and groin; inter- costal grooves 4. All measurements are in millimeters. Tip of snout to anterior angle of vent, 62; tail ?; greatest width of body, 13; greatest height of body, 9; axilla to groin, 36; greatest width of tail, 7; greatest height of tail, 7; tip of snout to gular ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 fold, 17; tip of snout to anterior insertion of fore- limb, 20; greatest width of head, 13; width of head measured at anterior angle of eye, 10; eye, measured from anterior to posterior corners, 2.1; forelimb, measured from insertion of limb to tip of longest toe, 11.5; hindlimb, similarly meas- ured, 16; vomerine teeth absent; parasphenoid teeth in two broad patches that meet anteriorly and diverge posteriorly, being nearly uniform in width throughout their entire length. The dorsum is characterized by a_ broad, straight-edged, reddish-brown dorsal band, sharply bordered with blackish, that originates on the head slightly anterior to the vertical ex- tension of the gular fold and continues onto the tail, where it becomes abruptly reddish and serrated above the posterior angle of the vent. Irregular brownish-black blotches are present within the band tending to congregate along the TFra@. 1.—Lateral, ventral, and dorsal aspect of Desmognathus planiceps, n. sp., type specimen. Photo- graphs courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution. ; Marcy 1955 NEWMAN: NEW _middorsal line. A pair of conspicuous whitish- } yellow spots are present in the outer edge of the band above the insertion of the forelimb. The dorsal surface of the head is reddish-brown up to the eyes, where there is a pronounced line of _ demarcation between this point and the light tan snout. A conspicuous black spot is centered on ~ the posterior portion of the head. The sides are mottled with brownish and whitish-gray which stops rather abruptly at the outer edge of the belly. Along the sides of the tail there is a row of dark-bordered light spots. The throat is 1- - regularly spotted with tan. The chest is im- -maculate; the belly immaculate to a_ point _ anterior to the hindlimbs, where it becomes lightly spotted with tan. Variation —Of the 18 paratypes collected, 12 were marked like the holotype. Of the remaining six specimens, two have a completely spotted yentrum but a typically marked dorsum, whereas three individuals have a grayish-brown mottling that partially or wholly obscures the dorsal band and another has only a few scattered dark spots to indicate this band and lacks much of the heavy mottling along the sides. The latter four speci- mens all have typically marked ventrums. All specimens have 14 costal grooves. Inter- costal grooves vary from 3 to 5 (average 4) with the larger individuals generally exhibiting the larger number. Vomerine teeth are lacking in large adult males. The largest male with vomer- ine teeth measures 42 mm in snout-vent length. When present, the number of teeth in males varies from 4 to 13 (mean 8.0). The only two females collected measure 47 and 50 mm in snout-vent length and have 11 and 18 vomerine teeth, respectively. Although only two females were found, counts and measurements do seem to indicate that vomerine teeth are retained in adult females and also that they possess a greater number of teeth than the young males. Adult males have a distinctly pointed mental gland and this is probably the quickest and easiest method of distinguishing between the two sexes. Size—This is one of the larger Desmognathus with adult males attaining an estimated total length of 128 mm or more. Unfortunately, the three largest adults, all males, have missing or regenerated tails, and so the extreme total length is an estimated figure based on proportional tail length percentages. The largest specimen with a complete tail measures 120 mm in total length. SALAMANDER FROM VIRGINIA 85 This specimen has a snout-vent length of 58 mm, while the largest snout-vent measurement of 18 specimens is 63 mm. The smallest individual found has a snout-vent length of 20 mm and a total length of 41 mm. The snout-vent length of the 10 largest adults varies from 47 to 63 mm (mean 55.8 mm). Remarks.—The spatulate snout, sharply de- fined dorsal band, and tan spotting of the ventrum separates this species readily from the other large Desmognathus, such as D. quad- ramaculatus, and the subspecies of D. fuscus and D. monticola. The aquatic habits, large size, and heavy body distinquishes D. planiceps from the remaining smaller and more terrestrial forms of this genus. D. planiceps could be confused with Leurognathus because of its flattened head, but the inconspicuous inner naris, compressed tail, and absence of a premaxillary fontanelle of the latter quickly separates the two forms. D. planiceps, being similar in structure and habits to the more primative forms of Desmogna- thus, presents an interesting evolutionary prob- lem, but I do not consider it to be within the scope of this paper to try to theorize or evaluate the possible relationships that planiceps has to the existing known species of this genus. This undoubtedly requires a review of the whole group before a reasonable and sensible picture can be presented properly. Habits and habitat—In both localities D. planiceps was taken from cool, heavily shaded, mountain streams and was extremely active when discovered. In most instances D. planiceps and D. quadramaculatus were found to inhabit rocky areas in the shallow, fast-flowing water, while D. monticola and D. fuscus were more frequently found under rocks and debris along the edges. Nothing is known of the breeding habits of this species, but a gravid female collected August 27, measuring 47 mm in snout-vent length, con- tained 19 large, yolk-laden eggs measuring 2 to 4 mm. in diameter. Range—Apparently restricted to mountain streams in the southern portion of the Blue Ridge in Virginia. REFERENCES Bisuop, 8S. C. Handbook of salamanders: xiv + 555 pp., 144 figs., 56 maps. Ithaca, N. Y., 1943. Dunn, E. R. The salamanders of the family Plethodontidae. Smith College Anniv. Publ: i-xii + 441 pp., 86 figs., 3 pls. 1926. 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON Porr, C. H. Notes on North Carolina sala- manders, with especial reference to the egg- laying habits of Leurognathus and Desmog- nathus. Amer. Mus. Nov. no. 153: 1-15, 2 figs. 1924. Some plethodontid salamanders from ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 | North Carolina and Kentucky, with the descrip- tion of a new race of Leurognathus. Amer. Mus. Novy. no. 306: 1-19, 1 fig. 1928. Souter, E. I. On the status of the family Desmog- nathidae. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bul. 33: pt. 2. (12): 459-480, 2 pls. 1950. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 57th ANNUAL MEETING The 57th Annual Meeting and dinner of the Academy was held at the Kennedy-Warren on the evening of January 20, 1955. After dinner President DrEranporF called the meeting to order. The minutes of the 56th Annual Meeting, as published in the JourNAL 44: 157— 163, May 1954, were approved. Tn lieu of the usual reports of officers and com- mittees the President presented a brief summary of the activities of the Academy during the year. The complete reports of the officers and com- mittee chairman follow: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY As of January 1, 1955, the membership of the Academy was 961, a net gain of 28 members during the year. The membership includes 855 active members, of which 675 are resident, 96 retired members, and 10 honorary members. Eleven members resigned, 9 were dropped for nonpayment of dues, and 3 were transferred to the retired list. The deaths of 17 members were reported to the Secretary since the last Annual Meeting: Armin O. Leuscuner, April 22, 1953; Francis WH. Fox, December 29, 1953; FRANK WeENNER, Febru- ary 7, 1954; Cuarutes L. Maruarr, March 3, 1954; Tuomas P. PEnpLETON, May 28, 1954; James S. Simmons, July 31, 1954; Joun C. Huspsarp, Aug- ust 2, 1954; Davin Farrcuttp, August 6, 1954; D. Breese Jonns, September 5, 1954; Samurn W. Boaas, September 14, 1954; Norman C. Fasserr, September 14, 1954; Grorer H. SHULL, September 29, 1954; Raymonp F. Bacon, October 14, 1954; Austin H. Cuarxk, October 28, 1954; Vera K. CuHarites, November 2, 1954; E. B. Bascock, December 8, 1954; and Cornetius J. CONNOLLY. The Board of Managers held nine meetings during the year to transact the regular business of the Academy. A new standing committee, the Committee on Science Education, was authorized and appointed for the purpose of improving the teaching of science in the schools of the metro- politan area (see JOURNAL 44(12): 403. 1954). The District of Columbia Branch of the American Meteorological Society was affiliated with the Academy by action of the Board at the April meeting. Seven regular meetings were held during the year in addition to the Annual Meeting as follows: On February 18, 1954, the speakers were the recipients of the 1953 Academy Awards for Scientific Achievement. BrRNARD HoRECKER spoke on An oxidative pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates; Ropert Henry on Mechanized production of electronics; and Joun R. PELLAM on Properties of matter at low temperatures. The meeting of March 18, 1954, was held jointly with the Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists. Dr. HENRY Wetcu, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, delivered a lecture on Antibiotics in 1954. On April 15, 1954, the meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences. Certificates of Merit were presented to selected high school students. Two talks were given by members of the Junior Academy: Study in allergy by Mary JEANNE Kreex, and Spectrographic determination of intermediate products in catalytic reactions by AuAN Freperic Havueut. Dr. Wiriiam F. Fosuac, U. 8. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, presented an unusually interestirig color film and lecture on The life and death of a volcano. The meeting of May 20, 1954, was held at the Army Map Service. The program included a discussion of the Army Map Service and an opportunity to see the Niovac in operation. On October 21, 1954, members of the Academy were guests of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Howard County, Md. The new building was open for inspection, and a subscription dinner was served prior to the meeting. Dr. Rauepu E. Gipson, director, spoke Marcu 1955 on The objectives of the Applied Physics Labora- tory, SAMUEL N. FonER on Mass spectrometry of fast reactions, and RatpH A. ALPHER on Theories of element origin. On November 18, 1954, Dr. Konrap LORENZ, director, Research Institute for Comparative Ethology, Max Planck Institute, Bulden, West- phalen, Germany, addressed the Academy on Mechanisms and Releasers in Animal Behavior. The meeting of December 16, 1954, was ar- ranged by the Committee on Science Education for a discussion of Problems of science education. The speakers were Dr. D. Kennet Lirrte, dep- uty Commissioner of Education, U. 8. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, and Dr. Derey W. Bronk, President, National Academy of Sciences. Leaders in education in the metro- politan area were guests of the Academy at a dinner preceding the meeting. Each guest was introduced and asked to speak briefly. The dinner was also attended by members of the Board of Managers and the Committee on Science Edueation. Jason R. SwWALLEN REPORT OF THE TREASURER The Treasurer submits the following report concerning the finances of the Washington Academy of Sciences for the year ended December 31, 1954: RECEIPTS ID WES; IE a oe $ 22.00 NOSS 2 Ss Sieoee eee 198 .92 OGth sai ot guceen eral 4,416.25 NOES 5:6 Sets Ae cree 92.00 $ 4,729.17 Journal, Subscriptions, 1949...... 6.75 GEO) cas oc 14.25 LOST ee: 29.25 1952 Rae 36.75 1953 eee 73.50 NO Are 772.89 NOBBs ceo 5 762.55 1OBB. sec + 18.56 1,714.50 Reprints, 1953.......... 544.11 TGs ene eee 1,330.84 1,874.95 SUG. “0.5. alie GRR eee TE ene 532.68 Momogtrajoln NOs Woncsaocneseesses cee 31.90 Romina JONG < acuuaedieodd tacoma] 386.25 De CEO eC ete oe tae 1.50 Interest & Dividends, OB S\s cies ouleth eee eciaeene 49.20 OYE 5 ie a east A ort cor 2,038 .50 2,087.70 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Junior Academy—Dues Science Fair, Sth 720.00 500.00 ANaMEM CHINN S oo cae occa es oe nosensus Transferred from invested funds. ... 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Savanes Accountant eee aes eee 161.52 Ro taller eee oe fee eee eee cere ee $52,621.07 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 3 Cash-book balance as of Dec. 31, 5,360.28 57,981.35 50, 523.63 $ 7,457.72 At the close of business December 31, 1954, there were 53 members who were delinquent—a decrease of 6 from the number reported a year ago. Howarp 8S. RaPpPLEYE REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE We the undersigned have audited all the books of the Treasurer and found them completely in order as reported by the Treasurer. The securities, kept in a safe-deposit box in the vaults of the Union Trust Co., have been ex- amined and found to be as listed in the Treasurer’s report. All coupons not yet due are still attached to the bonds so listed. JosEepH P. E. Morrison, Chairman GALEN B. ScHUBAUER Eesrert H. WALKER REPORT OF THE ARCHIVIST The records of the Washington Academy of Sciences in the possession of the Archivist have been maintained status quo during the year just past. They have been available for reference by officers and others concerned. Additional ma- terials turned over to the Archivist during the year by the Secretary are in process of being curated. JoHN A. STEVENSON REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS Volume 44 of the JourNAL contains 408 numbered pages, a decrease of 28 pages from volume 48, reflecting the 8 percent decrease in the JouRNAL budget for 1954, which was approved by the Board of Managers. The 69 scientific papers published in Volume 44 include: Field No. Papers No. Pages Various phases of zoology........... 38 12346 Geology and its branches.......... 8 3614 Botamyntsecisad smcioak oe sree 6 27 Mathematics . a Be eaas 5 18 PHYSICS efi cio Ce rSer aE Se stress 4 55 Biolog yer ere en ciene ee ae: F 3 22 Anthropologymerreence ere cere 2 16 IBiochemisthyeeee eee ree eee eee 2 20 Biography (scientific) ........... : 2 9 Geography and cartography........ 1 13 Marcu 1955 As in previous years the number of articles in the physical sciences submitted for JouRNAL publication was small. About 50 percent of the published papers were written by Academy members. The November issue was a special one dedicated to the American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, in honor of the 150th anniversary of their voyage of discovery. A series of articles, written by specialists upon invitation, appraised the explorers’ contributions to several sciences. Proceedings of the Academy for 1953 and 1954 and of the affiliated Anthropological Society, one obituary, and an Index to Volume 44 also were published. Members of the Board of Editors actively cooperated with the Chairman of President DEFANDORF’s Special Committee on the Improve- ment of the Journal both by supplying facts regarding current editorial policies and pro- cedures and by suggesting ways in which the publication might be improved. Cost of Volume 44 was as follows: Disbursements: Printing, engraving, mailing ete.................... $6,655.43 Reprints (authors separates) aye 981.57 Editorial office (including postage)................. 512.13 Mortalndispursements/scr2 ys ses mesireen cates o- $85 149513 Charves to authors: 1,613.32 Net cost to Academy. ........ . $6,535.81 The Board of Editors gratefully acknowledges the help of the Board of Managers, of Mr. Paun H. OFHSER, managing editor, and of Mr. FRaNcIs C. Harwoop, of the Waverly Press, Inc. JoHN C. Ewers, Senior Editor RicHarp K. Cook FENNER A. CHACE REPORT OE CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS Once again I am happy to submit in brief form the Annual Report for the year 1954 of the Office of Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications. Nonmember Subscriptions In the United States and possessions........ 161 iinmefoneremicountries: 55. 52.2.45.-5sssnteaee 89 “TOU oo. 2.2g; Bite RRA ee eee ee a in 250 Although on paper this is a gain of only three over last year’s number of subscriptions, actually the gain was greater, as the Treasurer has struck from the list a number of deadwood subscrip- tions, ones who have not sent in payments for a number of years. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 89 Inventory of stock as of December 31, 1954 Reserve sets of the Journal Complete sets, vols. 144............... 0 sets Wolummes tli 44 ee nea gee eeioue ihc eys s 6 sets Wolumess| 644s. eee kc ee . 14 sets Wiolwmies e214 rive qpeenns Cp) Vou. 45 Aprit 1955 No. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. CowlE PHILIP DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DuNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royrat & GuILtrorp AVEs. Ba.tTimMoRe, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. 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Monoarapa No. 1, ‘‘The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa,’’ by Herbert Friedmann $4.50 InpEXx to JOURNAL (vols. 1-40) and PROCEEDINGS................0.e0eceeees $7.50 PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete......................--..005- $25.00 Single ‘volumes, unbound i. 6 eres cieccjeciels aus eieiessle eres wine erereve ove cucres nice eee eS 2.00 Singlesnumbers =) e-c4 4, hae g evaeceoitn eave costs ertyere Searerei eit ee crecne eee eee Prices on request Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made ayable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences’? and addressed to the Treasurer, H. 8S. RaprLeye, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C. Changes of Address—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 Aprit 1955 No. 4 TOXICOLOGY .— Observations on toxic marine algae.! Ropperr C. Hasexosr, [An M. Fraser, and Bruce W. Hatsreap, College of Medical Evangelists, Loma Linda, Calif. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) (Received January 27, 1955) Toxic substances in fresh-water algae have been reported by many authors (Deem and Thorp, 1939; Fitch et al., 1934; Shelubsky, 1951; Steyn, 1943; Wheeler, Lackey, and Schott, 1942; and others), but there do not appear to be any reports of toxic marie algae. The spotty geographical distribution of fish poisoning, the presence of algae in the stomach content of many poisonous fish, and the high correlation between toxic stomach contents and toxic fish (Dawson, Aleem, and Halstead, 1955) have prompted this study of marine algae. Materials and methods—Material was ob- tained from Corona Del Mar, Calif., and Pal- myra Island, which is 960 nautical miles south by west of Honolulu. The algae were frozen shortly after collection and were kept frozen until used. They were identified through the kindness of Dr. Yale Dawson of the University of Southern Cali- fornia. Algal extracts were prepared routinely by blending frozen or equivalent amounts of dried algae with equal amounts of distilled water in a Waring Blendor for 20 minutes, and then centrifuging at 2,800 rpm for one hour. The supernatant was drawn off and stored in extract bottles. Solidification of some of the extracts due to their agar content was eliminated by drying and powdering the algae in a mortar before extracting them. A more concentrated and purified extract was obtained from algae that had been disintegrated in a food grinder, by extraction with boiling water 1 This investigation was supported by a research grant from the Division of Research Grants and Fellowships, of the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, and a contract from Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy. 101 using a ratio of algae to water of 2:5. It was cen- trifuged for 30 minutes and the supernatant washed four times with chloroform which re- moved fats and pigments to some extent. This was then distilled to dryness and reconstituted in a small amount of distilled water for injection. The toxicity of the extracts was tested by in- traperitoneal injection of 1.0 ml volumes into weanling mice of the California Caviary strain No. 1 (CC), weight 15-23 g. All routine screen- ing was done by injecting one or two groups of four mice each, and the results were confirmed in a number of representative cases by large-scale injections of 20 mice. Intraperitoneal injection results were confirmed in some cases by stomach- tubing mice. The injected mice were placed under observa- tion for 36 hours for the development of symp- toms. If one or more of the mice died within an hour after injection the extract was classified as strongly toxic. It was considered moderately toxic if one or more died within 36 hours, and weakly toxic if they displayed two or more of the following symptoms: lacrymation, ruffed hair, diarrhea, dyspnea, or weakness. Large-scale control injections were run using distilled water, tap water, and sea water. Lettuce extracts comparable to the algal extracts were tested to eliminate the possibility that plant pig- ments and proteins generally are toxic. All of these tests were negative. A strongly toxic ex- tract was autoclaved and injected aseptically with results identical with untreated extracts. Results: Routine survey.—A number of samples of algae consisting of both single and inseparably mixed species from Palmyra Island and Corona Del Mar have been tested by the routine screen- ing procedure. The results are shown in Table 1 102 and are based on two or more separate tests which gave comparable results. In addition a number of similar mixtures of algae found in the stomach and intestine of fish collected at Palmyra Island were tested by the Taste 1.—Resuuts or ROUTINE SuRVEY or Tox- icity OF ExTrRacts OF PALMYRA AND CALIFORNIA ALGAE Palmyra species ee Lyngbya majuscula Gomont, with some Bryopsis pen- nala var. secunda (Harvey) Collins and Hervey MT Boodlea composita (Harvey) Brand, and Caulerpa serru- lata (Forskal) Agardh, emend. Borgesen. . : MT Turbinaria ornata (Agardh) Kutzing, with eophyte Jania tenella Wiitzing. Also some Ceramiwm masonii Dawson, Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) Collins and Hervey, and Jania capillacea Harvey. MAINLY Turbinaria... MT Turbinaria ornata (Agardh) Taenines Ww ith epiphytic Jania tenella Kiatzing. Also some Ceramiuwm masonii | Dawson, Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) | Collins and Hervey, and Jania capillacea Harvey. NOT MUCH Turbinaria ie all | Wwe Enteromorpha sp. apparently near E. Reali Bliding. Absolute identification impossible. Pas WT Hormothamnion solutum Bornet and Flahault, and some Centroceras clavulatum (Agardb) Montagne.....| WT Corona Del Mar, Calif. Species onic Lithothrix aspergillus J. BE. Gray.. ne sen INfte Macrocystis pyrifera alveyin. nuns -deneeaaae sec MT Gelidium cartilagineum var. robustum erat ce MT Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner : hehe MT Hesperophycus harveyanus Gardner. ane erie MT Egregia laevigata Setchell ie Wenner oral. vt Corallina officinalis var. chilenus (Harvey) Kiitzing ‘ NT Abbreviations: NT = MT = Moderately Toxic. Non-Toxic, WT! = Weakly Toxic, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 routine screening procedure. The results are shown in Table 2. The toxicities of portions of the fish as determined by the methods of Daw- son, Aleem, and Halstead (1955) are also sum- marized in this table. Large-scale tests——The results of large-scale confirmatory tests with 20 mice using both toxic and nontoxic extracts are given in Table 3. Concentration.—The greater toxicity of the more purified concentrated extract prepared as described previously is shown in Table 4. These results were obtained using four or more mice to test each extract. Properties of toxin.—A number of the physical and chemical properties of the toxic materials have been observed, particularly on extracts of Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner. The toxin(s) of Pelvetia is readily soluble in water but less soluble in ethanol, methanol, chlo- roform and ether. It is not destroyed by heating at 100° C. for one hour or by normal autoclaving. Freezing and thawing of aqueous extracts over a period of time tends to result in a gradual loss of toxicity. The ash of toxic extracts is not toxic. Tests for the presence of traces of arsenic, which may occur in marine algae (Read and How, 1927), were negative. Deproteinization of extracts by boiling results in no loss of toxicity. The toxin(s) diffuses through a cellophane dialyzing membrane and is readily absorbed on activated charcoal. Discussion.—These data appear to constitute definite evidence of the existence of one or more organic substances toxic to mice In marine algae. Tapp 2.—Toxiciry oF PALMYRA FIsH AND ALGAE IN THEIR INTESTINAL CONTENTS Fish species Extract Part of fish Toxicity Algae in intestinal contents No. Rating Acanthurus fuliginosus Lesson....... R 663 M, L, I, IC NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont and Jania WT f ee : R 664 WWE IE, IG, KO; NT ies ot 0G “ oG MT s f : R 666 M, L, I, IC MT a GS Gb OG Ob NT 6 a R 668 M, L, I, IC MT 40 ee iG ay ve Chaetodon auriga Forskal R 1051 M, V NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont IC MT Abudefduf septemfasciatus Cuvier... R 1065 M, V NT Lyngbya majuscula Gomont and Bryopsis pen- IC MT nata var. secunda (Harvey) Collins and j Hervey Abudefduf sordidus Forskal.. R 895 M NT Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) Col- We WT lins and Hervey and Lyngbya majuscula IC NT Gomont Arothron hispidus Linnaeus. . R 697 M, L,G ST Caulerpa serrulata (Forskaél) Agardh, emend. I, IC, S ST Borgesen and Lyngbya Abbreviations: M = Muscle, L = Liver, G = Nontoxic, WT = Weakly toxic, MT = Gonads, I = Intestines, V = Viscera, IC = Intestinal contents, S = Skin, NT = Moderately toxic, ST = Strongly toxic. Aprit 1955 There is reason to believe that this indicates they may be toxic to other animals and man. The simple properties of the toxic material(s) suggest some resemblance to the toxin(s) present in fresh water algae (Shelubsky, 1951). There is also some similarity to the toxins of certain toxic fish oa and Bunker, 1954; Halstead and Ralls, 1954). As Table 2 shows, toxic algae occur in the ical contents of fish, other parts of which may be toxic. Much further investigation is required to determine whether this has any TaBLE 3—ReESULTS OF LARGE-SCALE TOXICITY Tests oF Extracts oF PALMYRA AND CALIFORNIA ALGAE Average Rescate Deaths death Species (%) ae (hours) PatmyRa ISLAND: | Boodlea composita (Harvey) Brand and | Caulerpa serrulata (Forskal) Agardh, | emend. Birgesen... 100 19 Hormothamnion solutum Bornet and Fla hoult and some Centroceras clavulatum | (Agardh) Montagne... | 20 21 Lyngbya majuscula Gian adn ome Bryopsis pennata var. secunda (Harvey) | Collins and Hervey.......... See 45 22 Corona DEL Mar, Catir. Pelvetia fastigiata Gardner.................. 100 | 16 Hesperophycus harveyanus Gardner...... HeeelOOnes| 16 Corallina officinalis var. chilenus (Harvey) | Fence ee ee ee. 0 | TaBLeE 4+——RESULTS OF CONCENTRATION OF ALGAL Extracts Average Guecies Type of Deaths death extract (%) time (hours) Boodlea composita (Har- vey) Brand, and Cau- lerpa serrulata (Fors- kal) Agardh, emend. ? Routine Crude 100 22 Borecsen ay ._.....,. | (Concentrated 100 0.6 PETE Jostiguala i Reutine Crude 100 | 16 GENER: soe Sseany ane _Concentrated | 100 0.9 KARABINOS AND FERULIN: OZONIZED OLEFINS 103 significance. Dawson, Aleem, and Halstead (1955) present additional data and discussion bearing on this problem. Summary.—Water extracts of a number of tropical and temperate marine algae have been found to be toxic to mice. Some concentration of the toxin(s) has been achieved and a number of the simple physical and chemical properties de- termined. Acknowledgments. are much indebted to Dr. Yale Dawson, Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California, for the identi- fication of the algae, and to Dr. John Field, De- partment of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, for his helpful suggestions. LITERATURE CITED Dawson, EH. Y., AumEm, A. A., and Hatsrnar, B. W. Marine algae from Palmyra Island with special reference to the feeding habits and toxt- cae of reef fishes. Allan Hancock Found. Occ. Paper 17: 1-39. 1955. Derm, A. W., and Tuorp, F. Voxric algae in Colorado. Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 95: 542-544. 1939. Fitcw, C. P., Bisnor, L. M., Boyp, W. I. > GortneR, R. A., Roaers, C. F., and Tiupen, J. E. ‘Water bloom” as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals. Cornell Vet. 24: 30-39. 1934. Hatsreap, B. W., and Bunker, N.C. A survey of the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix Islands. Copeia 1954: No. 1: 1-11. Haustwap, B. W., and Rauts, R. J. Results of dialyzing some fish poisons. Science 119: 160- 161. 1954. Reap, B. E., and How, G. K. The iodine, arsenic, tron, calcium and sulphur content of Chinese medicinal algae. Chinese Journ. Physiol. 1: 99-108. 1927. SHELUBSKY, M. Observations on the properties of a toxin produced by Microcystis. Proc. Internat. Assoc. Limnol. 11: 362-366. 1951. Strpryn, D. G. Poisoning of animals by algae on dams and pans. Farming South Africa 18: 489-492, 510. 1943. WuHeeEter, R. E., Lackxry, J. B., and Scnort, S. A contribution on the toxicity of algae. Publ. Health Rep. 57: 1695-1701. 1942. BIOCHEMISTRY —Bactericidal activity of ozonized olefins. J. V. KARABINOS and H. J. Ferur, Blockson Chemical Co., Joliet, Il. (Received January 10, 1955) The germicidal properties of ozonized fats have been well established from studies on olive (1, 2), codliver (3), and cottonseed oils (4). The nature of the antibacterial factor responsible for this activity 1s, however, unknown. In a previous article (5) it was noted that the bactericidal activity of “ozonides” deteriorated with time and that not all ozonized substances gave the same initial activity. In fact, a polyoxyethylene 104 condensate of tall oil rosin acids gave prac- tically no bactericidal activity upon ozoniza- tion whereas the presence of fatty acids such as oleic or linoleic in the hydrophobic radical resulted in a product of considerable activity after ozonization. It, therefore, seemed desirable to ozonize a variety of olefinic compounds quantitatively and ascertain whether bactericidal activity varied with olefinic structure. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS The olefins used in this study (Table 1) were the purest grades obtainable from Matheson, Coleman and Bell. The ozone was generated with the previously described (6) apparatus. Approximately 5 grams of olefin was accurately weighed in a tared flask and subjected to ozonization. At vari- ous intervals the flask and its contents were weighed and the increase in weight was noted. When the weight became constant, the ozonization was assumed to be complete and the product was immediately tested for bactericidal activity by the FDA method (7) as described in a previous article (8) using Staphylococcus aureus (Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus ATCC No. 6538, FDA strain 209, 1938). The results are shown in Table 1 in terms of dilutions giving positive or negative growth after ten minutes. A comparative rating indicating the degree of bactericidal activity is also included. It should be mentioned that since the bac- tericidal activity of the ‘“ozonides” may deteriorate with time, too much emphasis should not be put on the numerical values recorded in Table 1. They should rather be considered from a relative standpoint. QUANTITATIVE OZONIZATION OF SEVERAL OLEFINS Undecylenic acid (8.4266 g) was placed in a tared flask (A) followed by a tared trap (B) cooled in a dry ice bath. Ozone gas (5 percent ozone and 95 percent oxygen) was bubbled slowly through the olefinic acid and at regular intervals the weights of A and B were recorded. After 48 hours, no further in- crease In weight was observed; however, the material in A continued to distill slowly into trap B. At the end of 70 hours, the volatile material in B, smelling strongly of formal- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 4 dehyde, weighed 0.73 g (1.37 g of formalde- hyde would be considered theoretical) while flask A contained 10.35 g of product. To- gether the weights of ozonized undecylenic acid weighed 11.08 g whereas a product containing 4 oxygen atoms per double bond would have weighed 11.35 g. This represents 97.5 per cent of theory or 3.9 oxygen atoms per double bond. The only plausible expla- nation seemed to be that undecylenic acid (1) was being ozonized to formaldehyde (IT) and a monoperoxyacid (IIT). CH.—=CH—(CH:)s—COOH + 0; ——> I O | is CHO + H—OOC—(CH,)s—COOH —> II III HOOC—(CH2)s—COOH IV To substantiate this hypothesis, the mate- rial in trap B was treated with 2 ,4-dinitro- phenylhydrazine and the corresponding phenylhydrazone of m.p. 160° was isolated in a 30 percent yield. The m.p. of formalde- hyde 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone is listed as 166° (9). Control experiments with our reagent indicated that yields of this order could be expected with authentic formalde- hyde. Since monoperoxy acids upon heating at 80-100° C (10) liberate oxygen containing gases, resulting in the formation of the cor- responding acids, some of the material (1.222 g) in flask A representing 1.18 g as monoperoxy acid was heated in a boiling water bath in a tared test tube. The evolu- tion of gaseous products was noted and when this was no longer observed the weight of the product amounted to 1.093 g. This weight loss corresponded exactly to that required for the loss of one oxygen atom from the monoperoxy acid (III). The heated residue meanwhile had changed from a very viscous oil to a solid which upon recrystallization from ethyl acetate gave m.p. 132° and a neutral equivalent of 99. Since sebacic acid (IV) gives a m.p. of 133° (11) and has a neutral equivalent of 101 a mixed melting poimt with that sub- Aprin 1955 stance was determined and no depression was observed. It was also noted that the heat-treated acidic residue did not give a precipitate with 2 ,4-dinitrophenylhydra- zine indicating the absence of any long chain aldehydic product. These data, therefore, strongly indicate that ozonization of undecylenic acid results in the formation of formaldehyde and monoperoxy octane- 1,8 dicarboxylic acid (IIT) as shown above and that this latter substance is indeed responsible for the high order of bactericidal activity. Caprylene was ozonized in the same man- ner as undecylenic acid and the increase in weight likewise approached four atoms of oxygen per mole of the olefin. In this case formaldehyde was also isolated as the 2 ,4- dinitrophenylhydrazone of correct melting point. Mesityl oxide on the other hand absorbed ozone gas to a point just short of three atoms of oxygen per mole. In this case KARABINOS AND FERLIN: OZONIZED OLEFINS 105 acetone was isolated and identified as the 2 ,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of m.p. 124°. The residue gave no evidence of peroxy acid formation and this seems to account for the poor bactericidal activity exhibited by this ‘“‘ozonide.”’ D-Limonene and a Terpineol both ab- sorbed less than three atoms of oxygen per double bond and exhibited poor bactericidal activity. DISCUSSION From the data recorded in Table 1, it becomes apparent that there is great dis- similarity in the germicidal activity ex- hibited by the ozonization products of various olefins. Upon careful examination of the structures of the parent olefins, however, certain conclusions may be drawn. For example, olefins with a vinyl (CH) = CH—) or vimylene (—CH = CH —) group exhibit much better bactericidal properties after ozonization than unsatur- OF RESULTS TaBLe 1.—BacTERICIDAL ACTIVITY OF OZONIZED OLEFINS* | Dilution giv- | Dilution giv- Compound Forml Ce 10 minutes 10 minutes Undecyleniec acid. . .| CH»=CH—(CH:);—COOH 1—200,000 | 1-400,000 | Superior @aprylene.......... CHs—CH (CH) .-— OH 1-80,000 | 1-160,000 | Excellent Wleicracids..-...-..: | CH;— (CH,);—-CH=CH— (CH:;);,—COOH 1-80, 000 1-160,000 | Excellent n-Butyl vinyl] ether .| CH,—CH—O—C.H, 1-40,000 | 1-80,000 | Very good Ethyl undeeylenate.,) CH»=CH—(CH»);—COOC2H; 1-40,000 | 1-80,000 | Very good Ethyl cinnamate.. .| CsH;—CH=CH—COOC.H,; 1-20,000 | 1-40,000 | Good Allyl aleohol........| CH:,=CH—CH,0H 1-20,000 | 1-40,000 | Good OH imalooles ane ee 5: (CH;3)2—C=CH— (CH.).2—_C—CH=CH, 1-10, 000 1-20, 000 Fair CH; Mesityl oxide.......| (CH;)2—C—=CH—CO—CH; 1-1 ,000 1-5, 000 Poor CH: p= DEVimonenes......- CEE 2 1-1 ,000 1-5, 000 Poor CH; Propargy] alcohol...) CH==C—CH,OH 1-1 ,000 1-5 ,000 Poor 2-Butyne,1,4 diol ..| HO—CH,—C=C—CH,—OH a 1-1 , 000 Neg. OH yo a-Terpineol ... CHs—< S26(CRey — 1-1 ,000 Neg. * The bactericidal activities recorded above were carried out on the above olefins after each had been fully treated with ozone. In most cases, this required about 70 hours. 106 JOURNAL OF THE ated compounds having no hydrogen atom substituted on one of the carbon atoms of the double bond (i.e., >C = CH—). Likewise, acetylene compounds (—C = CH) having none or one hydrogen atom on the triple bond give relatively inactive “ozonides.”’ The length of the fatty chain does not seem to be as pertinent as the type of carbon to carbon double bond. One might, therefore, classify the vinyl and vinylene double bonds as ‘‘desirable’”’ for bactericidal activity upon ozonization and the latter two types as ‘‘undesirable’’. Several peculiarities may be noted. For example, lnalool with two double bonds, one of the vinyl type and the other not, possesses better bactericidal activity than mesityl oxide with only one double bond of the “undesirable” type. It will also be noted that p-limonene with two double bonds of the undesirable type gives an “ozonide”’ of low activity. These data seem to indicate that one olefin does not necessar- ily produce the same ozonization prcduct as does another. Heretofore, it was thought that all double bonds were converted by ozone to ozonides (I) or in some cases to hydroperoxides (II) (72) particularly where a solvent was employed. | =——C¢— 0-6 — A geet yaa Gua O—O OOH I II In our experiments, it was noted that those olefins such as oleic acid which did not produce volatile byproducts, took up four atoms of oxygen for each double bond instead of the three expected for a simple ozonide or hydroperoxide. In several in- stances where volatile products were ob- tained, such as with undecylenic acid, it was noted that formaldehyde, identified as its 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of m.p. 162-4°, was isolated from the volatile fraction. It would seem, therefore, that three oxygen atoms were consumed by the remainder of the molecule indicating the possible formation of a monoperoxyacid (III). This postulate was further substan- WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 4 tiated by converting the monoperoxyacid by heat to sebacic acid with the loss of one oxygen atom. Similar experiments with several other olefins indicated that the ones with double bonds of the ‘‘desirable’’ type absorbed four atoms of oxygen per double bond while those which gave poor bactericidal activity upon ozonization took up only three atoms of oxygen. It may also be mentioned that peracetic acid was syn- thesized (76) in connection with this work and possessed bactericidal activity in dilutions of the order of 1-100,000 using the FDA procedure lending further support to the above hypothesis. SUMMARY Ozone gas was passed into a variety of olefinic compounds and bactericidal activity of the resultant products indicated that there is great variation in activity depend- ing upon the type of olefin used. It would seem that at least one hydrogen atom on each of the carbon atoms of the double bond is essential for bacterieidal activity. The results indicate that the bactericidal principle may be a peroxyacid. LITERATURE CITED (1) Harapa, T. Bull. 192. 1934. (2) CronHemm, G. Journ. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Sei. Ed. 36: 274. 1947. (38) Stevens, F. A. Journ. Bact. 32: 47. 1936. (4) Butz, L. W., and LaLanpn, W. A., JR. Journ. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 26: 114. 1937. (5) Karasinos, J. V., and Frruin, H. J. Soap Chem. Specialties [8] 30: 46. 1954. (6) Karasinos,J.V.,and Batutun, A.T. Journ. Amer. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 31: 71. 1954. (7) Rupuun, G. L. A., and Brewer, C. M. U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Methods of testing Antiseptics and Disin- fectants. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 198. 1931. (8) KaraBINOos, J. V., and Ferrin, H. J. Journ. Amer. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 31: 228. 1954. (9) Suriner, R. L., and Fuson, R. C. Identifica- tion of Organic Compounds. ed. 3: 229. New York, 1948. (10) Topousky, A. V., and Mersrospran, R. B. Organic peroxides: 36. New York, 1954. (11) Ref. 9, p. 224. (12) Parrick, J. B., and Wrrxop, B. Org. Chem. 19: 1824. 1954. (13) WreyGaanp, C. Organic preparations: 122. New York, 1945. Chem. Soc. Japan 9: Journ. APRIL 1955 MCKENNA: MYLAGAULID FROM MONTANA 107 PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna, Montana. Matcotm C. McKenna, University of California. (Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.) In the course of field work in 1950 Dwight W. Taylor and the writer collected fossil vertebrate material briefly at exposures in the sediments interbedded in the volcanics along the banks of the Yellowstone River, 23.6 miles north of Gardiner, Mont. Col- lections from this locality have been desig- nated the Chalk Cliffs local fauna by Wood et al. (1941). The specimens obtained in 1950 were a right scaphoid of a camelid about the size of a llama, a P* or P* of Parahippus cf. P. brevidens, merychippine cheek tooth fragments (not retained), several tortoise limb bone fragments, and_ the incomplete mylagaulid skull herein de- scribed. These specimens suggest a probable early Barstovian age for the Chalk Cliffs local fauna. I am indebted to Seth B. Benson for his advice on dental succession and to R. A. Stirton, D. E. Savage, and R. H. Tedford for their criticism of the manu- script. The drawings are by Owen J. Poe. Mylagaulus douglassi, n. sp. U. C. 44694, named in honor of Earl Type. Douglass. Type locality —U. C. M. P. Loc. V-5060, ex- posures next to the highway on the east side of the Yellowstone River, 23.6 miles north of Gardiner, Mont. Distribution —Type locality only. Age—HEarly Barstovian or possibly latest Hemingfordian. Diagnosis —Very large mylagaulid (Fig. 1.) with posteriorly closely approximated temporal crests; hornless, essentially flat, unelevated nasals; skull flat from nasals to oecipitals, not anteroposteriorly compressed; teeth small in comparison to skull size; P? absent; M? and M? bearing five fossettes each; P* oval, with divided anterofossette at early stage of wear, parafossette round and tiny, metafossette double, slight angulation in mesostylar region; cement absent from sides of teeth; capsule of P* forming shelf at rear of infraorbital foramen; sphenopalatine foramen a large, anteroventrally trending slit, well separated from orbital fissure; nasolacrimal and accompanying foramen large, at rear of infraorbital foramen; nutrient foramina anterior to sphenopalatine multiple, not single; optic foramen small; anterior ethmoid foramen small. Discussion.—M ylagaulus douglassi is a very large mylagaulid, equaled in size by the Pliocene Epigaulus hatchert alone among members of the family. The skull herein described is approxi- mately thirty percent larger than the skull of a described but unnamed Pliocene mylagaulid from Big Spring Canyon, 8. Dak. (J. T. Gregory, 1942), and a minimum of fifty percent larger than all other described skulls of Mesogaulus or Mylagau- lus. Pliocene mylagaulids became larger than those of the Miocene as a rule, but, what is more important, fourth premolar size increased at an appreciably greater rate than skull size. For this reason it would be premature to state that various large premolars from Hemphillian localities represent animals with larger skulls than that of Mylagaulus douglassi, even though the teeth of M. douglassi are smaller. Another prominent feature of M. douglassi is that dorsally the skull does not show the extreme anteroposterior com- pression shown by late Barstovian and_ later forms. In general aspect, the skull is reminiscent of the skulls of Promylagaulus, Mylagaulodon, and A plodontia, rather than of the late Barstovian and Pliocene mylagaulids. Horns were ap- parently absent, though a slight elevation is possibly indicated by the broken anterior edges of the nasals. In dental pattern comparisons must be made with great care in view of the variation shown by various stages of wear, but it can be stated cautiously that M. douglass. compares most favorably with Mesogaulus vetus, Mylagaulus laevis, and the Mascall mylagaulid, especially with the Mascall form and the type and nu- merous referred specimens of M. laevis. The para- fossette of P* differs from that in the type of M. laevis and from that of the apparently more advanced referred specimens of M. laevis from Skull Spring and Beatty Buttes, Oregon, in that this fossette is small and round, as in the referred specimens of M. laevis from the lower Snake Creek and in Mesogaulus vetus. Specimens num- bered 14310 in the Peabody Museum, Yale University, from the Mascall formation at 108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 4 Fie. 1.—Mylagaulus douglassi, n. sp.: Dorsal (A), lateral (B), and occlusal (C) views of fragmentary skull, U. C. 44694. X 114 APRIL 1955 Paulina Creek in the Crooked River region of Oregon show a pattern almost identical with that of the P* of W. douglassi and the lower Snake Creek referred specimens of VW. laevis, but they average twenty percent smaller than MW. douglassi teeth. Perhaps it would be useful to speak of the Mylagaulus laevis group, in analogy to the Aelurodon seavus group. The members of the M. laevis group would be M. laevis, the referred specimens of this species from various localities, the Maseall form, and Wylagaulus douglass:. The parafossette of these forms differs radically from that of Mesogaulus pristinus or of any of the Pliocene mylagaulids, in which the parafossette is elongate or multiple. The placement of W. douglasst in Mylagaulus instead of in Wesogaulus is somewhat arbitrary in view of the fact that it is not known whether there was a parafossettid. But as M. douglassi belongs to the Mylagaulus laevis group on the basis of other characters, it seems probable that there was a small parafossettid as in the other members of the group. Direct comparison of M. douglassi with Mesogaulus ballensis from the nearby Deep River beds is impossible at present, but a considerable size discrepancy exists between the two forms. Dorr (1952) has recently proposed that the adult mylagaulid cheek dentition becomes Pi, Mj,M>. Matthew (1924) stated that the adult cheek dentition becomes P{,M>,M;. Matthew’s formula is followed in the present paper for the following reasons, though the question cannot yet be regarded as completely settled. First of all, a simple, permanent P* is present in Promyla- gaulus riggsi, Mylagaulodon cf. M. angulatus, Mesogaulus paniensis, Mesogaulus vetus, possibly Mesogaulus praecursor, and Aplodontia. This tooth is pushed out by the emerging P* in the advanced mylagaulids. That it is a permanent P is attested by analogy with Aplodontia, in which a deciduous, peg-like P? may be observed in young animals. Deciduous and permanent P* thus accounted for, the two teeth replaced next must be dP? and M!. In the skull of Myla- gaulus from Big Spring Canyon it is possible that a second molar was pushed out by P‘ in old age, though it still could be that the rear molars have been lost. I know of no specimens, however, that show marked reduction in the last molar of the series, a condition which might be expected to precede loss of such a tooth in most instances. MCKENNA: MYLAGAULID FROM MONTANA 109 Dorr states (1952, pp. 322) with regard to the lower dentition that “it is difficult to suppose that as M, (instead of dP,) it would remain brachyodont in the midst of a strongly hypsodont dentition”’. However, it would seem reasonable that since dP} and Mj erupt at about the same time, that they could look more similar than Dorr suggests, 1.e., that both could be brachy- dont, particularly m view of the depth of jaw available for teeth in such a young animal. An example of what is meant here is provided by the artiodacty! Phacochoerus, in which M{ are pushed out of the series by the remaining molars and P%. Secondly, the two rooted condition of M, and narrow, single rooted condition of M! easily could be a simple adaptation to the enlarging P{. This would be in response to crowding by P{ and would mimic the process whereby deciduous teeth are replaced, a process whose genetic control is un- doubtedly very deep-seated and influenced by modifiers such as genes for resorption. Thirdly, at least in M!, a specimen of Myla- gaulus from the type Maseall formation, U. C. 39292, shows that the dental pattern of this tooth is closely similar to that of M? and M?. In addition to this, the dP* and M' of Mesogaulus vetus differ markedly in outline, as do the same teeth in an undescribed specimen of a mylagaulid from the Burge fauna in the University of California collections. Fourthly, Dorr’s objection to the eruption of My, as part of the “premolar series” seems un- founded. This is the normal situation in rodents as well as in many other groups. These considerations strongly suggest that Matthew was correct in giving the adult myla- gaulid cheek tooth formula as P{,M>,M?’ for advanced forms. Arguments based on induction and analogy cannot provide certainty, but proba- bility seems to lie on the side of Matthew’s formula rather than Dorr’s. In addition, argu- ments for the Matthew formula are somewhat simpler than those in favor of Dorr’s formula, a situation which is advantageous on empirical grounds. Wood et al. (1941) list the following members of the Chalk Cliffs local fauna: Merychippus cf. M. isonesus |M. seversus] Mylagaulus sp. ‘2Cosoryx”’ sp. [PMerycodus sp.] Proboscidea A camelid, tortoise, and Parahippus ctf. P. 110 brevidens (Fig. 2.) may now be added to the faunal list. The closest relationships of the Chalk Cliffs local fauna would seem to lie with the Mas- call fauna, indicating an early Barstovian age, but latest Hemingfordian age is not impossible. The stage of evolution of Mylagaulus douglassi is as might be expected in either a late Heming- fordian or early Barstovian mylagaulid, with a small weight of probability in favor of the latter age. Thus far, Parahippus brevidens has been known only from the early Barstovian Maseall fauna. Fie. 2.—Parahippus cf. P. brevidens: Occlusal view of P? or P*. X 1. Measurements (in millimeters).— As follows: Length, P‘—M3, inclusive : é 17.4 Length, P? : 3 atte 8.8 Length, diastema from incisor to P*. . 5 24.4 Length, at midline, occiput to nasofrontal contact. ....... 43.6 Width, P4 se ; : ; 6.8 Height, maxilla at P! to nasofrontal contact F 31.1 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No/4 LITERATURE Cook, H. J., and Greacory, J. T. Mesogaulus praecursor, a new rodent from the Miocene of Nebraska. Journ. Pal. 15 (5): 549-552, 2 figs. 1941. Dorr, Joun A., Jr. Notes on the mylagaulid rodent dentition. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 82 (8): 319-328, 1 pl. 1952. Doveuass, Earu. New vertebrates from the Montana Tertiary. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 2 (2): 145-199, 37 figs., 2 pls. 1903. Gazin, C. L. A Miocene mammalian fauna from southeastern Oregon. Carnegie Inst. Washing- ton Publ. 418: 37-86, 20 figs., 6 pls. 1932. Greoory, J. T. Pliocene vertebrates from Big Spring Canyon, South Dakota. Univ. Cali- fornia Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci. 26 (4) : 307- 446, 54 figs., 3 pls. 1942. Marrugw, W. D. Third contribution to the Snake Creek fauna. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 59 (2): 59-210, 63 figs. 1924. McGrew, PautO. The Aplodontoidea. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Geol. Ser. 9 (1): 1-80, 18 figs. 1941. Wauuace, Ropert E. A Miocene mammalian fauna from Beatty Buttes, Oregon. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 551: 113-134, 1 fig., 6 pls. 1946. Woop, H. E., 2d, et al. Nomenclature and corre- lation of the North American Continental Tertiary. Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer. 52: 1-48. 1941. BOTANY .—Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV.1 Lyman B. Smitu, U. S. National Museum, and Bernice G. Scuuserr, U.S. Department of Agriculture. This number of our series is an addendum to floristic treatments of the family for Peru,’ Argentina,’ and Colombia,! and a preface to further floristic papers. VENEZUELA Begonia steyermarkii Smith & Schubert, sp. nov. Fras. 1, a-h Herba annua fugitiva; foliis oblique rhombicis, apicem versus serratis; inflorescentiis bifloris; bracteis persistentibus, laceratis; tepalis mascu- linis 2, integris; filamentis in columnam connatis, antheris elongatis; bracteolis femineis 2, per- ‘The previous number in this series was this JOURNAL 40(8) : 241-245. 1950. 2 Begoniaceae. In Macbride, Flora of Peru. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot. 18: no. 1: 181-202. 1941. 3 Revision de las especies Argentinas del género Begonia. Darwiniana 5: 78-117, figs. 1-18. 1941. 4The Begoniaceae of Colombia. Caldasia 4: 3-388, 77-107, 179-209, pls. 1-18. 1946. sistentibus, accrescentibus, una bilobata; tepalis femineis 4, basi connatis; placentis simplicibus, stylis 3, bifidis, stigmatibus spiraliter cinctis; alis capsulae inaequalibus. Herbaceous annual 6-10 cm high; stem simple, hirtellous, ascending; leaves asymmetric, ob- liquely rhombic, acute at apex and more or less so at base, subpalmately veined, rather coarsely serrate on the upper margins and ciliate on the lower, up to 15 mm long and 8 mm wide, with erect multicellular scattered trichomes above, essentially glabrous below, petioles 1-3 mm long with a few scattered spreading trichomes, stipules persistent, lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate, 4-5 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide; peduncles axillary 8-10 mm long, sparsely hirtellous; inflorescences 2-flowered, bracts persistent, lanceolate, lacerate, 1.5-2 mm long; staminate pedicels slender 2.5-3 mm long; staminate tepals 2, subelliptic, 5mm long, 3.5 mm wide; stamens about 15, filaments connate in a column, anthers elongate, the connective slightly Aprit 1955 SMITH AND SCHUBERT: STUDIES IN THE BEGONIACEAE 111 q end WW) (i « \) \ \ Fic. 1.—a, Begonia steyermarkw, plant X 1; b, staminate flower X 2; c, androecium X 5; d, pistillate perianth and styles X 2; e, style X 5; f, larger pistillate bracteole X 1; g, capsule (bracteoles removed) * 1;h, seed X 10.7, Begonia bifurcata, plant X 14; 7, stipule X 5; k, staminate flower X 1; J, pistillate flower X 1; m, capsule X 1; n, style X 5. 0, Begonia brevicordata, inflorescences and upper leaves X 1: p, staminate flower X 1; qg, stamen X 5;7, style X 5. s, Begonia sleumeri, staminate plant X 1; ¢, pistil- late plant X 1; w,androecium X 5; v, style X 5. 112 produced; pistillate bracteoles 2, persistent, ac- crescent, serrulate-ciliolate, the smaller ovate, 8 mm long, 5 mm wide, the larger bilobed with the halves slightly asymmetrical, 6-7 mm long and each 4—5 mm wide; pistillate pedicels 6-7 mm long; pistillate tepals 4, fused at base, each lobe ca. 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide; styles 2-parted with the stigmatic tissue in a more or less spiral band; ovary 3-celled, placentae simple, ovulifer- ous throughout, capsule subelliptic, glabrous, 6 mm high, 2 wings subequal about 6 mm long, 2 mm wide, the third wing larger, 7 mm long, 6 mm wide, all more or less rounded; seeds oblong, obtuse, about 1 mm long, stalked, alveolate, the basal alveolae longer than wide. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 2144327, cultivated at the U. S. Plant Introduc- tion Garden, Glenn Dale, Md. (PI 211848), from seeds sent from the Missouri Botanical Garden, J. A. Steyermark (no. 75502). Additional specimens examined: Bolivar: On dry ledges, Chimanté Massif, along base of south- east-facing sandstone bluffs of Chimantdé-teput (Torono-tepui), from south corner northeast- ward, altitude 1,700 meters, May 21, 1953, J. A. Steyermark 75502 (F, US). Around dry talus with dry leaves at base of bluff, between Bluff Camp and low promontory north of Bluff Camp, along west-facing portion of Chimantdé-tepui (Torono- tepui), altitude 1,600-1,700 m, June 5, 1953, J. A. Steyermark 75639 (F, US). Since the original collection of Dr. Steyermark, no. 75502, has very mature fruit but neither leaves nor flowers, and his no. 75639 has flowers but no mature fruit, we have chosen as type the more complete plants from a cultivated collection as cited above. The species is easy to propagate, but the life of each small plant is not very long, and it is to be cultivated more for its botanical interest than its ornamental value. We are grateful to Dr. John L. Creech, superintendent of the U. 8. Plant Introduction Garden at Glenn Dale, Md., for making available the cultivated material for herbarium specimens as well as additional collec- tions of flowers in preservative for study and dis- section. We also appreciate the interest of Dr. Fred G. Meyer of the Missouri Botanical Garden in sending us seeds and specimens of this inter- esting species. The affinities of Begonia steyermarkii are clearly in the section Poecilia A. DC. It may be dis- tinguished from the other South American species JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 of the section by its relatively long stamen- column with elongate anthers, by its bracteoles, one of which is 2-lobed and surrounds 2 capsule- walls, and by its gamotepalous 4-lobed pistillate perianth. This last character is an especially in- teresting one since it is the character which has been used to distinguish three small segregates from Begonia. The appearance of gamotepaly in this connection leads us to believe that at least among the American Begoniaceae it is of less significance than the characters used to dis- tinguish sections, apparently having evolved at several different points in the development of Begonia. COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR Begonia L. Sp. Pl. 1056. 1753. Begoniella Oliver, Trans. Linn. Soc. 28: 513. 1873; emended by Oliver in Hook. ic. 14: 38. 1881; emended by Smith & Schubert, Caldasia 4: 204. 1946. Semibegoniella C. DC. Bull. Herb. Boiss. IT. 8: 327. 1908. As noted above (under Begonia steyermarkii), it is our feeling that the characters upon which Begoniella and Semibegoniella were based are no longer tenable. In our treatment of the Begoni- aceae of Colombia (p. 205), we stated that the transition from Begonia to Begoniella “is ob- viously through Begonia § Casparya and specifically through B. killipiana which rather strikingly resembles Begoniella whatet.”” In addi- tion, Begonia killipiana has biseriate stamens as in Begoniella whitei and libera and Begonia hexandra Irmscher. Since this character of biseri- ate stamens occurs in both genera it lends no support of correlation with the character of gamotepaly. There is even less support for Semibegoniella as only the staminate tepals are connate there. Consequently we have transferred the species to the section Casparya of Begonia as © follows: Begonia grewiifolia (A. DC.) Warb. in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3: Abt. 6a: 146. 1894. Casparya grewtifolia A. DC. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. 11: 117. 1859. Semibegoniella jamesoniana C. DC. Bull. Herb. Boiss. IT. 8: 327. 1908. Semibegoniella sodirot C. DC. 1. e. Begonia irmscheri Smith & Schubert, nom. noy. Begoniella angustifolia Oliver in Hook. Ic. 15: 68, pl. 1487. 1885; Smith & Schubert, Cal- dasia 4: 208, pl. 18. 1946, non Begonia angus- tifolia Blume, 1827-28. Aprit 1955 Begonia Kalbreyeri (Oliver) Smith & Schubert, comb. nov. Begoniella kalbreyert Oliver in Hook. Ic. 14: 38, pl. 1352. 1881; Smith & Schubert, Caldasia 4: 208, pl. 18. 1946. Begonia kalbreyeri var. glabra (Smith & Schu- bert) Smith & Schubert, comb. nov. Begoniella kalbreyert var. glabra Smith & Schu- bert, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 244. 1950. Begonia lehmannii (Irmscher) Smith & Schubert, comb. nov. Begoniella lehmannii Irmscher, Bot. Jahrb. 74: 630. 1949. Begonia libera (Smith & Schubert) Smith & Schubert, comb. nov. Begoniella Libera Smith & Schubert, Caldasia 4: 206, pl. 18. 1946. Begonia oliveri Smith & Schubert, nom. nov. Begoniella whitet Oliver, Trans. Linn. Soc. 28: 513, pl. 41. 1873; Smith & Schubert, Caldasia 4: 205, pl. 18. 1946, non Begonia whyter Stapf. 1905. PERU Begonia bifurcata Smith & Schubert, sp. nov. Figs. 1, in Perennis, tuberosa; caule quam petiolis pedun- culisque multo breviore; foliis paucis, late ellipticis, valde asymmetricis, stipulis deciduis, pedunculis elongatis; inflorescentia pauciflora, bifureata; tepalis exterioribus glanduloso-hispidis; tepalis masculinis 4; filamentis in columnam angustam connatis; tepalis femineis 5; placentis bilamellatis; stylis 3, bifidis, ramis linearibus, stigmatibus spiraliter cinctis; capsula hispida alis valde inaequalibus. Perennial from a tuberous base, 28 cm high, sparsely hispid; stem erect, slender, 5 cm long; leaves oblique or transverse, broadly elliptic, acute, sometimes with a small secondary lobe, deeply and narrowly cordate at base, to 13 cm long and 9 em wide, palmately 8-nerved, denticu- late, thin, petioles slender, to 14 cm long, pilose, stipules deciduous, broadly ovate, acute, 5 mm long, dentate, membranaceous; peduncles to 17 cm long; inflorescence 2-branched, few-flowered; bracts persistent ovate, subentire, setose-ciliate; fruiting pedicels 25 mm long; tepals pale rose, the outer bearing stiff hairs with dark swollen bases; staminate tepals 4, elliptic, obtuse, subequal, 6 mm long, entire; stamens borne on a slender column 1.5 mm long, anthers elliptic-oblong, 1 mm long, about equaling the filaments, connec- tive not produced; pistillate tepals 5; ovary 3-celled, placentae bilamellate, styles bifid, stigmatic tissue linear, spiral; capsule more or SMITH AND SCHUBERT: STUDIES IN THE BEGONIACEAE 113 less decurved, subglobose, wings very unequal, the largest triangular-ovate, ascending, 5 mm wide, the others narrowly marginiform. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 2057660, collected in forest, above Canchaque, Province of Huancabama, Department of Piura, Peru, altitude 1,500-1,600 meters, March 22, 1948, by Ramoén Ferreyra (no. 3103). This species would fall next to B. monadelpha (K1.) R. & P. in our key to Peruvian Begonia because of its stamen-column but is otherwise completely unlike it. Except for the stamen- column it would more appropriately go next to B. veitchii Hook. f. from which it differs in its long petioles, transverse leaf-blades, and narrow anthers. We feel that as might be expected from its native locality it is more nearly related to the Ecuadorian B, parcifolia C. DC. than to any Peruvian species, but unlike that it has the outer tepals and capsule glandular-hispid. The habit has been drawn with breaks be- tween the parts to indicate reconstruction from fragmentary material. Begonia brevicordata Smith & Schubert, sp. nov. Fras. 1, o-r Glabra; foliis obliquis, late ellipticis vel ovatis, basi abrupte breviterque cordatis, stipulis de- ciduis; inflorescentia laxe pauciflora; bracteis deciduis; tepalis albis, masculinis 2, ovatis, obtusis; staminibus liberis; tepalis femineis 5; placentis bilamellatis; stylis 3, bifidis, connatis; alis capsulae inaequalibus. Plant 40 cm high, glabrous; stems slender; leaves oblique, broadly elliptic or ovate, abruptly acute, abruptly and shallowly cordate at base, 4—5 cm long, denticulate, finely alveolate when dry, petioles 15-50 mm long, stipules deciduous, elliptic, subulate-acuminate, 11 mm long, entire; peduncles 3-8 cm long, slender; inflorescence laxly few-flowered; bracts deciduous, the basal ones like the stipules, the others much smaller; pedicels 10-12 mm long; tepals thin, white, the staminate 2, ovate, obtuse, 6-10 mm long, entire, minutely red-glandular on the margin; stamens free, numerous, anthers linear, longer than the fila- ments, connective not produced; pistillate flowers bracteolate; pistillate tepals 5, the outer red- glandular at apex; ovary 3-celled, placentae bilamellate, styles bifid, connate at base, stig- matic tissue linear, spiral; capsule erect, obovoid, wings unequal, ovate, obtuse. Type in the U. 8. National Museum, no. basi 114 1952111, collected on the edge of woods, Santa Isabel, Valley of Kosfiipata, Department of Cuzco, Peru, altitude 1,320 meters, December 1947, by C. Vargas C. (no. 6767). Duplicate in the Gray Herbarium. Additional specimen examined: Cuzco: Santa Isabel, Valley of Kosfipata, alt. 1,200 m, July 23-31, 1948, R. Scolnik 927 (US). Probably the nearest relative of Begonia brevicordata is B. lophoptera Rolfe, but the latter species unlike ours is pilose and has lobed leaves and thick fleshy papillose-hirsute tepals. Begonia erythrocarpa A. DC. in Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. 11: 121. 1859. Begonia pennellii Smith & Schubert in Mac- bride, Fl. Peru, Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 13!: 196. 1941. BOLIVIA Begonia williamsii Rusby & Nash, Torreya 6: 47. 1906. Begonia acrensis Irmscher, Bot. Jahrb. 74: 605. 1949. BRAZIL Begonia curtii Smith & Schubert, nom. nov. Begonia velata Brade, Arq. Jard. Bot. Rio de Janeiro 10: 133, pl. 2. 1950, non Smith & Schubert, Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 134: 201. 1941, We take particular pleasure in this opportunity to commemorate the outstanding work of Dr. Alexandre Curt Brade in Brazilian Begonia. Begonia egregia N. I. Br. Gard. Chron. III, 1: 346. 1887. Begonia quadrilocularis Brade, Rodriguesia 9: 21, pl. 6. 1945. ARGENTINA Begonia sleumeri Smith & Schubert, sp. nov. Fias. 1, s-v JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 Perennis, tuberosa, pilis articulatis vestita; foliis longipetiolatis, suborbicularibus; inflores- — centia uniflora; tepalis masculinis 5-6; staminibus in columnam convexam insertis, antheris ellip- ticis; tepalis femineis 7; stylis bifidis. Perennial from a small tuberous base, 6-8 em high, very sparsely pubescent with pale multi- cellular trichomes; stem erect, not more than 1 cm long; a single leaf with each scape, blade suborbicular and without a distinct apex, cordate, 12-30 mm in diameter, crenate-dentate, petioles to 45 mm long, red, stipules persistent, sub- orbicular, 3-5 mm long, erose, ciliate, mem- branaceous, red; peduncle erect, 2-6 cm long, one-flowered; bracts resembling the stipules, pedicels 5-15 mm long; flowers ebracteolate, white; staminate tepals 5-6, elliptic, obtuse, equal, 10 mm long, entire, glabrous; stamens numerous on a convex column, filaments 2 mm long, anthers elliptic, 0.7 mm long, connective not produced; pistillate tepals 7, like the staminate; ovary 3-celled, placentae bifid (?), styles bifid; capsule subglobose, wings unequal, the largest triangular, acute. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 2103588, collected on cumbre at Abra de Tiraxi, Department of Tumbaya, Province of Jujuy, Argentina, altitude 3,200 meters, December 31, 1952, by H. Sleumer (no. 3189). In our treatment of Argentine Begonia, B. sleumert would fall next to B. tafiensis. However, it is readily distinguishable from that species by its more numerous tepals, elliptic rather than obovate anthers, and much smaller capsule-wings. It has not been possible to verify the form of the placentae without ruining the single immature capsule available but presumably they are bilamellate. MYCOLOGY.—A_ small Conidiobolus with globose and with elongated secondary conidia, CHARLES DreEcHSLER, United States Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. Most species of Conzdiobolus that appear adventitiously in agar plate cultures pre- pared for the isolation of parasitic oomy- cetes from decaying roots, or that develop in agar plates canopied with small quantities of slowly decomposing plant detritus, would seem moderately coarse in comparison with microscopic fungi generally. In the main, however, they do not share the large dimen- sions of the very robust C. utriculosus Bre- feld (1884) on which the genus was founded and by which almost exclusively, it was known for more than half a century. Among my isolations of readily culturable ento- mophthoraceous fungi two species of Conz- diobolus are more particularly characterized APRIL 1955 by relatively small dimensions of their hyphal segments and reproductive parts. One of these species was recently described elsewhere under the binomial C. nanodes Drechsler (1955). The other is described herein, likewise under an epithet meaning “dwarfish.”’ Cenidiobolus pumilus, sp. nov. Mycelium in- coloratum sed interdum materiam ambientem vel permeatum tarde obscurans; hyphis sterilibus mediocriter ramosis, plerumque 2-7 crassis, mox septatis, hic illic inanitis, cellula eorum extrema saepe 75—400u longa, aliis cellulis eorum plerumque 20—75yu longis; primiformibus fertili- bus hyphis smgulatum ex cellulis hypharum surgentibus, in parte submersa vulgo 2.2-3u crassis, In aerem 8—30u ad lucem protendentibus, in parte protendenti saepius 3.5-7u crassis, ibi erectis vel acclivibus, apice unum conidium formae globosae ferentibus; conidiis formae globosae violenter prosilientibus, incoloratis, basi papilla 1.2-3.2u alta et 3-6u lata praeditis, plerumque ex toto 9-18u longis et 7.3-l4y latis; conidiis formae elongato-ellipsoideae incoloratis, interdum 8.8—12u longis et 5—7.5u latis, in apice hyphae fertilis gracilis oriundis; gracilibus fertili- bus hyphis ex conidiis abjunctis singulatim surgentibus, incoloratis, rectis vel aliquid curvis, interdum 30-40 altis, basi circa 2u crassis, sursum leniter attenuatis, apice circa 0.8 crassis. Habitat in materiis plantarum putrescentibus prope Sanford, Florida. Mycelium colorless though in many instances causing the substratum or ambient to darken slowly; assimilative hyphae moderately branched, 2 to 7u wide, soon divided by cross-walls, when actively growing commonly terminating in a segment 75 to 400u long, the other segments mostly 20 to 75u long and often disjointed from one another or separated by emptied portions of filament; primary conidiophores colorless, un- branched, arising singly from submerged or prostrate hyphal segments, in their proximal sub- merged portions often 2.2 to 3u wide, extending 8 to 30u into the air toward the main source of light, the aerial portion 3.5 to 7u wide, erect or inclined, bearing a single globose conidium; globose conidia springing off violently, colorless, mostly 7.3 to 14u wide and 9 to 18 in total length inclusive of a basal papilla 1.2 to 3.2u high and 3 to 6u wide; elongate ellipsoidal conidia colorless, sometimes 8.8 to 12u long and 5 to 7.5u DRECHSLER: CONIDIOBOLUS 115 wide, always borne singly on slender conidio- phores; slender conidiophores arising singly from individual detached conidia, straight or curved, sometimes 30 to 40u tall, 2u wide at the base, tapering gradually upward, about 0.8u wide at the tip. Isolated from decaying plant materials col- lected near Sanford, Fla., on December 31, 1953. The hyphal segments in Conidiobolus pumilus, as in most congeneric forms, vary greatly with respect to size and shape. In the mycelium grow- ing unimpeded on an ample expanse of maize- meal agar substratum the terminal segments of the radially arranged main hyphae at the ad- vancing margin often measure 200 to 400u in length and 5 to 6u in width (Fig. 1). Increase in size of a mycelium is accomplished mainly by continued apical elongation of each terminal segment, which thereby is enabled from time to time to cut off a shorter segment proximally; the segments thus delimited one after another each occupying at first a penultimate position in the filament. Noticeable changes in the usual sequence of growth and cell division may result from slight modifications in external conditions. Thus when an actively expanding mycelium in an agar slab excised from a Petri plate culture is placed on a slide, covered with a cover glass, and then exposed to the bright illumination necessary for microscopical examination at high magnifica- tion, the terminal segments in many instances soon become abnormally shortened through hastening of cell division at the proximal end (Fig. 2). Once a hyphal segment has been de- limited in penultimate position it usually under- goes no subsequent division, though its shape may become modified from evacuation of some portion at either end, and from extension of short branches or protuberances (Figs. 3-8). The darkening of substratum often observable in cultures of Conidiobolus pumilus on maize- meal or lima-bean agar, within 10 or 15 days after planting, is noteworthy mainly because other known members of the genus seem generally in- capable of bringing about any similar discolor- ation. Among congeneric forms only C. rugosus Drechsler (1955) invites comparison here, owing to the yellow or orange coloration it shows on maize-meal agar and on other agar media suitable for its sexual reproduction. The bright coloration seen in cultures of C. rugosus is due entirely to enormous numbers of yellow zygospores pro- 116 duced by that species, whereas the darkening in cultures of C. pwmilus appears to come about from changes effected in the substratum. In Conidiobolus pumilus, as in all other seg- mented congeneric forms, the conidiophores (figs. 9-15) bearing the primary globose conidia originate singly from individual hyphal segments. A conidiophore given off by a rather deeply sub- merged hyphal segment must grow upward through the overlying material a considerable distance before it reaches the surface (Fig. 9, s; Figs. 11-14: s). Owing to the delay incurred thereby the empty membrane of the hyphal seg- ment, together with the evacuated proximal portion of the conidiophore, has usually vanished from sight when the conidium is fully delimited (Figs. 12-14), and may, indeed, be quite indis- cernible even earlier when movement of proto- plasm into the growing conidium is still in progress (Figs. 9, 11). Although a hyphal segment on the surface of the substratum sometimes ex- tends its conidiophore procumbently a short distance (Figs. 10, s; 15, s), its empty envelope usually remains clearly visible at the time the conidium becomes walled off basally (Fig. 15). The conidium of Conidiobolus pumilus springs off forcibly through sudden eversion of its concave basal membrane. Since the papilla resulting from this eversion is generally a little wider than the corresponding modification in C. nanodes it merges more gradually with the globose contour of the spore. Consequently the detached globose conidia of C. pumilus (Figs. 16-54) in general appear less abruptly papillate than those of C. nanodes. When lying on a moist surface they often put forth individually a short stout conidiophore on which is produced a conidium of globose shape JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 like the parent (Figs. 55-62). Less commonly they give rise individually to a slender conidi- ophore bearing on its tip an elongate-ellipsoidal or obovoid conidium (Figs. 63-65) of the secondary type previously observed in C. heterosporus Drechsler (1953), C. rhysosporus Drechsler (1954), and C. rugosus. The elongate conidia here as in the three species described earlier do not spring off forcibly but become detached (Figs. 66-92) on slight disturbance. Elongate conidia of C. pumilus have hitherto been seen only in cultures over 15 days old in which the globose conidia serving as parents had been much reduced in size through prolonged repetitional development. It may be presumed that if their production were to take place in relatively young cultures they would show appreciably greater dimensions than have been indicated for them in the diagnosis. In its ordinary vegetative germination the globose conidium puts forth a germ hypha (Figs. 93-95) that on unoccupied substratum is capable of growing into an extensive mycelium. Sexual reproduction, which as a rule occurs promptly and abundantly in cultures of Conidi- obolus nanodes, has so far not been observed in C. pumilus. REFERENCES BREFELD, O. Conidiobolus utriculosus wnd minor. Unters. Gesammtg. Mykologie 6: 35-72, 75-78, pl. 3-5. 1884. DReEcCHSLER, C. Two new species of Conidiobolus occurring in leaf mold. Amer. Journ. Bot. 40: 104-115. 1953. . Two species of Conidiobolus with minutely ridged zygospores. Amer. Journ. Bot. 41: 567-575. 1954. . Some new species of Conidiobolus isolated from decaying plant detritus. Amer. Journ. Bot. 42: 1955. Figs. 1-95.—Conidiobolus pumilus as found in Petri plate cultures of maize-meal agar; drawn at a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; X 1000: 1, Terminal segment of a main hypha at margin of an actively growing mycelium, shown in two sections whose proper connection is indicated by a broken line; 2, terminal portion of a main hypha at margin of a growing mycelium 45 minutes after material was mounted on a microscope slide and covered with a cover glass; 3, two adjacent hyphal segments in older region of an extensive mycelium; 4-8, individual hyphal segments in central area of an extensive mycelium; 9-11, conidiophores on which globose conidia are being formed (s, surface of sub- stratum); 12-15, conidiophores bearing mature globose conidia (s, surface of substratum); 16-54, de- tached globose conidia showing variations in size and shape; 55-59, detached globose conidia that are each giving rise to a secondary globose conidium; 60-62, detached globose conidia that have each pro- duced a secondary globose conidium; 63-65, globose conidia that have each produced an elongated secondary conidium on a slender conidiophore; 66-92, detached elongated conidia; 93-95, globose conidia that are each germinating by emission of a vegetative germ hypha. | ITZ) CONIDIOBOLUS DRECHSLER: Aprit 1955 % ae o 8 S ler del. (See opposite page for legend). Figs. 1-95. 118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. + ZOOLOGY .—New species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from the east coast of North America.. Martian H. Prrriponnr, University of New Hampshire. The new species of Polynoidae herein described were collected in part by the writer; some were present in the unworked collections in the United States National Museum where the types are deposited. Family PoLyNorIDAr Austrolaenilla Bergstrom, char. emend. Genus 1916; Elytra 15-16 pairs (15 in type species, A. antarctica Bergstr6m; 16 in A. mollis (Sars)). Notosetae stouter than neurosetae, of the funda- mental Harmothoé type. Neurosetae with tips slender, not capillary, entire or with secondary tooth, with filamentous distal ends (bearded or hirsute tips). Laenilla? mollis Sars, 1872, is herein referred to Austrolaenilla. It has been referred to Harmothoé and Antinoé. hairs on Austrolaenilla lanelleae, n. sp. Fig. 1, a-f The species is based on three somewhat in- complete specimens which were found in the material collected by the U.S. Fish Commission from off Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.; they were found along with numerous specimens of the polynoid, Harmothoé acanellae (Verrill) and which they superficially resemble; the latter is known to be associated with corals. The species is named for LaNelle Peterson, museum aide at the U.S. National Museum. Measurements.—Length 14 to 23 mm, greatest width including setae 5 to 7.5 mm, width ex- cluding setae 3 to 6.75 mm. Segments 40, 41. Description.—Body nearly linear, tapering gradually anteriorly and more so posteriorly, flattened dorsoventrally. Elytra missing; elytro- phores 15 pairs. Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with deep anteromedian notch and distinct cephalic peaks (Fig. 1, a). Four eyes purple, large, anterior pair larger than posterior pair, lateral in position, in region of greatest prostomial width. Median antenna with bulbous ceratophore; style missing. Lateral antennae with short ceratophores inserted ventrally on prostomium; 1 This study was aided by a grant from the Na- tional Science Foundation (NSF-G526). styles short, subulate, tapering to slender tips. Palps missing. Tentacular segment with elongated basal lobes each with a single seta. Tentacular, dorsal and anal cirri missing. Cirrophores of dorsal cirri bulbous basally. Ventral cirri shorter than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 1, 6). Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, short, cylindrical, extending upward between the bases of succes- sive neuropodia. Parapodia biramous, rather long—parapodia and setae about as long as body width; notopodium a short rounded lobe on the antero- dorsal face of the neuropodium, with a digitiform acicular lobe; neuropodium bluntly conical (Fig. 1, 6). Notosetae golden-yellow, numerous, form- ing a spreading bundle, stout (22.5 to 47.5u in diameter basally), curved, tapering gradually, with close-set spinous rows, with very short bare pointed tips or tips worn off bluntly (Fig. 1, c). Neurosetae golden-yellow, with long stem region (15 to 25u in diameter basally), with enlarged long distal spinous regions (20 to 30u in greatest diameter in basal part), spinous region consisting of 17 to 35 or so spinous rows, with tip slightly hooked, with slender secondary tooth (may be broken off or hidden by bushy hairs); the free end of the spinous rows taper to slender hairy tips, the distal row extending about to the setal tip (Fig. 1, d, f); the lower neurosetae with shorter spinous regions, with secondary tooth very slender or absent; the upper neurosetae more slender, with the longest spinous regions and longer hairy tips (Fig. 1, d, e). Remarks.—A. lanelleae superficially resembles Harmothoé acanellae (Verrill), with which it was found, in regard to the general shape and large eyes. It differs by having more numerous notosetae (4-10 in H. acanellae), fewer number of segments (50-80 in H. acanellae), and the char- acter of the noto- and neurosetae. It differs from A.antarctica Bergstrom by having the neurosetae with a secondary tooth and shorter bushy hairs. It differs from A. mollis (Sars) by having 15 pairs of elytra (16 in A. mollis) and neurosetae with shorter hairs on the hirsute or bearded tips. Locality—Types (U.S.N.M. nos. 26460 and 26461): Off Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., 39° 57’ N., 69° 16’ W., 458 fathoms, yellow mud, sand, Fish Hawk station 1029, 1881. APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES Genus Gattyana McIntosh, 1897 Gattyana nutti, n. sp. Fig. 2, a-f The species is based on eight specimens—one collected by D. C. Nutt on the Blue Dolphin Expedition of 1949 in the Strait of Belle Isle, Labrador, the others collected by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries from off Newfoundland to off Cape Cod and reserved for study by A. E. Verrill. It is a dredged form found on bottoms of coral, sand, and pebbles. The species is named for David C. Nutt, commander of the Blue Dolphin Expedi- tions to Labrador. Measurements—Length 15 to 16.5 mm, great- est width including setae 4.5 to 4.8 mm, width excluding setae 3.7 to 3.8 mm. Segments 35. Description—Body nearly linear, tapering slightly anteriorly and posteriorly, oval in cross section. Body without color. Elytra 15 pairs, oval, imbricated, cover the dorsum, tannish, furnished with long fringe of papillae on lateral and pos- terior borders as well as on surface, with large, bluntly conical, translucent, amber-colored macro- tubercles covering most of posterior half—macro- tubercles up to 416y in length; some intermediate- OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 119 sized tubercles may have the tips flattened, bifid, or faintly quatrifid; microtubercles more an- teriorly on elytra, bluntly conical, mostly with tips bifid, some quatrifid (Fig. 2, ¢). Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with deep anteromedian notch, with distinct blunt cephalic peaks (Fig. 2, a). Four eyes moderate in size, anterior pair slightly larger than posterior pair, anteroventral in position—not visible dorsally. Median antenna with large bulbous ceratophore, with brown pigment laterally; style nearly as long as the palps, dusky basally, with subterminal enlargement and filamentous tip, with numerous long papillae. Lateral antennae about same length as the prostomial width, short ceratophores inserted ventrally on prostomium; styles dusky, papillate. Palps up to twice the prostomial width, dusky, with short slender tips. Tentacular segment with basal lobes elongated, each with a single seta; two pairs tentacular cirri similar to median antenna, the upper pair about as long as the palps, the ventral pair shorter. Occipital fold posterior to prostomium slightly developed. Dorsal cirri and pair of anal cirri slightly longer than the neurosetae, similar to median antenna, densely papillate. Ventral cirri Fie. 1.—Austrolaenilla lanelleae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra, tentacular cirri, and styles of two antennae missing); 6, fifteenth right parapodium, anterior view; c, tip of notoseta; d, tip of upper neuroseta; e, same, frontal view; f, tip of middle neuroseta. 120 shorter than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 2, 6). Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, continu- ing posteriorly; they become elongated, extending dorsally between the basal parts of the neuropodia. Parapodia biramous; notopodium a rounded lobe on the anterodorsal face of the neuropodium, with a projecting acicular lobe; neuropodium with a bluntly conical presetal acicular lobe (Fig. 2, 6). Notosetae light yellow, numerous, forming a bushy bundle, the lower ones extending almost as far distally as the neurosetae; notosetae 7.5 to 15u in diameter basally, the upper row stouter, more strongly curved, tapering to blunt tips (Fig. 2, d), the rest are more slender, tapering gradually to slender tips (Fig. 2, e). Neurosetae golden yellow, 12.5 to 22.5u in diameter basally, with enlarged distal spinous regions (17.5 to 30u in greatest diameter at basal part of spinous region), with 4 to 17 or so spinous rows and bare hooked tips (spinous region as long as or slightly 0.35mm. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 4+ longer than the bare hooked tips; fig. 2, f); the supraacicular neurosetae have longer spinous regions and more slender tips. Remarks.—G. nutti resembles the well-known Gattyana cirrosa (Pallas) in most regards; it differs in the character of the elytral macro- tubercles. Locality.—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 23765): Strait of Belle Isle, off Labrador, 51° 41’ N., 56° 20’ W., 25 fms., coral bottom, 1 July 1949, Blue Dolphin Expedition; paratypes (U.S.N.M. no. 6344): off Cape Cod, 42° 09’ N., 70° 13’ W., 26 fms., fine brown sand, pebbles, U.S.F.C. 1879, Loc. 330. Also south of Newfoundland, 45° 29’ N., 55° 24’ W., 67 fms., coral bottom, Albatross station 2466, 1885; off Nova Scotia, Chebucto Head, entrance of Halifax Harbor, 25 fathoms, fine sand, U.S.F.C. 1878, Loc. 216; Gulf of Maine, N.W. Eastern Point Light, 35 fathoms, fine sand and few pebbles, U.S.F.C. 1878, Loc. 216. O.16mm. 17.5 Fig. 2.—Gattyana nutti, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra removed, style of median antenna missing); b, middle right parapodium, anterior view; c, middle right elytron; d, upper notoseta; e, tip of lower notoseta; f, middle neuroseta. APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS 121 Genus Harmotheé Kinberg, 1855, sensw Berg- named for John Dearborn, who collected the strém, 1916 specimen. Harmothoe COTES DeSR Measurements.—Length 12.5 mm, greatest Fig. 3,a~2 width including setae 3.75 mm, width excluding The species is represented by a single specimen setae 2.7 mm. Segments 35. which was found attached to floating gulfweeds, Description—Body widest about anterior including Sargassum, in Vineyard Sound, Mass. third, tapering slightly anteriorly and more so Its color was similar to that of the weed. It is posteriorly, oval in cross section. Dorsally body ZZ vi Wes eA ma le c l il I; SE 3 it ) NG Walt M ! \ ul Fie. 3.—Harmothoé dearborni, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra re- moved, left tentacular cirri missing); b, middle right elytron; c, fifteenth left parapodium, anterior view; d, portion of same, without the setae; e, tip of upper notoseta; f, tip of lower notoseta; g, tip of upper neuroseta; h, tip of middle neuroseta; 7, lower neuroseta. 122 JOURNAL rusty-red (in life) or reddish-brown (in alcohol), with a narrow, somewhat beaded, colorless transverse band on the anterior part of each segment between the dorsal tubercles and elytro- phores (Fig. 3, a); also a colorless intersegmental band—thus two white bands per segment. Ventral surface dusky, more so anteriorly and especially dark in the region of the mouth. Elytra (Fig. 3, b) 15 pairs, oval, overlapping, cover the dorsum; they are thin, transparent, without fringe of papillae; elytral surface smooth except for delicate scattered short papillae and scattered low micro- tubercles which are mostly confined to the anterior half; elytra rusty-red with white flecks in the region of the elytrophores (in life). Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with deep anteromedian notch, with distinct cephalic peaks; anterior third with brown pigment (Fig. 3, a). Four eyes rather large, faint, anterior pair about twice as large as posterior pair, lateral in position, in region of greatest prostomial width. Median antenna with short cylindrical brown ceratophore; style about equal in length to prostomial width, cylindrical basally, distal half consisting of slender tip (regenerating?). Lateral antennae with short brown ceratophores inserted ventral to median antenna; styles slightly shorter than prostomial length, subulate, with wider dark basal part and slender tip, with short scattered papillae. Left palp about three times the pro- stomial length, right one about half as long, probably regenerating; they are smooth, tapering gradually to slender tips. Tentacular segment with elongated, irregularly pigmented basal lobes each with a single seta. Upper pair tentacular cirri longer than the lower pair, slightly longer than prostomial width, darkly pigmented basally and a darker subterminal band, with long slender tip and short papillae. Dorsal cirri with cirrophores bulbous basally, pigmented; styles taper gradu- ally to long slender tips, pigmented on basal third and darker subterminal ring; they extend slightly beyond the neurosetae, the more posterior ones are longer, more slender. Ventral cirri shorter than neuropodia, subulate (Fig. 3, c). Anal cirri (left one missing) long, with long slender tip. Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, continu- ing posteriorly; they are short, cylindrical, ex- tending dorsally between successive neuropodia. The single specimen was massed with eggs. Parapodia rather long (setae and parapodia about as long as body width); notopodium a rounded lobe tapering to a slender acicular lobe; OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 neuropodium diagonally truncate posteriorly, with a conical acicular lobe anteriorly (Fig. 3,c, d). Notosetae numerous, forming a spreading bundle, shorter and slightly stouter than neurosetae, 12.5 to 20u in diameter basally, tapering gradually to short bare blunt to pointed tips, with numerous short spinous rows extending almost to tip; upper notosetae shorter, more arched, with pointed tips (Fig. 3, e); rest longer with bluntly worn tips (Fig. 3, f). Neurosetae with long stem region, 7.5 to 10u in diameter basally, with enlarged spinous region (12.5 to 15u in greatest diameter in basal part), tapering to slender bare hooked tips, all with secondary tooth close to tip (Fig. 3, 4); upper ones long, more slender (Fig. 3, g), lower ones with shorter spinous regions (Fig. 3, 7). Locality.—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 26457): Vine- yard Sound, Mass., on floating gulfweed, as Sargassum and others, September 3, 1953, col- lected by John Dearborn. Harmothoé macginitiei, n. sp. Fig. 4, a-v The species is based on a single specimen found at low tide at Hadley Harbor, Naushon Island in the Woods Hole area, Mass. It was dug under water and found in the sievings of the muddy sand. The species is named for Prof. George MacGinitie. Measurements—Length 20 mm, greatest width including setae 8.56 mm, width excluding setae 5.25 mm. Segments 36. Description.—Body widest in middle two- thirds, tapering gradually anteriorly and_ pos- teriorly, greatly flattened dorsoventrally. Body without color. Elytra 15 pairs, large, oval, over- lapping, covering the dorsum, tannish, with numerous amber-colored tubercles which gradu- ally get larger posteriorly on each elytron, none of which get to the size of macrotubercles (Fig. 4, b; may get up to 144 in height); tubercles may be pointed, conical and curved, some bifid, and some quatrifid or somewhat irregular; the larger tubercles are in the center of an irregular circular area which is somewhat scalloped around the edge, with papillae emerging from the inner part of the scallop (Fig. 4, c, d); elytra with a fringe of papillae on the lateral and posterior borders as well as on the elytral surface; tubercles and papillae covered with a good deal of debris. Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with a PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS AprItL 1955 A 24y My Es [20n l G 75p e— Fic. 4.—Harmothoé macginitiei, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments (elytra removed, upper right tentacular cirrus missing); b, middle right elytron; c, portion of elytral border showing tubercles, scalloped circular areas and papillae; d, same, showing quatrifid elytral tubercles; e, middle left parapodium, anterior view; f, upper notoseta; g, tip of middle notoseta; h, tip of neuroseta; 7, same, more enlarged. 124 deep anteromedian notch, with rather indistinct triangular cephalic peaks (Fig. 4, a). Four eyes small, anterior pair slightly larger than posterior pair, lateral in position, just anterior to greatest prostomial width. Median antenna with large cylindrical ceratophore; style amost twice the prostomial width, tapering gradually, with slender tip and long papillae. Lateral antennae with short ceratophores inserted ventral to median antenna; styles subulate, papillate, about the length of the prostomium. Palps more than three times the prostomial width, smooth, taper- ing gradually to slender tips. Tentacular segment with large tentacular basal lobes, without setae; tentacular cirrl subequal in length, similar to median antenna; a distinct nuchal fold posterior to prostomium (folded back in Fig. 4, a). Dorsal cirri extending slightly beyond the tips of the neurosetae, similar to median antenna, with long slender tip and numerous papillae. Ventral cirri short, subulate, with slender tips (Fig. 4, e). Anal cirri missing. Segmental papillae begin on segment 6, continuing posteriorly; they emerge from an inflated rounded lobe ventral to the neuropodia, becoming elongate cylindrical and turned dorsally between successive neuropodia. Parapodia long (setae and parapodia longer than body width), biramous; notopodium a rounded lobe with a digitiform acicular lobe; neuropodium conical, with a supraacicular slender digitiform lobe (Fig. 4, e). Setae golden yellow. Notosetae numerous, forming a very thick bushy bundle, the lower ones about as long as the neurosetae, slightly curved, of about the same diameter as the neurosetae (15 to 36u in diameter basally); upper notosetae stouter, shorter, more arched, with short bare pointed tips (Fig. 4, f); others with longer bare pointed tips—may be very long (Fig. 4, g), with traverse spinous rows in which the spines are rather long and prominent (longer than in the typical Harmothoé imbricata type); they are covered with a good deal of debris. Neurosetae with long stem region (20 to 27.5u in diameter basally), with enlarged spinous region (27.5 to 42.5u in greatest diameter in basal part of spinous region), tapering gradually to long bare slightly hooked tip, with secondary tooth which is large, straight, and rather far removed from the tip (Fig. 4, h, 7; may be lacking in a few lower neurosetae). Remarks.—H. macginitiet resembles H. areolata Grube (known from English Channel, Medi- terranean, Adriatic) and H. aculeata Andrews (known from North and South Carolina, Florida). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 4 It differs in that H. macginitiet has the elytral tubercles becoming gradually larger posteriorly, none attaining the size of macrotubercles; the tubercles are conical, some bifid, some quatrifid or irregular, the larger ones in the center of an irregular circular area with papillae. In H. areolata, the elytra have several rows of conical pointed macrotubercles (none bifid) arising from large polygonal areas, without papillae; in H. aculeata, the elytra have 1 to 2 rows of conical macrotubercles (may be bifid) arising from ir- regular circular areas near the border of which are chitinous microtubercles as well as some papillae. The cephalic peaks are poorly developed in H. macginitiei, well developed in H. areolata and H. aculeata. None of the dorsal cirri were inflated in H. macginitiet as they sometimes are in the other two. Locality—Type (U.S.N.M. no. 26458): Hadley Harbor, Naushon Island, in the Woods Hole area, Mass., low water, muddy-sand, September 2, 1952, M. Pettibone, collector. Genus Hartmania’, n. gen. Prostomium harmothoid, with distinct cephalic peaks and lateral antennae inserted ventral to the median antenna. Elytra 15 pairs, on segments 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 18, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23; 26; 29; 32. Elytra large, cover the dorsum. Segments less than 40. Both noto- and neurosetae subequal in diameter, ending in slender pointed to capillary tips, not hooked. Hartmania resembles Enipo and Nemidia as defined by Malmgren, 1865; it differs in having less than 40 segments, with elytra covering the dorsum. It. differs from Arcteobia Annenkova, 1937, in having all the neurosetae with slender sharp tips, none with hooked bifid ones. Hartmania moorei, n. sp. Fig. 5, a-e Five specimens were found in the burrows of large specimens of .Vereis virens in the sandy-mud of Little Harbor, Newcastle, New Hampshire. They are small (up to 15 mm), rather fast moving, and easily escape notice. The species shows some of the adaptations of a commensal polynoid, as small eyes and smooth elytra; it lacks the melanistic body pigmentation as is found in some. Two specimens were found among the material dredged in the region of Cape Cod, Mass., by the U.S. Fish Commission and reserved for study by 2 Named for Dr. Olga Hartman, who has con- tributed so much to the study of the polychaetes. APRIL 1955 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES A. E. Vernrill. The species is named for Dr. George M. Moore, who collected the majority of the specimens by persistent digging. Measurements—Length 8.7 to 15 mm, greatest width excluding setae 2.5 to 3.6 mm, width in- cluding setae 3.7 to 5.2 mm. Segments 35-37. Description —Body of nearly uniform width in middle third, tapering slightly anteriorly and posteriorly, flattened dorsoventrally. Body with- out color. Elytra 15 pairs, rather large, imbricated, cover the dorsum, oval to subreniform in shape, smooth, lacking papillae and tubercles, with pale to light rusty-brown, crescent-shaped colored areas on medial halves of elytra (Fig. 5, a; in life and in alcohol). 0.16mm. OF POLYCHABTE WORMS WG Prostomium bilobed, wider than long, with a deep anteromedian notch, with distinct blunt cephalic peaks (Fig. 5, a). Four eyes small, an- terior pair lateral in position, just anterior to greatest prostomial width. Median antenna with bulbous ceratophore; style about equal in length to prostomial width, tapering to slender, slightly bulbous tip and with short scattered papillae. Lateral antennae inserted ventral to median antenna on prostomium; short ceratophores — hidden by the bulbous ceratophore of median antenna; styles short—less than half the length of the median antenna, tapering to slightly bulbous tips. Palps up to two and a half times the length of the prostomium, with numerous l O 1S Fig. 5.—Hartmania moorei, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first 6 segments (first two pairs elytra removed); b, thirteenth right parapodium, anterior view; c, notoseta; d, tip of supraacicular neuroseta; e, subacicular neuroseta. 126 close-set short claviform papillae. Tentacular segment with basal lobes elongated, each with 2 or 3 dark setae; two pairs of subequal tentacular cirri similar to median antenna. Dorsal cirri with bulbous cirrophores; styles extend to about the tips of the neurosetae, tapering gradually distally to slender slightly bulbous tips, with short scattered claviform papillae. Ventral cirri shorter than neuropodia, subulate, with slightly bulbous tips and few short globular papillae (Fig. 5, 6). Pair of long anal cirri—the longest appendages of the body. Segmental papillae short, globular, inconspicuous, begin on segment 6, continuing posteriorly. Parapodia biramous, long, slender—parapodia including setae longer than body width; notopodium a short rounded lobe with projecting finger-like acicular lobe; neuropodium conical, the apex forming a short supraacicular lobe (Fig. 5, 6). Both notosetae and neurosetae delicate, trans- parent, iridescent. Notosetae form a spreading bundle of 5 or 6 rows of graded lengths, the upper row the shortest, the longest lower row extending about one-half the length of the neurosetae; they are widest basally (10 to 12.54 in diameter), tapering gradually to short capillary tips, appear- ing smooth but with numerous close-set fine spinous rows as seen under the highest magnifica- tion (Fig. 5, c). Few notosetae of tentacular seg- ment rather stout (20u in diameter), lacking slender tips; upper notosetae of second or buccal segment curved, without slender tips. Neurosetae with long shaft of uniform width (10 to 15y in JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 4 diameter basally), with enlarged distal spinous regions (15 to 20u in greatest diameter on basal part of spinous regions), gently curved, ending in short slender tips (not capillary) ; supraacicular neurosetae with longer spinous regions and longer more slender tips (Fig. 5, d); more ventral neuro- setae with shorter spinous regions (Fig. 5, e). Two specimens (collected November 8, 1954, New Hampshire) were filled with eggs. In life, the red ventral nerve cord and cerebral ganglion in the prostomium show conspicuously through the delicate transparent tissues of the body. Remarks.—The setal, parapodial and prosto- mial shapes resemble those figured by Malmgren (1865, pl. 13, fig. 22) for Nemidia torelli. It differs by having eyes present, fewer number of segments, and more numerous notosetae. Locality —Types (U.S.N.M. nos. 26462 and 26463): Little Harbor, Newcastle, N. H., in sandy-mud burrows associated with Nereis virens, July 4, 1953 (1 specimen, M. Pettibone, col- lector); November 11, 1954 (4 specimens, G. M. Moore, collector). Also mouth of Cape Cod Bay, Mass., near Race Point Light, gray mud, 26 fathoms, 1879, Loc. 296; near Cuttyhunk Light, sand and mud, 1715 fathoms, 1880, Loc. 860—both collected by U.S. Fish Commission. REFERENCE MatmGreN, A. J. Nordiska Hafs-Annulater. Forh. Ofv. Kongl. Vet. Akad. Stockholm, nos. 1, 2, 5: 51-110, 181-192, 355-410, pls. 8— 15, 18-29. 1865. MAMMALOGY.—Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) from north- eastern Arizona. Donato F. Horrmerster, Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Communicated by David H. Johnson.) (Received February 11, 1955) Pocket gophers of the species Thomomys bottae have recently been collected in certain parts of Arizona from which they were poorly known before. This new material, together with previously collected material, indicates the need for a re-evaluation of some kinds of gophers in northeastern Ari- zona. It seems desirable to recognize one new subspecies and redescribe another. Thomomys bottae rufidulus, n. subsp. Type—Adult male, no. 7344, Univ. Illinois Mus. Nat. Hist., from 2 miles east of Joseph City, Navajo County, Ariz.; collected January 1, 1953, by Donald F. Hoffmeister, original no. 1965. Range.—Along parts of the Little Colorado and Puerco rivers in Arizona and New Mexico; probably between Winslow, Ariz., and Gallup, N. Mex. Diagnosis.—A race of Thomomys bottae char- acterized by a reddish color intermixed with con- siderable black and by small size. Color in sum- mer: back (a) Clay-Color or Cinnamon approach- ing Cmnamon-Buff (capitalized color terms from Aprit 1955 HOFFMEISTER: Ridgway, Color standards and color nomen- clature, 1912), with numerous dark hairs forming a dark stripe down back, with color paling on sides to Cinnamon-Buff; underparts whitish with a heavy wash of Pinkish Cinnamon, which is heaviest along midventral line and fading out toward lateral line. Color in winter: sides (7)14’ Ochraceous-Tawny, with color on back inter- spersed with brown, giving dorsum a grayish appearance; underparts whitish with only the faintest indication of wash of Cinnamon. Size: small; smaller than 7. 6. aureus and T. b. per- amplus by about seven to ten per cent; about the same size or slightly smaller than 7. 6. fulvus. Skull: small in most features but broad interorbitally. Comparisons —Thomomys bottae rufidulus dif- fers from T. b. aureus in being less bright red, more blackish, and in smaller size. It differs from T. b. peramplus in being lighter in color, with a less prominent dark stripe down the back. 7. 6. rufidulus differs from T’. b. fulvus in lighter, more reddish upper parts, lighter underparts, and shorter hind foot. Measurements—Four adult males and two adult females, all topotypes, give the following respective measurements: total length, 225, 213, 226, 226, 229, 216; tail, 63, 62, 66, 70, 77, 66; hind foot, 33, 31, 31, 34, 31, 32; ear, 6, 6, —, 7, 6, 6; basilar length, 34.7, 32.5, 34.9, 34.9, 34.38, 32.7; zygomatic breadth, 24.6, 22.0, 23.8, 23.6, 23.8, 22.7; mastoidal breadth, 21.1, 20.5, 20.8, 20.8, 20.1, 19.9; length of nasals, 13.7, 12.3, 13.6, 13.7, 13.6, 13.0; least interorbital breadth, 7.1, 6.8, 7.0, 6.7, 6.9, 6.7; length of Giastemanemlise(-pelo4 s 4 IBIS SEAS 12.0): length of rostrum (taken from middle of an- terior border of nasals to maxilla at its lateral- most point of union with hamular process of lacrimal) uO 5:6; 16S) WO) 16.5, 5:8: breadth of rostrum (taken where maxillary and premaxillary bones meet on sides of rostrum), 8.3, 7.9, 8.3, 8.3, 8.0, 7.9; palatilar length (ex- clusive of palatal spine), 23.3, 21.4, 23.8, 23.8, 23.2, 22.0. In each instance, the measurement for the type specimen is given first. Remarks.—T. 6. rufidulus resembles most closely in morphological features 7. 6. aureus and T. b. fuluus. However, rufidulus is readily distinguishable from these two. This subspecies has a position somewhat intermediate between the pale-colored ‘“‘awreus”’ gophers of northeastern Arizona and the dark-colored ‘‘fuluus” gophers of POCKET GOPHERS WAT the Mogollon Plateau. In his revision of the pocket gophers of Arizona, Goldman (North Amer. Fauna 59: 14. 1947) was unaware that such a race might exist. The name rufidulus, meaning somewhat reddish or a little reddish, is in allusion to both the Little Colorado (= reddish) River and to the somewhat reddish coloration of the gophers. Specimens excamined.—Arizona: Vavajo County: 2 miles east of Joseph City, 8 (Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.). Apache County: Navajo, 1 (Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.). New Mexico: McKinley County: Gallup, 2 (U. 8. Biol. Surv. Coll.). spatus oF Thomomys latirostris MERRIAM In 1901, Merriam described the pocket gopher Thomomys latirostris from Little Colorado River, Painted Desert, Ariz. (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington 14: 107. 1901). In 1947, Goldman re- stricted the type locality to Tanner Crossing, about 3 miles above Cameron (North Amer. Fauna 59: 11. 1947). Merriam had but a single specimen from the Painted Desert, and the skull of this animal was unique in having an ex- ceedingly broad rostrum. Attempts by Goldman to obtain additional specimens from the vicinity of the type locality proved unsuccessful, and he regarded the skull of the type as abnormal, calling Merriam’s latirostris an aberrant in- dividual of the race Thomomys bottae aureus. During the past few years, we have been success- ful in catching three gophers near Cameron. These specimens indicate that the gophers from near Cameron are quite distinct from other races of T. bottae, and gophers from along the western edge of the Painted Desert may differ in the same way. However these specimens do indicate that the rostrum of the type specimen is atypical. This gopher may be characterized as follows: Thomomys bottae latirostris Merriam Type—Adult male, no. 18003/24914, U.S. Biol. Surv. Coll., from Little Colorado River, Painted Desert (= Tanner Crossing), Coconino County, Ariz.; collected September 22, 1899, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey, original no. 504. Range.—Known only from Tanner Crossing and 41% to 5 miles north of Cameron, Ariz.; probably in much of the Painted Desert. Diagnosis.—A race of Thomomys bottae char- acterized by pale coloration and small size. Color on back and sides near (e) Orange-Buff or Pale 128 Yellow-Orange; tail and feet whitish; underparts whitish, with plumbeous underfur showing. Size small; smaller than typical 7. 6. aureus; rostrum long and broad (but condition in type specimen is atypical), relatively larger than that of T. b. aureus. Comparisons—Thomomys bottae lattrostris needs close comparison only with 7. b. aureus, from which it differs in paler color (Pale Yellow- Orange rather than Cinnamon-Buff) and in a smaller skull with a relatively broader rostrum. Measurements.—Three males, two adults and one subadult, from 415 to 5 miles N Cameron give the following respective measurements: total length, 212, 226, 206; tail, 61, 74, 60; hind foot, 32, 30, 30; ear, 5, 5, 5; basilar length, 33.0, 32.7, 31.7; zygomatic breadth, 23.1, 23.3, 20.9; mastoidal breadth, 19.7, 19.7, 19.6; length of nasals, 15.1, 12.6, 12.7; least interorbital breadth, 7.1, 6.6, 6.9; length of diastema, 12.9, 12.6, 11.2; length of rostrum, 17.8, 15.4, 15.4; breadth of MALACOLOGY Sheil structure of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON West ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 4 rostrum, 8.6, 8.1, 8.2; palatilar length (exclusive of palatal spine), 21.2, 21.0, 20.5. Remarks.—Goldman (op. cit.) considers the type locality of Tanner Crossing as about three miles above Cameron. However, Barnes in his Arizona place names (Univ. Arizona Bull. 6: 437. 1935) says this crossing of the Little Colorado was near the Cameron bridge, and thus at Cameron itself. One specimen (no. 161183, U. 8. Biol. Surv. Coll.) from Tuba City, Coconino County, Ariz., closely approaches specimens of latirostris from near Cameron. Additional material from Tuba City may indicate that specimens from there are referable to T. b. latirostris. Specimens examined.—Arizona: Coconino County: 5 miles north of Cameron, 1 (Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.); 415 miles north of Cameron, 2 (Univ. Illinois, Mus. Nat. Hist.); Little Colorado River, Painted Desert, 1 (type, U.S. Biol. Surv. Coll.). American Pelecypoda. JOHN J. OBERLING,! University of California. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) (Received February 17, 1955) From an examination of numerous speci- mens from the major pelecypod families, it appears that the shells are composed of two types of deposits. One is secreted by the gen- eral surface of the mantle and is here termed palliostracum; the other is secreted over the muscle attachment areas and is here termed myostracum. The palliostracum is composed, in addi- tion to the periostracum, of three major lay- ers, the ectostracum, mesostracum, and endostracum (Fig. 1). The ectostracum forms the outer surface of the shell, includ- ing the margins. The mesostracum emerges on the inner surface outside the pallial line 1 Contribution from Museum of Paleontology, University of California. The writer gratefully acknowledges advice and criticism from J. Wyatt Durham, R. L. Langenheim, Jr., and Howel, Williams. He is also grateful for help and advice from Zach Arnold in many technical and other problems, and from W.K. Emerson in bibliographic and other matters. Dr. Durham kindly made available the vast col- lections of the Museum of Paleontology of the University of California at Berkeley. Miss Joan Sischo drafted the drawings. Grateful acknowledg- ment is made to the California Research Corpora- tion for financial support of these investigations. and includes the hinge. The endostracum forms the inner surface within the pallial line. A seemingly two-layered shell may re- sult from combination of the outer two (mesectostracum) or inner two (mesendo- stracum) major layers. Sometimes all three layers are structurally identical, as in Lyro- pecten. The myostracum is divisible into several components, the most important of which are: the pallial myostracum, a thin deposit secreted at the pallial lime and the adductor myostraca, similar deposits secreted in the scars of the adductor muscles. Additional myostracal deposits are formed in the scars of lesser muscles, such as the retractor pedis. The terms hypostracum and ostracum, hitherto employed in the nomenclature of the shell layers of pelecypods, have been discarded, for they refer to a “two-layered shell.”” Moreover, although Thiele (1903), the originator of the terms generally used the term hypostracum for the ‘inner layer” and ostracum for the “outer layer,” subse- quent authors (Jameson, 1912; Coker et al., Aprit 1955 OBERLING: WEST 1919; Gutsell, 1930; Newell, 1937) have used these terms with different connotations, usually referrmg the hypostracum to the adductor myostracum, so that the status of the terms is now very uncertain. The pelecypods examined may be ar- ranged into three major groups according to shell structure. These groups are: 1. The nacroprismatic group. Primitive pele- eypods typically with a nacreous mesendostracum and a prismatic ectostracum. 2. The foliated group. Pelecypods typically with one or more foliated layers. 3. The complex-lamellar group. Pelecypods typically with a complex endostracum and a crossed-lamellar mesectostracum. The nacroprismatic group includes the anisomyarians (except the Dreissenidae), the Nuculacea, Unionacea, Trigoniidae. Periplomatidae, Pandoridae and Lyonsiidae. The foliated group includes the monomyari- ans. The complex-lamellar group includes adductor scar pallial adductor myostracum pallial myostracum Fie. 1.—a, Longitudinal section and inner sur- face of a pelecypod valve showing positional rela- tionship of palJiostracal layers to each other, as well as to the pallial line and adductor scar; b, longitudinal and oblique sections and inner sur- face of a pelecypod valve showing pallial and adductor myostraca. Palliostracum stippled. (In this figure and in Fig. 2, Ke = ectostracum; En = endostracum; Me = mesostracum; Pe = periostracum. ) AMERICAN PELECYPODA 129 the heterodonts, the Arcacea and the Dreis- senidae. The structure of the various families and genera in each group may show various modifications from the typical structure of the group. The shells of certain pelecypods are mark- edly tubulate. The distribution of the tubules and at times their general aspect and density vary greatly between families or super- families but are generally relatively constant within such groups. The distribution of the tubules in some families of pelecypods follows (Fig. 2): Tubules in the endostracum only—Chamidae, Lucinidae, most Mytilidae. Tubules in the endostracum and mesostracum —Carditidae, Lyonsidae. Tubules apparently layers—Spondylidae. Tubules originating only in the area sur- rounded by the pallial line but penetrating all three layers—Arcacea. present in all three In the first three cases the tubules must have originated at the same time as the sur- rounding shell substance, while in the last case the portion of the tubules within the mesectostracum was formed, probably by resorption, after deposition of the surround- ing shell substance. The tubules formed to- gether with the shell substance are more or less perpendicular to the growth planes in that substance. Tubules resulting from resorbtion do not, however, show a constant relationship to the growth planes, but tend to be perpendicular to the base of the layer or set of layers into which they have been intruded. Tubules have been observed in association with all types of shell structures except the granular and homogeneous. The prismatic structure seems to be the only one where there is a regular relationship between the position of the tubules and the structural elements. In some forms, the tubules occur mostly between the prisms, in others within the prisms, but they have never been ob- served to occur at random both within and without these structural elements. The structural elements in the pelecypod shell may be variously related positionally to the shell surfaces and the growth lines. 150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 4 Fig. 2.—a, Longitudinal section of a pelecypod valve, showing endostracal tubules; b, same as above, showing mesendostracal tubules; c, distribution of tubules as in b, showing in detail the tubulation pat- tern in the apical region; d, longitudinal section of the apical region, tubules occurring in all three layers; e, longitudinal section through the whole valve, showing tubules occurring in all three layers; f, longi- tudinal section of a pelecypod, tubules in all three layers but appearing only within pallial line. They may be vertical (perpendicular to the outer surface), horizontal, or oblique in all possible directions, or they may even be spi- rally arranged like the fola in many foliated peleecypods. In the pectinids, for example, where most genera show some degree of spiraling of the folia, the spirals are twisted clockwise 1n some genera, counterclockwise in others. The classification of ribbing and related structures employed here is based in part on morphology and in part on genesis, and is as follows: 1. Nonadditive ribbing, produced by de- formations of the mantle margin, either plications or lobations, or both. 2. Additive ribbing, featuring mainly rela- tively rapid secretion on limited areas of the shell. 3. Composite ribbing, formed by components of both the previous types, with a non-additive framework on which are secreted additive structures, whose position is directly related to and in most cases apparently determined by that of the nonadditive components. LITERATURE CITED Coker, R. E., nv au. Natural history and propaga- tion of fresh-water mussels. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 37: 79-117. 1919. GutsELL, J. E. Natural history of the bay scallop. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 46: 569-632. 1930. Jameson, H. L. The Ceylon pearl oyster. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1912: 260-356. Newe.., N. D. Late Paleozoic pelecypods: Pecti- nacea. State Geol. Surv. Kansas 10, pt. 1: 1-123, 20 pls. 1937. THIELE, J. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Mollusken. IT: Uber die Molluskenschale. Zeitschr. fiir Wiss. Zool. 55: 220-251, 2 pls. 1898. ApriIL 1955 PROCEEDINGS: PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY At the meeting of the Philosophical So- ciety held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on May 7, 1954, the following paper was read by Dr. H. L. Curtis: Mr. President, members of the Philosophical Society of Washington, and guests: It gives me pleasure to present to you a paper, requested by the Communications Committee, on the development in Washington of a sub species of the genus, ““Homo sapiens scientifica,’ the members of which no longer adorn themselves by wearing “tails”. This metamorphosis has taken place in the last few generations of scientists: in fact I believe it has largely taken place during my membership in the Society. This is not the first time that there has been a decided change in the physical appearance of the men whom this Society has honored by choosing them for its presidents. If you will consult the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences for August 1930 you will find the pictures of most of the Presidents from Joseph Henry, 1871, to W. D. Lambert, 1930. You will notice that the early presidents wore, for the most part, full beards. Then came a short time when a president had a choice concerning his beard. But soon it was not customary to have even a vestige of hirsute adornment. But to go back to the tails. When I joined the Society mm 1908 all possible formalities were strictly observed. At the opening of this address, the president and I tried to give you a sample of the proper behavior at the introduction of a speaker at that time. At every meeting, the presiding officer and each speaker wore formal dress, which at that time consisted of a stiff front, white shirt with studs, a white bow tie and a broadcloth coat with tails. Shoes optional, but patent leather with buttons preferred. Also those members who were generally recognized as the intellectual giants of the Society usually came to the meetings, then held in the Dolly Madison house, in formal dress and occupied large chairs, fully upholstered in leather, which formed the first two rows of seats (eight chairs). Younger members, in business dress, occupied ordinary chairs behind the Giants. I remember only one outstanding paper of my first year. It was by PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ACADEMY 131 AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Simon Newcomb on the composition of the polar caps on Mars. He assured the audience that they must consist of carbon dioxide snow, an hypoth- esis which is not now universally accepted. I also have two other reasons for remembering Simon Newcomb. He signed in 1909 my certificate of membership in this Society; a scroll about the size of a high school diploma which I have seen recently, but which is now hiding among the accumulation of 50 years of mementos. He died while President of the Society a few months after T had been admitted. Incidentally I learned by the gossip of that day that Newcomb’s death relieved the Society of an embarrassment. Some years before Mr. Wead of the Patent Office was elected fifth vice- president. He was gradually promoted along the vice-presidential row where he performed his duties very acceptably. But to be President of his honorable Society, in which office he would be expected to deliver a presidential address covering some of his contributions to science, that was an office according to some Society members which should be reserved for learned men; and such men were not available in the Patent Office. He was first vice-president when Newcomb died, so according to the by-laws became president. Since this was an act of God, and not of the Society, all cause for friction was swept away. I remember something of his address which is more than I can say of many presidential ad- dresses. In order of proceeding at a regular meeting was, in 1909, much as it is now. First was the reading of the minutes of the last meeting and their correction. In 1909, and for a short time thereafter, they were written in long-hand in a permanently bound medium-sized notebook. Particular attention was given to the discussions. I have been told that some members insisted on this detail because they might want to use the facts revealed in the discussion to establish priority claims in patent litigation. Following the regular program, an opportunity was given for informal communications, provided there was time before the adjournment hour of 10 p.m. But the real social event of each year was the annual meeting for the reading of reports and election of officers. Then everyone who could make the grade appeared in tails. Discretion was 132 thrown to the winds. Whereas in regular meetings smoking was frowned upon, at the annual meeting cigars were provided. No nominations for the various offices were made. The ballots were cast, and, while the tellers were counting the votes, the members smoked and visited. Almost always several ballots were required for electing a president. Usually it was a “free for all’ ’til someone got a majority. After that, voting produced results more rapidly. But there were elected five vice-presidents, two secretaries, a treasurer and several members-at-large of the General Committee, so adjournment was seldom much before the 10 o’clock dead-line. Before going to more recent changes, I wish to mention a custom which goes back to the very early days of the Society. That custom is that the presiding officer shall address the speaker only as Mr. “So & So,” using no titles. This custom, according to tradition, was started by General Sherman, an active member in the early days, who was of the opinion that discussion of scien- tific subjects would proceed more freely if each participant was not reminded of his rank in the mundane world. I have found this a very useful custom. I have often wondered how this will be modified when our lady members present papers. About 1910, the Cosmos Club started a build- ing program which temporarily required a new meeting place. I recall that at one time the meetings were held at the Auditorium of the Carnegie Institution Building at P Street and Connecticut Avenue. Under these conditions and with the impact of World War I, formalities were appreciably relaxed. About this time the tuxedo made its appearance and soon became very popular. A tuxedo is defined in one dic- tionary as ‘‘a tailless diner jacket.” Of course, there was an interval when the presiding officer could wear tails or be tailless. But long before World War II, tails had vanished from the scientific world of Washington. But the tuxedo still persists. The change in dress of the speakers has pro- ceeded more rapidly—by World War IT it was not unusual for a speaker to appear in a business suit. Now it is almost universal. Another change in dress has occurred in con- nection with the dinners given in honor of the speaker at the Joseph Henry Lecture. At first, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. + these dinners were very formal. Those invited included only officers and past presidents. At the first dinner in 1931 I think there was no outfit lower than a tux. Of course these were worn at the meeting which followed, lending a more formal appearance to the audience than at regular meetings. This custom was continued for some time. During World War II the past presidents were, for good reason, dropped from the invitation lists. This year they were again included, but evidently the moths had played havoe with the tuxedos of the past presidents. But if you are a prospective president, you better be making arrangements with a renting agency, though a clause in your contract should cover the case of changing styles. Tails may come back. Another innovation in my day has been the serving of refreshments after meetings. In 1908 there was little sociability among members. As soon as 10 p.m. arrived, everyone filed demurely out of the room, often without a ereeting to anyone. Then someone suggested that light refreshments might aid in getting members acquainted. At first they were served only once a month, or once every two months. The improve- ment in attendance soon convinced the officers that refreshments at every meeting are desir- able. My assignment covered only the non-scientific features of the Philosophical Society. Un- fortunately, I could find very little source ma- terial, so that I have had to depend largely on my memory. I have checked with some of the older members, and have retained only that which is generally acceptable. One fact that came to me quite unexpectedly while preparing this address was the length of my membership in the Society. I have been a member of the Philosophical Society of Wash- ington for more than half of its existence. For a few years after I joined the Society there was one member, Past President W. H. Dall, of the Smithsonian Institution, who was one of the founders of the Society. I once talked with him about the first meeting. It was in a reception room of the Smithsonian Building. He was just one of the boys invited to fill up the chairs. My association with members of this Society continues to be a source of inspiration to me and a pleasure that is heightened with the years. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PASESBENES econo hore cle ee nA oaicl< Maraaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health Prestilent-Glects. ceo 55 oo ve emis ssa Se Raupuy HE. Gisson, Applied Physics Laboratory NGGHOLEE Se hoe Fe roma Seem nae res Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health RTEUSUTER ows ws 6 5 5 Howarp S. Rappers, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) PALEMAUEST Se ci cree fesse ces eee Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington...................... iBrelorical Society of Washington so: <. 2. ....5e2-s.s see sens HERBERT G. DIEGNAN Chemical Society of Washington. ......................0008: Wiuiiam W. WaLToNn Bntomological Society of Washington. ................-.6.eee eee e ees F. W. Poos Naironal:Geopraphic socletymescaes sec sess se ates ese: ALEXANDER WETMORE Geolortcalisociety of Washington: soccer ct «ces cicisn oe oe Epwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cog SCalumbia Historical Society. ois. cc.s.02- 5 ose seeecisln orien yee ce GILBERT GROSVENOR Barnes society of Washineton' ssc. cers os cease se wesc aes S. L. EMswe.ier Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorcE F. Gravatt Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT Grove Dorsry Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ ae 8. Dinu Helminthological Society of Washington....................... JOHN 8S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.......Luoyp A. BURKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fiorp W. HoucH Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Dieess Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. STEPHAN Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences....... F, N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: PICTUS EYL OOO s/t ce cece cic ee, 2 basa ec eee eee entave menue M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER iho dinminain OGY Gecaanen ene Ee Soba e aome A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. GuRNEY PROM UATE YL ODS slots ceye cera is a etree ec rs dw PCIE ove W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwALLEN ROOT MNOTPINGNOGETS ). = 5. ace bc wee wes All the above officers plus the Senior Editor INTORE! Di LIGCUDTS s So attites IGE BOGS ETC EO OCCT ETE eg ore eee ena e [See front cover] WTLECULUVERCOMMILEE.. 5.6/5 vec ccd see eae es M. Pitrman (chairman), R. E. Grsson, ; H. Spsecut, H. 8S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN Committee on Membership. ...RogeR W. Curtis (chairman), JoHN W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kine, Gorpon M. Kunz, Lous R. Maxwe.Lu, FLorEeNcsE M. Mears, Curtis W. SABROSKY, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, Bancrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. SmitH, HARRY WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNoLpD H. Scort (chairman), Harry §S. Bernton, Harry R. Bortuwick, HerBert G. Dreignan, Wayne C. Haut, AtBert M. Stone Committee on Monographs............. He ae piers einaees Sete G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman) PROMAAHUATY LOD = 2 e.<.nncs.. soca het tee shee G. ArtHur Cooper, James I. HorrmMan ROMIANUARY MOD seen occ ase creer ens Harawp A. REHDER, WILLIAM A. DayTON Mow ANUaTy 958). sos ok c.g accuse wees Dean B. Cowis, Josepy P. E. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BrRanHam (chairman), JoHNn S. ANDREWS, JamMEsS M. Hunpter, R. A. St. Grores, Bernice G. Scousert, W. R. WEDEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), Josep M. CALDWELL, . Dit, T. J. Hicxiey, T. J. Kinyt1an, Gorpon W. McBrips, E. R. Priore For Physical Sciences...... Bensamin L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn, Scotr E. ForsusH, Marcaret D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. Taytor For Teaching of Science....Monror H. Martin (chairman), Kerr C. JOHNSON, Lourse H. MarsHaty, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENS Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis 0. Rice (chairman), HERMAN Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrittenDEN (chairman) Mowanuanyel O56m nee er eee E. C. CrittenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE PROP AMUAT ALO esas tes sv acten sl crore eacierseaisans oe Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER sLoranusryglO58\cn ee see ae Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. SErzLer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman) PLOW ANU Atv) QO Se fee ec rly aes, dares ease Harotp E. Finuey, J. H. McMILuen PROP RAT UAT VOD (hore sects cede shee eae tees out anes L. Epwin Yocum, WiLi1amM J. YOUDEN Mophanwanye O58. siete eet en ae ee ane: A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education. ...RaAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNaLD BAMFORD, R. Percy Barns, Watuace R. Bropt, LEonarp CarRmIcHaEL, Huey L. Dryprn, REGINA FLANNERY, Rap FE. Grson, Fioyp W. Hove, Martin A. Mason, GerorceE D. Rock, Wrrttas W. RuBEy, Wituram H. SEBRELL, Watpo L. Scumirr, . VAN EveEra, Wiutram E. WRATHER, Francis E. JOHNSTON Representative on Gi of CAR AREAS Si Ei Siete au N eyaitl U0s Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRancis E. Jonnston, (chairman), S. Dz. ‘CoLuins, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers.. -Raupu P. TivTs.eR (chairman), pecs Hampp, J. G. Tompson CONTENTS ToxicoLocy.—Observations on toxic marine algae. Rosrert C. Hase- Kost, IAN M. Fraser, and Brucr W. HALSTEAD............-..-- BIocHEMIsTRY.—Bactericidal activity of ozonized olefins. J. V. Kara- BINOS: And ED. UPERLIN 232i ccs deanna ya he vvaleve aig oles elelle ee eee PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna, Montana. Maucoum C. McKENNA....................-. Borany.—Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV. Lyman B. Smita and BERNICE GA SCHUBERT 6 .5/Go0 oc) eieri sor ites cbc Slane «se eei ee ne ee Mycotocy.—A. small Conidiobolus with globose and with elongated secondary conidia. CHARLES DRECHSLER...............-2..2..05. ZooLocy.—New species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from the east coast of North America. Marian H. PETTIBONE.. . Mammatocy.—Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) from northeastern Arizona. Donaup F. HOFFMBISTER.............. Mauacotocy.—shell structure of West American Pelecypoda. Joun JOOBEREING ha oy. Bice ne eee tet nie ees ae aneee cath ch PROCEEDINGS) LHInOSOPHICAT | SOCLED Yanni iieiiaiie serie a eee Page 101 103 107 110 114 118 |. 126 VoL, 45 May 1955 No. 5 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. Cowie PHILIP DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuiILForD AVES. Ba.tTImMorE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Rarppierer, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VoL. 45 May 1955 No. 5 EDITORIAL For some time it has been felt that the JOURNAL could be improved so as to serve better its readers. It has been pointed out, for example, that there should be an im- proved distribution of papers in the various natural sciences. About nine months ago Dr. F. L. Campbell’s Special Committee on the Improvement of the Journal began to look into this question; the Committee’s recommendations appeared in the March issue (this volume, p. 92). The Editors are enthusiastic about de- veloping a “new look” for the JouRNAL based on the conclusions of the Special Committee. Many steps will have to be taken before this is accomplished. We out- line below a few of the first steps. To begin with, the Editors invite members of the Academy, and other readers of the JOURNAL, to submit for publication short original articles on noteworthy discoveries in any of the natural sciences. These will be placed in a “‘Letters to the Editor” section, to be started in a forthcoming issue. Such articles will normally be published very promptly; not more than three months will elapse between receipt of the manuscript by any one of the Board of Editors or their 133 Associates and its appearance in an issue of the JouRNAL. Longer contributed articles will continue to be welcomed by the Editors. Such articles may be broad reviews of progress in the various natural sciences, as well as reports of original researches. Articles discussing problems of common interest to different branches of science, such as manpower problems, governmental programs, or basic trends, will also be published. The JouRNAL continues, as in years past, to be the medium for publication of the pro- ceedings of the Academy and its affiliated societies. News items concerning the scien- tific life of Washington will appear in a sec- tion to be titled ‘‘Washington Scientific News,” which is being started with this issue. The Editors plan on having more articles announcing original researches in the physi- cal sciences than have been published in recent years. With a better distribution of papers in the various natural sciences, the JouRNAL should prove to be of greater value to its readers. We hope our readers will send us additional suggestions for im- provement of the JouRNAL; these will re- ceive our careful consideration. Tue Eprrors. SUN 195» 134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 BIOCHEMISTRY .—The influence of intramuscular and oral cortisone and hydro- cortisone on liver glycogen formation by DL alanine.. W. C. Hess and I. P. SHAFFRAN, Georgetown University School of Medicine. (Received February 18, 1955) The intramuscular administration of both cortisone and hydrocortisone produces liver glycogen formation in the fasting rat.2 The effect upon liver glycogen production of the oral administration of these two compounds has not been investigated. Clinically Boland’ has shown that hydrocortisone is substan- tially more effective than cortisone acetate when the compounds were given by mouth in similar milligram doses. The glycogen formed is considered to have its origin in the carbon chains of the glycogenic amino acids derived from protein.4 Studies from this laboratory’: © have shown that, while the amino acids glycine and alanine are both excellent liver glycogen precursors, intramus- cular cortisone produces no extra liver glycogen from glycine but does stimulate extra liver glycogen production from alanine. This paper presents data on the formation of liver glycogen following the oral and the intramuscular administration of cortisone and hydrocortisone acetates and also their effect upon liver glycogen formation by alanine. EXPERIMENTAL Cortisone acetate and hydrocortisone acetate in saline suspensions were given intramuscularly and by stomach tube to white rats previously fasted for 24 hours. The rats weighed uniformly between 125 and 150 g, and 5 mg of each steroid were used in single doses. The animals were sacri- ficed at varying times after the administra- tion, the livers rapidly removed, and glyco- gen determined immediately by the method 1 This study was aided by a grant from the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association. 2 Paspst, M. L., SHepparp, R. 8., and Kur- zZENGA, M.H. Endocrin. 41: 55, 1947. 3 Bouannp, E. W. California Med. 77: 1. 1952. ‘Lone, C. N. R., Karzin, B., and Fry, E. Endocrin. 26: 309. 1940. > Hess, W. C., and SuHarrran, I. P. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 83: 804. 1953. 6 Hess, W. C., and SHarrran, I. P. Ibid. 86: 287. 1954. of Good, Kramer, and Somogyi.’ The results are given in Table 1; from 4 to 6 rats were used for each time period. TABLE 1.—PeErcent Liver GiycoGEN PRODUCED BY 5 MG DosgEs OF CORTISONE AND HypRrocortTIsONE ACETATES Time Cortisone Hydrocortisone (hrs.) Oral LM. Oral IM. 2 0.15 0.22 0.45 0.10 4 0.42 1.80 0.75 0.38 6 0.95 1.65 2.50 0.65 12 1.78 1.80 3.70 3.00 16 1.80 2.40 3.40 2.52 24 1.10 1.90 1.50 3.80 32 3.80 40 4.00 3.42 48 3.75 3.58 The maximum amount of liver glycogen is formed from DL alanine 6 hours after its administration.® It was found previously that, if the DL alanine was fed 18 hours after intramuscular cortisone acetate and the animals sacrificed at 24 hours, that the 24-hour period of action for the cortisone acetate and the 6-hour period for the DL alanine produced a substantial increase in liver glycogen content over the additive effect of the separate administration of the two compounds. The same plan of admin- istration was used to study the effects of the oral administration of cortisone and hydro- cortisone acetates, and the intramuscular administration of hydrocortisone acetate. In each instance 450 mg of DL alanine, in aqueous solution, was given by stomach tube 6 hours before the animal was sacrificed. The steroid was given previously so that the peak glycogenic activities of the two compounds were approached at the time of sacrifice. The results are given in Table 2; from 4 to 6 rats were used for each time period. 7Goop, C. A., Kramer, H., and Somoeyt, M. J. Journ. Biol. Chem. 100: 485. 1935. May 1955 SOHNS: TasBLeE 2—Errect oF STEROIDS UPON EXTRA Liver GuyrcoGEN Propuction By DL ALANINE 2 g i 2 Alanine Alanine | Steroid | Change steroid Percent | Percent | Percent | Cortisone, I.M. i 3.33 1.9 | +2.1 24 hours | Cortisone, Oral 6 42 3583 10 —().1. hours Hydrocort., I.M. SI SRone| e2g0 16 hours Hydrocort., Oral 5. 6 hours oo) 3.3 2.9 0.0 Column 4 is the difference between column 1 and the sum of columns 2 and 3. DISCUSSION Both cortisone and hydrocortisone ace- tates, given orally, stimulated glycogen pro- duction in the livers of fasting rats. Hydro- cortisone acetate was more effective than cortisone acetate, working more rapidly and producing more glycogen. Peak production, however, was reached at the same time, between 12 and 16 hours, for both com- pounds. When given intramuscularly corti- sone acetate produced liver glycogen more rapidly than hydrocortisone acetate for the first 6 hours and then hydrocortisone acetate became more effective. A dip in glycogen production occurs at 16 hours for hydrocorti- sone acetate and at 24 hours for cortisone acetate, followed by a rise. Both compounds are about equally effective at 48 hours. One series of experiments was run with FASCICLE MORPHOLOGY 135 2.5 mg oral doses of hydrocortisone acetate, this was almost as effective as the 5.0 mg dose at the end of 12 hours when 3.6 percent glycogen was formed, but at the end of 16 and 24 hours the values were 1.1 and 1.2 per- cent, respectively. The only effect upon liver glycogen pro- duction by DL alanine was induced by the intramuscular cortisone acetate. Since only one of the four series of experiments showed any stimulation of liver glycogen formation it becomes increasingly doubtful that the liver glycogen produced by the steroids in the fasting animals comes from amino acids, unless the amino acids released from tissue protein breakdown behave differently from those fed. This phase of the problem is now under investigation using isotopic labeled amino acids and proteins. SUMMARY 1. Cortisone and hydrocortisone acetates were administered to fasting white rats intramuscularly and orally and liver glyco- gen was determined. Hydrocortisone ace- tate, orally, produced more liver glycogen more rapidly than did cortisone acetate. Intramuscularly cortisone acetate acted more rapidly than did hydrocortisone acetate for the first 6 hours and then hydrocortisone acetate was more effective. 2. Cortisone acetate, given intramuscu- larly, stimulated the production of extra liver glycogen when DL alanine was fed. Oral cortisone acetate, oral and intramuscu- lar hydrocortisone acetate had no such effect. BOTANY .—Cenchrus and Pennisetum: Fascicle morphology. ERNEST R. SouNs, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Agnes Chase.) (Received February 14, 1955) The grass genera Cenchrus and Pennise- tum have clusters of spikelets that are grouped into fascicles, two florets in each 1 Based on part of a thesis, The floral morphology of Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Setaria, and Ixophorus, submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of Indiana University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy. The writer is grateful to Dr. Paul Weatherwax for guidance and helpful suggestions throughout the investigation. spikelet, the lower floret staminate or abor- tive, the upper floret fertile, and the spikelets surrounded by bristles in varying degrees of fusion. The similarity of the fascicles in several species of Cenchrus and Pennisetum makes it difficult to separate the genera in taxonomic keys. Some species have been referred first to one genus and then to the other. (Cf. Ewart and Davies, 1917; Hackel, 1887; Hitchcock, 1936, 1951; Stapf, 1917). 136 This morphological study was undertaken to determine the organization of the fascicles of these two genera. This paper concerns the fascicles of eight species of Cenchrus and six species of Pennisetum. Literature review.—Goebel (1884) studied two species of Cenchrus (C. echinatus and C. spinifex) and concluded that the involucre was formed by the coalescence of two branch systems. On the adaxial face of the fascicle the two branch systems do not coalesce. According to Goebel, the involucre resulted from the formation of wall-like proliferations between the bristles so that, at a later stage, the bristles of the involucre appear to originate from the wall surrounding the spikelet. Bristles which occur later on the “wall” of the involucre, Goebel asserted, might be con- sidered ‘‘emergencies.”” He considered these to have arisen by branching, their mode of origin having been obscured by early coalescence of the “individual bristle generations.’’ He stated that the lateral “shoots” of a primary branch may be abortive and form spines instead of a spikelet and that shoots (Sprossungen) destined to be spines may form spikelets. He believed that the series Setaria-Pennisetum-Cenchrus constitute an evolutionary sequence and ‘Cenchrus’ originated from a form which possessed a Setaria- like involucre.”’ Chase (1920) agrees with Goebel’s interpretation of the bur, but stated that she used the term without morphological significance in her revision of the genus. According to Bews (1929), the involucre is composed of sterile branchlets, and the term involucre is probably not the most suitable one. He suggested that genera having involucres might be arranged in a sequence, based on the degree of involucral complexity, beginning with the genus Anthephora, in which there is an involucre formed of first glumes, through Odontelytrum, Setaria, Pennisetum, and other genera, culminating in the genus Cenchrus. Arber (1931) examined three species of Cenchrus (C. echinatus, C. inflecus [C. inflexus R. Br., 1810, not Poir. 1804 = C. brownit Roem. & Schult.] and C. myosuroides). She regarded the bristles of Cenchrus, Pennisetum and Setaria as simple structures, mostly with one vascular bundle, and concluded that they are more like stems than leaves because an occasional bristle may terminate with an abortive spikelet. She agreed with Goebel’s interpretation of the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 involucre of Cenchrus and attributed the absence of the first glume and lodicules to the pressure of the concentric involucre. Arber (1931) examined six species of Pennisetum (P. macrostachyum, P. macrourum, P. ciliare, P. unisetum, P. nubicum and P. petiolare). The last three species have only one bristle in each fascicle. The long bristle was regarded as a continuation of the fascicle axis. The fused bristles of P. ciliare are believed to foreshadow the involucre of Cenchrus. She concluded that a generalized scheme for the fascicles of Setaria and Pennisetum is not feasible and that each ultimate bristle-shoot is equivalent to a spikelet. The association of bristles with spikelets in Pennisetum and Cenchrus represents sterilization according to Arber (1934). The conclusion that each ultimate bristle-shoot is the equivalent of a spikelet was reiterated. Materials and method.—These species were grown in the greenhouse and garden at Indiana University during 1946-1949. Specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of Indiana Uni- versity. Inflorescences, fascicles and spikelets were collected and processed by standard methods in microtechnique. Serial sections, cut at 15 microns, were stained with safranin and fast green. Drawings were prepared with the aid of a camera lucida. Cenchrus incertus, Pennisetum alopecuroides and P. purpureum were collected by the writer. Mr. W. M. Buswell, University of Miami, provided seeds of C. gracillimus and Mr. G. E. Ritchey, Gainesville, Florida, supplied plants of P. ciliare. Seeds of all other species were obtained from the collection of Dr. Paul Weatherwax. Agnes Chase, Smithsonian Institution, identified C. setigerus. I. Cencurus L. Discussion —A diagrammatic, medium longi- section of a fascicle (bur) is shown in Fig. 1. This diagram shows three spikelets, each with two florets, and the surrounding involucre. This generalized version of the bur may be applied to the species of Cenchrus included here except C. myosuroides, whose fascicle has only one spikelet. Diagrammatic transsections, drawn from serial sections of a fascicle (bur) of Cenchrus echinatus at successively higher levels, are shown in Fig. May 1955 SOHNS: FASCICLE MORPHOLOGY 137 vas bdl. bri vas bdl_ 5--- pigesenne nea vasbdlspk Beroce el Lith Sos fo ee in }_vosbdibri = —t~*«C ME GEES 2 ff fe-ee---- vas bdlbri eonese R Ben de is eee vdsbdlspk {0 Fics. 1-10.—1, Diagrammatic median longisection of a typical fascicle of Cenchrus with the various structures of the central spikelet labeled; 2-4, diagrammatic transsections of the rachis and fascicle of C. echinatus; 5-8, diagrammatic transsections of the rachis and fascicle of C. myosuroides; 9, diagram- matic representation of the vascularization of a typical fascicle of Cenchrus; 10, diagrammatic represen- tation of the vascularization of the fascicle C. myosuroides. bl—blade; bri—bristle; d z—‘‘demarcation zone”’; fa—fascicle; fi—filament; gyn—gynoecium; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; in—involucre; 1 Je—lemma of lower floret; 2 le—lemma of upper floret; L—left vascular bundle; pa—palea; p:—pistil; R—right vascular bundle; ra—rachis; sta—stamen; vas bdl—vascular bundle; vas bdl bri—vascular bundle of the bristle; vas bdl spk—vascular bundle of the spikelet. Figs. 1, 9, and 10, diagrammatic and not drawn to scale; 2-7, ca. X 25. 138 2-4. In Fig. 2, a diagrammatic transsection of the rachis (ra) and a blade (bl) is shown. The vascular bundles (vas bdl) of the rachis and the fascicle (vas bdl fa) are indicated. In Fig. 3, the three vascular bundles of the spikelets are indi- cated as 1, 2 and 3. A demarcation occurs between the involucral wall and the base of the three spikelets, indicated in the figure as d z. The small dots in the periphery of the fascicle repre- sent vascular bundles which may be traced to the bristles. These same vascular bundles extend downward and join the vascular supplies to the spikelets. The bases of the three spikelets of the fascicle, with various floral parts labeled, are shown in Fig. 4. The involucral wall is divided into two halves (left and right) with a few separate bristles (bri) around the margin. The involucral wall separates on the adaxial and abaxial sides opposite the keels of the glumes of the central spikelet. Pressure exerted by the expanding central spikelet may influence the separation of the involucre into two parts. Contact between the fascicle and the rachis provides additional pressure on the adaxial face, especially before the inflorescence is exserted from the sheath. The left and right halves of the involucre, at this level, suggest that the fascicle of Cenchrus is composed of a two-branch system. This is misleading because the vascular supplies of the bristles appear as individual vascular bundles, concentrically, over a short vertical distance on the axis of the vascular supply for the fascicle. (Fig. 9, a diagram of the vasculariza- tion of the fascicle of this species, indicates the relationship of the vascular tissues of the spikelets and bristles). The involucre does not represent the coalescence of a two-branch system as here- tofore thought, but is the result of the lateral fusion of many sterile branches of approximately equal rank. None of these branches may be assigned to a “left” or a “right”? branch system. This interpretation applies to C. gracillimus Nash, C. incertus M. A. Curtis, C. pauciflorus Benth., C. pilosus H. B. K., C. setigerus Vahl, and C. brown. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 5 The spikelets are 2-flowered, the lower stami- nate or abortive and the upper perfect. Oec- casionally the first glume may be absent in one of the lateral spikelets. Lodicules were not found in the florets of the species of Cenchrus studied. Cenchrus myosuroides H.B.K. represents what appears at first to be a deviation from the usual involucral pattern in Cenchrus. Nash (1903) thought that C. myosuroides should be segregated as a distinct genus. Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of this species are shown in Figs. 5-8. Fig. 5represents the rachis and base of the fascicle. In Fig. 6, the areas designated “L” and “R” rep- resent lateral vascular bundles, but the fascicle contains only one spikelet. The presence of lateral vascular bundles, which terminate blindly, suggests that the lateral spikelets are suppressed. In Fig. 7, the involucral wall, with its numerous vascular bundles, surrounds the single spikelet. The involucral wall, like that of other species of Cenchrus, is divided into a left and right half. The separation of the involucral wall occurs adaxially on the rachis side as well as abaxially opposite the median nerve of the first glume (7 gl). At the level of Fig. 8, the bases of the involucral bristles and the base of a new fascicle on the lower left are shown. Fig. 10 is a diagram of the vascularization of the fascicle of C. myosuroides. The spikelet is 2-flowered; the lower staminate or abortive and the upper perfect. Summary (Cenchrus).—Fascicle organization in these species is uniform. The vascular bundles of the bristles, surrounded by a large amount of parenchymatous tissue at the base, may be traced to the axis of the vascular supply of the spikelets, all merging concentrically over a short vertical distance. The separation of the involucre into two halves, i.e., with the appearance of the ad- and abaxial clefts and subsequent upward separation into individual bristles suggests a “two-branch” vascular system. The expression “two-branch” vascular system means one in which a vascular branch originates on each side Fires. 11-31.—11-15, Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of P. glawcwm; 16, diagrammatic repre- sentation of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. glawcum; 17-21, diagrammatic transsections of the fascicle of P. alopecwroides; 22-26, diagrammatic transsections of the fascicle of P. peruvianwm; 27-30, diagrammatic trans-sections of rachis and fascicle of P. purpwrewm; 31, diagrammatic representation of the vascularization of the fascicles of P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum and P. purpureum. ab—abortive spikelet ; an—anther; ax axis of fascicle; bri—bristle; fi—filament; 1 gl—first glume; 2 gl—second glume; gyn—gynoecium; in—involucre; L—left vascular bundle; 1 le -lemma of lower floret; 2 le—lemma of the upper floret; lod—lodicule; pa—palea; par—parenchyma; R—right vascular bundle; rud—rudiments of the lower floret; scl—selerenchyma; ss—sclerenchyma sheath; vas bdl—vascular bundle. Figs. 11-15, 17-— 30, ca. X 25; 16 and 31, diagrammatic and not drawn to scale. May 1955 SOHNS: FASCICLE MORPHOLOGY 139 eo eee bri Oa é Frias. 11-31.—(See opposite page for legend). 140 of a central vascular plexus; each of these vascular branches may be traced to a group of bristles on the left and right side of the fascicle, respectively. The appearance of the ad- and abaxial clefts in the bur, giving the fascicle a definite two-parted appearance, is to be attributed primarily to the pressure exerted by the expansion of the central spikelet. The proximity of the fascicle to the rachis, on the adaxial face, provides additional pressure which may influence the appearance of adaxial cleft, especially before the inflorescence is exserted from the sheath. The fascicle in these species contains from one to five spikelets which terminate the axis; there is no real axis terminus in the genus Cenchrus, but the spikelets themselves are terminal in an inflorescence whose axis has become shortened and whose lateral branches have become sterile. The bristles, which represent first-order branches and their lateral members, have vascular supplies which may be traced to the vascular axis of the fascicle, joining the axis concentrically over a short vertical distance; these belong neither to a left nor to a right branch system. (Cf. Fig. 9 and 10). The relationship of the first-order branches and their lateral members has become obscured through a decrease in the length of the fascicle axis and the appearance of a large amount of parenchymatous tissue at the base of the fascicle. C. myosuroides has a one-spikelet fascicle. The suppressed lateral spikelets are represented by two lateral vascular bundles which terminate blindly in the periphery of the fascicle. Otherwise the organization of the fascicle of C. myosuroides is like that of the other species of Cenchrus included here. Il. Pennisetum L. Ricw. Discussion.—Four fascicle patterns are recog- nizable in the six species of Pennisetum studied: (1) P. glaucum, with fascicles having more than one spikelet; (2) P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum and P. purpurewm have one-spikelet fascicles; (3) P. ciliare and (4) P. clandestinum have specialized fascicles. P. glaucum (L.) R. Br. has 2 or 3 spikelets in each fascicle. Figs. 11-15 represent diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of this species. Fig. 11 shows the bristles (bri) and the vascular bundles (vas bdl) in the base of the fascicle. Fascicle organization of this species differs from that of the others studied in that, in addition to the fascicle JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 5 axis, each spikelet appears to have an axis continuation of its own. These structures, indicated in Figs. 11-15 by arrows, may be axes subtending the spikelets. The fascicle axis (ax), shown in Fig. 12, is not a component of the involucral bristle system because the vascular bundles for this structure are situated higher on the axis of the vascular system than the vascular bundles for the involucral bristles. The relation- ship of the various parts of the fascicle is shown in Figs. 13-15. In Fig. 13 an abortive spikelet (ab spk) is shown. The lower florets in both spikelets are abortive and the rudiment (rud) of a lower floret is indicated. Fig. 16 is a diagram of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. glaucum. The vascular bundles of the spikelets (s) and the axis (ax) are stippled. The vascular bundles of the bristles are indicated by solid lines which join the vascular system of the spikelets and axis. The fascicles of P. alopecuroides (1.) Spreng. usually have one spikelet. A series of trans- sections is shown in Figs. 17-21. Fig. 17 shows the base of the involucre (in). The bases of the bristles (6rz) are shaded to represent sclerenchy- matous (scl) tissue. The fascicle axis (ax), shown in Fig. 18, is not a component of the involucral bristle system. Figs. 19-21 show the relationship of structures in the fascicle at successively higher levels. P. peruvianum Trin., another species with one- spikelet fascicles, is shown in Figs. 22-26. The pattern of the fascicle is similar to that of P. alopecurotdes, i.e., acropetally on the axis of the fascicle appear the bristle system of the involucre, the axis continuation and the spikelets. The diagrammatic transsections shown in Figs. 27-30 represent selected levels through a one-spikelet fascicle of P. purpurewm Schumach. In Fig. 27, a transsection of the base of the fascicle and rachis (ra) is shown. The position of a sclerenchyma sheath (s s), which is present from the base to the apex of the rachis, is shown also. A left and right vascular branch (Z and R), shown in the fascicle, may be traced downward to the vascular supply of the central spikelet. Each vascular branch (LZ and R) terminates abruptly in the periphery of the fascicle. These vascular branches (Z and R) suggest that the lateral spikelets of the fascicle have been sup- pressed. (Cf. Fig. 6 and 10 of Cenchrus myo- suroides). The vascular supply of the long bristle (ax), indicated in Fig. 28, appears higher on the vascular axis of the fascicle than the vascular Figs. 32-44.—32-36, Diagrammatic transsections of a fascicle of P. ciliare; 37, diagrammatic repre- sentation of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. ciliare; 38-43, diagrammatic transsections of the fascicle of P. clandestium; 44, diagrammatic representation of the vascularization of the fascicle of P. clandestinum; an—anther; bri—bristle; fa—tfascicle; fi—filament; 1 gl—first glume; 2 g/—second glume; gyn—gynoecium; in—involucre; 1 bri—left involucral brist!e system; 1 le—lemma of lower floret; 2 le—lemma of the upper floret ; pa—palea; ra—rachis; r bri—right involucral bristle system; s—spikelet ; ss—sclerenchyma sheath; sti—stigma; vas bdl—vascular bundle; vas sup—vascular supply. Figs. 32-36, 38-48, ca. X 25; 37 and 44, diagrammatic and not drawn to scale. 141 142 supplies of the other bristles and is clearly not part of the bristle system of the involucre. Fig. 31 is a diagram representing the vascularization of the fascicle of P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum and P. purpurewm. The vascular bundles of the spikelets (s), the fascicle axis (av) and the involucral bristles (brz) are indicated. The vascular supply of the axis continuation (az) joins the vascular system of the spikelet higher on the vascular axis than the vascular bundles of the bristles. Fascicles of these three species have one spikelet and a recognizable axis continuation in the form of a long bristle. P. ciliare (.) Link is a species which has an involucre with bristles fused at the base to form a distinct cup-like structure surrounding the spikelets. One bristle of this system is longer and larger than the others. Figs. 32-36 represent a series of diagrammatic transsections through a fascicle. Fig. 32 shows the rachis (ra) and fascicle (fa) and a vascular bundle (vas bdl). The fascicle has a single vascular bundle at this level which may be traced downward to the vascular system of the culm. The rachis of this species (and of P. alopecuroides) has a sclerenchyma sheath (s s) encasing the central portion of the rachis from the base to the top. In Figs. 33-34 the numerous vascular bundles to the bristles are shown. The two vascular bundles indicated by arrows in Fig. 33 may be traced to the longest bristle in the fascicle. In this species the long bristle, which is interpreted as the fascicle axis, appears to be of equal rank with the other bristles of the involucre. The fascicle axis in the other five species of Pennisetum is separate and distinct from the involucral bristle system. The vascular supply of the fascicle axis may be traced to an area above the insertion of the vascular bundles of the involucral bristles on the central vascular system. Fig. 35 and 36 show the organization of the fascicle and the relationship of the large bristle (fascicle axis) to the spikelets. Fig. 37 is a diagram repre- senting the vascularization of the fascicle of this species. In P. clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov. the entire inflorescence is enclosed in the leaf sheaths and is not exserted before or during anthesis. The short inflorescence has from 4 to 6 spikelets, each with two florets, all surrounded by leaf sheaths; consequently the exsertion of anthers and stigmas is apparently limited to the terminal florets in the inflorescence. The filaments are JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 5 unusually thick and may elongate up to 2.5 em during anthesis. Figs. 38-42 represent diagrammatic trans- sections through a fascicle (fa) and rachis (ra). Fig. 38 shows the base of the fascicle (fa) with the vascular bundle (vas bdl) of the spikelet and the base of a bristle (br7) system on the right. In Fig. 39, the base of a bristle (bri) system is shown on the left. Figs. 40-43 show the relation- ship of the spikelets and floral organs at suc- cessively higher levels. Fig. 44 is a diagram repre- senting the vascularization of the fascicle of this species. A prominent bristle is not readily dis- tinguishable in the left (1 bri) or right (7 bri) bristle systems of the involucre. Summary (Pennisetum).—Fascicles of these species of Pennisetum have a sterile axis terminus which is clearly recognizable as a long bristle whose vascular bundle joins the vascular system of the fascicle above that of the vascular bundles of the involucral bristles and below that of the spikelets on the vascular axis. Four fascicle patterns were found in the six species of Pen- nisetum studied. The fascicle of P. glaucum represents those species which have more than one spikelet per fascicle; P. alopecuroides, P. peruvianum and P. purpureum have one spikelet in each fascicle. P. ciliare has a fascicle in which one of the znvolucral bristles is longer than the others and is apparently of equal rank with the other bristles in the involucre, but it may be regarded as the axis of the fascicle. The vascular bundle of this bristle appears at the same level as the vascular bundles of the other bristles. These vascular bundles, which may be traced to the vascular axis of the fascicle, are slightly larger than the vascular bundles which may be traced to the involucral bristles. P. clandestinum has an inflorescence which is entirely enclosed in the concentric leaf sheaths and shows a high degree of specialization, especially in the reduc- tion of the number and size of the bristles and the development of stamens whose filaments elongate to bring the anthers out of the florets and sur- rounding leaf sheaths. There are three distinct “zones” on the vascular axis of the fascicle: (1) the lowest, from which diverge the vascular bundles of the bristles, (2) the vascular supply of the long bristle (axis continuation), and (3) the vascular supplies of the spikelets. Summary.—This paper is concerned with the organization of the fascicles of eight species of May 1955 Cenchrus and six species of Pennisetum. The basic pattern of the fascicles of all species of Cenchrus included here is similar. The spikelets themselves are terminal in the fascicles of Cenchrus, and the bristles represent sterile first-order axes and their branches all fused laterally, these at one time belonging to an elongated inflorescence whose axis has be- eome shortened and whose lateral branches have become sterile. C. myosuroides has a 1-flowered fascicle, but possesses two lateral vascular bundles which terminate blindly, suggesting that the fascicle may have possessed three spikelets at one time. The two-partedness of the involucres may be attributed primarily to the enlargement of the central spikelet and not, as heretofore main- tained, to a “two-branch”’ system. Four fascicle patterns were found in the six species of Pennisetum. In five of these species the axis of the fascicle is prolonged as a prominent bristle which is interpreted as an axis continu- ation. The fascicle of P. ciliare, with the bases of the bristles fused laterally, resembles the fascicles of Cenchrus, but the presence of the long bristle (the fascicle axis) places the species in Pen- nisetum. The highly modified inflorescence of P. clandestinum, enclosed in leaf sheaths, shows the influence of pressure on the involucre, namely, that there is no clearly recognizable long bristle, the bristles are separated into two systems (left and right) and the bristles them- selves are small and thin. CLARK AND JONES: TWO NEW NEPHTYS 143 The presence of the usually prolonged, sterile axis of the fascicles of Pennisetum may be used to separate this genus from Cenchrus, whose fascicle axis is terminated by spikelets. This study indicates the need for an analysis of the fascicles of those species of Pennisetum which have no recognizable fascicle axis (long bristle). LITERATURE CITED ARBER, A. Studies in the Gramineae, X. Ann. Bot. 45: 401-420. 19381. . The Gramineae: 186-194. London, 1934. Brews, J. W. The world’s grasses: 16, 25, 81, 129- 130. New York, 1929. Cuasr, A. North American species of Cenchrus. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 22: 209-234. 1920. Ewart, A. J., and Davis, O. B. The flora of the Northern Territory. [Australia]: 22-52. Mel- bourne, 1917. GoEBEL, K. Beitrdge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte erniger Inflorescenzen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 14: 1-42. 1884. Hitcucock, A. 8. The genera of the grasses of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 772: 16, 253-258. 1936. . Manual of the grasses of the United States (2d edition, revised by Agnes Chase). U. 8. Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. 200: 24, 727, 730. 1951. Nasu, G. V. (in) Satu, J. K. Flora of the South- eastern United States: 51, 109. New York, 1903. Souns, E. R. Floral morphology of Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Setaria and Ixophorus. Thesis (Ph.D.), Indiana University, 1949. Srapr, O. (in) Flora of Tropical Africa. 9: 16. (Edited by Sir David Prain.) London, 1917. ZOOLOGY —Two new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Francisco Bay. R. B. Ciark and Merepirx L. Jones, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. (Communicated by Paul L. Illg.) (Received January 27, 1955) The Nephtyidae of the Pacific coast of North America have been described and re- viewed by Hartman (1938, 1940, 1950). However, the polychaetes of San Francisco Bay have never been studied adequately, and of three distinguishable Nephtys found there two require some discussion. The known species is Nephtys caecoides Hart- man, the other two have been named as a new species and subspecies respectively. The types have been deposited in the U. 8. Na- tional Museum. Nephtys parva, n. sp. Fig. 1, a-f Description —Prostomium a blunt oval, longer than broad and widest halfway along its length. Anterior margin convex. The paired nuchal or- gans are at the posterolateral margins of the prostomium but cannot be detected when they are inverted. Proboscis with 22 rows of subter- minal papillae, six in a row, the proximal one or two of which are very small. There is no median unpaired papilla, and the proximal part of the proboscis is smooth. Recurved branchiae from 144 the fourth segment to the seventh or eighth last segment. In all parapodia where they occur, the branchiae are comparatively short and stout and their length rarely exceeds the distance between the two rami of the parapodium; they are always longer than the dorsal cirrus. Both the branchiae and the interramal area are heavily ciliated. Para- podia are with no, or very much reduced, pre- acicular lobes. The notopodial postacicular lobes are rounded. The neuropodial postacicular lobes are also rounded except in the middle of the body where they tend to become somewhat pointed. Neither the pre- nor the postacicular lobes are extensive on any segment. The acicular lobes are rounded except in the posterior parapodia, where they are pointed; in no case are they incised. The preacicular chaetae are barred for the proximal two-thirds of their length. The postacicular chae- tae are all capillaries; those in the middle cf each bundle are denticulate across the whole width of 1 D. ea) B. 0.2mm. 0.2 mm. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, NO. 5 the blade and the teeth, which get smaller and smaller extend to the tip of the capillary. No furcate chaetae have been observed. Dorsal cirri are well developed on all segments. Ventral are a little smaller than the corresponding dorsal cirri, except on the first segment, where the ven- tral cirri are well developed and are slightly longer than the posterior prostomial tentacles and the dorsal cirri are reduced to small papillae. Pigmentation —Most of the specimens are un- pigmented, except for a small group of eyespots appearing as a small patch of dark pigment in the middle of the dorsal surface of the prosto- mium, and a ring of eye spots encircling the py- gidium. On the anterior part of the dorsum of the third segment a pair of large eye spots can be seen beneath the cuticle. Size-—Seventeen specimens have been exam- ined and the size, range and degree of develop- ment is considerable. Obviously some of our 0.2 mm. ee O.Imm. Ee: (Fs Fic. 1.—Nephtys parva, n. sp.: A, Dorsal view of the anterior end of the worm; B, parapodium from the tenth segment; C, parapodium from the twenty-fifth segment; D, parapodium from the thirteenth last segment; E, postacicular chaeta; F, preacicular chaeta. May 1955 e e -———\_— 0.5 mm. A. SS 0.2mm. C. B. 0.2mm. D. CLARK AND JONES: TWO NEW NEPHTYS 145 0.2 mm. 0.05 mm. E. F. Fie. 2.—Nephtys cornuta franciscana, n. subsp.: A, Dorsal view of the anterior end of the worm; B, parapodium from the tenth segment; C, parapodium from the thirtieth segment; D, parapodium from the sixth last segment; E, postacicular chaeta; F, preacicular chaeta. specimens are juvenile, since the smallest is 1.5 mm long (19 segments) and the largest 13 mm long (70 segments). Practically all intermediate lengths and numbers of segments have been found. None of the specimens is sexually mature. Type.—Holotype, U.S. N. M. no. 26464. Distribution and habitat —Taken from fine mud off Point Richmond in San Francisco Bay, Calif., at depths between 1 and 10 meters. It is possibly intertidal. Discussion—No mature specimens of this Nephtys have been taken so far and since many of the specimens we have are obviously juveniles, we are by no means convinced that we have seen the adults at all. Nephtys caecoides has been taken in the same samples and the possibility that N. parva is a juvenile N. caecoides must be considered. There are important differences be- tween the two, however: 1. The acicular rami are rounded and not incised as in Nephtys caecoides. 2.-The branchiae are not shorter than the dorsal cirri in the posterior segments. 3. The dorsal cirri of the first segment are 146 reduced and neither these nor the ventral cirri of the first segment are flattened and triangular. 4. There is no median unpaired papilla on the proboscis. 5. There are eyespots on the prostomium and a ring of eyespots on the pygidium as well as two large eyespots beneath the cuticle on the third segment, none of which appear in Nephtys cae- coides. Most of these differences could conceivably be attributed to developmental features which have not yet reached the adult and definitive state. In all but the presence of eyespots, the differences are in characters which are fairly crucial in the taxonomy of the Nephtyidae and while any sin- gle difference taken individually might be at- tributable to the immaturity of our specimens, it is unlikely that this combination of characters, which is unique, could be disposed of in this way. Nephtys cornuta Berkeley franciscana, n. subsp. Fig. 2, a-f Description.—The new subspecies agrees with Nephtys cornuta Berkeley (1945) except in the following respects: 1. The branchiae are shorter and less heavily ciliated. 2. Barred chaetae appear in postacicular rami of all paropodia and not just in the anterior seg- ments. 3. There is a pair of eyespots on the third segment, they are large and, although beneath the cuticle, are conspicuous. 4. The new subspecies is about half the size of Nephtys cornuta. Pigmentation.—Except for the eye spots the worms are unpigmented. Size-—The range in length of the complete worms described by Berkeley was 10-15 mm and they were composed of 32-35 segments. The San Francisco Bay worms are about half this size. The range of length of the 19 specimens we have seen is 2.0-6.5 mm (21-28 segments), and for Specimens carrying eggs in the coelom, the length range is 4.0-5.5 mm (23-26 segments). The over- all width is 1 mm. or less. Type.—Holotype, U. 8. N. M. no. 26466. Distribution and habitat—The subspecies is ap- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 parently fairly numerous in fine mud deposits off Point Richmond, San Francisco Bay, Calif., at depths between 1 and 10 meters. It is possibly intertidal. It is therefore found in a similar habi- tat to that in which Weese (1932) discovered Nephtys cornuta near Friday Harbor, Wash. Discussion.—The species was described from eight specimens, four of them incomplete, from Friday Harbor, Wash., and Princess Louise In- let, British Columbia (Berkeley, 1945; Weese, 1932). One of the complete specimens was sub- sequently examined by Hartman (1950) who added to the original description. Through the kindness of C. Berkeley, we have been able to examine five of the remaining Friday Harbor specimens. In view of the differences, which ap- pear to be constant, between the northern and the San Francisco Bay specimens, we propose to name the local variants as a subspecies. It should be borne in mind that subsequent collections in the intervening regions may show that the two groups of Nephtys cornuta represent the opposite ends of a graded series. This is a possibility which must always exist when geographical races are named of a species for which the entire distribu- tion is unknown. However, it seems likely that Nephtys cornuta exists as two genetically different and isolated populations in the areas from which it has been recorded and in this event, the naming of a subspecies is justified. The authors are indebted to Mrs. Lois C. Stone who prepared the figures. REFERENCES Berkevey, E. and C. Notes on Polychaeta from the coast of western Canada. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 11, 12: 316-335. 1945. Hartman, Ouaa. Review of the annelid worms of the family Nephthydae from the northeast Pacific, with descriptions of five new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 85: 143-158. 1938. . Polychaetous annelids. Part IIT. Chryso- petalidae to Goniadidae. Hancock Pacific Exped. 7: 173-287. 1940. . Goniadidae, Glyceridae and Nephtyidae. Hancock Pacific Exped. 15: 1-181. 1950. Weess, A. O. The annelids of a marine sere. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci. 13: 18-21. 1932. May 1955 HANDLEY: BATS OF GENUS CORYNORHINUS 147 MAMMALOGY —\New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR., U.S. National Museum. (Received January 31, 1955) A revisionary study of the lump-nosed or big-eared bats of the genus Corynorhinus has shown that the name Corynorhinus rafines- quit Lesson, currently used for the big-eared bats of the western United States, is actually applicable rather to the species inhabiting the southeastern United States, heretofore known as Corynorhinus macrotis LeConte. The prior name for the western bats is Corynorhinus townsendii Cooper. Geographic races of this species are: C. ¢. townsendit Cooper and C. t. pallescens Miller. In addi- tion, three other populations of C. townsendia are sufficiently distinct to warrant recogni- tion by name and are described herein. For the loan of comparative material I am indebted to the American Museum of Nat- ural History (AMNH), the Carnegie Mu- seum (CM), W. Gene Frum (GF), the Uni- versity of Kansas Museum of Natural History (KU), the Louisiana State Univer- sity Museum of Zoology (LSU), the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Texas A. & M. College (TCWC), the University of Arkansas Department of Zoology (UAZ), and the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (UMMZ). Specimens in the U. 8. National Museum, including the Biological Surveys Collection, are designated with the abbreviation (US). Special thanks are due to John A. Sealander, University of Arkansas, for allowing me to utilize specimens under his care in the description of a new subspecies, and for his kindness in depositing the type specimen in the U. 8. National Museum; to Aurelio Malaga Alba, Pan American Sani- tary Bureau, for his cooperation in securing much needed Mexican specimens, one of which has served as the type of a new sub- species; and to Rollin H. Baker, University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, for allowing me to use specimens from a collec- tion that he was studying. Capitalized color terms are from Ridgway, 1912, Color standards and color nomenclature. All measurements are in millimeters and are given as averages followed by extremes. Corynorhinus townsendii australis, n. subsp. Type—uU. 8S. N. M. no. 297265; adult female in alcohol, skull removed; collected December 20, 1952, by Aurelio Mélaga Alba; 2 mi. W Jacala, 5,500 feet, Hidalgo, México; collector’s number 1053. Distribution —Arid interior mountain ranges of central and northern México. Diagnosis —Adult coloration: Upper parts— hair bases between Benzo Brown and Fuscous; hair tips brighter brown, burnished with dark brown; mass effect between Russet and Cinna- mon-Brown; hair bases sharply differentiated from tips. Underparts—hair bases Natal Brown; tips about Light Pinkish Cinnamon on belly, somewhat darker on throat. Size averages medium for the subgenus; forearm averages relatively (relative to greatest length of skull) long. Rostrum averages relatively long, dorso- laterally inflated, and usually not particularly depressed; anterior nares relatively large and usually rounded posteriorly (dorsal view). First upper incisor normally without secondary cusp; upper canine averages slightly reduced; antero- internal cingular cusp of P* frequently present. Measurements.—Specimens from all parts of range. Twenty-two adult males: Total length, 96 (91-101); tail vertebrae, 47 (41-53); hind foot, 10 (9-11); ear from notch, 35 (32-38); tragus, 15 (18-17); forearm, 42.5 (39.4-44.5); greatest length of skull (incisors excluded), 16.0 (15.5-16.5); zygomatic breadth, 8.6 (8.2-9.0); interorbital breadth, 3.6 (3.4-3.7); braincase breadth, 7.8 (7.5-8.1); braincase depth (exclud- ing auditory bullae), 5.7 (5.4-5.9); mavillary tooth row (anterior edge of canine to posterior edge of M#), 5.1 (4.8-5.3); postpalatal length (posterior margin of palate, excluding median process, to anteroventral lip of foramen mag- num), 5.9 (5.6-6.2); palatal breadth (at M?’), 5.7 (5.4-5.9). Twenty adult females: Total length, 100 (93-107); tail vertebrae, 49 (45-54); hind foot, 10 (9-13); ear from notch, 34 (31-36); tragus, 15 (14-15); forearm, 43.2 (89.2-45.1); ereatest length of skull, 16.1 (15.5-16.5); zygo- matic breadth, 8.7 (8.3-9.0); interorbital breadth, 3.6 (3.2-3.7); braincase breadth, 7.9 (7.6-8.3); 148 braincase depth, 5.7 (5.5-6.0); maxillary tooth row, 5.1 (4.9-5.3); postpalatal length, 6.0 (5.8- 6.3); palatal breadth, 5.9 (5.6-6.1). Comparisons.—C. t. australis is most similar to C. t. pallescens, but in dorsal coloration averages darker, browner, and less cinnamon. The two populations are not well differentiated cranially. Compared with Corynorhinus mexi- canus G. M. Allen, C. t. australis is paler colored, with greater contrast between bases and tips of dorsal hairs; usually has more cross-ribs on the interfemoral membrane; has, on the average, larger tragus; larger skull; shallower braincase; longer, stronger, and less depressed rostrum; larger auditory bullae; and usually lacks a secondary cusp on the first upper incisor. Specimens examined.—A total of 57 from the following localities: M#éxtco: Coahuila, Bella Unién, 1 mi. 8 & 4 mi. W, 3 (KU); Hacienda La Mariposa, 4 mi. W, 1 (KU); Muralla, 0.5 mi. N, 19 (KU); San Buenaventura, 9 mi. N & 4 mi. W, 1 (KU); San Buenaventura, 9 mi. W & 4 mi. S, 2 (KU); Sierra Guadalupe, 10 mi. S & 5 mi. W General Cepeda, 1 (KU). Durango, San Juan, 12 mi. W Lerdo, 2 (UMMZ). Guanajuato, Santa Rosa, 7 (US). Guanajuato (?), Charcas, 5 (US). Hidalgo, Grutas Xoxafi, 6.6 mi. SE Yoltepec, 1 (KU); Jacala, 2 mi. W, 3 (US); Rio Tasquillo, 16 mi. E Zimapan, 1 (TCWC). Jalisco, San Andrés, 10 mi. W Magdalena, 3 (UMMZ); San Pedro, Guadalajara, 1 (AMNH). México, Lago Texcoco, 1 (US). Morelos, Cuer- navaca, 1 (US). Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 1 (US). San Luis Potosi, Bledos, 1 (LSU); Presa de Guada- lupe, 1 (LSU). Zacatecas, Sierra de Valparaiso, 1 (US). ‘México’, no exact locality, 1 (US). Corynorhinus townsendii ingens, n. subsp. Type-—U. 8. N. M. no. 296767; adult male, skin and skull; collected 4 December 1950, by John A. Sealander; Hewlitt Cave, 12 mi. W Fayetteville, Washington County, Ark.; col- lector’s number 50-14. Distribution —Ozark Highlands. Diagnosis. Adult coloration: Upper parts— mass effect between Hazel and Mars Brown; hair bases Fuscous. Underparts—hair tips be- tween Light Vinaceous-Cinnamon and Light Pinkish Cinnamon; hair bases Fuscous. Distine- tion between bases and tips of hairs fairly sharp, on both dorsum and underparts. Size averages large for subgenus; forearm averages relatively long. Skull of heavy construction; rostrum rela- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, NO. 5 tively long, inflated, and not depressed; anterior nares average relatively large and rounded in posterior outline (dorsal view). First upper in- cisor usually with at least a trace of a secondary cusp; anterointernal cingular cusp of P* absent; molariform teeth robust. Measurements——Specimens from all parts of range. Seven adult males: Total length, 95 (90- 102); tail vertebrae, 42 (35-46); hind foot, 10 (9-10); ear from notch, 35 (34-86); tragus, 14 (13-15); forearm, 45.2 (44.1-46.2); greatest length of skull, 16.6 (16.3-16.9); zygomatic breadth, 9.1 (9.0-9.1); interorbital breadth, 3.8 (3.8-3.9); braincase breadth, 8.2 (8.0-8.3); braincase depth, 5.8 (5.7-5.9); maxillary tooth row, 5.4 (5.8-5.6); postpalatal length, 6.2 (5.8- 6.4); palatal breadth, 6.3 (6.0-6.4). Nine adult females: Total length, 98 (95-102); tail verte- brae, 46 (43-49); hind foot, 10 (8-12); ear from notch, 35 (34-37); tragus, 15 (14-16); forearm, 46.5 (45.1-47.6); greatest length of skull, 16.8 (16.5-17.2); zygomatic breadth, 9.1 (9.0-9.2); interorbital breadth, 3.9 (3.7—-4.0); braincase breadth, 8.1 (7.9-8.4); braincase depth, 5.9 (5.7-6.1); maxillary tooth row, 5.5 (5.4-5.6); postpalatal length, 6.4 (6.1-6.6); palatal breadth, 6.4 (6.2-6.5). Comparisons.—C. t. ingens is the most reddish and the largest race of Corynorhinus townsendit. From C. t. pallescens it is distinguished by darker, more orange or reddish coloration; aver- age larger size; relatively larger auditory bullae; more inflated rostrum; relatively more robust molariform teeth; and more frequent develop- ment of a secondary cusp on the first upper in- cisor. Compared with C. ¢t. virginianus, C. t. ingens has the dorsal coloration paler, less mantled with sooty; averages slightly larger in most dimensions; and has more frequent de- velopment of a secondary cusp on the first upper incisor. Specimens examined.—A total of 16 from the following localities: Arkansas: Washington County, Basset Cave, near Hicks, 1 (UAZ); Devil’s Icebox, Devil’s Den State Park, 25 mi. SW Fayetteville, 9 (UAZ), 1 (US), 1 (GE); Hewlitt Cave, 12 mi. W Fayetteville, 2 (UAZ), 1 (US). Missourr: Stone County, no exact locality, 1 (AMNH). Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus, n. subsp. Type —vU. 8S. N. M. no. 269163; adult male, skin and skull; collected 12 November 1939, by May 1955 W. J. Stephenson; Schoolhouse Cave, 44 mi. NE Riverton, 2205 feet, Pendleton County, W. Va.; no collector’s number. Distribution —Central portion of the Appa- lachian Highlands in western Virginia and eastern West Virginia. Diagnosis—Adult coloration: Upper parts— mass effect between Prout’s Brown and Bister; hair bases about Benzo Brown. Underparts— hair tips between Light Vinaceous-Cinnamon and Light Pinkish Cinnamon; hair bases Fus- cous. Distinction between tip and base of hair sharp on underparts, poor on dorsum. Size averages medium for subgenus; forearm averages relatively long. Rostrum relatively long and not depressed; anterior nares wide and round in posterior outline (dorsal view). First upper in- cisor usually without trace of secondary cusp. Measurements—Specimens from all parts of range. Fifteen adult males: Total length, 101 (98-110); tail vertebrae, 50 (48-52); hind foot, 11 (10-12); ear from notch, 34 (31-88); tragus, 14 (11-15); forearm, 44.5 (48.1-46.4); greatest length of skull, 16.4 (16.0-16.8); zygomatic breadth, 8.8 (8.6-9.0); interorbital breadth, 3.7 MALACOLOGY .— Notes on American MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 149 (3.6-3.9); braincase breadth, 8.0 (7.7-8.3); braincase depth, 5.8 (5.6-5.9); maxillary tooth row, 5.3 (5.2-5.4); postpalatal length, 6.1 (6.0— 6.3); palatal breadth, 6.1 (5.9-6.3). Ten adult females: Total length, 103 (99-112); tail verte- brae, 49 (46-54); hind foot, 12 (11-13); ear from notch, 35 (34-39); tragus, 15; forearm, 45.8 (44.6-47.4); greatest length of skull, 16.6 (16.1— 17.0); zygomatic breadth, 9.0 (8.8-9.1); inter- orbital breadth, 3.8 (8.6-3.9); braincase breadth, 8.1 (7.7-8.4); braincase depth, 5.8 (5.5-6.0); maxillary tooth row, 5.3 (5.2-5.4); postpalatal length, 6.2 (6.0-6.4); palatal breadth, 6.1 (6.0-6.3). Comparisons —Requires comparison only with C. t. ingens. See account of that race above. Specimens examined.—A total of 93 from the following localities: Vrrernra: Tazewell County, Burkes Garden, 4 (US). West Virernra: Grant County, Petersburg, 10 mi. S, 3 (CM). Pendle- ton County, Cave Mountain Cave, 1.4 mi. W Brushy Run, 11 (US); Hellhole, 3.6 mi. NE Riverton, 5 (US); Hoffman School Cave, 4.9 mi. SSW Franklin, 2 (US); Schoolhouse Cave, 4.4 mi. NE Riverton, 31 (US); ‘“Smokehole,”’ 29 (AMNH); “Cave Rock Cave,” 8 (AMNH). cyclophoroid land snails, with two new names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family Amphicyclotidae, separated on animal characters. J. P. E. Morrison, U. 8. National Museum. (Received January 17, 1955) Eight American species of the land operculate group of snails up to now known as the Cyclophoridae that have come to the United States National Museum collections in recent years from different sources are here described as new. Studies of their family relationships are outlined briefly in advance of a complete biological revision of the American members of the two families concerned, the Cyclophoridae and_ the Amphicyclotidae. Anatomical analysis of American forms that previously have been included in the family Cyclophoridae has shown that this group is polyphyletic in origin. The almost complete fixation of the radular cusp formula of the endemic American genera identifies them only as American and does not give any differential clues as to their other relationships. The male reproductive characters, however, are critically indicative of family and subfamily relationships, as I have already noted (Morrison, 1954). The American subfamilies Neopupinae and Neocyclotinae and the typically Asiatic Cyclophorinae of the land- snail family Cyclophoridae, in common with the marine gastropod family Littorinidae, possess in the males a verge with only a seminal groove on its surface. The external male organ or verge of the Littorinidae is epipodial in position and well developed. That of the subfamily Cyclophorinae of the Cyclophoridae is also epipodial in position, but rudimentary or vestigial. Members of the American subfamily Neopupinae possess a prominent verge that is lateral to and behind the right tentacle, without any specialized terminal appendage. The genera Aperostoma (Fig. 4) and Farc- men (Fig. 1) both belong to the Neopupinae. 150 The males of the Neocyclotinae possess a verge attached middorsally with a very short, specialized, terminal appendage. II- lustrations of Cyclopilsbrya (Fig. 17), Cyclobakeria (Fig. 16), Cyclojamaicia (Fig. 18), Cyclochittya (Figs. 21-22), Poteria (Fig. 2), Plectocyclotus (Fig. 20), Cycladam- sia (Fig. 24), Neocyclotus (Fig. 19), Cyclo- hidalgoa (Fig. 23), and Incidostoma (Fig. 5) are furnished as examples of the sub- family Neocyclotinae. In contrast, the group previously known as the subfamily Amphicyclotinae of the land snails, and the marine family La- cunidae, are in common possession of a structurally complete tubular and internal vas deferens in the males. It follows logically that only animals of the littorinoid type can be included in the family Cyclophoridae. The amphicyclotid group, derivatives of a lacunoid ancestry, must be considered a separate family of land snails, the Amphi- ceyclotidae. The completely tubular, mid- dorsally attached verge of the family Amphicyclotidae is illustrated by the genera Cyclocubana (Fig. 25), Cyclohaitia (Fig. 3), and Amphicyclotulus (Fig. 6). Family CycLoPHORIDAE Gray Subfamily CycLoPHORINAE, Ss. Ss. Genus Maizaniella Bequaert and Clench, 1936 Genotype: Maizaniella leonensis (Morelet, 1873), by original designation. The new name Cyclopomops proposed by Bartsch (1942, p. 219) for Cyclopoma Troschel, 1847 (preoccupied), is biologically synonymous with Maizaniella Bequaert and Clench, 1936. It seems highly probable that both the “Ameri- can” species Marzaniella cinereus (Drouet, 1859) (U.S.N.M. Bull. 181: 141: 18: 25: 1942) recorded from Martinique, and Marzaniella moricandr (Pfeiffer, 1852) (U.S.N.M. Bull. 181: 219: 40: 7-9: 1942) recorded from Bahia, Brazil, were accidentally introduced from the equatorial region of Africa with the slave trade or with the commercial trade coincident thereto. Genus Buckleyia Higgins, 1872 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 151. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclophorus (Buckleyia) montezuma Higgins, 1872) = Cyclophorus martinezi Hidalgo, 1866, by monotypy. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 This endemic American genus is allocated to the Cyclophorinae because of the color and ornamentation of the shell. Buckleyia agrees with many Asiatic genera of this group in possess- ing axial bands or flammules of color on the shell. The animal characters are still unknown. When males of Buckleyia are available, their gross external anatomy should be compared with Heude’s figures of the animals of Cyclotus erroneus Heude and Cyclophorus pallens Heude (Heude, 1890, pl. 42, figs. 12c, 13a). Buckleyia haughti, n. sp. Figs. 26-28 Shell discoid, of 414 well-rounded regularly increasing whorls; almost equally concave above and below; peripherally keeled with six low cords and banded spirally with lighter and darker green bands; the darker bands inter- rupted or incomplete by reason of coalescence of axial flammules of the darker green color. Aperture almost circular, the columellar margin appressed to the penultimate whorl only between the dorsal and ventral cords. The suture deep, bounded by these cords. The peripheral color band is narrow and becomes more flammulate and obsolete near the aperture; above and below it is margined by lighter bands of equal width. The dorsal and ventral darker green bands are subequal; both are discreetly margined periph- erally including the dorsal and ventral thread- keels as the peripheral margin of these color bands. Centrally these bands are less distinctly separated, fading out to the paler green color, along a more or less regular but markedly flammulate edge. Sculpture consisting of spiral cords and threads, the six subequal low cords subequally spaced above and below the periphery on the central third of the whorl’s outer cireum- ference. Between them and beyond on the dorsal and ventral surfaces the fine spiral threads are at least as prominent as the fine thread-lines of growth. These fine spiral threads are only obsolete on the inner quarter faces of the whorls above and below, near the sutures. Nuclear whorls smooth, the spiral cords beginning at the end of the second whorl and continuing without reduc- tion in strength to the aperture. The unique holotype was collected by Oscar L. Haught along a stream north of the Rio Nuqui, Dept. Choco, Colombia, and is now catalogued as U.S.N.M. no. 488865. It has 414 whorls and May 1955 MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 151 Fias. 1-15.—1, Farcimen superbum itinerarium Torre and Bartsch, from Sumidero, Cuba (U.S.N.M. no. 516032); 2, Poteria simpsoni (Bartsch), from Bogwalk, Jamaica (356078); 3, Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch, from north of Tiburén, Haiti (404068); 4, Aperostoma walkeri H. B. Baker, from Necaxa, Puebla, Mexico (515791) ; 5, Incidostoma giganteum (Reeve), from the Cerro de Garagara, Panama (251101); 6, Amphicy- clotulus rufescens (Sowerby), from Martinique (535859) ; 7-9, Incidostoma diminutum, n. sp., holotype, from near Papallagta, Ecuador (543530); 10-12, Incidostoma chocolatum, n. sp., holotype, from near Papallagta, Ecuador (543527); 13-15, Incidostoma jacksoni, n. sp., holotype, from near Mera, Oriente Province, Ecuador (543524). (Figs. 1-6, external anatomy sketched to show head and verge of male, not drawn to scale; figs. 7-15 approximately 1.5. All numbers are U. 8. Nat. Mus.) 152 measures: Height 7.6 mm; greater diameter 23.4 mm; lesser diameter 19.2 mm. Of the same size and very close in general appearance to B. bifasciata Mousson from Antioquia, Colombia, haughtt may be easily distinguished by the six low but distinct periph- eral cords and by the difference in the color banding of those cords. In the only specimen of bifasciata seen, the four peripheral cords are all flammulate with light and dark spots of color over them. In haughtt the dorsal and ventral cords are completely dark, the central cords indistinct in color, and lighter toward the aperture where the narrow peripheral band becomes obsolete and almost disappears. Subfamily NeopupinaE Kobelt and Moellendorff, 1898 This subfamily includes the genera Aperostoma and Tomocyclus from Central America and the West Indian genera Farcimen, Farcimoides, Neopupina, and Megalomastoma. Genus Aperostoma Troschel, 1847 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 169. 1942. Genotype: Aperostoma mexicanum (Menke), by subsequent designation by Herrmannsen, 1852, suppl., p. 10. This genus was listed under the synonymic name Cyrtotoma in U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181. H. B. Baker (1948) pointed out the nomen- clatorially wrong usage of Aperostoma in that bulletin and cited the earliest valid genotype designation as listed above. The true subfamily relationship of the Mexican genus Aperostoma was proved upon examination of the animals of Aperostoma fischeri Bartsch and Morrison and of Aperostoma walkeri H. B. Baker (Fig. 4) lent for study to the United States National Museum by Dr. Baker. Genus Farcimen Troschel, 1847 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 4. 1942. Genotype: (Turbo tortwm Wood) = Farcimen tortum (Wood), 1828, by subsequent designation by Herrmannsen, 1847, p. 439. Farcimen superbum itinerarium Torre and Bartsch, 1942 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 35, pl. 7, figs. 10-12. 1942. The gross external male anatomy of specimens of this subspecies from Sumidero, Pinar del Rio, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 Cuba, is figured herewith (Fig. 1) for comparison with that of Aperostoma. This is in agreement with the more generalized figure published by Poey (1858, vol. 2, p. 67, pl. 7, fig. 2) of the male animal of Farcimen alutaceum (Pfeiffer). Subfamily NeocycioTinar Kobelt and Moellendorff, 1898 Genus Cyclopilsbrya Bartsch, 1942 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 71. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclostoma jugosum C. B. Adams) = Cyclopilsbrya jugosa (C. B. Adams 1852), by original designation. Cyclopilsbrya caribaea (Clench and Aguayo, 1935) See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 77, pl. 13, figs. 43-45. 1942. The gross external anatomy of the head and verge of the male of this species from Mocho, St. James, Jamaica, is here illustrated (Fig. 17). Genus Cyclobakeria Bartsch, 1942 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 115. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclotus novaespet Chitty) = Cyclobakeria novaespei (Chitty, 1857), by original designation. This genus is here restricted to those species that anatomically and geographically group about the genotype. Cyclobakeria is known only from northwestern Jamaica. Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, 1942 See U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 120, pl. 16, figs. 19-21. 1942. The male animal of this species from Cousin’s Cove, Hanover, Jamaica, has been sketched for our Fig. 16. Genus Cyclojamaicia Bartsch, 1942 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 67. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclostoma suturale Sowerby) = Cyclojamaicia suturalis (Sowerby, 1843), by original designation. Cyclojamaicia suturalis (Sowerby, 1843) See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 69, pl. 12, figs. 10-12. 1942. The external anatomy (head and verge of the male) of this species from Island, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica, is sketched in our Fig. 18. Rugicyclotus, n. gen. Genotype: Rugicyclotus perplexus, n. sp. May 1955 MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 153 i Fies. 16-31.—16, Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, from Cousin’s Cove, Hanover, Jamaica (3898741); 17, Cyclopilsbrya caribaea (Clench and Aguayo), from Mocho, St. James, Jamaica (356202) ; 18, Cyclojamaicia suturalis (Sowerby), from near Island, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica (375179); 19, Neocyclotus grenadensis mcsweeni (Bartsch), from Baltazar, Grenada, B. W. I. (473942); 20, Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray), from the Mandeville region, Manchester, Jamaica (128018); 21, 22, Cyclochittya dentistigmata (Chitty), from 214 miles east of Bath, St. Thomas, Jamaica (401305); 23, Cyclohidalgoa translucida bejyumensis (H. B. Baker) from Banco Largo, Bejuma, Venezuela (lent by A.N.S.P.); 24, Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B. Adams), from near Balaclava, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica (536848); 25, Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) per- distinctum (Gundlach), from near Banabacoa, Oriente, Cuba (Ramsden; 618779); 26-28, Buckleya haughti, n. sp., holotype, from north of Rio Nuqui, Dept. Choco, Colombia (488865); 29-31, Amphi- cyclotus megaplanus, n. sp., holotype, from near Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, Mexico (618777). (Figs. 16-25 external anatomy sketched to show head and verge of male, not drawn to scale; figs. 26-31 approximately 1.1. All numbers are U.S. Nat. Mus.) 154 Shell small, depressed helicoid, with regularly increasing, well-rounded whorls, nearly circular in cross section, with no trace of an umbilical keel, and separated above by a deep suture. Shell sculpture of fine growth lines over heavy diagonal, zigzag, or chevron-shaped rugosities; umbilicus widely open, about one-third the diameter of the shell; aperture circular, entire; inner lip a little thickened. Operculum and animal unknown. Only examination of the opercula and animals (when they are available) can permanently settle the question of the true biological relationship of Rugicyclotus. It is here assigned a position next to Cyclovendreysia, whose shells it most resembles, although so strikingly different in rugosity of shell sculpture. Rugicyclotus perplexus, n. sp. As originally declared by Bartsch (1942, p. 137) the “pseudogeneric term’ Incerticyclus has no nomenclatorial standing. Likewise it follows that any specific name introduced in association with that name was not thereby validated in binomial nomenclature. The shell described and figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 140, pl. 18, figs. 19-21) is hereby validly named Rugicyclotus perplexus, as above. At present this species is known only from the type locality at Appleton, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica, where it was collected by C. R. Orcutt. The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 535988, has 3.3 whorls remaining and measures: Height 7.8 mm; greater diameter 14.9 mm; lesser diameter 11.3 mm; aperture diameter 5.7 mm. Two paratypes, from the same source, a little smaller than the holotype, are catalogued as U.S.N.M. no. 378448. Cyclochittya, n. gen. Genotype: (Cyclotus dentistigmatus Chitty) = Cyclochittya dentistigmata (Chitty, 1857). Neocyclotine shells moderately to strongly rugose, with a well-developed umbilical keel which is characteristically marked basally by alternating pits and short buttressing ridges to produce a tooth-marked appearance. The operculum of members of this genus is of the fundamental Poteria stock, differmg in the lesser development of the raised lamella, so that the peripherally reflected external edge of the lamella does not meet the succeeding turn and hence does not completely roof over the external JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 5 face of any portion of the operculum. The peripheral face of the raised lamella is always more or less concave, after the design of a shallow pulley rim. This concave periphery is in direct contrast to that of the operculum of Cyclobakeria, which is superficially similar, but developed from the Cyclopilsbrya stock, and has a more or less convex periphery of the raised lamella, and never has any external reflection of the outer edge of the lamella. The operculum of Cyclochittya was figured in U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181 (pl. 42, figs. 1-3) as an example of Cyclobakeria. The operculum of Cyclobakeria has not yet been figured. The animals of Cyclochittya dentistigmata (Chitty, 1857) (Figs. 21, 22) and of C. yallahsensis (Bartsch, 1942) have been examined and found to differ in details of the verge from the animal of Cyclobakeria nanum Bartsch, 1942. Known members of the genus, in addition to the genotype, are C. corrugata (Chitty, 1857), C. chatty: (Bartsch, 1942), C. yallahsensis (Bartsch, 1942), C. balnearis (Bartsch, 1942), and C. schermot, n. sp. All are from the southeastern part of the Island of Jamaica. A closer analysis of the nomenclature involved reveals the fact that the specific name Cyclotus corrugatus Chitty, 1857, is not preoccupied. As the earliest available name it should be used instead of the new name magister proposed by Bartsch (1942, p. 119). Cyclochittya schermoi, n. sp. The fossil form described and figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 138, pl. 41, figs. 10-12) is here validly named Cyclochittya schermot. As noted previously, this name cannot be con- sidered as validly published in 1942, because it was not introduced in connection with a generic name at that time. The holotype, A.N.S.P. no. 82532, was col- lected by Uselma C. Smith and S. L. Schermo from the Miocene fossil beds at Bowden, Ja- maica. It has 4.4 whorls and measures: Height 13 mm; greater diameter 19.8 mm; lesser diameter 15.3 mm. Thirteen young and/or fragmentary paratypes are also catalogued under the same number at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. We thus have proof that this genus has been living in the same region of southeastern Jamaica (alongside Poteria) at least since the Miocene era without any change in the generic shell characters. May 1955 Genus Poteria Gray, 1850 Poteria Gray, Nomen. Moll. animals and shells... . British Museum, part 1, Cyclophoridae, p. 11. 1850 (not Poteria Bartsch, 1942). Genotype: (Turbo jamaicensis Dillwyn) = Poteria jamai- censis (Dillwyn, 1823), by subsequent designa- tion by H. B. Baker (Nautilus 35: 15. 1922), who cited it as Turbo jamaicensis (Chemnitz) Wood 1828. Piychocochlis Simpson, 1895, p. 431. Genotype: (Neocyclotus jamaicensis Chemnitz) = Poteria corrugatum (Menke, 1830), by original designa- tion. Barischivindex H. B. Baker, 1943, p. 135. Genotype: (Cyclostoma varians C. B. Adams) = Poteria varians (C. B. Adams, 1852), by original designa- tion. The operculum of Poteria has a well-developed raised calcareous lamella projecting from the external face. Usually this lamella is [ shaped, that is, upright, then abruptly reflected periph- erally to meet the succeeding turn, and com- pletely roof over the intervening space to produce a complete external calcareous face of the oper- culum. In a few species known, the reflected portion of the lamella does not completely roof over the intervening space on all of the opercular turns. In these species, however, there is always one part of the operculum in which the external face is completely roofed over and continuous. The operculum of Poteria martensi (Kobelt) was figured by Bartsch (1942. pl. 42, figs. 8-10). The male animal of a paratype of Poteria simpsoni (Bartsch) (1942, p. 95, pl. 14, figs. 16-18) is illustrated by our Fig. 2. Poteria clarendonensis, n. name The name of the species of Poteria described by Bartsch as Ptychocochlis taylori (1942, p. 89, pl. 13, figs. 31-33) is preoccupied by Bartsch’s use of the name Poteria (Cyclobakeria) welchi taylort (1942, p. 119). The present species from upper Clarendon Parish, Jamaica, may be known as Poteria clarendonensis. Poteria Jamaicensis (Dillwyn, 1823) . Lister, Historia conchyliorum: pl. 56, fig. 51. 1865; idem, Huddesford edition: pl. 55, fig. 51. 1770. Turbo jamaicensis Dillwyn, Index to Lister (3d ed.): 9. 1823; Wood, Index Test., suppl.: pl. 6, fig. 3. 1828. Ptychocochlis gossei Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 85, pl. 13, figs. 34-36. 1942. The earliest designation of the genotype of Poteria by H. B. Baker in 1922 was not entirely MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 155 clear. The restatement by Bartsch (1942, p. 106) was more explicit, but the species name accepted by all workers as the genotype was misidentified in Bulletin 181. The earliest valid name for this species is that listed above. Fortunately the figures in Lister upon which we now know the specific name rests are even more critically correct than is the figure in Wood (1828) in depicting the usual form of this Jamaican land operculate. The species from the vicinity of Kingston called Ptychochlis gossei by Bartsch in 1942 is the true genotype of Poteria. Poteria daltei, n. name The name of the species of Poteria described by Bartsch as Ptychocochlis welchi (1942, p. 88, pl. 18, figs. 20-30) is preoccupied by the name Poteria (Cyclobakeria) welch Bartsch (1942, p. 118). It may be called Poteria daltet to maintain a valid name in honor of its first discoverer, D’alte A. Welch. Poteria bowdenensis, n. sp. As noted above, specific names published only in connection with a ‘‘pseudogeneric term’ do not have any binomial standing. The form de- scribed and figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 188, pl. 41, figs. 4-6) is hereby validly named Poteria bowdenensis. The holotype, A.N.S.P. no. 82532a, was col- lected by Uselma C. Smith and 8. L. Schermo from the Miocene fossil beds at Bowden, Ja- maica. It has 3.5 whorls remaining and measures: Height 10.8 mm; greater diameter 15.7 mm; lesser diameter 12.0 mm. Critical comparisons have shown that this fossil species is most closely related to Poteria campeachyt and P. petricola. The presence of P. bowdenensis in Miocene times, alongside the genus Cyclochittya, proves that at least two of the Recent genera of Neocyclotinae have been living on Jamaica since the Miocene, without any change im generic shell characters. How much preceding time was necessary for their develop- ment and generic differentiation is as yet com- pletely unknown. Genus Plectocyclotus Kobelt and Moellendorff, 1898 Genotype: (Cyclostoma jamaicensis Sowerby, 1843) = Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray, 1850), by subsequent designation by Pilsbry and Brown (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1910: 533). 156 This is the genus that was incorrectly called “Poteria”’ by Bartsch in 1942. It is separate and distinct from Poteria Gray, 1850, possessing a different sculpture of the shell and a different type of operculum. There is no intergradation whatsoever known between the opercular type of Poterva and that of Plectocyclotus. Plectocyclotus lineatus (Gray, 1850) See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 109, pl. 16, figs. 34-36; pl. 42, figs. 14, 15. 1942. The external male anatomy (head and verge) of this species from the Mandeville region, Manchester, Jamaica, is illustrated herewith (Fig. 20). Plectocyclotus novussaltus (Chitty, 1857) See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 112, pl. 16, figs. 4-6. 1942. This is the earliest available specific name for the fourth species to be called jamaicensis. Incorrectly identified as jamaicensis by Bartsch, this is neither the jamaicensis of Chemnitz (non- binomial), nor of Dillwyn (1823) and Wood (1828), nor of Sowerby (1848). Incerticyclus, n. gen. Genotype: (Neocyclotus (Ptychocochlis) bakeri Simpson) = Incerticyclus bakeri (Simpson, 1895). The “pseudogeneric term” Incerticyclus seems worthy of preservation for two Jamaican species possessing a shell with only an angulation at the outer edge of the umbilicus, and fine or coarse rugose shell sculpture on the later postnuclear whorls. The operculum is unknown. The genotype, J. bakert, was described and figured by Bartsch (1942, p. 137, pl. 18, figs. 1-3). The only other probable member of this genus known to me is Incerticyclus perpallidus (C. B. Adams, 1852) (Bartsch, 1942, p. 139, pl. 18, figs. 4-6). Genus Cycladamsia Bartsch, 1942 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 125. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclostoma seminudum C. B. Adams) = Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B. Adams, 1851), by original designation. Cycladamsia seminudum (C. B. Adams, 1851) See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 130, pl. 18, figs. 82-34; pl. 42, figs. 4, 5. 1942. The head and verge of male animals of this species from near Balaclava, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica, are figured herewith (Fig. 24). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 Genus Neocyclotus Crosse and Fischer, 1872 See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 203. 1942. Geno- type: (Cyclostoma dysoni Pfeiffer) = Neocyclotus dysoni (Pfeiffer, 1851), by subsequent designa- tion by Pilsbry and Brown (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1910: 533). Austrocyclotus Bartsch, 1942, pp. 132, 195. Geno- type: (Cyclostoma straminea Reeve) = Neo- cyclotus stramineus (Reeve) 1843, by original designation. Austrocyclotus must be considered a synonym or an incompletely separated section or phase of Neocyclotus. The opercula and the radular for- mulae of the two groups are identical (8: 3: 3: 2), and the external male characters are essentially alike. The shell sculpture, which was the chief basis of distinction given by Bartsch in 1942, is not separable into two patterns. There are intergrading conditions of sculpture on the shells of some species from the South American region. Neocyclotus wetmorei (Bartsch and Morrison, 1942) See U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 208, pl. 41, figs. 13-15. 1942. Originally described from Tierra Nueva, Sierra Negros, at 3,700-5,000 feet elevation, this species is now also known from near a Motilon Indian village, Arioca, between 4,000 and 6,000 feet elevation, in the Sierra Perija,. also in Dept. Magdalena, Colombia. Questions raised during the identification of these addi- tional specimens of wetmorei led to the reexamina- tion of the sculpture of all the species of Neo- cyclotus and of Austrocyclotus in the United States National Museum collections. Upon complete analysis of the shell sculpture, it became evident that the sculpture pattern is identical in the two groups. At one extreme the sculpturing is weak and partly obsolete; at the other end of the scale it is strongly marked. With such a series in front of us, including species such as wetmoret which possess sculpture of intermediate strength, it becomes immediately apparent that an artificial separation of two generic groups distinguished only by the relative strength of the same pattern of sculpture is biologically in- correct. Neocyclotus grenadensis mcsweeni (Bartsch, 1942) See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 135, pl. 17, figs. 22-24. 1942. The head and verge of the male of this sub- species from the Lesser Antilles is illustrated May 1955 herewith (Fig. 19). This sketch should be com- pared with the anatomic details given by Crosse & Fischer (1890, vol. 2, pp. 150-156, pl. 43, figs. 8, 10; and pl. 47, fig. 1) of the Central American genotype NVeocyclotus dysoni (Pfeiffer). Neocyclotus fuscescens (Swainson) 1840 Cyclotus fuscescens Swainson, Treatise on mala- cology: 186. 1840. Poteria vincentina Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 87: 4, pl. 1, figs. 2, 2a. 1935. Aperostoma (Austrocyclotus) vincentinum Bartsch, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 133, pl. 17, figs. 1-3. 1942. According to Swainson, Guilding was the first to collect this species “in the woods of St. Vincent.” Critical analysis shows that this name was taxonomically validated in 1840, in connec- tion with the generic description, and with a stated locality. As the only such species known from St. Vincent, fuscescens is clearly the correct specific name, almost a century ahead of vin- centina. Genus Cyclohidalgoa Bartsch, 1942 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 136, 268. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclostoma translucidum Sowerby) = Cyclohidalgoa translucidum (Sowerby, 1848), by original designation. Cyclohidalgoa translucidum bejumense (H. B. Baker, 1923) See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 270, pl. 30, figs. 4-6. 1942. The male anatomy of this subspecies, men- tioned in the generic description, is here figured for the first time (Fig. 23). The animals sketched were collected by H. B. Baker and lent to the United States National Museum for examination of the animal characters. Genus Incidostoma Bartsch and Morrison, 1942 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 187. 1942. Genotype: /ncidostoma malleatum Bartsch and Morrison, 1942, by original designation. Since Aperostoma was restricted to or fixed upon the group of neopupine snails from Mexico by Herrmannsen’s 1852 designation of the species mexicanum Menke 1830 as genotype, that name cannot be used for this Central and South American genus of snails. The name Pseudaperostoma H. B. Baker, 1948 (p. 135) published as a replacement for Aperostoma Bartsch, 1942 (not Troschel, 1847) has proved MORRISON: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 157 to be unnecessary in the light of present knowl- edge. Recent examination at the United States National Museum of a lot of the species Jnci- dostoma incomptum (Sowerby), collected at Aguadita (Vicente de Guerrera), Colombia, and sent by Ralph W. Jackson, has proved very interesting. This one sample contains one fine large individual possessing the full siphonal notch at the posterior angle of the aperture. The remainder are smaller, either young or not completely matured shells, but are identical except for lack of this characteristic notch. Because this single characteristic of distinction between Jncidostoma and Pseudaperostoma is seen as an unbroken transitional series when all known species are considered, and because members of one species (¢ncomptum) are now known to exhibit the same transition, these two named groups must be considered as one, or at most artificial sections of one genus, which does not show biological separation. Incidostoma duffianum (C. B. Adams, 1845) See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 276. 1942. Aperostoma (Aperostoma) brujense Bartsch and Morrison, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 241, pl. 34, figs. 13-15. 1942). There can be no real question that this is Adams’s species duffianum, with almost exactly the same measurements in millimeters. In fact, there is also a possibility that the named form portobellense Bartsch and Morrison is also a synonym of duffianwm. There is not enough material available at present to clarify the probable sexual dimorphism of size and other characters of the shells of this group of species from the Panama region. Incidostoma giganteum (Reeve, 1842) See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 237, pl. 33, figs. 7-9. 1942. The two described and figured shells, collected from the Cerro de Garagara, Panama, by Pittier, contained the animals. Of the two, one was a male. A sketch of the head and verge of this species is furnished here (Fig. 5) for com- parison with the other genera of the Neocyclo- tinae. Group of IncrposToMA BOGOTENSE Pfeiffer The three new species described herewith belong to the group of medium-sized to small species centering around Incidostoma bogotense 158 Pfeiffer. All were submitted to the United States National Museum for identification by Ralph W. Jackson, whom we wish to thank for this opportunity to study and describe additional new forms of tropical American operculate land snails. Incidostoma jacksoni, n. sp. Figs. 13-15 Shell medium sized, depressed helicoid, of about 4 whorls, above variable in color from fleshy buff to dark greenish horn, usually buff or pale fleshy color on the apex, shading to darker brownish (or greenish) on the body whorl. Nucleus of about 11g whorls, smooth; postnuclear whorls finely transversely ribbed, on the body whorl with the fine ribs irregularly scalloped, producing marked malleations on the upper half of the body whorl. Last whorl little or not at all depressed at the aperture. Suture well impressed, but not deep. Periphery marked by a low revolving angularity, produced by the impressing of the whorl just above and below the narrow blackish peripheral color band. Base openly umbilicate, the inner zone lighter, the outer half darker than the upper surface; base smoother than the upper surface and a little malleated, the finer growth lines being a little irregular and not forming riblets. Umbilicus contained 334 times in the shell diameter. Aperture bluish white within, oblique, circular, the obtusely pointed protraction at the posterior angle feebly grooved. Peristome entire, feebly protracted below the posterior angle at the lower- most junction of parietal wall and penultimate whorl. Operculum typical for the genus, of about 10 turns. The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 5438524, was re- ceived from Ralph W. Jackson. It comes from near Mera, Oriente Province, Ecuador, has 4.3 whorls, and measures: Height 15.4 mm; greater diameter 27.0 mm; lesser diameter 21.0 mm; aperture height 11.5 mm; aperture diameter 11.8 mm. US.N.M. no. 543525 contains 14 paratypes from the original lot. Numerous paratypes com- prising the remainder of this lot are in Mr. Jackson’s collection. Another locality, Agoyan, Ecuador, is represented by one specimen, no. 543526, in the National Museum collection and three in the Jackson collection. The animal of this species has not been observed. This species is closest in appearance to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 Incidostoma allantayum from Peru but is much smaller. The subcorded, dark, peripheral band seems very characteristic. J. jacksoni is likewise very similar to J. diminutum but is larger and usually more greenish in color, especially on the body whorl. It is also larger than but not so polished in appearance as J. chocolatum. Incidostoma chocolatum, n. sp. Figs. 10-12 Shell small, depressed helicoid, covered with a dark brown epidermis, usually dark chocolate- brown on the body whorl. The bronzy tan nucleus (eroded in the type) consists of 115 smooth whorls. Postnuclear whorls marked by very fine growth riblets, becoming somewhat irregular due to scalloping on later whorls, producing the finely malleated or ‘‘chicken-scratched” ap- pearance characteristic of the upper side of the body whorl. Periphery well rounded but marked by an impressed line immediately above the feeble peripheral ridge which gives the shell the appearance of having had a layer peeled off the surface above this line. Base well rounded, smoothish, less malleated than upper surface of body whorl, lightest around the umbilicus which is open, narrowly exhibiting all the whorls to the apex. Aperture bluish white, oblique, almost circular; peristome entire, a little effuse in the region of the subperipheral ridge which tends to become obsolete at the aperture. Umbilicus contained 4.1 times in the shell diameter. Oper- culum and animal not seen. The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 543527, was re- ceived from Ralph W. Jackson and collected near Papallagta, Ecuador. It has 3.8 whorls remaining and measures: Height 13.5 mm; Greater diameter 23.0 mm; lesser diameter 17.4 mm; aperture height 8.5 mm; aperture diameter 9.0 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 543528 contains five paratypes from the same source; additional paratypes from the original lot are in the collection of Mr. Jackson. One of two other specimens seen from Napo, Ecuador, is catalogued as U.S.N.M. no. 543529. This species has also been seen from Runtan Hill, near Banos, Ecuador, in the Zetek collection (U.S.N.M. no. 618858). With smaller size approaching J. diminutum, this new species has a more polished appearance, with the “scratched” type of malleations more evident at first glance than the growth riblets. This more polished appearance as well as its May 1955 MORRISON: usually deep chocolate brown color and_pro- portionately larger aperture will easily distinguish it from J. diminutum, which is of about the same size. The color and polished appearance are much more useful in separating individuals of these two species collected together as at Papallagta and at Napo than is their absolute size. There is more than enough variation in size between the smallest individuals (believed to be males) and the largest (believed to be females) of J. choco- latum, to overlap the slight difference in size of these species. J. chocolatum is markedly smaller and more polished in appearance than is J. jackson. Incidostoma diminutum, n. sp. Figs. 7-9 Shell small, depressed helicoid, of about 4 whorls, fuscous or occasionally greenish fuscous; nucleus rufous, of 113 smooth turns; postnuclear whorls marked by fine growth ribs, more or less irregularly scalloped above the subperipheral angulation, reduced in height over this band, and extending across the base and into the umbilicus, of undiminished strength or even a little coarser and more prominent in the um- bilical area. The malleation or ‘“‘scratched”’ sculpture is always present, but much less evi- dent than the fine ribs. Whorls well rounded above and below, separated by a well-impressed suture throughout. The body whorl exhibits a narrow, dark, subperipheral color band bordered above by a lighter band; the dark band some- times obsolete near the aperture; the peripheral half of the base is a little darker than the um- bilical area, darkened by numerous _hair-line revolving bands. In addition the upper slope of the whorls usually shows more hair-line bands of the same brownish color. Aperture subcircular, a little effuse peripherally, oblique, highest at the center not the columellar margin; peristome entire, characteristically biangulatedly produced at the obtuse posterior angle. The umbilicus is contained 415 times in the shell diameter. Operculum typically incidostomid, of about 9 turns. Nine of the specimens received from Papallagta, Ecuador, proved to have the animals dried in the shells. Of these, the holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 543530, and four paratypes were females; the other four were males. Their measurements (in mm.) follow: AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 159 Aper- Aper- Number of Greater Lesser ture ture whorls Ht. diameterdiameter ht. diam. Holotype female 4.1 12.1 19.8 15.8 8.1 8.6 U.S.N.M. no. 543530. Paratype females 4.2 14.0 21.2 16.5 8.2 8.8 U.S.N.M. no. 4.1 12.8 20.8 16.3 8.2 8.8 543531. 4.2 13.2 20.5 16.1 8.2 8.8 3.8 11-5 18.7 14.6 7.8 8.0 Average (females) 4.1 WP e/ 20.2 15.9 8.1 8.6 Paratype males 3.9 11.9 19.3 ibysal 7.6 8.5 U.S.N.M. no. 3.9 lez 18.9 14.8 7.6 8.4 543532. 3.7 11.2 18.9 14.9 7.4 8.2 3.7 nS2 17.0 13.3 7.5 leo) Average (males) 3.8 5 18.5 14.5 (feb) 8.1 The verge in the male is that characteristic of the genus and of the entire subfamily Neocyclo- tinae, namely, a ribbonlike process on the back of the neck behind the right tentacle, traversed at least in part by only a seminal groove. In this species it has a slightly swollen base and a minute terminal appendage as is typical of the genus Incidostoma. Additional paratypes from Papallagta are in the National Museum collection, U.S.N.M. no. 543533, and in the Jackson collection. One fully typical specimen has been seen in the Jackson collection from Napo, Ecuador. One lot from the Zetek collection is labeled simply Oriente Province (U.S.N.M. no. 618856); another, U.S.N.M. no. 618857, comes from Runtan Hill, near Banos, Ecuador. With the exception of J. inconspicuwm, this is one of the smallest of all known Incidostoma species. It may be readily distinguished by the finely ribbed satin finish and rufous color, and the proportionately small, orbicular aperture. Family AMPHICYCLOTIDAE As reported earlier, this group is anatomically close to the marine gastropod family Lacunidae. The external gross anatomy of the males of the genera Crocidopoma (subgenus Cyclocubana) from Cuba (Fig. 25), Cyclohaitia from Hispaniola (Fig. 3), and Amphicyclotulus from Martinique (Fig. 6) and other West Indian islands, is now known. It should be made clear however, that male animals of all the American “mainland” species of this family are still unknown and undescribed. In the absence of such anatomical proof, other characters of the shells and opercula are accepted as indicators of their relationships as members of the family Amphicyclotidae. It is 160 hoped that anatomical material will become available soon, to prove what is still assumed to be true biological relationship. This family includes some genera that possess no calcification on the operculum, some that have only the upright lamella calcified, as well as some such as Crocidopoma in which all but the projecting fringe of the basal chondroid plate appears to be calcified. In other words, in this complex of land operculate snails, the amount of calcification of the operculum is strictly a generic character, just as surely as is the pattern of such calcification and ornamentation. Genus Amphicyclotus Crosse and Fischer, 1879 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 183. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclophorus boucardi (Salle Mss) Pfeiffer) = Amphicyclotus boucardi (Pfeiffer), by original designation. Material sent to the United States National Museum by Miss Marie A. Bourgeois, of Mixcoac, D. F., Mexico, included a form of Amphicyclotus which has proved to be undescribed. This brings the number of species of the genus known, from Veracruz, Mexico, to Honduras, to five. Amphicyclotus megaplanus, n. sp. Figs. 29-31 Shell large, depressed, of about 514 well- rounded, regularly increasing whorls, separated by a distinct suture lving in the bottom of a wide sutural depression; in life with a chestnut brown periostracum. Nuclear whorls small, well rounded (smooth in our eroded paratype). The earliest postnuclear whorls are sculptured by fine axial riblets most prominent at the suture; the riblets becoming obsolete on the upper whorl slopes exposed in the spire. The later postnuclear sculpture consisting of fine irregular axial vermiculate ribbing begins at the fourth whorl and continues undiminished to the aperture. This characteristic vermiculation tends to become more diagonal on the penultimate and body whorls. Spire very low. Periphery well rounded; base widely openly umbilicate, the umbilicus three-tenths of the shell diameter, and showing all the whorls to the apex. Aperture oblique, almost round, very slightly sinuous in plane. The posterior angle is produced slightly on the parietal wall, and is slightly grooved. The last quarter of the body whorl descends markedly to the oblique aperture. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 5 The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 618777, is a weathered shell, collected by a peon who sold firewood at Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, Mexico, from the forests of El Ocote, at an elevation between 600 and 1,000 meters. It is a shell of about 514 whorls (4 remaining after loss of the apex), and measures: Height 22.5 mm; greater diameter 42.0 mm; lesser diameter 32.5 mm; aperture height 20.0 mm; aperture diameter 18.0 mm. These measurements of the aperture were made on the plane of the aperture. The apparent aperture height in a straight aperture view of the shell is 16.0 mm. An immature paratype from the same sourée, U.S.N.M. no. 618778, has 5 whorls and measures: Height 18.0 mm; greater diameter 32.5 mm; lesser diameter 27.0 mm; aperture height 15.3 mm (apparent 14.0 mm.); aperture diameter 14.0 mm. This new species is of the same size and very close in most characters to A. texturatus known from the region southeastward along the Chiapas- Guatemala boundary, but is easily distinguished by the much more depressed spire and the wide sutural depression above. The well rounded body whorl of megaplanus slopes downward con- siderably to the wide ‘‘valley”’ depression around the suture. Genus Calaperostoma Pilsbry, 1935 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 159. 1942. Geno- type: (Cyclostoma cumingii Sowerby) = Cal- aperostoma cumingt (Sowerby) 1832, by original designation. Aperostomops Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 87: 4. 1935. Genotype: (Cyclostoma purum Forbes) = Aperostomops purum (Forbes) 1850, by original designation. Aperostomops should be included in the synonymy of the genus Calaperostoma Pilsbry, published on the same page in 1935. The two genotypes, cumingi and purum, are so close to each other that the zoological synonymy can hardly be questioned. Although not traceable In any way in Bulletin 181, the use of Cala- perostoma on p. 159 of that bulletin actually constituted a selection from two names of equal (identical) publication date. In case such un- declared selection be considered insufficient, the selection and use of Calaperostoma in Bulletin 181 is hereby declared a deliberate action. Genus Amphicyclotulus Kobelt, 1912 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 54. 1952. | May 1955 MORRISON: Genotype: (Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby) = ‘| Amphicyclotulus rufescens (Sowerby), 1843, by |} subsequent designation by Bartsch (1942, p. 54). As reported on p. 54 of Bulletin 181, this genus | was proved to belong to the Amphicyclotidae by examination of the animals of the species rufescens | from Martinique, and of mznert from Dominica. Amphicyclotulus rufescens (Sowerby), 1843 Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby, Thes. Conch. 1: 94, pl. 24, figs. 36, 37. 1843. Cyclostoma rufescens Sowerby, Proc. Zool. Soc. 11: 60. 1843. | Cyclophorus acutiliratus Drouet, Ess. moll. terr. | | et fluy. de la Guyane frangaise: 89, pl. 3, figs. 42-44. 1859. Amphicyclotulus rufescens Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 56, pl. 10, figs. 4, 5. 1942. Amphicyclotulus acutiliratus Bartsch, U.S.N.M. Bull. 181: 56, pl. 10, figs. 1-3. 1942. The external anatomy of the male animal is | sketched in Fig. 6. The sculpture of the shell of this species is highly variable in its strength. The form named rufescens by Sowerby is the extremely highly sculptured variation at the end of the series, with the spiral ridges crenulated or scalloped. The medium-sculptured part of the series, minus the scalloping of the ribs, received the name acutiliratus. Genus Cyclohaitia Bartsch, 1942 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 52. 1942. Genotype: Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch, 1942, by original designation. Cyclohaitia haitia Bartsch, 1942 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 53, pl. 10, figs. 12-14. 1942. The male anatomy of this species from southern Haiti is illustrated here in our Fig. 3. Genus Crocidopoma Shuttleworth, 1857 See U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39, 62. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclostoma (Cyclotus) jfloccosum Shuttleworth 1857 = Cyclostoma orbellum Lamarck) = Crocidopoma orbellum (Lamarck) 1822, by subsequent designation by Crosse (Journ. Conchyl. 39: 160. 1891). The male anatomy of this genus was reported in 1942 as resembling that of Amphicyclotulus. Even though its operculum is mostly calcified, Crocidopoma is here allocated to its proper place in the Amphicyclotidae on the basis of anatomy. The only character now separating Crocido- AMERICAN LAND SNAILS 161 poma, s.s., from the subgenus Cyclocubana, is the suture sharply accentuated by the extreme prominence of the single largest spiral keel next to the suture. The opercular character, a differ- ence in the length of the chondroid fimbriations, is hardly of generic value. At present such differ- ences are known to be a matter of abrasion rather than of differential development. Crocidopoma orbellum (Lamarck, 1822) Cyclostoma orbella Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert. 6(2): 148. 1822. Cyclostoma distinctum Sowerby, Thes. Conch. 1: 106: 24, fig. 38. 1843. Cyclostoma (Cyclotus) floccosum Journ. Conchyl. 5: 268, 272. 1857. Cyclostoma vortex Weinland, Mal. Blatt. 9: 90. 1862. Crocidopoma vortex Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 63, pl. 11, figs. 13-15. 1942. Crocidopoma floccosum Bartsch, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 64, pl. 12, fig. 16. 1942. Incerticyclus distinctus Bartsch and Morrison, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 275, pl. 39, fig. 11. 1942. Shuttleworth, The synonymy of the genotype species is now known to include the names distinctum Sowerby, floccosum Shuttleworth, and vortex Weinland. The variability of the species, and the lack of an adequate number of specimens in the hands of the early writers, both contributed to the con- fusion surrounding the correct name for this species. Dr. Forcart of the Geneva Museum has recently furnished us with photographs of the type specimens of orbellwm and of floccosum, proving their specific identity. Crocidopoma lamarcki (Petit, 1850) Cyclostoma lamarcki Petit, Journ. Conchyl. 1: 48. 1850. Crocidopoma casuelense Crosse, Journ. Conchy]. 39: 160. 1891. Crocidopoma casuelense Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 65, pl. 41, figs. 7-9. 1942. Petit was first to recognize the fact that a second distinct species of the group was figured and incorrectly identified as orbellum, and named it as above. Unfortunately, very few molluscan authors, even those interested in the group, have read Petit’s remarks, and name for this common low-spired species, since they were printed a century ago. Subgenus Cyclocubana Bartsch, 1942 See U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39. 1942. Genotype: (Cyclotus perdistinctus Gundlach) = 162 Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) peridistinctum (Gund- lach, 1858), by original designation. Male animals of Cyclocubana have become available for study in the past couple of years. Their examination has confirmed the biological position of this subgenus of Crocidopoma in the Amphicyclotidae, and cleared up the last question of the zoogeographic picture of this family in the West Indies. Crocidopoma (Cyclocubana) perdistinctum Gundlach, 1858 See U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181: 39, pl. 8, figs. 10-15. 1942. Included in the collection of the late Dr. Charles Ramsden, of Santiago de Cuba, recently donated (in part) to the United States National Museum, were four lots of this species. One of these consisted of a number of specimens col- lected at San Andres, near Reuter, Oriente Province, Cuba, by Dr. Ramsden. Six of these contained the animals dried in place in the shells. These specimens were boiled in water to soften them for extraction from the shells, and for examination. Of these six, three were males and three were females, indicating the essentially equal ratio of sexes in the population. The male animal of perdistinctum Gundlach is illustrated by Fig. 25. These males are typically amphicyclotid; that is the verge is located on the back of the neck behind the tentacles. It is traversed by a closed tube (the vas deferens) throughout, and has a long slender terminal filament almost equal in length to the stouter basal portion of the verge. In fact, there is no measurable difference (other than size) apparent between the verges of the generic groups Cyclo- blandia, Amphicyclotulus, Cyclohaitia, Crocido- poma, and Cyclocubana, that represent the family Amphicyclotidae in the West Indian region. REFERENCES Baker, H. B. Aperostomatinae. Nautilus 35: 14-16. 1922. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 5 Two new subgeneric names in Poteria. Nautilus 56: 135-138. 1943. Bartscu, Pauu. See Torre, Bartsch, and Morrison. Bartscu, Pau, and Reuper, H. A. Notes on the names Poteria, Ptychocochlis, and Apero- stoma. Nautilus 57: 62-64. 1943. Bequaert, J., and Criencu, W. J. Studies of Africian land and freshwater mollusks, VIII. New species of land operculates, with descrip- tions of a new genus and two new subgenera. Rev. Zool. et Bot. Africanes 29: 97-104, pls. 1-2. 1936. Crossg, H., and Fiscuer, P. Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l’Amérique Centrale. Zoology, part 7, Mollusks, 1-2. 1878-1894. Dittwyn, L. W. An index to the Historia Con- chyliorum of Lister, with the name of the species to which each figure belongs, and occasional remarks: 1-48. 1828. HERRMANNSEN, A. N. Indicis generum malacozoorum 1, 2 et Supplementa. 1847-1852. HervupeE, P. M. Notes sur les mollusques terrestres de la Vallee du Flewe Bleu., Mem. concern. UHist. Nat. Emp. Chinois: 1-188; pls. 12-43. 1882-1890. Koreit, W., and Mortienporer, O. F. Catalog der gegenwartig lebend bekannten Pnewmonopo- men. Nachr. deutschen malak. Ges. 29: 73 et seq. 1897-1898; idem, reprinted, 1-140. 1898. Morrison, J. P. E. Zoogeography, subfamilies, and jamilies. Amer. Malacol. Union Ann. Rep. for 1953: 12-14. 1954. Petit, M. Notice sur le genre Cyclostoma, et catalogue des especes appartenant a ce genre. Journ. Conch. 1: 36-55. 1850. Piusspry, H. A. Descriptions of Middle American land and freshwater Mollusca. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 87: 1-6, pl. 1. 1935. Pory, F. Memorias sobre la historia natural de la Isla de Cuba 1-2. 1851-1861. Smupson, C. T. Distribution of the land and fresh- water mollusks of the West-Indian region, and their evidence with regard to past changes of land and sea. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 17: 423-450, pl. 16. 1895. Swainson, Wm. A treatise on malacology. In: Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopaedia. 1840. TorRE, CARLOS DE LA, Bartscu, P., and Morrt- son, J. P. E. The cyclophorid operculate land mollusks of America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 181, 306 pp., 42 pls. 1942. WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS DISCOVERY AND ENCOURAGEMENT OF SCIENCE TALENT Michael Faraday is a prime example of the discovery of science talent. The son of a black- smith and a humble bookbinder’s apprentice, Faraday was started on his brilliant and versatile scientific career when a kindly customer at his shop, a Mr. Dance, took him to hear four lectures by Sir Humphry Davy, a great scientist of the early 1800’s. Faraday made careful notes of the lectures which he sent to Davy on the urging of Mr. Dance. Davy’s response was immediate, kind, and favorable, with the result that Faraday was hired as his laboratory assistant. In the course WiMay 1955 of time Faraday became professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, London, and made many important discoveries in chemistry, al- though he is best known for his work in electricity and magnetism. Davy himself, when asked what he regarded as his greatest scientific discovery, promptly responded—Michael Faraday. The present acute shortage of scientists has focused attention on the urgent need for recogniz- ing potential scientists among gifted young people and lending them encouragement in embarking on scientific careers. In recognition of this need, the Washington Academy of Sciences instituted in 1950 the award of Certificates of Merit to high- school graduates of the area who demonstrate especial promise by scholarship or original experi- mental work. In 1952 the Academy instituted an award for the teaching of science on a par with the awards for outstanding accomplishment in the biological, engineering, and physical sciences. Two persons have thus far been honored for the teaching of science—Howarp B. Owens, biology teacher of the Prince Georges County Schools; and Kerra C. JoHNSON, In charge of science teaching in one division of the District of Columbia Schools. This year the Board of Managers recognized a notable contribution to the discovery and en- couragement of science talent in the work of Miss Marearet E. Patrerson as Executive Secretary of Science Clubs of America, and voted Miss Patterson a Special Award of the Academy. Science Clubs of America is the activity of Science Service, which sparks, inspires, and im- plements America’s science-youth movement. Miss Patterson, as head of this organization, is the personification of the widespread interest that many thousands of persons—teachers, scientists, engineers, editors, business men, industrialists, and others—are taking in young scientists. Miss Patterson probably knows more young scientists than any other person. Many thousands who have won honors in the National Science Talent search, the National Science Fair, and local clubs and fairs have known her and she knows them, even when they meet some years after the exciting days of the contests that gave them their push toward careers in science. Science clubs now number about 15,000, with at least one in nearly every county in the United States. Miss Patterson channels to the teachers who sponsor these clubs the material and the advice and encouragement that allows them to WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS 163 counsel and inspire the science-eager youngsters in their classes. One important aid is an annual Sponsor’s Handbook for Science Clubs of America that enables any interested teacher to organize and conduct a science club. One feature of this publication is a comprehensive list of free and low-cost literature, materials, and supplies that may be used in developing science projects. Assistance of this kind means much in remote and underprivileged areas. The National Science Talent Search for the Westinghouse Science Scholarships is Miss Pat- terson’s particular charge. This significant senior- year event has just completed its fourteenth year. Forty boys and girls from all over the United States were brought to Washington for the final selection; and 260 others, including 11 from Greater Washington, were granted honorable mention. After the papers are rated in the national competition those of local contestants are made available to the Academy Committee on the Encouragement of Science Talent and are re- viewed again as the basis for selecting young people to be honored by the Academy with Cer- tificates of Merit. The Committee gives especial consideration to the originality, experimental skill, and accomplishment shown in the students’ scientific projects, and takes into account the fact that different students have widely different resources available to them. This year awards were made to the following 16 students graduating from high schools in the Greater Washington area. Eleven of these re- ceived honorable mention in the National com- petition. Their names are starred in the following list. AMBROSE, Ropert Epwin. Age 17. Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md. Project: Development of Algae of High Protein Content *GaGER, JANE Cono.tey. Age 17. Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md. Project: Measuring the Charge-Mass Ratio of the Electron *GAISER, FREDERICK JOHN. Age 17. Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, Va. Project: The Synthesis of Organic Com- pounds *GREENLEE, Hatrorp R. Age i6. Arundel High School, Gambrills, Md. Project: An Advanced Radio Receiver De- sign Harms, Carta GRETCHEN. Age 17. Oxon Hill High School, Washington, D. C. Project: A Research Study of Space-Heating Oil Furnaces 164 *Kantor, Paut Breru. Age 16. Montgomery Blair High School, Spring, Md. Project: Some Applications of Logic *Levirt, Epwarp Isaac. Age 17. Anacostia High School, Washington, D. C. Project: An Electronic Computer LicHTMAN, Puriie Ropert. Age 17. Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington, IDs Cy Project: Photography of Emission Nebulae in Hydrogen-Alpha Light and Projection Photography of the Planet Mars McANAtiy, WriiuiaAmM Jerrerson. Age 16. Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington, D.C. Project: The Evolution of My Four-Inch Refracting Telescope and the Resulting Celestial Photography *Mourpuy, Frep V., Jr. Age 16. Georgetown Prep. School, Garrett Park, Md. Project: The Attainment of High Magnifica- tion with a Telescope Objective of Rela- tively Short Focal Length *Myprs, GARDINER HuBBArp. Age 16. Western High School, Washington, D. C. Projects: (1) Spot Test Analysis, (2) A Study of Hydrofoils *PEARLSTEIN, Roper? MiutTon. Age 17. Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, Va. Project: An Analysis of the Alternating Electromagnetic Field *PLATNIK, STANLEY R. Age 18. Roosevelt High School, Washington, D. C. Project: Triode Type Effects Produced by Varying the Electrostatic Field Surround- ing an Oxide-Cathode Material Used as a Silver Symbolic Resistor SHANK, GrorGE Epwarp. Age 17. Northwestern High School, Hyattsville, Md. Project: Time-Lapse Photography *SHeAR, Davin Ben. Age 17. The Sidwell Friends School, Washington, D.C. Project: Differences in Individual Diagnoses of Color Vision Among Three Separate Testing Systems *Witson, Roperr Marron. Age 17. Montgomery Blair High School, Spring, Md. Project: An Investigation into the Possible Relationship Between Container Size and Shape and Protozoan Vitality Silver Virtually all these young people got their start in scientific activities through participation JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, NO. 5 in science fairs. In these fairs students, beginning with the first year of junior high school, exhibit projects that they themselves have developed, largely outside of school hours, with guidance and assistance from teachers and scientists of their acquaintance. These projects are judged in the light of the background of the students and the resources available to them. Many students con- tinue in one field for several years so that when they reach their senior year they have attain- ments that warrant national recognition. The first Science Fair for Washington was held in 1947 under the joint sponsorship of the District of Columbia Board of Education, and Science Service, and was financed by a grant of $500 from the American Philosophical Society through Science Service. The Academy participated through furnishing judges and presenting the awards. One year the Academy sponsored the showing of a documentary film, Kon-Tiki, as a means of raising the necessary funds for the Fair. When the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences was organized in 1952, it took over the conduct of the Science Fair. In this activity it has had the financial support of the scientific and engineering societies associated with the Academy and the D. C. Council of Architectural and Engineering Societies and the continuing sponsorship of Science Service and the Board of Education. The science-fair movement has now grown to the extent that there are many fairs in individual schools and groups of schools in the District, and nearby Maryland and Virginia. Only a fraction of the participants can now be accom- modated in the Washington Fair. Scientists and engineers affilated with the Academy and the D. C. Council work actively with the schools throughout the school year in their science programs. Many individuals of international note in their respective fields regard it as a privilege to participate in the judging of the Fair and the presentation of awards. The most significant feature of the entire program, however, is the personal acquaintance and friendship developed between gifted students and outstanding scientists. A. T. McPHERSON. ERRATUM In the March 1955 issue of the JouRNAL (this volume, p. 100) the name of our new mem- ber J. KAMPE DB FErinr was incorrectly spelled. The Editors regret the error. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences Presidente noes Seah oc ko on ee eek MarGaArReEt Pittman, National Institutes of Health Prestdent-Cleck foc som ya ck Se ea RaupH EH. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory ISRETOLOTY sone icfe Tae Ko sre Sesion eS oe eS Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health VOGSULET So. <5/<065) 5.3 Howarp S. Rappinye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) PUREREUES EE Sho Sacre eae oe aoe eae Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Indusiry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Harawtp A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidenits Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington....................... FranK M. SETzLer iBrelorical society, of Washington. .2...-...0c-.0---+-+---<:- HERBERT G. DIEGNAN @hemical Society: of Washington: (.....0082-.--6.---0e- sees Wiiiram W. WauLtTon Rmetoemolozical Society, of Washington. . 22... .cesc- ee o5ses secs sees soe F. W. Poos Wanronals Geographic SOClet yess so oa. oe accesses ade tiie ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington. ......................-... Epwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Con Walumbia Historical Society. <.0. .csctcseceeees ce greene cee GILBERT GROSVENOR Buyanicaly society, ob Washingtonen a4. sens scie ce oe oon ee S. L. EMswELLER Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorce F, Gravatr Washmeaton Society of Mngmeers. 2. -.-....2secee sees: HERBERT GROvE DorskEy Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dinu Helminthological Society of Washington. ...................... Joun 8. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... Luoyp A. BuRKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers......FLoyp W. Houecu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. DiacEs Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Ropert M. StepHan Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. ReicHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: Tha Jipmmenae OR eee eas aie rnin coe eine ace ene M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER POMERAT ODT <= «<5 a1c syoe cece Ses a eens end ve oe A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurney PROM UAINUAT AN QOS eerie Aiicse: coset ste Fe tuate es euabel eeees wesc W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaLten FS OULASOIMMENAG CTS 200 cc .siscch cca ved seen All the above officers plus the Senior Editor ERaTgRE! OFF PUGEDRS Serer teas Ree RE CICEES OCICR oe Ce oe ceca tc ere [See front cover] WETCOCUILUC (COMMIULLEE «occ... cece ec aeceesteies M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Grsson, H. Specut, H. 8S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN Committee on Membership....Rogrer W. Curtis (chairman), JoHNn W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Haroup T. Cook, JosepH J. Fanry, Francors N. FRENKIEL, PeTprR KING, Gorpon M. Kurne, Louis R. Maxwe.u, Ftorence M. Muars, Curtis W. SaBrosky, BENJAMIN ScHWaARTZ, Bancrort W. 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ForsusH, Marcarer D. Foster, M. EH. Freeman, J. K. Taynor For Teaching of Science....Monror H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. Jounson, Loutsp H. MarsHanu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwEns Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis O. Rice (chairman), Herman Branson, Cuartes K. TRuEBLOOD Committceion Policyland Planning -.--e2 66) se E. C. CrirrenpEN (chairman) U@ Hermensy WHS ooscccocnsndsooondavace E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE MRopanimary. W951: accceees bs ee beace ein cen JoHN E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER Ihe, deminenay IOS. pocunaoconnosouase: Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. Serzuer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHIBALD T. McPuerson (chairman) IO, deiiininy? IN aon os ongeeodbue bacdoep En ae Haro.p E. Finury, J. H. McMrInien Rog JamuaryylO5 to ckcle te seis eat at oe Bere ae L. Epwin Yocum, Wiuu1am J. YOUDEN PROV anUanyelODSe ye x wy meee tees wy em ee ahr A. T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education....RayMonp J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNaLp BamMFrorp, R. Percy Barnes, Wauuace R. Bropsz, LEONARD CarmicHaEL, Hucu L. DrypEen, Recina FLANNERY, RaupH E. Gipson, Fuoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Wrut1am W. Rusey, Wruiiam H. Sesreti, Waupo L. Scumrrt, B. D. Van Evera, Wiiitam E. Wratuer, FrANcrs E. JOHNSTON ingarascntinae on. Counc! Of A Al Aldo: s00centnosconsespoovesnanusssoae Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRaNcts H. Jounston, (chairman), S. D. Couurns, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers...RaLeH P. TrttstER (chairman), E.G. Hamer, J. G. TaHompson CONTENTS Editorial @ 0 ©) 8) .¢ @ 8) © ee ee © 1c © © (e = ©\1s\(0| 5\ 6 (© «(0 © © © ©, © 0 0) 0 ¢ © |» \s| 5]\e © © 0 @ © ew celleieliclsiteltslne BIocHEMISTRY.—The influence of intramuscular and oral cortisone and hydrocortisone on liver glycogen formation by DL alanine. W. C. Hess and I. P. SHAFFRAN e) [<)ce jn| e} ep ole) (9) /e) = he (s (0! (0/0 \0/)\s <0) (0| 1e) 0! 0) (0) (6) ol lvilelhelicliolelelalate ZooLtogy.—TIwo new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Fran- cisco Bay. R. B. Ciark and Merrepits L. Jonrs Mammatocy.—New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR silo) Je) Jeijie/il a) ie) 6) (ev ie\e)fe iets! slime, le) Jefis\ elle /elie\lsl(e) e\elle) el e)leiieilielielelleliel sel sit>MemeMaMclisite MatacoLtogy.—Notes on American cyclophoroid land snails, with two new names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family Amphicyclotidae, separated on animal characters. J. P. E. Mor- 134 135 143 147 Vou. 45 JuNE 1955 No. 6 JOURNAL \ lpr aY OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. 1. HorFMAN BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B Cowie PHILIP DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DuNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY oO PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuILForD AVEs. Battimorp, MarRYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JoURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JoURNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years.. Manuscripis may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Rappers, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 JUNE 1955 No. 6 ANNOUNCEMENT OF ELECTION OF EDITOR From time to time special committees have studied ways and means whereby the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences could better serve its members. Last year a new committee was appointed by President Defandorf. Under the chairman- ship of Dr. Frank L. Campbell a compre- hensive study was made. As an outgrowth, the Academy recently voted to change Article III, Section 5, of the Bylaws. This provides means whereby there could be con- tinuity in the offices of the Editor and three Associate Editors. In order to provide time for the selection of a new Board of Editors and also for this Board to formulate new plans for the Jour- nal, an interim Board of Editors, appointed under the old bylaw, with Dr. Richard K. Cook as Senior Editor, is editing the Journal for 1955. The latter Board is putting into effect certain recommendations of the Camp- bell committee. Their plans were set forth in the May issue. The new Board, however, will have freedom to develop and submit to the Board of Managers any policy it so desires. At the meeting of the Board of Managers, April 19, 1955, Dr. Chester H. Page was elected Editor of the Journal. Dr. Page and the three associates to be elected will assume responsibilities of the editing of the Journal with the January number for 1956. We look forward with anticipation to a Journal that will be of scientific interest to all members of the Academy. With this note, Dr. Page is submitting some of his plans for the Journal. Maraarer Pirrman, President MESSAGE FROM THE EDITOR-ELECT Although I do not assume editorial re- sponsibility until several months hence, I welcome this opportunity to make known my philosophy and request the support of potential authors. I feel that the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences is the property of the Academy members and is their representa- tive in the scientific world. The content of the Journal should reflect the professional achievement level of Academy membership and the diversity of scientific endeavor. The property right carries both privilege and responsibility. One privilege of Academy members 1s prompt publication of short research papers and preliminary announcement of dis- coveries. The correctness of such papers is the authors’ responsibility. Editorial review will be for suitability and value. The main responsibility of members is to promote their Journal. This implies the contribution of papers that will interest the reader, not the author alone. Economic competition and the modern emphasis on efficiency have led to more and more specialization, with the result that we have few ‘scientists,’ but many specialists in very narrow phases of science. The lack of generalists and the lack of effective com- munication between specialists of different faith have been an administrative annoyance in many institutions. From the Academy viewpoint, it tends to make the Academy a collection of societies, rather than a society in itself. More cross-fertilization and educa- tion are needed. It is trite to say that our highly specialized scientists are frequently uneducated, but it is unfortunately true. For example, geneticists and quantum mechanical physicists have much in common in their philosophy and methods, yet few of them realize it, and even fewer ever read any of the other’s papers. It is true that we have borderline and two-discipline fields, such as biochemistry, the physics of viruses, etec., but we need papers on the elements and 165 JUL 13 1955 166 methods of various sciences that will be interesting to specialists in other branches. It is an Academy responsibility to foster its own education. When we begin to under- stand what the other fellow is doing, and why, then will we be scientists. Part of the social obligation imphed by the above paragraph can be fulfilled by dis- semination of swtable news of scientific activity in the Washington area, and part of it by publication of summaries of general interest papers delivered before the Academy or its member societies, but most of the ful- fillment will depend upon the successful solicitation of appropriate papers from our members. In keeping with the above philosophy, I shall publish research papers as research papers, long or short. The number and length of unreviewed short research papers JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6 may have to be limited for budgetary rea- sons. The exact policy will be dictated by ex- perience. Normal length research papers will be subject to standard referee procedure, and no guarantee of publication is offered. Papers in the physical sciences are especially sought, to balance the Journal content with the pro- portionate member interest. The scientific news column initiated by the present editors will be continued as long as reader response warrants. Any corre- spondence from readers that seems to be of general interest, will be published in an occasional ‘Correspondence’ section. Al- though this section may be blank for long periods, its existence offers a forum for dis- cussions of general interest; here, too, your editor has the responsibility for inclusion or deletion. CHESTER H. PAGE MATHEMATICS.—Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation for large values of the parameter. GERTRUDE BLANcH, Wright Air Development Center, and Ipa RuHopks, National Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by R. K. Cook.) (Received February 28, 1955) This paper is dedicated to Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, whose sympathetic encouragement and generosity of spirit gave the much needed impetus to mathematical computing in this country. 1. BASIC EQUATIONS AND SCOPE OF TABULATION The present work completes the tabula- tion of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation, for orders r less than or equal to 15, and supplements the tables published! in [5]. For ease of reference, basic definitions and formulas that will be required subse- quently are given below. Detailed deriva- tions and historic background can be found in [3] and [4]. Mathieu’s equation can be written in the form (1.10) y” + (b — scosx)y = 0. For a fixed value of s, there exists a count- ably infinite sequence of characteristic values b, corresponding to which the solutions y are periodic, and of period a or 27. The set 1 Numbers in brackets refer to items in the bibliography. of characteristic values giving rise to even periodic solutions of the form in a) (r) Daas i >> A$? cos 2nax; n=0 (GD) (1.12) y = D> ASy cos (Qn + 1a n=0 will be denoted by be,(s), r = 0, I, 2, --: Similarly, the characteristic values giving rise to odd periodic solutions of the form fo ¢) > ee y = DL Bs sin 2nz: n=() (1.13) Cie) oy = yy BS”,, sin (Qn + 1)a n=0 will be denoted by bo,(s). When no am- biguity is likely to arise, the superscript attached to the coefficients will be dropped, for the sake of simplicity. The coefficients in (1.11)—(1.14) satisfy JUNE 1955 3-term recurrence relations, and the char- acteristic values are therefore conveniently obtained by means of continued fractions. Let us define the following: Vn = (4b — 2s — 4m?)/s ; Gen = A m A m—2 5 GO, = Be Bees ; (1.15) where b = be,(s) or bo,(s). Further, wherever the same formulas apply to both Ge,, and Go, , both will be denoted by G,,. The following can be readily verified: 2 (1.16) Ga=Ve; Ga=V-@ (elierGe,;—V;—1; Go, =Vit1 (1.18) 1/Goz = 0; Gos = Ve. For all four types (1.19) Gms = Vn -7 : m > A. It follows that each G,,, is expressible by two types of continued fractions, namely one in terms of G,,4; (type 2) and the other in terms of Gre, k > O (type 1). The continued fraction of type 2 can be written as follows: 1 Eee Va — Cu (1.20) if! if iL Wes ae V mie = Wim mee When sg is small with respect to 7, the characteristic values can be computed from a relatively simple power series in s, [3], [4], [5]. Similarly, when s is large with re- spect to 7, the following asymptotic formula is available: ber(s) © dorils) & v/a — E EY i (v° + 37) EK (5v' + 34y° + 9) Le VE ig ) where vy = 27 + 1. The most extensive table of characteristic values now available is that given in [5| for r < 15 and s < 100. An examination of the tables show that for s in the neighbor- hood of 100, (1.21) yields about five deci- (Pa) BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 167 mals, when r = O or 1, and gives progres- sively poorer results for large orders; when r is larger than 8, it is not possible to obtain even the first significant figure from (1.21). In view of the importance of the character- istic values, the present table is now being made available. From it the characteristic values of orders no higher than 15 can be obtained for any value of s between 100 and o. An inspection of (1.21) suggests that for large values of s the parameter t = 1/+/s might be a useful one; it was therefore chosen as the independent variable for this table. Moreover, since b becomes infinite with v/s, the function to be tabulated should be one that is finite at s = «©, and is simply related to b. The functions chosen are defined below: (1.22) Be,(t) = be,(s) — v1v/s ; b= 2/8, mm = Bre Il (1.23) Bo,(t) = bo,(s) — v2v/s ; 2p = Ale I V2 2. ACCURACY OF ENTRIES The values in [5] are given to eight dec- imals, at intervals of the argument small enough to permit interpolation to about the same accuracy by Everett’s formula stop- ping with second modified differences. Ideally it would have been desirable to give a similar tabulation for the range covered here, but the attainment of such an objective would have necessitated doubling the size of the present table. The chief aim of the authors was to produce a tabulation that showed the behavior of the character- istic functions over the entire range of s beyond 100 (¢ < 0.1). For this purpose the scope of the present tables seemed adequate. The intervals have been reduced to the point where interpolation with second and fourth modified? central differences, in conjunction with Everett’s formula, will give the fullest attainable accuracy. For a few functions of 2The modified second and fourth differences are defined as follows: 6* = 6% — 0.184 64 ; 6** =5* — 0.20697 5°. They are used exactly like ordinary central dif- ferences in interpolation. 168 low order fourth differences are unnecessary ; the latter are given wherever they are re- quired. Although eight decimals are given in the entries, the last place is not everywhere re- hable. The method of computation was such that for t < 0.01 only six decimals could be guaranteed. [It should be noted that when t = 0.008, an accuracy of six decimals in Be,(t) or Bo,(t) means an accuracy of nine or ten significant figures in be,(s) and bo,(s), respectively.| An examination of the entries revealed that the seventh decimal place, while not completely reliable in this range, is In error by at most two units for the first few entries, and that the accuracy improves as t increases. For values of ¢ greater than or equal to 0.01, the entries should be correct to eight decimals. However, since the method of checking the table was by differencing it, a random error of two units in the eighth decimal place could have escaped detection. For this reason the eighth decimal is to be considered reliable only to within two units for t = 0.01 and is completely uncertain for smaller values of ¢. It was deemed best not to cut the number of places to those that could be fully guaranteed. An examination of (1.21) shows that Bo,4,1(t) approaches Be,(t) for sufficiently small t. The functions Bo,(t) and Be,(t) were generated independently for all values of ¢. The range where Bo,(t) agreed with Be,_1(t) to eight decimals was then discarded, in order not to duplicate tabulations. The reader is therefore reminded that, when seeking Bo,(t) for an argument t < ¢, , where i, is the first entry in the table of Bo,(t), he can find the entry in the table of Be,_1(t), by inspection or by interpolation. Moreover, for t > 0.1, the table in [5] is fully adequate. At the beginning of each table, a few central differences were obtained by ex- trapolation. Interpolation in this region may be slightly less accurate in the last place, because of the extrapolated differ- ences. However, since the eighth decimal place is itself uncertain for small values of t, the added error is immaterial. 3. ASYMPTOTIC PROPERTIES At s = 0, the periodic solutions are y = C1 COS 7X, OF Y = Cy sin rx, where c; and C2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 are constants depending only on the nor- malization desired. Thus the only non-zero coefficient of the trigonometric series for y, at s = 0, is A, or B,. For relatively small values of s, the coefficients A, imerease in magnitude with 7 up to the r* coefficient; thereafter they steadily decrease numeri- cally. This is not true for the larger values of s. Consider the function bes,(s) and the periodic solution associated with it. From the definition of V,, in (1.15), we have A>/ Ao = Ges S Vo (3.10) ~ V/s In the above, be,(s) has been replaced by vv/s from (1.21). Thus for sufficiently large s,| Ao| & 2A, . Similarly, 2 Aly Ale = G4 = V2 ain? G, (321) aie 6 Se a + 0(1/s). Hence | Gy | < 1, and for sufficiently large s, all ratios G, are numerically less than unity when k is greater than 4. Thus A> is the largest coefficient numerically in the trig- onometric series expression for y. This property is already evident from the coef- ficients tabulated in [5]. Thus for the func- tion of order four, at s = 100, A» (and not A) is the numerically largest coefficient. Similarly it can be shown that | B, | is the largest coefficient of the set for sufficiently large values of s. One might be tempted to conjecture that similar properties hold for the even solutions of period 27 and for the odd solutions of period m—that is, that either the first or the second coefficient of the set is the largest one numerically. The conjecture might be strengthened by the fact that at s = 100 and r = 5, | A3|/is indeed the largest numerical coefficient. However, some of the auxiliary computa- tions performed in conjunction with the present tabulation show that the conjecture is a false one. For a fixed ¢, the coefficients of the trigonometric series can be divided into three subsequences. In the first one, the ratios G, , Gero, °°: , Gm,—2 are numerically JUNE 1955 equal to or greater than unity, with k = 2, 3, or 4, depending on the type of solution that is under discussion. Then follows an intermediate subsequence in which G,,, is the first G; that is numerically less than one, and succeeding G; may be of any magnitude, and even infinite. In this range the coef- ficients 4; and B; can go through zero. The last subsequence consists of the range where all G, are numerically less than unity. It is clear that in the first subsequence, A,,,,-2 or B,,-2 is the numerically largest coefficient. There may conceivably be some coefh- cient in the intermediate range that is larger in absolute value, although this is not likely. The remarkable fact is that for very large values of s, A; is not the largest coefficient for even solutions of period 27; neither is | B, | or | By | the largest coefficient for odd solutions of period 7. The computing routine incorporated provisions for reading out, from time to time, the value of m, associated with G,,, (the first G; in the inter- mediate subsequence). We present below a part of the record for Be,(t) listing ¢ and corresponding value of m, — 2. t Mo — 2 002 23 004 15 006 13 -008 11 010 9 Another interesting asymptotic property can be tested from the entries published here. Meixner [4] gives the following? formula: bo,+1(s) — be,(s) = Bo,41(t) a Be,(t) (3.12) ZS V, 2 opr t(7/2) Sr+(B/4) -—2V5 77 ——a aE ) where 2 Z ft Sa se ee a 16+/s Clearly it is impossible to test the formula in a region where Bo,,;(t) is equal to Be,(t) to eight decimal places. However, the formula can be tested in other regions. Some 3 Meixner’s notation is different from the one used here. BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 169 cases are given below: Roru(l) — Pe;(t) r | t oie By Meixner’s (3.12) True value GN) sa 00000 026 | 00000 026 Oi) sR] .6900? 173 .00002 168 0 | 25 02158 02134 ® | 36533 34489 eee eG .00001 S98 00001 896 I 5 44818 42887 2 080 09091 953 00001 987 2 096 .00060 978 00062 591 2 125 02538 02666 3 064 .00000 286 | 00090 304 .096 .01002 01220 4 059 00000 005 .00000 007 060 =| 00001 099 00001 347 4 .072 .00073 00108 5 048 00000 024 00000 024 Sees O60 00011 00026 Gian | es048 00600 162 .09009 684 7 .040 00000 O14 -00009 017 It is to be noted that for 7 = 0, Meixner’s approximation is very good, even for large values of t, some in fact outside the range of the present table. As 7 increases, the agree- ment of (3.12) with the true value becomes poorer, and at r = 7, not even the order of magnitude is correct. Much more remains to be done in the way of obtaining a satis- factory asymptotic expansion for the charac- teristic functions, perhaps in terms of the parameters vt and »v, rather than ¢ and v. It is hoped that the accessibility of the present table will stimulate further study of the problem. 4. METHOD OF COMPUTATION AND CHECKING OF MANUSCRIPT The values were computed on SKAC from the continued fractions (1.16) and (1.20), as outlined in [1] and [2]. The values printed out by SEAC were later recorded on IBM ecards and differenced. Doubtful entries were recomputed on SEAC, and the regions where errors had occurred were re- differenced by hand. (There were only a few errors.) The printer’s galleys were carefully proofread against the final manuscript. Much help has been obtained from col- leagues with the checking of the manuscript 170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES by differencing and in supplying modified differences near the beginning of each table. It would be difficult to mention everyone who had a hand in producing these tables, but special thanks are due to Dr. Dan Teichroew and Mr. Albert Rosenthal, who differenced the manuscript on an IBM tabulator, and to Miss Elizabeth Godefroy, who helped with computations on a desk calculator. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Buancu, GerrrRupDE. On the computation of VOL. 45, NO. 6 Standards MT37 (Reissued April 1950; published originally in Journ. Math. and Phys., Feb. 1946.) [2] — . Programming for finding the character- istic values of Mathieu's equation and the spheroidal wave equation. Proc. Electronic Computer Symposium, IRE, Los Angeles, April-May 1952. {3] McLacuian, N. W. Theory and application of Mathieu functions. Oxford, 1947; reprinted 1951. [4] Mrerxner, J. AND ScHAFKE, F. W. Mathieusche Funktionen und Sphdroidfunktionen. Berlin, 1954. [5] NatronaL BurEAU OF STANDARDS. Tables re- lating to Mathieu functions. Columbia Univ. Mathieu functions. National Bureau of Press, New York, 1951. CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION y + (6 — s cosx) y = 0 Definitions Even periodic solutions, of period z or 27, are associated with b = be,(s). Odd periodic solutions, of period z or 27, are associated with b = bo,(s) Be,(t) = be,(s) — (2r + 1)V/s, s=1/¢ Bo,(t). =) bo;(s) =r = 1)x/s, s = 1/2 lim Be,(t) = lim Bo,4(t) = — [(2r +1)’ + 1]/8 t=0 t=0 Tas iE 1. Values of Be,(t) Index r | Range of Page | = | On| 0(.002)0.1 171 1 | 0(.002)0.1 171 | 0(.002)0.1 172 3 | 0(.002)0.1 172 4. | 0(.002)0.1 173 a] 0(.002)0.088 (.001)0.1 173 6 0(.002)0.064(.001)0.1 174 q | 0(.002)0.046(.001)0.1 174 S| 0(.002)0.040(.001 )0.062 (.0005)0.076 (.001)0.1 175 9 | 0(.002)0.034(.001)0.050(.0005)0.076(.001)0.1 176 10 | 0(.002)0.030(.001)0.045(.0005)0.076 (.001)0.1 177 TAL 0(.002)0.026 (.001)0.037 (.0005)0.070(.001)0.1 178 Wa 0(.002)0.022 (.001 )0.033 (.0005 )0.043 (.00025)0.052 (.0005)0.065(.001)0.1 180 13 | 0(.002)0.018(.001)0.030(.0005)0.037 (.00025)0.051 (.0005)0.064(.001)0.1 181 14 | 0(.002)0.014(.001)0.027 (.0005)0.034 (.00025)0.050(.0005 )0.062(.001)0.1 183 15 | 0(.002)0.012(.001)0.026(.0005)0.032 (.00025)0.049(.0005)0.061(.001)0.1 185 For t > 0.1 (i.e. for s < 100), see tables be,(s) in Tables Relating to Mathiew Functions, National Bureau of Standards. Columbia University Press, New York, 1951. JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION TABLE 1. Characteristic Values Be,(t) i Ben(!) 62* | l Reo(t) 6* 0.000 | —0.25000000 38 | O05) | —O.oRpanIg Nag “002 — _25012518 38 | .052 | —.25338461 245 “004 — 125025074 —39 (054 | —.25352052 = 45 006 — .25037669 —38 | .056 | —.25365688 —46 “008 — 25050302 —39 | 058 | —.25379370 7; 0.010 | —0.25062974 —38 | 0.060 | —0.25393098 —46 ‘012 — |25075684 —39 | ‘062 | —.25406872 —47 014 — (25088433 —40 | 064 | —.25420693 47 016 — (25101222 —39 066 | —.25434562 _48 ‘O18 — 125114050 —40 | 068 | —.25448478 _48 0.020 | —0.25126918 —40 | 0.070 | —0.25462442 —48 022 — 125139826 —40 | .072 | —.25476454 —49 024 — (25152774 =41 | ‘074 | —.25490515 749 026 — (25165763 —4 | .076 | —.25504625 —50 “028 = (25178793 —4] 078 | —.25518785 —50 0.030 | —0.25191865 _42 0.080 | —0.25532994 —50 “032 — 25204978 —42 082 | —.25547254 ari 034 | =.25218132 —42 084 | —.25561565 —51 036. | — .25231329 —42 086 | —.25575927 —52 038 | —.25244569 = 43 | 088 — | 25590341 —52 0.040 | —0.25257851 | —43 0.090 | —0.25604808 —53 042 | 25971176 | —43 092 | —.25619328 ay 044 | — 25984545 244 094 | —.25633901 _55 046 | —.25297958 —44 096 | —.25648530 —56 048 | —.25311414 —44 098 — (25663214 Ly 0.050 | —0.25321915 | —45 0.100 | —0.25677955 —58 | 1 Pei(t) | 62* t Bei(t) ee | 0.000 | —1.25000000 —565 0.050 | —1.28005681 ~752 foo2 | 1.25112781 | —570 052 | —1.28134796 2761 (004 | —1.25226132 | —575 054 | —1.28264673 rl 006 | —1.25340058 | —581 056 | —1.28395321 —781 008 | —1.25454565 | —587 (058 | —1.28526750 ~792 0.010 | —1.25569658 | —594 0.060 | —1.28658972 —802 012 | —1.25685345 | —600 062 | —1.28791995 —813 014 | —1.25801632 | —607 064 | —1.28925832 —824 016 | —1.25918526 | —614 ‘066 | —1.29060493 —836 018 | —1.26036033 | —620 068 | —1.29195990 = 347 0.020 | —1.26154161 —627 0.070 | —1.29332334 —860 022 | —1.26272917 | —635 072 | —1.29460538 —872 024 | —1.26392307 | —642 074 | —1.29607614 —885 026 | —1.26512340 | —650 076 | —1.29746576 —899 028 | —1.26633022 | —657 078 | —1.29886437 =914 0.030 | —1.26754361 | —665 0.080 | —1.30027212 —930 032 “| —1.26876365 | —673 082 | —1.39168917 —947 034 | —1.26999042 | —681 084 | —1.30311570 —967 losene |) i27122400 | “Eso 086 | —1.30455189 —989 f038 || =1.27246447 | 607 088 | —1.30599798 | —1014 0.040 | =1.27371191 —706 0.090 | —1.30745422 | —1043 042 | —1.27496641 LAG 092 | —1.30892089 | —1077 (044 | —1.27629806 | —724 094 | —1.31030833 | —1116 046 | —1.27749695 | —733 096 | —1.31188696 | —1163 Kos) |) 2127877317 |) 2742 098 | —1.31338722 | —1218 0.050 | —1.28005681 ~752 0.100. | —1.31489969 | —1283 WAZ, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 TaBLeE 1—Continued t Bea(t) 6’* t Bex(t) 62* 0.000 —3. 25000000 —31138 0.050 —3.37050707 — 4726 .002 —3.25439064 — 3159 .052 —3.37586291 —4818 004 —3.25881287 — 3206 .054 —3.38126695 — 4913 .006 —3. 26326716 — 3255 .056 —3.38672012 — 5011 .008 —3.26775401 — 3305 .058 —3.39222340 —5113 0.010 —3.27227390 — 3356 0.060 —3.39777782 — 5218 .O12 —3.27682735 — 3408 . 062 —3.40338443 — 5327 .O14 —3.28141489 — 3462 064 —3.40904432 — 5441 .016 —3.28603705 —3517 .066 —3.41475863 — 5561 .018 —3.29069438 — 3573 .068 —3.42052856 — 5687 0.020 —3.29538745 — 3631 0.070 —3.42635538 — 5822 .022 —3.30011683 — 3691 072 —3.43224044 — 5967 .024 —3.30488313 — 3752 O74 —3.438818519 — 6128 .026 —3.30968695 —3815 .076 —3.44419127 — 6307 .028 —3.31452892 — 3879 .O78 —3.45026046 — 6512 0.080 —3.31940969 — 3946 0.080 —3.45639483 — 6750 .032 —3.32482992 —4014 082 —3.46259679 — 7030 034 —3.32929030 — 4084 084 —3.46886914 — 7363 .036 —3.38429151 — 4156 .O86 —3.47521524 —7763 .038 —3.33933429 — 4230 O88 —3.48163912 — 8243 0.040 —3.34441988 — 4307 0.090 —3.48814561 — 8821 .042 —3.34954755 — 4386 .092 —3.49474053 —9514 044 —3.35471957 — 4467 094 —3.50143083 — 10339 .046 —3.35993627 — 4551 .096 —3.50822480 —11317 .048 —3.36519848 — 4637 098 —3.51513226 — 12466 0.050 —3.37050707 —4726 0.100 —3.52216473 — 138805 t Be3(t) 62* t Bes(t) 62 64* 0.000 —6. 25000000 — 10680 0.052 —6.58939211 — 19310 .002 —6. 26142878 — 10894 054 —6.60458739 — 19855 004 — 6. 27296651 —11111 .056 —6.61998129 — 20428 .006 —6. 28461535 — 11329 .058 —6.63557952 — 21031 .008 —6.29637750 — 11556 .060 —6.651388138 — 21671 0.010 —6.30825523 —11793 0.062 —6.66741354 — 22355 .012 —6.32025091 — 12035 064 —6.68366260 — 23095 014 —6.33236695 — 12287 .066 —6.70014275 — 23911 .016 —6.34460588 — 12547 .068 —6.71686220 — 24828 O18 —6.35697030 —12815 .070 —6.73383018 — 25884 0.020 —6.36946288 — 13093 0.072 —6.75105737 — 27130 .022 —6.38208640 — 13380 074 —6.76855633 — 28631 024 —6.39484375 — 13678 .076 —6.78634223 — 30470 .026 —6.40773790 — 13987 .078 —6.80443363 — 32745 .028 —6.42077195 — 14807 . 080 —6.82285351 — 35572 0.0380 —6.43394908 — 14639 .032 —6.44727263 — 14984 0.080 —6.82285351 — 35698 — 683 .034 —6.46074604 — 15342 082 —6.84163037 — 39236 — 826 .036 —6.47437290 — 15714 084 —6.86079959 — 43601 —976 .038 —6.48815692 —16101 .086 —6.88040481 — 48942 —1127 0.040 —6.50210198 — 16504 0.088 —6.90049947 — 55410 —1272 042 —6.51621211 — 16923 .090 —6.92114822 — 63146 — 1403 044 —6.538049150 — 17360 .092 —6.94242843 — 72281 —1511 .046 —6.54494454 —17816 094 —6.96443145 — 82920 — 1587 .048 —6.55957577 — 18292 .096 —6.98726367 —95138 — 1622 0.050 —6.57488997 — 18790 0.098 —7.01104727 — 108969 — 1607 .052 —6.58939211 — 19310 .100 —7.03592056 — 124395 — 15387 M In Be,(t) the values of 6? have been modified for ¢ ranging from 0.052 to 0.080. JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIBU’S EQUATION TaBLE 1—Continued t Bea(t 52 i Bea(t) | 82 oie 0.000 —10. 25000000 — 27824 0.054 —11.01847009 — 62292 .002 —10.27376498 — 28464 .056 —11.053857619 — 64847 O04 —10.29781468 — 29151 .058 —11.08933122 — 67644 006 —10.32215597 — 29877 .060 —11.12576330 —70766 008 —10.34679608 —30635 .062 —11.16290391 — 74343 0.010 —10.37174259 —31418 0.064 —11.20078916 — 78569 .012 —10.39700335 — 32235 O14 —10.42258652 — 33086 .016 —10.44850062 — 33974 0.064 —11.20078916 — 78743 —927 .018 —10.47475452 — 34899 .066 —11.23946185 — 83969 — 13809 0.020 —10.50135748 — 35865 0.068 —11.27897423 —90527 —1807 -022 —10.52831917 —36875 .070 —11.31939188 —98917 — 2426 .024 —10.55564969 —37930 072 —11.36079869 — 109756 —3161 .026 —10.58335960 — 39035 074 —11.40330307 — 123775 —3989 -028 —10.61145996 — 40192 076 —11.44704520 — 141794 —4873 0.030 —10.63996234 — 41405 0.078 —11.49220526 — 164686 — 5759 .032 —10.668S7889 — 42679 O80 —11.53901218 — 193322 — 6574. .034 —10.69822234 — 44016 082 —11.58775232 — 228499 — 7232 .036 —10.72800608 — 45423 084 —11.63877745 — 270853 —7631 .038 —10.75824418 | —46903 086 —11.69251111 — 320762 —7657 0.040 —10.78895146 — 48464 0.088 —11.74945238 — 378225 —7192 -042 —10.82014355 —50111 .090 —11.81017591 — 442754 —6112 044 —10.85183691 —51851 .092 —11.87532698 — 513245 — 4304 046 —10.88404897 — 53692 094 —11.94561050 — 587874 — 1682 048 —10.91679815 | —55644 .096 —12.02177276 — 664012 1794. 0.050 —10.95010400 | —57717 0.098 —12.10457513 —738191 6085 .052 —10.98398727 | —59926 .100 —12.19475942 — 806154 11039 t Bes(t) | 62 ote t Bes(t) 2 ote | 0.000 —15.25900090 — 69385 —30 0.050 —16.56743795 —151835 —732 .002 —15.29292998 — 62172 —55 .052 —16.63459395 — 159898 — 967 004 —15.33648169 — 64017 —79 054. —16.70334893 — 168963 — 1367 .006 —15.38867356 — 65942 —93 056 —16.77379354 —179451 — 2031 008 —15.42552485 — 67959 —100 .058 —16.84603265 — 192049 —3076 0.010 —15.47105574 —70077 —104 0.060 —16.92919225 — 207827 — 4630 -012 —15.51728740 — 72299 —115 062 —16.99643012 — 228360 — 6801 .014 —15.56424204 | —74636 —120 064 —17.07495159 — 255832 —9650 .016 —15.61194305 —77093 —131 066 —17.15603137 — 293082 | —13147 .018 —15.66041499 —79681 —140 .068 —17.24004198 —343575 | —17142 0.020 —15.70968373 — 82410 —151 0.070 —17.32748833 —411244 | —21334 .022 —15.75977658 — 85289 —164 .072 —17.41904713 —500179 | —25240 .024 —15.81072231 | —88332 —177 074 —17.51560771 —614147 | —28185 .026 —15.86255137 —91552 —191 .076 —17.61830977 —755909 | —29283 .028 —15.91529595 — 94964 — 208 .078 —17.72857092 — 926344 | —27453 0.030 —15.96899017 — 98583 —227 0.080 —17.84809551 — 1123376 | —21478 .032 —16.02367023 — 102429 — 246 082 —17.97885385 —1340797 | —10162 .034 —16.07937457 — 106522 — 269 084 —18.12302018 — 1567137 7343 .036 —16.13614414 — 110886 —295 .086 —18.28285787 —1784921 31019 038 —16.19402257 — 115546 —325 .088 —18.46054477 — 1970806 59336 0.040 | —16.25305645 — 120532 —359 .042 —16.31329566 — 125878 —398 0.088 —18.46054477 — 493629 3706 044 — 16.37479365 — 131624 —445 089 —18.55668240 —511969 4632 046 —16.43760788 — 137818 — 506 .090 —18.65793973 — 525682 5537 .048 —16.50180029 — 144524 — 593 .091 —18.76445387 — 533872 6374. In Be,(t) the values of & have been modified for ¢ ranging from 0.054 to 0.064. 174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 45, NO. 6 TaBLE 1—Continued t Bes(t) 82 6s t Bes(t) 82 oi* 0.091 —18.76445387 — 533872 6374 0.096 —19.37638388 — 468115 7913 092 —18.87630673 — 535712 7094 097 —19.51372569 — 431465 7471 093 —18.99351671 — 530493 7647 .098 —19.65538217 — 387397 6777 O94 —19.11603162 — 517669 7989 .099 —19.89091260 — 336597 5854 .095 — 19. 24372321 — 496907 8084 100 —19.94980901 — 279976 4775 t Bes(t) 82 61* t Bes(t) 82 ait 0.000 — 21. 25009000 —116101 —215 0.065 — 24. 55055908 — 269921 — 4980 002 —21.32046179 — 120043 — 225 .066 — 24 63418937 — 305137 — 5393 . 004 — 21.39212402 — 124210 — 237 .067 — 2472087104 — 345724 — 5699 .006 — 21.46502833 — 128614 —251 .068 —24.81100994 —391977 — 5848 008 —21.53921879 — 133270 — 267 .069 — 24 90506862 — 444033 — 5782 0.010 —21.61474195 — 1388194 — 289 0.070 — 25.00356762 — 501812 — 5434 012 —21.69164705 — 143408 —319 071 —25.10708475 — 564953 — 4734. .014 —21.76998623 — 148940 —341 072 —25.21625140 — 632739 — 3608 .016 —21.84981480 —154815 —374 .073 — 25.33174545 — 704032 —1989 .018 —21.93119153 — 161065 —407 074. —25.45427982 — 777203 173 0.020 —22.01417890 — 167722 — 446 0.075 — 2558458622 —850085 2901 .022 — 22.09884350 — 174827 —489 .076 — 25.72339347 —919958 6167 024 — 22.18525636 — 182422 — 537 077 — 25.87140030 — 983574 9883 .026 —22.27349345 — 190555 —593 .078 — 26 .02924287 — 1037253 13882 .028 — 22.36363609 — 199283 —655 .079 —26.19745797 — 1077044 17917 0.030 — 22.45577156 — 208668 —727 0.080 — 26 .37644351 — 1098980 21664 .032 —22.54999371 — 218783 —810 .081 — 26. 56641884 — 1099387 24756 .034 — 22.64640370 — 229711 —905 .082 — 26.76738805 — 1075247 26829 .036 — 22.74511079 — 241547 —1016 .083 — 26.97910974 — 1024546 27581 .038 — 22.84623335 — 254403 —1146 084 — 27 .20107687 — 946568 26829 0.040 —22.94989994 — 268411 —1302 0.085 — 27 .43250969 — 842069 24556 .042 — 23 .05625064 — 283731 —1499 086 — 27 .67236319 —713289 20924 044 —23.16543866 — 300568 —1773 .087 —27.91934959 — 563797 16250 .046 — 23 .27763236 —319215 — 2209 .088 —28.17197396 — 398183 10952 .048 —23.39301821 — 340146 —2981 .089 — 28 .42858015 — 221653 5483 0.050 — 23.51180553 — 364198 — 4396 0.090 — 28 .68740287 — 39594 258 052 — 23.63423483 — 392883 —6927 091 — 28 .94662153 142838 — 4394 054 — 23 .76059296 — 428856 —11197 092 — 2920441181 321034 — 8257 056 —23.89123965 — 476521 —17883 .093 —29.45899174 491152 | —11235 :058 — 2402665155 — 542666 — 27543 094 —29.70866016 650216 | —13326 0.060 —24.16749011 — 636975 — 40347 0.095 — 29 .95182642 796119 | —14606 .062 —24.31469842 —772125 — 55758 .096 —30.18703149 §27558 | —15194 064 —24.46962799 —963181 —72180 097 —30.41296097 1048919 | —15226 .098 -—30.62845127 1145140 | —14842 .099 —30.83249018 1231579 | —14168 0.064 — 2446962799 — 239671 — 4503 0.100 — 31 .02421328 1303891 | —13309 t Bex(t) 62 ae t Bez(t) 82 6i* 0.000 — 28 . 25000000 — 203754 —443 0.020 — 29 43582156 —312677 —1164 002 — 28 .35790683 — 211758 —488 .022 — 2956949480 — 328454 —1297 004 — 28 .46793124 — 220250 — 535 024. —29.70645258 — 345533 — 1453 .006 —28.58015815 — 229279 — 588 .026 —29.84686570 —364070 — 1633 008 — 28 .69467785 — 238898 —649 .028 — 2999091952 — 384247 — 1844 0.010 —28.81158653 — 249165 —707 0.030 —30.13881580 — 406275 —2091 012 — 28. 93098687 — 260141 —776 032 —30.29077484 — 430404 — 2385 .014 — 29.05298861 — 271896 — 856 .034 —30.44703792 — 456930 — 2735 .016 —29.17770932 — 284508 —944 .036 —30.60787030 — 486208 —3158 .018 — 29. 30527510 — 298068 —1047 .038 —30.77356476 — 518666 — 3682 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 7/5) TABLE 1—Continued Bex(t) rE a t Be;(t) 8 aut 0.040 —30. 94444588 — 554848 — 43875 0.071 —35.22625220 | —2055385 59360 042 —31.12087548 | — 595489 | — 5423 .072 —35.52042922 | —2066771 71507 044 —31.30325998 — 641744 | — 7283 .073 —35.83527395 | —2007554 79203 046 —31.49206191 | — 695684 — 10931 O74 —36.17019423 | —1870378 80708 O75 —36.52381827 | —1653892 75213 0.046 —31.49206191 — 173745 —692 || 0.076 —36.89398124 | —13863503 63160 047 —31.58903408 — 181448 — S882 I 077 —37.27777924 | —1010941 46181 .048 —31.68782068 —190039 —1145 || .O78 —37.67168665 | — 612716 26672 -049 —31.78850767 —199798 —15083 || .079 — 38 .07172122 — 187834 7170 .050 —31.89119264 — 211085 —1980 || .O80 — 38 .47363412 244625 — 10217 0.051 | —31.99598846 | — 224383 — 2602 0.081 —38.87310078 667549 — 24149 .052 | —82.10302811 — 240316 — 3391 .082 —39.26589196 1067118 — 34108 053 | —32.21247092 — 259680 — 4367 .083 —39.64801195 1433352 — 40248 -054 | —32.32451053 | — 283450 — 5540 084 —40.01579842 1760001 — 431438 055 : —32.43938464 | —312800| —6908 085 | —40.36598488 | 2044020 | —43555 | : | 0.056 | —382.55738676 | — 349093 — 8452 0.086 — 40 .69573114 2284845 — 42248 .057 | —32.67887980 | — 393864 —10129 .O87 —41.00262895 2483646 — 39884. .058 —32.80431149 | — 448775 —11865 -O88 —41.28469030 2642681 — 36978 .059 | —832.93423092 — 515537 — 13549 -089 — 41 .54032485 2764781 — 33891 .060 | —33.06930573 | — 595804 — 15026 .090 —41.76831158 2852985 — 30850 0.061 | —33.21033858 | — 691007 —16081 0.091 —41.96776847 2910307 —27975 -062 —33.35828149 | —802143 | —16438 | .092 —42.13812227 2939615 — 25305 .063 —33.51424583 | — 929502 —15774 || .093 —42.27907993 2943578 — 22831 .064 —33.67950519 | —1072334 — 13649 .094 —42.39060181 2924678 — 20514 -065 —33.85548789 | —1228436 — 9707 .095 — 42 .47287691 2885242 — 18302 0.066 —34.04375494 — 1393780 — 3474 0.096 — 42 .52629959 2827492 —16148 .067 —34.24595980 — 1562084 5287 .097 — 4255144734 2753588 — 14015 .068 —34.46378549 — 1724587 16621 .098 —42.54905922 2665668 — 11887 .069 —34.69885706 — 1870040 301388 .099 — 42.52001441 2565860 — 9762 .070 —34.95262902 | —1985121 44899 .100 —42.46531100 2456284 —7659 i Bes(t) 62 64* t Bes(t) 52 61* 0.000 —36.25900000 | —334060| —1030 |) 0.040 | —40.31415161 | —272811 —933 002 —36.40681895 | —348838 | —1078 || .041 | —40.45279259 | —285256 =? 004 —36.56712628 | —364700| —1155 042 | —40.59428614 | —298830 —1370 .006 —36.73108061 — 381723 — 1262 .043 —40.73876798 — 313891 —1751 -008 —36.89885217 — 400014 — 1407 044 —40.88638783 — 330559 — 2308 0.010 —37.07062386 — 419715 — 1554 0.045 —41.03731327 — 349677 —3115 .012 — 37. 24659271 | — 440976 —1738 .046 —41.19173547 — 371981 — 4259 .014 —37.42697132 — 463980 — 1937 .047 —41.34987749 — 398634 — 5839 .016 — 37 .61198973 — 488927 — 2173 .048 —41.51200584 — 431236 —7952 -O18 —37.80189740 — 516055 — 2447 .049 — 41.67844656 —471919 — 10691 0.020 — 37 .99696564 — 545640 — 2768 0.050 —41.84960647 — §23432 — 14114 .022 —38.19749027 — 578005 —3144 051 —42.02690069 — 589198 — 18230 .024 —38.40379496 | — 613528 — 3592 .052 —42.20828689 — 673316 — 22958 .026 — 38 .61623493 — 652661 — 4124 .053 — 42..39730626 — 780470 — 28096 -028 — 38 .83520150 — 695941 — 4767 054 —42.59413932 —915715 — 33264 0.036 —39.06112748 — 744017 — 5547 0.055 —42.80011153 | —1084090 — 37847 .032 — 39. 29449364 | —797677 — 6503 .056 —43.01693364 | —1289984 — 40923 .034 — 39 .53583656 — 857891 —7691 -057 — 4324665559 | — 1536208 — 41204 .036 —39.78575840 — 925873 —9208 .058 —43.49173962 | —1822697 — 37006 -038 — 40 .04493896 — 1003209 —11308 .059 —43.75505962 | —2144854 — 26336 0.040 —4().31415161 — 1092187 — 14745 0.060 —44.08981015 | —2491618 —7174 061 —44.34948587 | — 2843569 219138 062. —44.68759727 | —3171689 60810 176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6 TasBLe 1—Continued t Bes(t) 82 5 t Bes(t) & ai* 0.0620 —44.68759727 —793879 3799 || 0.0760 —51.93485750 987777 —6889 0625 —44.86836095 — 830092 5191 .0630 —45 05742556 — 861089 6653 .0635 —45. 25510106 — 885421 8123 | 0.076 —51.93485750 3944233 | —110389 -0640 —45.46163077 —901628 9547 O77 —52.39628243 4416545 | —105177 0.0645 —45.67717676 — 908298 10832 | 0.078 —62.81354192 4784177 —97742 .0650 —45.90180573 — 904167 11905 079 —53. 18295964 5054234 —89651 .0655 —46. 13547637 — 888173 12686 080 —53.50183501 5234636 —81701 .0660 —46.37802874 — 859556 13105 O81 —53.76836403 5333272 —74129 0665 —46.62917667 — 817907 13125 082 — 53 .98156033 5357730 — 66827 0.0670 —46.88850367 — 763216 12712 || 0.083 —54.14117933 5315358 —59541 .0675 —47 .15546283 — 695902 11871 084 —54.24764475 5213491 —52017 - 0680 —47.42938102 — 616797 10653 085 —54.30197526 5059678 —44113 0685 —47.70946718 — 527103 9119 086 —54.30570898 4861822 — 35841 0690 — 47 .99482438 — 428337 7351 O87 — 54.26082448 4628161 — 27373 0.0695 —48 . 28446495 — 322250 5447 |) 0.088 — 54. 16965837 4367107 — 18994 .0700 —48.57732801 — 210724 3498 089 —54.03482120 408697 1 —11036 .0705 —48 .87229831 — 95692 1596 .090 —53.85911431 3795650 —3815 .0710 —49. 16822554 20961 —186 O91 —53.64545091 3900315 2427 0715 —49 46394315 137463 —1790 092 —53.39678437 3207179 7545 0.0720 —49.75828614 252219 —3181 } 0.093 —53.11604602 2921351 11500 .0725 —50.05010693 363842 — 4338 094 —52.80609417 2646795 14339 .0730 —50.33828930 471174 — 5260 095 — 52.46967436 2386372 16178 0735 —50.62175993 573292 — 5957 096 —52. 10939083 2141952 17167 .0740 — 50.89949764 669496 — 6448 097 —51.72768778 1914557 17470 0.0745 —51.17054038 759289 —6758 | 0.098 —51.32683916 1704523 17250 .0750 —51.43399023 842356 —6917 099 —50.90894530 1511660 16651 .0755 —51.68901652 918532 — 6951 . LOO — 50.47593483 1335394 15795 t Bes(t) 62 64% t Beg(t) & o4* 0.000 —45 25000000 — 518845 —1844 |} 0.039 —650.94571032 | —494100 — 2833 002 —45.46876033 — 544553 — 2049 040 —51.15352446 —§22572 — 3667 004 —45.69296618 — 572313 — 2269 041 —51.36656432 — 554809 — 4955 006 — 4592289517 — 602349 — 2524 042 —61.58515227 | —592143 — 6922 008 — 46. 15884765 — 634919 — 2824 043 —51.80966164 | —636603 — 9862 0.010 —46.40114931 — 670323 —3177 || 0.044 —52.04053705 | —691197 —14118 O12 —46.65015420 —708917 — 38589 045 —52.27832442 | —760255 — 20052 014 —46 .90624826 —751114 —4070 046 —52.52371435 | —849773 — 27989 016 —47. 16985347 —797400 — 4639 047 —652.77760200 | —967721 — 38117 .018 —47 .44143267 — 848347 —5315 048 —53.04116687 | —1124202 — 50353 0.020 —47.72149533 — 904636 —6124 | 0.049 —53.31597375 | —1331326 — 64147 .022 —48 .01060436 —967085 —7102 050 —53.60409390 | — 1602606 —78212 024 —48 .30938423 — 1036680 —8293 026 —48.61853091 — 1114627 —9758 .028 —48.93882386 | —1202408 | —11583 || 0.0500 —63.60409390 | —399433 — 4881 0.030 —49.27114088 | —1301872 | —13881 | 0.0505 —53.75396534 | —440332 — 5280 032 —49.61647662 | —1415358 | —16816 0510 —53.90824011 — 486499 — 5620 034 —49.97596594 | —1545878 | —20671 0515 —54.06737986 | —538265 — 5866 0520 —654.23190227 | —595870 — 5978 0525 —54.40238338 | —659414 — 5907 0.034 —49 97596594 — 386143 —13800 || 0.0530 —54.57945863 | —728816 — 5595 035 —650.16141840 — 404318 — 1457 0535 — 54.76382203 | —803748 —4978 036 —650.35091404 — 423959 — 1656 -0540 —64.95622292 | —883583 — 3991 037 —50.54464927 — 445269 —1918 0545 —655.15745964 | —967318 — 2565 0388 — 50. 74283719 — 468522 — 2287 0550 —55.36836954 | — 1053516 — 645 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIBU’S EQUATION TaBLE 1—Continued t Bea(t) 62 oe t Bes(t) 62 6a* 0.0555 —55.58981460 | —1140250 1811 | 0.0725 | —66.86955856 | 2276696 | —11881 .0560 —55.82266216 | —1225063 4810 | .0730 | —67.02495288 2285678 | —11267 .0565 —56.06776035 | —1304964 8315 0735 | —67.15749041 2283399 | —10622 .0570 —56.32590S18 | —1376468 12232 0740 | —67.26719396 2270505 | —9938 0575 —56.59782068 —1435691 16395 0745 | —67.35419246 2247683 | —9209 0.0580 —56.88409010 | —1478520 20571 | 0.0750 | —67.41871413 2215661 —8430 0585 —57.18514471 | —1500837 24463 || .0755 | —67.46107918 2175220 | —7605 .0590 —57.50120769 | —1498818 27742 || .0760 | —67.48169205 2127180 | —6740 .0595 —57.83225886 | —1469251 30078 || | .0600 —58.17800253 | —1409854 31192 || 0.0605 —58.53784475 | —1319550 30903 | 0.076 —67.48169205 | 8501988 | —107874 .0610 —58.91088246 | —1198637 29162 || .077 — 67 .45965009 8042226 | —78982 0615 —59.29590655 | — 1048838 26065 || .078 —67.35718587 7503471 | —50093 .0620 —59.69141901 —873200} 21848 || .079 — 67. 17968695 6914203 | —23306 0625 —60.09566348 —675876 16843 | 080 — 66 .93304600 6300873 — 297 0.0630 —60.50666670 —461792 11435 | 0.081 — 6662339632 5686281 17896 0635 —60.92228785 | —236281 | 6003 || 082 — 66. 25688383 5088562 31021 .0640 —61.34027181 —4707 | 877 || 088 —65.83948572 4520904 39435 0645 —61.75830284 227854 | —3696 | .084 —65.37687857 3991868 43879 0650 —62. 17405533 456863 | —7558 || .085 —64.87435274 3506072 45246 | 0.0655 —62.58523920 | 678470 | —10646 | 0.086 —64.33676619 3065063 44414 .0660 —62.98963837 889588 | —12967 || .087 —63.76852901 2668164 42138 .0665 —63.38514166 1087882 | —14586 | .088 —63. 17361019 2313223 39025 .0670 —63.76976613 1271716 | —15598 | .089 —62.55555914 1997220 35521 .0675 —64. 14167344 1440054 | —16115 | .090 —61.91753589 1716713 31912 0.0680 —64.49918022 1592357 | —16249 || 0.091 —61. 26234551 1468140 28435 0685 —64.84076342 1728469 | —16104 | .092 —60.59247373 1248043 25154 0690 | —65.16506194 | 1848517 | —15767 | —.093 —59.91012152 1053161 22192 0695 | —65.47087528 1952825 | —15308 094 —59.21723770 880529 19501 0700 § = —65.75716037 2041840 | —14779 || 095 —58.51554859 727463 17136 | 0.0705 —66.02302705 | 2116084 | —14216 || 0.096 —57.80658485 591591 15046 .0710 —66.26773291 | 2176114 | —13640 .097 —57.09170520 470820 13228 0715 — 66. 49067762 2222505 | —13060 || .098 —56.37211735 363324 11633 0720 —66.69139728 | 2255838 | —12476 .099 — 55. 64889626 267505 10263 0725 —66.86955856 | 2276696 | —11881 100 —54.92300012 181979 9054 | t Bero(t) | 62 | oi 1 Beto(t) 82 oa" 0.000 —55.25000000 | —771643 | —3254 | 0.030 — 60.82394833 | —550068 | —2092 .002 —55.54530121 —814032 | —3683 031 —61.06940956 | —577803 | —2347 .004 —55.84874272 | —860115 | —4163 .032 —61.32064883 | —607895 | —2648 .006 —56.16078539 | —910375 | —4710 | .033 —61.57796705 | —640649 | —3013 008 | —56.48193181 —965364 | —5345 034 —61.84169176 | —676438 | —3479 0.010 —56.81273187 | —1025721 —6092 || 0.035 —62.11218085 | —715743 | —4107 012 —57.15378914 | —1092200 | —6982 .036 —62.38982737 | —759218 | —5026 O14 —57.50576841 | —1165698 | —8044 .037 —62.67506606 | —807831 —6451 .016 —57.86940466 | —1247286 | —9326 .038 —62.96838307 | —863083 | —8749 018 —58.24551377 | —1338258 | —10889 .039 —63.27033090 | —927390 | —12479 0.020 —58.63500546 | —1440195 | —12804 | 0.040 —63.58155264 | —1004646 | —18435 .022 —59.03889910 | —1555033 | —15186 O41 —63.90282083 | —1101016 | —27642 .024 —59.45834307 | - — 1685185 | —18174 || .042 —64.23509919 | —1225940 | —41276 .026 —59.89463889 | —1833686 | —21984 043 —64.57963694 | —1393271 | —60471 .028 —60.34927157 | —2004408 | —26904 044 —64.93810740 | —1622329 | —85954 0.030 — 60.82394833 | —2202374 | —33367 || 0.045 —65.31280115 | —1938494 | —117442 178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON TasBuE 1—Continued ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 t Beio(t) 62 54* t Beyo(t) 62 64* 0.0450 —65.31280115 — 482786 —7340 || 0.0675 —81.97307885 3589201 — 20488 .0455 —65.50717760 — §32581 —8421 .0680 —82.03822832 3509859 —17998 .0460 —65.70687985 — 590801 —9526 .0685 — 82.06827921 3412552 — 15347 .0465 —65.91249011 — 658541 — 10604 .0690 —82.06420457 3299917 — 12604 .0470 —66. 12468579 — 736864 —11581 0695 — 82 .02713075 3174681 —9849 0.0475 — 66.34425010 — 826724 —12357 || 0.0700 —81.95831013 3039581 —7165 .0480 —66.57208165 — 928871 — 12803 .0705 —81.85909370 2897286 — 4627 .0485 —66.80920191 — 1043717 — 12756 .0710 —81.73090441 2750322 — 2300 .0490 — 67 .05675935 —1171176 —12018 .0715 —81.57521189 2601005 — 230 .0495 —67.31602854 — 1310461 — 10362 0720 —81.39350934 2451399 1555 0.0500 — 67 .58840234 — 1459869 —7543 || 0.0725 —81.18729279 2303289 3043 .0505 — 67 .87537483 — 1616532 — 3324 .0730 — 80.95804335 2158161 4239 .0510 —68.17851264 — 1776194 2482 0735 —80.70721231 2017215 5157 .0515 — 68 .49941239 — 1933037 9957 0740 —80.43620912 1881374 5825 0520 — 68 .83964251 — 2079608 19002 0745 —80. 14639218 1751313 6270 0.0525 — 69. 20066872 — 2206936 29275 || 0.0750 —79.83906212 1627482 6527 .0530 —69.58376428 — 2304879 40135 .0755 —79.51545724 1510146 6626 .0535 —69.98990864 — 2362768 50648 .0760 —79.17675090 1399410 6599 .0540 —70.41968068 — 2370320 59664 .0545 —70.87315593 — 2318759 65982 0.0550 —71.34981876 — 2201969 68581 0.076 —79.17675090 5604218 105807 .0555 —71.84850129 — 2017468 66856 .077 —78 .45839749 4796474 100518 .0560 —72.36735850 — 1766987 60781 .078 —77 .69207935 4088500 91790 .0565 —72.90388559 — 1456484 50947 .079 —76.88487620 3471992 81651 .0570 —73.45497751 — 1095575 38441 .080 —76.04295314 2937085 71383 0.0575 —74.01702517 — 696499 24614 || 0.081 —75.17165923 2473669 61715 .0580 —74.58603783 — 272812 10812 .082 —74.27562864 2072154 52998 .0585 —75.15777861 161907 —1852 .083 —73.35887650 1723853 45354 .0590 —75.72790032 595150 — 12625 .084 —72.42488584 1421122 38770 .0595 —76.29207053 1016220 —21146 .085 —71.47668395 1157362 33163 0.0600 —76.84607855 1416605 — 27389 || 0.086 —70.51690844 926944 28420 .0605 —77.38592051 1790023 —31570 .087 — 69.54786348 725100 24423 .0610 —77 .90786224 2132223 — 34038 .088 — 68 .57156753 547810 21059 .0615 —78.40848174 2440659 — 35190 .089 — 67 .58979348 391690 18226 .0620 —78 .88469465 2714100 — 35403 .090 — 66. 60410252 253889 15836 0.0625 — 79 .33376656 2952270 — 34997 || 0.091 — 65 .61587268 132000 13815 .0630 —79.75331576 3155524 — 34214 .092 — 64.62632283 23991 12100 .0635 — 80.14130972 3324611 — 33220 .093 — 63 .63653307 — 71867 10637 .0640 — 80.49605758 3460504 — 32108 .094 — 62.64746198 — 157042 9387 0645 — 80.81620039 3564308 | —30911 .095 — 61.65996131 — 232794 8312 0.0650 — 81.10070013 3637222 — 29621 0.096 — 60 .67478859 — 300204 7384 .0655 — 81.3 ‘882764 3680541 — 28204 .097 — 59.69261791 — 360205 6579 .0660 — 81.56014974 3695692 — 26612 .098 — 58.71404928 — 413605 5878 .0665 — 81.73451493 3684274 — 24808 .099 — 57.73961670 — 461108 5265 .0670 — 81 .87203737 3648097 — 22767 . 100 — 56.76979520 — 503331 4727 t Beu(t) 62 5a* t Beu(t) 62 Rie 0.000 — 66 . 25000000 — 1107665 — $5711 0.010 — 68 .31522765 — 1515445 —11091 .002 — 66 .63801953 — 1174367 — 6427 -012 — 68 .77006984 — 1625144 — 12916 004 — 67.03778273 — 1247527 — 7296 .014 — 6924116348 — 1747844 — 15129 .006 — 6745002121 — 1328021 — 8346 .016 — 69.72973556 — 1885782 — 17867 .008 — 67 87553990 — 1416906 — 9606 .018 — 70.23716545 — 2041729 — 21278 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 179 TABLE 1—Continued i Beu(?) é oi* t Beu(t) 2 51* 0.020 —70.76501264 — 2219144 — 25587 0.0535 —89.84933333 — HO295 9369 .022 —71.31505127 — 2422402 — 31100 .0540 — 90.608 10769 717523 — 18017 .024 —71.88931392 —2657113 | —38271 .0545 —91.36130683 1473487 — 39504 .026 — 72.49014769 — 2930592 | —47759 .0550 — 92.09897109 2191183 — §4834 .0555 — 92.81472352 2855160 — 64678 0.026 —72.49014769 | — 731897 — 2993 || 0.0560 — 93 .50192435 3455352 — 70182 .027 —72.80136578 | — 770352 = BER .0565 — 94.15457165 3986008 — 72590 .028 —73.12028739 | — 812185 — 3800 .0570 — 94.76735888 4444500 — 72993 .029 —73.44733085 | — 857834 — 4312 .0575 — 95.33570110 4830258 — 72208 .030 —73.78295264 — 907816 — 4926 .0580 — 95 .85574074 5143961 — 70739 0.031 —74.12765259 | — 962756 —iV/7/ 0.0585 — 96.32134077 5387029 — 68813 .032 —74.48198010 — 1023419 — 6636 .0590 — 96.73907050 5561383 — 66439 -033 | —74.84654180 | —1090797 — 7946 .0595 — 97.09818640 5669419 — 63489 .034 | —75.22201147 — 1166266 — 9899 .0600 — 97 .40060811 5714120 — 59791 .035 —75.60914380 — 1251903 Sol ts 0975) 0605 — 97 .64588863 5699211 — §5203 0.036 —76.00879516 — 1351078 — 18416 0.0610 — 97 .83417703 5629289 — 49673 .037 — 76.42195729 — 1469494 — 27610 .0615 — 97 .96617255 5509869 — 43275 .0620 — 98 .04306939 5347309 — 36204 .0625 — 98 .06649314 5148622 — 28752 0.0370 — 76.42195729 — 366934 —1739 .0630 — 98 .03843066 4921192 — 21258 0.0375 — 76.63396516 — 384135 — 2164 0.0635 — 97 .96115627 4672444 — 14063 .0380 — 76.84981437 — 403526 — fl) .0640 — 97 .83715744 4409513 — 7459 .0385 —77.06969885 — 425657 — 3401 .0645 — 97 .66906347 4138961 — 1661 .0390 — 77 .29383989 — 451225 — 4269 .0650 — 97 .45957989 3866557 3204 .0395 —77.52249319 — 481105 — 5338 .0655 — 97 .21148075 3597159 7094 0.0400 = 71 «195957153 — 516370 — 6638 0.0660 — 96 .92731001 3334661 10040 .0405 — 77 .99458557 — 558324 — 8188 .0665 — 96 .60984267 3082025 12122 .0410 — 78. 23879686 — 608521 — 10002 .0670 — 96. 26155507 2841358 13456 .0415 —78.48909335 — 668773 — 12078 .0675 — 95.88485389 2614017 14166 -0420 —78.74607757 — 741150 — 143890 0680 — 95.48201254 2400740 14381 0.0425 — 79 .01047329 — §27954 — 16883 0.0685 — 95 .05516378 2201765 14216 .0430 —79.28314855 — 931654 — 19454 .0690 — 94.60629738 2016948 13776 -0435 — 79 .56514035 — 1054787 — 21941 0695 — 94.13726149 1845868 13147 -0440 —79.85768002 — 1199790 — 24101 0700 — 93 .64976691 | 1687910 12398 0445 — 80.16221758 — 1368748 — 25587 0.0450 — 80.48044263 — 1563052 — 25933 0.070 — 93.64976691 6764025 198625 .0455 — 80.81429820 — 1782925 — 24540 .071 — 92 .62559620 5644110 172004 -0460 — 81.16598301 — 2026825 — 20685 .072 — 91.54498438 4696153 145644 .0465 — 81.53793607 — 2290737 — 13568 .073 — 90.41741104 3894289 121764 .0470 — 81.93279650 — 2567395 — 2429 .074 — 89. 25089481 3214837 101177 0.0475 —82.35333088 — 2845560 13266 0.075 — 88 .05223020 2637236 83935 .0480 —82.80232086 — 3109546 33543 .076 —86.82719324 2144194 69735 .0485 —83.28240631 — 3339252 57602 BO —85.58071483 1721426 58146 .0490 — 83 .79588427 — 3511007 83557 078 —84.31702117 1357253 48723 .0495 —84.34447230 — 3599465 108404 .079 —83.03975548 1042170 41063 0.0500 —84.92905499 — 3580529 128358 0.080 —81.75206809 768447 34821 .0505 —85.54944296 — 3434986 139639 -081 —80.45669624 529781 29713 .0510 —86.20418079 — 3152087 139512 .082 —79.15602658 321017 25509 .0515 —86.89043949 — 2732104 127198 .083 —77.85214674 137915 22030 .0520 —87.60401924 — 2187051 104234 . 084 —76.54688776 — 23037 19129 0.0525 —88 .33946949 — 1539215 74071 0.085 —75.24185915 — 164762 16696 .0530 — 89.09031189 — 817903 41074 .086 —73.93847815 — 289712 14639 180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 Tasiue 1—Continued t Beu(t) e2 64° t Beu(t) 6 6i* 0.087 —72.63799428 — 399959 12889 0.094 —63.69376285 — 880864 5749 O88 —71.54150999 — 497265 11391 .095 —62.44693642 —920179 5164 -089 —70.04999836 — 583136 10101 .096 —61.20931178 — 954316 4644 .090 —68.76431807 — 658870 8983 097 —59.98123031 — 983798 4181 O91 —67.48522649 —725591 8010 098 —58.76298681 — 1009089 3767 0.092 — 66.21339081 —784277 7158 0.099 —57.55483420 — 10306038 3397 .098 —64.94939791 — 835784 6409 . 100 —56.35698762 — 1048710 3064 t Bei2(t) 6? 64* t Beix(t) 62 64* 0.000 —78. 25000000 — 1542967 — 8478 0.0410 —94.65886566 — 1699644 —44485 002 —78.74850196 — 1644524 — 10477 0415 —95 .05715246 — 1969787 — 48410 004 —79. 26344916 — 1756505 — 12261 0420 —95.47513713 — 2287803 — 49836 . 006 —79.79596141 — 1880772 —14190 0425 —95.91599982 — 2654772 —47081 .008 —80.34728137 — 2019305 — 16506 .0430 —96.388341023 — 3067509 — 38019 0.010 —80.91879439 —2174457 — 19372 .012 —81.51205198 — 2349123 — 22903 0.04300 —96.38341023 — 766294 — 2360 .014 —82.12880080 — 2546876 — 27312 .04325 —96.62834483 — 821630 —1881 .016 —82.77101839 — 2772187 — 32883 . 04350 —96.88149573 — 878816 —1248 O18 —83.44095784 — 3080714 —40019 .04875 —97.14843479 —937215 —445 0.020 —84.141204438 — 3329715 — 49300 0.04400 —97.41474601 — 996022 540 022 —84.87474817 — 3678660 — 61590 .04425 —97.69601744 —1054251 1714 .04450 —97.98783139 —1110727 3073 .04475 — 98. 29075261 — 1164097 4605 022 —84.87474817 — 918697 — 3859 . 04500 —98.60531479 — 1212831 6280 0.023 —85. 25507425 — 967820 —4340 0.04525 —98 .93200529 — 1255266 8058 .024 —85.64507852 — 1021300 —4902 .04550 —99.27124844 —1289634 9878 .025 —86.04529579 — 1079703 — 5564 .04575 —99 .62338794 —1314131 11667 .026 —86.45631009 — 1148696 — 6347 .04600 —99.98866875 — 1326986 13341 027 —86.87876135 — 1214068 —7285 .04625 | —100.36721942 — 1326542 14808 0.028 —87.31385329 — 1291765 — 8414 0.04650 | —100.75903551 — 1311352 15977 .029 —87.76086288 — 13877933 — 9804 .04675 | —101.16396511 — 1280262 16765 .030 — 88. 22215179 — 1473989 —11572 .04700 | —101.58169734 — 1232498 17110 -031 —88.69818060 — 1581761 — 13966 .04725 | —102.01175454 — 1167723 16970 .032 —89. 19002703 — 1703770 — 17534 04750 | —102.45348898 — 1086079 16337 0.033 —89.69891115 — 18438438 — 23430 0.04775 | —102.90608421 — 988194 15233 .04800 | —103.36856139 — 875161 13712 .04825. | —103.838979017 — 748487 11850 -0330 —89.69891115 — 460588 —1477 .04850 | —104.31850383 — 610013 9743 -0835 —89.96017153 —480179 — 1760 .04875 | —104.80331760 — 461825 7494 0.0340 — 90. 22623371 — 501551 —2141 0.04900 | —105.29274963 — 306151 5204 .0345 —90.49731138 — 525092 — 2656 .04925 | —105.78524317 — 145264 2964 .0350 —90.77363998 — 551326 — 3348 .04950 | —106.27918935 18612 851 .0355 —91.05548183 — 580957 —4273 .04975 | —106.77294941 183378 —1078 .0360 —91.34313326 — 614923 — 5494 .05000 | —107.26487569 347110 — 2785 0.03865 —91.63693392 — 654458 — 7084 0.05025 | —107.75333087 508107 — 4254 .0370 —91.93727916 —701171 — 9123 .05050 | —108.23670497 664899 — 5478 -0375 —92.24463612 — 757116 —11689 .05075 | —108.71348009 816260 — 6473 .0380 —92.55956423 — 824872 — 14852 .05100 | —109.18199261 961193 —7254 0385 —92.88274107 — 907612 — 18660 .05125 | —109.64094319 1098910 —7849 0.0390 —93.21499402 — 1009145 — 23125 0.05150 | —110.08890468 1228810 — 8287 .0395 —93.55733842 — 1183921 — 28186 .05175 | —110.52457807 1350450 — 8593 .0400 — 93 .911022038 — 1286967 — 33682 -05200 | —110.94674696 1463519 —8798 .0405 —94.27757530 — 1473708 — 39295 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 181 TaBLe 1—Continued t Bex(t) | & | 6i* t Bei(t) 62 5i* | | 0.068 —104.67908888 4225784 158160 | .069 —108.12444111 3405509 127510 0.0520 —110.94674696 | 5845294 | —140950 || .070 —101.53573826 2714121 103509 .0525 | —111.74613631 | 6643765 | —148881 | .071 | —99.91989419 2127335 84742 05380 | —112.47908800 | 7299011 | —148860 O72 —98 .28277677 1626137 70018 | | 0.0535 | —113.13904959 | 7810812 | —142015 0.073 | —96.62939798 1195608 58394 .0540 | —113.72090306 | 8180960 | —138548 O74 —94.96406311 823971 49141 -0545 —114. 22094693 | 8412986 | —133059 .075 —93 . 29048853 501857 41704 .0550 | —114.63686094 8512491 | —124945 || .076 —91.61189538 221741 35666 -0555 —114.96765003 | 8487670 | —113760 O77 —89.93108482 — 22481 30714 0.0560 | —115.21356243 | $349703 | —99499 0.078 —88 . 25049907 — 235811 26612 -0565 | —115.37597780 | $112748 —82683 .079 — 86 .57227144 — 422387 23182 .0570 | —115.45726568 | 7793425 — 64295 .080 | —84.89826767 — 585668 20289 0575 | —115.46061931 | 7409876 —45569 O81 | —83.23012058 —728570 17828 .0580 —115.38987419 | 6980582 —27738 .O82 —81.56925920 — 853571 15720 0.0585 —115. 24932323 | 6523169 —11817 0.083 —79.91693352 — 962790 13902 0590 | —115.04354060 6053423 1538 O84 —78. 27423574 — 1058058 12325 0595 | —114.77722372 5584636 12028 .O85 —76.64211854 — 1140957 10951 .0600 —114.45506050 | 5127304 19704 .086 —75.02141092 — 1212870 9748 -0605 —114.08162423 | 4689154 24829 O87 —73.41283200 — 1275005 8689 0.0610 | —113.66129643 | 4275390 | 27803 0.088 —71.81700313 — 1328425 7756 -0615 —113.19821471 | 3889077 | 29079 .089 — 70. 23445851 — 1374066 6930 ~ .0620 — 112.69624222 3531577 29077 .090 — 68. 66565455 — 1412759 6196 .0625 — 112.15895396 | 3202966 28181 -O91 — 67.11097817 — 1445238 5544 .0630 —111.58963604 2902413 26704 .092 — 65.57075417 — 1472159 4962 0.0635 —110.99129399 2628491 24886 0.093 — 64.04525176 — 1494104 4443 .0640 —110.36666703 | 2379419 22902 094 — 62.53469039 — 1511595 3978 .0645 — 109 .71824589 2153241 20888 .095 — 61.03924497 — 1525098 3562 -0650 _ | —109.04829234 | 1947960 18923 .096 — 59.55905053 — 1535030 3188 .097 — 58 .09420638 — 1541766 2853 0.065 — 109 .04829234 7810782 302782 || 0.098 — 56 .64477989 — 1545642 2551 .066 — 107 .65180982 6384850 245159 .099 — 55.21080982 — 1546961 2279 -067 —106.19147881 5205891 196968 . 100 — 53.79230936 — 1545996 2034 t Bei3(t) R2 61* t Beis(t) 62 64* 0.000 — 91 .25000000 — 2096837 — 15485 0.025 — 101 .30409740 — 1644407 — 113867 -002 — 91 .87834297 — 2245549 — 17164 .026 — 101 .85129899 — 1757944 — 13261 - 004 — 92.52914143 — 2411613 — 19768 .027 — 102.41608001 — 1884837 — 15602 -006 —93 .20405603 — 2597612 —23157 .028 —102.99970940 — 2027470 — 18565 .008 — 93 .90494675 — 2806946 — 27385 .029 — 103 .60361349 — 2188892 — 22500 0.010 — 94 .63390693 — 3043880 — 32614 || 0.030 — 104.22940651 — 2373229 — 28198 -012 — 95 .39330590 — 3313715 — 39209 .O14 — 96 . 18584203 — 3623147 — 47630 .016 — 97 .01460963 — 3980739 — 58546 0.0300 — 104. 22940651 — 592861 —1774 -018 — 97 .88318462 — 4397618 — 72933 .0305 — 104.55107700 — 618434 — 2031 0.0310 — 104.87893183 — 646056 — 2369 0.018 — 97 .88318462 — 1098258 — 4569 .0815 — 105.21324721 — 676072 — 2828 -019 — 98 .33367575 — 1156890 — §130 .0320 — 105. 55432331 — 708952 — 3456 .020 — 98 .79573579 — 1220671 — 5784 .0325 — 105.90248894 — 745340 — 4331 .021 — 99. 27000253 — 1290259 — 6550 -0330 — 106. 25810796 — 786132 — 5554 0.022 — 99.75717187 — 1366426 — 7453 0.0335 — 106 .62158830 — 832575 — 7234 .023 — 100. 25800547 — 1450082 — 8528 .0340 — 106 .99339439 — 886383 — 9545 .024 — 100.77333989 — 1542310 — 9814 .0845 — 107 .37406431 — 949903 — 12658 182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6 TaBLE 1—Continued ! Beis(t) 82 ae ! Beis(t) 82 ga 0.0350 — 107 .76423326 | —1026289 | —16775 || 0.04850 | —129.81942639 2322675 | — 16809 .0355 —108.16466510 | —1119700 | —22107 .04875 | —130.30967573 2474218 | —17018 .0360 — 108 .57629394 | —1235504 | — 28839 .04900 | —130.77518289 2608764 | —17130 .0365 — 109 .00027783 | —1380457 | —37093 .04925 | —131.21460241 2726197 | —17161 .0370 — 10943806628 | —1562804 | —46858 .04950 | —131.62675996 2826485 | —17116 0.04975 | —132.01065266 2909675 | —16989 0.03700 | —109.43806628 — 389967 — 2930 .05000 | —132.36544861 2975895 | —16769 .03725 | —109.66268988 — 416928 — 3266 .05025 | —132.69048561 3025369 | — 16440 .03750 | —109.89148277 — 447158 — 3618 .05050 | —1382.98526892 3058428 | —15986 .03775 | —110.12474724 — 481008 — 3979 .05075 | —183.24946795 3075531 | —15394 0.03800 | —110.36282179 — 518838 — 4344 || 0.05100 | —133.48291168 3077269 | — 14657 .03825 | —110.60608473 — 561010 — 4698 .03850 | —110.85495777 — 607874 — 5029 .08875 | —111.10990954 — 659759 — 5319 || 0.0510 | —133.48291168 12294450 | — 234721 .03900 | —111.37145890 — 716948 — 5542 .0515 | —183.85760993 12138254 | — 204242 0.03925 | —111.64017774 — 779661 — 5673 | 0.0520 | —134.11092565 11779347 | — 166030 .03950 | —111.91669319 — 848020 — 5676 .0525 | —134.24644789 11255310 | —123306 .03975 | —112.20168883 — 922020 — 5512 .0530 | —134.26941703 10608062 | —80155 .04000 | —112.49590468 | — 1001487 — 5134 .0535 | —184.18630555 9879994 | —40429 .04025 | —112.80013539 | — 1086035 — 4495 .0540 | —134.00439413 9110267 — 6913 0.04050 | —113.11522645 | —1175012 — 3540 || 0.0545 | —133.73138005 8332109 19014 .04075 | —113.44206763 | — 1267453 — 2219 .0550 | —1383.37504489 7571414 37265 .04100 | —113.78158333 | — 1362028 — 487 .0555 | —182.94299558 6846586 48658 .04125 | —114.13471932 | —1456999 1689 .0560 | —182.44248042 6169269 54486 .04150 | —114.50242529 | — 1550188 4320 .0565 | —131.88027256 5045574 56151 0.04175 | —114.88563315 | — 1638969 7388 || 0.0570 | —131.26260897 4977426 54944 .04200 | —115.28523070 | —1720285 10836 .0575 | —130.59517112 4463836 51923 .04225 | —115.70203110 — 1790709 14560 .0580 | —129.88309490 4001952 47897 .04250 | —116.13673858 | — 1846549 18407 .0585 | —129.13099917 3087867 43437 .04275 | —116.58991155 | —1884000 22175 .0590 | —128.34302476 3217202 38926 0.04300 | —117.06192453 | — 1899341 25629 || 0.0595 | —127.52287834 2885497 34600 .04325 | —117.55293091 | —1889171 28515 .0600 | —126.67387695 2588455 30593 .04350 | —118.06282900 | —1850651 30591 .0605 | —125.79899102 2322082 26965 .04375 | —118.59123360 | —1781747 31656 .0610 | —124.90088426 2082755 23733 .04400 | —119.13745567 | — 1681420 31576 .0615 | —123.98194994 1867241 20887 0.04425 | —119.70049194 | —1549758 30311 | 0.0620 | —123.04434322 1672687 18399 -04450 | —120.27902579 | — 1888014 27921 | .0625 | —122.09000963 1496598 16234 .04475 |. —120.87143978 | —1198548 24556 .0630 | —121.12071007 1336803 14357 .04500 | —121.47583925 — 984679 20444 .06385 | —120.13804247 1191418 12732 .04525 | —122.09008551 — 750464 15853 .0640 | —119.14346069 1058809 11325 0.04550 | —122.71183641 — 500438 11065 .04575 | —123.33859169 — 239337 6336 || 0.064 — 119.14346069 4246601 180799 .04600 | —123.96774034 28156 1884 065 — 117 .12374529 3314912 144464 .04625 | —124.59660742 297619 — 2137 066 — 115.07088079 2529554 116991 .04650 | —125.22249832 565052 — 5629 067 — 112.99272074 1862554 95986 0.04675 | —125.84273869 826971 —8557 || 0.068 — 110.89593516 1292540 79710 .04700 | —126.45470935 1080447 | —10927 .069 — 108.78622418 802973 66914 .04725 | —127.05587554 1323101 — 12785 .070 — 106 .66848347 380866 56708 .04750 | —127.64381072 1553063 | — 14193 O71 — 104.54693410 15879 48453 04775 | —128.21621527 1768909 | —15229 072 — 102 .42522593 — 300340 41688 0.04800 | —128.77093073 1969588 | —15965 | 0.073 — 100.30652117 — 574629 36078 04825 | — 12930595031 2154350 | — 16473 074 — 98. 19356270 — 812649 31378 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION TaBLe 1 (Continued) 183 t Bas(t) 52 | a t Beis(1) 52 aa | | 0.075 — 96.0S8S873072 — 1019139 27401 || 0.088 —70.11190558 — 2082516 5565 076 — 93 .99409012 — 1198104 24012 .O89 — 68 . 24773623 — 2096181 4938 077 — 91.91143057 — 1352958 | 21102 .090 — 66.40452868 — 2104892 4380 .O78 — 89 .84230060 — 1486626 | 18589 O91 — 64.58237006 — 2109212 3881 79 — $7. 7SS03688 — 1601636 16407 | .092 — 62.78130355 — 2109640 3436 0.080 —85.74978953 | —1700181 14505 0.0938 — 61 .00133344 — 2106622 3037 -OS1 — 83 .72854399 | —1784172 12840 094 — 59 . 24242955 — 2100558 2681 .O82 —§1.72514018 | —1855279 11379 -095 — 57.50453123 — 2091805 2362 .083 —79.74028915 | —1914972 10092 | .096 — 55.78755097 — 2080684 2076 -OS4 —77 .77458785 — 1964541 8956 | .097 — §4.09137755 — 2067482 1819 0.085 —75.82853195 | —2005127 7950 0.098 — §2.41587895 — 2052455 1589 .O86 — 73 .90252733 — 2037739 7060 .099 — 50.76090490 — 2035834 1383 -O87 —71.99690010 — 2063271 6268 . 100 — 49 .12628919 — 2017826 1198 t Be s(t) | 82 a t Beu(t) 82 aie 0.000 — 105. 25000000 — 2786859 — 21936 0.0330 — 124.68417902 — 1411529 — 26178 .002 — 106 .02914592 — 3000426 — 26164 .0335 —125.19022446 — 1549230 — 35657 . 004 | —106.83829610 | —3240275 — 30946 .0340 SOR o220 — 1723192 — 48084 .006 | —107.67984903 — 3511281 — 36737 |] .008 | —108.55651477 — 3819330 — 44001 0.010 — 109 .47137382 — 4171798 — 53239 0.03400 | —125.71176220 — 430043 — 3011 .012 |} —110.42795084 — 4578067 — 65130 03425 | —125.97886695 — 456016 — 3476 .014 te 4 3080854 |) — 5050245 — 80678 03450 | —126.25053186 — 485476 — 3994 03475 | —126.52705153 — 518942 — 4567 03500 | —126.80876062 — 556984 — 5187 0.014 — 111.43030854 — 1261293 — 5056 0.03525 | —127.09603956 — 600223 — 5855 .O15 — 111.95010092 — 1327538 — 5654 03550 | —127.38932073 — 649324 — 6554 .016 — 112.48316869 — 1399457 — 6354 03575 | —127.68909514 — 704982 — PE O17 -—113.03023102 | —1477754 — 7168 03600 | —127.99591936 — 767914 — 7988 .O18 | —113.59207089 — 1563249 IPA 03625 | —128.31042273 — 838826 — 8668 0.019 —114.16954325 — 1656900 — 9249 0.03650 | —128.63331435 — 918389 — 9268 .020 — 114.76358461 — 1759845 — 10586 03675 | —128.96538986 — 1007192 — 9735 .021 —115.37522442 — 1873431 — 12190 |] 03700 | —129.30753730 — 1105688 — 9998 .022 — 116.00559854 — 1999276 = hi} 03725 | —129.66074161 — 1214121 — 9970 .023 — 116.65596543 — 2139333 — 16481 03750 | —130.02608712 — 1332441 — 9546 0.024 | —117.32772565 — 2295986 — 19380 | 0.03775 | —130.40475705 — 1460200 — 8607 .025 — 118 .02244573 — 2472169 — 22991 .03800 | —130.79802898 — 1596432 — 7020 .026 — 118.74188750 — 2671553 — 27562 .03825 | —131.20726522 — 1739523 — 4653 .027 — 119.48804480 — 2898812 — 33518 .03850 | —131.63389669 — 1887080 — 1379 .03875 | —132.07939896 — 2035812 2895 0.0270 — 119.48804480 = THEN = POP 0.03900 | —132.54525936 — 2181439 8206 .0275 — 119.87183951 — 755599 — 2340 .03925 | —133.03293414 — 2318660 14504. .0280 — 120.26319022 — 789373 — 2628 .03950 | —133.54379553 — 2441213 21625 .0285 — 120 .66243465 — 825790 — 2986 .03975 | —134.07906905 — 2542040 29262 .0290 — 121 .06993699 — 865216 — 3451 .04000 | —134.63976296 — 2613596 36967 0.0295 — 121 .48609149 — 908127 — 4074 0.04025 | —135.22659283 — 2648292 44168 .0300 —121.91132726 — 955164 — 4938 .04050 | —135.83990562 — 2639056 50222 .0305 — 122.34611468 — 1007215 — 6163 .04075 | —1386.47960897 — 2579962 54498 .0310 — 122.79097424 | ,— 1065543 = OR .04100 | —1387.14511194 — 2466837 56472 .0315 — 123 . 24648925 — 1131956 — 10451 .04125 | —137.83528328 — 2297771 55828 0.0320 — 123 .71332381 — 1209048 — 14064 0.04150 | —138.54843232 — 2073417 52516 .0325 — 12419224886 — 1300511 — 19150 .04175 | —139.28231553 — 1797038 46780 184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6 TABLE | (Continued) t Bews(t) 62 64* t Beis(t) 62 64* 0.04200 | —140.038416912 | —1474275 39105 0.0575 — 141.57645396 2231530 27807 .04225 | —140.80076546 | —1112669 30147 .0580 — 140.39356161 1983890 24195 .04250 | —141.57848849 — 721036 20619 .0585 — 139.19083035 1760560 211388 .04275 | —142.36342188 — 308770 11186 .0590 — 137 .97049349 1558466 18551 .04800 | —148.15144297 114807 2390 -0595 — 136 .73457197 1375005 16356 0.043825 | —143.938831599 540976 — §395 0.0600 — 135.48490040 1207968 14488 .043850 | —144.71977925 961992 — 11983 .0605 — 134.22314915 1055475 12893 .043875 | —145.49162259 1371280 — 17309 .0610 — 132.95084315 915923 11525 .04400 | —146.24975314 1763496 — 21483 .0615 — 131.66937792 787936 10347 .04425 | —146.99024873 2134441 — 24619 .0620 — 130.38003333 670328 9326 0.04450 | —147.70939992 2480939 — 26929 .04475 | —148.40374173 2800643 —28588 || 0.062 —130.38003333 2690665 148921 .04500 | —149.07007710 3091859 — 29765 .063 —127.78231685 1856808 122380 .04525 | —149.70549389 3353385 —30591 .064 —125.16603229 1146615 191876 .04550 | —150.30737682 3584377 — 31152 .065 —122.53828158 539224 85729 0.04575 | —150.87341598 3784264 — 31496 0.066 —119.90513863 18242 72787 .04600 | —151.40161250 3952700 — 31628 .067 —117.27181325 —429445 62251 .04625 | —151.89028203 4089556 — 31530 .068 —114.64278233 —814492 53558 .04650 | —152.33805600 4194939 —31157 .069 —112.02189633 — 1145680 46302 .04675 | —152.74888058 4269232 — 30464 .070 —109.41246713 — 1430326 40187 0.04700 | —153.10701283 43131385 — 29408 0.071 —106.81734119 — 1674592 34993 .04725. | —153.42701373 4327709 — 27964 .072 —104.23896116 — 1883707 30551 .04750 | —153.70373754 4314399 — 26128 .073 —101.67941821 — 2062142 26730 .04775 | —153.93731736 4275036 — 23925 O74 —99.14049669 — 2213739 23428 .04800 | —154.12814682 4211812 — 21406 .075 —96.62371255 — 2341816 20563 0.04825 | —154.27685816 4127231 — 18648 0.076 —94.13034656 — 2449252 18069 .04850 | —154.38429720 4024033 —15738 O77 —91.66147310 — 2538553 15891 .04875 | —154.45149590 3905107 —12778 .078 —89.21798517 — 2611908 13983 .04900 | —154.47964354 3773395 —9861 .079 —86.80061632 — 2671230 12310 .04925 | —154.47005722 3631796 —7075 .080 —84.40995977 — 2718201 10838 0.04950 | —154.42415295 3483080 —4492 0.081 —82.04648523 — 2754298 9541 .04975 | —154.34341787 3329820 — 2166 .082 —79.71055367 — 2780822 8397 .05000 | —154.22938460 3174334 —129 .083 —77 .40243034 — 2798921 7386 084 —75.12229621 — 2809610 6492 .085 —72.87025819 — 2813785 5700 0.0500 —154.22938460 12697145 —1618 0.086 —70.64635802 — 2812241 4998 .0505 —153.90764481 11461053 48952 .087 — 68 .45058025 — 2805683 4375 .0510 —153.47129448 10270173 80958 -088 — 66 . 28285932 — 2794735 3822 .0515 — 152 .93224243 9157111 97602 .089 —64.14808574 — 2779953 3330 .0520 —152.30161927 8139301 102918 .090 —62.03111168 — 2761830 2893 0.0525 —151.58960310 7222825 100715 0.091 —59.94675593 — 2740804 2504 .0530 —150.80535868 6406110 94071 .092 —57.88980822 — 2717266 2157 .0535 — 149 .95705317 5682978 85223 .093 —55.86003317 — 2691562 1849 .0540 — 149 .05191787 5044896 75656 .094 —53.85717375 — 2664003 1575 .0545 — 148 .09633362 4482492 66277 .095 —51.88095435 — 2634862 1330 0.0550 — 147 .09592444 3986493 57580 0.096 —49 .93108357 — 2604385 11138 .0555 — 146 .05565033 3548255 49792 .097 —48 .00725664 — 2572791 919 .0560 —144.97989368 3160006 42975 .098 —46.10915762 — 2540272 747 .0565 — 143 .87253696 2814923 37095 .099 —44 23646133 — 2507003 594 .0570 —142.73703102 2507112 32073 . 100 —42.38883506 — 2473137 457 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION TABLE | (Continued) t Beis(t) & 54* t Beis(t) & 5i* 0.000 | —120.25000000 | —3635858 | —33368 || 0.03450 | —147.46947271 | —1253289 | —15619 002 =| —121.20252185 | —3934396 | —30518|| .03475 | —147.88465023 | —1387767 | —16538 (004 | —122.19438766 | —4272745 | —47077 | .03500 | —148.31370543 | —1538692 | —17028 (008 | —123 29898002 | —4658586 | —56617 | .03525 | —148.75814754 | —1706510 | —16874 008 | —124 31016004 | —5101605 | —6ssi4 || .03550 | —149.21965475 | —1891014 | —15322 0.010 | —125.44235521 —5614204 | —84619 | 0.03575 | —149.70007210 | —2091091 | —13569 ‘012 =|: —126.63069243 | —6212489 | —105416 | .03600 | —150.20140037 | —2304421| —9788 | | 03625 | —150.72577284 | —2527159 | . —4162 | <03650 | —151.27541690 | —2753629 3575 0.012 =126.63060243 1551465 | —6604 | 03675 | —151.85259725 | —2976060 | 13552 | | 0.013 —127 .24774509 — 1635677 | —7414 || 0.03700 | —152.45953829 — 3184526 25678 .O14 —127.88115453 —1727330 | —8355 || .03725 | —153.09832458 — 3366960 39548 -015 —128.53183727 — 1827373 | —9460 || .03750 —153.77078048 — 3509662 54379 .016 —129.20079373 —1936915 | —10757 .03775 —154.47833299 — 3598041 68996 O17 —129.88911935 — 2057265 | —12299 || .03800 —155.22186592 — 3617777 81932 0.018 —130.59801762 —2189976 | —14137 || 0.03825 | —156.00157662 — 3556245 91616 .019 —131.32881565 — 2336903 | —16352 | .03850 —156.81684977 —3404038 96662 .020 —132.08298271 — 2500281 —19039 || .03875 — 157 .66616329 — 3156288 96162 .021 —132.86215258 —2682826 | —22334 || .03900 | —158.54703969 — 2813533 89918 022 —133.66815072 —2887870 | —26415 | .03925 — 159 .45605142 — 2381903 78502 0.023 —134.50302755 — 3119549 — 31532 || 0.03950 —160.38888217 — 1872568 63160 .024 —135.36909987 —3383056 | —38035 | .03975 —161.34043860 — 1300549 45500 025 —136. 26900274 —3685019 —46454 | .04000 —162.30500052 — 683165 27237 .026 —187.20575581 | —4034097 | —57731 .04025 —163.27639409 —38386 - 9816 | .04050 —164.24817152 616583 —5703 | 0.0260 —137.20575581 — 1007613 —3627 | 0.04075 —165.21378312 1266342 — 18754 .0265 —137.68902069 | —1056428 —4091 | .04100 —166.16673130 1897873 —29195 .0270 —138.18284984 | —1109358 —4671 .04125 —167.10070075 2500705 — 37202 .0275 —138.68777258 | —1166996 —5418 .04150 — 168 .00966315 3066757 — 43152 0280 —139. 20436527 | —1230110 | —6430 .04175 —168.88795798 3589993 —47482 0.0285 —139.73325906 —1299742 —7852 || 0.04200 —169.73035289 4065997 — 50618 .0290 —140.27515028 — 1377366 —9920 .04225 —170.53208782 4491565 — 52896 -0295 —140.83081514 — 1465121 —12982 || .04250 —171.28890711 4864374 — 54538 0300 —141 .40113122 | —1566177 | —17543 .04275 —171.99708265 5182759 — 55649 0305 —141.98710907 — 1685237 — 24294 .04300 —172.65343060 5445609 — 56221 0.0310 — 14258993928 — 1829238 — 34134 || 0.043825 —173. 25532246 5652369 —56171 -0315 —143.21106187 — 2008242 —48153 .04350 —173.80069062 5803112 — 55373 0320 — 143 .85226688 — 2236508 —67555 .04375 —174.28802767 5898662 — 53700 .04400 —174.71637809 5940708 — 51067 | -04425 —175.08532143 5931885 — 47459 0.03200 | —143.85226688 | — 558063 —4233 || 0.04450 —175.39494593 5875788 — 42944 .03225 | —144.18108943 — 592498 —4989 .04475 —175.64581254 5776899 — 37675 .03250 | —144.51583697 —631945 — 5853 .04500 —175.83891017 5640444 — 31874 .03275 | —144.85690395 | — 677267 — 6829 .04525 —175.97560335 5472171 — 25801 .03300 | —145.20474360 | —729442 —7919 .04550 —176.05757481 5278099 —19726 0.03325 | —145.55987767 —789556 —9113 || 0.04575 —176.08676529 5064251 — 13899 .03350 | —145.92290730 — 858802 — 10398 .04600 —176.06531325 4836412 — 8526 .03375 | —146.29452495 — 938459 —11747 .04625 —175.99549710 4599924 — 3756 .03400 | —146.67552719 — 1029865 —13114 .04650 —175.87968169 4359541 325 -03425 | —147.06682808 — 1134374 — 14435 .04675 —175.72027089 4119334 3684 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF TaBLeE 1 (Continued) SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6 t Beis(t) 62 oi* Beis(t) 62 6i* 0.04700 04725 .04750 04775 .04800 0.04825 04850 04875 .04900 0.0490 0495 .0500 .0505 -0510 0.0515 .0520 0525 .0530 0535 0.0540 0545 0550 .0555 .0560 0.0565 .0570 -0575 .0580 0585 0.0590 -0595 0600 -0605 .0610 0.061 .062 —175.51966673 —175.28023591 —175.00428308 —174.69403082 —174.35160534 —173.97902722 —173.57820637 —173. 15094020 —172.69891454 —172.69891454 —171.72678794 —170.67321722 —169.54809208 —168 .35998905 — 167 .11635577 — 165.82367939 —164.48763396 —163.11320608 —161.70480038 — 160. 26632713 —158.80127475 —157 .31276962 — 155 .80362562 —154.27638505 —152.73335284 —151.17662505 —149 .60811295 — 148 .02956335 — 146 .44257601 — 14484861852 — 143. 24903922 — 141 .64507841 —140.03787819 —138.42849110 —138.42849110 — 135. 20696389 3882667 3652200 3429943 3217322 3015263 2824274 2644531 2475950 2318252 9283478 8144412 7155441 6297790 5553025 4904310 4336905 3838245 3397782 3006755 2657914 2345274 2063888 1809656 1579165 1369558 1178432 1003749 843774 697015 562181 438151 323941 218687 121621 493990 — 196076 6336 8330 9740 10648 11140 11300 11202 10913 10488 168059 150535 131249 112556 95615 80862 68325 57830 49121 41925 35986 31079 27011 23625 20791 18405 16382 14656 13174 11891 10775 9797 8935 8171 7491 119690 101237 —131.98739744 — 128 .77567278 —125.57680325 —122.39505964 —119.23407445 — 116 .09692954 —112.98623039 —109 .90416932 — 106 .85257972 — 103 .83298262 — 100.84662697 — 97.89452446 —94.97747978 —92.09611697 — 89 .25090236 —86.44216471 —83.67011272 —80.93485048 —78 . 23639094 —75.57466788 —72.94954628 —70.36083161 — 67 .80827786 —65.29159478 —62.81045414 — 60. 36449533 — 57 .95333028 —55.57654780 —53.23371743 — 50. 92439283 —48.64811478 — 46 40441382 —44.19281256 —42.01282780 — 39 .86397227 —37.74575626 — 35.65768901 — 33 ..59927996 —784179 — 1285513 —1712592 — 2075842 — 2384029 — 2644575 — 2863808 — 3047146 —3199251 — 3324145 — 3425314 — 3505783 — 3568186 — 3614821 — 3647695 — 3668566 — 3678974 — 3680271 — 3673647 — 3660147 — 3640692 — 3616093 — 3587067 — 3554244 — 3518183 — 3479376 — 3438257 — 3395211 — 3350577 — 3304655 — 3257708 — 3209971 — 3161649 — 3112923 — 3063952 — 3014877 — 2965819 — 2916888 86215 73822 63485 54786 47413 41126 35738 31102 27099 23630 20618 17996 15709 13709 11959 10424 9077 7892 6850 5933 5124 4410 3781 3225 2734 2301 1918 1580 1281 1018 785 580 399 241 101 —21 —129 —222 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 187 TABLE 2. Values of Bo,(t) Index r Range of ¢ Page 1 0.074(.002)0.1 188 2 0.054 (.002)0.1 188 3 0.054 (.002)0.1 188 4 0.050(.002)0.1 188 5 0.038 (.002)0.1 188 6 0.038 (.002)0.1 189 a 0.038 (.002)0.1 189 8 0.036 (.002)0.058 (.001)0.1 189 9 0.032 (.002)0.040(.001)0.1 190 10 0.028 (.002)0.036 (.001)0.1 191 11 0.024 (.002)0.032(.001)0.050(.0005)0.060(.001)0.1 191 12 0.028 (.001)0.039 (.0005)0.058 (.001)0.1 192 13 0.027 (.001)0.035(.0005)0.062(.001)0.1 193 14 0.025 (.001)0.031 (.0005)0.059(.001)0.1 194 15 0.021 (.001)0.029 (.0005)0.056 (.001)0.1 195 For values of ¢ smaller than the first one listed for each r, Bo,(t) = Be,.(t) to eight decimals or better. (See tables of Be,(t) in this volume) For t > 0.1 (i.e. for s < 100), see tables of bo,(s) in Tables Relating to Mathieu Functions, National Bureau of Standards. Columbia University Press, New York, 1951 188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6 TaBLE 2. Values of Bo,(t) t Boi(t) 62* t Box(t) 0.074 —0.25490515 —49 0.088 —0. 25590337 —52 076 — .25504625 —49 .090 — .25604801 —52 .078 — .25518784 —50 .092 — .25619316 —52 080 — .25532994 —650 094 — . 25633884 —52 082 — .25547253 —5l 096 — . 25648504 —52 0.084 —0.25561563 —5l 0.098 —0. 25663175 —52 086 — .25575925 —51 100 — .25677898 —5l Seay Bo2(t) ee { Boo(t) 0.054 —1.28264673 = 0.078 —1.29886410 —906 056 —1.28395321 —781 O80 —1.30027164 Oily .058 —1.28526750 —792 082 —1.30168834 —927 060 —1.28658971 —802 084 —1.30311431 —936 062 —1.28791995 —813 086 —1.30454963 —943 0.064 —1.28925832 — 824 0.088 —1.30599438 948 066 —1.29060492 —835 .090 —1.30744859 —949 .068 —1.29195989 — 847 092 —1.30891229 — 947 070 —1.29332332 — 859 O94 —1.31038545 —940 072 —1.29469534 —870 096 —1.31186800 —926 0.074 —1.29607606 — 882 0.098 .—1,31835979 —906 076 —1.29746561 — 894 . LOO sail . 31486062 —876 t Bos(t) 62* t : » Bos(t) 0.054 —3.38126695 —4913 0.078 —3.45024892 —6194 056 —3.38672012 —5011 080 —3.45637497 —6261 .058 —3.39222340 —112 .082 —3.46256358 —6299 060 —3.39777781 —5217 084. —3.46881510 —6297 062 —3.40338439 —§325 .086 —83.47512950 — 6244 0.064 —3.40904423 —5435 0.088 —3.48150622 —6125 066 —3.41475842 — 5549 .090 —3.48794403 — 5926 .068 —3.42052811 — 5664 092 —3:49444093 — 5630 .070 —3.42635445 —5780 094 —3.50099392 —6221 072 —3.43223858 —5895 096 —3.50759889 —4681 0.074 —3.43818166 — 6005 0.098 —3.51425039 — 3993 076 —3.44418477 —6107 . LOO —3.52094153 —3140 t Bos(t) &2% t Bos(t) 0.050 —6.57438997 — 18790 0.076 —6.78616623 | —25694 .052 —6.58939210 — 19309 078 —6.80413169 — 25492 054 —6.60458737 —19853 080 —6.82235131 — 24877 056 —6.61998122 — 20421 082 —6.84081872 — 23731 058 —6.63557932 —21014 084 —6.85952224 — 21930 0.060 —6.65138761 —21631 0.086 —6.87844361 — 19343 062 —6.66741223 — 22267 088 —6.89755673 — 15839 064 —6.68365955 — 22916 .090 —6.91682633 —11297 066 —6.70013603 — 23565 092 —6.93620681 — 65610 068 —6.71684811 — 24193 094 —6.95564113 1308 0.070 —6.73380202 — 24770 0.096 —6.97506001 9513 .072 —6.75100345 — 25252 .098 —6.99438137 19030 O74 —6.76845713 — 25584 . LOO —7.01351005 29845 t Bos(t) & oa* t Bos(t) o4* 0.038 —10.75824418 —46918 —80 0.048 —10.91679814 — 55663 Ili? .040 —10.78895146 — 48480 —86 050 —10.95010395 — 57732 —125 042 —10.82014355 — 50128 —93 052 —10.98398708 — 59925 —129 044 —10.85183691 —51869 —101 054 —11.01846945 — 62244 —124 046 —10.88404897 —§3712 —109 056 —11.05357427 — 64685 —104 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 189 TABLE 2 (Continued) é Bos(t) & 5i* t Bos(t) 62 6i* 0.058 —11.08932593 | — 67224 | —57 0.080 —11.58046855 — 39846 5045 .060 —11.12574983 — 69811 30 | .O82 —11.57447265 — 19833 5535 .062 —11.16287184 —72357 | 176 O84 —11.61867508 5673 5822 .064 —11.20071743 | —74711 398 .O86 —11.66282079 36948 5854 .066 —11.23931012 — 76647 714 .O8S —11.70659701 74020 5602 0.068 | —11.27866929 —77849 1132 0.090 —11.74963303 116634 5054 .070 —11.31880695 — T7897 1658 .092 —11.79150270 164246 4227 072 —11.35972359 —76269 2280 .094 —11.83172991 216035 3160 O74 —11.40140291 —72346 2973 .096 —11.86979678 270947 1913 .076 Pgs 11.44380569 | — 65443 3702 .098 —11.90515419 327749 551 0.078 —11.48686291 — 54843 4412 0.100 —11.93723410 385102 — 820 t Bos(t) o 63* t Bog(t) 2 641* 0.038 —16.19402257 — 115546 —325 0.070 —17.31871445 —147885 15427 .040 —16.25305645 — 120532 —358 .072 —17.40366023 — 105442 18308 .042 —16.31329566 — 125877 — 397 O74 —17.48966044 — 44852 20407 044 —16.37479363 —131619 —437 .076 —17.57610917 35900 21301 .046 —16.438760780 — 137798 —478 .O78 —17.66219889 137644 20667 0.048 —16.50179996 — 144453 —508 0.080 —17.74691218 259718 18360 .050 —16.56743664 —151608 — 508 .082 —17.82902829 399829 14448 -052 —16.63458941 — 159255 —435 084 —17.90714611 554124 9227 .054 —16.70333473 — 167308 —227 .O86 —17.97972270 717476 3166 -056 —16.77375313 —175541 205 .O88 —18.04512453 883937 —3168 0.058 —16.84592694 —183500 969 0.090 —18.10168699 1047285 — 9220 .060 —16.91993576 — 190399 2178 .092 —18.14777660 1201566 — 14501 .062 —16.99584856 —195011 3920 .094 —18.18185055 13841567 — 18685 .064 —17.07371148 —195590 6229 .096 —18.20250883 1463141 —21591 .066 —17.15353030 —189839 9050 .098 —18.20853570 1563386 — 23208 0.068 ee 17 . 23524752 —174972 12213 0.100 —18.19892871 1640665 — 23641 t Boz(t) 8 ae t Box(t) Fa ean 0.038 — 22 .84623335 — 254402 —1145 0.070 — 24 90724364 234545 64464 .040 — 22 .94989993 — 268407 —1294 .072 — 25 .05684615 542328 55841 .042 — 23 .05625058 — 283709 —1459 074 — 25 .20102537 904489 39846 .044 — 23 .16543832 — 300467 —1618 .076 — 25 .33615971 1305403 18358 -046 — 23 .27763073 — 318823 —1703 .078 —25.45824001 1724167 — 5648 0.048 — 23 .39301137 — 338832 —1568 0.080 — 25 .56307864 2137424 — 28886 .050 —23.51178033 — 360301 —939 .082 —25.64654303 2522496 — 48542 -052 — 23 .63415230 — 382513 606 -084 —25.70478246 2860097 — 62802 -054 — 23 .76034940 — 403816 3617 .086 —25.73442092 3136109 —71006 -056 — 23 .89058467 —421088 8665 .O88 — 25 .73269830 3342274 — 73476 0.058 — 24 .02503081 —429207 16157 0.090 —25.69755294 3475937 —71176 .060 — 24 .16376903 — 420694 26077 .092 —25.62764821 3539151 — 653859 .062 — 2430671419 —385775 37745 .094 — 25 .52235196 3537479 — 57287 064 —24.45351710 — 3138083 49684 .096 —25.38168093 3478768 — 48061 -066 — 2460345084 —191111 59722 .098 — 25 .20622222 3372065 — 38544 0.068 — 24 .75529569 —10311 65372 0.100 — 24 .99704285 3226756 — 29362 t Bos(t) & 64* t Bos(t) & 6i* 0.036 —30.60787030 | —486206 | —3156 || 0.048 —31.68770893 | —742222 128 .038 —30.77356474 | —518653 | —3657 .050 —31.89080650 | —793718 8990 .040 —30.94444571 —554766 | —4223 052 —32.10184125 | —834698 25396 042 —31.12087435 | —595081 | —4740|| .054 —32.32122297 | —848446 51147 .044 —31.30325380 — 640033 — 4854 .056 —32.54908916 — 809378 85721 0.046 —31.49203358 — 689557 — 3738 0.058 —32.78504912 — 683834 124749 190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 TABLE 2 (Continued t Bos(t) & 64* t Bos(t) & éa* 0.058 —32.78504912 —172901 7783 || 0.079 — 34 .62241003 1586669 — 12509 .059 —32.90571600 — 146456 8939 080 —34.59908069 1622264 —12231 .060 — 33 .02784743 —111103 9944 O81 —34.55952871 1645676 —11727 061 —33.15108989 — 65857 10704 082 — 34.50351998 1657398 —11043 062 — 33 .27499093 —9976 11129 .083 — 3443093726 1658104 — 10226 0.063 —33.39899174 56949 11143 |) 0.084 —34.34177351 1648604 —9317 064 —33 .52242304 134924 10695 085 — 34 .23612372 1629798 — 8352 .065 —33.64450511 223495 9762 086 —34.11417595 1602646 —7364 .066 — 33. 76435223 321732 8359 087 —33.97620172 1568129 —6378 067 —33.88098202 | 428243 6539 088 — 33 .82254620 1527230 —5415 0.068 —33.99332939 | 541225 4386 || 0.089 — 383 .65361837 1480909 —4491 069 —34. 10026452 658547 2009 090 — 33.46988146 1430085 — 3620 .070 —34.20061418 777856 —469 O91 —33.27184370 1375629 — 2809 O71 —34.29318527 896702 — 2923 092 — 33 .06004964 1318351 — 2064 .072 — 34.37678934 1012653 — 5237 093 —32.83507206 1258995 — 1388 0.073 —34.45026689 1123415 —7315 || 0.094 —32.59750454 1198236 —783 074 —34.51251027 | 1226926 —9083 095 —32.34795466 1136680 — 247 .075 — 34. 56248440 1321425 — 10497 .096 —32.08703798 1074863 222 .076 —34.59924428 1405505 — 11534 097 —31.81537268 1013255 627 O77 —34.62194911 1478126 —12199 098 —31.53357483 952261 971 0.078 — 34 .62987267 1538621 —12512 | 0.099 —31. 24225437 892227 1259 . LOO —30.94201165 833441 1496 t Bos(t) & é4* t Bos(t) & 5a* 0.032 — 39 . 29449364 —797677 —6504 || 0.063 —44 .20921055 1205803 3012 034 — 39. 53583656 — 857888 —7691 064 —44.36117981 1453787 —4249 .036 —39.78575836 — 925841 —9156 .065 —44.49861119 1697580 —11223 .038 —40.04493857 — 1002981 — 10862 066 —44.61906677 1930295 —17476 040 —40.31414860 — 1090889 — 12362 067 —44.72021939 2145744 — 22688 0.068 —44.79991457 2338756 — 26664 0.040 —40.31414860 — 272533 —764 .069 —44 .85622219 2505370 — 29335 041 —40.45278490 — 284631 —T11 .070 —44.88747611 2642907 — 30740 042 —40. 59426750 — 297495 —738 071 —44 89230095 2749940 — 30993 043 — 40 .73872506 — 311078 —615 072 —44 .86962640 2826183 — 30260 0.044 —40.88629339 — 325249 —359 || 0.073 —44.81869001 2872331 — 28730 045 —41.03711421 —339738 91 074 —44.73903032 2889874 — 26597 046 —41.19133241 — 354080 808 .075 —44 63047188 2880907 — 24044 047 —41.34909142 — 367543 1872 .076 —44 49310437 2847951 — 21233 048 —41.51052585 —379047 3357 077 —44 32725735 2793788 —18303 0.049 —41.67575075 —387095 5324 || 0.078 —44 13347244 2721324 — 15370 050 —41.84484660 —389717 7797 .079 — 43 .91247430 2633473 —12523 051 —42.01783962 — 384445 10748 .080 —43.66514143 2533068 —9829 052 —42.19467710 — 368351 14078 081 —43 .39247788 2422793 —7338 053 —42.37519808 — 338142 17604 .082 — 43 .09558639 2305132 — 5080 0.054 —42.55910049 — 290346 21062 | 0.083 —42.77564358 2182340 —3072 .055 —42.74590636 — 221574 24113 084 —42.43387737 2056423 —1318 .056 —42.93492797 — 128850 26382 085 —42.07154693 1929137 184 057 — 43 . 12523809 —9981 27498 .086 —41.68992512 1801986 1447 058 — 4331564801 136091 27157 087 — 41. 29028344 1676236 2486 0.059 —43.50469703 308987 25175 || 0.088 —40.87387941 1552929 3320 .060 —43 .69065618 506721 21530 .089 —40.44194609 1432904 3969 061 —43.87154813 725681 16383 .090 —39 99568373 1316815 4456 .062 — 44 04518327 960785 10060 O91 —39 . 53625322 1205153 4803 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION 191 TABLE 2 (Continued) t Bos(t) & | os t Bos(t) & éi* 0.092 —39 06477119 1098268 5028 || 0.096 — 37 .07894679 721673 5082 093 —38.58230647 | 996391 | 5152 097 — 36 .56222412 640335 4957 -O094 —38.08987785 899648 5193 || .098 — 36 .03909809 563948 4801 -095 — 37 .58845274 SOSO84 5165 099 —35.51033258 492357 4620 . 100 —34.97664350 425383 4424 t Boiolt) | & 6s* t Boio(t) 53 6i* 0.028 —48.93882386 | —1202408 | —11584 || 0.065 —56.52998671 4602315 | —69824 .030 —49.27114088 | —1301872 | —13884 || .066 —56.48517156 4711483 | —66433 .032 —49.61647662 | —1415353 | —16830 | .067 —56 39324157 4754647 | —60969 034 —49.97596589 | —1545821 | —20620 | .068 —56.25376511 4737135 | —54105 .036 —50.35091338 | —1697009 | —25236 | .069 —56.06691731 4665687 | —46444 | 0.070 —55.83341263 4547860 — 38492 0.036 —950.35091338 — 423861 — 1566 O71 —55.55442936 4391521 — 30652 037 — 50. 54464716 — 445002 —1702 072 — 55. 23153088 4204449 — 23227 .038 —50.74283095 — 467836 —1800 073 —54.86658790 3994025 — 16426 -039 —50.94569311 | —492449 — 1806 O74 —54.46170468 3767020 — 10881 0.040 —51.15347975 — 518828 —1628 || 0.075 —54.01915126 3529467 — 5154 O41 —51.36645468 | —546768 | —1132 .076 —53.54130316 3286590 —758 042 —51.58489728 | —575732 | —128 || .077 —53.03058917 3042791 2839 -043 —51.80909721 | —604668 1625 O78 —52.48944726 2801677 5691 - O44 —52.03934382 | —631769 4397 079 —51.92028859 2566116 7875 0.045 —2.27590812 — 654210 8454 || 0.080 —51.32546875 2338310 9474 046 —52.51901452 — 667897 13993 O81 —650.70726582 2119874 10574 O47 —52.76879988 | —667285 21059 082 —50.06786415 1911926 11258 -048 — 53 .02525809 — 645352 29454 083 —49 40934321 1715166 11605 049 —53.28816983 — 593812 38662 084 —48 .73367061 1529955 11682 0.050 —53.55701968 — 503635 47807 || 0.085 —48 .04269846 1356383 11552 051 —53.83090588 — 365917 55702 || = .086 —47 33816248 1194329 11265 -052 — 54. 10845125 — 173034 60986 087 — 46 .62168320 1043517 10865 053 —54.38772696 80041 62366 088 —45.89476876 903552 10386 054 —54.66620225 394504 58895 089 —45.15881879 773963 9858 0.055 —054.94073251 766818 50239 | 0.090 —44.41512920 654226 9303 056 — 55. 20759459 1188415 36819 -091 — 483 .66489735 543790 8737 057 —55.46257251 1646104 19779 092 —42.90922759 442091 8173 058 —55.70108939 2123175 783 093 —42.14913693 348567 7621 059 — 55.91837453 2601005 | —18306 094 —41.38556060 262668 7088 0.060 — 56. 10964961 3060851 — 35762 || 0.095 —40.61935759 183861 6578 -061 —56.27031619 3485526 — 60254 096 —39.85131597 111639 6094 -062 —56.39612751 3860706 — 60975 097 — 39 .08215796 45516 5638 063 —56.48333176 4175730 — 67650 .098 — 38 .31254479 — 14963 5210 064 —56.52877871 4423895 —70443 099 — 3754308125 —70225 4810 0.100 —36.77431996 — 120672 4438 t Bou(t) e 64* t Bou(t) & ea* 0.024 —59.45834307 | —1685185 | —18175 || 0.036 —62.38981746 | —757890 | —3908 -026 — 59. 89463889 — 1833686 — 21984 037 —62.67503599 — 804358 — 3906 .028 — 60 .34927157 — 2004408 — 26912 .038 — 62.96829809 — 854613 — 3358 030 — 60.82394833 — 2202369 — 33415 039 — 63. 27010633 —908010 —1807 032 —61.32064878 — 2434168 — 42147 040 — 63 .58099467 — 962866 1391 0.041 —63.90151167 — 1015822 7043 0.032 —61.32064878 — 607882 — 2631 042 — 64. 23218690 — 1061056 16013 033 —61.57796683 — 640603 — 2956 043 — 64.57347268 — 1089466 29007 034 —61.84169091 — 676284 — 3310 044 — 64 .92565313 — 1088026 46249 035 —62.11217783 —715271 — 3654 045 — 65. 28871383 — 1039641 67094 192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY TABLE 2 (Continued) OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 6 t Bou(t) & 64* t Bout) & 6i* 0.046 lca 65 .66217095 — 923852 89689 0.066 — 67 .91867853 6420178 — 39783 047 —66.04486658 —718709 110863 067 — 67 .40653772 6018292 — 24154 .048 — 66 .43474930 — 403867 126434 .068 — 66 .83421399 5591764 — 10927 049 — 66 .82867070 35383 132018 .069 — 66. 20597261 5153808 —160 050 — 67 .22223827 603971 124219 .070 —65.52619315 4715211 8258 0.071 —64.79926159 4284433 14551 0.0500 — 67 . 22223827 149069 7742 O72 —64.02948570 3867828 19004 .0505 —67.41716182 231926 7155 .073 —63.22103152 3469908 21921 .0510 — 67 .60976612 321892 6344 O74 —62.37787828 3093651 23599 0515 —67.79915150 418160 5329 .075 —61.50378852 2740792 24312 0.0520 —67.98435528 519720 4136 0.076 —60.60229083 2412093 24296 0525 —68.16436186 625389 2806 .O77 — 59 .67667222 2107578 23750 .0530 —68.33811455 738845 1382 .078 — 58 .72997782 1826736 22838 0535 —68 .50452879 843673 —88 079 —57.76501606 1568682 21687 .0540 — 68. 66250631 953414 — 1557 O80 —56.78436747 1332283 20394 0.0545 —68.81094968 1061607 —2978 || 0.081 —55.79039606 1116264 19034 .0550 — 68. 94877698 1166841 —4312 .082 —54.78526200 919276 17660 .0555 —69.07493587 1267788 — 5523 .083 —53.77093519 739952 16310 .0560 —69.18841688 1363242 — 6586 084 —52.74920886 576948 15009 .0565 — 69. 28826547 1452145 —7483 .O85 —51.721713805 428966 13774 0.0570 —69.37359261 1533601 — 8202 0.086 — 50.68992758 294774 12613 .0575 — 69 .44858373 1606892 —8742 .087 —49 65519437 173212 11532 .0580 —69.49750593 1671478 —9105 .O88 —48.61872905 63197 10531 .0585 —69.58471335 1726993 —9300 .089 —47.58163174 — 36270 9608 .0590 — 69 .55465084 1773240 —9339 .090 —46.54489715 — 126114 8761 0.0595 —69.55685594 1810177 — 9237 0.091 —45. 50942369 — 207182 7985 . 0600 —69.54095926 1837903 —9012 .092 —44.47602205 — 280252 7277 093 —43 .44542293 — 346032 6630 094 —42.41828414 —405169 6041 0.060 —69 .54095926 7342622 | —144387 095 —41.39519703 — 458255 5505 0.061 —69.45384146 7458610 | —132304 0.096 —40.37669248 — 505826 5017 .062 —69.29213755 7443238 | —115693 .097 —39 36324618 — 548371 4573 063 —69 .05600127 7312698 —96611 .098 — 38 .35528359 — 586335 4168 064 —68.74673801 7085719 —76778 .099 — 37 .35318435 — 620123 3801 .065 —68 .36661756 6781859 — 57521 . 100 — 36. 35728633 — 650104 3465 t Boi2(t) & 6i* i Bois(t) & oi* 0.028 —73.12028739 — 812184 —3800 || 0.0400 —77.75009965 —422901 2858 .029 —73.44733084 —857831 —4308 .0405 —77.98577289 —427722 3883 .030 —73.78295260 —907806 —4910 .0410 —78 . 22572336 — 428626 5079 031 —74.12765243 — 962709 — 5609 0415 —78.46996009 —424419 6435 .032 —74.48197934 — 1023238 —6401 .0420 —78.71844101 —413750 7924 0.033 —74.84653864 — 1090169 —7222 0.0425 —78 .97105943 — 395140 9502 084 —75. 22199963 — 1164281 — 7894 .0430 —79.22762925 — 367023 11108 .035 —75.60910343 — 1246157 —8014 .0435 —79.48786930 — 327810 12661 .036 —76.00866880 — 1335749 — 6804 .0440 —79.75138745 — 275965 14070 037 —76.42159166 — 1431577 — 2965 -0445 —80.01766525 — 210103 15230 0.038 —76.84883029 —1529411 5420 || 0.0450 — 80. 28604407 — 129084 16036 .039 —77 . 29136303 — 1620389 20758 .0455 —80.55571374 —32121 16390 0460 —80.82570461 81123 16214 .0465 —81.09488426 210462 15454 0.0390 —77.29136303 — 405433 1313 .0470 —81.36195929 355132 14094 0.0395 —77.51865541 —415186 2005 || 0.0475 —81.62548300 513778 12152 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION TABLE 2 (Continued) 193 Bois(t) & a | t Bois(t) & ean 0.0480 —S1.S88386893 684470 | 9692 0.068 —75.37454332 4397549 47529 .0485 —$2.138541015 S64768 | 6809 | 069 —74.21716655 3827973 47567 -0490 —§2.37830369 1051813 | 3626 | .070 —73.02151004 3305671 46221 -0495 —S82.61067910 1242451 | 282 | O71 —71.79279683 2829400 43983 .0500 —$2.83062999 1433368 | — 3078 | .072 —70.53578961 2397000 41220 0.0505 —§$3.03624720 1621231 —6318 0.073 —69.25481240 2005763 38201 .0510 —§3.22565211 1802825 | —9315 O74 — 67 .95877756 1652709 35110 -0515 —§3.39702876 1975173 | —11975 || .075 — 66 .63621562 1384775 32071 .0520 —§83.54865369 | 2135630 | —14228 | O76 —65.80530593 1048937 29163 -0525 —8$3.67892232 2281956 | —16019 | .O77 —63.96390688 792297 26432 0.0530 —83.78637139 | 2412359 | —17344 0.078 —62.61458485 562131 23900 .0535 —§3.86969688 2525514 | —18202 .079 —61.25964152 355907 21577 .0540 —83.92776723 | 2620557 | —18618 | -O80 —59.90113912 171302 19458 .0545 —83.95963201 | 2697067 ee: 18627 | -O81 —58.54092370 6196 17537 -0550 —§$3.96452612 | 2755023 —18277 | .O82 — 57.18064633 — 141335 15800 0.0555 —83.94186999 | 2794767 | —17618 0.083 —55.82178230 — 273031 14234 .0560 —§3.89126621 2816945 — 16705 . O84 —54.46564858 — 390460 12825 .0565 —§3.81249297 2822460 | ~—15591 .085 —53.11841946 —495034 11557 .0570 —8$3.70549514 2812414 | —14329 -086 —51.76614068 — 588025 10418 0575 —§3.57037317 2788061 | —12965 O87 —50.42474215 — 670574 9395 0.0580 —83.40737058 2750755 | —11544 0.088 —49 .09004937 — 743707 8475 | 089 —47.76279365 — 808345 7648 .090 —46.44362138 — 865318 6904 0.058 —§3.40737058 10991480 | —184794 O91 —45.133102380 —915372 6235 .059 —82.99933123 10563138 | —138812 .092 —43.83173693 —959176 5632 0.060 —82.48566049 9995505 — 95416 0.093 —42.53996333 — 997336 5089 -061 | —§81.87203471 9331454 — 57108 094 —41.25816308 — 1030396 4599 . 062 —81.16509439 8609015 —25181 .095 — 39 .98666680 — 1058846 4158 .063 - —§80.37206392 7860033 28 .096 — 38 .72575897 — 1083129 3758 064 —79.50043311 7109779 18863 097 — 387 .47568243 — 1103647 3397 0.065 —78 .55770452 6377234 32081 0.098 — 36. 23664236 — 1120759 3071 .066 —77 .55120358 5675804 40625 .099 —35.00880988 —1134795 2776 .067 —76.48794461 5014231 45474 . 100 — 33 .79232535 — 1146048 2508 t Bois(t) & é4* t Bois(t) & 6a* 0.027 —86.87876135 — 1214067 —7283 0.0390 —93.19200725 — 642383 11936 .028 — 87 .31335328 —1291759 — 8404 .0395 — 983 .52271860 — 625137 15115 .029 —87.76086279 — 1377901 —9751 .0400 — 93 .85968132 — 592735 18506 -030 —88 . 22215132 —1473841 —11343 -0405 —94.20257140 — 541820 21937 .031 —88 .69817826 — 1581152 —13122 .0410 —94 .55087968 — 469009 25179 0.032 —89.19001672 — 1701545 — 14810 0.0415 —94.90387805 — 371115 27962 -033 —89.69887063 — 1836529 — 15637 .0420 —95.26058757 — 245413 29996 .034 —90. 22608983 — 1986560 — 13907 .0425 —95.61975123 — 89926 31001 -035 —90.77317463 — 2149247 — 6477 .0430 —95.97981415 96303 30742 .0435 —96.33891404 312986 29063 0.0350 —90.77317463 — 537225 — 381 0.0440 —96 .69488406 558434 25918 -0355 —91.05467178 — 558296 81 -0445 —97 .04526975 829517 21385 -0360 —91.34175189 — 579241 758 .0450 —97.38736027 1121743 15662 .0365 —91.63462441 — 599372 1701 .0455 —97 .71823336 1429452 9052 .0370 —91.93349065 —617737 2965 .0460 —98 .034811938 1746106 1923 0.0375 — 92. 23853426 — 633060 4598 0.0465 —98 . 33392945 2064657 — 5326 0380 —92.54990848 — 643703 6634 .0470 —98.61240040 2377934 —12312 0385 —92.86771973 — 647627 9088 .0475 —98 .86709201 2679021 — 18697 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON TABLE 2 (Continued) ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6 l Bois(t) 6 é4* 1 Bos(t) 6 oi* 0.0480 | —99.09499341 2961585 — 24219 0.066 —84.79156871 3597857 74666 .0485 —99 . 29327896 3220144 — 28698 .067 —83.15850583 2971198 68187 .0490 —99 .45936308 3450236 — 32040 .068 —81.49573096 2412718 61711 .0495 —99 .59094482 3648526 — 34227 .069 —79.80882891 1915999 55499 . 0500 —99.68604132 3812815 — 35305 .070 —78. 10276687 1474862 49701 0.0505 —99 .74300966 3942009 — 35366 0.071 —76.38195621 1083522 44384 .0510 —99.76055791 4036020 — 34536 .072 —74.65031033 736669 39567 0515 —99.73774597 4095650 — 32959 .073 —72.91129775 429483 35239 .0520 —99.67397752 4122444 — 30788 074 —71.16799035 157632 31372 .0525 | —99. 56898463 4118541 — 28172 075 —69.42310662 — 82760 27929 0.0530 —99 .42280633 4086530 — 25254 0.076 —67.67905050 — 295142 24871 0585 —99 . 23576274 4029300 — 22164 O77 —65.93794580 — 482582 22158 .0540 | —99.00842614 3949920 — 19016 .O78 —64.20166691 — 647800 19752 0545 —98 .741590385 3851516 — 15906 079 —62.47186603 —793209 17619 .0550 —98.43623940 3737182 — 12914 .O80 —60.74999724 — 920949 15726 0.0555 —98 .09351662 3609899 — 10098 0.081 — 59 .03733794 — 1082919 14046 . 0560 —97.71469486 3472473 —7505 .O82 — 57 .33500782 —1130805 12553 .0565 —97.30114836 3327490 —5159 .083 —55.64398576 — 1216103 11225 .0570 —96.85432697 3177294 —3079 084 —53.96512473 — 1290147 10043 .0575 —96.37573263 3023965 — 1265 .O85 —52.29916517 — 1354121 8989 0.0580 —95.86689865 2869317 288 0.086 — 50.64674682 — 1409083 8049 .0585 —95.32937150 2714906 1592 087 —49.00841929 — 1455974 7209 .0590 —94.76469528 2562040 2666 088 —47.38465151 — 1495638 6458 .0595 —94.17439867 2411797 3529 .O89 —45.77584011 — 1528827 5786 .0600 —93.55998409 2265043 4205 .090 —44.18231699 — 1556216 5184 0.0605 —92 92291907 2122460 4714 0.091 —42.60435602 — 1578407 4644 .0610 —92. 26462946 1984561 5082 -092 —41.04217913 — 1595943 4159 .0615 —91.58649423 1851719 5327 .093 —39.49596166 — 1609308 3724 .0620 —90. 88984181 1724183 5471 094 — 37 .96583727 — 1618941 3332 .095 — 36 .45190230 — 1625233 2980 0.062 | —90.88984181 6902184 87710 0.096 —34.95421966 — 1628538 2663 .063 —89.44603233 5947633 88438 .097 —33.47282240 — 1629174 2377 064 —87 .94274653 5080769 85633 .098 —32.00771688 — 1627426 2119 .065 —86.38865303 4299082 80707 .099 — 30. 55888562 — 1623554 1887 . 100 — 29. 12628990 —1617791 1677 t Boua(t) 6 64* l Bous(t) & 64* 0.025 —101.30409740 — 1644407 — 11366 0.0345 —107.37139628 —871710 2729 .026 | —101.85129899 — 1757942 — 13259 .0350 — 107 .75962562 —902403 5215 .027 —102.41607998 — 1884823 — 15579 .0355 — 108. 15687900 —927712 8532 .028 —102.99970921 — 2027389 — 18427 .0360 — 108 .56340950 — 944300 12772 .029 — 103 .60361234 — 2188483 — 21834 .0365 —108.97938300 — 947924 17959 0.030 — 104. 22940030 — 2371437 — 25551 0.0370 —109.40483574 — 933416 24015 .031 —104.87890263 — 2579705 — 28519 .03875 —109.83962264 — 894762 30729 .0380 —110.28335717 — 825327 37731 0385 —110.73534496 —718217 44488 0.0310 —104.87890263 — 644487 —1768 0390 —111.19451493 — 566812 50329 | 0.0315 | —105.21318682 — 673100 —1788 0.0395 —111.65935301 — 365421 54511 .0320 —105.55420201 —703480 —1712 .0400 —112.12784531 — 110007 56304 .0325 —105.90225200 — 735540 — 1486 -0405 —112.59743767 201105 55121 .0330 — 106. 25765740 —769039 — 1034 -0410 —1138.06501899 566664 50617 .0335 —106.62075319 — 803505 —261 .0415 —113.52693367 982165 42783 0.0340 —838141 949 0.0420 —113.97902669 1439848 31974 | —106. 99188403 JUNE 1955 BLANCH AND RHODES: VALUES OF MATHIEU’S EQUATION TABLE 2 (Continwed) 195 Bais(t ) & 5i* | t Boia(t) & 6i* 0.0425 —114.41672124 1929039 | 18871 | 0.062 —98 . 13350366 4159602 | 114497 0430 —114.83512539 2436822 | 4394 | — .063 —96.04389419 3321140 | 101883, 0435 —115.22916133 2948925 | —10433 || .064 —93.92107332 2584730 90139 0440 —115.59370802 3450724 | —24613 | .065 —91.77240515 1938675 79474 0445 —115.92374746 3928211 | —387295 | .066 —89. 60435024 1372324 69938 0.0450 —116.21450480 4368834 | —47844 | 0.067 —87 .42257208 876135 61496 0455 —116.46157379 4762126 | —55869 || .068 — 85. 23203258 441651 54069 0460 —116.66102152 5100094 —61223 || .069 —83.03707657 61426 47559 -0465 —116.80946831 53877374 | —63956 | 070 —80.84150630 — 271071 41861 -0470 —116.90414135 5591193 | —64278 | — .071 —78.64864674 — 561559 36880 0.0475 —116.94290247 | 0741165 —62505 || 0.072 —76.46140277 —815037 32523 .0480 —116.92425195 | 5828986 | —59013 073 —74. 28230916 — 1035879 28710 0485 —116.84731156 o858067 — 54203 O74 —72.11357435 —1227913 25369 -0490 —116.71179050 | 5833138 —48469 | .075 —69.95711866 — 1394493 22438 -0495 —116.51793807 5759855 | —42183 || .076 —67.81460789 — 1538561 19863 | 0.0500 —116.26648709 | 5644439 | —35669 | 0.077 —65.68748273 — 1662701 17598 -0505 —115.95859172 | 5493346 — 29205 078 — 63 .57698459 — 1769188 15601 -0510 —115.59576288 | 5312995 | —23010 || .079 —61.48417833 — 1860026 13839 -0515 —115.17980410 | 5109546 —17251 080 —59.40997232 — 1936982 12282 0520 —114.71274985 | 4888735 | —12037 || .081 — 57 35513615 — 2001619 10904 | | 0.0525 —114.19680825 | 4655762 —7434 || 0.082 —55.32031616 — 2055320 9682 -0530 | —113.63430903 4415225 — 3466 083 — 5330604938 — 2099311 8598 0535 —113.02765756 4171092 —125 | .084 —61.31277571 — 2134678 7635 -0540 | —112.37929518 3926712 2620 085 —49 . 34084881 — 2162388 6779 -0545 | —111.69166567 3684839 4816 086 —47 .39054579 — 2183299 6016 0.0550 —110.96718777 3447679 6521 | 0.087 —45.46207576 — 2198177 5336 .0555 | —110.20823308 3216953 7797 088 —43 55558751 — 2207704 4730 -0560 —109.41710886 2993948 8707 089 —41.67117630 — 2212487 4189 0565 — 108 .59604516 2779585 9307 .090 —39.80888996 — 2213070 3705 .0570 =| —107.74718562 2574477 9655 O91 — 37 .96873432 — 2209938 3272 0.0575 — 106 .87258130 2378982 9798 || 0.092 — 36. 15067806 — 2203523 2885 0580 —105.97418715 2193252 9781 093 — 34.35465703 — 2194215 2539 0585 — 105 .05386050 2017276 9639 094 —32.58057815 — 2182361 2229 0590 —104.11336108 1850920 9403 095 — 30 .82832288 — 2168271 1951 096 — 29 .09775032 — 2152225 1702 0.059 —104.11336108 7413070 150624 || 0.097 — 27 .38870001 — 2134471 1478 060 —102.17840430 6193041 140062 098 — 25.70099441 — 2115235 1278 061 —100.18151711 5112626 127517 099 — 2403444116 — 2094717 1098 . LOO — 22.38883508 — 2073097 937 t Bois(t) & eae t Bois(t) @ ot 0.021 —115.37522442 — 1873431 —12190 | 0.0300 —121.91125518 — 950918 —3174 022 —116.00559855 — 1999276 — 14122 .0305 —122.34596066 — 998951 — 3049 023 —116.65596543 — 2139333 — 16481 .0310 —122.79065566 — 1049965 — 2602 024 —117.32772565 — 2295985 — 19381 .0315 —123.24585029 —1103475 — 1657 025 —118.02244572 — 2472166 — 22989 0320 —123.71207968 — 1158488 23 0.026 —118.74188746 — 2671526 — 27523 || 0.0325 —124.18989393 —1213264 2726 027 —119.48804445 — 2898635 — 33213 0330 —124.67984084 — 1265038 6772 028 —120.26318780 — 3159160 —40110 0335 —125.18243812 — 1309697 12488 -029 —121.06992276 — 3459746 —47378 .0340 —125.69813237 — 1341474 20135 0345 — 126. 22724136 — 1352702 29837 0.0290 —121.06992276 — 864204 —2942 || 0.0350 —126.76987737 — 1333709 41466 0295 — 121.48605888 — 906017 —3109 .0355 | —127.32585047 | —1272966 54550 196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 TABLE 2 (Continued) t Bois(t) & 64* | t Bois(t) 62 é41* 0.0360 —127.89455322 | —1157576 68184 || 0.057 —116.10010101 6616027 | 201004 .0365 —128.47483174 —974181 81026 .058 —113.55371568 5272839 | 176777 .0370 —129 06485206 —710278 91385 | 059 —110.95460197 4106766 | 154352 0375 —129.66197516 — 355875 97433 060 —108.31442060 3095506 | 134244 0380 —130.26265701 | 94751 97525 O61 —105.64328416 2218978 116545 0.0385 —130.86239135 641476 90557 | 0.062 —102.94995795 1459466 | 101145 .0390 —131.45571093 1277282 76262 .063 —100.24203708 801526 87812 0395 —132.03625768 1988020 55362 064 —97 .52610095 231778 76319 0400 —132.59692424 2753117 29485 .065 —94.80784704 — 261322 66412 0405 —133.138005962 3547148 899 066 —92.09220636 — 687726 57874 0.0410 — 133 .62772353 4342030 —27889 | 0.067 —89 38344293 — 1056012 50507 0415 —134.08196713 5109448 — 54530 068 — 86 .68523962 — 1373583 44140 .0420 —134.48511625 5823143 —77150 069 —84.00077214 — 1646836 38627 0425 —134.83003395 6460747 —94514 .070 —81.33277302 —1881310 33845 0430 —135.11034417 7005020 — 106050 071 —78.68358699 — 2081809 29687 0.0485 —135.32060420 7444425 —111777 || 0.072 —76.05521905 — 2252509 26066 0440 —135.45641997 7773146 —112164 .073 —73.44937620 — 2397047 22904 0445 | —135.51450429 7990640 — 107988 074 —70.86750382 — 2518599 20141 0450 —135.49268221 8100891 — 100194 .075 —68.31081742 — 2619938 17719 0455 —135.38985122 8111491 —89786 .076 —65.78033041 — 2703497 15594 0.0460 —135.20590531 8032648 —77736 || 0.077 — 63 .27687838 — 2771409 13726 0465 —134.94163293 7876232 — 64925 .078 —60.80114043 — 2825548 12083 0470 —134.59859823 7654900 —52096 .079 —58 .35365796 — 2867563 10634 .0475 —134.17901453 7381362 — 39837 O80 —55.93485112 — 2898909 9356 .0480 —133.68561721 7067788 — 28573 O81 —53.54503336 — 2920868 $226 0.0485 —133.12154201 6725384 —18573 0.082 —51.18442429 — 2934575 7226 0490 —132.49021297 6364122 —9975 .083 —48 .85316096 — 2941032 6342 0495 —131.79524272 5992592 — 2804 084 —46.55130795 — 2941126 5558 .0500 —131.04034654 5617978 2996 085 —44 27886621 — 2935645 4862 0505 —130.22927059 5246100 7535 086 —42.03578091 — 2925285 4245 0.0510 —129.36573364 4881527 10959 || 0.087 —39.82194845 — 2910665 3697 .0515 —128.45338142 4527715 13425 .088 — 37 .63722264 — 2892336 3210 .0520 —127.49575205 4187162 15091 089 —35.48142020 — 2870785 2777 0525 —126.49625107 3861565 16107 .090 — 33 .35432560 — 2846447 2393 0530 —125.45813444 3551967 16606 091 —31.25569546 — 2819707 2050 0.0535 —124.38449814 3258892 16706 || 0.092 —29.18526240 — 2790910 1746 0540 — 123. 27827293 2982461 16506 098 — 27 .14273844 — 2760359 1475 .0545 —122.14222310 2722489 16086 . 094 —25.12781808 — 2728328 1234 0550 —120.97894839 2478572 15513 095 —23.14018099 — 2695057 1020 0555 —119.79088795 2250146 14838 096 —21.17949447 — 2660762 829 0.0560 —118.58032606 2036544 14102 || 0.097 —19.24541557 — 2625632 660 .098 —17.33759299 — 2589839 510 099 —15.45566881 — 2553533 376 0.056 —118.58032606 8160273 225765 . 100 —13.59927996 — 2516848 258 _ forsan TUNE 1955 SMITH: BRAZILIAN PHANEROGAMS 197 BOTAN Y — Votes on Brazilian phanerogams. LyMAn B.Suitu, Department of Bot- any, U.S. National Museum. (Received March 31, 1955) The following miscellany is the result of studies toward the identification of various sollections of Brazilian phanerogams. In some instances I have had the advice of specialists as noted below. Dr. John D. Dwyer of St. Louis University has kindly zonsented to publish his new species of Luxemburgia here in order to facilitate early ase of the name. Family PoLyGoNAcEAE Coccoloba rubra L. B. Smith, sp. nov. Fies. 1-4 Imperfecte solum cognita sed verisimiliter arbor parva; ramulis 3-4 mm diametro, glabris, leviter striatis, lenticellis ellipticis; ochreis oblique truncatis, 10 mm longis, paulo divergenti- bus, basi herbaceis, apice tenuioribus; petiolis supra canaliculatis, ad 2 cm longis, glabris, ad 1, altitudinis ochreae insertis; foliorum laminis obovatis, emarginatis, basi rotundatis vel sub- truncatis, 16 cm longis, 12 cm latis, tenuiter coriaceis, plus minusve bullata, supra glabra, subtus ad nervos puberulis, nervulis utrinque prominulis, inflorescentia terminale in ramulis lateralibus brevibus, racemosa, solitaria, laxiflora, 20 cm longa, pedunculo ca. 1 em longo, rhachi 2 mm diametro, sulcata, glabra, nodulis 1-floris sed saepe aggregatis; bracteis late ellipticis, quam pedicellis subduplo brevioribus, membranaceis; ochreolis bracteas simulantibus sed latioribus; pedicellis gracilibus, 3.5 mm longis; floribus 4 mm longis; tubo perianthii late obconico, 1.5 mm longo, lobis late ellipticis, obtusis; staminibus juvenilibus profunde inclusis; ovario ovoideo, stylis 3, brevibus; fructu ignoto. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 2120041, collected in Mata do Hoffmann (Hoff- _mann’s woods), Brusque, Santa Catarina, Brazil, November 21, 1951, by Roberto Klein (Instituto de Malariologia no. 33). In Lindau’s “Monographia generis Coccolo- _bae” (Bot. Jahrb. 13: 106-229. 1891), this species would fall next to C. schwackeana in the key. However, unlike that species, its large leaves are emarginate at the apex and merely rounded or truncate at the base. Also the inflorescence is about twice as long as that of C. schwackeana. Family CoNNARACEAE Connarus rostratus (Vell.) L. B. Smith, comb. nov. Canicidia rostrata Vell. Fl. Flum. 184. 1825; Icon. 4: pl. 139. 1835. Connarus marginatus Planch. Linnaea 23: 429. 1850. Connarus cymosus Planch. op. cit. 480. Connarus beyrichii Planch. loc. cit. Neotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 282298, collected by F. Sellow in Brazil without further locality. The above type has been selected because, of the material available, it most nearly resembles the illustration in Vellozo’s Icones, both in the form of the leaflets and in the much branched inflorescence. In view of the variation in a single collection, Planchon’s species do not appear to be more than forms. Family MALPIGHIACEAB Heteropteris ocellata L. B. Smith, sp. nov. Fias. 5-9 Frutex erectus; ramulis teretibus, gracilibus, novellis ferrugineo-velutinis, mox — glabratis, eriseis, lenticellis minimis notatis, internodiis 3-6 cm longis; foliis oppositis, petiolis ad 5 mm longis, basi biglandulosis, laminis late ellipticis vel elliptico-obovatis, acutis cuspidatisque, basi rotundatis, ad 14.5 em longis, 7.5 em latis, sub- coriaceis, margine integerrimis, supra sparse albido-pilosis, subtus ferrugineo-velutinis et basi glandulosis, utrinque glabratis, biglandulosis; inflorescentiis axillaribus vel in ramulis 4-foliatis terminalibus, anguste pyramidatis, 14 cm longis, 6 cm diametro, ferrugineo-velutinis, umbellis 3-floris sed saepe aggregatis, bracteis ovatis, 3 mm longis, glandulis 2 orbicularibus ocellatis; pedunculis floriferis gracilibus, ad 5 mm longis; bracteolis parvis, ellipticis, eglandulosis; pedicellis gracilibus, ad 8 mm longis; sepalis erectis vel leviter incurvatis, ovatis, obtusis, 3.5 mm longis, glandulis calycinis 8 (sepalo unico nudo), oblongis; petalis luteis, ad 8 mm longis, margine subintegris; staminibus paulo inaequalibus, glaberrimis; stylis gracilibus, dorso apicis plus minusve angulatis; samaris late obliquo-obovatis, 25-30 mm longis, brunneo-alutaceis, puberulis, 198 margine superiore basi in appendiculam parvam producto, nuce obscura, obtuso-conoidea, crasse nervata sed sine alulis, areola applicatoria fere total faciem ventralem orbicularem occupante. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1997224, collected in campo, Municipio Ituiu- taba, Minas Gerais, Brazil, June 29, 1950, by Amaro Macedo (no. 2445). This species appears to be related to Heterop- teris catingarum Juss. and H. leschenaultiana Juss. Unlike the former it has its pedicels articulated at the ends of slender peduncles, and differs from the latter in the dense sub- persistent indument and two basal glands on the underside of the leaves and the elongate in- florescences. Banisteriopsis macedoana L. B. Smith, sp. nov. Fies. 10-12 Frutex erectus; ramis teretibus, gracillimis, glabris, rubiginosis sublucidisque, internodiis ca. 15 mm longis; foliis oppositis, graciliter ad 5 mm petiolatis, lineari-lanceolatis, cuneatis, longe acuminatis, 45 mm longis, 5 mm latis, margine integerrimis supra fuscentiis, glabris, ex sicco lineato-rugosis, subtus viridibus, primo pube sparse vestitis, mox glabratis, biglandulosis; ramulis axillaribus 6-folioliferis, sparse pubescen- tibus, umbellis 2-3-flores vel flore unico termina- tis; bracteolis lanceolatis, 1.5 mm longis; pedicellis gracillimis, ad apicem versus haud incrassatis, 12 mm longis, glabratis, floribus 12-14 mm diametro; sepalis ovatis, acutis, 3 mm longis, ferrugineo- tomentosis, glandulis calycinis 8 (sepalo unico nudo), oblongis, 2 mm longis; petalis roseis, valde inaequalibus; staminibus haud exsertis, filamentis 1.5 mm longis, alvo-pubescentibus, antherarum loculis pilosis, connectivo nullo modo producto; stylis aequalibus, apice incrassatis; samaris usque 24 mm longis, ferrugineo-pubescentibus, nuce cristis parvis lateralibus ornata, ala falcato- elliptica, 10 mm lata. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 2046573 and 2046574, collected in chapada (brushy field), near Kilometer 210 along the high- way from Sao Paulo to Cuiabdé, Municipio of Cruz Verde, Minas Gerais, Brazil, June 28, 1951, by Amaro Macedo (no. 3226). In Niedenzu’s Monograph of the Malpighia- ceae in the Pflanzenreich (IV. 141: 1-870. 1928), this species would fall next to Banisterva stellaris Griseb. However, it differs in its shrubby habit, and in its narrow acuminate cuneate biglandular leaves. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 6 In using the generic name Banisteriopsis I am following the interpretation of C. V. Morton that Banisteria, being made a nomen rejiciendum by the conservation of Heteropteris, is thereby barred from any other use. Family OcHNACEAE Luxemburgia macedoi Dwyer, sp. nov. Fiaes. 13-17 Arbusta; folia crebra apice ramulorum, stipulis saepe persistentibus lineari-subulatis, ad 0.4 cm longis, ciliis laxis ad subrectis paucis aut multis villosisque saepe arborescentibus ad 1.0 cm longis, petiolis glabris sublatis ad 0.7 cm longis, laminis glabris gracili-coriaceis oblongis, ad 9 cm longis, ad 3.5 cm latis, apice subobtusis (rare sub- truncatis) solitario cilio ad 0.5 em longo, basi attenuatis costa utrinque prominente venis prominulis (eis in medio ad 0.2 cm distantibus) marginibus vix serrulatis dentibus (praeter cilia pauca basi) subfaleatis aut uncinatisque, 0.3-0.5 mm longis; flores in racemis dispositi, rhachidibus glabris gracilibus superiora folia excedentibus, pedicellis gracilibus in medio cire. 0.5 mm latis, ascendentibus, ad 2.5 cm longis, locis articula- tionis a basi ad 0.5-4.5 cm _ extendentibus, bracteolis basalibus plerumque persistentibus lineari-oblongis, ad 0.5 cm longis, ad 0.12 cm latis, ciliis laxis distantibus (eis basi subfimbri- catis), ad 0.9 mm longis; gemmae ovatae, ad 1.1 cm longae, sepalis anthesi laxis imbricatis inaequalibus subrotundis oblongis ad 4-5 mm latis, apicibus obtusis marginibus tenuibus irregularibus ciliis apice diffusis, petalis flavis, oblongis, ad 1.5 em longis, ad 1.0 cm latis; staminibus + 60 antheris subsessilibus, 0.5-0.6 cm longis, ovarils coriaceis substipitatis, oblongis, ad 0.7 cm longis, stylibus ad 2 mm _ longis, capsulis lignosis sublaevibus turgidis circ. 1.0 em longis, pedicellis gracilibus, ad 2.5 cm longis. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 2059866, collected in campo on the slopes of the Serra dos Pireneos, Municipio of Corumba, Goids, Brazil, December 18, 1951, by Amaro Macedo (no. 3536). Luxemburgia macedot, named in honor of its collector, is apparently the first species of the genus to be described from the State of Goids. It is readily placed in the Petiolatae section of the genus and is obviously related to L. polyandra St. Hil. Its much larger flowers borne on pedicels with obvious articulation stalks, readily dis- tinguish it from L. polyandra. Of all species of Luxemburgia known from flowering material Fries. 1-23.—1, Coccoloba rubra, leaf, X15; 2, stipule, X1; 3, inflorescence, X's; 4, flower, X5. 5, Heteropteris ocellata, branch, X14; 6, bracts, X1; 7, stamens, X2; 8, style, X5; 9, samara, X1. 10. Banisteriopsis macedoana, section of branch, X1; 11, samaras, X1; 12, base of samara, X2. 13. Luxem- burgia macedoi, leaf, X19; 14, stipule, X5; 15, flower bud, X1; 16, flower, X1; 17, pistil and androecium, 2. 18, Microlicia lutea, leaf, X2. 19, Microlicia macedot, leaf, X2; 20, apex of branch, X1; 21, flower, X5; 22, petal, X5; 23, stamen, X5. NY) 200 JOURNAL OF THE L. macedoi the largest number of stamens. possesses Family MbuasroMAckaAr Microlicia macedoi L. B. Smith & Wurdack, sp. nov. Fias. 19-23 Fruticulosa, 28 cm alta et ultra, fastigiatim dichotome ramosissima, glaberrima, glutinosa; caule erecto, gracili, tereti, inferne non articulato; ramis erectis vel divaricatis, distincte articulatis, tetragonis; foliis sessilibus, strictis, subapproxi- matis, carnosulis rigidisque, ovato-oblongis, subacutis, haud pungentiis, basi cordatis, ad 4.5 mm longis integris vel levissime crenulatis, utrinque pallide viridibus, sparse pallideque glanduloso-punctatis, nervo mediano basi valde dilatato; floribus breviter pedicellatis; calyce viride, tubo subturbinato, 2 mm longo, superne non setoso, 5-costato, segmentis erectis, subulatis, 1 mm longis, basi valde remotis; petalis obovato- oblongis, acutis, 5 mm longis, fulgide aureis; staminibus distincte inaequalibus, antheris oblon- gis, aureis, margine undulatis, apice longe rostellatis, majoribus 2 mm longis, connectivo basi valde dilatato; capsula globosa, laeve, calyce persistente vestita. WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 6 Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 2059764, collected in the mountains, Municipio of Niquelandia, Goids, Brazil, July 24, 1952, by Amaro Macedo (no. 3636). Its bright vellow petals distinguish Microlicia macedot from all but a very few species in the genus, and of these it resembles M. lutea Markgraf (Fig. 18) much more closely than any other. Its main distinction is in its leaves which have a sparser paler punctation and a base enclosing the pulvinus. Family GrsNERIACEAE Rechsteineria macrostachya (Lindl.) L. B. Smith, comb. nov. Gesnera macrostachya Lindl. Bot. Reg. 14: pl. 1202. 1828. Gesnera latifolia Mart. in Otto & Schlecht. Verh. Preuss. Gart.-Ver. 5: 219, pl. 1. 1829. Rechsteineria latifolia O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 2: 474. 1891. Corytholoma latifolium Fritsch, Bihang till K. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl. 24: Afd. 8, no. 5: 22. 1898. The necessity of the above combination became evident in the course of checking some bibliography for Dr. F. C. Hoehne’s treatment of the Gesneriaceae for the ‘‘Flora Brasilica.”’ WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS INSULATING SEAL FOR HIGH-PRESSURE EQUIPMENT In connection with work on high-pressure standards, the National Bureau of Stand- ards has devised a special insulating seal which effectively solves the problem of leakage around electrical connections to high-pressure vessels. Simply constructed of inexpensive materials, the high-pressure seal utilizes a sapphire bushing to obtain the necessary combination of high mechani- cal strength and good electrical insulating properties. The device has successfully with- stood pressure up to 170,000 pounds per square inch. It was designed by H. A. Bowman and associates of the Bureau staff working under the sponsorship of the Army Ordnance Corps. HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCE FAIR Two high-school seniors from the Wash- ington metropolitan area won a trip to Cleveland as top prize in the Ninth Annual Science Fair of Washington, held late in April. The trip enabled the winners, Bette Coder, 17, of Northwestern High School, and Joel F. Lubar, 16, of Montgomery- Blair High School, to participate in the Na- tional Science Fair held in Cleveland in the middle of May. Miss Coder’s entry ex- hibited the effect of pregnancy on mammal- lary cancer in mice, and Mr. Lubar’s was an astrophotoscope, through which _ stellar photographs could be studied. The Wash- ington Fair, with over 600 entries, was run by the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences and was sponsored by the District of Columbia Board of Education, Science Service, and the Washington Academy of Sciences. As we go to press, Circus Saints and Sinners, the Montgomery-Blair High School Student Council, the Washington Audio Society, and John P. Gilliland have contributed toward the cost of the trip. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PRECREGENE Fook ORs, 5cle ays ain Caras ee Mara@arer Pitrman, National Institutes of Health irewetierel-GlOCbt <1 Waa ee exten OSC RaupH Ef. Grpson, Applied Physics Laboratory SRE SRT AT els ic ns ete once ne mts Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health PET GGSUTET «6.6. c= ws Howarp 8. Rappipys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) PRCGHEUESE er picts Hoc Aes BEE Zee Es JouN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. ReupeEr, U. 8. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington....................... Frank M. SprzLer Bielorical society, of Washington. .©.....-..s.-2--5--+---5% HERBERT G. DIEGNAN Whemical Society of Washinoton: . 22... ..ceccne ee sec eee ee Wiuiram W. 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Monocrapu No. 1, ‘‘The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa,’’ by Herbert Friedmann $4.50 INDEX to JOURNAL (vols. 1-40) and PROCEEDINGS..................sseeeeeee $7.50 PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete...................--.-.- 000s $25.00 Singlepvolumesss ump oui dl epee pete ee eae eee eee 2.00 Singlésnumbersi i: 7s. cas ten eee eer oll setteena sire seis ee ate Prices on request Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made payable to ‘“‘Washington Academy of Sciences” and addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. Raprieye, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 Juty 1955 No. 7 PALEONTOLOGY .—Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminifera) and two new Cretaceous forms resembling Elphidium'. Auan H. Smovt, Iraq Petroleum Co., Ltd., London, England. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) (Received March 9, 1955) The two species of Foraminifera to be de- scribed herein, Elphidiella multiscissurata, n. sp., and Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n. gen. and n. sp., are small, planispiral forms with shell material of radially arranged, perforate calcite. They show secondary thickening and have a canal system. They usually occur to- gether in Maestrichtian marls that contain many well known index species, notably Siderolites calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801, Omphalocyclus macropora Lamarck, 1816, and Trechmanella persica L. R. Cox, 1934. The accuracy of the age attribution can be taken as of a very high order. HL. multiscis- surata has a close resemblance to species referred to Elphidiella Cushman, 1936, but differs in having a carinate margin and slight grooves on the chamber walls, origi- nating from the rows of pores on the radial sutures. F. operculiferum is an unusual species with a system of fissures and gran- ules arranged very similarly to those on the ventral side of the test in Rotalia trochidi- _ formis Lamarck, 1804. The systematic position of these species presents a nomenclatorial problem that has 1 This work is published by permission of the chairman and directors of the Iraq Petroleum Co. and was carried out under the direction of Dr. F. R. S. Henson. My thanks are due to Dr. P. Bermudez, Dr. P. Bronnimann, and Dr. R. Bataller for gifts of comparative material and to G. F. Elliott for bibliographical assistance. The new species were first named, described, and figured by A. N. Dusenbury in an unpublished company report on which we collaborated, and use has been made of his observations. The type _ specimens are deposited in the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, London. Topotypes are deposited in the U. 8S. National Museum, Washington, D. C been confused by the inclusion with the ra- dial, canaliculate Foraminifera of others that have shell material of a different nature. The superfamily Rotalidea has been shown (Smout, 1954) to have a type species, Ro- talia trochidiformis Lamarck, 1804, in which the shell material is radial, perforate calcite (Wood, 1949), deposited in laminae that correspond each to a chamber, each cover- ing the whole test. A canal system is present. The Foraminifera that have tests of this character form a compact group within which phylogeny is relatively easy to trace. In addition, there is no known case where intergradation with non-canaliculate genera occurs, with the exception of some highly complex derivatives of canaliculate species. There is a strong case for restricting the superfamily Rotaliidea to the laminated, ra- dial, canaliculate genera. The otherwise sim- ilar but non-canaliculate genera (Discorbidea Smout, 1954) are the nearest group to the Rotaliidea, and are probably ancestral to them. They typically have an aperture while the Rotalidea have no aperture or a few pores on the terminal face. The interiomar- ginal slit found in the septa of many Rotali- idea does not correspond to a former aper- ture. The remainder of the Foraminifera that are traditionally placed in the Rotali- idea are completely unrelated to them. These include the Spirillinidae, Nonionidae (ex- cluding Elphidium etc.), and the genera Archaediscus Brady, 1873, and Nummulo- stegina Schubert, 1907. The trochoid, granu- late, perforate group of Wood (1949), eg. Gyroidina d’Orbigny, 1826, must also be removed from the Rotaliidea. The more 201 E11 98%, 202 recent taxonomic work, by Glaessner (1945) Hofker (1951), Sigal in Piveteau (1952), Bermudez (1952), Loeblich and Tappan (1953), and others, shows a_ progressive tendency to sort out the canaliculate Fo- raminifera from the others, but the process has not been carried to its logical conclusion because there was no underlying theory. It is now possible to set up a classification with clear morphological definitions and reduce the points of ambiguity to those cases where the critical characters have not been re- corded for a genus, or their determination cannot readily be undertaken. Practical diffi- culties do arise. In particular, the secondary thickening of fossil species may be over- looked, for it may be removed by solution, leaving only the primary chamber walls ex- ternally. Those whorls that are covered by later ones can be seen in thin sections to have been thickened. All the radial, perforate, spi- ral Foraminifera, other than the Lagenidea, may have to be reincorporated in the Ro- taliidea, and may contain the ancestral spe- cies of the canaliculate families; but as no connection has yet been traced, the non- canaliculate families can be omitted at present. One may proceed to a major classification of the foraminifera that build the test of radial, laminated calcite: Superfamily Lagenidea: Noncanaliculate with a terminal or peripheral aperture. Superfamily Discorbidea: Noncanaliculate with an interiomarginal aperture, areal aperture, or showing derivation from such a form. Superfamily Rotaliidea: Canaliculate with no aperture, or pores on the apertural face, or pores elsewhere, sometimes with interio- marginal intercameral foramina, or showing derivation from such a form. Superfamily RoranmprEa The accompanying table of stratigraphical occurrences and probable phylogeny has been compiled with the characters of numerous species in mind, rather than the diagnostic generic characters. It is found that a number of phyletic groups can be recognised which have simple distinguishing characters, provided one is willing to redefine genera and families where necessary. The result is a classification that differs sig- nificantly from any proposed before but without JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, NO. 7 any general appearance of unfamiliarity. Five families can be very readily distinguished, and are natural phyletic groupings. The Nummu- litidae have a distinctive marginal cord, the Elphidiidae have retral processes to the chambers, the Miogypsinidae have orbitoidal habit with an eccentric nucleoconch, the Rupertiidae are initially trochoid and are attached and the Baculogypsinidae have solid spines or spherical growth. Apart from a few highly specialized forms that obviously evolved from a member of these families, there is no necessity to make exceptions to these simple definitions. The Rotaliidae for the most part form an equally distinct group, being trochoid and not attached. They are the parent forms of the Miogypsinidae and the Rupertiidae. The family Miscellaneidae is used for all the difficult cases, but these have a similarity between themselves which, although it does not yield to simple definition or appear to indicate a monophyletic group, is reassuring to the taxonomist. It includes numerous species that are almost bilaterally symmetrical and are not easy to separate from species of Rotalia (Neo- rotalia) that have the dorsal and ventral sides similarly ornamented. It is suspected that genera of the Miscellaneidae have been differentiated repeatedly from Neorotalia. The strictly sym- metrical species of the Miscellaneidae are thought to be related to asymmetrical ones in several cases. The Miscellaneidae have strong radial canals in all genera excepting Sulcoperculina, which is a very unusual form and a misfit in any family. Family Roraimpab The test is trochoid and the dorsal and ventral surfaces are differentiated; all external openings being ventral, except for perforations. The canal system is various, but all genera have radial canals or fissures or umbilical cavities and intraseptal and subsutural canals are common if not universal. Rotalia (Streblus, Tur- Sakesaria (Horupertia) binulina, Ammonia, Dictyoconoides Hammonium)? Dictyokathina Neorotalia Notorotalia ? Kathina Lockhartia There is little to add to the discussion of this family given in a previous paper (Smout, 1954), * Genera in parentheses are considered to be synonyms. 03 2 ROTALIIDEA VadiiivLOwd AHL JO ANSSOIAHd 318VEOU"d GNV SDN3Y¥NNDDO snadhjr0/24> JIVO/ILIINWANN \ —snadhjr0s1d5 ATINVS ouibazsosazay x — duljnrs3ado IN OM OIE K0) IVAIIAOIHATF ATINVS Pe D EAE SdI/NWWAN a0a/20/aY SazsjosapiS a” 7, I/O PIA S2I/OSPPIS 4 4 JIVOIINVITFISIN sipnobuew sazjnwwny 4 4 wniplyd/aossly AWNVI Duljnrsadorjns JIVAOIINVITFIISIN ON aIPLYI/Z sdsjuojajg D2uo//2251-y. oulsaprs ATINVS OF THE > RECLASSIFICATION SMOUT JuLy 1955 JIVOINISASADO/IN AWN JIVIO/ITVLOUN o . : 4 \ \ DIIISIZ0// Ig 492! dulsalalg os; a1pndUsy 0//0201094 ATINVS DUI/NAJI2IV IVANLYIAGNG ATINVS DW 2II0W OY DUIIOIUI p- ouisdAboip \ sapsoursdAboip La at IVAI/TVLOY ATINVI aan = Dissadny O1/0Joy IVAI/TVLOY ATINVS DIsOsay¥OS OIJIOY¥IOT Dusy10y¥OAZI1g \\ + bu ya 0'y sapiousdAboyno0g a \ $2)//019D/5 IVAINISAANOINIVE ATINGS 204 except as regards Neorotalia Bermudez, 1952. Bermudez has separated a group of species including R. mexicana Nuttall, 1928, and R. viennott Greig, 1935. R. calcar d’Orbigny, 1826, should be included. The practical distinction between Rotalia and Neorotalia is not easy, but it is of great theoretical importance because Neorotalia is probably the persistent primitive stock of the superfamily Rotaliidea, and has probably given rise to a number of genera of the Miscellaneidae, as well as to the initial forms of some if not all families. Its most important characteristic is a distinct asymmetry without strong differentiation of the dorsal and ventral sides. From the origin of Miogypsinoides, it is known that this genus can give rise to bilaterally symmetrical families. It is obviously closely related to many species of the Miscellaneidae, but no more closely than to Rotalia itself. The definitely trochoid Rotaliidae give rise only to the family Rupertiidae. Occurrence—Upper Cretaceous to Recent. Family RupERTIDAE The test is primitively trochoid but may be arborescent or acervuline. It is attached by the apex. Homotrema Carpenteria Sporadotrema Acervulina ? Miniacina Victoriella Rupertia Rupertia and Homotrema are often placed in different families, but they merely represent evolutionary stages of one lineage. Sakesaria, of the Rotaliidae is thought to have become attached by the apex in the early stages; be- coming Rupertia. The latter genus shows two tendencies. The axis may branch, as in the arborescent genera, or the chambers may be irregularly added in later stages, leading to Carpenteria and probably to Acervulina. There is a possibility that Gypsina belongs here, rather than in the Baculogypsinidae. Occurrence.—Eocene to Recent. Family MioGypsiNIDAE The test has orbitoidal median chambers, eccentrically arranged around the nucleoconch, often with lateral chambers. The adult is bi- laterally symmetrical but the nepionic stage is primitively like Neorotalia. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 7 Miolepidocyclina Miogypsinopsis Miogypsina Miogypsinoides The position and character of this family are generally recognized. These genera form a lineage derived from Neorotalia. Occurrence.—Upper Oligocene and Miocene. Family DiscocycLINIDAE This family belongs to the radial, perforate group of Foraminifera but its origin is not known. There are no obvious canals and there is a probability that the Discocyclinidae are derived from the Discorbidea. Occurrence.—Eocene. Family ORBITOIDIDAE This family as at present recognized as poly- phyletic. None of the genera have an obvious canal system. Some genera are suspected of being derived from the Rotalidae. Occurrence-—Upper Cretaceous to Recent. Family ELPHIDIIDAE “Tests free, planispiral, trochoid or uncoiling; wall calcareous, hyaline, perforate radial in structure, with a canal system opening into a single or double row of pores along the sutures, and with retral processes projecting across the sutures; aperture consisting of a single slit or row of pores at the base of the apertural face, or scattered pores on the face.” Elphidium (Polysto- Elphidioides mella) Ozawaia Faujasina Polystomellina Cribroelphidiwm Loeblich and Tappan (1953) proposed the definition given above. There is practical dif- ficulty in separating those species that really have retral processes from those that have lateral ornament that gives a similar appearance. The general resemblance between genera of the Miscellaneidae and the Elphidiidae can be very great (see Figs. 6 a, b and 10 a, b). By definition Elphidiella has no retral processes and therefore has been removed to the Miscellaneidae. Noto- rotalia Finlay, 1939, probably is without retral processes and is provisionally placed in the Rotaliidae. The Elphidiidae- retain the canal system and variability of the symmetry which are shown by their ancestral family, although it is JuLyY 1955 unusual for one species to show such variability as do those of the Miscellaneidae. It is not proven that any genus has an interiomarginal aperture, although it is sometimes present as an inter- cameral foramen. Occurrence —Upper Recent. Eocene?, Oligocene to Family BAcULOGYPSINIDAE The test is primitively planispiral or trochoid, but the dorsal and ventral surfaces are not dif- ferentiated. The canal system is diffuse and confused with the perforations. The margin is rounded or absent. Advanced genera may become globular. Large spines are often present and are formed by the thickening and not by marginal projections of the chambers. Gypsina ? Sphaerogypsina ? Siderolites (Tinoporus) Baculogypsina Baculogypsinoides Silvestriella) The spinose genera show a close resemblance to each other that leaves little doubt that they should be associated in one family. The canal system is very diffuse and should not be con- sidered the same as that of the Miscellaneidae. The origin of Gypsina Carter, 1877, and Sphae- rogypsina Galloway, 1933, is obscure and it is not certain that they should be included here; perhaps they belong to the Homotremidae. Occurrence —Upper Cretaceous to Recent. Family NUMMULITIDAE The test is planispiral and bilaterally sym- metrical. The canal system is fine and ramifying without vertical canals or fissures and the margin has a differentiated marginal cord containing ramifying canals. Subfamily NummutitinaE® Nummulites (Camerina) Assilina Operculina Ranikothalia Operculinoides Parasptroclypeus Operculinella Subfamily HreTERostEeGININAE Heterostegina Sptroclypeus Cycloclypeus 3 The inclusion of these genera is not intended to indicate an opinion on their validity. A number of names not in general use have been ignored. SMOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALITDEA 205 There has been a very great measure of agree- ment about this family, but a failure to state categorically that it is the nature of the canal system, particularly that of the marginal cord, that is the distinctive character from the other Rotaliidea, particularly from the Miscellaneidae. The marginal cord of the Heterosteginidae is sometimes suppressed by the reduction of thickening that automatically occurs in cyclical genera. Occurrence-—Upper Paleocene to Recent. Family MIsceLLANEIDAE The test is planispiral or trochoid but not dif- ferentiated in structure into obviously dorsal and ventral sides. The canal system is strongly de- veloped with subsutural and intraseptal canals and either vertical canals or a system of fissures. There is no differentiated marginal cord. There are no spines or retral processes. A few aberrant genera have a complex spire or have lateral chambers. Laffitteina Daviesina Pellatispira Sulcoperculina Biplanispira Fissoelphidium Miscellanea Elphidiella Arnaudiella ‘Siderolites’ vidali and ‘8S.’ Siderina? heracleae Pellatispirella ? The differences between some of these genera become very slight when the protean nature of the group is realized and the changes of canal system and tendency to asymmetry are no longer regarded as features on which to distingush families in this particular group of genera. Advanced forms such as Biplanispira Umbgrove, 1937, are included when they are isolated end- forms and clearly derived from typical genera of the family. Hlphidiella is traditionally classified with Elphidium Montfort, 1808, and is probably the ancestral genus to the Elphidiidae, but it lacks the retral processes that are the only real justification for recognizing the Hlphidiidae as a family distinct from the Miscellaneidae. It is logical to include difficult primitive forms in the Miscellaneidae. Sulcoperculina has no canaliculate marginal cord but it has a highly differentiated margin, which is unusual in the Miscellaneidae. The genera Calcarina d’Orbigny, 1826, and Siderolites Lamarck, 1801, have been used as familial types without a clear decision about their characters. Calcarina is variously stated to have 206 C. calcar d’Orbigny, 1826, and Nautilus spengleri Gmelin, 1756, as the type species. D’Orbigny based his generic description and model on C. calcar, but the species was neither described nor figured. No reference to any previous work was cited for this species and the model does not constitute a valid indication of a species according to the Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. C. calcar d’Orbigny, 1826, is therefore a nomen nudum and its subsequent validation cannot affect the designation of NV. splenglert by Cushman (1915), for this was a valid species included in the original list of species of Calcarina by @Orbigny. C. calcar is not congeneric with N. spenglert for the spines of the former are produced from the marginal regions of the chambers, whereas the spines of N. spengleri are formed by the thickening, and are of the same nature as pillars and pustules. C. calcar is either a Rotalia or belongs to a genus closely related to Rotalia. N. spenglert belongs to the genus Siderolites Lamarck, 1801. The resemblance between it and S. calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801, the type species of Szderolites, is so close that arguments have been put up for their identity. A specific distinction can be maintained but there is no necessity for generic distinction and similar species are found at various Tertiary horizons to link the geological record of Sidero- lites from the Upper Cretaceous to the Holocene. The refusal to admit Siderolites as a long-ranging genus with Tertiary species has coincided with the attribution of the Cretaceous species Sidero- lites vidali Douvillé, 1907, and SS. heracleae Arni, 1932, to it. They have no spines and no closer resemblance to Siderolites than to Laffitteona Marie, 1946, Daviesina Smout, 1954, or Elpha- diella Cushman, 1936. They resemble Daviesina in the planispiral, very feebly trochoid habit but have definite vertical canals while Daviesina has a combination of canals and fissures. Laffitteina and Elphidiella have distinct canal patterns. A new generic name is required.‘ All this establishes 4 Pseudosiderolites, n. gen. Type _ species, Siderolites vidali Douville, 1907. Test lenticular to biconical, bilaterally symmetrical ; equitant chambers arranged in a plane spire. Shell material radially fibrous, laminated, perforate, composed of calcite. Radial canals numerous. Without spines, marginal canal or other marginal dif- ferentiation. Other genera of the Miscellaneidae have the fol- lowing distinctive characters: Pellatispira and Bi- planispira are evoJute; Elphidiella, Laffitteina and Pellatispirella have characteristic canal patterns; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 7 clearly that Calcarina should not be used as the type of a family and that the Siderolitidae, if the name is to be used, must include S. calcitra- poides but not necessarily S. vidali or S. heracleae. It has already been remarked that Neorotalia of the family Rotaliidae has a similarity to Laffitteina and Daviesina and forms a plexus of primitive species that is probably the origin of the more distinctive forms of both the Rotaliidae and the Miscellaneidae. The Miscellaneidae may represent derivatives of Neorotalia that tend to be planispiral rather than be a monophyletic group. The inclusion of Neorotalia in the Miscella- neidae would fit better with a phyletic picture, but the morphological distinction of Neorotalia from Rotalia is difficult and a family distinction between these genera is unthinkable at present. The majority of the genera of the Miscella- neidae are bilaterally symmetrical and the inclusion of Daviesina and Laffittevna is therefore debatable. These genera are frankly intermediate between the Rotaliidae and the Miscellaneidae but the structure on the two sides of the test is essentially the same, as in the typical Miscella- neidae while the structure of the dorsal and ventral sides of the test in any species of the Rotaliidae is different as regards the development of canals and ornament as well as perforation and the alar prolongations of the chambers. Occurrence.—Senonian to Recent. Genus Elphidiella Cushman, 1936 Type species, Polystomella arctica Parker and Jones, in Brady, 1864. The test is bilaterally symmetrical and plani- spiral, with a simple spire of equitant chambers that usually leave an axial plug. There are sub- sutural and vertical canals that open along the radial and spiral sutures, usually forming a double row along each radial suture. The aperture consists of pores on the terminal face. The species of this genus have no retral processes. Striate ornament that resembles them is sometimes present, caused by grooves that originate at the sutural pores and run on the chamber walls after the manner of trabeculae. In fossil specimens, it is sometimes very difficult to determine if retral processes are really present. Miscellanea and Fissoelphidium have fissures, not radial canals; Siderina and Daviesina are obviously asymmetrical; Siderolites has spines; Sulcopercu- lina has a marginal sulcus and lacks radical canals; Arnaudiella has extra-spiral chambers. IOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALIIDEA 207 a JuLy 1955 s - IF res. 1-5.—Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n. gen. and sp.: 1, Edge view, to show septum and broken chambers (B.M.N.H. P.42154); 2a, b, lateral and edge views of holotype (B.M.N.H. P.42155); 3, tan- gential section to show figures (B.M.N.H. P.42166); 4, axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42167); 5, equatorial section (B.M.N.H. P.42168). All X30. Frias. 6-9.—Elphidiella multiscissurata, n. sp.: 6a, b, Lateral and edge views of holotype (B.M.N.H. P.42169) X30; 7, equatorial section (B.M.N.H. P.42175) X30; axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42176) X30; 9, axial section (B.M.N.H. P.42177) 100. Fie. 10.—Elphidium cf. E. crispum Linné: Pliocene, Abu Shareb, Levant. 10a, b, Lateral and edge views for comparison with Figs. 6a, b (B.M.N.H. P.42178) X30. 208 Some species that have been described as Elphidium lack retral processes; even in some cases when the latter have been recorded as present there is a doubt of the accuracy of the observations. Elphidiella is already known to occur through- out the Tertiary. Brotzen records EH. prima (Ten Dem, 1944) from the Paleocene. Nummulites mengandi Astre, 1924, is possibly an Elphidiella, but the typical canal system has not been demonstrated in this Upper Cretaceous species. The typical unornamented species have little resemblance to Laffitteina, but there is no further difference between the two genera other than the symmetry of the test, itself not a marked feature. Occurrence-—Maestrichtian to Recent. Elphidiella multiscissurata, n. sp. Figs. 6-9 Holotype P.42169 and paratypes P.42170-7, British Museum (Natural History), and topo- type P.2026, U. 8. National Museum. Description.—The test is composed of hyaline, radially fibrous, perforate calcite and is laminated in the usual manner of the Rotaliidea. It is small and lenticular to biconical with a subacute, feebly carinate margin. The spire is simple and planispiral and the chambers are involute and equitant. The umbonal region on each side is about one third of the diameter of the test and occupied by a boss that is usually slightly raised. The chambers of the last half whorl are separated from the boss by a groove, which is continued as a spiral of about one and a half turns of pores. Only the last whorl of chambers is_ visible externally. The sutures are radial and slightly curved, limbate mostly but incised for the last few chambers. Each suture has a row of about 10 pores on each side of the test. They incline alternately forward and backward over the chambers, with tributary grooves that are in- conspicuous over the latest chambers, but become more obvious on the older, thickened chamber walls. The alternate inclination of the sutural canals makes the row of pores appear double. There are no retral processes, nor any rudiments of them, but this can only be seen clearly on the last two or three chambers, which are often not preserved. The aperture is cribrate, being a row of about 10 pores in the interiomarginal position. No intercameral foramina have been observed JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 7 with certainty. The proloculum is small and spherical. Dimorphism has not been observed. Dimensions.—Diameter, 0.9 to 0.5 mm; thickness, 0.5 to 0.2 mm; diameter of nucleo- conch, about 0.01 mm. There are about three whorls with 20 to 25 chambers in the last whorl. Distribution —It has been found in Maestrich- tian marls in deep boreholes on Jebel Dukhan, Qatar, Arabia, associated with Siderolites calcitrapoides Lamarck, 1801, Omphalocyclus macropora (Lamarck, 1816), Loftusia morgant Douvillé, 1904, Lepidorbitoides socialis (Leymerie, 1851). Orbitoides apiculata Schlumberger, 1902, and Fissoelphidvum operculiferum gen. et sp. nov. It is also found at Aqra, N. E. Iraq in Maestrich- tian limestones with the same associated species and in addition -Loftusia persica Brady, 1869, Cyclolites spp. and Trechmanella persica L. R. Cox, 1934. Remarks.—There is a difficulty in deciding the correct generic attribution of this species. The formal resemblance to Elphidiella is very con- siderable, but the latter genus typically has a rounded margin, whereas H. multiscissurata has a marked differentiation of the marginal region. A similar difference appears to occur between species of Hlphidiwm, and it need not be taken as a generic character. The slight grooving on the chamber walls of #. multiscissurata is not typical of Elphidiella, but again is not a character that. need be considered as generic. The very striking resemblance of H. ‘multi- scissurata to Elphidium crispum (Linné, 1758) is more apparent than real because this species has no retral processes. ‘Nummulites’ mengaudv Astre, 1924, from the Upper Cretaceous of Aquitaine is possibly an Hlphidiella. It resembles E. multiscissurata very closely but has a rounded margin without a carina and the canal system may be different. In any case they are distinct species. Hlphidiella prima (Ten Dam, 1944), fide Brotzen, 1948, from the Danian and Paleo- cene of Sweden and Holland also lacks a carinate margin and cannot be the same species. Fissoelphidium, n. gen. Type species, Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n.sp. Description—The test is planispiral and bi-— laterally symmetrical with a single spire of | equitant chambers. The shell material is radially — | Juny 1955 fibrous, perforate calcite, deposited in laminae that correspond to the chambers and build up a spiral lamina and polar plugs as in Nwmmuilites. The septa are double and there is a lateral system of wide meandrine fissures. The septa are double in appearance in thin section, particularly in tangential sections, for the fissures penetrate slightly into them. The margin is rounded and without a marginal cord. Remarks—This monotypic genus has a system of fissures resembling that of the ventral surface of Rotalia, but in Fissoelphidiwm they are found on both sides of the test. The dendritic fissures along the sutures recall the patterns formed by the canals in Laffitteina. The general appearance is suggestive of the Elphiidae, but there are no retral processes and there is no close resemblance to any species of Elphidium. Occurrence—Maestrichtian. Fissoelphidium operculiferum, n.sp. Figs. 1-5 Nn Holotype P.42155 and paratypes P.42154, 42156-69, British Museum (Natural History), and topotypes P.2027, U.S. National Museum. Description—The shell material is hyaline, radially fibrous, perforate calcite, deposited in laminae that correspond each to a chamber, and thus form a spiral lamina and supplemental thickening in the same manner as in Nwmmiuitites. The slightly curved septa appear double in section and there is a canal system. The test is stoutly lenticular with a rounded margin and no trace of a marginal cord or carina. The chambers are arranged in a simple, plain spire. They are equitant with nearly straight, radial, alar pro- longations that do not reach the poles. The radial sutures are incised. On the latest chambers they are straight, but small alternating branches of them increase in strength on the older parts of the test. Toward the periphery they render the suture line zig-zag, while nearer the poles they form anastomoses and cut the supplementary skeleton into incised granules. These grade imperceptibly into the incised granules of the umbonal regions. The initial branches of the septal sutures tend to be directed forward, producing a pattern that has a similarity to that of Laffitteina. The lowest parts of the fissures | seem to be cut off to form a canal system of | lateral spiral canals and tributary canals, all SMOUT: RECLASSIFICATION OF THE ROTALIIDEA 209 these running in the sutures. At the periphery the tributary canals become narrower and open into the fissures, and the spiral canals open into the fissures near the terminal chamber. The canals lie deep, but still in the peripheral part of the septum, and the sutural fissures penetrate a short way into the septa. There is no evidence of canals in the more central part of the septa. The perforations are coarse and evenly distributed. The proloculum is small and no dimorphism has been observed. The aperture consists of pores round an apertural plate that bulges outward. This is removed when the next chamber is formed, leaving an interiomarginal intercameral slit in the septum. Dimensions—Diameter, 2.2 to 1.38 mm; thickness, 1.0 to 0.5 mm; diameter of proloculum, 0.08 to 0.04 mm. There are about three whorls with 12 to 15 chambers in the last whorl. Distribution —Type locality: Maestrichtian of Dukham Oilfield, Qatar Peninsula of Arabia, with Elphidiella multiscissurata and the fauna listed as accompanying that species. Other localities: Maestrichtian of N. Iraq at Aqra, with HE. multiscissurata and the same associated fauna and at Jebel Gara; in 8S. Iraq in the Maestrichtian of the Zubair Oilfield, near Basra; at Ras Sharwain, Qishn, (Mahra, Persian Gulf) where it is also of Maestrichtian age. The system of deep fissures is probably a primitive character. As in Miscellanea and Kathina grooves and fissures are the equivalent of the canal system of more advanced genera. This aberrant species shows little similarity to any other but is probably closely related phyletically to the other Cretaceous Miscellaneidae. ‘Nwm- mulites’ mengaudi Astre has a similar appearance in photographs of thin sections. This is odd because neither fissures nor canals are mentioned in the type description. These two species might prove to be congeneric on further investigation, but they are unlikely to be identical. The dimensions of F’. operculiferum are considerably greater than those of ‘N.’ mengaudii. REFERENCES ArnI, P. Hine neue Siderolites Spezies (S. hera- cleae) (aus dem Senon von Eregli an der kleinasiatischen Schwartzmeerkiiste) und Versuch eine Bereinigung der Gattung. Ecl. Geol. Helv. 25: 204-205, pls. 8-10. 1982. Astre, G. Htude paléontologique des Nummulites du Crétacé Superiewr de Cézan-Lavardens 210 (Gers). Bull. Soc. Géol. France 23: 360-368, pl. 12. 1923. Bermupez, P. J. Estudio sistematico de los fora- miniferos rotaliformes. Bol. Geol. Caracas 2 (4): 1-230, pls. 1-85. 1952. Brapy, H. B. Contribution to the knowledge of the Foraminifera: On the rhizopodal fauna of the Shetlands. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 24: 463- 476, pl. 48. 1864. Brorzen, F. Die Foraminiferengattung Gave- linella nov. gen. und die Systematik der Rotalii- formes. Sver. Geol. Unders., ser. C, 451: 1-60, 1 pl. 1942. ——. The Swedish Paleocene and its foraminiferal fauna. Sver. Geol. Unders, Ars 42, no. 2: 1-140, pls. 1-19. 1948. Carrer, H.J.Onamelobesian form of Foraminifera (Gypsina melobesioides, Mihi): and further observations on Carpenteria monticularis. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 20: 172. 1877. Caupri, C. M. B. The larger Foraminifera from San Juan de los Morros, State of Guarico, Venezuela. Bull. Amer. Pal. 28: 1-54, pls. 1-5. 1944. Cote, W.S. Internal structures of some Floridian Foraminifera. Bull. Amer. Pal. 31: 1-30, pls. 1-5. 1947. . Criteria for the recognition of certain as- sumed camerinid genera. Bull. Amer. Pal. 35: 1-22, pls. 1-3. 1953. CusHMAN, J. A. A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean; Pt. V. Rotaliidae. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 71: 1-83, pls. 1-31. 1915. ——.. The relationships of the genera Calearina, Tinoporus and Baculogypsina, as indicated by Recent Philippine material. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, vol. 1, pt. 6: 363-868, pls. 44-45. 1919. ———. A monograph of the foraminiferal family Nonionidae. U. S. Geol. Surv. Paper 191: 1-100, pls. 1-20. 1939. ———. Foraminifera, their classification and economic use, ed. 4: 1-605, pls. 1-55. Harvard University Press, 1948. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 7 p’Arcutac, A., and Harmn, J. Description des animaux fossiles du groupe nummulitique de UInde etc.: 1-373, pls. 1-36. Paris, 1853. ## Dovvit_e£, H. In Morgan, J., Misszon scientifique en Perse. Mollusques fossils. 3: Etudes Geol.: 4 (Pal.): 367. Paris, 1904. ——.. Evolution et enchainments des Foramini- feres. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) 6: 599, 1907. pd’OrBIGNyY, A. Tableau méthodique de la classe des céphalopodes. Ann. Sei. Nat. Paris, 1826 (1): 7. 1826. Finuay, H. J. New Zealand Foraminifera: Key Species in stratigraphy—No. 1. Trans. Roy. Soc. New Zealand 68: 504-533, pls. 68-69. 1939. Gattoway, J. J. A manual of Foraminifera: 1-483, pls. 1-42. Bloomington, Ind., 1933. Guarssner, M. F. Principles of micropaleontology: 1-296, pls. 1-14. Melbourne University Press, 1947. Horker, J. The toothplate-Foraminifera. Arch. Néerl. Zoo. Leider. 8: 256. 1951. Kupper, K. Note on Schlumbergerella Hanzawa and related genera. Contr. Cushman Found. Foram. Res. 5: 26-30. 1954. Lorsuicu, A. R., and Tappan, H. Studies of Arctic Foraminifera. Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 121: (7): 1-142, pls. 1-24. 1953. PaumeEr, D. K. Some large fossil Foraminifera from Cuba. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat. 8: 245. 1934. Steau, J. Foraminiferes, in J. Piveteau, Traité de Paleontologie: 1: 133-301. Paris, 1952. Smout, A. H. Lower Tertiary Foraminifera of the Qatar Peninsula. Monogr. British Mus. Nat. Hist.: 1-96, pls. 1-15. 1954. Tren Dam, A. Die Stratigraphische Gliederung des Niederldndischen Paldéozins und Eozéns nach Foraminiferen. Medd. Geol. Stichting, ser. ‘5 (3): 109, pl. 5, fig. 15. 1944. Woop, A. The structure of the wall of the test in the Foraminifera: its value in classification. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London. 104: 229-255, pls. 13-15. 1949. BOTANY .—New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated before publication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. Ix-CHo Cuune, Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan. (Communicated by H. H. Bartlett.) (Received February 3, 1955) The writer has prepared a Manual of the grasses of Korea which, before publication as a book, will be microfilmed, since it has been presented as a dissertation at the University of Michigan. Since publication by microfilm is not recognized as valid by the Interna- tional Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, it is necessary to extract for prior journal publication the new Korean taxa which are proposed, as well as certain names in new combinations required for uniformity of treatment in the Manual. The purpose of the Manual is to give full descriptions, with clear-cut keys to all cate- gories, of all known grasses of Korea, both South and North. The only grasses excluded Juny 1955 from the work are cultivated bamboos. The treatment is based as largely as possible upon material actually collected in Korea, which is available in the United States Na- tional Herbarium at the Smithsonian Insti- tution, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, the University Herbarium of the University of Michigan, and the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. If material from Korea or closely adjacent regions was not available, the descriptions were either translated from the original ones, or, if those were too old and inadequate, from the best and most dependable mono- graphs, or floras of the type regions. So far as now known thereare two hundred species of grasses in eighty-five genera in Korea, excluding cultivated bamboos. One Siberian species, Poa sibirica Roshe- vitz, isnew to Korea, and one Korean species, Stipa pubicalyx Ohwi, has been found to extend to the Soviet Far East, and so far as can be ascertained, is new to that country. Three species, three varieties, and five forms are newly proposed; seven varieties and three forms have required framing new combinations in order to bring their names into conformity with the general treatment. The descriptions of the new taxa follow: Poa hamhungensis Chung, sp. nov. P. viridulae similis sed differt culmis longiori- bus, lemmatibus obscure 5-nerviis, et palea Jemma aequante. Culmi pauci in caespite singulo, ascendentes, 55-65 cm alti, graciles, subteretes, 3-nodii, nodo ultimo infra culmi mediam, striati, scaberuli; vaginis superioribus quam internodiis breviori- bus, scaberulis; laminis linearibus, acuminatis, plerumque brevioribus quam vaginis, 8-10 cm longis, 1.5-2 mm latis, scaberulis, ligulis 1-2 mm longis, obtusis, dorso scaberulis. Panicula an- gusta, 9-11 cm longa, ramis 2-4 ad nodum singulum; rachi et ramis scabris; ramis inferiori- bus 1.5-3 em longis, in parte tertia inferiore nudis; spiculis viridibus 4.5-5 mm longis, 3- — 4-floris; glumis lanceolatis, chartaceo-membra- naceis, Margine scariosis, 3-nerviis, scaberulis, prima acuminata, 2—2.5 mm longa, secunda acuta, 2.4-2.8 mm longa; lemmatibus 2.7-3 mm longis, acutis vel acutiusculis, apicem versus flavis purpureisque, obscure 5-nerviis, sursum scaberulis, villosis deorsum in parte carinae CHUNG: GRASSES OF KOREA 211 dimidia et in tertia parte vernarum marginalium, glabris in vena intermedia et inter venas, basi arachnoideo-lanosis; palea lemma aequante, ciliolata in carinis ambabus; staminibus 3; antheris 1 mm longis, flavidis; rhachilla glabra, minute scaberula. Specimen typicum legit T. Suzuki sub num. 8, anno 1941, ad locum Ham- hung (“Kanko”’ dictum), in Hamkyong-Namdo, in U. S. Nat. Herb. conservatum sub num. 1,964,757. Similar to P. viridula but differs from it in the taller culms, the faintly 5-nerved lemmas, and the palea equaling the lemma. Culms few in a tuft, ascending, 55 to 65 cm tall, slender, nearly terete, 3-noded with the uppermost node below the middle of the culm, striate, scaberulous; upper sheaths shorter than the internodes, scaberulous; leaf-blades linear, acuminate, mostly a little shorter than the sheath, 8 to 10 em long, 1.5 to 2 mm wide, scaberulous, ligules 1 to 2 mm long, obtuse, scaberulous on the back. Panicle narrow, 9 to 11 cm long, with 2 to 4 branches at each node; axis and branches scabrous; the lower branches 1.5 to 3.5 cm long, naked on the lower third; spikelets green, 4.5 to 5 mm long, 3- or 4-flow- ered; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous-membra- naceous with scarious margins, 3-nerved, sca- berulous, the first acuminate and 2 to 2.5 mm long, the second acute and 2.4 to 2.8 mm long; lemmas 2.7 to 3 mm long, acute or acutish, yellowish and purplish near the tip, faintly 5-nerved, scaberulous above, villous on the lower half of the keel and on the lower third of the marginal veins, glabrous on the intermediate vein and between the veins, wavy-haired at base; paleas equal to the lemma, ciliolate on the 2 keels; stamens 3; anthers 1 mm long, yellowish; rachilla glabrous, minutely scaberulous. Type specimen: T. Suzuki 8 (US 1,964,757) collected in 1941 at Hamhung, Hamkyong- Namdo. Poa kyongsongensis Chung, sp. nov. Poae matsumurae similis sed differt spicula majori 5- —8-flora, vagina longiore quam inter- nodio. Culmis ca. 57 cm longis, compressiusculis, basi 2 mm crassis, 2-nodosis, nodo superiore infra culmi mediam, infra nodos et infra inflor- escentiam scaberulis; vaginis quam internodiis longioribus, compressiusculis, striatis; laminis planis, linearibus, acutis, 10.5-13 cm_ longis, 212 2-2.2 mm latis, glabris, scaberulis, infima basi purpurascenti; ligula membranacea, 2-3 mm longa, obtusa, in dorso scaberula; panicula laxa, ca. 18.5 cm longa, rhachi ramisque scabris, ramis ascendentibus, infra mediam nudis, in- ferioribus quinis fasculatis, fasciculis ex ramis 2 brevibus, 2 intermediis et 1 longissimo (9.7 cm longo) constantibus; spiculis viridibus, 5.5- 7.5 mm longis, 5- —8-floris; glumis lanceolatis, acutis, chartaceis, margine scariosis, 3-nerviis, in costa scaberulis, prima 2.8-3 mm longa, se- cunda 3-3.5 mm. longa; lemmatibus 3.3-3.5 mm longis, 5-nerviis, obtusis, chartaceis, margine scarlosis, apice flavescentibus purpurascenti- busque, secus margines purpurascentibus, punc- tatim scaberulis, glabris in vena intermedia et inter venas, pubescentibus deorsum in parte carinae dimidia et in tertia parte venarum mar- ginalium, basi arachnoideis; palea paulum bre- viore quam lemmate, ciliolata in costis; antheris (immaturis) 1-1.8 mm longis; rachilla glabra, minute scaberulaa—Specimen typicum _ legit Ohwi prope Kyongsong in provincia Ham- kyong-Pukto, Korea, 881 pro parte (!) in U. 8. Nat. Herb. conservatum sub num. 1964478. Partes inferiores desunt. Specimen alterum est Poa sphondylodes. Similar to Poa matsumurae but differs from it in the longer, 5- to 8-flowered spikelet and the sheath which is longer than the internode. Culm 57 ecm long, slightly compressed, 2 mm wide at base, 2-noded with the uppermost node below the middle of the culm, scaberulous below the inflorescence and nodes; sheaths longer than the internodes, slightly compressed, striate, scaberulous; leaf-blades flat, lmear, acute, 10.5 to 138 cm long, 2 to 2.2 mm wide, glabrous, scaberulous, the lowermost purplish at base; ligules membranaceous, 2 to 8 mm long, obtuse, scaberulous on the back. Panicle open, 18.5 em long; axis and branches scabrous; branches ascending, naked below the middle, the lower- most ones in a fascicle of 5 (2 shortest, 2 inter- mediate, the other longest and 9.7 cm long). Spikelets green, 5.5 to 7.5 mm long, 5- to 8- flowered; glumes lanceolate, acute, chartaceous, with scarious margins, 3-nerved, scaberulous on the keel, the first 2.8 to 3 mm long, the second 3 to 3.5 mm long; lemmas 3.3 to 3.5 mm long, 5-nerved, obtuse, chartaceous, with scarious margins, yellowish and purplish near the tip, purplish near the margins, punctate-scaberulous, glabrous on the intermediate nerve and between JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 7 the veins, pubescent on the lower half of the keel and on the lower third of the marginal veins, wavy-haired at base; paleas a little shorter than the lemma, ciliolate on the 2 keels; anthers (im- mature) 1 to 1.3 mm long; rachilla glabrous, minutely scaberulous. Type specimen: Ohwt 881 (US 1,964,478) P.P., collected at Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto. This, without the basal part, is one of the two plants found on US 1,964,478 collected by Ohwi on June 2, 1930, at Kyongsong, the other being Poa sphondylodes. Poa penicellata Kom. in Kam- chatka may be remotely related to Poa matsu- murae and Poa kyongsongensis. Poa ullungdoensis Chung, sp. nov. Poae nemorali affinis, sed differt panicula an- gustiore ramis appressioribus foliisque plerumque involutis. A P. kumgansani differt culmis com- pressis, 5- —8-nodiis et spiculis parvioribus, glu- mis brevioribus. Perennis; culmis caespitosis, 25-40 cm altis, gracilibus, simplicibus, basi geniculatis, 5- —8- nodis; vaginis haud apertis, saepe quam inter- nodiis longioribus, eis inferioribus purpurascen- tibus, ut culmis compressis, striatis, glabris, laevibus; laminis anguste linearibus, 9-17 cm longis, saepissime involutis, 1-2 mm latis si ap- planatis, glabris, margine scaberulis; ligulis trun-_ catis, 0.2 mm longis. Panicula 5-10 cm longa, 1—1.7 cm lata, ramis 2-5 ad nodos inferiores, appressis, haud verticillatis sed fasciculatis; ramis plus mi- nusve scaberulis, vel simplicibus vel circa mediam partem ramosis, prope apicem pauci-spiculiferis, infimis 2.2-4.8 cm longis. Spiculae 2.8—-5 (raro 7) mm longae, 2- —6-floriferae, plerumque 4-flori- ferae; glumis subaequalibus vel vix inaequalibus, prima 1.2—2.2 mm longa, 1-costata, secunda 1.7— 2.8 mm. longa, 3-costata; carinis scaberulis vel laevibus; lemmate obscure vel conspicue 5-nervio, basi pilis undulatis praedito, subtus in costa pu- bescenti etiamque prope basem venarum mar- ginalium, sed sursum et inter venus glabro; palea lemmate subaequali, 2-costata, costis scaberulis, apice indistincte 2-dentata vel integra; stamini- bus 3; antheris 1.2—2 mm longis, luteolis; lodiculis 2, membranaceis, cuneatis, emarginatis, 0.2-0.3 mm longis. Specimen typicum legit Chung (no. 1673) ex insula Ullung Do, 1 Jul. 1948; Oh 2479 etiam ex Ullung Do (ambobus in herb. Univ. Michiganensis conservatis). Close to P. nemoralis but differs from it in the narrow panicle with appressed branches and the Juny 1955 usually involute leaves. Also distinguished from P. kumgansani by the compressed 5- to 8-noded elums and the smaller spikelets with shorter glumes. Perennial; culms tufted, 25 to 40 cm tall, slen- der, simple, bent at base, 5- to 8-noded; sheaths closed, usually longer than the internodes, the lowermost ones purplish; culms and sheaths com- pressed, striate, glabrous, smooth; blades very narrowly linear, 9 to 17 cm long, usually involute, 1 to 2 mm wide when spread, glabrous, scaberu- lous on the margins; ligules truncate, 0.2 mm long. Panicle 5 to 10 cm long, 1 to 1.7 em wide, with 2 to 5 appressed branches (not whorled) at lower nodes; branches more or less scaberulous, simple or branched near or above the middle, bearing a few spikelets at the ends, the lower- most branches 2.2 to 4.8 cm long. Spikelets 2.8 to 5 rarely 7 mm long, 2- to 4-, rarely 6-flowered; glumes slightly unequal to subequal, the first 1.2 to 2.2 mm long and 1-nerved, the second 1.7 to 2.8 mm long and 3-nerved, keels scaberulous or smooth; lemma faintly or conspicuously 5-nerved, wavy-haired at base, pubescent on the keel below and near the base of the marginal veins, glabrous elsewhere; palea subequal to the lemma, 2-keeled, seaberulous on the keels, slightly 2-toothed or entire at apex; stamens 3; anthers 1.2 to 2 mm long, yellowish; lodicules 2, membranaceous, cu- neate, emarginate, 0.2 to 0.3 mm long. Type specimen: Chung 1673 (MICH) collected on 1 July 1948 in Ullung Do. Other Korean speci- men examined: Ullung Do (Oh 2479 MICH). Agropyron yezoense Honda var. glaucispiculum Chung, var. nov. A forma typica differt praecipue spiculis glau- cis 7--9-floris glumis 3--—5-nervis.—Specimen typicum et unicum legis Nakashima 25 Jun. 1942 prope Seoul, et conservatum in U.S. Nat. Herb. sub numero 1,964,760. This differs from the typical form mainly in the glaucous 7- to 9-flowered spikelets and 3- to 5-nerved glumes. Culms glaucous especially near the nodes; sheaths sometimes glaucous; blades linear, acu- minate, 15 to 21 cm long, 4 to 6 mm wide, scab- erulous, rarely pilose; ligules 0.5 to 0.8 mm long, truncate, brownish, membranaceous; spikelets 20 to 22 mm long, 7- to 9-flowered, glaucous; glumes 7.5 to 9 mm long, 3- to 5-nerved; lemma 9 to 11 mm long, 5-nerved, punctate on the back, hispid or hispidulous near the margins and more or less CHUNG: GRASSES OF KOREA 213 on the veins, glaucous; with a terminal scabrous awn 20 to 25 mm long; palea a little shorter than the lemma or equal, obtuse at apex, serrate- scabrous on the 2 keels, punctate and glaucous on the back; lodicules 2, membranaceous, 1 mm long; pilose beak of the caryopsis about 0.5 mm long; the hairs 1 mm long; rachilla scaberulous, 1.2 to 1.5 mm long, glaucous; callus 0.5 to 0.7 mm long; rachis scabrous on the edges, glaucous. Type specimen: Nakashima June 25, 1942 (US 1,964,760), Seoul. Eulalia speciosa (Debeaux) Kuntze var. glauca Chung, var. nov. A forma typica differt vaginis inferioribus etiamque nodis culmorum glaucis, lodiculis cilio- latis, et antheris longioribus. A Eulalia quadri- nervt distincta gluma prima pilosa et eaedem venis marginalibus supra mediam extinctis, lem- mate fertile longiore et laminis foliorum longiori- bus.—Specimen typicum in Herbario Grayano conservatum legit R. K. Smith s. n. 20 Sept. 1934, prope ‘“‘Sorai Beach” in Provincia Whanghaedo. This differs from the typical form of Hulalia speciosa in the glaucous lower sheaths and nodes of the culm, the ciliolate lodicules, and the longer anthers. It is distinguished from Hulalia quadri- nervis by the densely pilose first glume, the two marginal nerves of which disappear above the middle, the longer fertile lemma, and the longer leaf-blade. Culms 115 em tall, erect, unbranched, pubes- cent below the inflorescence, glaucous at nodes; sheaths open, longer or shorter than the inter- nodes, lower sheaths glaucous; leaf-blades linear, acuminate, 30 to 40 em long, about 6 mm wide, scabrous on margins, pruinose-glaucous above, pilose behind the ligules; ligules thickish, 0.7 to 1 mm long, truncate. Panicle 15 cm long, with subdigitate racemes; rachis obliquely jointed, compressed, densely whitish-pilose chiefly on edges and nodes; rachis-segments 4 to 4.5 mm long; spikelets 5 to 5.5 mm long, pilose; pedicels 3 to 3.2 mm long, sulcate, densely pilose on edges; glumes equal, broad-lanceolate, narrowly in- flexed on margins; first glume subcoriaceous, 4- nerved, with the 2 marginal nerves disappearing above the middle, densely pilose on the usually slightly depressed back and on sides, hispidulous on edges near the tip; second glume chartaceous, 3-nerved, pilose on the rounded back, ciliate above the middle, puberulent on both surfaces near the tip; sterile lemma as long as the glumes, 214 lanceolate, chartaceous-membranaceous below, membranaceous and ciliate above, 2-nerved; fertile lemma 3.5 to 4 mm long, very narrow, membranaceous, puberulent above, slightly con- stricted on the back at the lower fourth, awned from between the teeth of the bifid apex; the awn 16 to 17 mm long, bent, twisted, puberulent; palea 1.5 to 2 mm long, narrowly linear, mem- branaceous, ciliolate at apex, thick, 0.6 to 0.7 mm long; callus very short; hairs of callus 0.8 to 1.5 mm long; stamens 3; anthers 3 to 3.2 mm long, brown; stigmas 2 to 2.5 mm long, plumose, dark- purple; style long. Type specimen: Smith 9-20-1934, Sorai Beach in Whanghai-Do, GH. Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb. dura Chung, var. nov. var. A forma typica differt lemmate flosculi infe- rioris convexo, chartaceo vel cartilagineo, trans- verse rugoso.—Specimen typicum et unicum legit Oh sub. no. 8090 in insula Sohuksan Do, conservatum in Herb. Univ. Michiganensis. This differs from the typical form of Setaria Intesceus in the lemma of the lower floret which is convex, chartaceous to cartilaginous and slightly trans- versely rugose. Annual; culms erect, about 80 cm_ tall, branched, compressed, striate, scaberulous below the inflorescence; leaf-blades linear-lanceolate, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, 15 to 35 cm long, 6 mm wide, scaberulous to smooth beneath, scabrous on the margins; sheaths compressed, glabrous; ligule a fringe of white hairs, 1.5 mm long, fused at base. Panicle spikelike, cylindric, dense, 5 to 11 em long, yellowish; bristles yellow- ish, 5 to 12 in a cluster, the longer 2 to 4 times as long as the spikelet; spikelets 3 mm long, 1.8 to 2 mm wide, ovoid, acute; first glume 1.2 to 1.5 mm long, 3-nerved, ovate, obtuse to acute at tip, cordate at base, embracing the spikelet; sec- ond glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, 5-nerved, ovate, acute; lower floret staminate with 3 stamens, or rarely with abnormal bristles, with palea; lower lemma convex, chartaceous to cartilaginous, slightly transversely rugose, 5-nerved; its palea membranaceous, equal to and as broad as the upper palea, 2-nerved, with inflexed margins; upper floret perfect; upper lemma and palea car- tilaginous, strongly transversely rugose, with in- flexed margins, the lemma strongly convex and 3- to 5-nerved, the palea flat and 2-nerved; lodi- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, NO. 7 cules cuneate, truncate; stamens 3; anthers 0.8 mm long, brown; caryopsis orbicular, grayish. Type specimen: Oh 8090, Sohuksan Do, MICH. Other Korean specimen examined: Seoul (?) (Kim, anno 1948, MICH). Agropyron kamoji Ohwi f. muticum Chung, forma nov. A forma typica differt glumis sterilibus acutis vel acuminatis.—Specimen typicum legit Naka- shima 25 Jun. 1942 in colle Poukhansan prope Seoul, in U. 8. Nat. Herb. sub num. 1,964,758. This differs from the typical form in the acute or acuminate glumes. Type specimen: Nakashima June 25, 1942 (US 1,964,758), Poukhansan. Ischaemum crassipes (Steud.) Thell. f. pilosum Chung, forma nov. A forma typica differt lamina utrinque dense pilosa.—Specimen typicum prope locum ‘Cheju Do” dictum, legit collector sub num. Chungii 4843, in herbario Univ. Michiganensis. This differs from the typical form of Ischae- mum crassipes in the densely pilose leaf-blade. Type specimen: Chung’s collector 4843, Cheju Do, MICH. Other Korean specimen examined: Taquet 38555, US. Poa ussuriensis Roshev. f. angustifolia Chung, forma nov. A forma typica differt lamina 1.5-2 mm lata, ligula 0.3-0.5 (0.7) mm longa.—Specimen typi- cum legit Ohwi (num. 844) anno 1930 prope Kyongsong in provincia Hamkyong-Pukto, con- servatum in U.S. Nat. Herb. sub num. 1,964,476. This differs from the typical form in the nar- rower leaf-blade and the shorter ligule. Culms compressed, glabrous, smooth or sca- berulous below the nodes; sheaths compressed, glabrous, smooth or scaberulous near the node and on the keel; leaf-blades 7 to 9 cm long, 1.5 to 2 mm wide; ligules 0.3 to 0.5 or rarely 0.7 mm long; anthers 0.5 to 0.7 mm long. Type specimen: Ohwi 844 (US 1,964,476), Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto. Poa ussuriensis Roshev. f. scabra Chung, forma nov. A forma typica differt culmis scabris infra nodos.—Specimen typicum legit Ohwi sub. num. 857, anno 1930, prope oppidum Kyongsong in provinsia Hamkyong-Pukto, in U. 8. Nat. Herb. conservatum (n. 1,964,477). JuLy 1955 This differs from the typical form in the culm which is scabrous below the nodes. Culms compressed, 3- or 4-noded, striate, sca- brous below the nodes; sheaths shorter than the internodes, compressed, keeled, striate, scabrous at least near the nodes, purplish near the base; leaf-blades about 10 cm long, 2.5 to 6 mm wide; ligules 1 to 2 mm long; panicle 14 to 18 cm long, with 3 to 5 branches below, those branches 5 to 14 em long; glumes scaberulous on the keel, the first 1-nerved and the second 3-nerved; lemmas 5-nerved, glabrous on the intermediate nerve and between the nerves, pubescent on the lower third to half of the keel and on the lower fourth of the marginal nerves, wave-haired at base; anthers 0.8 to 1 mm long; rachilla glabrous, minutely scaberulous. Type specimen: Ohwi 857 Kyongsong, Hamkyong-Pukto. (US 1,964,477), Polypogon higegaweri Steud. f. muticum Chung, forma nov. Folia 4-8 cm longa, 2.5-3 mm lata. Ligula 2-4 mm longa. Panicula 6-6.5 cm longa, 7 mm lata; glumis 1.5-2 mm longis, muticis vel submuticis; lemmatibus muticis; antheris 0.3-0.4 mm longis. —Specimen typicum legis Oh sub num. 8257 in insula Sohuksan Do. Leaf-blades 4 to 8 cm long, 2.5 to 3 mm wide; ligules 2 to 4 mm long. Panicle 6 to 6.5 cm long, 7 mm wide; glumes 1.5 to 2 mm long, awnless or nearly so; lemmas awnless; anthers 0.3 to 0.4 mm long. Type MICH. New combinations are as follows: Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth var. heterogluma (Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. (Cala- magrostis longiseta Hack. var. heterogluma Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 35: 149, 1921.) Diarrhena fauriet (Hack.) Ohwi var. koryoen- sis (Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Diarrhena koryo- ensis Honda in Koryo-shikenrin-no-ippan 79, 1932.) Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. coreensis (Hack.) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus coreensis Hack. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 2 ser., 4: 531, 1904.) Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. ionandros (Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus ionan- dros Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 41: 13, 1917.) Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. longiberbis (Hack.) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus matsu- specimen: Oh 8257, Sohuksan Do, CHUNG: GRASSES OF KOREA 215 murae Hack. var. longiberbis Hack. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 2 ser., 4: 532, 1904.) Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. nakaianus (Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Miscanthus nakata- nus Honda in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 42: 130 & 179, 1928, also in Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo see. 3, 3: 389, 1930.) Tripogon chinensis Hack. var. longiaristata (Honda) Chung, comb. nov. (Tripogon longiaris- tata Honda in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 41: 11 & 16, 1927, also in Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo sec. 3, 3: 145, 1930.) Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv. f. multicaulis (Steud.) Chung, comb. nov. (Hragrostis multi- caulis Steud., Synop. Pl. Glum. 1: 426, 1855.) Ischaemum eriostachyum Hack. f. stenopterwm (Hack. ex Nakai) Chung, comb. nov. ([schaemum anthephoroides (Steud.) Mig. var. stenopterum Hack. ex Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 33: 3, 1919.) Polypogon higegawert Steud. f. demisus (Steud.) Chung, comb. nov. (Polypogon demissus Steud., Synop. Pl. Glum. 1: 422, 1855.) Thirteen species and eleven varieties of grasses are endemic in Korea: eight species and three varieties in Northern Korea, three species and three varieties in Central Korea, two species and three varieties in Southern Korea, and two varie- ties in Central and Southern Korea. Endemic grasses are as follows: Alopecurus aequalis Sobal. var. (Ohwi) Ohwi in Hamgyong-pukto, Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth var. hymeno- glossa Ohwi in Hamgyong-pukto, Calamagrostis paishanensis Nakai in Mt. Paektu, Hamgyong-pukto, Calamagrostis subacrochaeta Nakai Nangnim, Pyongan-pukto, Elymus mollis Trin. var. coreensis (Hack.) Honda in Wonsan, Hamgyong-namdo, Festuca blepharogyna (Ohwi) Ohwiin Mt. Sullyong, Ischaemum coreanum Nakai ex Honda in Seoul, Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. coreensis (Hack.) Chung in Sepo, Cheju Do, and Tong Do, brachytrichus in Mount Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. longiberbis (Hack.) Chung in Changwoni, Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. var. nakaianus (Honda) Chung in Kangwondo, Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Beauv. var. elongatus Honda in Kwangnung, Kyonggido, Poa deschampsioides Ohwi in Mt. Duryu, Kwan- mobong, and Chailbong, Hamgyong-pukto, Poa hamhungensis Chung in Hamhung, Hamgyong- namdo, Poa kanboensis Ohwi in Hamgyong-pukto, Poa kumgansani Ohwi in Mt. Kumgang, Kang- wondo, Mt. Kwanmobong, 216 Poa kyongsongensis Chung in Kyongsong, Hamg- yong-pukto, Poa takeshimana Honda in Ullungo Do, Poa ullungdoensis Chung in Ullung Do, Puccinellia coreensis Honda in Mokpo and Cheju Do, Sasa coreana Nakai in Hamgyong-pukto, Sasa quelpaertensis Nakai in Cheju Do, Sasamorpha borealis (Hack.) Nakai var. chiisanen- sis (Nakai) Chung in Mt. Chiri, Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb. var. dwra Chung in Sohuksan Do, Tripogon chinensis Hack. var. coreensis Hack. in Chinnampo, Sorai in Whanghaedo, and Cheju Do, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 7 Tripogon chinensis Hack. var. (Honda) Chung in Cheju Do. longiaristata Distribution of the grasses in Korea and the nearest systematic and geographic relationships of endemic species are fully discussed in the Man- ual. A brief classification of the grasses by habi- tats and a list of the important collections of Korean grasses in four herbaria of U. 8. A. are given. A map of Korea with three divisions (North, Central, and South) is included, and the latter indicates location of the important locali- ties represented by collections in the four her- baria which have been cited. ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Pararchinotodelphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) with remarks on its systematic position. PauL L. Inte, Department of Zoology, Uni- versity of Washington.! (Received March 15, 1955) Important revisions of concepts long held regarding ascidicolous copepods have re- sulted from recent contributions of Karl Lang (1948, 1949). His family Archinotodel- phyidae (1949) is significant because it pre- sents anatomical and ecological features which illustrate transition from casually oc- curring associates of ascidians to anatomi- cally modified forms reflecting ecological dependence on these host organisms as providing either shelter or nutrition. He considers this family to occupy an inter- mediate position serving as the directly connecting link between the families Cyclo- pinidae and Notodelphyidae. The whole series then readily conforms to the long existing definition of the Cyclopoida Gnath- ostoma. The use of the order Notodelphyoida Sars is accordingly abandoned by Lang, and he further points out the logic of incorpo- rating various ascidicolous copepods, other than notodelphyids, but included by Sars in his suborder, in some of the other sub- divisions of the Cyclopoida. Two monotypic genera are recognized by Lang in the new family. The species here to be described is a congener of Pararchinotodelphys phallusiae (Hansen), 1923. 1 Acknowledgment is made of technical as- sistance furnished through a research grant from Initiative 171 Fund, State of Washington. Family ARCHINOTODELPHYIDAE Lang, 1949 Pararchinotodelphys Lang, 1949 The urosome in the female consists of the segment of the fifth legs, a complex genital segment, representing fusion of 1 anatomically thoracic segment and one anatomically abdominal segment, and three free abdominal segments. The antennule consists of many segments, 16 or 17 being the number so far known. The antenna is 4-segmented. The mandible palp has a 2-seg- mented endopodite and 4-segmented exopodite. The maxilliped is 3- or 4-segmented. The natatory legs have both rami 3-segmented. The fifth legs are 2-segmented; four setae are borne on the terminal segment, one on the basal segment at the distolateral corner. Type species, P. phallusiae (Hansen), 1923. Pararchinotodelphys gurneyi, n. sp. Fias. 1-14 Specimens examined.—4 females, all adult; from branchial cavities of specimens of Styela partita (Stimpson) (U.S.N.M. no. 3181), off Marthas Vineyard, Mass., Fish Hawk station 940, August 4, 1881, depth 134 fathoms. Types.—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no. 97608; paratypes no. 92536; all from the one known collection. Description —FEMALE (Figs. 1-14): The body presents in outward aspect (Fig. 1) the gen- eralized cyclopoid characters, such as those seen JuLy 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 217 Figs. 1-14.—Pararchinotodelphys gurneyt, n. sp., female: 1, Habit, dorsal view (the accompanying scale represents 0.5 mm); 2, urosome, ventral view; 3, antennule; 4, antenna; 5, mandibular palp; 6, maxillule; 7, maxilla; 8, maxilliped; 9, first leg; 10, second leg; 11, third leg; 12, fourth leg; 13, fifth leg; 14,"caudal ramus. 218 in the near relative Cyclopina. The cephalosome consists of the long segment of the head and maxillipeds; there is a free segment for each of the four pairs of swimming legs. The metasome accordingly is 5-segmented. The 5-segmented urosome (Fig. 2) consists of the somite of the fifth legs, a long genital somite, probably con- sisting of a posteriormost thoracic segment fused with the first segment of the abdomen, and three free abdominal segments, counting the segment supporting the caudal rami, which includes the anal aperture. Egg-sacks were not found. The structure of the urosome of the female demon- strates the fully adult condition. No incubatory cavity is developed. The antennules (Fig. 3) are of moderate length, much greater in diameter basally than at the tip. There are 16 segments, of which the proximal is longest, although no segment is particularly elongate. There is a short second segment and the third approaches the first in length. These proximal three segments are of fairly uniform thickness and are succeeded by two short segments, each sharply graduated in diameter so that the appearance has a telescope effect tapering the appendage to the sixth and seventh segments, which are subequal in length and fairly sharply graduated in width. The succeeding segments are subequal in length and taper gradually to the narrow terminal segment. The setation is relatively profuse and exhibits no differentiation of particularly distinctive elements. The antennae (Fig. 4) are 4-segmented. The lengths of the segments are graduated distally, the basal segment being somewhat over double the length of the distal one. In available prepara- tions some of the details of ornamentation cannot be thoroughly made out. The basal segment has 1 long, fine inner seta, borne subterminally. The second segment has a single seta placed about midway on the margin opposite the setiferous edge of the basal segment. The third segment has two (or three) setae, originating from a common base on the distal margin. Forming an elaborate articulation with the tip of the terminal segment is a heavy, spirally curved, tapered hook. This structure is accompanied by three curved setae, in length about equal to the hook, and inserted in the articulating region. There are at least three additional minor subterminal setae. The base of the mandible includes an expanded JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 7 coxa produced medially into a masticatory process. The medial portion of this process is a flat dentate plate, heavily chitinized. The upper medial corner of the plate terminates in a stout, tapered tooth, and there is a wide curved emargination between this tooth and a lower saw- like row of several closely spaced subequal teeth which form the remainder of the medial margin. The palp of the mandible (Fig. 5) consists of a basipodite and two rami. The ornamentation of the basipodite consists of a single, slight seta inserted somewhat distal to the midpoint of the medial margin. The endopodite is placed termi- nally on the elongate basis and is 2-segmented. Four setae are arranged in a close-spaced row on the distolateral portion of the medial margin of the proximal segment. The somewhat larger distal segment is ornamented with 10 setae, arranged in a compact row from the midpoint of the medial margin across the slightly expanded terminal margin. The endopodite is inserted con- siderably subterminally on the basis and consists of four segments. Each of the three proximal segments bears a long stout seta; there are 2 subequal setae on the terminal segment. The five setae of the ramus are graduated in length; all are stout and plumose. The maxillule (Fig. 6) is the most complicated structurally of the mouthparts. The greatest mass of the appendage is the expanded and foliose proximal segment of the apparently bimerous protopodite, which seems to include, however, more than 2 of the several theoretically present protopodite segments of the generalized copepod maxillule. There are what appear to represent three endites disposed along the medial margin of the basal segment. The most proximally placed endite takes a wide insertion along most of the length of the axis of the segment and flares to form an expanded plate bearing medially along its margin eight tapered setae of varying propor- tions, all of which are directed medially. Proximally, the insertions of the setae tend to be removed progressively farther onto the anterior face of the process. Overlain by the flare of this major process are 2 small’ protuberances at the distal medial corner of the flattened segment. Each protuberance bears a slender, distally directed seta. The three setiferous processes of the segment would seem to represent 3 laciniae and indicate a coalescence of three archetypical segments to produce the arrangement here seen. JtLy 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF The basal segment supports a small lateral protuberance which seemingly represents a coalesced epipodite. This prominence bears two markedly unequal setae. The principal seta is elongate and tapering and proximally placed. It is directed proximally. The distal seta, which originates from a base very closely placed to that of the principal seta, is slender and short. The distal segment of the protopodite is expanded medially and distally so that the apparently lateral margin bears both the rami of the limb. The medial margin of the segment supports two groups of setae, a proximal couple and a more distal group of four. The endopodite is monomerous, tapered, with a more or less straight lateral margin and curving medial margin. Along most of the length of the medial margin and across the narrow apex are set 10 graduated slender setae. The apical setae are the longest. The exopodite is subquadrate and the wide distal margin supports four uniformly spaced, long, subequal setae, all profusely plumose. The manilla (Fig. 7) is 6-segmented. The basal segment is broadly expanded, although very flat, and bears two endites, each of which is somewhat suppressed to form a conical protuberance. The proximal prominence bears an apical group of four setae, of graduated size and with an intricate, closely spaced pattern of articulation. The distal endite has a single seta. The second segment, which narrows apically, bears two projections. A proximal conical endite, like those of the proximal segment, bears two setae. Distally there is a distinctly articulated rectangular arthrite which supports two long subequal setae and a much finer, shorter seta, the three arranged linearly along the medial margin. The third segment is produced medially as a heavy, tapering, somewhat curved hook. There is no articulation of this structure with the main mass of the segment. Two slender subequal setae are borne on the hook-process, inserted at a point which should approximate the medial edge of the segment. The distal portion of the appendage is a minute, trimerous cone, tapered apically. The two more proximal segments each bear a medial seta. The apical segment bears four setae, three terminal and one borne on the surface of the basal portion of the segment. The maxilliped (Fig. 8) is tetramerous. The PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 219 basal segment much exceeds in mass the combined remainder. Five setae are inserted into a pattern composed of a proximal solitary seta, midmargin couple and distal couple, all on the medial margin of the segment. The second segment is about half the width of the first segment and its ornamenta- tion consists of a single long seta set subterminally on the medial margin. The third segment is still slenderer and shorter than the second and supports two medial setae and a seta at the distolateral corner. The minute terminal segment has 2 long slender apical setae. The 4 pairs of swimming legs are generalized in plan and seem to exhibit no modifications for other than a free-living existence. The segmenta- tion and armature of these appendages may be represented as follows: Setae are designated in Arabic numerals following designation of spines in Roman. The segments of each ramus are accounted for in order from the basal segment distally. The armatures of the termina] segments are designated by listing in order lateral elements —terminal elements—medial elements. First exopodite I-1; I-1; III-I, 1-3; first endopodite 0-1; 0-1; 1-2-3. Second exopodite I-1; I-1; III-I, 1-4; second endopodite 0-1; 0-2; 1-2-8. Third exopodite I-1; I-1; II-I, 1-4; third endopodite 0-1; 0-2; 1-2-3. Fourth exopodite I-1; I-1; II-I, 1-4; fourth endopodite 0-1; 0-2, 1-2-2. In the first legs (Fig. 9), it was impossible in the available material to determine whether the usual medial coxal setae are present. The legs of the pair are united by a well-developed intercoxal plate. The basipodite exhibits an oblique distal margin, the lateral edge of the segment being of such slight extent as barely to provide insertion for its slender seta. The medial margin is long, accommodating the marked distal prolongation which supports a stout, tapered, curved spine. Each of the rami consists of three subequal segments. The spines of the two proximal segments of the exopodite are roughly equal in dimension with the three subequal marginal spines of the distal segment. The second legs (Fig. 10) consist each of a bimerous protopodite and of trimerous rami, the coxae yoked by the intercoxal plate. Each coxa bears a.slender, relatively short seta at the distal medial corner. The very short lateral margin of the basis is set with a short, slender seta. The third legs (Fig. 11) are almost identical in 220 proportion and ornamentation with the second legs. The fourth legs (Fig. 12) consist of bimerous protopodites and trimerous rami. The intercoxal plate unites the paired legs. Hach coxa bears a slender, rather short medial seta. Hach basis bears a slender lateral seta. The fifth legs (Fig. 13) are bimerous. The basal segment, probably representing the protopodite, although the exact homology is not clear, equals about half the bulk of the dista] segment. The presence of a slender seta on the distolateral corner of the proximal segment lends weight to the established practice of referring to it as the basipodite. The distal segment is a flat plate, elongate and with its width about a third of its length. A seta is set at about the midpoint of the lateral margin, there is a stout long apical seta and 2 slenderer, subequal setae arranged sub- terminally rather close together on the apical fifth of the medial margin. The caudal rami (Fig. 14) are of generalized cyclopoid aspect, the length of each about five times its greatest width. Basally each is more expanded than distally, with the lateral edge exhibiting a sharp emargination about a third of the length of the ramus distal from the base. The emargination is set with a slender seta, in length equal to about half that of the ramus. There are four apical setae, the central two of the quartet long and stout. These measure about 1.5 times the length of the ramus. In the available specimens the exact relative lengths of these 2 setae could not be made out. The slender medial seta is somewhat exceeded by the lateral seta. A slender seta is set on the medial portion of the dorsal surface of each ramus subterminally about one-eighth the length of the ramus. The ciliation of all the setae is well developed. No male has been found. Remarks.—In comparing the present species to P. phallusiae, a number of differentiating charac- ters are established which have been made use of in some slight revisions of the generic definition. In P. gurney? the antennule is 16-segmented, that of P. phallusiae is apparently 17-segmented. The antennae seem basically similar in the two species but the terminal prehensile hook in P. gurneyt is much stouter and more highly developed. The mandibles correspond in the two species, but in P. gurneyt the exopodite is shorter and the segments more compressed together. The JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 7 maxillule is somewhat more complicated in P. gurneyt and the protopodite bears a medial setiferous projection not accounted for in P. phallusiae. The maxillae cannot adequately be compared in the two species on the basis of available information. The maxilliped in P. phallusiae is 3-segmented evidently exhibiting a coalescence of terminal segments which are free in the tetramerous appendage of P. gurneyt. The first three swimming legs are not described for P. phallusiae. In the fourth legs the formula for armature is apparently exopodite I-1; I-1; 1-4; endopodite 0-1; 0-2; 1-2-2, which would correspond exactly to P. gurneyt. The fifth legs in the two species are essentially similar except that in P. gurneyi the medial seta of the distal segment is much more nearly subterminal in position. Body segmentation in the two species corresponds in general. It is necessary here to consider also the species Pseudocyclopina belgicae (Giesbrecht). Lindberg (1952) has pointed out the close relationship of this copepod to Pa. phallusiae; in fact he has made the two species congeneric. Agreement with this view would have to shift generic assignment of Pa. phallusiae and Pa. gurneyt to Lang’s prior genus Pseudocyclopina (1946) and in turn might then logically require removal of the genus from the Cyclopinidae to the Archino- todelphyidae. In antennular segmentation Pa. phallusiae and Ps. belgicae correspond; Pa. gurneyi differs by possession of 1 less segment. The difference is scarcely to be regarded as other than of specific importance. In the antenna Ps. belgicae lacks the inner seta of the basal segment and in the two terminal segments shows neither the tendency to shortening of the segments nor development of prehensile elements among the terminal armature, all of which features characterize the other two species. The mandible of Ps. belgicae exhibits the distinctive cyclopinid feature of reduced setation of the segments of the endopodite, possessing three setae on the basal segment, six on the distal segment, contrasting thus with the other species. The maxilliped of Ps. belgicae is more distinctively cyclopinid in the possession of seven segments. The development of the two basal segments is more or less comparable to that in the three archinotodelphyid species. The first leg is not known for Pa. phallusiae. JULY 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES In possession of two setae on the second segment of the endopodite Ps. belgicae presents a notable difference from Pa. gurneyi. The presence of three spines on the terminal segment of the exopodite in Ps. belgicae as compared to four such spines in Pa. gurneyi is a less distinctive dif- ference. The fourth leg corresponds in the 3 species but might further be said to conform to a widespread condition found among cyclopinids and notodelphyids in general, at this level offering no significant clue to generic affiliation. TIn the fifth leg all three archinotodelphyids agree and Ps. belgicae markedly disagrees in the possession of two setae on the basipodite in the female. Taxonomic separation of Ps. belgicae is then readily made on the basis of differences in the armature of the mandibles, segmentation of the maxilliped, armature of the first legs and in the structure of the fifth legs. These differences are at a level customarily held to be of generic rank in the treatment of related copepods. Several still unknown quantities leave room in certain measure for a future reopening of the issue. Comparison of the maxillules and maxillae of Ps. belgicae and Pa. phallusiae must await re- description of the species. Description of the first leg of Pa. phallusiae is also a desideratum. Further, a most striking sexual dimorphism in Ps. belgicae separates it strongly from all cyclo- pinids. No male is yet known from any of the three archinotodelphyid species. However, the present conclusion must be to retain Giesbrecht’s species in systematic separation and Pseudo- cyclopina must currently be regarded as a genus placed without any undue difficulty in the family Cyclopinidae. The differentiation. of Pararchinotodelphys from Archinotodelphys, as set forth by Lang (1949) is readily maintained. The difference in segmentation of the urosome in the female, the difference in number of setae of the basal antennal segment, the differences in segmentation of the maxilla and maxilliped and the possibility of difference at generic level of the armature of the maxillule are here recognized as the basic con- siderations. The distribution of taxonomic characters through the cyclopinids, archinotodelphyids and notodelphyids presents at the current stage of information certain puzzling aspects. Discussion of some of these is pertinent in explanation of the OF PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 221 systematic disposition applied in the present study. With reference to body segmentation, two important characters found among archino- todelphyids deserve analysis. The first character is the condition of the thoracic segment of the first pair of swimming legs. All three species exhibit this as a free segment. In cyclopinids this segment is typically fused in a cephalosome complex. Among notodelphyids this segment may be free or fused. In Notodelphys it probably is typically free (cf. Stock, 1951, p. 1). The claim has frequently been made that fusion is the primitive condition. Evidence, however, is so contradictory and confusing that it seems impossible to assign this character as a criterion at a high level of systematic significance: It seems to be a character of sufficient plasticity as to have no pertinence at other than the specific or generic level. The segmentation of the urosome presents an ambiguous morphological situation. The forma- tion of a “genital segment’? in the female by coalescence of the last thoracic segment with the first abdominal segment is a character of wide- spread distribution through the cyclopoids. Information from development is only frag- mentary but the indication seems to be that free and separate segments appear as a first stage with the fusion secondary and appearing at the last molt. More information on the subject is needed. The very extent of occurrence of this fusion lends strong support to the view of it as a primitive character. The typical condition among the cyclopinids seems to be fusion. It simply is not possible to say, however, that no female cyclopinid can possess the alternative condition of completely free segments. In WNotodelphys females the separated genital segment is typical. In some other notodelphyids with some otherwise primitive characters, as illustrated by Do- ropygopsis, the segments are fused. In Pararchi- notodelphys, the segments are fused, therefore more like the cyclopinids; the segments are free in Archinotodelphys. It becomes almost impossible here to say which of the conditions must be the primitive one; and, further, whether the primitive state in this one family is the same as that for the entire cyclopinid-archinotodelphyid-noto- delphyid series. Morphological features of some of the ap- pendages offer equally puzzling patterns of distribution. The species of Pararchinotodelphys, 9992 aL JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in bearing a single medial seta on the basal antennal segment, conform to a generally prevalent condition among the cyclopinids. Information is not available as to whether the condition is invariable in the family, but no contrary instance seems to occur among available records. In Notodelphys and some other noto- delphyid genera, two setae, conforming very well to the condition in Archinotodelphys, occur here. If long-standing concepts of the structure of the maxillule are correct, the most primitive condition now known in the lineage could with almost equal justice be assigned to a noto- delphyid, Doropygopsis, or to an archinoto- delphyid, Pararchinotodelphys gurneyt. In the latter, the correspondence with Gurney’s scheme (1931, p. 57) of the generalized maxillule of the Copepoda is of interest. The elements of the most primitive grade of organization of the appendage would seem to be present here although in a different arrangement than is seen in the generalized types of other major sections of the copepods. The elements of the four segments of the basic protopodite would here be found arranged as two segments. The proximal segment bears three of the possible four laciniae internae and the single epipodite. The distal segment bears setae presumably representing a single endite, and articulates with the endopodite and exopodite. (What would explain the subdivision into two groups of setae as here seen, is difficult to explain in view of considering that a single lacinia interna supposedly is involved). In the main, however, this arrangement furnishes a neat correspondence to the basic calanoid arrangement and is in these regards the most primitive example of the maxillule among the Cyclopoida. By comparison the maxillule of Doropygopsis would offer on one line of structural evidence a phylogenetic advance over the condition just described; on still another line, it exhibits what is seemingly a more primitive grade of construction. The medial setae and protuberances in this maxillule seem to offer grounds for interpretation as representing one less endite than would be found in P. gurneyi. In Doropygopsis there is the medial group of masticatory setae, a single seta inserted on a more distal protuberance, and finally a distal series of setae apparently ref- erable to the basipodite. However, on this appendage the endopodite is bimerous. This condition is not known at all among the cy- VOL. 45, NO. 7 clopinids or archinotodelphyids so its occurrence here, as well as in Pachypygus, among the noto- delphyids is difficult of explanation. It would contradict all experience with specializations among crustacean appendages to maintain that here the addition of a segment and addition of a number of setae would represent an advance inspecialization rather than a primitive condition. The endopodite is bimerous in the primitive calanoid maxillule and combination of the two lines of occurrence in Doropygopsis then would indicate that such would be the case in the archetypical cyclopoid, although there is no known example combining the primitive features of Pararchinotodelphys and of Doropygopsis. In Canuella, as an example of a primitive harpacti- coid maxillule (Gurney, 1931, fig. 44), the ap- pendage is seemingly more generalized than any known among cyclopoids and shows satisfactory correspondence to the archetypical condition hypothesized above. In the case of the maxilla, a case much paralleling that of the maxillule occurs, but in less extreme measure. Reference to Sars (1918, pls. 8, 10) indicates that the cyclopinids Pteri- nopsyllus aimsignis Brady and Cyclopinella tumidula Sars exhibit in this appendage charac- ters which would customarily be regarded as primitive. Strong indications of a 6-segmented condition are present. The most distal portion of the appendage is a small trimerous unit, the apical segment bearing 4 setae. Reductions in this appendage are characteristic for the majority of cyclopinids. Among notodelphyids Doropygopsis exhibits the best approach to the 6-segmented condition. Among species of Doropygus the terminal segmentation and armature are most highly developed. Assembling these characters would produce a grade of structure approaching the basic cyclopinid condition. The condition in P. gurneyi would approach this generalized structure. In Archinotodelphys the segmentation is considerably suppressed and the armature reduced. In the segmentation and armature of the swimming legs, the archinotodelphyids tend to resemble the cyclopinids closely. Their charac- ters in this regard would enable them to fit with no question among the species in the parental family. Paradox again enters this situation when among the notodelphyids instances are found to the number of elements of occur in which Juny 1955 ILLG: NEW SPECIES OF armature for a given segment exceeds that found for the same member in any archinotodelphyid. This would be illustrated by some Doropygus species, in which the terminal segment of the fourth exopodite bears four spines and five setae. As representative of the cyclopinids exhibiting this armature there seems to be known only Paracyclopina nana, a species admittedly well removed from a primitive position in the family by the reduced condition of other of its ap- pendages. Perhaps this form hes close to the lineage of the archinotodelphyids, however. The characters of the archinotodelphyids most strongly suggesting the intermediate position of the family between cyclopinidae and _ noto- delphyidae are the antennae, the maxillipeds and the fifth legs. In the antenna the bimerous terminal portion characteristic of the archinotodelphyids, and corresponding well to the cyclopinid condition, has never been found in notodelphyids. In all the latter the appendage is markedly more modified in segmentation, but as we have seen above, with reference to the setae of the basal segment, more primitive than in a_ typical eyclopinid. The mawxillipeds are not completely satisfactory as possibly directly ancestral structurally to the appendages found in the descendent family. However, in rough outline they indicate what the archetypical condition might have been with regard to segmentation. Indications as to the evolutionary development of the setal armature are not apparent. In the Archinotodelphyidae, with the small number of 3 known species, the group as a whole exhibits a complex of primitive and advanced characters with no one member corresponding to the demonstrable archetypical requirements. A similar distribution of characters occurs in the obvious parental group, the Cyclopinidae, where in various members advanced characters combine with primitive, so that again no actual archetype occurs as a reality. Further, the descendent group of the Notodelphyidae repeats again the same combination. The situation is carried to its extreme by the fact that for various of the characters involved, the most primitive expression so far found has been in a representative of the notodelphyids, by common consent the most advanced group in the series. Our extension of knowledge among these groups has reenforced PARARCHINOTODELPHYS 223 our idea as to what the archetype for each and for all must have been, but these interesting creatures must still be numbered among the missing. The foregoing discussion leads to the important decision as to the proper systematic treatment of the lineage under consideration. A most. sig- nificant implication immediately appears, in that combinations of characters take great importance in here defining the taxonomic categories. By taking characters singly, logical application would most aptly lead to inclusion of all the cyclopinids, archinotodelphyids and notodelphyids within a single family. The naming of such a group would alone be a most unfortunate task to assign to any one. To submerge the historically significant implications of either of the genera Notodelphys or Cyclopina in deference to the other on any grounds should certainly lead to most aggravated nomenclatorial unpopularity. Further, such consideration of individual characters as are already available leads to the strong suspicion that the cyclopinids, archinotodelphyids and the notodelphyids are each polyphyletic as they now stand. The recent intensive fractionation of the cyclopinids in rapidly successive treatments by authors working with them would seem to bear out this point. There will doubtless be an eventual reconciliation of these groups within a single systematic category. By conventional applications within the classification of the copepods, however, it does not seem likely that the designation of this ultimate synthetic group will be at the familial level. Present lumping at this level then would be undesirable. For present practice, as an alternative, the Archinotodelphyidae could be returned to the Cyclopinidae, retaining the Notodelphyidae in familial separation. This would involve only the submergence of a name of but a few years’ standing. Such taxonomic treatment of these organisms is in line with the treatment of Lind- berg. To qualify as perfectly acceptable cyclo- pinids, the 3 archinotodelphyid species would require little anatomical alteration, but actually considerably more than was pointed out in Lindberg’s comparison of P. phallusiae (the only archinotodelphyid then known) with Pseudo- cyclopina belgicae. The familial status of the Notodelphyidae is readily defended; they do present a complex of 224 distinctive characters. No known notodelphyid antenna shows the subdivision of the terminal portion into the clear-cut segments found throughout the cyclopinids and _ archinoto- delphyids. The extremely high development of the terminal prehensile hook of notodelphyids is not equalled in the other groups. The maxilliped presents a difference of organization, especially with regard to the profuse setal armature on the basal segment in the notodelphyid. The fifth legs are distinctive in basic plan. Finally, the dorsal brood pouch is a feature which is universal in notodelphyids and unknown in the other groups. This series remains then a fairly strongly separated one. A final consideration must be added. Lind- berg’s classification was proposed without his having opportunity to consider thoroughly the family Archinotodelphyidae (cf. Lindberg, 1952, footnote, p. 318). This family is now on the record and the definition is an adequate one. The addition of a new species has demonstrated, in the reappraisal of defining characters that there is strong evidence for a natural group here, defined by a complex of characters. The charac- ters show overlapping in two directions, some occurring in the antecedent group, some in the descendent family. No purely archetypical species occurs in any one of the 3 separable lineages. Nor does there occur an actual transitional species for either of the gaps in continuity of distribution of the characters. The belated recognition of the existence of cyclopinids as forerunners of noto- delphyids and the recent discovery of the archinotodelphyids combine to bring about the situation where the ultimate offshoot group is much better known anatomically and the range of variations more exhaustively explored than is the case for the parental series. Further, the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 7 number of genera and of species described in the notodelphyids exceeds those of both the other families. On the basis of these features, with the strongly reenforcing conviction that a con- siderable majority of species remains undis- covered in this whole assemblage, the present treatment then maintains the separation of the 3 families. REFERENCES GIESBRECHT, WILHELM. Copepoden. Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897-1898-1899 sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports Scientifiques, Zoologie: 49 pp., 13 pls. 1902. GurRNEY, Ropert. British fresh-water Copepoda 1: lui + 238 pp., 344 figs. Ray Society, London, 1931. Hansen, Hans Jacos. Crustacea Copepoda, II. Copepoda parastta and hemiparasita. Danish Ingolf-Expedition 3 (7): (2) + 92 + (2) pp., 5 pls. 1923. Lane, Karu. EHinige fiir die schwedische Fauna neue marine ‘‘Cyclopoida Gnathostoma’’ nebst Bemerkungen tiber die Systematik der Unter- familie Cyclopininae. Ark. Zool. 38A (6): 1-16, 7 figs. 1946. Copepoda ‘‘Notodelphyoida” from the Swedish west-coast with an outline on the systematics of the copepods. Ark. Zool. 40A (14) : 1-36, 1 pl., 17 text figs. 1948. On a new copepod family related to Noto- delphyidae and on two new copepod species from South Georgia. Ark. Zool. 42B (4): 1-7, 16 figs. 1949. LinpBerGc, Knut. La sous-famille des Cyclo- pininae Kiefer (Crustacés copépodes). Ark. Zool. ser. 2, 4 (16): 311-325, 1 fig. 1952. Sars, GreoreG Osstan. An account of the Crustacea of Norway with short descriptions and figures of all the species 6: Cyclopoida: xili + 225 pp, 118 pls. Bergen, 1918. Stock, J. H. Some notes on Notodelphys rufescens Thorell, 1860, new to the Dutch fauna. Beaufortia (Miscellaneous series, Amsterdam Museum), no. 6: 1-4, 7 figs. 1951. ZOOLOGY —The isopod genus Chiridotea Harger, with a description of a new species from brackish waters. THoMAS E. BowMan, U.S. National Museum. (Communi- cated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) (Received January 31, 1955) During the examination of samples col- lected by the Shad Investigations of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 1937 to 1941, numerous specimens of an unde- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. scribed valviferous isopod of the genus Chari- dotea Harger, 1878, were discovered. In this paper the new species is described, and cer- tain additions and corrections are made to published accounts of the two previously known species of the genus. JuLty 1955 Chiridotea Harger, 1878 Examination of the three species has made it possible to give the following revised definition of the genus (family and subfamily characters omitted) : Mandible without molar. Inner lobe of first maxilla bearing one long, plumose seta and a minute seta. Palp of maxilliped formed of three segments; lateral margins of the two distal segments fringed with fine setae. Epimeral plates distinct on pereion somites 2-7, their free margins spinose. Propodus of pereiopod 1 some- what larger than that of pereiopod 2 or 3. Pereiopods 1-5 of female with oostegites. Pleo- telson composed of four somites, with lateral sutures of another partially coalesed somite. Medial sternal process of first somite of pleon bearing long spines. Inner ramus of uropod about half or a little more than half as long as outer ramus. Type, by original designation, C. coeca (Say). Members of this genus are small species, known only from the east coast of the United States and Canada, from Florida to Nova Scotia, on sandy bottoms. The most closely related genus, Saduria Adams,? differs from Chiridotea in that the mandible possesses a molar; the inner lobe of the first maxilla bears two long setae and a minute seta; the palp of the maxilliped is formed of 5 segments; the propodus of pereiopod 1 is about the same size as those of pereiopods 2 and 3; the inner ramus of the uropod is much less than half as long as the outer ramus. Members of this genus are large species, limited to arctic and subarctic waters. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHIRIDOTEA 1. Flagellum of antenna 2 much shorter than peduncle, 5 segmented; antenna 1 nearly as lonowasmanvenn ay 2an chee ss een ase C. coeca Flagellum of antenna 2 longer than peduncle, 8-12 segmented; antenna 1 much shorter uaa GEMM 2 ry aac enrace minmistesciccemdaas ae 2 2. Posterior margin of dactyl of pereiopod 1 armed with strong spines; pleotelson as in Fig. 2 7 C. tuftsi Posterior margin of dactyl of pereiopod 1 armed with a few setae; pleotelson as in Fig. 1 a C. almyra, n. sp. 2 The name Mesidotea Richardson, 1905, now commonly applied to this genus, can no longer be used, since there are two older available names: Idotaega Lockington, 1876, p. 44, and Saduria Adams, in Sutherland, 1852, appendix, p. cevii. BOWMAN: ISOPOD GENUS CHIRIDOTEA HARGER 225 Chiridotea coeca (Say) IME 24, Oy Gy 0 Idotea coeca Say, 1818, pp. 424-425.—Gould, 1841, Pp. 337. Idotaea caeca Say, Gould, in Hiteheock, 1835, p. 29. Idotea caeca Say, Milne-Edwards, 1840, p. 131.— Guérin-Méneville, 1843, p. 35—DeKay, 1844, p. 42.—White, 1847, p. 94.—Verrill and Smith, 1874, p. 340 (46), 569 (275), pl. 5, fig. 22. Chiridotea coeca (Say), Harger, 1878, p. 374; 1879, p. 159; 1880, pp. 338-340, pl. 4, fig. 16-19.— Richardson, 1901, p. 539. Chiridotea coecas (Say), Richardson, 1900, p. 226. Chiridotea caeca (Say), Richardson, 1905, pp. 353-354, fig. 380-381.—Racovitza and Sevastos, 1910, p. 195.—Collinge, 1918, pp. 73-74, pl. 7, hig Glyptonotus caecus (Say), Miers, 1881, pp. 17-18. Diagnosis.—Lateral margins of head with U- or V-shaped clefts, the anterior margins of the clefts often bearing plumose setae; head pro- duced into quadrate lobes anterior to the clefts. Antenna 2 only slightly longer than antenna 1; flagellum with 5 segments. Propodus of pereiopod 1 more robust than in the other species; greatest width a little more than 24 the length; lateral surface bearing a few long setae. Pleotelson narrowing gradually in basal half, more abruptly in terminal half. Length, excluding antennae, up to 13 mm. Range——From Florida to Halifax, Nova Scotia, on sand bottoms, usually intertidally, but occasionally found as deep as 17 fm. The collec- tions of the National Museum contain specimens from as far south as Beaufort, North Carolina. Inclusion of Florida in the range is based on Say’s statement, ‘‘...found as far south as Florida.” Say gave no information about the type locality. Chiridotea tuftsi (Stimpson) Fig. 2, a, ¢,9 Idotea tuftsii Stimpson, 1888, p. 39.—Verrill and Smith, 1874, p. 340 (46), 569 (275). —Verrill, 1874, p. 362. Chiridotea tuftsii (Stimpson), Harger, 1878, p. 374; 1879, p. 159; 1880, p. 340-341, pl. 4, fig. 20-23.—Richardson, 1900, p. 226; 1901, p. 539; 1905, p. 354-355, fig. 382-3883.—Racovitza and Sevastos, 1910, p. 195.—Collinge, 1918, p. 74, pl. 7, fig. 2. Glyptonotus tuftsii (Stimpson), Miers, 1881, p. 18-19. Diagnosis—Lateral margins of head with V- shaped clefts; head produced into quadrate lobes anterior to the clefts. Antennae 2 more than twice as long as antenna 1; flagellum of 11-12 VoL. 45, NO. 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 226 0.5 mm. 0.2 mm. Fra. 1—Chiridotea almyra, n. sp., male paratype: a, Dorsal view of entire animal; b, antenna 2, dorsal; c, antenna 1, dorsal; d, right mandible, distal portion; e, left mandible, distal portion; f, maxilla 1; g, maxilla 2, inner plate displaced; h, maxilliped; 7, penis and medial sternal process of first somite of pleon, ventral view. b and c, same scale; d-g, same scale. Juny 1955 BOWMAN: ISOPOD GENUS CHIRIDOTEA HARGER PH | segments. Propodus of pereiopod 1 a little more on posterior margin, the distal ones longer. than half as wide as long, lateral surface with a Pleotelson tapering evenly from base to posterior few short spines; dactyl armed with strong spines end, so that its basal half appears relatively Fie. 2.—Chiridotea almyra, n. sp., male paratype; C. coeca (Say), male, from Cohasset, Mass., U.S. N.M. no. 30195; C. tuftsi (Stimpson), male, from S.E. Amherst Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, U.S. N.M. no. 63744: a, C. tuftst, head, dorsal view; b, C. coeca, head, dorsal view; c, C. tufts?, pereiopod 1; d, C. almyra, pereiopod 1; e, C. coeca, pereiopod 1, distal segments; f, C. almyra, pereiopod 2; g, C. almyra, pereiopod 7; h, C. almyra, pleopod 2; 7, C. coeca, terminal part of pleotelson; 7, C. tuftsi, terminal part of pleotelson; k, C. almyra, uropod. c-f, same scale; 7—j, same scale. 228 narrower than in the other two species. Length, excluding antennae, 5-6 mm. Range.—Long Island Sound to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Amherst Island). The type was dredged in 10 fathoms, off Cheney’s Head, Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick. C. tufts’ inhabits deeper water than C. coeca, being found in bottoms of fine, uniform sand (Tait, 1927), from the level of low tide to a depth of 30 fathoms. Chiridotea almyra,’ n. sp. Fig. 1, a-2; fig. 2,d,f, 9, h,k Diagnosis—Lateral margins of head divided by V-shaped clefts; anterior to the clefts the head is evenly rounded, not produced into quadrate lobes. Antenna 2 about twice as long as antenna 1; flagellum of 7-9 segments. Propodus of pereiopod 1 a little more than half as wide as long; lateral margin devoid of spines; dactyl with a few small setae on posterior margin. Sides of pleotelson almost parallel for more than half their length, then converging gradually; posterior end more broadly rounded than in the other species. Length, excluding antennae, 4.5-6.5 mm. Color (after 14 years in formalin).—Dorsal and ventral surfaces of body, antennae 1 and 2, proximal segments of pereiopods, and uropods covered with black chromatophores. Types, deposited in the U. S. National Museum.—Holotype, adult male, 5.8 mm in length, no. 96960; allotype, female with oostegites developed, 4.6 mm in length, no. 96961 and 44 paratypes, no. 96962, all from a 1-meter net haul made at Willtown Bluff, Edisto River, S. C., April 1, 1940. Remarks.—The cuticle of the body and appendages is sculptured as shown in the drawing of the maxilliped. Young specimens, 2.6 mm in length, have 3-segmented maxillipedal palps as in the adult. Pereiopod 3 resembles pereiopod 2 in all details. Pereiopods 4-6 resemble pereiopod 7; pereiopods 5 and 7 are about equally long, somewhat longer than pereiopod 4, but shorter than pereiopod 6. Both lobes of pleopods 1 and 2 and the exopod of pleopod 3 are natatory, bearing plumose setae on their margins; the endopod of pleopod 3 and both lobes of pleopods 4 and 5 are respiratory in function. This division of the pleopods is found throughout the genera Chiridotea and Saduria. In very young specimens of C. almyra, the second antennae are not nearly as much longer than the first antennae as 3 From the Greek adyvupos, brackish. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 7 they are in mature specimens. This might lead to confusion with young specimens of C. coeca, but the two species can be easily separated by the difference in shape of the pleotelson. In addition to the type locality I have identi- fied C. almyra from Kings Ferry, Ogeechee River, Ga., and from two localities in the Hudson River, N. Y., near Barrytown and Haverstraw, respectively. The salinity must be very low at all these localities, since they are well upstream from the river mouths, but I unfortunately have no data on the salinity at the sites of collection. In the samples collected at Willtown Bluff and Kings Ferry, a number of species known to be eury- haline and frequently found in brackish water were present. These include the copepod Eury- temora hirundoides Nordquist, the amphipod Corophium lacustre Vanhoffen, the isopod Cyathura carinata (Kréyer), and the polychaete Scolelepides viridis (Verrill).4 In addition, the freshwater copepods Osphranticum labronectum Forbes and species of Diaptomus, Cyclops, and Macrocyclops were present. Taken at Haverstraw were such brackish-water forms as the amphipods Leptocheirus plumulosus Shoemaker and Coro- phium lacustre WVanhoffen, and the isopod Cyathura carinata Kryer. Chiridotea almyra is clearly limited to water of low salinity, and perhaps even enters fresh water. The strictly marine species, C. coeca and C. tuftsi, are scavengers on sandy bottoms, where they burrow just beneath the surface of the sand (Tait, 1927). Presumably C. almyra has a similar way of life in its brackish environment. DISCUSSION Of the mouthparts of Chiridotea, only the maxillipeds have been previously figured. Both Harger and Richardson illustrate the palp as 3-segmented; Collinge shows the palp as 3- segmented in C. coeca, 4-segmented in C. tuftst. I have examined mazxillipeds from both species and found only 3-segmented palps. It is likely that Collinge’s specimen of.C. tuftst was anom- alous. The fine setae on the outer margins of the palp are shown by Harger, but not by the other authors. The remaining mouthparts are similar in all three species of Chiridotea. The presence of a single seta on the inner lobe of the first maxilla is, as far as I know, unique among idotheid genera. 4 Identified by Marian H. Pettibone. JuLy 1955 The absence of a molar on the mandible is also an unusual feature. Although both C. coeca and C. tuftst are re- ported to have eyes on the dorsal surface of the head, medial to the lateral incisions, I have been unable to find them in either of these species or in C. almyra. This is undoubtedly due to the action of the preservative, for eyes were noticed in living specimens by Tait (1927) in his interesting paper on the natural history of C. coeca and C. tuftsz. LITERATURE CITED Apams, ArtHur. Jn: Sutherland, Peter C. Journal of a voyage in Baffin’s Bay and Barrow Straits in the years 1850-1851, performed by H. M. ships Lady Franklin and Sophia, wnder the command of Mr. William Penny ...2, ap- pendix: cevi-cevil. London, 1852. CoLLINGE, WALTER Epwarp. On the oral append- ages of certain species of marine Isopoda. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. 34: 65-93, pls. 7-9. 1918. DeKay, JAMes ELtusworts. Zoology of New-York or the New-York fauna. Part VI. Crustacea: 1-70, pls. 1-18 (colored). Albany, 1844. Gottp, Aucustus Apptson. VI. Crustacea: In: Hitchcock, Edward, Catalogues of the animals and plants of Massachusetts: 28-30. Amherst, 1835. . Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts comprising the Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida, and Radiata: 1-xiii + 1-373. Cambridge, 1841. GUERIN-MENEVILLE, Faux Epouarp. Icono- graphie du Regne animal de Cuvier. Crustacés. 1-48, pls. 1-35. 1829-1843. Harcer, Oscar. Descriptions of new genera and species of Isopoda, from New England and adjacent regions. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts 15: 373-379. 1878. . Notes on New England Isopoda. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 2: 157-165. 1879. . Report on the marine Isopoda of New Eng- land and adjacent waters. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries, pt. 6, for 1878: 297-458, pls. 1-13. 1880. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 229 Lockineton, Wriiram Neaur. Description of seventeen new species of Crustacea. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 7: 41-48. 1877. Miers, Epwarp Joun. Revision of the Idoteidae, a family of sessile-eyed Crustacea. Journ. Linn. Soe. Zool. 16: 1-88, pls. 1-3. 1881. Mitne-Epwarps, Henri. Histoire naturelle des crustacés 3: 1-638. Paris, 1840. Racovitza, Emrute-G., and Sevastos, R. Proidotea Haugi, n. g. et n. sp., isopode oligocéne de Roumanie, et les Mesidoteini, nowvelle sous- famille des Idotheidae. Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gen. (5) 6 (5): 175-200, pls. 9-10. 1910. RicHarRpDson, Harriet. Synopses of North-Amert- can invertebrates. VIII. The Isopoda. Amer. Nat. 34: 207-230, 295-309. 1900. . Key to the isopods of the Atlantic coast of North America, with descriptions of new and little-known species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23: 493-579. 1901. . Monograph on the isopods of North America, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 54: i-liii + 1-727. 1905. Say, THomas. An account of the Crustacea of the United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia 1 (1): 57-63, 65-80, 97-101, 155-169; (2): 235-253, 313-319, 374-401, 423-441, pl. 4. 1817-1818. Stimpson, Wiuiram. Synopsis of the marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl. 6: 1-66, pls. 1-3. 1853. Tait, Joun. Hxperiments and observations on Crustacea. Part VII: Some structural and physiological features of the valviferous isopod Chiridotea. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 46: 334-348. 1927. VERRILL, AppISON Emery. Explorations of Casco Bay by the United States Fish Commission in 1873. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Portland Meeting, 1873: 34-395, pls. 1-6. 1874. and SmitH, Sipney Irvina. Report wpon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound and adjacent waters, with an account of the physical features of the region. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries, 1871-1872: 1-478, pls. 1-88. 1874. Waiter, Apa. List of the specimens of Crustacea in the collection of the British Museum: 1-141. London, 1847. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR The Electrometer at High Frequencies.* It is not generally appreciated, I think, that the quadrant (or string) electrometer is a useful instrument at high frequencies, although this was suggested as early as 1881 by Ayrton and Fitzgerald, and also by Potier (see ‘‘Electrometer,’’ Encyclopedia Britannica, 11% ed). So far as I am aware the use of electrometers on a-c has been *Received May 27, 1955. restricted to power measurements at line frequencies. This application is described in the standard books on electrical measure- ments (e.g., Laws, Michals, Harris). The high resistance and low capacity of an electrometer suggest an extension of its use to the megacycle range. We denote the potentials of the two fixed members (plates) by A and B, and that of the needle by N, all with respect to the 230 case which is at ground. According to the elementary theory (Maxwell) the deflec- tion @ is proportional to the product of the potential difference between the plates and the potential of the needle with respect to the mean potential of the plates, 1.e. (AB) N= (ACB) 21) In the higher order theory, K depends on @ and on the potentials, but eq. 1 is appro- priate to the null methods to be described, for which @ is always zero. Two applications of eq. 1 are given below as examples. i) = (1) MEASUREMENT OF HIGH-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE The needle is grounded to the case so that N = 0. Suppose A is the unknown po- tential and B is an adjustable known potential, and that B is adjusted so that = (0. Then eq. | gives A? = B?. (2) If B is a steady potential B, and A is an alternating potential 4, then on account of the slow response of the needle, eq. 2 gives | A? = B, (3) so that the rms value of A is determined by direct comparison with a known d-c volt- age. The sensitivity of an electrometer de- pends on the applied potentials. I have found that with a Lindemann-Ryerson electrometer the potentials of eq. 3 should exceed about 5 volts to enable the com- parison to be made to 1 percent. At 25 volts the sensitivity 1s about 1 in 5,000 and for somewhat higher voltages the instru- ment is unstable. The unknown potential thus needs to be amplified or attenuated by a known amount to put A in a favorable range. No difficulty was experienced in using the instrument for voltage measure- ments at 1 Mc/s and much higher fre- quencies could doubtless be used. (2) A SLIDE-BACK “LOCK-IN’’ AMPLIFIER AND PHASE-METER Suppose A to be an alternating, and B a steady potential as before, but that N is the sum of a steady and an alternating potential, ie, VN = N + WN. Then eq. 1 is JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, NO. 7 OK = in which time averages are understood so that N-A and B-N = 0. The needle is temporarily grounded so that N = 0 and either A or B is adjusted so that the deflection 6 = 0; eq. 3 then applies. The potential N is restored and N adjusted so that 6 = 0. Eq. 4 becomes Ne as (| A = 8). If N and A are of different frequencies, then the time average of N-4 will be zero and balance will be achieved with N = 0. Thus the device acts as a “lock-in ampli- fier’ of the square-law type; it is not sen- sitive to harmonics. If the two frequencies are alike, eq. 5 gives |N||A| cos ¢ = or GOS OG = IN| B cos ¢ = N/| N |, (6) in which ¢ is the phase between A and N. The alternating potential || may be measured independently, or, if either of the a-c circuits be supplied with a variable (uncalibrated) phase shifter, ¢ may be adjusted to maximize N to the value | N |. Eq. 6 thus shows how a phase ¢ may be determined from d-c measurements only, e.g. from the readings of a potentiometer used to supply NV. The operation of the Lindemann-Ryerson electrometer as a phase meter was checked at 1 Mc/sec using a calibrated phase shifter as a reference. Twenty values of 6, at equal intervals of O.lm radian were set by the phase shifter and the corresponding values of N and N were measured with commercial voltmeters. A curve of the form y = a cos (@ + a) (7) was fitted to the data by least squares. The value of y calculated from eq. 7 differed from the known value by more than 1 per cent only for the two values of ¢ for which cos @ was less than 0.1, and at these points the least square values of @ were in error by 0.005 radian. MARTIN GREENSPAN National Bureau of Standards Juny 1955 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 231 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington held its annual business meeting on April 19, 1955, and elected the following officers: President, LAWRENCE KRrRaperR; Vice-President, Mark Hanna Watkins; Secretary, JosePH Casa- GRANDE; Treasurer, Berry J. MrGacrErs; Coun- cilors to the Board of Managers, Joun M. CorBetr (1957), Marcus Goupstern (1958), GEORGE TRAGER (1958); Representative to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Frank M. SETZLER. A report of the membership and activities of the Society since the last meeting follows: The membership on April 19, 1955, totaled 107, a decrease of 2 from the total reported in January 1954. New members elected during the year totaled 21 and were: THomas G. Baker, Nancy Baytey, Catvin L. Beate, Ruta E. Brown, Poiuip H. Crark, Lucy Kramer CoHEN, YeHupI A. CoHEN, Francis W. FELSMAN, THomMas GLADWIN, ALIcE ParKER HUNT, Norman Key, CuHarnotre Levin, May I. B. MacratH, Marcaret A. Matus, Haroup ORLANS, CARROLL QuIGLEY, BarBaro L. RicH- ARDSON, Mark E. RicHarpson II, Josnpx E. Smons, RupoLF SoBERNHEIM, and RoseErt C. Wrenn. Three deaths were reported: C. J. CoNNOLLY, DIETHER VON DEN STEINEN, and Henry P. Erwin. Five members resigned, and 15 were dropped from the rolls. The report of the Treasurer for the year ending April 19, 1955, was read and conditionally accepted. Activities: The panel of integrated papers repre- senting a series of theoretical and interpretative phases on New World prehistory was continued under the program committee consisting of Drs. Betty J. Meccrrs, MarsHatt T. Newman, and CLIFFORD Evans (chairman). The following is a list of speakers and their subjects: February 12, Dr. ALBERT SpauLpine: The new interpretations of prehistoric cultural develop- ment in the eastern United States. March 12, Drs. Joun Corpetrr and MarsHauu NEWMAN: American Indians in the Pacific: An appraisal of Heyerdahl’s theories. April 23, Dr. Berry J. Mreacrrs: The coming of age of American archeology. At the beginning of the new academic year a new series of symposia concerning the relation- ship of anthropology to other fields with special emphasis on its contribution to administrative problems and programs were arranged by Drs. THoMAS GLADWIN, JOSEPH CASAGRANDE, and Gorpon MacGregor. The following is a list of speakers and their topics: October 22, Dr. JoHN BENNETT: Anthropology and the study of intercultural experience. November 16, Dr. GrorGE DrEvEREUX: Psy- chiatry and mental health. December 16, Dr. BENJAMIN health. January 18, Drs. Wrturam Keniy and THomas Guapwin: Administration of native peoples— Southwestern United States and the Pacific Islands. February 15, Dr. Lauriston SuHarp: Technical assistance programs. March 15, Dr. E. Apamson Horse: Anthro- pology and law. April 19, Dr. W. Montacus Coss: The relation- ship of physical anthropology to medicine. Pau: Public Revised statement of the Treasurer to cover the period of January 1, 1954, through April, 19, 1955, to conform with the changes of the new fiscal year as amended in bylaws, follows: Receipts: Balance forward, Dee. 31, 1953: Washington Loan & Trust: Checking account........... 715.93 Perpetual Building: Savings EXGCOIM Gs coacccncnaceonscce O(N) $1, 284.93 Dues collected (1954 and 1955).......... 230.00 Sales of old Anthropologists............. 92.87 Sales of 75th anniversary volume...... 96.00 Sale of Washington Sanitary stock...... 997.88 Dividends and interest (cash): Investment Co. of America... 75.66 Mass. Investment Trust Co.. 114.35 Perpetual Building & Loan (CEXAINED)s ocopaansnsbacdans 33.45 Washington Sanitary Housing 10.00 233.46 MNotalicasherecelptsspeeer cee ere er eerie $2,935.14 Expenditures: Printing announcements, etc........... $163.04 AAA dues (Treas., Sect., Life Member Tore NOM C5 WOH). sokpdococoudaboseren 45.00 Treasurer’s and Secretary’s expenses. ... 5.43 Connolly memorial fund................ 5.00 Speaker’s expenses (10 meetings)........ 409.51 ASW 75th anniversary volume—pub- lishing and manuscript typing costs 996.16 Cost of distribution of ASW volume—to members and sales.................. 19.46 Total cash expenditures............. 1,643.60 232 Cashibalancesa ei eee ner ny eee Distributed as follows: Wash. Loan & Trust (Riggs Bank)— $1,291.54 Checking account.......... 291.21 Perpetual Building & Loan—Sav- ingsrAccountaesseeeee eee eel COO Koo $1,291.54 Statement of investments as of closing of books April 19, 1955: Investment Company of America: 100 shares *L6754 Issued: January 29, 1951 10 shares ¥ L05141 January 29, 1951 5 shares * L08905 December 24, 1952 3 shares * L013096 December 21, 1953 118 shares ¥LU1619 February 19, 1954 11 shares * L019868 December 21, 1954 247 shares: @iSSe3de eee: cee oe ee $2,059.98 Massachusetts Investors’ Trust 50 shares ¥M23522 Issued: January 24, 1951 1lshare *M378627 February 8, 1954 51 shares * M378626 February 8, 1954 lshare ¥* M378625 February 8, 1954 lshare *M436033 February 25, 1954 lshare (Returned for reissue due to incorrect name on share—March 8, 1954) 105isharesi@i$28alaskecne oe te eee 3,014.55 Totaliinvestmentss re-create eee eee eee $5,074.53 In December 1954 the Board of Managers voted to authorize the expenditure of funds to publish the lectures delivered in the program year of 1953-54 and three additional papers on JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 7 interpretative archeology in honor of the 75th anniversary of the founding of the Society. One thousand copies were delivered in March 1955, and copies were distributed at the close of the Annual meeting. After members of the Society received their copies, the others were offered for sale for the below-cost price of $1. The 144-page volume, edited by Drs. Clifford Evans and Betty J. Meggers, is entitled ‘““New Interpretations of Aboriginal American Culture History” and con- tains the following papers: EIsELEY, LorEN C.—The Paleo-Indians: Their survival and diffusion. SPAULDING, ALBERT C.—Prehistoric cultural de- velopment in the Eastern United States. WiLLEY, Gorpon R.—The interrelated rise of the native cultures of Middle and South America. Reep, Err K.—Trends in Southwestern Ar- cheology. Drucker, Purtr1p—Sources of Northwest Coast culture. Evans, Currrorp—New archeological interpreta- tions in northeastern South America. Exuoim, Gorpon F.—The new orientation toward problems of Asiatic-American relationships. Tracer, GEorGE L.—Linguistics and the recon- struction of culture history. Meceers, Berry J.—The coming of age of Ameri- can archeology. Cart F. Miturr, Secretary WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS ALLEN F, WoopHowur has received $200 from the Academy as a grant-in-aid for researches on a quantitative acid-fast technique, to be used in connection with research on mycobacterium tuberculosis. He is carrying on this work under Prof. E. R. Kennedy in the Biology Department at Catholic University. The funds are provided by the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, on the recommendation of the Academy. Some funds are still available, and the Academy’s Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Re- search is willing to receive additional applications. The National Bureau of Standards has devel- oped a type of statistical design that makes it possible to reduce greatly the effect of systematic errors in physical-science experiments without increasing the number of measurements. Known as generalized chain blocks,! the NBS designs require no more than two measurements for every experimental condition. 1For further details, see Chain block designs with two-way elimination of heterogeneity, by John Mandel, Biometrics 10, 251. 1954. Systematic errors are often comparatively large in physical-science experiments, but the random errors in such measurements are usually very small, and so the reduction of systematic errors engages most of the experimenter’s atten- tion. Common methods for minimizing systematic errors are careful control of experimental condi- tions and the use of reference materials for peri- odic calibration of the measuring equipment. However, through the use of statistical designs it is often possible to eliminate, at least partially, the need for such elaborate precautions. This is done by dividing the measurements into “blocks,” that is, groups of measurements that are either subject to the same systematic effects or contain measurable trends. Thus, for example, four sheets of rubber that are cured simultaneously in the same mold constitute a block even if systematic differences exist between the cavities of the mold. So long as these systematic differences are con- stant from one cure to the next, they can be sta- tistically determined, and appropriate corrections can be applied to the data. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PPEGSRIONE a Perens ois Sa ins Otho MarGaret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health HAC OSSULENE-CLOCE. rane Cosme seis Sees RaupH EH. Grpson, Applied Physics Laboratory ISCEROLRE I so tee rc aris oa tentontacin esas Hetnz Sprecut, National Institutes of Health Treasurer... ..Howarp 8S. Rappuere, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) REEERGHES Beco ocd he See ars EE Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington....................-.... LAWRENCE A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington.................... ... FRANK M. SErzLER Biological Society of Washington.......................... HERBERT G. Dimeanan hemicalisocieby of Washington... ..c2++-sseedse.o os. dees- Wiii1am W. WALTON Pntomolorical Society of Washington... j-2-..+-- 4... s-.e.se: ss asoe see F. W. Poos Natrona) Geographic) Society. ..-05. eae e eee tees oes ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington...................--.--+-- Epwin T. MckKnieur Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cogn Wolambiavristorieal (Society. <:25 057 6 <.Secsede chen ee eas GILBERT GROSVENOR Bocanical society of Washington... .«ascesock - os se dese odes S. L. EMswEeLLer Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorcs F.. Gravatr Washington Society of Engineers.................-...-. HERBERT GROVE DorRsEY Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dinu Helminthological Society of Washington. ...................... JouHNn S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists.......Luoyp A. BurKEyY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Huss Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Diaers Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. STEPHAN Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: ED Ue ey7 AI Oe eae Sener aennee Sites a eee ee er M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER Te Jieinein Ih 6 Spon ciee eee eee AC Oar A. T. McPHerson, A. B. GuRNEY Ram OOSE ey. cscs sings. cae se dgaudeesielns seven W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwatLen POUL MROMMNIONAGETS. << oc.0. 5200050022 ces net All the above officers plus the Senior Editor BaGre Bi LIGBUDS , Seto eRe Os OTRO cee [See front cover] IZECULIDE \COMMIULEE . ... cdc ec eco ce ew eeves M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Grgson, H. Specut, H. 8S. Rappinys, J. R. SwaLLen Committee on Membership....RogeR W. Curtis (chairman), J HN W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Awnastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kine, Gorpon M. Kunz, Louis R. MaAxwe.u, Ftorence M. Mza‘rs, Curtis W. SaBrosky, BENJAMIN ScHwarRTz, BaNcrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W SmitH, Harry WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scort (chairman), Harry 8. Bernton, Harry R. Bortuwick, Herpert G. Detenan, Wayne C. Hatt, AtBert M. STONE Conintceron MOnograplSnn.++.2- ++ 0422528020 004- 08" G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman) pllomiannany1956e.55 26 craceat basi geesaces G. ArTHUR CoopER, JAMES I. Horrman pRomantrary 19D hs. 0.0 baw a seve aiesjee bees Haraup A. Reuper, Witiiam A. Dayton Mlowanuary 1958), J) ee ee ne eee Dean B. Cowin, JosppH P. E. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BranHam (chairman), JoHN 8. ANDREWS, James M. Hunotey, R. A. St. Grorce, Bernice G. ScousEertT, W. R. WepEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL, R.S. Drit, T. J. Hicxtny, T. J. Kinit1ran, Gorpon W. McBripz, EH. R. Priore For Physical Sciences...... Bensamin L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn, Scotr E. Forsusu, Marcarer D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. Taytor For Teaching of Science. . .Monroer H. Martin (chairman), Keira C. JOHNSON, Loutse H. MarsHauu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. Owrns Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francs 0. RIce (chairman), HERMAN Branson, Cuarutes K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CritTeEnDEN (chairman) horanuanyel95605. 2.05.58 e oeeseee. E. C. CrittEnDEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE pRopanuatsyat G5 eso tera evn i er teeee Joun E. GraF, Raymonp J. SEEGER MowlanuanyelO58ie seer ere ec Francis M. DEFANDORF, Frank M. Setzer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARCHIBALD T. McPuErson (chairman) pop amuary, V95Gi ccc. cine severe A nesshere ater Haro.wp H. Frnury, J. H. McMILLen Ito diemomenay IGEY/ oon on esadoeaaaadanecdeusce L. Epwin Yocum, Wiiu1am J. YOUDEN Mopaniany al O58 ite cy. se se clssicie eee mach anes Av. McPHERSON, W. T. READ Committee on Science Education....RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman), Ronaup BaMFoRD, R. Percy BaRNEs, Watuace R. Bropg, LEonarp CARMICHAEL, HucuH L. DRYDEN, REGINA FLANNERY, Raupu EF. Grson, Froyp W. Hoveu, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Wititam W. RuBEY, Winuram lal. SEBRELL, Watpo L. Scumrrr, B. D. Van Evera, WILitam E. WRaATHER, FRANCIS E. JOHNSTON Hue DI CSENIALVELOM COUNncUNOf PALAU AL Senate seen een. Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRANcIS E. Jonnston, (chairman), 8S. D. Couiins, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers.. Ratpu P. Trvrser (chairman), 1B}, Ch Hampp, J. G. THompson CONTENTS Page PALEONTOLOGY.—Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminifera) and two new Cretaceous forms resembling Elphidium. ALAN H. Smout 201 Botany.—New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated before publication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. IN-CHo Zootocy.—A new species of Pararchinotodelphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) with remarks on its systematic position. Paun L. Inue.......... 216 Zootocy.—The isopod genus Chirztotea Harger, with a description of a new species from brackish waters. THomAs E. BowMAN......... 224 LETTERS TO THE Eprror.—The electrometer at high frequencies. MARTIN (GREENSPANited «272.5 ciNU) Pace wiftelsbaalere «jo abel cele Stent ates te 229 PROCEEDINGS: Anthropological’ Society... 05-42 ee ee eee 231 Washington Scientific News: que. oa. © oscleieiceie cee een eee ee 232 Vot. 45 Aueust 1955 No. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K Coox FEenNER A. CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF BTANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HoFFMAN BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B Cowie PuiLtie DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY 1855 LIBRARY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuiLrorpD AVEs. Battimore, MaryYLaND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 METALLURGY .—HAigh-strength STRAUSS, Thompson.) August 1955 No. 8 cast iron: Appraisal and forecast.!. JEROME Vanadium Corporation of America. (Communicated by J. G. (Received March 25, 1955) The art of metallurgy is indeed old, with its beginnings lying in prehistory many millennia behind us. By contrast, metal- lography, and more particularly metal microscopy, 1S young. As a science its age is only a few years. Thus many still living, in- cluding myself, can well remember pleasant and profitable associations with many of the pioneers. A substantial proportion of those recently and even at present engaged in assuring that metallography (i.e., physical metallurgy) shall continue to grow as a science began their mature intellectual activities as physi- cists, and so it was with Dr. George Kimball Burgess to whose memory this evening is dedicated. On me, as on others, he left many lasting impressions—his scientific approach, his convincing presentation, his easy manner, his understanding consideration of a human problem. Review of the 53 papers of which he was author or coauthor during his 29 years at the National Bureau of Standards is a reminder of his early interest in the measurement of high temperatures, so closely linked with the thermoelectric properties and the radia- tion characteristics of metals as well as of the products of their oxidation. How natural then for him to become deeply interested in all the fundamental properties of metals and, subsequent to his appointment as chief of the Division of Metallurgy upon its or- ganization, to utilize his knowledge of these 1The sixth George Kimball Burgess Memorial Award Lecture to the Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals, on February 21, 1955. 233 fundamentals, of metallography in its broadest sense, and of pyrometry in the study of practical metallurgical problems. Toward these he developed, if it was not actually latent, an extremely keen appre- ciation and a great capacity for their solu- tion. Understandably, lecturers are prone to select subjects for discussion that represent advances in fields in which the one memo- rialized undertook considerable work or that are closely related to this work. Only one of Dr. Burgess’s papers, however, touched the subject of cast iron, although that one dealt with research in a phase of use of the product representing most severe service and a prob- lem even now not completely under control. I may therefore embark upon this presenta- tion without feeling that I am departing completely from the realm of his interest. We are so surrounded by the products of modern technology and as technologists de- vote so much attention to the details of today’s practice that we are inclined to regard steel and wrought iron as invariably the products of refining of cast iron (L.e., carbon-rich iron) and to forget that direct- reduced iron, in spite of all our efforts to produce it economically in these times, was the foundation of what has been termed the Tron Age. What appears to be a significant exception to this sequence of first wrought iron, then cast iron, is the appearance of ob- jects of cast iron in China a hundred or two hundred years prior to the dawn of the Christian Era. Actually this is not an excep- tion—evidence is accumulating to show that AUG 3 1195° 234 this iron was first reduced from ore in cruci- bles and then recarburized beyond the range of steels, again in crucibles. In many, if not all, ancient lands early iron objects appear as wrought meteoric iron or direct-reduced iron of malleable quality resulting from the smelting of local ores at low temperature and with limited, if any, fusion. Especially is this true in the Near East. In Europe also the bloomery came long before the “‘Sttic- kofen,”’ which was the forerunner of the blast furnace. Only when the height of this “Sttickofen”’ was increased above the initial 10 to 15 feet, and the reduced product re- mained for a longer time in contact with the fuel, did it become possible to obtain a molten high-carbon product consistently, and to produce cast forms deliberately rather than accidentally and occasionally. Thus began European cast iron—some 14 or 15 centuries after its development in China and by a completely different ap- proach. Why this historical survey? It is a natural question. The recitation is solely a means of recalling that cast iron, known since the second or surely the first century B.C. in China and since the early fourteenth century A.D. in Europe, has attracted the attention of those concerned with metallography and the science of metals to a lesser degree, and only more recently, than its forbear or its offspring (according to your approach being from East or West), namely, steel, with its age as a molten product of only 200 years. Assign such reasons as you will, and very many may claim attention, cast iron since the days of serious metallographic investiga- tion has been the laggard—at least with respect to widespread application of new knowledge. Ultimately the forward move- ment began, so that one finds in the past 30 years a voluminous literature represent- ing the striving of many foundrymen and researchers seeking not only practical im- provements but more knowledge of the fundamentals. Beginning as an engineering material in Western Europe (unfortunately as always with new materials and processes, most prominently in military engineering) cast iron reached rather later into the field of domestic apphances. First came cannon, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 8 then shot for the cannon, and afterward firebacks, cooking utensils, and other arti- cles of daily use. But in the growth of the mechanical industries, the metal played a major role. It was accepted for its advan- tages, but with its limitations, and applied accordingly. It was easy to produce, whether directly from the blast furnace or by remelt- ing and subsequent casting. It lacked duc- tility but served well under compression loading and presented an excellent bearing surface. Early measurements of strength were no doubt indirect and comprised primarily performance testing to determine adequacy, but it was known as greatly in- ferior in strength and ductility to steel and to bronze. Prior to about 1920 (no strength measurements of reasonable reliability may be found earlier than about 1880) it is rare in machinable gray iron to encounter a tensile strength value above 40,000 psi, while in most instances values were below 35,000 psi and very many well below this figure. Until about that time (i.e., 1920) the old and well-worn saying that cast iron was the product of a process was not at all untrue. It was just not complete in that, in addition to the process, the character and the proper- ties of iron were dependent upon its hered- ity or more precisely the origin and the character of the raw materials entering the process. It was not a question of the chem- ical composition of pig iron, iron scrap, steel scrap, ete., but principally of the ores and other raw materials from which the pig iron was produced. Thus the blast furnace giving birth to the iron was all-important, and names had greater significance than the analytical chemist’s findings, even though the latter were regularly reported and de- manded, and definite limits for silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus were often insisted upon. Nevertheless, if the re- sults of the process were poor it was more common to look toward or change the origin of the iron; second on the list of blameworthy items was the chemical composition and last the process. The latter was nearly blameless and all else had to fit its demands. Then came a major change. For 30 or 40 years, sporadic use had been made of large proportions of steel scrap in the cupola Aveust 1955 charge. The reason was essentially economic, but occasionally it was lack of pig iron. Records of such charges may be found as far back as the 1880’s. A side result of this economic pressure was, however, the produc- tion of the higher of the then known mechan- ical properties. The now obsolete terms of, primarily, semisteel and, secondarily, high- test cast iron came into being. The high strength was traceable to lower carbon con- tent or lower carbon equivalent (C + 14 81), although often in the later years of the period another factor had been introduced, namely ferrosilicon and ferromanganese added dur- ing melting. The great change, however, was not entirely due to the addition of steel scrap and the low carbon content; of at least equal importance was the very large in- crease stimulated, and subsequently combining in melting temperature that it both with inoculation through deoxidation. The possibilities presented for practical improvements and more significantly for re- search came from the recognition on the one hand of the effects of starting a cycle of solidification and subsequent cooling from a melt fully liquid, of uniform though per- haps higher gas content but devoid of solid nuclei, and on the other hand (though often interrelated) from altering the character and distribution of the graphite and control- ling the matrix microstructure. Research was undertaken in great volume, largely by a few captive foundries, a few forward- looking independents, some associations of -manufacturers, and the principal alloy pro- ducers. A substantial share of the actual work was performed in universities or under consultation with their staffs. Ultimately the effects of heredity were very greatly minimized and the results were sufficient to command a new respect for an ancient prod- uct. Theoretically—and we omit from con- sideration other elements of the composition —cast iron is an iron-carbon-silicon alloy _ produced via the liquid state and containing in excess of 1.7 percent of carbon and suf- ficient silicon to result in adequate castabil- ity. The definition is admittedly loose in view of the partial interdependence of carbon and silicon, but it serves the present purpose. The region here under consideration is STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 235 principally in the range of 2.4 to 3.7 percent. of carbon and 0.5 to 4.0 percent of silicon. There is no novelty in the statement that the subject is exceedingly complex, not only because of the range of essential composi- tion, impurities, alloys, and other additives but also because of the great sensitivity of the microstructure and therefore of the properties of cast iron to section thickness and to all the elements of the manufacturing operation—principally raw materials, melt- ing techniques, maximum temperature in the molten state, pouring temperature, and cool- ing rate. In the three decades just behind us, the desire for understanding and control of these many factors and their interrelation have supplied the driving force in the search for improvement. While the subject I have selected as just noted is largely limited to irons with not less than 2.4 percent carbon, there is need in view of a few product types to refer to some irons close to the theoretical minimum of 1.7 percent. Hence a statement of cover- age comprises: 1. The combined effects of high propor- tions of steel scrap as raw material, carbon content just above and below the middle of the range and the concomitant high melt- ing temperature extended to a higher level than thereby required. 2. Inoculation of this high-temperature- melted iron through the creation of nuclei for graphite precipitation. 3. The effects of alloying elements. 4. Changes in the pattern of malleable iron production and use. 5. The introduction of irons containing spherolitic graphite. The treatment is intended to be partly historical, partly technical, and to include comments on some elements of the picture that remain to be filled in, the data for which may reasonably be anticipated. LOW CARBON IRONS: APPLICATION OF STEEL SCRAP AND SUPERHEAT Prior to any systematic studies, the recog- nition of the benefits to strength resulting from low-carbon content due to large steel scrap additions to the cupola charge, and the moderate temperature increase that followed automatically, had been supplemented by 236 recognition of the value of a completely pearlitic matrix microstructure. With respect to low-carbon iron via steel scrap, it should be noted that an alternate means of reaching this objective has been patented by Zenzes (/) as early as 1905, his process consisting of blowing pig iron to re- move silicon, manganese, and part of the carbon and subsequently mixing with a silicon-rich iron melt. However, the history of steel scrap use shows that McPherran (2) went beyond earlier charge limits and reported adding as much as 60 percent steel scrap to the cupola as early as 1913. Later (in 1924) Emmel (3) patented a process com- prising the addition of 50 percent steel scrap along with ferrosilicon and_ ferro- manganese, all in the cupola. However, I can record the interesting experience of watching McKinney at the U.S. Naval Gun Factory carrying on the same procedure as Emmel 4 or 5 years earlier and extending the scrap addition to well over 90 percent. Be- fore the warnings and criticisms regarding quality and control by those eminent au- thorities Ledebur and Wuest, McKinney had noted the low quality and the great dif- ficulty of predetermining composition, it being beyond our knowledge at that time to predict whether a tap would carry 2.25 or 2.75 percent carbon. But with improvements in both equipment and analytical control, the principle of Zenzes is now or has re- cently been in operation, and similarly cupola charges high in steel scrap are not uncommon. With respect to the production of irons with a 100 percent pearlitic matrix micro- structure there had also been early accom- plishment. Diefenthaler and Sipp (4) work- ing for the Lanz Company had developed prior to 1916 their production practice of preheating the molds to temperatures de- termined by casting cross-section and iron composition; the latter was specified for each cross-section as the total of carbon and silicon but with individual maxima specified for each of the two elements. The excellent results of the Lanz method ultimately led to simpler procedures involving high-con- ductivity molds and high cupola tempera- tures but an important point is that, while high strength was obtained, it was not JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8 specifically sought, the objective being to produce the pearlite matrix for its tough- ness, wear-resistance and dimensional sta- bility. It is both appropriate and necessary to continue the discussion at this point with some details of the pearlitic matrix and sub- sequently return to the use of high melting temperatures. In supplementing rule of thumb and progressing from qualitative to quantitative knowledge, the relationship carbon-silicon-cooling rate-and-section size (these last two are not entirely separable) were given early consideration. As a point of beginning I can do no better than quote the concise statement of Schneidewind and McElwee (4): The iron-carbon-silicon eutectic may solidify from the liquid state in one of two forms under commercial rates of cooling: either as austenite and carbide or as austenite and graphite. At room temperatures, these will be pearlite and cementite and pearlite and graphite respectively. In the absence of alloying elements the mode of silidifi- cation into one or the other of the above mentioned forms or in a mixture of the two is determined by (a) the silicon content, and (b) the rate of cooling from the molten state. The quantitative relationships began with the publications of Honda and Murakami (6) in 1923 and Maurer (7) in 1924. Their structure diagrams, representing the results of the simplest approach, were based upon a single section size and cooling rate. To estab- lish the type of graph into which each foundry might incorporate its own special conditions of raw materials, process, and range of products, the section size-cooling rate variable was superimposed by the researches of Uhlitzsch and Weichelt (8) in 1933, giving rise to the well-known “Modified Maurer Diagram” of Fig. 1. The permissible region for 100 percent pearlite in thicknesses of 14 inch to 114 inches, and that for carbon contents 2.4 to 3.7 percent are shown slightly offset from each other to permit easy identification. In plain irons, namely those to which alloying elements have not been added, a full pearlitic structure corresponds to a lower limit of tensile strength of 30,000 to 35,000 psi and an upper limit of 45,000 to 50,000 psi. Below this range free ferrite is in Aveuwust 1955 STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON bo Ww | 0 im. OO) 3-0 4-0 5.0 % Siticon _ Fre. 1.—Graphic representation of structure of cast from by Maurer (7) for medium section (light ines) with results of Uhlitzsch and Weichelt (8) superimposed for medium to light sections (heavy lines. evidence, and above it mottling is certain to be encountered. In extending the work of the early investigators on the relationship carbon-silicon-section size, having in mind especially the outlines of the area of 100 percent pearlite, Sipp (9) and also Angus, Dunn, and Marles (/0) set forth the area for sand castings on a carbon equivalent— section thickness plot. The latter authors employed data from many hundred tests, made on irons produced in a large number of British foundries; since British practice with respect to melting temperature tends to be appreciably lower than that in the United States and Germany, it may be assumed in the absence of specific information that these data do not include many, if any at all, resulting from the use of high superheating temperatures. Fig. 2 shows the curves of Angus and coworkers along with those resulting from computations by Schneide- wind and McElwee (4) in an effort to estab- hgh a formula for computing strength from composition. Although the term “high-strength cast iron” has not been defined in numerical terms, it is obvious that only the upper portion of the tensile strength range quoted for pearlitic irons has any reason to be placed within its indefinite scope. And while Fig. 2 does reach into the range of low-carbon irons it does not set forth the results that have been achieved by high melting and pouring temperatures, by inoculation, by alloying. It is in order now to return to the question of steel scrap in the cupola and the effects of increasing melting temperatures. In the long history of this practice, with the at- tendant increased temperatures and in- creased strengths, one may find many in- teresting examples. Among them is one quoted by Pfannenschmidt (/7) concerning comparisons of cylinder blocks made in 1907 using practices then in vogue, with identical articles produced from the same cupola in 1932 with cast iron and steel scrap compris- 2.00 (Te + FERRITE 1.50 ° cS) 2) fe} THICKNESS, INcHES 3.0 3.5 4.0 45 5.0 CARBON EQUIVALENT Fre. 2.—Section thickness, carbon equivalent, and microstructure of cast iron, according to Schneidewind and McElwee (65). ; 238 ing the charge and no pig iron included, fol- lowed by superheating in an electric furnace with the added touch of desulphurization. The average strength rose from an initial 28,000 psi to 52,500 psi. Earlier, in 1929, McPherran (2) reported using 94 percent steel scrap, adding ferrosilicon and ferro- manganese and obtaining an average tensile strength of 58,300 psi with close to 90 per- cent of his tests falling between 50,000 and 70,000. It should be noted, however, that 1 percent nickel was added to this iron in the ladle. Consideration of large scrap additions, especially if an alloy addition is included, necessitates reference to the paper of Coyle and Houston (1/2). With a charge of 75 percent steel scrap in the cupola and 25 percent iron scrap or pig iron, tensile strengths of 50,000 to 70,000 psi were ob- tained through the addition of 1 to 4.5 percent nickel. This, of course, is not inocula- tion (shortly to be discussed) but graphitiz- ing pressure by nickel rather than silicon and the strengthening effect of nickel on the matrix. The study of high melting temperatures per se had an erratic beginning. While Hailstone (73) in 1913 had found improved strength due to superheating to 1,425°C., others including Longmuir (7/4), the first to report such experiments (in 1903), disagreed in recording maximum strength when melt- ing and pouring at an intermediate tempera- ture below 1,400°C. Elliot (15) carried his studies farther, namely to 1,510°C., but stated emphatically the undesirability of higher superheat. Actually it remained for Piwowarsky (/6), in a series of researches beginning about 1924 and extending over a period of more than 15 years, to set forth systematically the effects of superheating and to demonstrate that these effects upon strength, microstructure, chilling tendency, etc., are associated with the undercooling of the eutectic solidification. His work at times was carried to as high as 2,000°C. although the later tests were largely concentrated in the vicinity of 1,600-1,650°C. Constructive additions to this literature on the effect of superheat were made by Krynitsky and Saeger (/7) in 1939. Their experiments covered the melting temperature range from 1,400 to 1,700°C., with pouring effected at JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 8 100 to 250°C. above the liquidus. Strength increased with increase in temperature with the best values reported for the iron of low- est carbon equivalent (3.91). The significance of these strength improve- ments goes somewhat beyond the quoted values, taken principally from standard ar- bitration bars of about 1.2-inch section. The benefits persist in larger sections, even in plain irons up to more than 3 inches in thick- ness. For example, Piwowarsky and Szubin- ski (18) pointed out that raising the melting temperature from 1,250°C. to 1,500°C. pro- duced a tensile strength increase of 50 per- cent and increasing the section from 0.8 inch to 3.2 inches reduced this increase by only half. Von Frankenberg (79) in a series of tests ranging from 1.8 to about 3.6 per- cent carbon studied the effect of temperature change over the range 1,300 to 1,600°C. in sections from about 1.6 to about 3.2 inches. He recorded practically constant numerical increases due to this rise in temperature, which meant higher percentage improve- ments for the lower initial strengths of the higher carbon alloys and the heavier sec- tions. It is necessary now to return to Fig. 2. Briefly, superheating moves both of the curves of Fig. 2 to the right thus increasing the carbon equivalent at which, for any given section thickness, free ferrite may be avoided and similarly increasing the carbon equiv- alent below which free cementite will be encountered. The latter feature is of great importance for the present purpose in that it means a greater tendency to chill and, owing to brittleness of chilled metal, inability to develop inherent higher strength. Of major importance, however, is the fining of the graphite due to supercooling, regarded by various investigators as the result of (a) complete solution of the graphite of the raw materials, (b) a higher gas content perhaps principally oxygen or dissolved iron oxide, and/or an iron silicate slime as proposed by v.Keil and coworkers (20) permeating the molten iron but eliminated in the course of superheating. Accompanying the fining of the graphite is a more or less pronounced eutectiform arrangement of the short flakes, the extent of which varies according to com- position, section and thermal history; this Aveust 1955 condition effects a further restraint upon the development of the full inherent tensile strength of any iron. INOCULATION The history of inoculation is not quite clear cut, involving some complexities such as the cross-currents of developments in several countries, delays in publication, ete. Mere mention of the possible effects of de- oxidizers, or their use in inadequate or other- wise incorrect amounts or by ineffective methods, is no assurance of initiating this practice. Based upon published records and actual commercial practice, credit would seem to belong to Meehan (2/) who treated iron sometime before February of 1922 with calcium silicide, producing thereby high- strength gray iron from molten metal that would otherwise have cast white. Sometime prior to the issuance of his patent in 1924 I remember being astonished at a test from a keel block received from Meehan recording 60,000 psi in the first examination at the U.S. Naval Gun Factory and a most com- petent analyst named Faust establishing the presence by wet chemical analysis of calcium in the order of 0.01 percent! On the other hand, there is also clearly fixed in my memory a visit in the early twenties to the foundry of the Wm. Sellers & Sons Co. in Philadelphia and there watching A. E. Outerbridge (apparently mentioned only by Moldenke (22)) add in the ladle 75 percent ferrosilicon to iron made with partial scrap charges, and listening to him proclaim the excellence of the product. I recall no tests, but if any appreciable amount of iron oxide or silicate was in that iron he may very well have been inoculating. This statement should naturally be viewed in the lightof the fact that in cupola practice the oxygen con- tent of the iron is not likely to be high unless the temperature is high or there is moisture in the charge materials. Piwowarsky (23) tried to set forth in a long tabulation the sequence of develop- ments in inoculation but failed to demon- strate that such were the results secured by each investigator listed. Some of the refer- ences appear to be merely a listing of possi- ble deoxidizers without recognition of the STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 239 limits of their activity or effectiveness. At about the time of his earlier references to what is assuredly inoculation, namely in 1929, he wrote (24), rather inadequately: Observing the favorable influence of the deoxi- dation of east iron prior to its pouring, the author was able to show on the basis of a substantial, but as yet unpublished, experimental series that cast irons with between 68,000 and 74,000 psi? bend strength (39,000 to 42,000 psi tensile strength) were improved by the addition of between 0.05 and 0.15% silicon as ferrosilicon or alsimin, re- sulting in an increase in bend strength by about 6,000 to 8,000 psi, i.e. to about 74 to 82,000 psi. “Hot-produced”’ cast iron types require for the production of dense blow-hole-free castings al- ways a final treatment with a little silicon, alumi- num, titanium or vanadium. Since that date our knowledge of this subject has been considerably expanded and refined. It is known for example that the first additions of vanadium and also chro- mium (25) effect a measure of deoxidation and modification of eutectiform graphite, subsequent amounts serving as alloying ad- ditions to the matrix. Many years of suc- cessful practice have shown that the most efficient inoculants are rich ferrosilicon (75 percent silicon or higher) and complex agents containing one or more of Ca, Ti, Zr, Li, Al, usually along with high silicon content and in some cases limited amounts of manganese. A further improvement, by Chandler (26), specifies a complex alloy of this type con- taining chromium in addition to manganese, thus simultaneously effecting mild alloying, strengthening of the pearlite and reducing the hardness gradient in heavy sections. Mexican graphite has also, since about 1937, found a small field of use as an inoculant but is mild in its effect. Referring once again to Fig. 2, it has been amply proved by experiment and extensive practice that the use of adequate additions of effective inoculants moves the left curve farther to the left (somewhat farther than superheating moved it to the right) while affecting not at all the right hand curve of Fig. 2. Thus the usable zone of 100 percent pearlite is widened. It then becomes possible to realize the strengths that cannot be de- 2 These values are the author’s conversions. 240 veloped when chilling occurs; in other words, the full pearlite zone has been moved out into the cementite area making possible pearlitic structures with over 45,000 to 50,000 psi tensile strength. Not only is chill reduced but there is benefit from reduction or complete elimination of any eutectiform arrangement of the graphite without much coarsening of the refined graphite flakes. Somewhat differently expressed, the pos- sibilities for the occurrence of chilled iron are reduced or confined to thinner sections; a section that exhibited eutectiform graphite is changed to one containing small random flakes and only one that after superheating was chilled will, after moculation, display eutectiform graphite in a pearlitic matrix. Discussion of inoculation would not be complete without reference to the work of Norbury and Morgan (27). These investi- gators stated that adding titanium to iron and subsequently oxidizing it, preferably by bubbling CO, through the melt, resulted in under-cooling and the formation of fine graphite. The cause was believed to le in the molten surface of the insoluble titanate particles formed in this reaction. Subsequent treatment with hydrogen avoided the under- cooling and produced coarse graphite, as did also the replacement of titanium by additions of silicon, calcium-silicide or aluminum which latter were stated to be inoculants that produce solid nuclei and therefore coarse graphite. It is somewhat dificult in view of operation at 1,350°C. (thus no superheat) to coordinate these ob- servations with the results of present high- temperature melting followed by inoculation through deoxidizing additions. This is especially true in view of operation over many years and in many foundries with Meehan’s practice of large additions of steel scrap, therefore high temperatures and the final addition of calcium silicide, with resultant high strength and random ar- rangement of graphite flakes that are not large, as well as the Drant-Kessler process producing similar results, also with high scrap charges but with final additions of complex finishing alloys to the low-carbon irons thereby produced. It is difficult not to conclude that there is a distinct difference between the Norbury-Morgan product and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 8 that resulting from superheating and inocu- lating if only because of the lack of eutecti- form graphite in the former work undertaken without superheat and the lack of coarse graphite resulting from the latter method (1.e., current practice in the United States) following inoculation. Moreover, the func- tioning of titanium is not clear. Many pig irons now reaching the American market contain substantial quantities and this is even more true in Western Europe. Its be- havior may differ according to its presence in pig and other raw materials and whether, if added to a molten bath, it is as a simple or complex alloy. Furthermore, combination with both oxygen and nitrogen needs to be considered. The presence of silicon in most titanium alloys thus far used for inoculation also needs reexamination. In reviewing the voluminous literature and the unpublished records of foundry practice dealing with high-temperature melting in both cupola and electric furnace, followed by the effective use of inoculants, one cannot escape the impression of the need for experiment or theory that will fully cover the recorded data. Granted that many of the observations (to say nothing of the theories advanced) may be inadequate or faulty and that metallurgical investigators may be expected never to be in full accord, there is, despite the excellent work of v. Keil and coworkers (20) and of Boyles (28), obvious need for more complete coverage of the mechanism of solidification. Under what conditions as to raw materials, temperatures of melting and pouring, composition (es- pecially carbon and_ silicon), details of inoculation and cooling rate does graphite separate on the one hand directly from the melt and on the other hand, form by carbide decomposition? What are the details of nucleation and growth of the graphite? Gillett in 1934 (29) expressed the opinion that much remains to be explained. Since then, Schafmeister (30) has produced what. may prove to be adequate support for the hypothesis of v.Kkeil using stereoscopic photomicrography and _ detecting silicate films or coatings on coarse graphite particles separated by dissolving away the surround- ing iron. Confirmation of these and other related researches is needed. Avewust 1955 ALLOYING Interwoven with the changes in produc- tion practice here described are the contribu- tions to high strength of the alloying ele- ments. They have been in use by the iron foundryman for 40 years or more, but their value became more thoroughly and precisely recognized when used in conjunction with improved melting, deoxidation and molding practices. The principal metals in current use for their contributions as alloying addi- tions are chromium and vanadium with their influence on carbide formation and increased chill as well as temperature-stability and graphite-refinement, manganese (above about 0.3 percent) for its stabilization of pearlite, molybdenum for its mild carbide effect, strong graphite refinement, and contribution to temperature-stability, cop- per for its pearlite stabilization, mild re- straint of chill and precipitation hardening and nickel for its strong chill reduction, graphite-refinement and strengthening of the matrix by large additions. As in steels, the alloying elements are almost always employed in conjunction with one another to secure in any desired measure the con- STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 241 tribution obtainable from each at minimum total cost. For the purpose of this discussion, in- terest centers in the strength values pro- duced, even though the alloy irons are de- signed only in part for their strength and often in larger measure for their wear re- sistance, for their ability to sustain repeated thermal shock and for other special proper- ties. A few selected examples are shown in Table 1. In some instances the tensile strength values are accompanied by compu- tations of this property, made in accordance with the formula devised by Schneidewind and McElwee (4) in their last paper under joint authorship. Their successful formula for predetermination of tensile strength from chemical composition was adequately proven on unalloyed irons initially, then given greater significance by determining the increases due to alloy additions. Within the limits of avoiding chill, the percentage increases in strength for one percent of each element are: Vanadium, 50 percent Molybdenum, 45 percent Chromium, 22.5 percent TABLE 1.—STRENGTH OF ALLOY Cast IRONS (Mn at 0.5-0.6 unless otherwise noted) Chemical composition, percent Tensile Strength, p.s.i. Group and Pour Temp. No. irl rs Actual Tf un- *F Cc Si Ni (Ge Cu Mo V Iie Alloyed alloved Al 3.05 2.00 1.00 -40 — 45 10 62,000 64, 600 40, 600 2,860 2 3.10 1.95 -80 -20 — 385 10 54,400 55,400 39, 600 3 3.20 2.20 — 20 50 325 20 49,300 48, 400 36, 200 47 3.00 1.00 1Ey75) = — 60 10 74,300 74,600 48, 300 Inoculated 5 3.30 1.60 -80 -40 — a0) 10 58,400 Inoculated 6 3.30 1.85 = 30 85 30 10 57,500 Inoculated Bl* 3.20 2.10 — 55 — 55 = 56, 800 2 2.85 2.40 65 — 70 _— 68, 800 61,000 42,000 2,700 3 3.45 lee - 80 — — 85 — 50, 200 4 2.70 1.90 1.50 — — 1.30 — 70,400 2,710 St 2.50 1.90 1.00 _— —_— 1.05 — 82, 800 85,500 52,300 6 3.00 2.00 — _ 1.00 5d — 70, 800 Elec. fee. iron Clt 2.70 2.35 85 15 — 1.06 — 70,000 2 2.90 2.10 85 = — 50 _ 60,000 on 2.95 2.10 Sg) - 15 80 — 65, 000 4* 3.00 2.00 — — _ -70 mall) 55, 000 5 | 2.90 135) 1575) B30) — _— — 88, 200 6 2.60 1.75 1.50 = — . 60 5 tly) 65, 800 7 3.00 1.30 1.00 .50 — -70 = 59, 400 | * With 0.70-0.80 Mn. 7 With 0.90-1.05 Mn. t Quenched and tempered. A—Vanadium Corporation Records; B—Climax Molybdenum Publications; C—A.F.A. Alloy Cast Irons. Nickel, 6.5 percent Copper, 8.0 percent Manganese, 4.0 percent For irons that as cast possess an acicular structure in the matrix, such as B5 in Table 1, computed and actual values are in agreement only after low-temperature tem- pering to convert residual austenite to bainite. These acicular irons with their fine graphite have contents of carbon, silicon, nickel, molybdenum, and sometimes chro- mium that are adjusted to section size, re- quired chill and shrinkage limitations. They are not as readily machined as _ pearlitic irons but as cast in green sand up to about 2 inch sections show tensile strengths of 70,000 to 85,000 psi and after transforming retained austenite by tempering at about 325°C., 80,000 to 95,000 psi. These acicular structures are a reminder that alloying ele- ments judiciously adjusted to carbon-sili- con-cooling rate criteria are being employed to alter the rate of transformation of aus- tenite and that this alteration may be car- ried somewhat beyond that required for strengthening while retaining the pearlitic and readily machinable matrix. Heat treatment of alloyed iron is still practiced to a considerable degree, yet over- all apparently to a lesser extent than for- merly. When it is used, it is largely limited to a stress-relief by subcritical tempering or to full annealing. Except for malleable and nodular irons, quenching and tempering and practiced to only a minor degree even though as shown by the single example of Table 1, very high strengths may be developed. Among the irons still being employed in the quenched and tempered (or stress-relieved) condition in light sections, mention needs be made of an acicular alloy composition of 3.25 percent carbon and 2.00 percent silicon with 1.10 percent chromium, 0.50 percent molybdenum and 0.30 percent nickel. The structure is naturally heavy with carbides and of importance for wear-resistant parts. Values as high as 100,000 psi are not too difficult to secure in the various quenched and tempered nonductile irons, but the products then lack toughness. The decline in this practice in the fields thus far dis- cussed may well be related to the desire for JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 8 some measure of ductility in cast irons of very high strength in view of the more or less stressed conditions resulting from the methods necessary to the attainment of this high strength and hardness. A quick recast of the development. of strength in gray irons of predominantly pearlitic matrix structure may be had by glancing at Fig. 3 which indicates solely the direction of movement of the cementite- pearlite boundary and of the zone of mottled structure resulting from superheating, change of cooling rate, inoculation, and al- loying. It affords merely a quick qualitative indication, taking no account of these in- fluences upon the size, shape, quantity, and distribution of the graphite particles which determine the degree to which the matrix structure is restrained from full development of its inherent strength. MALLEABLE IRONS Thus far consideration has been given only to improvements in the strength of cast iron, using the value in tension as the indicator. For many engineering uses, how- ever, ductility of metals in addition to strength is of great importance, not only where simple tensile loading is concerned but even more critically with multiaxial stresses and sudden applications of stress. The ability to deform under occasional overload, rather than to rupture suddenly without deformation, is a frequent requirement. Many uses are satisfied, however, by limited elongation in the tension test and many metallic parts with such qualifications have rendered eminent service over long periods. Brief cognizance must therefore be taken of several products falling within that por- tion of the cast iron carbon range that is in part or totally below 2.4 percent. First, of course, is malleable cast iron, cast white, with temper carbon formed through any one of many variants of annealing, having a chemical composition ordinarily within the wide limits of 2.25 to 3.10 carbon with silicon 0.70 to 1.20 and properties in tension ranging from a strength value of 53,000 psi minimum to 90,000 psi minimum with cor- responding minimum elongations of from 18 to 2 percent. Minimum values of 60,000 Aveust 1955 WHITER: Lower SILICON STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON Higher Cootine Rate 243 Tuiwner Cross SECTION Hich Mect + Pour TEMPERATURE Ca on V (acso Mo) —_ Grayer: SSE Hicner Siticon in Cuarce Lower Cootinc Rate THICKER Cross SECTION INOCULATION Ni oa Cu Fra. 3.—Basic variables in iron founding. and 18 may be secured by suitable alloying, such as with copper plus molybdenum. The temper carbon aiding this development of ductility yet interfering with the full realiza- tion of the inherent strength of the steel matrix as in all cast irons, comprises more or less rounded graphite particles of irregular outline carrying innumerable projections that serve as points of stress concentration and initial fracture. Nevertheless, with their appreciable ductility, products within the range have enjoyed extensive use for very many years and have been the subject of much research, a large proportion of it de- voted to shortening and cheapening the long cycle of heat treatment once uni- versally required to effect the change from its white state as cast. In part this research has been very successful, but more in the direction of the higher strength varieties with their lower ductilities and pearlitic matrix. Owing to ease of fabrication, the softer grades have until now been produced in greater tonnage. Pressure from other ductile high-strength products is, however, enlarging the sphere of application of pear- litic malleable iron and may well be expected to attract the attention of users to an in- creasing degree. Driving minimum tensile strength to 100,000 psi will add interest even though the minimum elongation is quite small. As always, for any application, decision must be on the basis of engineering, metallurgy, and economics. Over the past 25 years there have ap- peared now and then a goodly number of suggestions for irons that have been close relatives of malleable iron, not requiring more than short-time heat treatments or falling within the broad limits of chemical specifications for malleable irons, yet par- taking of their properties. Some have en- joyed considerable industrial use and are worthy of brief mention. In a patent to McCarroll and Vennerholm (37) one finds an early version. With carbon just under the malleable iron range (1.90 to 2.30 percent) and silicon appreciably above (1.50 to 2.20 percent) the metal as cast is white but heat treatments of just a few hours duration precipitate about half of the carbon as temper carbon. With cooling rate after heat- ing above the transformation range adjusted to suit exact composition and section size and reheating to yield a desired hardness, tensile strengths above 90,000 psi were ob- tained with presumably some ductility in view of the temper carbon. Further develop- ment of the idea by these investigators led to a lower-carbon content with silicon at about the same level or somewhat lower and a considerable copper content to insure good 244 castability and easy machining; chromium was added to develop a measure of hardness and wear resistance. The composition has been variously reported (32) (33) (34) as carbon 1.30 to 1.70, with silicon spread over the range 0.85 to 2.50 percent, copper 1.00 to 4.00 percent (usually 1.75), and chromium 0.30 to 2.00 but usually 0.40 to 0.75 percent. Of interest is the claim that with the higher silicon, precipitation hardening by copper may be avoided. Large tonnages of this product were made and there was much discussion of a proper designation, 1.e. cop- per-malleable or copper-steel, but temper carbon is present in quantity after the usual short-time step-annealing and entitles the metal to inclusion here. The tensile strength has been variously reported between 105,000 and 120,000 psi with elongation ordinarily 1 or 2 percent but frequently higher. From the same very active research group has come an additional malleable iron va- riety but in this instance within malleable iron limits for both carbon and silicon. It is produced by trace additions of bismuth and boron and is reported (35, 36) to extend the useful range of malleable iron that may be cast completely white, from about the stand- ard 2 inches to at least 4 inches. Here is an interesting modification of an early discovery now finding practical employment. IRON WITH NODULAR GRAPHITE The discovery of methods for producing iron castings with all or nearly all of the graphite or free carbon in spherolitic or nodular form has introduced into the field a contender of major stature. Whether dis- covery was accidental or the result of deliberate and painstaking search is unim- portant; the contributions of Morrogh (37) and of Millis, Gagnebin, and Pilling (38) have opened a new vista in the field of fer- rous metallurgy. Not that the transition from the old to the new was abrupt, for there are clear evidences in the work of v. Keil and associates (20), Krynitsky and Saeger (39) and Adey (40) that this end point was being approached and there were those such as Bolton (4/7), Gillett (29), Meyersberg (42) and possibly many others who had ex- pressed a fervent hope that the graphite of cast iron would one day be precipitated or JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8 caused to grow in perfect spheroidal form. Nevertheless the accomplishment came as a pleasant jolt and represents notable achieve- ment. It is not the intention to review here many details of the properties of nodular cast iron. The interest that these properties have stimulated has resulted in a flood of experi- mentation, production, and _ publication beyond the possibilities of quick assimilation. The literature, however, is all so recent as to be readily located. Suffice it to point out that strength values, as cast, in plain and mildly alloyed iron with spheroidal graphite range from about 60,000 to 120,000 psi with elongations in the tension test from (in in- verse order) about 3 to well over 20 percent. Annealing has the effect of greatly narrow- ing this range as .will shortly be set forth while quenching and tempering indicates the possibility of attaining values well above 150,000 psi with appreciable elongation. Methods of production, as is well known, have revolved about the patented practices of adding cerium to irons low in sulphur or of magnesium in sufficient amount to remove sulphur above about 0.02 percent while leaving an adequate amount after loss by volatilization of some magnesium to provide a residual of about 0.04 percent minimum. Effective use has been made of the two metals in association. For best results, i.e. to yield graphite completely or nearly com- pletely in spheroid form along with a machinable matrix, silicon in the form of a suitable alloy such as 75 percent ferro-silicon is added just before pouring into molds. The amount of silicon added has been the sub- ject of much discussion, especially in view of somewhat lower machinability at higher silicon contents in the iron, but the details of mechanical properties up to about 4 percent silicon have been clearly set forth by Schneidewind and Wilder (43) who have pointed to the increasing strength and de- creasing elongation as silicon rises but that within the selected range, existing specifica- tion limits can be met without difficulty. However, as concerns iron composition and alloying, much opinion that is not sound and many data established on madequate coverage or too limited foundations have been published. No more striking example Aveust 1955 exists than in the case of copper. Recent publications have covered territory from sweeping conclusions based on amounts of addition far beyond those in use, to precise establishment of the method of matrix struc- ture control by this element (44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49). Tt is time to realize that copper may either have no influence on the properties of nodular iron or it may make definite con- tribution, according to the amounts added, the properties desired, any heat treatment that may be used and what is most impor- tant, the level of manganese in the iron. The elements copper and manganese both stabilize pearlite so that with manganese at 0.50 percent copper should be low. By low is meant about 0.30 percent, which is far above what will be obtained by ample use of a mag- nesium addition agent with 5 percent cop- per, normal copper content in scrap and foundry returns at the very maximum. If manganese is lower, copper may be much higher with a moderately favorable effect upon as cast strength and slight, if any, de- erease in ductility. On the other hand, manganese and copper may both be raised, with or without other alloying elements added, to produce nodular iron in the tensile strength range of 85,000 to 115,000 psi with the expectable shift in elongation. And such irons may be annealed to produce the usual lower strengths (about 65,000 psi) and higher ) elongations if desired. The details are shortly to be published. The sole require- ment is understanding use of two mutually dependent elements. _ Titanium in nodular iron may have been equally maligned and improperly used. The ‘metal has been reported (44) as very damag- ing to the properties of ferritic nodular iron. Work in the laboratories of the author’s company confirms this provided the amount of titanium is quite high as, for example, in the range of 0.05 to 0.10 percent. The metal is being introduced through many varieties of pig iron but not enough studies have been undertaken to detect differences, if any, between titanium added as pig, as iron-rich alloys or silicon-rich alloys. Likewise in- sufficient study has been devoted to smaller percentages of titanium which are more com- mon in nodular iron. Nor has adequate at- | tention been given to the simultaneous STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 245 presence of varying amounts of nitrogen. It is quite true that cerium corrects the ill ef- fects of the amounts of titanium referred to above as detrimental, but it 1s necessary to know whether smaller amounts of this cor- rective may be adequate, or even none at all, required. At this point it seems proper to refer to what may be termed seminodular irons— those that have part of their graphite as nodules and the remainder as stubby flakes or other partly converted forms. Millis and co-workers (38) indicate such products from very low magnesium additions. A paper by Estes and Schneidewind (50) soon to be published shows that irons in this category, which they call ‘‘upgraded irons,”’ may be produced at various carbon equiv- alents (4.3 to 5.1 having been thoroughly examined) with tensile strengths of 50,000 to 60,000 psi and a nominal elongation of 5 percent, by the ladle injection of calcium carbide, magnesium oxide, and the rare earth oxides. Iron fully nodular resulted from sub- stitution of magnesium metal powder for the oxides, as would be expected. Other intermediate cast irons, not quite so far ad- vanced have already been mentioned and it is to be expected that still different ap- proaches will be profitable. The pressure of possible decrease in cost should be con- siderable. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES I have pointed to past accomplishments in the development of high strength in one of the lowest cost metal products—a readily castable material of varied uses. What are the prospects for and directions of further change or improvement? I have indicated a few—there are surely many more. To recall those mentioned and comment upon them while introducing others should not be amiss. First consideration should be given to the mechanism of solidification. Some of the important investigations have been noted; recent additions to these studies have come from the laboratories of Hultgren (57) and Morrogh (52, 53). In a measure the methods are refinements of conventional procedures. One cannot help looking forward to the likelihood of some skillful and resourceful experimenter devising means for selective 246 behavior of a radioactive isotope to watch the progress of the solidification reactions. The foundryman may be led thereby to bet- ter control of small graphite flakes, of stubby flakes, of mixtures with imperfectly formed spheroids and perhaps the control of the number and size of perfect spheroids. More investigative work should and will be done to evaluate the performance of titanium in irons, not only of itself but in conjunction with its origin and also its as- sociation with nitrogen. Some work has been accomplished on the effects of aluminum in irons (54), but the investigations recorded, with a single excep- tion, all deal with what may be termed al- loying quantities. The oft-quoted limits of 0.03 percent maximum to avoid porosity when using green sand molds and 0.06 per- cent for dry sand molds needs reexamination. These values require questioning; under controlled production methods or associa- tion with some other metals, the limits may not hold and desirable results may accrue. Improved methods of inoculation need study. The production of cheap calcium seems not far away, and it is necessary to know whether present alloys are most effec- tive or whether introduction of commercially pure or very pure metal by methods effect- ing reaction only in the molten iron and with its oxygen and nitrogen, will present im- provement. Similar studies with other alkali and alkaline earth metals may be profitable. Additionally, attention should be directed to sulphur, for the general sulphur problem as it affects the entire ferrous metallurgical industry is of great importance to the econ- omy of nodular iron processes as now known and practiced. Lowering sulphur makes possible savings through lower magnesium or cerium additions or both. Contributions in this direction have been made by means of reactions with alkali compounds, lime- rich slags in the electric furnace, ladle reac- tions with calcium-aluminate slags, ladle injection of calcium carbide and application of new cupola designs providing for basic linings, hot blast and controlled slags. Slag control holds out hope for reduction in the quantity of present metallic additions and may eliminate them; it should be worth- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 45, No. 8 while to read again the paper by v.Keil and associates (20) already mentioned. Finally, I return to the comment on per- fect spheroids. Quenching and tempering of nodular iron are now an accepted prac- tice. The limitation in reaching for very high strength is low ductility or none at all, even brittleness. If the smaller the nod- ules the more perfect their form, it may be possible mathematically to estimate the most desirable size distribution and spacing. If control can be effective, I’d guess that close to 200,000 psi tensile strength would be possible and that with measurable elongation. This should be the ultimate in the strength of cast iron. The great Albert Sauveur in a discussion of one of Dr. Burgess’s papers (55) com- mented that there was need for the definite- ness and finality of the latter’s conclusions. It is, therefore, fitting to close with two quotations, the first of which is from that paper: May we not state the axiom that in a basic industry if there is a factor, . . . which is generally felt to play a capital role, limiting in an as yet undetermined way, the quality, output or cost of product; then, in such eases, all reasonable effort should be devoted to ascertaining the effects of the factor in question. The second is from one of those many illu- minating reviews of Dr. Burgess’s successor, H. W. Gillett (29): Whether a theory that leads us to try out some- thing ...is a correct theory or not is of little moment if the trial leads to a solution of the difficulty. Yet we must hope for and search for an entirely correct theory, for were such...evolved and proven, one could use it with certainty tolead .. . to an immediate solution ... rather than merely as a guide for experimentation in each recurring case. Much too much time and energy have been spent in hammering away at these “recurring cases” in the field of cast iron. A great amount of information has already been accumulated. It is time that the chaff be tossed aside and some strenuous effort devoted to a search for a few more kernels of grain. Aveust 1955 BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Zenzes, A. German Patent 158832 of April 12, 1905. (2) McPHERRAN, R.S. High test cast tron. Trans. Amer. Found. Assoc. 37: 495. 1929. (See also Found. Trade Journ. 47: 16. July 1932.) (3) Emmet, K. Low carbon cast tron as a product of the cupola. Stahl und Eisen 45: 1466. 1925. (See also U. S. Patent 1683714 of December 9, 1924.) (4) DrerFENTHALER, A., and Srpp, K. German Patent 301913 of May 10, 1916, and Patent Addition 325250. (5) SCHNEIDEWIND, R., and McEtwes, R. G. Composition and properties of gray tron. Trans. Amer. Found. Soc. 58: 312, 1950. (6) Honpa, K., and Muraxamr, T. On the struc- tural constitution of tron-carbon-silicon alloys. Sci. Rep. Tohoku Univ., ser. 1, 12: 257. 1923. (7) Maurer, E. A cast tron diagram. Krupp. Monatsb. 5: 115. 1924. (8) Unuitzscn, H., and WeIcHELT, W. [Disserta- tion by Weichelt under direction of Uhl- itzsch.| Freiberg, 1933. (9) Stepp, K. A new cast iron structural diagram. Arch. Eisenh. 14: 267, 1940. (10) Aneus, H. T., Dunn, F., and Martszs, D. The properties of cast tron in relation to the carbon equivalent value. Trans. Amer. Found. Soc. 57: 24. 1949. (11) PranNENscHmMip?, C. W. Mitt. Forsch. Anst. G. H. H. Konzern, September 1941: 24. (12) Corte, F. B., and Houston, A. M. High- strength cast iron. Trans. Amer. Found. Assoc. 37: 469. 1929. (See also German Patent 609319 of March 26, 1928.) (13) Hatustone, G. Liquid contraction in cast iron. Carn. School Mem., Iron and Steel Inst., 5: 51. 1913. (14) Lonemutr, P. The influence of varying casting temperature on the properties of alloys. Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. 63: pt. 1: 463. 1903. (15) Evtiot, G. K. The electric furnace as an ad- junct to the cupola. Trans. Amer. Found. Assoc. 28: 352. 1919. (16) Prwowarsky, E. Gusseisen, ed. 2. Berlin, 1951. (Principally Ref. 21, Chap. 6, Gies- serei Zeit. 23: 379. 1926; and Ref. 83, Chap. 6, Arch. Eisenh. 7: 431. 1933-34.) (17) Krynitsxy, A. I., and Sarcer, C. M. Elastic properties of cast iron. Nat. Bur. Stand. Res. Pap. 1176. 1939. (18) Prwowarsky, E., and Szupinsky, W. Teach- ing and research at the Foundry Institute, Aachen. Giesserei 19: 262. 1932. (19) von FRANKENBERG und LupwiaGsporRrFr, A. [Paper read at Foundry Colloquium, Aachen, 1939, as quoted in (16), p. 145.] (20) von Kern, O., Mirscue, R., Lecat, A., and TRENKLER, H. The action of nonmetallic STRAUSS: HIGH-STRENGTH CAST IRON 247 nuclei on graphite formation in cast tron. Arch. Hisenh. 7: 579. 1934. (21) Mrernan, A. F. U.S. Patent 1499068 of June 24, 1924. (22) MoxupEnKE, R. The principles of iron found- ing. New York, 1930. (23) Prwowarsky, E. Op. cit.: 174. Od, Cilick WP. (25) SCHNEIDEWIND, R., and Hamiuton, J. H. [Unpublished work for the author’s com- pany at University of Michigan, 1932-33.] (26) CHanpumerR, H. T. U.S. Patents 2220063 of November 5, 1940, and 2276287 of March 17, 1942. (27) Norsury, A. L., and Morean, E. Effect of non-metallic inclusions on the graphite size of gray cast tron. Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. 134: pt. 2: 327. 1936. (See also U. S. Patent 2052107 of August 25, 1936.) (28) Boyuus, A. The structure of cast iron. Cleve- land, 1947. (29) GiutuertT, H. W. Heredity in cast iron. Metals and Alloys 5: 184. 1934. (30) ScHAFMEISTER, P. Spacial arrangement of graphite in cast tron. Arch. Hisenh. 10: 221. 1936/7. (81) McCarrotu, R. H., and VENNERHOLM, G. U.S. Patent 1871545 of August 16, 1932. . U. S. Patent 2035392 of March 24, 1936. (33) Russet, H. W. Resistance to damage by overstress etc. Metals and Alloys 7: 321. 1936. (84) Hoyt, S. L. Metal data book. New York, 1952. (85) BorcreHnoitp, A. L. U.S. Patent 2370225 of February 27, 1945. (86) Smit, J. H. Outstanding opportunities for the foundry industry. Trans. Amer. Found. Soc. 61: 1. 1953. (87) Morrocu, H. Nodular graphite structures. Journ. Res. and Dev., Brit. Cast Iron Res. Assoc., 3: 25. 1950. (See also U. S. Patents 2488511/2 of November 15, 1949.) (88) Miuuis, K. D., Gacnesin, A. P., and Pruu- Inc, N. B. U. S. Patents 2485760/1 of October 25, 1949. (89) Krynitsky, A. I., and Sancemr, C. M. Elastic properties of some alloy cast tron. Nat. Bur. Stand. Res. Pap. 1447. 1942. (40) Apry, C. F. Graphite eutectic with nodular spherolitic graphite. Neue Giesserei 1: 67. (32) Sept. 1948. (41) Boiron, J. W. Gray cast iron. Cleveland, 1937. (42) MmyersperG, G. On the relation between mechanical properties and structure of cast tron. Giesserei 23: 285. 1936. (43) SCHNEIDEWIND, R., and WitpEr, H. H. Commercial experience with higher silicon nodular trons. Trans. Amer. Found. Soc. 60: 322. 1952. (44) Morroau, H. The harmful influences of some residual elements in magnesiwm treated nodular cast irons and their neutralization by cerium. Journ. Res. and Dev., Brit. Cast Iron Res. Assoc., 5: 292. 1952. (45) Neemess, J. C. Watch copper build-up. Tron Age 171: 162. 1953. (46) Steven, W., and Lams, R. M. Discussion. Trans. Amer. Found. Soc. 60: 451. 1952. (47) Lamp, R. M. Influence of copper on cast tron containing magnesium. Int. Found. Con- gress (1953) Preprint C 1-7. (48) De Sy, A., and Fouton, J. Systematic sup- pression of the eutectoid formation of ferrite. Int. Found. Congress (1954) Preprint 7. (49) De Sy, A., Vipts, J., and VAN EncuHem, J. The mechanism of ferrite formation and study of its diminution by tin and copper. Int. Found. Congress (1954) Preprint 3. (50) Estes, J. W., and ScHNEIDEWIND, R. New JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 8 | high strength cast trons produced by injection methods. Paper to be published. (Private communication.) (51) Hutreren, A., LinpBiom, Y., and RUDBERG, E. Eutectic solidification of grey, white and mottled hypo-eutectic cast trons. Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. 176: 365. April 1954. (52) Morroau, H., and Wiuurams, W. J. Under- cooled graphite in cast trons and related alloys. Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. 176: 375. April 1954. (53) Morrocu, H. The solidification of nodular tron. Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. 176: 378. April 1954. (54) Prwowarsky, E. Op. cit.: 781. (55) Buragss, G. K. Sound ingots and rails. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mech. Engin. 51: 875. 1915. HYDROGRAPHY .—A comparison of the environmental characteristics of some shelf areas of eastern United States. Francis E. Exuiorr, Witt1am H. Myers, and Wiuuis L. Tressuer, U. 8. Navy Hydrographic Office. (Received April 27, 1955) Recently surveys have been conducted of certain portions of the continental shelf along the eastern coast of the United States. The present paper attempts to bring together certain over-all aspects of the en- vironmental features of this region. The parameters considered include physiog- raphy, temperatures, salinities, currents, sea level, transparency, color, climatology, and fouling. PHYSIOGRA PHY The continental shelf is part of the con- tinent rather than a part of the oceans. It is the authors’ belief that for a better under- standing of the shelf, one can not divorce it from the coast and its hinterland. It is therefore suggested that the continental shelf, and the adjacent coastal lands to the first major break in physiography, be treated as belonging to the same _ physiographic province. In the northern part of a belt extending from Boston to Charleston, 8. C., the land includes the Seaboard Low- lands, and in the southern part the Coastal Plain as defined by Fenneman. This seems entirely justified if one remembers that dur- ing the last glaciation, most of the continental shelf was emerged, and it seems reasonable to assume that the gross features of the relief were formed subaerially and only the microrelief was formed under submarine conditions, because only comparatively little time has elapsed since the return of the sea. From a geomorphological point of view one can divide this belt into a northern glacial part and a southern alluvial part. The - boundary between the two runs in a westerly direction through Staten Island. Going into more detail, in the northern part one can make further subdivisions from its position with respect to the ice sheet. The configuration of the shelf near Boston is typical of an eroded ground moraine dominated by drumlins. One should also expect to find other glacial features such as eskers, roches moutonnées, etc., however, bathymetric charts are not good enough at present to recognize these features. The Narragansett Bay area (Fig. 1, a, b) is located at the margins of glaciation and its dominant features are a_ succession of terminal moraines divided by a narrow outwash plain. The Harbor Hill moraines seem to extend from Long Island, at Orient Point, through Fishers Island to the shore of Rhode Island, while the Ronkonkoma moraine extends from Montauk Point through Block Island probably to Cutty- hunk Island, etc. The latter one particularly Aveust, 1955 ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS COASTAL APPROACHES From NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY Fie. la 45, No. 8 VOL NCES ACADEMY OF SCIE ASHINGTON AL OF THE W RN JOU COASTAL APPROACHES reom NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY wan aecaeangetet 1b Fic. Aveust 1955 is easily recognizable on the bathymetric chart by its knob and kettle topography. The comparatively smooth areas between the moraines probably represent the out- wash plain. Some of the deep holes south of Fishers Island may very well be kettles. The approaches to New York (Fig. 2, a, b, c) are just beyond the ice limits and represent the outwash plain. The topography becomes considerably smoother and rolling. The elongated narrow ridges south of Jones Beach cannot be adequately explained; they may be submerged sand dunes or sub- merged off-shore bars which have encroached on each other. The Hudson has eroded a channel through the unconsolidated ma- terial, probably before the sea returned. The southern part of our coastal belt is much less diversified than the northern part and a clear cut distinction between the in- dividual areas can not be made. The Delaware River, like the Hudson, has eut a channel which in this case is recogniz- able to about 15 fathoms where it ends at a ridge, which could be a submerged coastal terrace. The same terrace, if it is one, can be seen off Chesapeake Bay at about the same depth (Fig. 3). A Susquehanna channel, on the other hand, cannot be traced. The assumption that this ridge represents a former coastal terrace is not unreasonable in the light of the fact that there is a succession of such terraces on the adjacent embayed coastal plain. Off Charleston no terrace appears within the limits of the chart (Fig. 4). However, numerous shallow depressions exist whose origin is unknown to the authors. It is sug- gested, however, that they may be a sub- merged continuation of the Carolina bays. TEMPERATURE Along the shelf from Narragansett Bay to Chesapeake Bay, in winter, the surface water isotherms run approximately parallel to the shoreline with temperature increasing in a seaward direction. At equal distances from land along this area of the shelf there is a latitudinal increase of temperature of only 1.5°-3°C. The water column from sur- face to bottom is isothermal in all localities. The isothermal condition may occasionally be disrupted by indrafts from river dis- ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 251 charges. Such an interruption of the winter pattern might conceivably be felt off the Chesapeake Bay during January when there is an increased river discharge. Spring warming begins any time between the middle of February and the middle of March and becomes more rapid after late April or early May. During May the lati- tudinal gradient along the shelf from Narragansett Bay to Chesapeake Bay in- creases to about 6°C. at the surface and about 4°-5°C. on the bottom. In the areas for which there is record, the temperature profiles show an inversion during late spring at varying levels in each locality. Off Martha’s Vineyard and Montauk Point in the Narragansett Bay area, the inversion occurs between 20 and 40 meters, the only difference between the two locations being the slightly higher temperatures at Montauk Point. Off New York the inversion occurs between 30 and 40 meters and off Delaware Bay at approximately 40 meters. Immedi- ately off the entrance to Chesapeake Bay the inversion is not at all prominent, but far- ther northward along the Virginia coast at Winterquarter Lightship, the inversion be- comes evident at approximately 40 meters. In June, surface temperature rises rapidly. The following values are reported across the shelf in the first to second week of the month: Off Martha’s Vineyard and New York, 12-14°C.; off Delaware Bay, 16- 18°C; and off Chesapeake Bay, 19-20°C. Maximum surface temperatures generally occur throughout the area early in August. Thermoclines which have been developing since late spring generally become steepest just before autumnal cooling. The upper 10-15 meters at this time are almost homo- geneous with the thermocline generally present between the 15 and 30 meter levels. During the summer, the thermocline ex- tends downward about 20 meters off Delaware Bay, which is the location of the thickest thermocline in the areas under consideration; in the other areas its spread includes usually not more than 10 meters. The thermocline off Martha’s Vineyard is not as pronounced as in the other areas; here a temperature inversion occurs between 40 and 60 meters. With autumnal cooling the thermocline voL. 45, No. 8 NCES AL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIE JOURN APPROACHES COASTAL ” << 6 a S = = sj 4 Si n < i) a t a ANS ARRAG N ee: \ea2 di eA fe Fig. 2a Aveust 1955 ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 253 COASTAL APPROACHES FROM NARRAGANSETT BAY TO NEW YORK BAY er bic Aan WlaPos” Uae chant Ra tarcas ecates 254 sinks to about 40-60 meters in all areas and is generally 20 meters in thickness. The upper layers become more homogeneous, and by the third week of October the surface waters across the shelf have cooled to 14° 15°C. off Martha’s Vineyard, 15°-17°C. off New York, and 18°-19°C. off Chesapeake Bay. With decreasing temperature, by mid- December, mean temperatures are about 5°-8°C. along shore and 10°-13° C. along the outer edge of the shelf. SALINITY Salinity patterns along the continental shelf show greater seasonal stability than temperature patterns of corresponding periods. The basic salinity pattern is gen- erally only altered close to shore by the freshening effect of river water and offshore by the salting from indrafts of more saline slope waters. The most striking change in the salinity pattern appears during the peak river discharge in March, April, and May. During this period minimum values which might be expected 8-10 miles from shore are: off Montauk Point, 30.8% ; off New York, 27% 0; off Cape May, 30.5%; off the coast of Virginia, 31.8%,; and off Chesapeake Bay, about 27% . Surface water less than 32% is greatest in width off New York Harbor where it may extend offshore between 90 and 100 miles; off Delaware Bay it is never more than about 50 miles broad. Surface salinity values tend to increase during the autumn while the vertical range tends to decrease. In July and August steep vertical gradients may occur off New York and even more strikingly may occur off the mouth of the Chesapeake, where a gradient of 12.24% per 20 meters has been recorded. TIDAL CURRENTS Currents resulting from tides are at a minimum in the offings of Boston Harbor and Chesapeake Bay. At Boston Lightship current velocities average less than 0.1 knot, setting in an almost clockwise direc- tion. At Chesapeake Lightship the velocity is generally less than 0.2 knot. The max- imum tidal current velocity occurs off the entrance to Delaware Bay, where an aver- age velocity of 1.4 knots occurring 0 hours JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8 after Greenwich transit, setting in a north- westerly direction, has been determined. Here, as at Boston, the current shifts continuously in a clockwise direction. At Charleston the current velocity is nearly the same throughout the cycle, with the direction shifting continuously clockwise. Off New York the velocities are nearly as weak as at Chesapeake Bay, but the current rotates clockwise as at Charleston and Boston. NONTIDAL CURRENTS A seasonal change in direction of nontidal currents is noted at Boston. During the winter (January—March) the predominant direction is ESE, in late spring and summer (May-July) the predominant direction is NE, and in fall (September—November) the direction is approximately N. Average nontidal current velocity is less than 0.1 knot. Off Narragansett Bay there seems to be no seasonal periodicity; the maximum velocity occurs in March with an average of 0.2 knot in a_ southwesterly direction. Off New York the major flow is to the south or southeast. Off Delaware Bay the major current set is to the south or southwest, seemingly following the shore. Off Chesa- peake Bay, nontidal current directions vary from northeast to due south. At Charleston the nontidal currents are distinguished by having a pronounced northeast set in July with an average velocity of 0.22 knot. WIND CURRENTS Wind currents vary considerably in all areas; however, all areas are similar in that the deflective force of the earth’s rotation causes the wind currents to set to the right of the wind direction. Off Boston and Narragansett Bay the directions of wind currents are not restricted to any particular quadrant. Off New York, wind current direc- tions are restricted to the ESE to SW sector of the compass, off Delaware Bay to the NE to WSW sector, and off Chesapeake Bay to the NE to SW sector. There is no avail- able record for wind currents off Charleston. SEA LEVEL The annual cycle of sea level is the same in all localities except Boston. Boston is SHELF AREAS ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER 955 Aveust 1 = S = S Fd a C4 a = Be L < g S aI < a i % 9 4 4 & Zz GS re) a iz -) i Zi z < S a ct a a z ee ee ye « = ae as \LLameecomeen, ies Fig. 2¢ No. 8 b) VOL. 45 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES N NGTO JOURNAL OF THE WASHI 256 Hotined | TERMCUA! OLE? - COO INN 37995 | AVG aMVadVS3HO { | OL SSHOVONddY Aveust 1955 unique in that the maximum sea level height occurs in June, while maximum height does not occur until September in the other areas. The range of mean sea level increases southward. At Boston the range is .34 feet; in the Narragansett area, .35 feet; in the New York area, .60 feet; and in the Chesa- peake area, .61 feet. The annual means of sea level along the coast show a constant rise from 1928. All areas except New York show approximately the same pattern for the years 1928-1950. The exception noted at New York occurred in the years 1938- 1940 when sea level remained practically static, whereas in the other areas there was a general rise. TRANSPARENCY Transparency of shelf water appears to be correlated with salinity; i.e., areas of low salinity concentration are generally low in transparency. The low salinity water prob- ably represents river effluent which is made turbid by suspended pollutants and sedi- ments or large phytoplankton populations. In all areas transparencies are lowest within _ the bays, especially near the mouths of their ' tributaries. From the entrances of the bays shelf water becomes increasingly trans- parent in a seaward direction. This appears to be consistently true except in the offing of Narragansett Bay where a confused pattern of distribution results from the complex current running in and out of Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, Buzzards Bay, and Vineyard Sound. WATER COLOR The only complete coverage of water color in the area under consideration is in the region off Narragansett Bay and New York. The shelf water is predominantly blue- green, but local differences occur near land areas. Off Narragansett Bay and surround- ing Montauk Point the water is yellow- green; the eastern and southern coasts of Block Island are surrounded by an area of light-green water, while the northwestern coast is surrounded by yellow-green water. Extensive areas of yellow-green water also appear off the coasts of western and central Long Island. A broad area of brown-green water extends across the entrance to New ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 257 York Bay, and two similar areas of brown- green water are found off the western and south-western coasts of Block Island. CLIMATOLOGY Climatological characteristics of the six shelf areas are fairly similar and generally show differences only in degree. Mean annual temperature range decreases from Boston to Charleston except at New York. The precipitation pattern indicates that the greatest amount of rainfall occurs during the summer months, generally July and August, at most stations. Mean annual rainfall is ereatest at Charleston and least at Dela- ware Bay and Block Island. Wind speeds are greatest at New York and off Narragansett Bay, where they may average as much as 16 knots. There is a seasonal variation in all areas with wind velocities lowest during the summer months and highest during the winter. Heavy fogs occur most frequently in the Narragansett Bay area and least fre- quently at Charleston. During the colder months of the year heavy fogs are most fre- quent off New York, Chesapeake Bay, and Charleston. In the other areas they are most frequent during the warm months. Ap- preciable swell occurs similarly in all areas, being least during July and August and greatest in late fall and winter. FOULING Fouling in Boston Harbor is very variable from year to year, the chief fouling or- ganisms being hydroids, barnacles, bivalves, and tunicates. Other organisms occurring occasionally are tube worms and bryozoans (both filamentous and encrusting). Max- imum growth of hydroids occurs in the Boston area in August. In Narragansett Bay, limited data indicate that fouling organisms are mainly bivalves, bryozoans, and algae with barnacles occurring at only one locality. Fouling has been estimated to occur on bottom objects in the entrance to Narragansett Bay at the rate of .05 pounds wet weight per square foot per month. Surface objects in the entrance to the bay accumulate fouling organisms at the rate of between 0.1 and 0.3 pounds per square foot per month. The fouling rate decreases in Narragansett Bay and in all other areas of 258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8 CHARLESTON APPROACHES TO Fie, 4 Aveust 1955 the shelf as one proceeds seaward. Fouling in lower New York Harbor is light with barnacles and hydroids the principal or- ganisms, and only traces of other forms. Conditions are similar from year to year but vary considerably within the area. Upper New York Harbor is only lightly fouled, with barnacles the prevalent form. Hydroid fouling is very light and no other forms are of any significance. Setting and growth of barnacles progresses during early spring and summer; once attached they may remain for several years. The growth of barnacles average about one-half inch in thickness of encrustation during the first four months of attachment. Rates of fouling of both surface and bottom sub- merged objects show a marked increase shoreward directly opposite the entrance to New York Harbor. In the Delaware, and Chesapeake areas, barnacle fouling appears to become less serious, and fouling by such organisms as mussels, bivalves and hy- droids assumes greater importance. Barna- cles again become of importance as fouling organisms at Charleston. On the north side - of Delaware Bay, heavy fouling is caused by slime-producing diatoms, silt, and oysters, with barnacles present in small numbers only. Oysters disappear as fouling organisms on the ocean side of Cape May but the rest of the fouling picture is substantially that found in the bay proper. At Stone Harbor, north of Cape May on the ocean, mussels are heavy fouling agents and seem to be on the increase. In the Norfolk and Portsmouth areas of the Chesapeake Bay, fouling varies from moderate to heavy and is caused mainly by hydroids, barnacles and mussels. Bryozoans, sea-anemones, and tube worms also contribute to the fouling mass. Growth of the fouling mass takes place during the ELLIOTT, MYERS, AND TRESSLER: SHELF AREAS 259 greater part of the year in this more southern region and at Charleston as well. Average fouling by mussels in the Norfolk area is approximately 1.5 pounds per square foot per year. Fouling at Charleston is caused mainly by hydroids and barnacles, while encrusting and filamentous bryozoa, marine worms, and miscellaneous nonboring mol- lusks occur more or less sporadically. Marine borers appear to be a_ serious menace to wooden structures in all areas thus far examined except New York Harbor, where the damage caused is negligible. In Boston Harbor, borers are abundant and have reached an intensity of 100 per square inch in one month. In the Narragansett Bay region, borers are abundant at Block Island but are seen only occasionally at the Brenton Reef Lightship. Within the bay proper, there is a heavy infestation of marine borers. At Cape May at the entrance to Delaware Bay, borers are present to a limited extent only and then only during the period from May through July. The abundance of borers is very variable at different locations in the Chesapeake Bay area. At Norfolk, borers are abundant in some years and only moderate in others, while at Portsmouth, there seems to be a heavy infestation every year. Marine borers cause considerable damage at Charleston and are present in moderate to heavy amounts. The breeding season for borers in this region lasts from May through October or November. The freedom which New York Harbor enjoys from marine borers is believed to be caused by the shape of the bay and the large inflow of freshwater from the Hudson River, both of which factors tend to decrease salinities and make an unfavorable environ- ment for these organisms. 260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 8 PALEONTOLOGY —Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. H. E. Vokus, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. (Received April 28, 1955) Recently (April 3, 1955) while on a field trip with an undergraduate class in geology from The Johns Hopkins University, I collected a large pair of valves of the pelecy- pod Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes) from the lower part of the Choptank formation in an exposure approximately one-half mile south of Kenwood Beach (Governor’s Run), Calvert County, Md. Unfortunately, and characteristically, the specimen broke up almost as soon as collected, owing to the fact that, in life, the nacreous calcareous layers were apparently separated by un- usually thick layers of organic conchiolin that now have decayed. As a result the shells tend to break into thin platy sheets as soon.as removed from the enclosing matrix. As I was about to discard the ruined specimen I noted an unusual structure lying in the matrix that had been adjacent to the left valve. When removed it proved to be a large, almost spherical pearl (Figs. 1, 2) whose outer layers, like those of the enclos- ing shell tended to exfoliate, apparently due to the destruction of the conchiolin. For- tunately the inner layers were more re- sistant and the specimen as finally secured has a greatest diameter of 10.2 mm; com- plete it is estimated that the diameter was somewhat in excess of 15 mm. The portion of the pearl that was adjacent to the shell is flattened by the breaking away or in- complete deposition of approximately five lamina of that portion of the pearl that is yet preserved. These lamina, as measured on their broken edges are 0.2 to 0.25 mm thick. It is probable that the pearl was originally attached to the inner side of the valve in this area after the manner quoted by Brown (1940, p. 369) from Kunz and Stephenson (1908, p. 57). The structure of the shell of I. maxillata, and the fact that most speci- mens from the Choptank formation show, even today, a considerable degree of mother- of-pearl luster, suggest that this specimen was originally a highly lustrous gem pearl. Brown, while describing a number of pearls from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas, has tabulated (1940, table 1, p. 370) the reported occurrences of fossil pearls, which are known from all periods of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. No definite pearls have been reported from the Paleozoic deposits, although Brown (p. 370) notes that minute pearl-like forms have been reported from the Upper Silurian. The absence of these structures from the Paleozoic seems almost certainly an accident of collecting, rather than an indication of the fact that such structures were not produced by Paleozoic pelecypods. More of the reported fossil pearls have been found in association with species of the family Isognomonidae which includes IJnoceramus and Isognomon (= Perna, Pedalion, and Melina) than have been found in association with species referable to any other of the families of pelecypods. This family is represented in the upper Paleozoic by the genus Bakevellia. Six records listed by Brown are from species referable to the family Mytilidae (Mytilus and Volsella). This family is well represented in the Paleozoic and Newell (1942, p. 32) has shown that the related Myalinidae, abundant in the upper Paleozoic, had nacreous shells. The specimen here described is the first “true” pearl to be reported from the American Miocene. Berry (1936, p. 464) has described a large ‘‘blister’”’ pearl oc- curring in a specimen of Panope americana Conrad from the Choptank formation near Jones Wharf, Md., and Brown (1940, p. 367) has recorded a second occurrence in the same species from the same locality. A specimen in the collections of The Johns Hopkins University from the Choptank at Governor’s Run, Md., has two smaller and very irregular pearls that are located im- mediately in front of the posterior adductor scar. Species of the genus Panope, a burrowing pelecypod with a wide posterior gape where the large siphons emerge, seem to have been peculiarly subject to injury and to the possible entry between the shell and the Aveust 1955 mantle of irritant material, probably sand grains. A pair of large valves of P. floridana Heilprin from the Caloosahatchie beds of the Florida Pliocene, in the Aldrich collection of The Johns Hopkins University show definite evidences of injury in the siphonal region of the shell, and on the inside of both valves there are a number of small, irregular pearls. There are 24 of these inside the right valve (Figs. 3, 6) and 22 in the left. The largest, in the right valve, has a diameter of 7.5 mm, one is 4.4 mm, and the rest are 3.5 mm or less. One of the smaller ones was ground in an effort to determine the struc- ture; since Panope is a non-nacreous shell, the pearl, as to be expected, did not reveal well-developed laminar texture. — . VOKES: CENOZOIC PEARLS 261 In addition to these specimens, the writer has collected two specimens from the upper Miocene Duplin marl at the Natural Well near Magnolia, N. C., that show ‘‘blister”’ pearls. One (Fig. 5), a left valve of Glycy- meris subovata (Say), has a pearl of 6.5 mm greatest diameter located in the apex of the valve immediately below the umbo and behind the hinge-plate below which it projects slightly. There is no external evidence of injury or boring that penetrated the shell to account for the location of the “blister” in this part of the shell. The second specimen (Fig. 4) is a left valve of the common Mulinia lateralis (Say), the most abundant species in the fauna at the Natural Well. In the present specimen a_ large Fies. 1, 2.—Pearl from Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes): 1, Dorsal view; 2, Base showing some of the concentric laminae (X 1.5). The original specimen before exfoliation of the outer laminae was approxi- mately the size of this illustration. Choptank formation, Governor’s Run, Md. Fires. 3, 6.—Panope floridana Heilprin: 3, Right valve (X 0.5) with many irregular pearls (note the evident damage and repair to the posterior end of the valve); 6, oblique view of part of interior of shell (X 1); the large specimen in the upper right has a greatest diameter of 7.5 mm normal to the plane of the photograph. Caloosahatchie formation, Pliocene, Fla. Fie. 4.—Blister pearl in interior of broken valve of Mulinia lateralis (Say) (X 1.2). Duplin marl, Miocene, Natural Well, N. C. _ Fie. 5.—Glycymeris subovata (Say), oblique view showing pearl under the umbone and behind the hinge-plate (X 1.2). Duplin marl, Miocene, Natural Well, N. C. 262 “blister” 11.3 mm in greatest diameter, occupies much of the upper half of the in- terior of the valve between the adductor scars. The thickest development of the “blister is toward the posterior part of the structure, and coincides with a boring on the exterior of the valve, indicating that the initial irritant was probably an organism. However, a cut made in the “blister” re- vealed that it was hollow and contained a considerable amount of sand and mud, suggesting that the enlargement of the “‘blister’’ had been caused by this secondary irritant. Neither Glycymeris nor Mulinia has a nacreous shell, hence neither of these “nearls” like those of Panope, are true pearls in the commonly accepted sense of the term, although both types have a similar mode of origin. To date the following ‘‘pearls”’ have been reported from the Atlantic coastal Cenozoic deposits: “BLISTER PEARLS”’: Panope americana Conrad, two specimens from the Choptank formation, Miocene, at Jones Wharf, Md. (Berry, 1936, p. 464; Brown, 1940, p. 367). Glycymeris subovata (Say), one specimen from the Duplin marl, Miocene, at Natural Well, N.C. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 8 Mulinia lateralis (Say), one specimen from the Duplin marl, Miocene, at Natural Well, N. C. “TRUE OR SPHERICAL PEARLS: Isognomon maxillata (Deshayes), one speci- men from the Choptank formation, Mio- cene, at Governor’s Run, Md. Panope americana Conrad, one specimen from the Choptank formation, Miocene, at Governor’s Run, Md. Panope floridana Heilprin, one pair of valves with numerous pearls, Caloosahatchie for- mation, Pliocene, Fla. Anadara_ transversa (Say), one specimen from the Pleistocene at Wailes Bluff, Md. (Brown, 1946, p. 75). REFERENCES Berry, Cuarues T. A Miocene pearl, Amer. Midl Nat. 17(2): 464-470, 3 figs. 1936. Brown, Rotanp W. Fossil pearls from the Colo- rado group of western Kansas. Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 30(9) : 365-374, 20 figs. 1940. A Pleistocene pearl from southern Mary- land. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36(3): 75-76, 2 figs. 1946. Kunz, Grorce F., and Stevenson, CHARLES H. The book of the pearl: 548 pp. New York, 1908. NEWELL, Norman D. Late Paleozoic Pelecypoda: Mytilacea. Univ. Kansas, State Geol. Surv. Kansas, Publ. 10(pt. 2): 1-115, 15 pls., 22 figs. 1942. ENTOMOLOGY .—New names in the Homoptera.’ Z. P. Mrrcaur, North Carolina State College. (Communicated by H. Friedmann.) (Received May 27, 1955) The new names proposed herewith seem to me to be necessary for the reasons stated. The names are listed under the appropriate family, subfamily, and tribe, according to the classification which I now use in the card catalogue of the Homoptera of the World. This should enable any student to locate the forms concerned. Primary homonyms have been replaced even where the species are no longer in- cluded in the same genera. All references have been checked against the originals. 1Contribution from the Entomology Depart- ment, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, North Carolina. Published with the approval of the Director of Research as Paper No.642 of the Journal Series. Family Crxiipar Subfamily CrximNakE Tribe Crxrrnt Oliarus ovatus, n. n. pro Oliarus lactetpennis, Kusnezov, Ent. Nachr. 10: 161. 1937. nec Oliarus lactetpennis Fowler, Biologia Cen- trali-Americana 1: 93. 1904. Family ARAEOPIDAE (DELPHACIDAE) Subfamily DELPHACINAE Tribe DELPHACINI - Nilaparvata caldwelli, n. n. pro Nilaparvata muiri Caldwell and Martorell, Journ. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 34: 198. 1951. nec Nilaparvata muiri China, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 16: 480. 1925. Aveust 1955 Family DicTtYoPHARIDAE Subfamily DicrroPpHARINAE Tribe DicTYOPHARINI Dictyophara lindbergi, n. n. pro Fulgora acuminata Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 10 (7): 106. 1948. nec Fulgora acuminata Olivier, méthodique . . . 6: 571. 1791. Encyclopédie Family FuLGORIDAE Subfamily PHENACINAE Levia, n. n. pro Helvia Melichar, Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Zweiten Deutschen Zentral-Afrika-Expe- dition 1910-1911 1: 123. 1912. nee Helyia Stal, Bih. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 4: 80. 1877. Orthotype: Helvia schubotzi Melichar. Family FLATIDAE Subfamily FuatTinaE Tribe PoEKILLOPTERINI Poekilloptera walkeri, n. n. pro Poeciloptera producta Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 2: 452. 1851. nec Poeciloptera producta Spinola, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 8: 432. 1839. Tribe NEPHESINI Name to be restored: Dalapax Amyot and Serville. nec Pseudoflata Guérin-Méneville. Haplotype: Flata postica Spinola. Dalapax was established by Amyot and Ser- ville, Histoire naturelle des insectes. Hémiptéres: 521. 1848, for the species Flata postica Spinola, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 8: 420. 1839. — Pseudoflata was established by Guérin-Méne- ville, Iconographie du régne animal 1844: 360, as a subgenus of Ricania for Pseudoflata nigri- cornis, Ni. sp. Nigricorms Guérin-Méneville is a synonym of postica Spinola. Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 16: 251. 1901, accepts the year 1838 as the date of the publication of Guérin-Méneville and therefore gives precedence to Pseudoflata over Dalapaz. According to Hagen, Bibliotheca entomologica 1: 309. 1862 and Horn and Schenkling, Index litteraturae entomologicae (1) 2: 470. 1928, the -entomological part of Guérin-Méneville’s paper was not published until 1844. This date has also been accepted by Sherborn, Index animalium METCALF: NEW NAMES IN HOMOPTERA 263 21: 5195. 1929; Neave, Nomenclator zoologicus 3: 982. 1940; and Schulze, Kikenthal, and Heider, Nomenclator animalium 4 (21): 2907. 1935. Previously Marschall, Nomenclator zool- ogicus: 378. 1873, gave the date as 1846. Scudder, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 19: 266. 1882, also gave the date as 1846. Panormenis melichari, n. n. pro Ormenis suturalis Melichar, Wien. Ent. Zeit. 24: 289. 1905. nee Ormenis striolata var. suturalis Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 17: 95. 1902. Family IsstpaE Subfamily HemispHAERIINAE Gergithus formosanus, n. n. pro Gergithus reticulatus Matsumura, Trans. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 101. 1916. nec Hemisphaerius reticulatus Distant, The fauna of British India 3: 361. 1906. nune Gergithus reticulatus Distant. Family CERCOPIDAE Subfamily CeRcoPrINnaE Tribe CERCOPINI Triecphorella kirschbaumi, n. n. pro Cercopis fasciata Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 63. 1868. nec Cercopis fasciata Fabricius, Mantissa insec- torum 2: 275. 1787. Tribe EoscartTiINnI Eoscarta (Eoscarta) lombokensis, n. n. pro Eoscarta tristis Jacobi, Zool. Jahrb. (Syst. Okol.) 74: 282. 1941. nec Koscarta borealis var. tristis Lallemand, Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1927: 112. Keducarta walkeri, n. n. pro Triecphora antica Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. 10: 289. 1870. nec Triecphora antica Walker, List of homopterous insects in the British Museum 3: 674. 1851. Tribe CosMOSCARTINI Cosmoscarta sundana, n. n. pro Cercopis liturata Walker, Journ. Linn. Soe. Zool. 10: 287. 1870. nec Cercopis liturata Le Peletier and Serville, Olivier’s Encyclopédie méthodique... 10: 606. 1825. Opistarsostethus walkeri, n. n. pro Cercopis dorsalis Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. 10: 283. 1870. nec Cercopis dorsalis Walker, List of homopterous insects in the British Museum 3: 658. 1851. 264 Family APHROPHORIDAE Subfamily APHROPHORINAE Tribe PHILAENINI Neophilaenus exclamationis var. lindbergi, n. n. pro Philaenus exclamationis var. nigerrimus Lind- berg, Not. Ent. 3: 40. 1923. Philaenus exclamationis var. nigerrimus Strobl, Mitt. Naturw. Ver. Steiermark 36: 208. 1900. nec Philaenus leucophthalmus var. zetterstedti, n. n. pro Cercopis spumaria var. obscura Zetterstedt, Fauna insectorum Lapponica 1: 515. 1828. nec Cercopis obscura Fabricius, Entomologia systematica 4: 49. 1794. Tribe APHROPHORINI Jophora compactilis, n. n. pro Aphrophora compacta Matsumura, Annot. Zool. Japonenses 5: 35. 1904. nec Aphrophora compacta Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 3: 701. 1851. Family TETrTiGELLIDAE Subfamily TETTIGELLINAE Tribe TETTIGELLINI Amblyscarta crocea, n. n. pro Tettigonia aestuans Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 3: 750. 1851. Tettigonia aestuans Fabricius, Entomologia systematica 4: 20. 1794. nec Amblyscarta frontaliana, n. n. pro Tettigonia frontalis Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 64. 1821. nee Tettigonia frontalis Donovan, Natural history of insects of China: [2]. 1798. Amblyscarta nigrifascia var. albidissima, n. n. pro Tettigonia albida Walker, List of homopterous insects in the British Museum 3: 777. 1851. nec Tettigonia albida Walker, List of homopterous insects in the British Museum 3: 767. 1851. Amblyscarta transversalis, n. n. pro Tettigonia transversa Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (3) 1: 342. 1853. nec Tettigonia transversa Costa, Cenni Zoologici 1834: 89. Dasmeusa flavescens, n. n. pro Tettigonia lurida Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (3) 1: 662. 1853. nec Tettigonia lurida Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 70. 1821. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 8 Poecilocarda nigripennis, n. n. pro Tettigonia scutellata Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (3) 8: 203. 1860. Tettigonia scutellata Fabricius, rhyngotorum 1803: 44. 1803. nec Systema Tettigella alba, n. n. pro Tettigonia concinna Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 3: 755. 1851. nec Tettigonia concinna Perty, Delectus animalium articulatorum 3: 180. 1833. Tettigella borneonensis, n. n. pro Tettigonia elongata Walker, Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. 1: 167. 1857. nec Tettigonia elongata Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (3) 2: 495. 1854. Tettigella chinensis n. n. pro Tettigonia trilineata Melichar, Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Petersburg 7: 132 (57). 1902. nec Tettigonia ruficeps var. trilineata Fowler, Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 236. 1899. Tettigella distanti, n. n. pro Tettigoniella cornelia Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 1: 521. 1908. nec Tettigoniella cornelia Distant, The fauna of British India 4: 209. 1908. Tettigella druryi, n. n. pro Tettigonia sanguinea Westwood, Illustrations of exotic entomology 2: 81, 1837. Tettigonia sanguinea Fabricius, rhyngotorum emendanda: 39. 1803. nec Systema Tettigella gabonensis, n. n. pro Tettigonia nigrolineata Taschenberg, Zeitschr. Naturw. 57: 446. 1884. Tettigonia nigrolineata Herrich-Schaffer Deutschlands Insecten 164: 17. 1838. nec Tettigella montrouzieri, n. n. pro Tettigonia flavescens Montrouzier, Ann. Soc. Agr. Lyon (2) 7: 118. 1855. nec Tettigonia flavescens Fabricius, Entomologia systematica 4: 24, 1794. Tettigella pallidicornis, n. n. pro Tettigonia festiva Melichar, Fauna von Ceylon: 159. 1903. nec Tettigona festiva Fabricius, Systema rhyngo- torum: 41. 1803. Homopteren- Tribe GRAPHOCEPHALINI Amahuaka angustula var. fowleri, n. n. pro Tettigonia angustula var. immaculata Fowler, Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 292. 1900. Aveust 1955 nee Tettigonia immaculata Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 3: 740. 1851. Astenogonia fabricii, n. n. pro Cicada bicolor Fabricius, Systema rhyngo- torum: 65. 1803. nee Cicada bicolor Olivier, Encyclopédie méthodi- que . . . 5: 748. 1790. Conogonia ceramensis, n. n. pro Tettigonia tripunctata Walker, Journ. Linn. Soe. Zool. 10: 303. 1870. nec Teitigonia tripunctata Fitch, Ann. Rep. State Cab. Nat. Hist. 4: 55. 1851. Epiacanthus guttiger var. aurantius, n. n. pro Tettigonia guttigera var. dispar Horv ath Term. Fuzétek 22: 371. 1899. nec Tettigonta dispar Germar, Mag. Ent. 4: 71. 1821. Graphocephala flavovittata, n. n. pro Tettigonia multicolor Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (8) 1: 363. 1853. nec Tettigonia multicolor Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 3: 760. 1851. Family LEDRIDAE Subfamily KoEBELINAE Tribe THYMBRINI Rhotidus kirkaldyi, n. n. pro Ledropsis stdli Kirkaldy, Bull. Hawaiian Sugar Planters Assoc. Div. Ent. 3: 26. 1907. nec Ledropsis stali Melichar, Homopteren-Fauna von Ceylon: 148. 1903. Family EvsceLiDAE Subfamily EvsceLINaE Tribe EuscELINnI Anoplotettix fuscovenosus var. horvathi, n. n. Thammotettix fuscovenosus var. tnornatus Horvath, Rev. Ent. 14: 165. 1895. nee Thamnotettix inornatus Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 303. 1892. pro -Hesium falleni, n. n. pro Cicada biguttata Fallen, Nya Handl. Svenska Vet.- Akad. 27: 27. 1806. nec Cicada biguttata Fabricius, Species insectorum 2: 325. 1781. Tribe ATHYSANINI Athysanus argentarius, n. n. pro Cicada argentata Fabricius, Entomologia systematica 4: 38. 1794. nec Cicada argentata Olivier, Encyclopédie métho- diqué .. . 5: 759. 1790. METCALF: NEW NAMES IN Or HOMOPTERA 26 Athysanus fabricii, n. n. pro Cicada reticulata Fabricius, Entomologia systematica 4: 44. 1794. nee Cicada reticulata Linnaeus, Systema naturae 1: 436, 1758. Nephotettix apicalis de Motschulsky In Metcalf, Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Museum 189: 126. 1946, I reported that I could not dis- tinguish between Nephotettix bipunctata and the commonly accepted varieties apicalis de Mot- schulsky and cincticeps Uhler. Unfortunately, I did not discover that Fabricius (1803) described his species as Cicada bipunctata, Systema rhyn- gotorum: 78, which was preoccupied three times: Cicada bipunctata Scopoli, Entomologie Carniolica: 115. 1763. Cicada bipunctata Linnaeus, (ed. 12) 1 (2): 710. 1767. Cicada bipunctata Gmelin, Caroli a Linné Systema naturae 1 (4): 2111. 1789. Systema naturae The next available name for Fabricius’s spe- cies is Pediopsis apicalis de Motschulsky, Etud. Ent. 8: 110. 1859. The bipunctata of Fabricius and the cincticeps of Uhler, either as species or varieties, will become synonyms of apicalis. Phlepsius bergi, n. n. pro Deltocephalus variegatus Berg, An. Soc. Cient. Argentina 8: 264. 1879. nec Deltocephalus variegatus de Motschulsky, Etud. Ent. 8: 112. 1859. Remadosus osborni, n. n. pro Euscelis (Athysanus) magnus var. piceus Osborn, Florida Ent. 6: 20. 1922. nec Athysanus piceus Scott, Ent. Monthly Mag. 12: 97. 1875. Tribe THAMNOTETTIXINI Thamnotettix matsumuri, n. n. pro Thamnotettix acuminatus Matsumura, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo 28 (6): 27. 1908. nec Deltocephalus acuminatus Uhler, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1895: 80. nune Thamnotettiz acuminatus Uhler. Neobala boliviensis, n. n. pro Thamnotettix pallidus Osborn, Ann. Carnegie Mus. 15: 67. 1923. nec Thamnotettix karrooensts var. pallidus Cogan, Ohio Journ. Sci. 16: 192. 1916. 266 Family DELTOCEPHALIDAE Subfamily DELTOCEPHALINAEB Tribe DELTOCEPHALINI Deltocephalus amuriensis, n. n. pro Deltocephalus bilineatus Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 3 (6): 7. 1929. nec Deltocephalus bilineatus Gillette and Baker, Bull. Colorado Agr. Exp. Stat. 31: 85. 1895. Deltocephalus marginellanus, n. n. pro Deltocephalus marginellus Osborn, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 19: 346. 1926. Deltocephalus marginellus Carnegie Mus. 15: 41. 1923. nec Osborn, Ann. Deltocephalus obtusus, n. n. pro Deltocephalus simplex Haupt, Bull. Palestine Agr. Exp. Stat. 8: 29. 1927. nec Deltocephalus simplex Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 304. 1892. Ederranus subangulatus, n. n. pro Cicada lutea Sahlberg, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae 1: 88. 1842. nec Cicada lutea Olivier, Encyclopédie méthodi- que... 5: 758. 1790. Gillettiella labiata var. gillettei, n. n. pro Deltocephalus labiatus var. rufus Gillette, Bull. Colorado Agr. Exp. Stat. 43: 28. 1898. nec Deltocephalus abdominalis var. rufus Sahl- berg, Not. Fennica (n. s.) 9 (12): 329, 1871. Jassargus (Jassargus) distinguendus var. gallicus, n. n. pro Deltocephalus distinguendus var. longiceps Rey, Echange 10: 46. 1894. nec Jassus (Deltocephalus) longiceps Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 135. 1868. Jassargus (Jassargus) distinguendus var. reyi, n. n. pro Deltocephalus distinguendus var. confinis Rey, Echange 10: 46. 1894. nec Deltocephalus confinis Dahlbom, (1850) Handl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 1850: 193. Unoka gillettei, n. n. pro Athysanus ornatus Gillette, Bull. Colorado Agr. Exp. Stat. 48: 29. 1898. nec Athysanus ornatus Perris, Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon 4: 174 (94). 1857. Tribe XESTOCEPHALINI Xestocephalus izzardi, n. n. pro Xestocephalus minutus Izzard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 17: 598. 1936. nec Xestocephalus minutus Distant, The fauna of British India 7: 58. 1918. = Ootacamundus minutus Distant. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 8 Tribe CrcaDULINI Cicadula capensis, n. n. pro Cicadula nigrifrons Naudé, Ent. Me. Dept. Agr. Union of South Africa 4: 86. 1926. nec Cicadula nigrifrons Forbes, Report of the State entomologist of Illinois 14: 67. 1885. Tribe BALCLUTHINI Balclutha haupti, n. n. pro Balclutha flava Haupt, Bull. Palestine Agr. Exp. Stat. 8: 37. 1927. nec Gnathodus impictus var. flavus Baker, Can. Ent. 28: 36, 38. 1896. Family CorLipiipAE Subfamily TarrEssINAE Tartessus evansi, n. n. pro Tartessus obscurus Evans, Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania 1936: 54. 1936. nec Tartessus obscurus Schmidt, Stett. Ent. Zeit. 81: 54. 1920. Family AGALLIDAE Subfamily AGALLINAE Agallia lindbergi, n. n. pro Agallia insularis Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 14 (1): 196. 1954. nec Agallia insularis Berg, An. Soc. Cient. Argen- tina 17: 39. 1884. Family IassipaE Subfamily [assinagE Tribe Iassin1r Batrachomorphus fabricii, n. n. pro Cicada prasina Fabricius, Entomologia sys- tematica 4: 38, 1794. nec Cicada prasina Pallas, Reise durch russischen Reichs 1: 729. 1773. Stragania matsumuri, n. n. pro Macropsis dorsalis Matsumura, Journ. Coll. Agr. Sapporo 4 (7): 301. 1912. nec Macropsis dorsalis Provancher, Petite faune entomologique du Canada 3: 292. 1889. Tribe KRISNINI Krisna walkeri, n. n. pro Bythoscopus testaceus Walker, Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. 1: 173. 1857. nec Bythoscopus testaceus Walker, List of homop- terous insects in the British Museum 4: 1163. 1852. Family IproceRIDAE Idiocerus bakeri, n. n. pro Idiocerus trifasciatus Osborn, Ann. Carnegie Mus. 15: 19. 1923. Avetst 1955 nec Bythoscopus trifasciatus Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 167. 1868. nune Jdiocerus trifasciatus Kirschbaum. Family TypHLocyBIDAE Subfamily TypHLocyBINAE Tribe EMPoaAscINt Empoasca canariensis, n. n. pro Empoasca unicolor Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 6 (9): 8. 1986. nec Empoasca unicolor Gillette, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 20: 731. 1898. Empoasca martorelli, n. n. pro Empoasca incisa Caldwell and Martorell, Journ. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 34: 125. 1952. nec Empoasca incisa Gillette, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 20: 735. 1898. Tribe ERYTHRONEURINI Erythroneura canariensis, n. n. pro Erythroneura affints Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 14 (1): 248. 1954. nec ELrythroneura affinis Fitch, Ann. Rept. State Cab. Nat. Hist. 4: 63. 1851. Family CrcaDIDAE Subfamily TrsprcENINAak Tribe PLATYPLEURINI Platypleura (Platypleura) schumacheri, n. n. pro Platypleura fenestrata Schumacher, Zoologische und anthropologische Ergebnisse einer For- schungsreise 5: 86. 1913. nec Platypleura fenestrata Uhler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 13: 282. 1861. Tribe CycLocHILINI Psaltoda plaga, Walker Psaltoda plaga Walker, List of homopterous in- sects in the British Museum 1: 109. 1850. Will replace: Cicada argentata Germar, Rev. Ent. Silbermann 2: 66. 1834. nec Cicada argentata Olivier, Encyclopédie Métho- dique .. . 5: 759, 1790. Tribe TrBIcENINI Tibicen walkeri, n. n. pro Cicada marginalis Walker, List of homopterous insects In the British Museum 4: 1128. 1852. Cicada marginalis Scopoli, Entomologie Carniiloca 1763: 113. 1763. nec Tribe FrprciNini Fidicina africana, n. n. pro Cidcaa plebeja Linnaeus, Systema naturae. (ed. 12) 1 (2): 707. 1767. METCALF: NEW NAMES IN HOMOPTERA 267 nec Cicada plebeja Scopoli, Entomologie Car- niolica: 117. 1768. Tribe DuNDUBINI Terpnosia obscurana, n. n. pro Terpnosia obscura Liu, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 87: 98. 1940. nec Terpnosia obscura Kato, Bull. Cicadidae Mus. 2: 3, 17. 1988. Tribe PLATYLOMIINI Platylomia kingvosana var. viridescens, n. n. pro Platylomia kingvosana var. virescens Liu, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 87: 92. 1940. Platylomia virescens Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 15: 66. 1905. nec Subfamily CrcapINakE Tribe Crcaptnt Cicada signoreti, n. n. pro Cicada punctipes Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (3) 8: 180. 1860. Cicada punctipes Zetterstedt, Fauna insec- torum Lapponica 1: 525. 1828. nec Family TrsiciINIDAE Subfamily TrBrcrnInaE Tribe TErtTrGoMyINI Xosopsaltria thunbergi, n. n. Tettigonia punctata Thunberg, Dissertatio entomologica de hemipteris rostratis capensi- bus 1: 7. 1822. Tettigonia punctata Fabricius, Supplementum entomologiae systematicae 1798: 516. 1798. pro nec Family MEMBRACIDAE Subfamily CenTROTINAE Tribe LEPTOCENTRINI Leptocentrus formosus, n. n. Leptocentrus formosanus Kato, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa 18: 32. 1928. Leptocentrus formosanus Matsumura, Annot. Zool. Japonenses 8: 15. 1912. pro nec Tribe GARGARINI Umfilianus gerstaeckeri, n. n. Centrotus fenestratus Gerstaecker, Claus’s Decken’s Reisen in Ost-Afrika 8 (2): 429. 1873. Centrotus fenestratus Thunberg, Dissertatio entomologica de hemipteris rostratis capensi- bus 1: 3. 1822. pro nec Tribe CENTROTINI Centrotus cornutus var. kirschbaumi, n. n. pro Centrotus abbreviatus Kirschbaum, Jahrb. Ver. Nat. Nassau 21-22: 67. 1868. Centrotus abbreviatus Fabricius, rhyngotorum 1803: 23. 1803. nec Systema 268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No.8 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR A Consequence of Inequalities Proposed by Baker and Erickson* The purpose of this note is to point out that the mequalities for Reiner-Rivlin fluids proposed by Baker and Ericksen! imply that the rate at which the stresses do work in distorting the fluid is always positive when the distortion matrix is nonzero. The latter condition is often imposed on theories of plasticity and fluid dynamics. It is a trivial matter to verify that, for any quantities ¢; and d; (¢ = 1, 2, 3), 3 3 Se t;A; = (t = to) (dy iG dy) i=1 + (ty ear ts) (d» ai ds) (1) (ts oa t) (ds ors a1), where A; = d; — 4(di + dy + ds). In a Reiner-Rivlin fluid,? the stress matrix T is given in terms of the rate of deformation matrix D by T= fol all fiD ae f,D?, (2) Here fi and fo are scalar invariants of D, while fo is a scalar invariant of D if the fluid be compressible, an arbitrary hydrostatic pressure if it be incompressible. Hence the principal directions of T and D coincide and the principal values ¢; of T are given in terms of the corresponding principal values d; of D by ts = fo + fd: + fod. (3) * Received June 27, 1955. 1 Baker, M., and Ertcksen. J. L. Inequalities restricting the form of the stress-deformation rela- tions for isotropic elastic solids and Reiner-Rivlin fluids. Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 44: 33-35. 1954. ? For a discussion of these fluids, see TruEs- DELL, C. Vhe mechanical foundations of elasticity and fluid dynamics. Journ. Rat. Mech. and Anal. 1: 125-300. 1952. The inequalities considered require that t; > t; whenever d; > d;, or, equivalently (t; — t;)(d; — d;) > 0 whenever d; # d;. (4) The distortion tensor A is the deviator of D,A = D — 4 tr D 1, so its principal values are the quantities A;. The rate at which the stresses do work in distorting the fluid is, by definition, 3 tr TA = >> & Aj. (5) i=1 If (4) holds, it follows immediately from (1) that (5) is positive unless d; = d) = d; = 0, in which case A = 0, which is the desired result. One Gan construct counter-examples to show that (4) does not follow from the re- quirement that (5) be positive. For incom- pressible materials, we always have tr D = 0 so that A = D. We then have, from (2), tr TA =f, ir D? + fy tr D8. Suppose that fi = a, f. = b tr D?, where a and b are positive constants. Then, since tr D’ 2 0, the equality holding only if D = 0, it is clear that (5) is positive. For incom- pressible materials, it is known! that (4) is equivalent to i ip Gs Ont Ws = ap Oi Gh == ah, (0, de k A), In = Ja Ge. 2 (G, is 18 =), It is easily shown that the example con- sidered here does not satisfy these condi- tions if, with a suitable choice of units, dy = 2V/c, dy = Vet te Vc, ds = —V/e+% — Ve, where c = a/b. J. L. ErRicksen Naval Research Laboratory Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences Wr eataenhe enh s noc eaceece ee os Se Mara@aret Pirrman, National Institutes of Health Prressilent-elect: oc. ots oak ois mes eaters Raps E. Grsson, Applied Physics ERP OtALGLY SOREN Re Ge ied GRAS BOC rare Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Healt PROUSUTOT Sc. cc =. ss Howarp 8. Rapp.ieys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) _ TE SSO AAS Oc ae ee JoHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Harrap A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... LAWRENCE A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington....................... Frank M. SErzter Biological Society of Washington.......................--- HERBERT G. DIEGNAN Chemical society of Washington::.. - ss... e<0 se esn ce eee Wiutiam W. WALTON Hntomoloricall society of Washington. .os.2.4--60ss2) 2. 4-0255--2 24-8 F. W. Poos MattenaliGeorraphic SOclety)... 54: 2s sccedeeoes sci een oa aoe ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington....................0.0008 Epwin T. McKnieut Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Cor Motmmbia iistorical Society ........c-00: cease este encase wen GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanieal Society of Washington. ....... 22.60.20 cece nese e aes S. L. EMswELLeR Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GerorcE F. GravatrT Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dinu Helminthological Society of Washington....................05. JoHN 8. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... Luoyp A. BuRKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houeu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry _ District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. EK. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. DieeErs Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. STEPHAN Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences:......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: SLAIN VEL GOO haere one eras ares eeieie «sla ieyee Ae aimee see es M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER PROMIMTUAT VINOD 5 2:5 0 ao etnee ae Sa siee cles cess A. T. McPuerson, A. B. GuRNEY TG: TBTDIRT TIC GSE Ne ree pe eg W. W. Rusey, J. R. SWALLEN TORT OF} Co ee eer ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor LE DIEOAT! OF LAG CUTTS 5c SR ORE OCU EOE IS eee eect ee ter eee [See front cover] LEVI IUCNGOMIMUNCE sonic. soc ke see eliee cen eae M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Grsson, H. Specut, H. S. Raprpieye, J. R. SwaALLen Committee on Membershitp....Roaer W. Curtis (chairman), J an W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Harotp T. Cook, JoserH J. Fanry, FRANCOIS No FRENKIEL, PETER KING, Gorpon M. Kung, Louis R. MaxwE Lt, Fitorence M. Mea‘rs, Curtis W.SaBrRosky, BENJAMIN ScHwaRTz, BaNcrort W. Sirrerty, WILLIE W Situ, Harry WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scort (chairman), Harry S. Bernron, Harry R. BortuHwick, Hersert G. Deianan, Wayne C. Haut, AuBert M. Srone CommitlectonsMonograpns:. «<5: .2 ie isdes bas esi uate G. ArTHUR Cooper (chairman) PROPIANUATY 1 9DG ia wos see t ee sive eck ae G. ArtHuR Cooper, James I. Horrman PROTSANUAT YOST, cn oi ees oe ees eee Harautp A. RenperR, WiLL1am A. Dayton To January 1958.......... Rae ahroteianne kegs Dean B. Cowie, JoserH P. E. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement . .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara EH. Branuam (chairman), JoHN S. ANDREWS, James M. Hunotey, R. A. St. Gzoree, Bernice G. Scuusert, W. R. WEDEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL, R.S. Ditt, T. J. Hickey, T. J. Kin~t1an, Gorpon W. McBripk, E. R. Priore For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonp, Scotr E. Forsusu, Marearer D. Foster, M. E. Freeman, J. K. Taytor For Teaching of Science....MoNror H. Martin (chairman), Kertu C. JoHNSON, Lourss H. MarsHati, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. Owens Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis O. Rick (chairman), HERMAN BRANSON, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrirrenpEN (chairman) ploganuanye L9DGK aceon ce one ener E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE MOR VATIUATY. TOOTS acl sche clas eee wee eee Joun E. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER Mo wWanusnyal95sio nase eee so se cee Francis M. Dreranporr, Frank M. SETzLER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent.. ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman) MO WanuarnyealOSGs o's 86 cee ce seeelersios oven Harotp FE. Finuey, J. H. McMI.ien MOP SANUATY MIS The 8 clay acs pcg dG ot amusrehetin ated L. Epwin Yocum, Wiiuram J. YouDEN ALOPANUAT Vel ODS csv cee ee A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Hducation....RayMoNnp J. SrrGmr (chairman), RonaLD BAMForD, R. Percy Barnes, Wauuace R. Bropz, LEONARD CaRMICHAEL, Huau L. Drypen, Reina Fuannery, RatpoH HE. Gipson, Furoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Wiiu1am W. Rusey, Wiuiram H. SEsBrReLL, Watpo L. Scumirr, B. D. Van Evera, Witiram E. Wratuer, Francis E. JOHNSTON VEDTESERLOLIUCLOTACOUNCHO/PASAGAN Ste EET nen nner ne riieeeent: Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRancts E. Jonnston, (chairman), S. D. Conurns, W. C. Hrss Committee of Tellers...RaALPH P. T1rTsLER (chairman), E. G. Hamer, J. G. THompson CONTENTS Page Meratiturcy.—High-strength cast iron: Appraisal and forecast. JEROME STRAUSS © «....0¢0(ie Foe osteo tele seh = 3). 6 cee 233 HyproGrapuy.—A comparison of the environmental characteristics of some shelf areas of eastern United States. Francis E. Exiiort, Witu1am H. Myers, and Wiuuis L. TRESSLER.................. 248 PALEONTOLOGY.—Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. TAD OB. VO KES. 25.6 0) aise ool On adie Secs ee 260 ENToMOLOGY.—New names in the Homoptera. Z.P. MnrcatF........ 262 LETTERS TO THE Epiror.—A consequence of inequalities proposed by Baker and Bricksen)(J., Li, ERICKSEN)!...2).554.5.. 00000 268 Vou, 45 SEPTEMBER 1955 No. 9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox Fenner A. CHACE RATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I. HorrMan BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY DEAN B. CowlE PuHitie DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GuILForD AVEs. BaLTIMoRE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 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Pehr Kalm, the first trained scientist to visit North America, arrived in Philadelphia in September 1748 for a 21-year visit. A student of Linnaeus, his mission was to search for plants of sufficient economic sig- nificance to merit their introduction into Sweden and Finland and to supply scientific information and specimens to Linnaeus and fellow members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Kalm, with his scien- tifie training, wide interests, and natural curiosity, left for posterity records not only of the natural phenomena that he observed but also a detailed account of the cultural history of the period. His journal, Hn Resa till Norra America (A Journey to North America), published in three volumes in Stockholm, 1753-1761, is invaluable to the student of colonial history, because it in- cludes details which the chronicler of the familiar scene tends to omit. Linnaeus, judging the climate of lke latitudes in North America to be the same as those in Sweden, was insistent that Kalm explore the region of Hudson’s Bay. Surely here plants would be found that would make agriculture possible in Lapland! Linnaeus had no conception of the inacces- sibility of northern Canada. Kalm did travel 12 Swedish miles north of Quebec and was convinced that the vegetation beyond that point held nothing of economic consequence. Anders Celsius, professor of astronomy at Uppsala, had given Kalm an excellent background in astronomy. His meteorolog- ical observations for Pennsylvania, made 1 With the support of a grant from the American Philosophical Society. 269 September 1955 METEOROLOGY .—Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in | Translated and edited by EstHrer Loutsr LarsEen.'! (Communicated by Paul WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES No. 9 North America. (Received June 17, 1955) with the aid of the centigrade thermometer invented by his former professor, were pub- lished in his journal. However, Kalm’s re- action to the climate of the new world is best described in his letter for October 14, 1748, which was published in Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar 10: 70-75. 1749. He says: Various members of the Royal Society asked me to investigate why plants, which come from Amer- ica, bloom so late in Europe that their seeds seldom ripen. This is true in Sweden; it is also the case in London. The cause of all this is a difference in weather conditions. The heat here is usually dreadful during the summer and lasts further into autumn. The months of September and October are neither hot nor cold and tend to be the loveliest of the year. In reference to heat, September re- sembles most closely the month of July in Sweden and October the month of August. There are seldom cloudy days. The winds are rarely strong. The weather is usually calm or the breeze mild. These are generally considered the most pleasent of the year... . This is a remarkable place so far as weather is concerned. When the wind is from the south or the weather is calm, it is like summer until late autumn. If, however, the wind turns to the northwest and blows from the Hudson Strait where there is always ice, it becomes so cold in a few hours that one can scarcely go out, and the cold penetrates to the marrow of the bone.? The results of Kalm’s scientific observa- tions are published in a series of articles that appeared in Kongl. Svenska Veten- skaps Academiens Handlingar from 1749 to 1778. In them he discusses agriculture, animals, insects, and the economic value of 2 Pehr Kalm’s observations on the natural history and climate of Pennsylvania. Excerpts from his letter of October 14, 1748. Agricultural History 17: 174. 1943. Qi? 158 270 trees, shrubs, and herbs, together with their characteristics and medicinal uses. Two of the papers in this series are of interest to meteorology. Nagra Nordsken observerade 2 Norra America was published in Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Hand- lingar 13: 145-155. 1752. It is part I of this article and is here translated under the title Some observations on northern lights in North America. In this paper Kalm speculates on the origin of this phenomenon and its me- teorological significance. Thermometric Ron vid Hafs och Sjoars Vatten was published in the Handlingar 32: 52-59. 1771. It is part II of this article and is here translated under the title Thermometric observations on sea and lake water. I SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NORTHERN IN NORTH AMERICA LIGHTS The northern lights, or the so-called aurora borealis, have received considerable attention from naturalists durmg recent years. Among them various ideas are current on the subject. Some think the phenomenon has its origin in the exhalation of our lower air; others feel it origi- nates above our atmosphere; while still another group consider it electricity. In the natural sciences, the interpretation of these phenomena is dependent on observation and investigation. Without them a_ physicist eropes in the dark. European naturalists have diligently observed and recorded the northern lights, but few Amert- cans are interested. Observations on the northern lights in America are given in a few places in the English Philosophical Transactions. However, it should be noted that the explorers, who have been sent out recently by the English Govern- ment to find a new passage to the East Indies by way of Hudson’s Bay, have recorded the northern lights they observed in their published journals. During my stay in North America I not only kept weather reports but also recorded the northern lights which I observed and supplied myself with the reports of others. These reports were obtained from the following sources: 1. The Pennsylvania Gazette, which is published weekly in Philadelphia. 2. Mr. Breintnal’s observations which were communicated to me by the learned Mr. Franklin. Mr. Breintnal, an assiduous ob- server, kept meteorological records at Philadel- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 9 phia covering the period of 1731 through Novem- ber 11, 1745. On that date, the mental anguish which he endured because of unchristian treat- ment got the upper hand and he departed this life too hastily and too pitiably. His records contain much useful information not included in other meteorological observations. 3. Dr. Colden, New York’s elder statesman, who is also an out- standing mathematician and physician, supplied some information. 4. Mr. Gauthier’, a physician well versed in botany, made extensive and accu- rate observations in meteorology.* He gave me his journal which covers a period of two years. I plan to turn the original over to Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academien. Most of these observations on the northern lights are entirely unknown in Europe, and some of them are in manuscripts which might easily be lost. Therefore, it seems to me that I would be doing the natural sciences a service if I presented part of the information. Some light might be thrown on the cause of this phenomenon when the observations made in America are compared with those which have been made in Europe. We have quite an impressive collection of observa- tions on the northern lights in America if we include those published in the Philosoph. Trans. as well as those which are recorded by the clerk of the ship California, Capt. Middleton, Mr. Hillis, and other voyagers to the region of Hud- son’s Bay. The following information is taken from the journals mentioned above or from my own records. 1730. In Philadelphia on October 22, the aurora borealis appeared toward the NE. According to information received by letter from Boston, it had also been seen there and was the largest ever observed in that locality. The same information was also given in a letter from New Hampshire. The northern lights were so bright that it was possible to read the finest print by them. At Bos- ton they lasted from shortly after six o’clock in the evening until day break the following morn- ing. The Penns. Gaz. 3 At the time of Kalm’s visit to Canada he had the good fortune to meet Jean Frangois Gauthier (1711-1756), the royal physician at Quebec. The name Gauthier was spelled in various ways, ap- pearing as Gautier and Gaulthier. Linnaeus honored the royal physician by naming the genus Gaultheria for him. * Footnote by Kalm: “Part of Mr. Gauthier’s meterological observations were published in the Transactions of the French Academy last year by H. Du Hamel.”’ SEPTEMBER 1955 1731. September 21. Northern lights during the night in Philadelphia. Breintnal. 1736. December 29. Strong northern lights ap- peared in Philadelphia during the evening. They were brighter and redder than those which had been observed years before. At first, a number of inhabitants in the southern part of the city thought that there was a fire in the northern part and they hastened to help put it out. Penns. Gaz. Mb. Breintnal mentioned this in a letter to Col- linson. It was published in the Phil. Trans. n. 456. p. 359. In the same letter, Breintnal says that the remarkable aurora borealis which appeared over most of Europe in December of 1737, was not observed by anyone in America. 1737. August 11. In Rhode Island, New York, Philadelphia, and elsewhere, large northern lights appeared which lasted from shortly after dark in the evening until the following morning. They extended from the NW to NE. Both ends were quite red, but the west end was redder than the east. At three in the morning they covered half of the northern horizon forming a large white arc. The upper part of the arc gave rise to innumerable rays which reached 60° in height. These rays varied from pure white to a mixture of red and white. Their appearance changed constantly like fire which blazes brightly and then glows faintly. Dr. Colden, The Penns. Gaz. Breintnal. 1739. March 29. In Philadelphia, the aurora borealis appeared shortly after ten in the evening. It was centered below the north star. Breintnal. May 22. In Philadelphia at nine in the evening a bright light: appeared in the north. Later, at some distance above the horizon and in the same general direction, clouds arose which were quite red. When they vanished an aurora borealis appeared on the horizon which lasted half an hour. Breintnal. The Penns. Gaz. September 12. The aurora borealis was seen shortly after seven o’clock in the evening at Philadelphia. It was red in color with some white rays and in height it reached a little beyond the north star. Breintnal. 1741. March 26. Between seven and eight o’clock in the evening the northern lights were observed in Philadelphia. Breintnal. 1746. February 22. Brilliant northern lights were seen in Philadelphia. The Penns. Gaz. March 1. Conspicuous northern lights appeared to the NW and NE at Quebec, Canada. Mr. Gauthier. LARSEN: KALM’S METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS PAA June 1. Extraordinary northern lights were observed in a clear sky. The northern horizon was spanned by a large pink are which pointed toward the south but extended its rays east and west. Perpendicular ight rays were given off. The dis- play lasted until midnight when it disappeared. According to Mr. Gauthier the aurora borealis is often seen in the spring in Canada. It usually covers the NW, NE, and N part of the sky. 1748. December 9. I saw red streaks in the sky in the north at six in the evening at Racoon. This village lies four Swedish miles SEE of Phila- delphia. 1749. February 4. At eight o’clock in the evening, northern lights appeared on the horizon in the north. They disappeared within a half an hour. July 10. I saw northern lights in the sky at 10:30 in the evening at Fort Jean, Canada. Several short white rays stood next to each other, like the pipes of an organ. There were also northern lights in the area which lies between the north star and Cassiopeia. A long ray which had its origin on the NW horizon touched Charles’s Wain in the south. Later, a few rays arose paral- leling those on the north horizon. Practically without motion they disappeared. 1750. February 16. At a quarter of eight in the evening, I saw two meteors in the sky at Philadel- phia. One, a northern light, which paralleled the horizon at a height of 20°, extended from NW to NE. I saw no color or motion. It was as light and clear as daybreak in fair weather. The other was a blood red pyramid which extended upward in the WNW part of the horizon to a point just above Cassiopeia. It now stood in an approxi- mately horizontal Ime with the north star and Charles’s Wain. Cassiopeia formed the apex of the pyramid. It was broader and redder below but contracted above into a sharp apex which disappeared directly above Cassiopeia. Rays and waves arose from the white light. The sky was clear and cloudless. There was an inch of snow on the ground and the air was extremely cold. Al- though I watched the compass carefully during the entire period that the northern lights lasted, I could not detect the slightest movement or vibration. It is quite possible that the needle of the compass was not sensitive enough for such observations. A fallmg star fell from SW to NE. The northern lights lasted until 10 o’clock, when they vanished. I later learned from New York newspapers that i) the same observations had been made there at exactly the same time. This phenomenon is at- tributed to electricity by some who aspire to the title of philosopher. They claim to have predicted the occurrence of northern lights days in advance by studying the shape and action of clouds. How- ever, I fear they have not yet perfected their art since their predictions for a later date were a month off. April 3. In Philadelpbia at 9:50 in the evening a light appeared on the horizon in the north. Within 54 minutes the sky became red to the height of 80° to the N and NNW. By 10 o’clock the sky was red entirely to the zenith from NE to NW. At 10:05 the sky became red toward the east, and the redness lessened somewhat in the NW. At 10:15, the red grew faint and the light became stronger in the north producing a pale red glow which eventually disappeared. April 19. Late in the evening quite large northern lights appeared. The sky was so light in the north that I could read in a book. Except for a few thin clouds in the north, the sky was clear and the stars bright. The light extended from NW to ENE. The arc, most of which was over 42° in height, was quite faint near the horizon. Red was seen in the sky in the N, W, and even in the E, but it was very faint. At half past 11, a large spot appeared at the height of about 22° in the sky to the WNW. A little later another appeared at the height of 30° in the NE. Both of these spots remained for some time, and they were much brighter than the other lights. Waves of light were seen passing through the air from the spot in the NE to the one in the WNW. These waves were very weak. The spots disappeared at 11:33. However, during their existence the northern part of the sky was conspicuously lighted to a height of 30°. At 11:34 the spot in the WNW reappeared at its original position of 22° height. The spot disappeared at 11:36. The red color in the WNW grew stronger at 11:42. The sky, then as before, was very light in the north, but the brighter- colored lights had moved WNW. At 11:43 the large spot in the WNW, previously mentioned, moved NW and became quite red. Another large spot, much paler than the one just mentioned, appeared in the sky in the W. The red in the east was still evident. The center of the largest spot in the NW was at 18° height. The red spot, which now stood at 39° in the east, seemed to go directly across the sky toward the one standing opposite in the west, although they could not meet in the 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 9 zenith. At 11:57 the red spot in the east began to disappear, and the one in the west was so faint it could scarcely be seen, but the red glow remain- ing was very faint. At 12:15 there was a pale red glow in the sky in NNE which extended almost to the north star. At 12:20 it was still light near the horizon, but the red color had disappeared. Shortly thereafter all signs of the northern lights had vanished. On this night the moon rose at 2:06 in the morning. Oldsters could remember no other winter when there had been so many displays of northern lights. The months of April and May in 1750 were reported to be the windiest in years. However, I do not believe that there is any relation between northern lights and bad weather. Another atmospheric phenomenon, which re- sembles the northern lights, is sometimes seen in the region formerly known as New Sweden. At night when the sky is overcast, a red ight appears near the horizon. At that point the glow gives the effect of a burning building. The Swedes in this locality call it Sné-eld, or “snow fire.” In the winter they consider it a sure sign of snow, and in the summer it is a sign of rain. The clouds are always in the same position when this phenome- non occurs; consequently this fire light disappears when the clouds leave. It usually appears in a SSW direction; rarely in the north, where it could readily be confused with the northern lights. At various times I have observed ‘‘snow fires”. They were S, SW, or WSW except for one which was in the north and might well have been caused by the northern lights. I have found that the ‘snow fire” is an accurate harbinger of rain or snow. If snow does not fall where the light is first observed, it is certain to have fallen somewhere in the im- mediate vicinity. At Racoon on February 25, 1749, at 7 o’clock in the evening, I saw a peculiar “snow fire” just above the horizon directly to the south. It lasted until 9 o’clock, which is the longest I have ever known one to last. The entire sky was clear except for the clouds which sur- rounded the snow fire. When they vanished, the “snow fire’ disappeared. At 8 o’clock, I observed a bright light in the horizon at the SW. I meas- ured between the centers of these two meteors with an astrolabe are and found them to be 5219°. The sky was entirely clear in the position of the bright light, which was quite strong and white. It remained after the ‘‘snow fire’ disap- peared. I have never detected the slightest move- ment of the needle of the compass by the “snow SEPTEMBER 1955 fire” or the lights in the 8, SW, or WSW. These lights usually follow the “‘snow fire”. I have seen them when the sky was clear as well as when it was overcast. June 6. A comparison of these observations, with those in the meteorological journal kept here in Sweden, shows that the northern lights here were strong on the same nights as they were seen in North America but not vice versa. The observations that Kalm made in America on February 6 and April 3, 1750, may be compared with those made in Sweden on the same dates by referring to the Handlingar 11: 56-58. 1750. On April 19 of the same year, we had magnificent north- ern lights comparable to those mentioned above. They covered the entire sky, being conspicuous toward the south. The mag- netic needle was deflected 2°. II THERMOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON SEA AND LAKE WATER During my American travels I occasionally sought to ascertain the difference between the temperature of the air and water. Since some are desirous of such information from various loca- tions, I hereby take the opportunity to present to Kongl. Vetenskaps Academien a part of the observations I had the opportunity to make. I am fully aware of the inadequacy of these reports, especially in regard to the lack of past records. However, since complete records are lacking, we must content ourselves with those of recent years. They may throw some light on the situation but definite conclusions cannot be drawn until more is known. My observations were made as follows: An ordinary Swedish thermometer was used, the degrees given refer to the degree above the freez- ing point, dates used are new style. The ther- mometer, when used in the open air, was always hung in the shade. When an experiment was con- ducted in a lake, river, or spring, the water was not dipped up in a pail or any other vessel, but the thermometer was dropped directly into the lake, river, or spring and allowed to remain for a suffi- cient period of time. In determining the tempera- ture of sea water while sailing, it was necessary to take the water up in a bucket. The thermome- ter was then submerged more than halfway down into the water in the bucket at the moment the LARSEN: KALM’S METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Pe water was drawn up. I was not satisfied with one bucket but used a number, at least four for each test. The thermometer nearly always gave the same reading for each bucket. The sea water was from the surface and not from the depths from which I had no way of obtaining samples. Deep wells also necessitated the use of buckets. The thermometer was placed in the bucket as soon as it was drawn and several buckets were tested. 1. Observations on sea water in the ocean. 1748. August 11, in the channel directly opposite Plymouth. 12:30 p.m. The thermometer in the open air 181!4° in sea water 1814° 4 p.m. The thermometer in open air 201¢° in sea water 18° August 20, in the ocean between Hurope and America. 2 p-m. at 44°30’ lat., 27° long. west of London. The thermometer In open air in sea water No — = W ° 201° Later, when I took the thermometer up out of the water and held it in the air, it dropped to 19° - but went up again. This shows that the air is cooler after it has touched the water since the temperature always drops a little when the thermometer is first drawn from the water. August 22, 1:30 p.m. Temperature of the air 2314° Temperature of the water 2314° The thermometer registered 2114° immedi- ately after being withdrawn from the water. A sharp drop in temperature occurred if a wind was blowing when the thermometer was removed from the water. August 28, 2 p.m. at 40° 50’ lat., 44° long. west of London. Temperature of the air 231° Temperature of the water 2419° Might not the wind which came from the north have made the air cooler than the water? August 30, 2 p.m. Temperature of the air 2416 ° Temperature of the water 241° Sept. 4, noon. 40° 29’ lat., 49° 30’ long. west of London. Temperature of the air 2716° Temperature of the water 231° Sept. 4,8 p.m. Temperature of the air 24° Temperature of the water 22!° Sept. 6, was the warmest day we had during the entire voyage. 1 p.m. Temperature of the air —_28!3° Temperature of the water 27° Sept. 10, 38° 24’ lat. at 3:30 p.m. Temperature of the air 2334° Temperature of the water 23!9° 1751, on the return voyage from America. February 21, 36° 56’ lat. 2 p.m. Temperature of the air 14° Temperature of the water 18° February 26, 34° 10’ lat. 10 a.m. Temperature of the air 1314° Temperature of the water 17° March 3, 37° lat. 10:30 a.m. Temperature of the air 1216° Temperature of the water 1623° March 20, 48° 58’ lat. 4 p.m. Temperature of the air 101° Temperature of the water 10° 2. Observations of various kinds of fresh water, 1749, June 12, between New York and Albany at 3 p.m. Temperature of the air oy” Temperature of the water in the Hudson river 24° 1750, May 19, 5 p.m. The temperature of the water in a deep well was determined. Temperature of the air 30° Temperature of the well water 111%6° On July 4 of the same year the temperature of the water in the same well was taken at 5 p.m. Temperature of the air 3014° Temperature of the well water 11144° Thus the high temperature of the air for the entire period of May and June, when tempera- tures were never less than 22° and often as high as 33° or 384°, had not affected the low tempera- ture of well water. The same temperature pre- vailed in the water of three other deep wells investigated on this date. A Dutchman who lives in the so-called Blue Mountains! between New York and Albany, had an extremely deep well. The water of this well was reputed to be the coldest in the summer of any well in the community. It was tested July 21, 1750, at 6:30 a.m. The temperature of the air was 181° but that of the well water was 9°. For the entire previous month, the heat in this region was such that the afternoon temperature at its height varied from 28° to 32°. 4 Apparently Kalm used the term ‘‘Blue Moun- tains’’ for all the mountains in the eastern part of the present United States. ‘‘These mountains which the English call the Blue Mountains, are of considerable height and extend in one continuous chain from north to south or from Canada to Carolina.”—A. B. Benson, ed., The America of 1750; Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America1: 65. New York, 1937. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 9 August 3, 7 p.m. The temperature of the water in a brook several miles west of Albany was de- termined. The sun shown on the water all day. The temperature of the air was 15°, that of the brook 141¢°. August 14, 1 p.m. At Fort Oswego, the tem- perature of the air was 241°. Near the shore of Lake Ontario, the water at a depth of 1 aln® was 2516°. Lake Ontario is one of the five large inland lakes lying between 42° and 44° lat. Its length from east to west is about 80 French miles and its width about half that of the length. It receives all the water from the other four large lakes, Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie, which later flows into St. Lawrence River to the sea. There are only a few small islands in Lake On- tario, and these occur near the shore. The water is clear, fresh and 60 famnar® deep in some places. It may prove to be both laxative and diuretic to a stranger in the region. Except for the ice along the shore, the water never freezes. A peculiarity in the lake, which I ascertained by several experi- ments, is an ebb and flow or a daily rise and fall, which is not associated with the moon or the hour of the day. Occasionally, if infrequently, when the water is completely calm, it suddenly becomes agitated forming large waves like those produced by a heavy storm. The air is so completely still that scarcely a leaf or feather moves. Then 2-4 hours later, the waves disappear and the water becomes almost motionless. I myself had a much too realistic proof of this in 1750, when I was returning by way of the lake from Niagara to Oswego on August 29. During a dead calm, the waves began to run heavily, although there was not the slightest sign of a wind. Had we not reached land, we could have suffered quite a misadventure. August 18, 3 p.m. Between the Oswego and Niagara forts, the temperature of the water of Lake Ontario was taken about a mile from shore at a depth of several famnar. The temperature of the air was 25° but that of the water 22°. August 19. Temperature readings of the water of the same lake were taken several miles nearer to Niagara. They were taken half a mile from the shore at the depth of a famn. The temperature of the air was 24°. I held the thermometer under water for one half hour and it registered 222°. 5 An aln is 24 to 36 inches. 6 A famn equals the compass of the arms, or about 6 feet. SEPTEMBER 1955 WEBER: August 20. The temperature of the water was tested at another location in the same lake. The ‘test was made at 5 a.m. near the shore in water half an aln deep. The thermometer registered 14° } in the air but 18° in the lake. At 5:30 a.m. the temperature of the air was 14° and that of the lake water 18° at a rifle-shot distance from shore and a depth of a famn. On a hillside between Burnets field and Albany there was a spring whose water seemed unusually - cold for drinking. It was tested on September 8 at 11:30 a.m. in the year just mentioned. Part of the spring was exposed to the sun, and part of it lay in the shade. The temperature of the open air was 22°, but that of the spring was 6° as shown by several tests. To find water registering only 6° was most remarkable because the temperature of the air had for a long time prior to these tests ranged from 22° to 31° This was the coldest spring water I found in America. 1751, January 17. I again tested the tempera- ture of the water of the same deep well in Phila- delphia which I had tested on May 19 and July 4 of the previous year. At 7:30 a.m. on January 17, the temperature of the air was 7° below the FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS 275 freezing point, but the temperature of the water pumped from the well registered 11° to 1115° above the freezing point. The thermometer re- mained in the bucket during the entire time that the water was being pumped. The pumping con- tinued until the water flooded the board covering of the well. The temperature for the entire pe- riod varied from 11° to 111¢° above the freezing point. It is obvious from the foregoing that the well water in Philadelphia has nearly the same temperature for both summer and winter. How- ever, it should be noted that the wells were very deep, and those that I tested had pumps. The wells were covered, preventing both daylight or sunlight from reaching into them. January 28. At 7 a.m. in Philadelphia the temperature of the air was 4° above the freezing point. The temperature of the water in the Dela- ware River, which was full of floating ice. was tested several times, and it remained at 15° above the freezing point. At 2 p.m. the temperature of the air was 9° above the freezing point. However, the temperature of the water in the river, which still contained floating ice, remained the same as in the morning, 13° above freezing. BIOLOGY —Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr. Neau A. Weper, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. (Communi- eated by F. L. Campbell.) (Received May 10, 1955) The most widespread fungus-growing ant, Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr, is also one of the smallest and least con- spicuous. It is the only fungus-grower gen- erally distributed on the West Indian islands, and the species occurs with sub- specific differences from the Gulf States of the United States south to Bolivia and Brazil. Wheeler (1907) described the habits of the species (as the variety comalensis) in Texas and its fungus as Tyridiomyces formicarum, a yeast belonging to the Exo- aceae. The general biology in_ several countries has been described in a series of studies (Weber, 1941-1947). The morel-like growth on sterile nutrient agar from a pure culture of the ant’s fungus was obtained in 1935 and again in 1954 (Weber, 1955). No other species is known to grow a fungus re- sembling this. In the present study hitherto unknown relations with another ant and with mites are described and information given on the culture of the fungus. The field studies in south-central Florida were made possible through the assistance of Richard Archbold and the Archbold Biological Station; ad- ditional material was secured by Leonard Brass here. HABITAT The ant is versatile in the American Tropics and may be found in a great variety of sites where the humidity is high and temperatures uniform. The most common sites are in clay soil on the forest floor, in humus, or in vegetal debris comprising the floor litter. An empty snail shell, a curled dead leaf, a rotted twig may suffice for a colony of these small ants and they may 276 find requisite conditions among the roots of epiphytes or in dead wood high in the tropical rain forest canopy. Reflecting their versatility in Panama City, Panama, during the rainy season in July 1954 was a nest on the concrete cylinder above ground which protected a gas meter. The cylinder was 17 em high by 386 cm in diameter and was covered loosely by a concrete cover. In the narrow space on the rim under the cover, a colony had walled off an elliptical area 36 by 17 mm and 1-2 mm high in which the entire nest with fungus-garden was formed. During dryer periods the ants would move down into the soil. The ants show less versatility in southern Florida where the humidity and temper- atures are more variable. At Key West the ants nested in porous limestone soil whose surface layer would quickly dry out. Winged males and females August 18 were clinging under a dry, flat rock while the brood and garden were kept in much deeper chambers. At Parker Islands (Highland County) the ants nested at the base of a large cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto (Walt.)) in a swampy area. In Highland Hammock State Park the ants nested at the base of a pine tree (Pinus elliotti Engelm.) in the midst of a large colony of Wasmannia auropunctata Roger. Both species nested between the paper-thin layers of bark at and just below soil level. During the rainy season at the Archbold Biological Station in August 1954 the ants were found nesting under wood in soil chambers, in soil about fern roots at the edge of a pool and in a rotted stump of wax myrtle (Cerothamnus ceriferus (l.)), all in shaded sites as in the Tropics. The rains were too intermittent to permit more wide- spread nesting. THE NEST The Florida nests were representative of those in the Tropics. The ants form irregular chambers when they do not occupy a cavity already made and these are a few millimeters in dimensions. The fungus-garden consists of the small, compact masses or bromatia stuck to the substrate. Insect excrement is commonly used and frequently the bromatia rest on pieces of insect integument that the ants bring in to the nest. The brood is kept JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 9 separate from the garden in contrast to all other species, which keep the brood in the cells of the garden. One of the Archbold Station nests was at the edge of an artificially-maintained pool among fern roots and humus in the shade. Since the roots and humus extended to water line, the site was always moist. The ants had irregular chambers in the top 2-5 em of material and were in the midst of a large nest of Wasmannia auropunctata Roger. Thirty meters distant from this nest was one in the above-noted wax myrtle stump, that itself was in the midst of a thicket of palmetto and other plants. In August the ants nested slightly above and below the general ground level. This colony, too, was in the midst of a far larger Was- mannia nest. ADAPTATIONS TO THE FLORIDA WINTER Of the two fungus-growers at the Arch- bold Station, this species and T’rachymyrmex septentrionalis seminole Wheeler, the latter is far more tolerant of winter coolness and dryness. During a few days visit in December 1954 the coldest weather of the winter oc- curred and permitted observations on winter tolerance. At the pool margin where an active nest had existed in August, the pool water was 14° C. at 7 am. on December 21; lawn grass in the open was covered with frost at 0° C. The humus surface at the pool was 5.6° C. and at 100 cm in the air it was 5.2° C. These were the lowest temperatures in the December 20-26 period and daily search of the area, including superficial layers of roots and humus at the exact summer nest site, showed the Cyphomyrmex to be absent until the 26th. By this time the weather had gradually warmed so that by 2:10 p.m. the humus surface temperature in the shade was 22.5° C. (in the sun 24.7° C.) and the shade air temperature at 100 em was 23.7° C. At a depth of 2.5 cm in the humus at 2:53 p.m. the temperature was 18.5° C. and at 5 em 18.0° C. Several workers were carrying others and this would be a habit permitting a few, which had become warmed, to carry out others, thereby mak- ing possible a more general activity of the colony at the temperature threshold. The SEPTEMBER 1955 ants went down irregular openings among the roots close to a large orange spot con- sisting of solidly packed Wasmannia workers under a dry leaf, which were also becoming warmed at the surface. One Cyphomyrmex worker carried a larva that was covered with the characteristic fungus of the species. It seemed that a few of the ants were mov- ing from one site near the pool water to a more distant site. The waxmyrtle stump appeared to contain only the large Wasmannia colony on December 20-26. The ants were sluggish during the cooler weather and still more adaptable than the Cyphomyrmex in toler- ating dryer conditions of the rotted wood. None of the fungus-growers was found in deeper and adequately moist portions. It would appear that about 18° C. is the critical lower limit of Cyphomyrmex activity and that even at 22° C. there is little moving about. Close to the Gulf coast at Fort Myers on December 23 several workers were found at the same shaded place as in August and the soil surface temperatures here were more generally in the 20°’s C. BEHAVIOR OF THE ANTS Though the workers are usually slow- moving and become immobile at the slightest disturbance, they frequently moved faster in Florida during the summer than at the usual tropical site because of the higher temperatures. The air temperature was often 30° C., to a high of about 37° C., and the soil surface also markedly warmer (30° C. and more) than they generally en- countered in the tropics. Instead of moving slowly, they would, when pursued, some- times run as rapidly as the average ant and sought to escape rather than “feign death.” In “feigning death,” the ants quickly curl up their legs, fold their antennae close to the head and bend their heads and gasters to- gether so that they appear almost invisible bits of dirt when casually examined. The ants spend much time in grooming the forelimbs and antennae and other parts of the body. Regardless of how dusty an ant may become momentarily, it keeps its antennal funiculus immaculate by drawing it through its mouthparts, with mandibles WEBER: FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS 277 widespread, and licking and cleaning it. The comb at the base of the foretibiae is used to clean all parts of the body within reach, particularly the antennae and other legs. They also clean one another. In grooming each other the ant may carefully go over a large portion of the body. In one instance a_ slightly callow worker was watched as it groomed another of the same age. The one being groomed turned over on its side, like a dog or monkey would, and permitted the other to lick the entire gular surface thoroughly, the entire dorsal sur- faces of the thorax and gaster, the apex of the gaster and other parts for over three minutes. The groomer kept its mandibles closed, extruding the other mouthparts, and continually played its antennal tips against the parts being cleaned. The grooming of each other and the cleaning of the brood is a significant and vital part of their activities. It removes alien bacteria and fungi and may also have a nutritive function so far as the brood is concerned. Though the normal food of the ants consists of their bromatia, they will feed on their own damaged brood. A larva that was accidentally damaged in collecting the colony was seen to be pinched hard by the mandibles of two workers and its Juices were lapped up. The mandibles could be seen meeting through the integument. Four ants were later on it, feeding intently. The integument is sufficiently tough and turgid in the healthy large larvae and pupae so that the ants would have considerable difficulty in piercing it. On another occasion the carcass of a shrivelled white pupa was seen carried that had been treated in the same manner. The behavior of the ants with their bromatia is described under the fungus gardens. CARE OF BROOD The brood is kept separate from the garden and is segregated according to size; large larvae may be mingled with pupae. The brood is usually enveloped in a my- celium that differs from that in other attines in being almost granular in superficial appearance, consisting of dense masses or tufts that are always connected by ordinary hyphal strands. Under a 32 binocular the tufts show as a more concentrated form of bromatia than in other attine species. This type of mycelium with hyphae differs markedly from the cheese-like bromatia found in the garden of these ants. About 200 tufts were estimated to be on one pupa. Eggs and the smallest larvae as well as larger brood may be covered with the mycelium. The position and frequency of the tufts indicate that they sometimes may be planted by the workers. Fia. 1.—Nest of Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr in a Petri dish. The brood and fungus-garden are segregated, larvae at the left, pupae at the upper center, and bromatia of the garden at the right. The brood is covered with a mycelium of different form from the bromatia but developed from them. Larvae are fed as in other attines by placing the fungus on the mouthparts. In this species the fungus fed to the larvae seems to consist only of the cheeselike bromatia. As the larva feeds, the mouth- parts go in and out like pistons while the bromatium is rasped and the juices imbibed. CYPHOMYRMEX FUNGUS-GARDENS The fungus-gardens consist of polygonal masses one-quarter to one-half millimeter in diameter that are termed bromatia al- though the bromatia of all other species are very different. Instead of aggregates of clavate hyphae (gongylidia) clustered to- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 9 gether in varying degrees of compactness, the bromatia of Cyphomyrmex rimosus are solid masses of cells. They usually grow on insect feces, but carcasses of insects are commonly found in the nest with bromatia stuck to them. In feeding, an ant will pick up a bromatium, hold it between its fore feet and mandibles, rotate it with the fore tarsi while the mouthparts abrade the sur- face or score it, and imbibe the juices. If the mandibles are kept closed, the other mouthparts do the abrading; if they are kept open, they are used to score the surface of the bromatium. The antennal tips play over the bromatial surface continually. One ant may take a bromatium from another and commence eating without evoking hostility. During this treatment the broma- tium becomes much reduced in size and glistening from its Juices and the saliva of the ant. It is then placed back on the sub- strate, sometimes after defecating a drop of feces on it. At times a score or more of the bromatia may be piled together in the nest away from substrate. Small bromatia may be somewhat of an opaque, dead white; larger ones are commonly pale amber or grayish with a touch of brown. In a pile the bromatia may develop a short, scanty growth of hyphae and this is particularly true of the small, pale type. This hyphal development is ap- parently intermediate between the bare bromatia and the tufted mycelial covering of the brood. ARTIFICIAL FUNGUS CULTURES Bromatia were transferred to tubes of sterile Sabouraud’s dextrose agar and com- monly contaminations developed which overwhelmed the ant fungus. An August 5, 1954, series of transfers, for example, de- veloped by August 9 (at 24° C.) concentric layers of dark and light hyphae about a white center which produced an “eyed” effect; another contaminant produced a luxuriant cottony mycelium; a third de- veloped a bacterial or yeasty slime about the bromatia. From a single bromatium trans- ferred August 11, however, an entirely different growth developed. It was kept until August 22 at 24° C. and thereafter under variable temperatures. On August 12 SEPTEMBER 1955 WEBER: it appeared to have grown, and on August 14 it had a few thin hyphae growing out on the -agar surface from a definitely larger mass. By August 17 it had not only increased in size but had developed a raised base that was covered with hyphae. By August 22 the much larger mass was transferred to a flask. In the meanwhile, an August 11 transfer of a cluster of about a score of bromatia, kept under the same conditions, by August 20 had increased in number through budding and the individuals had also grown larger. By August 21 this mass had increased in height from an original 1-2 mm to 5 mm on a broad base 1 mm. thick. Both cultures and their transfers de- veloped during September a morel-type of fungus covered with a thin growth of short hyphae that closely resembled that which I grew in 1935 in Trinidad (Weber, 1945) from the same species of ant. This was verified as the true ant fungus as follows: On September 13 the flat basal layer of one of the cultures was cut into two pieces and introduced into separate containers, each containing ants from a colony different from that which served as the original source for the artificial cultures. The layer was tough in consistency. These ants had been deprived of their fungus since ap- proximately August 26 but had access to corn sugar syrup in the interval. At first the ants only occasionally investigated the cultured fungus and seemed to feed briefly, but it was not clear whether they were feeding on a film of agar or on the fungus. Five hours later it was clear that the fungus was the attraction and seven, then eight, ants were in attendance in one container, all busily engaged in cutting or attempting to eut the tough piece. This fungus had the same color and consistency as their normal bromatia. Two ants were similarly engaged with the second portion. Within two more hours the ants had cut small pieces about the size of their normal bromatia, or smaller, and had piled them in a moist situation. On following days the ants cared for these pieces as though they were their own bromatia and by September 22 consumed all in one of the containers. The experiment was then repeated with this group of ants FU NGUS-GROWING ANTS 279 and a third fungal mass, with similar results. The morel growth proved to be 0.43-0.49 mm thick, whether folded or lying flat. Within three hours the ants had cut much of the fungus into bromatia-size particles. Five days later the remainder and uncut fungal mass was sprouting hyphae wildly and was clearly abandoned, while the arti- ficial bromatia were being cared for and carried about normally. Fic. 2.—Morel-like growth from bromatia of Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr developing in a flask of Sabouraud’s agar. Phot. Lloyd Mer- ritts. During October various portions of colonies were similarly given the artificially cultured fungus with the same result. They were also given feces of wood-boring beetles which they accepted and used as substrate for the bromatia. The ants were often seen clearly to ingest the fungus as in nature. The ants were able to keep these bromatia or their successors alive for more than six months. RELATIONS WITH WASMANNIA AUROPUNCTATA ROGER The ranges of Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr and the much smaller Wasmannia auropunctata Roger are com- parable in the American Tropics, and both are common ants on many of the West Indian islands. The only previous record of the two being more than casually related appears to be from Venezuela (Weber, 1947, p. 145) where I found that ‘‘associated with the Cyphomyrmex (C. rimosus curio- pensis Weber) was a nest of the tiny myr- 280 micine ant, Wasmannia auropunctata Roger, whose chambers must have anastomosed with those of the other ant.” Of seven nests of Cyphomyrmex examined in southern Florida, three were intimately associated with more populous Wasmannia nests and two had the latter nesting in the immediate vicinity. One of the remaining two had recently been formed under a temporarily wet piece of wood and the other nested at the base of a palm in a swampy situation where Wasmannia was not taken. Wasmannia occurred at two of the sites in December as they did in August and showed a greater tolerance to dry conditions, and perhaps cold, than did the fungus-grower. When portions of any of these nests were gathered with adjacent Wasmannia cham- bers and placed in observation nests, there was no mass slaughter of either. Rather there was a milling about, with few of the two species meeting in combat, and a rapid reassortment of brood and ants with the two taking up separate places. Nevertheless, with the passage of time, dead ants of both species were commonly found with enough observations to suggest strongly that combats between the two were responsible. Occasionally a Cyphomyrmex would be seen with a dead Wasmannia attached to an appendage. One, for example, had the smaller ant attached to the left posterior leg and walked easily, considering the impediment. Some of the larger ants were found with all appendages intact and lying on their backs or sides. The observation below shows the effectiveness of the sting of the smaller species. A Wasmannia worker that was not one- third the bulk of the Cyphomyrmex found a partly shriveled larva attached to the surrounding soil by a strand of tissue. It fed by licking abrasively and did not attempt to carry the larva away. Immediately one, then two other Cyphomyrmex came up to it, stalking like miniature rhinoceroses and walking directly up to the smaller ant. It ignored them, though hostility was in- dicated by their stance, and kept on feeding. A fourth Cyphomyrmex approached the tableau but went off. One of the larger ants finally pushed its head against the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 9 Wasmannia, which kept on feeding. I then saw that this ant had the common Cypho- myrmex type of mite attached to its gular surface and this, too, was extending its palps to the food. The Cyphomyrmex with head next to the smaller ant suddenly attempted to sieze the food, whereupon the Wasmannia quickly curled its gaster forward and stung the other ant in the mouth. It recoiled on its back as though momentarily paralyzed, then regained its feet and went off. Close to this scene was another of the larger ants on its back, feebly waving its appendages as though paralyzed and unable to regain its feet. Other Cyphomyrmezx in this and other nests were in similar attitudes and it is probable that these also had been stung by Wasmannia. Ten minutes later the Wasmannia was still feeding. MITES WITH THE CYPHOMYRMEX The common occurrence of mites with this fungus-grower in Florida is a complica- tion that seems never to have been realized. It has not been observed to a comparable extent in any of the numerous species that I have kept under observation in Tropical America nor is it so recorded in the liter- ature. Hidmann (1937, pp. 403-404) lists mites from Alta sexdens nests in Brazil but mostly as coprophiles or neutral synokoetes and never as ectoparasites or in phoresy. All colonies taken at the Archbold Bio- logical Station contained mites that were riding on the worker ants. Since the ants are small and the mites much smaller they were commonly recognized under the binocular microscope. In this restricted field of vision as many as seven out of sixteen ants in view at once had mites on them although commonly two or three ants out of ten might show mites. Since the mites can quickly leave their hosts and some may be hidden on underparts of the ants a complete census cannot readily be made. Frequently an ant will have more than one mite. Two mites may occupy opposite sides of the ant thorax, may face each other here or be in tandem position. One ant had two on the thorax and one on the underside of the gaster. The head and gaster are also SEPTEMBER 1955 common sites. The mites have no difficulty /in moving from one site to another on an ant and hold on tightly with body appressed and mouthparts porrect. These mites, unfortunately not yet identified, closely resemble those taken on Trachymyrmex septentrionalis seminole nest- ing nearby and may well be the same. Two collections from the latter ant were identi- fied as Garmania sp. (Phytoselidae) by G. W. Wharton. A transfer of a mite from one ant to another was watched under the binocular. It had been riding on the gaster of one ant when another brushed by, waving its an- tennae over the other ant as is customary. In a flash the mite grabbed the left antennal tip, taking a position with its head facing proximally, and held tightly. The ant did “not attempt to dislodge the mite and had already two others, one on the thorax, the other on the gaster. The mite on the an- tenna grasped firmly with all legs and kept its palpi appressed as the ant attempted to force its way through a narrow passageway, antennae probing the meanwhile. The mite had a rough ride but was not dislodged. A mite was watched for more than ten minutes as it fed on a bromatium. It fed from below only, “pecking” at the fungus repeatedly and clearly ingesting it. The palps played continually over it. Some mites had their short mouthparts, in addition to the lateral palpi, appressed to the integu- ment of the ants and may have been in- gesting the epidermal secretions. ANTIBIOTIC AND GROWTH-PROMOTING ASPECTS OF THE SYMBIOSIS This ant fungus has not been recognized outside of the nest and appears easily to be overwhelmed by other fungi in artificial WEBER: FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS 281 culture. It is clearly maintained by the activities of the ant and is cultivated only in the form of small compact masses or bromatia. The same fungus grows regularly on the eggs, larvae and pupae in a hyphal form. In feeding on a bromatium, the ant adds its saliva to the fungus and may def- ecate on it before replacing it in the garden. In licking the brood, a regular feature of attine ant behavior, saliva must also be added to the integument. This may be nutritive for the mycelium, or the mycelium may digest substances from the integument. The ants keep each other immaculate by constant grooming, in which the integument is well licked. The saliva added to the inte- gument may prevent the development of alien fungi and bacteria. From the above review of behavioral features it would appear that distinctive antibiotic and growth-promoting features are produced in the symbiosis. A study of the roles of the ant feces and saliva is in- dicated. REFERENCES Emmann, H. Die Gédste und Gastverhdltnisse der Blatischneiderameise Atta sexdens L. Zeit- sehr. Morph. und Okol. Tiere 32: 391-462. 1937. Weser, N. A. The biology of the fungus-growing ants, Part VII. Rev. de Entomologia 12: 93- 130. 1941. . The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part VIIT. Rev. de Entomologia 16: 1-88. 1945. The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part IX. Rev. de Entomologia 17: 114-172. 1946. Lower Orinoco River fungus-growing ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae, Attini). Bol. Ent. Venezolana 6: 143-161. 1947. Pure cultures of fungi produced by ants. Science 121(3134): 109. 1955. WHEELER, W. M. The fungus-growing ants of North America. Bull. Amer. Nat. Hist. 23: 746- 753. 1907. 282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 9 ENTOMOLOGY .—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: I, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN Stonen, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, and KENNETH L. Knicur, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Department of the Navy! (Received April 13, 1955) Holotype designation by mosquito tax- onomists has become a standard practice only within comparatively recent times. As a result, many mosquito species are presently represented by more than one type speci- men (syntypes or cotypes). Since the fixation of a specific name to a single speci- men is essential to sound taxonomy, it is desirable practice in such situations for subsequent workers to designate one of the original type series as a lectotype. The mosquito collection of the United States National Museum contains many such syntype series, and it is proposed to prepare a series of papers for the purpose of designat- ing lectotypes from them. In addition, pertinent notes will be given on some of the holotypes in the collection. The present paper deals with the genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus. The types are stored separately from the main body of the collection, the pinned specimens being in separate trays in drawers, and the slides lying flat in metal cabinets. These are holotypes, lectotypes, or selected syntypes pending lectotype designation. They are arranged alphabetically by species, subspecies, or varietal name, regardless of their original or present generic position or specific synonymy. In checking over the older species, particularly those of Coquillett and of Dyar and Knab, it has not always been possible to determine whether or not a holotype had been designated in the original description. Several localities may have been given, followed by the line ‘‘Type.—Cat. No. US.N.M.” In the collection, sometimes only one specimen bears this type number, sometimes several or all of them. If a single specimen only is labeled as 1The opinions or assertions contained here are the private ones of the writers and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Navy Department or the Naval service at large. type, we accept it as the holotype, and if this is not considered a validly proposed holotype, acceptance of such a specimen as type in this paper is to be considered as lectotype designation. Where more than one specimen is labeled type, we have always selected a lectotype. Most, but not all, of the types bear catalogue numbers, and where we refer to red U.S.N.M. labels we mean labels bearing the words ‘Type (or “Paratype,” “or ~ Cotypem aN WESsNeMvieZ In this paper the names are arranged alphabetically within the genera and are listed under the original generic combi- nations. Taxonomic notes are given only where something has been discovered that alters the present concept of the species, or are otherwise pertinent. We have placed lectotype labels on all the specimens selected as lectotypes in this paper. Genus Armigeres Theobald Desvoidea fusca var. joloensis Ludlow, Can. Ent. 36: 236. 1904. According to the original description, the series consisted of “‘23 (males and females).’’ The collection has 2 males and 3 females bearing the label ‘“T'ype No. 27789, U.S.N.M.,” and only these are listed in the type catalogue. One of the males bears a determination label in Ludlow’s handwriting, ‘‘Desvoidea joloensis Ludl. Jolo Jolo, P.I. May. Type C.8.L.” The other specimens bear only the red U.S.N.M. type labels. We have selected the male bearing Ludlow’s label as lecto- type, and have mounted the genitalia on a slide. Culex subalbatus Coquillett, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 21: 302. 1898. This species was described from 6 females, each spread on a card mounted on a separate pin. We consider the holotype to be the only speci- men bearing the label “Type No. 3962, U.S. N.M.” It also bears a determination label in Coquillett’s handwriting. SEPTEMBER 1955 Genus Psorophora Robineau-Desvoidy Psorophora agogglyia Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 10: 115. 1922. U.S.N.AL) are in the collection, bearing the data “Museum Paris, Gran Chaco, bords du Rio Tapenaga, Colonie Florencia, E.-R. Wagner 1903.’ We have selected one of these, in excel- lent condition, as the lectotype. Janthinosoma champerico Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 134. 1906. This species was described from a single female labeled ‘“‘Champerico, Guatemala/Fredk. Knab Collector/Type No. 9968, U.S.N.M.” and bear- ing the determination label in Dyar’s hand- writing, “Janthinosoma champerico D. & K. Type.” This specimen is in good condition except for the loss of segments 4 and 5 of the left hind tarsus. Janthinosoma coffini Dyar and Knab, Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 134. 1906. The original ‘‘8 specimens, Nassau, Bahamas, B. W.1., June 22, 1903 (T.H. Coffin)” are in the collection. All are females and one bears the red label “Type No. 9969, U.S.N.M.” and the determination label in Dyar’s handwriting, “Janthinosoma coffini D. & K. Type.” This specimen, which we consider the holotype, is in good condition except for the loss of three legs. Janthinosoma columbiae Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 135. 1906. Of the 59 specimens of this species originally listed (‘“Type—Cat. No. 9974, U. 8S. Nat. Mus.’’), 42 are now in the collection. Only one bears the red U.S.N.M. type label. It also bears the label ‘Iss. [X.27 Grassym.” and the deter- mination label in ODyar’s handwriting, “Janthinosoma columbiae D. & K. Type” and is a female in good condition. This is one of the Grassymead, Va., specimens and we here con- sider it to be the holotype. Psorophora (Psorophora) ctites Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 6: 126. 1918. This was described from three syntype females collected at Brownsville, Tex., August 28, 1916, by M. M. High, Type no. 21717, U.'S.N.M. These are all in the collection and the one bearing the determination label ‘‘Psorophora ctites Dyar, Type” in Dyar’s handwriting is here selected as lectotype. STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOBRS. I 283 Culex cyanescens Coquillett, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 10: 137. 1902. Six females are mentioned in the original description, ‘““Type: Cat. No. 6308, U.S.N.M.”; these, each bearing a red type label, are to be found in the collection and only two are listed in the type catalogue. One specimen, dated June 4, bears a determination label in Coquillett’s hand- writing, but the other syntype, bearing the labels “Coll. Townsend/Brownsville, Tex./May,” is in better condition and is here designated as lecto- type. Culex discolor Coquillett, Can. Ent. 35: 256. 1903. This species was based on a single female in good condition, bearing the labels ‘‘Delair, N. J. V1.28/Type No. 6894, U.S.N.M.”. Janthinosoma echinata Grabham, Can. Ent. 38: 311. 1906. The description gives no indication of the num- ber of adults in the original series nor where the specimens were deposited. There is a female in the collection bearing the labels ‘Kingston, Jamaica / M. Grabham Collector/See slide No. 373/ Janthinosoma echinata Gbm [Dyar’s hand- writing].”’ The slide is of the female genitalia and is labeled “Type” by Dyar. The specimen is in moderately good condition. Mr. Mattingly wrote us that there are “4 pinned adults labeled ‘Kingston, Jamaica, Dr. Grabham’ in the British Museum which were included by Theobald in his description of Janthinosoma sayi var. jamai- censis. That they formed part of Grabham’s type series is, I should say, doubtful and certainly it could not be proved.” From Dyar’s correspond- ence with Grabham it is evident that part or all of Grabham’s collection in Jamaica was de- stroyed by an earthquake. In the absence of any information to the contrary, we consider this female labeled by Dyar to be the holotype. Janthinosoma floridense Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906. This species was described from 105 speci- mens which were entered by Dyar in the US. N.M. Type Catalogue as “Type and cotypes,” all collected in Florida. The collection now con- tains 95 of these, and all bear the collector label “Pyar and Caudell” and a field number. A fe- male bears the number “48,” red label ‘Type No. 9972, U.S.N.M.,” and the determination label in Dyar’s handwriting, ‘“Janthinosoma floridense D. & K. Type.” This specimen is the 284 only one bearing a red type label, and we con- sider it to be the holotype. Dyar and Caudell’s notes show no. 43 to have come from Alligator Creek, Fla. Psorophora funiculus Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 8: 141. 1920. This species was originally described from “Types, two males, two females, No. 23088, U.S. Nat. Mus., Rio Frio, Dept. Magdalena, Colombia, March 4, 1913 (J. H. Egbert). The collection has these syntypes with the exception noted below. The date on all of them is ‘3-5 March 1913.” One of the males is intact and this is here designated as lectotype. The second male is lost from the pin but most of the abdomen is mounted on a slide. The two females are in good condition. Aedes haruspicus Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 35: 56. 1908. This species was described from ‘“T'wenty-one specimens, Port Antonio, Jamaica, bred from larvae in seaside pools, November 15, 1906 (M. Grabham).”’ The collection contains 8 males and 8 females of this series. One of each sex bears a red label, “Type No. 11995,.U.S.N.M.,” and the female, in good condition, bears the determina- tion label in Dyar’s handwriting,’ “Aedes haruspicus D. & K. Type.” We select this fe- male as lectotype. Aedes horridus Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 35: 56. 1908. The original description lists 56 specimens from a number of localities, with no sex given, followed by the lne “Type.—Cat. No. 11999, US.N.M.” The collection now contains 42 of these 56 specimens. One female bears the labels “Victoria, Texas V.30/W. E. Hinds/Type No. 11999 U.S.N.M. [red]/Aedes horridus D. & K. Type [Dyar’s handwriting].”” A second female from Greenville, Texas, bears the same red type label. These two specimens are designated speci- mens I and II respectively in the following dis- cussion. In addition, there are 40 specimens labeled by one of us [A. §.] with red U.S.N.M. cotype labels at the time the series was being restudied. When Roth (1945) restudied these specimens, he discovered that two species were involved. He selected as a lectotype not one of the two speci- mens marked with a red type label in the collec- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 9 tion, but one of those marked ‘“‘cotype” that was listed in the original description, from Corinth, Mississippi. The identity of Psorophora horrida, as based upon this lectotype, has become ac- cepted in current mosquito literature in the United States. For the reasons that follow, we accept this as a validly selected lectotype and reject the specimen (No. I) labeled by Dyar as type, as the type of horridus. 1. Two specimens (I and IT) out of the original — 56 were originally labeled with identical red type labels, and these were from different localities. A lectotype designation was necessary, since these are obviously syntypes. 2. The U.S.N.M. Type Catalogue gives a number of localities and several collectors, and there is no distinction between types and co- types or paratypes in the catalogue, these all being designated as “Types.” More than just the two specimens bearing the type labels were considered as types in the catalogue. 3. Roth examined all but one of the speci- mens listed in our first paragraph. His opimion that two species were involved in determinations of Psorophora horrida was based on both female and male characters, but since only females were included in the original series he selected a female from Corinth, Miss., as the lectotype. Specimen I was not at the Museum at the time Roth studied the series, since types or selected syn- types were removed from wartime dangers. 4. Howard, Dyar, and Knab (1917) accepted Felt’s (1904) description and photograph of the male genitalia of Janthinosoma lute as being of the male of horrida, and redrew it. Roth accepted this opinion and showed that the species having silvery white knee spots and other external characters had genitalia of this sort. The original description of horridus states, “the knees silvery white,” in this respect not agreeing with speci- men I. All the characters of specimen I agree with P. longipalpis Roth, while specimen II appears to be horrida as defined by Roth. He could have selected II as the lectotype, but ap- parently preferred to take a specimen from nearer the center of distribution of the species. Psorophora howardvi Coquillett, Can. Ent. 33: 258. 1901. : The original 38 males and 1 female of this species, from Hartsville, S. C., July 238, 1901, W. K. Coker, are in the collection. One of the males, in good condition, bears the red label SEPTEMBER 1955 “Type No. 5793, U.S.N.M.” and Coquillett’s determination label, and we consider it the holotype. Janthinosoma indoctum Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 161. 1906. In the original description this name was said to be proposed “‘for the larvae called ‘/Janthino- soma scholasticus Theobald’ (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soe. xiv, 182, 1906), but the authors described the adult and gave as material ‘22 specimens, Trinidad (F. W. Urich; A. Busck). Type—Cat. No. 10026, U.S. Nat. Mus.” We find in the col- lection one male bearing this type label and the labels “17.3/Trinidad, W. I. Jan./Aug. Busck Collector.”” This specimen, which has associated with it a pupal skin on a slide, we consider the holotype. In addition there are 18 other specimens (14 females, 4 males) bearing the labels ‘42 [some with subnumber]/Trinidad, W. I. Jun./Aug. Busck Collector.” There is also one female labeled ‘Trinidad, W. I., F. W. Urich.” These 19 specimens are presumably also of the type series but do not bear type labels. Five of the no. 42 series have associated pupal skins and some of them fragments of larval skins mounted on slides. Janthinosoma infine Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 14: 181, 182. 1906. The larva of this species is described in the key on p. 181, and additional characters are given on p. 182, and portions of the larva are figured. There is no indication of the number of specimens in- cluded nor is the adult described. Dyar and Knab state that the larvae were collected by Busck in Trinidad and Santo Domingo. The collection contains no specimen bearing a type label, but there are 19 males and 17 females collected by Busck in Santo Domingo, a number with asso- ciated larval and pupal skins. We have selected as lectotype a larval skin bearing the number 103.1. Associated with this is a pupal skin on the same slide and a pinned male in good condition but with a portion of the abdomen separately glued on the point. This male bears the labels “103.1/St. Domingo, W. I. Aug./Aug. Busck collector/See slide no. 193/infine [Dyar’s hand- writing].”’ Slide no. 193 of genitalia did not come from this specimen, however, since it has more of the abdomen on the slide than is gone from the pinned specimen, and it bears Busck no. 105. STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. I 285 Slide no. 192 bears Busck no. 103.1 and the genitalia on this slide is with little doubt from specimen no. 103.1. Data on this slide, no. 192, are given under no. 193 in Dyar’s slide catalogue. Janthinosoma insularius Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906. This species was described from “8 specimens, Santo Domingo, W. I. (A. Busck), Type—Cat. No. 9975, U.S. Nat. Mus.” These specimens, all bearing Busck no. 108, are in the collection (5 females, 3 males), and one female, which we con- sider the holotype, bears the red U.S.N.M. type number label and Busck’s number 108.1. The specimen is in fair condition and has associated with it the larval and pupal skins on a slide. Psorophora tracunda Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906. This species was described from “5 specimens, Puntarenas, Costa Rica (F. Knab), Type.—Cat. No. 9965, U.S. Nat. Mus.” The collection now contains 4 of these, 3 females and 1 male. We consider the holotype to be a female bearing the determination label in Dyar’s handwriting, “Psorophora iracunda D. & K. Type” and the U.S.N.M. red type label. The others do not bear the red type numbers. All the specimens have associated larval and pupal skins on slides, and the genitalia of the male are mounted on a slide. Psorophora (Janthinosoma) longipalpis Roth, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 47: 13. 1945. The holotype is a male in good condition, with the entire abdomen on a slide. There are 40 paratypes. Culex nanus Coquillett, Can. Ent. 35: 256. 1903. The original material consisted of ‘Four specimens collected at Key West, Florida, in August 1901 by Mr. August Busck and six speci- mens by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, April 1 to 3, 1903. Type—No. 6893, U. 8. National Museum.” All 10 of these female specimens are in the collection and all bear identical red type labels. We select as lectotype the one bearing Coquillett’s deter- mination label, collected August 1901. It* is in rather good condition, lacking one leg and part of one wing. Psorophora pisces Lassmann, Bol. Salub. y Asist. no. 28-29, Jalapa, Veracruz, Agosto, p. 4, 11-12. 1944. The total number of specimens was not indi- 286 cated in the original description, nor was a holo- type designated, but the National Museum possesses 10 females and 3 males of the original series from Tempoal, Veracruz, Mexico, July 1944. The slide of the genitalia of one male is labeled “Type” by the author, and that of another “Paratype,” but these slides are not so labeled as to tell which set of genitalia came from which pinned male. It seems best, however, to select the male slide labeled type as the lecto- type, leaving the rest of the specimen uncertain. There is no evidence that the series does not all represent one species, and no reason to believe that Lane (1953) was incorrect in considering P. pisces Lassmann to be a synonym of P. champerico (Dyar & Knab). Psorophora saeva Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906. Of the three original specimens only one can be certainly recognized. This is a female, in good condition except for lacking most of three legs and the tip of one wing. It bears the red label “Type No. 9964, U.S.N.M.” and the labels “Trinidad, W. I./F. W. Urich/B4-1/Psorophora D. & K. Type [Dyar’s handwriting].”’ This we consider to be the holotype. No larval or pupal skin has been found to bear the number B4-1. Janthinosoma schwarei Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906. The single specimen from Cayamas, Cuba, Type no. 9970, U.S.N.M., is a female in good condition except for the loss of segments 4 and 5 of the left hind tarsus. Taeniorhynchus signipennis Coquillett, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 6: 167. 1904. The original material of this species was stated to be from ‘‘Monterey, Mexico. One female and four males (the latter much abraded), bred by Dr. Goldberger. Type—No. 8029, U.S. National Museum.” All 5 of these specimens bear identical red type labels. The female is in much better con- dition than the males and it bears Coquillett’s determination label, so we select it as lectotype. Psorophora stigmatephora Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 10: 116. 1922. The types were given as “two females, and one male, No. 25756, U. S. Nat. Mus.”’ These syn- types are in the collection, bearmg red type number labels. We select as the lectotype the male bearing the labels ‘““Museum Paris, Gran JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 9 Chaco, bords du Rio Tapenaga, Colonie Flo- rencia, H.-R. Wagner 1903/1660.” This specimen lacks one wing, one antenna, one palpus, and three legs and the other wing is in poor condition. The genitalia are mounted on slide no. 1660. One female is in poor condition, the other in rather good condition. Janthinosoma teranum Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906. The original series consisted of “7 specimens, Brownsville, Texas, May 21, 1904 (H.S. Barber). Type.—Cat. No. 9971, U.S. Nat. Mus.” In the type catalogue these are listed as 5 specimens, “Type and cotypes.” The collection now con- tains one female in good condition with the determination label and red U.S.N.M. type label, and 5 females bearing only date, locality, and collector labels. We consider the specimen labeled type to be the holotype. Janthinosoma toltecwm Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 135. 1906. This species was described from 89 specimens entered by Dyar in the U.S.N.M. Type Cata- logue under no. 9973, as “Type and cotypes.” The collection now contains 72, all from Mexico, the Dallas, Tex., specimens collected by Hinds not having been found. The one specimen bearing the red U.S.N.M. type label, which we here con- sider to be the holotype, is a female in good con- dition from Tehuantapec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It bears the label “No. 286. See F. Knab’s Entom. notes.”” These notes show the specimen to have been collected as a larva, June 29, 1905, from ditches of very foul water along railroad tracks. This specimen also bears the label in Dyar’s handwriting “Janthinosoma toltecum D. & K. Type.” Psorophora totonact Lassmann, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 53: 285. 1951. The holotype is an intact male in good con- dition except for being somewhat greasy. Janthinosoma vanhalli Dyar and Knab, Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 53: 285. 1906. This species was described from 7 specimens entered by Dyar in the U.S.N.M. Type Cata- logue under no. 9967, as “Type and cotypes.” All these specimens (5 females and 2 males) are in the collection, and bear the label ‘““Paramaribo, Surinam, Dr. Van Hell.” A female bearing the red U.S.N.M. type label also bears the label SEPTEMBER 1955 “called tigri-makoe” and the determination label in Dyar’s handwriting ‘“Janthimosoma vanhalli D. & K. Type.” This specimen is considered to be the holotype. Conchyliastes varipes Coquillett, Can. Ent. 36: 10. 1904. The original description states “Five female specimens, Type No. 7341, U.'S.N.M. Las Penas and Tonala, Mexico (Dr. A. Dugés), and Agri- cultural College, Mississippi (May 18, Glenn W. Herrick).”” The collection has 4 of these speci- mens, the Tonala specimen not having been found, and two (Mexico and Mississippi) bear identical red U.S.N.M. type labels. We select the female bearing Coquillett’s determination label, from Las Pefas, Mex. 7-18-03, A. Dugés, as the lectotype. This is in fair condition except for having two legs missing. Psorophora virescens Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 133. 1906. The original description mentions 35. speci- mens from Mexico and Costa Rica, ‘“Type.— Cat. No. 9966, U. S. Nat. Mus.’ The collection now contains 32 of these. We consider the holo- type to be a female, in good condition, bearing labels ““No. 309g See F. Knab’s Entom. Notes/ Almoloya, Oax. Mex./Type No. 9966 U.S.N.M./ Psorophora virescens D. & K. Type [Dyar’s handwriting].”” None of the other specimens bears the type number. Genus Haemagogus Williston Aedes affirmatus Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 164. 1906. The four original specimens, all females, are in the collection bearing identical U.S.N.M. type labels. The specimen from Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, Mexico, bears the determination label “Aedes affrmatus D. & K. Type” in Dyar’s handwrit- ing. Later Dyar (1921:103) restricted the type to this locality, thereby fixing this specimen as lectotype. Haemagogus anastasionis Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 155. 1921. This species was described from two males and six females from Puntarenas, Costa Rica. These eight specimens are in the collection, bearing identical red U.S.N.M. type labels. One male bears the number 1529 and the determination label in Dyar’s handwriting ‘Haemagogus STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. I 287 anastasio [sic] Type.’’ The number refers to the slide of the genitalia on which the specific name is spelled in the same way. This specimen is here designated lectotype. It should be noted that this species been frequently misspelled “anastationis”’ in the literature. has Haemagogus andinus Osorno-Mesa, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 46: 170. 1944. The holotype is a male bearing the original data with the genitalia dissected and mounted on a slide. The collection also contains the allotype with its larval skin on a slide, 11 adult paratypes and 16 topotypic larvae or larval skins. Haemagogus argyromeris Dyar and Ludlow, Military Surgeon 48: 679. 1921. This species was described from eight males taken at Corozal, C. Z., October 27, 1920, four being deposited in the U. 8. National Museum and four in the Army Medical Museum. The four National Museum specimens are still in the col- lection, all bearing red U.S.N.M. type labels. One, with a slide-mounted preparation of the genitalia (no. 1456) is here designated as lecto- type. Two of the syntypes are in poor condition. Haemagogus boshelli Osorno-Mesa, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 46: 165. 1944. The holotype is a male bearing the original data with the genitalia dissected and mounted on a slide. In addition, the collection contains an allotype, 10 adult paratypes, and 5 topotypic larvae or larval skins. Haemogogus celeste Dyar and Nunez Tovar, Ins. Inse. Mens. 14: 152. 1927. This species was described from two males, Maracay, Venezuela, November 11 and 15, 1926. The two specimens were found in the collection bearing the original data and Nunez Tovar num- bers, but no type labels. We have selected the specimen bearing the labels “2270/Maracay Aragua, Venez. XI.11.26 / Nunez Tovar Coll. / No. 3” as the lectotype. This has the genitalia on slide No. 2770. A mounted pupal skin also bears the number 2270, although the date on this slide is given as ‘‘5-11-926.”’ Haemagogus chalcospilans Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 110. 1921. The type is a male with the abdomen on a slide. It bears the labels ‘“247/Caldera I., Porto Bello Bay, Panama/March 27, 08/A. H. Jenn- 288 ings Coll./Type No. 24334, U.S.N.M./Haemag- ogus chalcospilans Dyar Type [Dyar’s hand- writing].”’ The genitalia are on slide No. 1481. The three paratypes listed by Dyar are in the collection so labeled. Haemagogus spegazzinu falco Kumm, Osorno- Mesa and Boshell-Manrique, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 43: 25. 1946. The authors of this subspecies give no formal description but scatter the characters through several tables and keys, and give one character of the male genitalia for separating it from typi- cal spegazzinit. They, “suggest that the type lo- cality for H. spegazzinii subspecies falco should be the forest known as Volcanes in the valley of the Pitas River, municipality of Caparrapf, De- partment of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Specimens from this area have been deposited in the United States National Museum.” In the collection are two pinned adults and 18 larval skins from this suggested type locality. One of the adults is a male with genitalia missing, the other a female. The larval skins are not associated with adults in the collection. Since the subspecies is based on a male genitalic character it does not seem advis- able to select a lectotype from the material be- fore us. Haemagogus gladiator Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 108. 1921. The type and paratype are in the collection with red U.S.N.M. labels. The type male has the abdomen mounted on slide no. 1488. The frag- mentary larval skin and the pupal skin of the paratype (Jennings no. 39.3) are mounted on a slide. Haemagogus iridicolor Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 106. 1921. This species was originally described from two male types and eight male and seven female paratypes. All these are in the collection with corresponding red U.S.N.M. labels. Komp (1955) has selected the male with the genitalia slide no. 1468 as lectotype. This also bears Dyar’s hand- written determination and type label. Haemagogus janthinomys Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 112. 1921. This species was originally described from two male types and four male and three female para- types. These are in the collection with corre- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 9 sponding red labels. One of the two specimens labeled “Type” also bears the number 17-1 and the slide number 219. The number 17-1 refers to the larval skin which is mounted on a slide, and no. 219 to the slide of the male genitalia. We have selected this specimen as lectotype. Stegoconops lucifer Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies 2: pl. 23, fig. 164. 1913. Although the date on the title page of volume 2 of this work is 1912, a copy before us has stamped in it, “Copies of this book were first issued Feb. 24, 1913.” The name Stegoconops lucifer is first associated with a figure in this vol- ume with no other description. Dyar (1921:107) fixed the type as “‘a specimen from Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama (A. H. Jennings, breeding number 299).’’ This specimen is in the collection bearing slide label 309 and the label “lucifer H. D. & K. Type” in Dyar’s handwriting, and can be considered the lectotype selected by Dyar. The slide was also labeled “Type” by Dyar. Haemagogus mesodentatus Komp and Kumm, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 40: 253. 19388. The adult type material of this species was never received at the National Museum and Mr. Komp tells us that the slide of the male geni- talia of the type was destroyed in transit from Panama. There are no topotypic adults in the collection but there are 11 larval skins mounted on slides. Ten are from San José, Costa Rica (nos. 206 and 207) and one is from Parque Bo- lfivar, San José, Costa Rica. The latter is labeled as a male, and may be the larval skin of the type, but this is not certain. Haemagogus (Stegoconops) panarchys Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens. 9: 104. 1922. The type series is as given in the original de- scription, the holotype being specimen no. 70, a male with most of the abdomen mounted on slide no. 1466. The specimen is in poor condi- tion, lacking all but one wing and one leg. Aedes philosophicus Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 14: 190, 195. 1906. Dyar (1921:103) restricted the type of this species as follows: “The type locality of philo- sophicus may be restricted to Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, Knab’s breeding number 295, the type being a male, figured in the monograph, SEPTEMBER 1955 DRAKE AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS ARADIDAE plate 23, figure 162.’ The collection contains a specimen with the following labels: “No. 295b See F. Knab’s Entom. notes/Tehuantepec, Oax. Mex./See slide No. 330/Type No. Restrict US.N.M. Dyar 1921 [red]/philosoph.’’ Slide No. 330 is labeled “‘philosophicus D. & K. Type.” The original description is of the larva alone, but the only immature material of this type series under no. 295b consists of 1 fragmentary larval skin and 6 pupal skins. These have been mounted on a slide. All 6 adults from these pupae are in the collection, 5 males and 1 female. Since only the larva was originally described, one must con- sider the fragmentary larval skin under no. 295b as the lectotype. Under Knab’s number 295 this was the only larva collected, all the other collec- tions being pupae from which adults were reared. Haemagogus regalis Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 167. 1906. Of the original 22 specimens, 17 are now in the collection. Only one of these bears the red U.S.N.M. label and we consider it the holotype. Tt also bears the labels ‘‘No. 330v See F. Knab’s Entom. notes/Sonsonate, Salv./Slide 36.1.8b/ Haemagogus regalis D. & K. Type [Dyar’s hand- writing].”’ It is a male with the genitalia mounted on a slide and the pupal skin and fragmentary larval skin on another slide. Haemagogus uriartei Shannon and Del Ponte, Rev. Inst. Bact. 5: 68. 1927. The collection contains a male bearing the 289 labels “Ins. Bac. Ent. nota 128-3/Vipos, Tuc. 4.11.27 /2353/Type No. U.S.N.M. [red] /Hae- magogus uriartei Snn & D P [Shannon’s hand- writing].”” The original reference gives ‘“‘Distribu- cién: Tucumén (Vipos, 22.3.27; Shannon y Del Ponte, localidad del tipo.” Since the authors refer to one male reared from a larva collected in Vipos, the difference between the published date and the date on the label may be due to the difference in times of collection of the larva and emergence of the adult. The genitalia are mounted on slide No. 2353 and what is probably the pupal skin of the type on a slide labeled “Pupa V3 Vipos 4.11.27 Haemago.” There is also a female (Raco, 13.2.27) from the original series in the collection. We consider the male to be the holotype. LITERATURE CITED Dyar, H. G. The genus Haemagogus Williston. Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 101-114. 1921. Fer, E. P. Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York State. New York State Mus. Bull. 79: 241-400. 1904. Howarp, L. O., Dyar, H. G., and Knas, F. The mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 159, 4: 525-1064. 1917. Komp, W. H. W. The larva of Haemagogus iridi- color Dyar. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 55: 29-31. 1955. Rotu, L. M. The male and larva of Psorophora (Janthinosoma) horrida (Dyar and Knab) and a new species of Psorophora from the United States. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 47: 1-28. 1945. ENTOMOLOGY .—_New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera). Caru J. Drake, Iowa State College, and J. MaLtpoNapo-CapriLes, University of Puerto Rico. (Received May 27, 1955) Very little is known relative to the aradid fauna of Puerto Rico. Barber (1939, pp. 329-330) recorded two genera, each repre- sented by a single species, from the island. These species were Mezira abdominalis (Stal) from Mayagtiez and Hispaniola and Aneurus minutus Bergroth from Adjuntas. Fifteen years later, Harris and Drake (1944, pp. 130-131) described a new genus and new species of an apterous aradid as Hretmo- coris tate. from a male specimen taken at Lares. The present paper contains data on three genera and four species of Aradidae, includ- ing the characterization of one new genus and two new species of apterous aradids. As adults are needed for their identification, the records do not include these two genera, each represented by nymphal stages, taken in forest litter near Mayagtiez by means of a Berlese funnel. The two forms heretofore listed in the literature are as follows: Aneurus minutus Bergroth, two adults and one last instar nymph, found under loose bark of a tree, Yauco, March 5, 1955; and Eretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake, Maya- giiez, March 5, 1955, taken by means of a Berlese funnel from forest litter on the 290 ground. Field records for the new species are given under their respective descriptions. The types of the new species are in the Drake Collection, paratypes in the collections of both authors. In order to facilitate future work and to clarify generic characters, the following genotypes of described species have been illustrated: Hretmocoris tatec Harris and Drake, type (male); Acaricoris ignotus Harris and Drake, type (female); Glypto- coris sejunctus Harris and Drake, type (male); Asterocoris australis Drake and Harris, type (male); and Allelocoris dryadis Drake and Harris, type (male), all illus- trated by Mrs. Margaret Poor Hurd. The figures of the two new species described be- low were made by J. Maldonado-Capriles. Eretmocoris disparis, n. sp. Apterous, obovate, widest behind middle of abdomen, considerably narrowed anteriorly, very little narrowed behind, reddish to blackish fuscous, prominently sculptured; mesonotum at middle fused with metanotum; metanotum fused with first two abdominal tergites, the rest of abdominal tergite (save seventh, but not con- nexiva) fused. Abdominal stigmata all lateral. ‘Female broader than male. Length, 3.20-3.50 mm; width, 1.30-1.70 mm. Head longer on median line than width across eyes (54:46), obliquely narrowed behind eyes, with fairly large neck, with prominent median longitudinal ridge, furrowed on each side of ridge; tylus convexly longitudinally raised, prominent; Fia. 1.—EKretmocoris disparis, n. sp. (head). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. Y Fic. 2.—Hretmocoris disparis, n. sp. (body, dorsal aspect). juga a little longer than tylus, the parts surpassing tylus divergent, rounded, with blunt tips. Anten- niferous tubercles quite large, divergent, cone- like. Antennae rather short, twice as long as head (94:46), finely granulate, each minute granule beset with a short, inconspicuous, fine hair, basal segment much thicker and much longer than others, measurements—I, 32; II, 18; III, 22; IV, 22. Rostrum dark fuscous, not quite attaining apex of sulcus; sulcus broad, deep, not extending to base of head. Pronotum wider at base than width across eyes (75:46), only a little wider in front (52:46); mesonotum wider than pronotum, subequal in length, fused at middle with metanotum; meta- notum fused with first two abdominal tergites, the triangular median part of both mesonotum and metanotum longitudinally carinate, the median carina longer and slightly more elevated than lateral ones, the latter convergent anteriorly. Metasternal orifice visible from lateral aspect. Legs rather short, plain, fuscous to dark fuscous. Abdomen with the fused dorsal tergites almost quadrate in outline, with a definite pattern of impressions and ridges, the glandular area prom- inent; seventh tergite not fused, similar to #. tater in shape. Abdomen above without. hairs, with all spiracles visible from above. Legs dark brownish to dark fuscous, inconspicuously pubescent. Type (male) and allotype (female), Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico, March 1955, collected by means of a Berlese funnel from ground litter in forest. Paratypes: 4 specimens, taken with type. Also 4 or 5 nymphs of H. disparis and nymphs of two alate species of aradids were found in the same batch of litter. | SEPTEMBER 1955 Fie. 3.—Aglaocoris nataliz, m. sp. (head). Ditiers from #. tatez Harris and Drake by form of body (slowly roundly narrowed anteriorly; pronotum narrower than tergite VII), and the | appendages inconspicuously pubescent. In tatet (Fig. 1), the body is obovate and the appendages distinctly beset with short, pale, setal pubescence. The two species are not readily confused. Aglaocoris, n. gen. Apterous, oblong, broad, with dorsal surface coarsely punctate, irregularly rugulose, the ab- domen with regular patterns of impressions and ridges. Head subquadrate, juga and tylus sub- equal in length; eyes small, distinctly stylate, each placed on the outer end of a lateral pedicel; each side of head with a postocular tubercle placed about half way between an eye and the neck. Collar distinct, short and rather narrow. Anten- niferous tubercles large, divergent, terminating anteriorly in a fingerlike projection. Antennae rather short, fairly slender, indistinctly pubes- cent; segment I stout, slightly bent, extending more than half its length beyond apex of juga, much longer and much stouter than other seg- ments; segments II and IV subequal in length, III slenderest, slightly shorter (subequal, includ- ing nodular segment). Legs rather short, plain. Abdomen convex beneath. Pronotum much wider than head across eyes, not fused, free; mesonotum a little wider than pronotum, also feebly extended laterally but not lobate, partly fused at middle with metanotum; metanotum fused behind with first tergite (judging from last instar nymph, also second tergite); abdomen with tergites III to VI fused into a quadrate area, with dorsal glandular organ prominent; seventh tergite not fused; connexiva fairly wide, with segments IV to VII distinct, the anterior segments fused. Stig- mata on VI, VII and VIII (genital segment) DRAKE AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS ARADIDAE 291 lateral, V sublateral (partly visible from above), and II, III and IV a little removed from outer edge and thus not visible from dorsal aspect (each more progressively removed anteriorly). Spiracles VII and VIII placed on small pro- jections. Genotype, Aglaocoris natal, n. sp. Two other American genera of apterous Aradidae have the eyes pedicellate—A sterocoris Drake and Harris and Allelocoris Drake and Harris. Aglaocoris may be distinguished from both of these genera by the much shorter legs and antennae (antennal segment I much longer than any other), tylus and gula subequal in length, body without lateral lobes or fingerlike projec- tions, head with postocular tubercle on each side, metanotum fused with first two abdominal tergites, the rest of tergites (except VII) fused together, and the position of abdominal spiracles. Aglaocoris natalii, n. sp. Large, broad, blackish ferrugineous, without vestiture on dorsal surface; legs beset with short, pale, setal hairs; antennae with short, pale, pu- bescent hairs, the pubescence slightly longer and more setose on first segments. Length, 5.50-6.10 mm; width, 2.70-3.00 mm. Female wider than male. Head slightly wider across eyes than median Fia. 4.—Aglaocoris nataliz, n. sp. (a, dorsal; b, ventral). 292 Fie. 5.—EHretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake (type). length (115:110); ocular pedicel moderately large, the eyes fairly prominent; postocular pedicel shorter, knoblike, not as thick, placed about midway between an eye and neck, more densely setose than other parts of head. Antennae rather short; segment I much stouter and longer than others, III thinnest and practically as long Fic. 6.—Allelocoris dryadis Drake and Harris (type). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 9)J as II (ncluding modular segment); measure- ments—I, 48; II, 29; III, 28; IV, 30. Rostrum stout, ferrugmeous, almost as long as channel; mandibular and labial stylets (when fully ex- tended) reaching almost to end of abdomen. Pronotum short, much wider than head across _ eyes (105:150); mesonotum slightly wider than pronotum, with outer margins slightly extended, with a large median carina, partly fused with metanotum; metanotum fused with first two abdominal tergite, the rest of abdominal tergites (save seventh) fused into a subquadrate area. Fic. 7.—Acaricoris ignotus Harris and Drake (type). Connexiva segmented, the anterior three fused. Entire dorsal surface coarsely punctate, the venter with smaller punctures; abdominal tergites with a definite pattern and arrangement of impression and ridges; stigmata of seventh and eighth segments placed on small projections, the seventh segment with a prominent, smooth, sub- conelike projection beneath each projection bearing a spiracle. In all comparative measure- ment, 80 units equal one millimeter. Type (male) and allotype (female), Yauco, Puerto Rico, under loose bark of a tree, March, 1955, collected by Antonio Natali, after whom the insect is named. Paratypes: 60 specimens, SEPTEMBER 1955 DRAKE Fie. 8—Asterocoris australis Drake and Harris (type). taken with type, and from Mayagiiez, April 1955, also under loose bark of a dead tree. Some large nymphs were also taken with the adults. An examination of last instar nymphs indicates that the metanotum is fused with both first and second abdominal tergites. The first two basal ventrites are also fused. The other two species of Fie. 9.—Glyptocoris sejunctus Harris and Drake (type). AND MALDONADO-CAPRILES: APTEROUS ARADIDAE 293 apteous aradids found in Puerto Rico (#. tatei and #. disparis) are much smaller, eyes not stalked, and all spiracles are lateral. The dis- cussion under the generic description distin- euishes A. natalii from the South American apterous aradids having pedicellate eyes. GENERA AND SPECIES OF AMERICAN APTEROUS ARADIDAE The following checklist enumerates the genera and specis of apterous aradids listed in the literature. It should be noted that Acaricoris brasiliensis Wygodzinsky (1948), A. teresonolitana Wygodzinsky (1948) and Emydocoris usingert Wygodzinsky (1948) have been transferred recently by Kormilev (1953) to the genus Prctinus Stal. Family ARADIDAE Costa, 1848 Subfamily MEZIRINAE Oshanin, 1908 Tribe CARVENTINI Usinger, 1941 Genus Acaricoris Harris and Drake, 1944 Type, Acaricoris ignotus Harris and Drake 1. ignotus Harris and Drake, 1944: United States (La., Miss., Ga.). Genus Agiaocortis Drake and Maldonado, 1955 Type, Aglaocoris natal Drake and Mal- donado 2. natalii Drake and Maldonado, 1955: Puerto Rico. Genus ALLELOcORIS Drake and Harris, 1944 Type, Allelocoris dryadis Drake and Harris 3. dryadis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil. Genus AsrpRocoris Drake and Harris, 1944 Type, Asterocoris australis Drake and Harris . australis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil. . schubarti Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. Genus DrnopeastEeR Kormilev, 1953 Type, Dihybogaster incrustatus Kormiley 6. incrustatus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil. Genus Emypocortis Usinger, 1941 Type, Emydocoris testudinatus Usinger 7. testudinatus Usinger, 1941: Brazil. Genus ErRetmocoris Harris and Drake, 1944. Type, Eretmocoris tatei Harris and Drake 8. disparis Drake and Maldonado, 1955: Puerto Rico. 9. tatei Harris and Drake, 1944: Puerto Rico. Genus Guyprocoris Harris and Drake, 1944 Type, Glyptocoris sejunctus Harris and Drake 10. annulatus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil. 11. confusus Kormilev, 1953: Brazil. 12. espiritosantensis Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. 13. fluminensis Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. 14. milleri Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. 15. plaumanni Kormilev, 1954: Brazil. ou He 294 16. sejunctus Harris and Drake, 1944: Brazil. Genus Noropiocortis Usinger, 1941 Type, Notoplocoris montei Usinger 17. mendesi Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. 18. montei Usinger, 1941: Brazil. 19. potensis Drake and Harris, 1944: Brazil. 20. sobrali Wygodzinsky, 1948: Brazil. Tribe MEZIRINI Usinger, 1941 Genus Pictinus Stal, 1873 Type, Pictinus cinctipes, Stal 21. brasiliensis (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil. 22. dureti (Kormilev), 1953: Argentina. 23. intermediarius (Kormilev), 1953: Brazil. 24. montrouzieri Kormilev, 1953: Brazil. 25. plaumanni Kormilev, 1953: Brazil. 26. teresopolitanus (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil. 27. usingeri (Wygodzinsky), 1948: Brazil. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barper,H.G. Insectsof Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands: Hemiptera-Heteroptera (excepting the Miridae and Corizxidae). Sci. Surv. Porto Rico and Virgin Islands, N. Y. Aead. Sci., 14(3): 263-441, 36 figs. 1939. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 45, No. 9 Drake, C.J., and Harris, H.M. Two new genera and two new species of apterous aradids from Brasil. Rev. Bras. Biol. 4(8): 363-364, 1 fig. 1944. ———. South American Aradidae (Hemiptera) in the Carnegie Musewm. Ann. Carn. Mus. 30: 39-43. 1944. Harris, H. M., and Draxn, C. J. New apterous Aradidae from the Western Hemisphere (Hem- iptera). Proc. Ent. Soc. 46 (5): 128-132. 1944. Kormiteyv, Nicouas A. The first apterous aradid from Argentina (Hemiptera). Dusenia 4(2): 125-126, 1 fig. 1953. ———. Notes on Neotropical Aradidae III (Hemiptera). Dusenia 4(4-5) : 229-242, 1 pl. 11 figs. 1953. Notes on Neotropical Aradidaz IV (Hem- iptera) on some apterous Mezirinae from Brazil. Dusenia 5(3—4): 125-130, 2 figs. 1954. WyaGopzinsky, P. Studies on some apterous Aradidae from Brazil (Hem.). Bol. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro Zool. 86: 1-23, 14 pls. 115 figs. 1948. ZOOLOGY .—Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent counterparts Freprerick M. Baynr, U. 8. National Museum. (Received May 23, 1955) The material to be described below, including as it does specimens of Recent and Tertiary pennatulaceans showing close mor- phological similarity, is indeed remarkable. It is even more so in view of the fact that the sea-pens in question are soft-bodied creatures that do not lend themselves to fossilization. The Recent material, four lots containing in all seven specimens, was collected in the Gulf of Mexico by the vessels Albatross, Grampus, and Pelican, and by C. T. Reed. The interesting suite of fossils from the Tertiary of Trinidad, collected by Dr. H. G. Kugler of Pointe- a-Pierre, was submitted to me for study by Dr. W. P. Woodring of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Photographs of some of the speci- mens had earlier been sent by Dr. Kugler to Dr. Fred B. Phleger, who suggested that they might represent molds of some pen- natulacean. This suggestion, passed along to Dr. Woodring, resulted in my seeing the photographs and, eventually, the specimens themselves. Subsequently, Dr. Kugler visited the Basel (Switzerland) Museum and arranged for similar fossils housed in that institution to be sent to me for con- sideration with the material from Trinidad. The specimens from the Basel Museum were collected in the Kei Islands, from a stratum of undertermined age. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Woodring for the opportunity of seeing the fossil material and for arranging its transmittal to me. Needless to say, this study could not have been made but for the kindness of Dr. Kugler, collector of the Trinidad specimens. Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, curator of the Division of Invertebrate Paleon- tology, U. S. National Museum, made the excellent photographs reproduced on Fig. 2, for which I express sincere thanks. In the preparation of the specimens for study I have been greatly assisted by M. L. Peter- son, Jr., of Arlington, Va., who has done the necessary cutting. Except for Cancellophycus from the Lias, Jurassic and Cretaceous, as reported by Lucas (1938, 1940), pennatulacean octo- corals are known in the fossil state only by their calcareous axes. Several genera have been erected for these fossils, and at least one “‘species’” has been assigned to the Recent genus Pavonaria (= Balticina). It is, SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER: of course, difficult, if not impossible, to base specific determinations of sea-pens upon characters of the axial rod alone. Therefore, it is of no small interest to discover re- mains of pennatulaceans referable to a modern genus by virtue of the remarkable | preservation of the external gross mor- phology of nearly entire colonies. This was accomplished by the infilling of molds in soit mud by a coarser material. It is neces- sary to assume that the specimens were dislodged from their living positions and strewn over a mud bottom in which they left impressions that became filled with sand. Artificial fossils of very similar ap- _ pearance were made by taking rubber casts from plaster molds of Recent specimens; two of these are shown on Fig. 2, d and e, made from the specimens bearing catalogue numbers 49758 and 43023 described below. Several of the fossils were sectioned but none show any indication of the calcareous axial rod, so it must be concluded either that the axial rods were swept away from the area after decomposition of the soft parts, that conditions during the infilling of the molds were sufficiently acid to have dissolved away the axes, or that the entire animals were somehow transported away from the molds. Although even generic determinations of Pennatulacea depend upon spicular, caly- cinal and zooidal characters none of which are preserved in the fossils, enough can be seen of the colonial morphology of the casts here described to warrant assigning them to the genus Vzrgularia. In this genus, the auto-zooids are fused into leaf-like out- growths arranged biserially along most of the stem (rhachis); these polyp-leaves do not quite meet along one side of the rhachis and thus leave open what is usually called the dorsal track. Along the opposite side of the rhachis the leaves may meet or even fuse, but a distinct suture line is usually detectable. Siphonozooids occur on or be- tween the polyp-leaves and commonly also along the dorsal track. No _ calcareous spicules occur in the leaves, but small, corpuscle-like sclerites may sometimes be found in the rhachis and stalk. The lower part of the stem, known as the stalk (Stiel) is free of polyp-leaves and serves to anchor the colony in soft bottoms. FOSSIL AND R®CENT SEA-PENS 295 Differentiation of the species depends upon, among other things, the position of the siphonozooids, the number of autozooids per leaf, and the degree of fusion of the autozooids making up the leaves. These features, like all other details of the soft parts, are not preserved in the casts. There is no way to distinguish the fossil specimens from the Recent species now living in the Gulf of Mexico, so they must be assigned to the same species. This is not so radical a course as it may at first seem, inasmuch as two Recent pennatulaceans now live on both sides of the Panamanian isthmus. The Atlantic and Pacific populations of one species are looked upon as indistinguishable, and of the other as representing only forms, although they certainly have been sepa- rated since sometime in the Miocene. The species thus seem to be quite stable and presumably have undergone little change since the Tertiary. The four lots of Recent Virgularia from the Gulf of Mexico have been compared with specimens of V. mirabilis from Kiel, and with the various descriptions of that species in the literature. They prove to be not the same. The West Indian material more closely resembles Virgularia rumphar and V. abies, both East Indian forms, but differs in detail from those species also. It is therefore necessary to establish for the specimens from the Gulf of Mexico a new species, which will include the fossil casts from Trinidad as well. This species may be known as: Virgularia presbytes, n. sp. Figs. 1; 2, a-e Virgularia spec. Deichmann, 1936, p. 274. Virgularia mirabilis Bayer, 1952, p. 189; 1954, p. 281. Not Pennatula mirabilis O.F. Miiller, 1776. Diagnosis.—Virgularias with thick, fleshy polyp-leaves composed of 13-30 autozooids united by the full length of their anthosteles, showing no distinct projecting calyces and with- out marginal tubercles; leaves in pairs fused more or less completely on the ventral side of the rhachis but well-separated on the dorsal side, leaving free a distinctly grooved dorsal track; siphonozooids in 2-7 irregular, crowded rows be- tween the polyp-leaves, in the larger specimens extending out onto the dorsal track in an irregu- lar longitudinal row or field on either side of the Fia. 1.—Virgularia presbytes, n.sp.: a-c, Specimen no. 49758, off Mobile, Ala. (a, ventral; b, lateral; c, dorsal views of rhachis); d-f, holotype, no. 50148, off Cape Canaveral, Fla. (d, ventral; e, lateral; f, dorsal views of rhachis); g-7, specimen no. 43023, off Galveston, Tex. (g, ventral; h, lateral; 7, dorsal views of rhachis). 296 SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER: FOSSIL AND RECENT SHA-PENS Fra. 2.—a-e, Virgularia presbytes, n.sp: a—c, Fossil specimens from the Pointe-A-Pierre formation of Trinidad; d-e, rubber casts of plaster molds made from the specimens shown in Fig. 1, a and g. F-9, Pteroeides argenteum (Ellis and Solander)?, fossil from Great Kei Island: f, Entire slab, reduced; g, part of same specimen, natural size (Basel Museum). All photographs by G. A. Cooper. 298 median groove. Axis stout, in cross section round toward the apex, oval or dorso-ventrally flattened toward the base. No spicules were found in either the polyp-leaves or the rhachis. Descriptions —The type lot, U.S.N.M. no. 49755, contains four specimens, one of which has been selected as the holotype and given the catalogue number 50148. Off Cape Canaveral, Fla., 28° 54’ N., 80° 39’ W.; 9 fathoms; Pelican station 171-5, January 19, 1940. SPECIMEN A: Length 164 mm; the axis is nearly round, 2.25 xX 2.50 in diameter. At the upper end of the rhachis, where the polyp-leaves diminish in size, the axis is very stout and ob- viously once projected far beyond the tip of the fleshy rhachis. The diameter of the rhachis with its polyp-leaves is 5-7 mm. The leaves are thick, fleshy, directed upward, obliquely placed on the rhachis, their ventral ends higher; 14 pairs occur in 3 cm of rhachis length at about the middle of the specimen. There is a distinct dorsal track with a deep median groove; none of the pairs of leaves meet across it. The members of the pairs of polyp-leaves regularly meet and are fused along the ventral midline. The leaves are com- posed of the united anthosteles of 24-28 autozo- oids in single series. There are no free, projecting calyces, and the zooidal apertures are entire. Au- tozooids with well-developed gonads occur in the leaves throughout the length of the rhachis. The siphonozooids occur on the rhachis in three or four rows beneath each leaf, and extend out as an irregular row along the dorsal track on each side of the midline. SPECIMEN B: Length 159 mm.; the axial rod is incomplete at both top and bottom, and part of the rhachis and the stalk are missing below. At the distalmost part, the axis is round, 1.5 mm in diameter. The rhachis, mecluding the polyp-leaves, is 5.0-6.5 mm in diameter. The leaves are thick and fleshy, situated as in speci- men a; 12 or 13 pairs occur in 3 cm of length about the middle of the rhachis. The leaves do not overlap dorsally, and the dorsal track is dis- tinct and grooved; ventrally the leaves of each pair meet and are fused together. The leaves are composed of 25-27 autozooids united by the full length of their anthosteles; no projecting calyces, no calycinal teeth. Well-developed gonads are ob- servable in the autozooids of leaves at all levels except at the distal tip, where there are about six pairs of undeveloped leaves decreasing in size distad. The siphonozooids occupy all the rhachis surface between the leaves, closely packed in four JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 9 or five indistinct rows; they extend out as an ir- regular row along each side of the dorsal track. Specimen c: A specimen 151 mm in length is incomplete, like the other specimens of the lot, which it resembles closely. The rhachis, with leaves, is 5.0-6.5 mm in diameter; 13-15 leaves appear in 3 cm of length about the middle of the rhachis; the leaves contain usually 25 autozooids in a single series. Members of the leaf-pairs par- tially or completely fused ventrally. Siphonozo- oids between the leaves in three or four irregular rows, extending out onto the rhachis to form an irregular row along each side of the dorsal track. The autozooids in the fully developed leaves are fertile. Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 50148, selected from the foregoing lot, is a specimen 157 mm in length, with the axis incomplete both above and below, and the stalk and lower part of the rhachis miss- ing. At its distal end the axis is round, 2 mm in diameter; at the proximal end it is slightly flat- tened, 2.25 < 2.5 mm in diameter. The rhachis with its polyp-leaves is 6-7 mm in diameter. The holotype closely resembles the other three mem- bers of the same lot as described above. There are 13 or 14 pairs of polyp-leaves in 38 cm of rhachis in the midregion; the leaves are made up of 24 or 25 autozooids completely fused in a single series, without any projecting, free calycu- lar portion. The leaves of each pair are partially or completely fused along the ventral midline (Fig. 1, d); the dorsal track is distinct and shows the usual median groove (Fig. 1, f); the siphono- zooids occur in 2-4 indistinct, crowded rows be- tween the leaves (Fig. 1, e), and in an irregular row along each side of the dorsal track (Fig. 1, f). The autozooids of the fully developed leaves are fertile. The salient characters of the holotype and of the paratypes from the same and other localities may be summarized in tabular form: No. of | No. of : Diane : Number|/Number| rows of Buen Specimen Steal Diameter jof auto- of siphon- Senate Cat No. Tea of axis | zooids | leaves | ozooids a per leafjin 3 cm.|between orca leaves ‘ial 49758 3.5-4.5 | 1.5-2.25 | 13-15 10-15 3-4 0 43214 5-6 1.5-2 24-25 13-21 2-4 0 49755 (a) 5-7 2.25-2.5 24-28 14 3-4 1 (b) | 5-6.5 Tho6) 25-27 | 12-13 4-5 1 @) I a 2-2.25 | 24-25 | 13-14 | 2-4 1 50143 5-6.5 2-2.25 25 13-15 3-4 1 43023 10 3-4 30 9-16 6-7 2-3 SEPTEMBER 1955 BAYER: Localities —Holotype and three paratypes (US.N.M. no. 50148; 49755) from Pelican station 171-5; off Cape Canaveral, Fla., 28° 54’ N., SO° 39’ W., 9 fathoms; January 19, 1940. Paratypes as follows: | US.N.M. no 48023. Grampus station 10470; off Galveston, Tex., 29° 03’ N., 94° 26’ W., 9 fathoms; February 28, 1917. U.S.N.AM. no 438214. Near Corpus Christi, Tex. C.T.Reed. - US.N.M. no. 49758. Albatross station 2387; off Mobile, Ala., 29° 24’ N., 88° 04’ W., 32 fath- oms; March 4, 1885. Remarks——Although there is some diversity, especially in size and stoutness, among the speci- mens examined, it is impossible to separate them on any scientific grounds into species conforming with the three size groups represented. All the specimens agree in: (1) the thick, strongly adherent, closely placed polyp-leaves made up of completely fused autozooids; (2) the absence of any free calycular part of autozooids; (8) the absence of any teeth or tubercles around the autozooid apertures; (4) the multiple rows of siphonozooids between the polyp-leaves; and (5) the very stout, rigid axial rods. There is variation, often between specimens of very similar appearance, in (1) the number of rows of siphonozooids between the leaves; (2) the number of siphonozooids extending out onto the dorsal track; and (3) the relative stoutness of the axis. It seems preferable to retain all of the speci- mens under a single species, at least until enough material becomes available to permit a re-evalu- ation of characters. The specimen from Corpus Christi was briefly mentioned by Miss Deichmann (1936, p. 274), who noted a similarity with Virgularia schultzet. That species, however, has its siphonozooids on the polyp-leaves, unlike the present material. In some respects, Virgularia presbytes re- sembles V. abies (Kélliker) from Japan. The latter has a larger number of autozooids (40) in the leaves, which have sinuous margins, a single row of siphonozooids between the leaves, and a double row on either side of the dorsal track. The species must therefore be considered distinct. Fossil specimens.—The specimens are all three dimensional sandstone casts of molds in silt or silty shale. They have previously been deter- mined as the tracks of mollusks and called ‘“‘bilo- bites” or “Palaeobullias.”” The manner in which individuals may lie one upon another precludes FOSSIL AND RECENT SEA-PENS 299 their being the trails of any organism, and their great similarity in form to certain sea-pens sug- gests that in reality they are casts of those ani- mals. The fact that a Recent pennatulid now living in the Gulf of Mexico can be distinguished by no known scientific means from the casts from Trinidad lends further support to this view. Although the three dimensional preservation of a soft-bodied organism may seem remarkable, it is surely no more so than the preservation of a molluscan trail in the mud. Pennatulaceans live on muddy substrates in which they are anchored by the fleshy, often bulblike, lower end of the stalk. The colony stands erect, with the polypifer- ous portion projecting from the mud. It must be assumed that the living specimens were torn from their normal positions and strewn about over a muddy surface in which they left their impres- sions. Such impressions would have been very fugitive and to be preserved must have been in very quiet waters or exposed to air until filled in and covered over by the material that is now sandstone. The general nature of the formation in which these fossils occur is pertinent to the problem of preservation, and Mr. Kugler’s description of it reads as follows: At its type locality the Pointe-a-Pierre forma- tion consists of about 120 feet of fine-bedded dark grey silt and silty shale with regular intercalations of cubical fracturing quartzitic sandstones and massive coarse grit up to 10 feet thick. The sand- stones show graded bedding and some of the con- glomeratic layers are the result of turbidity cur- rents. Floweasts, the infills of fine-grained sandstone in grooved silt surfaces, are frequent and so are flowage structures inside some very fine grained quartzitic sandstones. An arenaceous as- semblage of foraminifera indicate muddy bottom environment during part of the Claiborn and/or Wilcox time when the Pointe-a-Pierre formation was deposited in a thickness of up to 700 feet, forming some topographically prominent features in the Central Range of Trinidad and Eastern Venezuela. The only megafossil remains found in the Pointe-a-Pierre formation are occasional ‘‘tracks”’ termed ‘‘Bilobites’’ or ‘‘Palaeobullias’’ in private reports. These and also some ‘‘Helminthoides”’ are indicative of ‘‘Flysch’’-like rocks as known from the Carpathians and Alps where they repre- sent foredeep deposits associated with advancing thrust sheets. The nature of such rocks is char- acterized in Trinidad by coarser grains, often silt pebbles; at the bottom of a sand layer. Upwards the coarse material is graded into a finer sandstone and finally into almost varved silt with films of fine comminuted carbonaceous matter separating the silt laminae of 1 to 2 mm. thickness. 300 None of the ‘‘tracks’’ collected was actually found in situ, but mostly amongst the block debris at the base of the cliff at Pointe-a-Pierre or along the coast where the sandstone blocks are exposed to the action of waves. However, amongst the flow casts on the bottom side of some flaggy sand- stones other ‘“‘tracks’’ were found in situ, and the same tracks were also noticed together with “Bilobites,”’ thus rendering a co-existence most likely. All the protruding casts of tracks on the flaggy sandstone surfaces must be infills of hollows formed in the top layer of the silt below. Fig. 305, p. 368, of O. Abel’s ‘“‘Vorzeitliche Lebensspuren”’ (1935) represents conditions almost identical to those at Pointe-a-Pierre. In fact specimen K.9628 from the San Fabian Quarry in the Marie Douleur Valley east of Pointe-a-Pierre, is almost a direct proof of this assertion. When this specimen was found at the face of the quarry, it was still covered with a light grey, silty clay which in fragments is still found sticking between the “‘ribs’”’ of the “‘Bilobites.”? The sand must have filled a mold in the silt and this observation was made on all the samples collected, with the exception of one where the mold of a ‘‘Bilobites’? was found in a fine- grained quartzitic sandstone. This mold must have been filled with silt or a coarser sandstone that subsequently weathered and left the original mold. The grain size and material of the ‘‘Bilobites”’ casts are the same as that of the adjoining part of the flaggy sandstone, hence there could not be a replacement of the tissue of the original animal or plant by mineral matter. This point is stressed on account of the suggestion that ‘‘Bilobites”’ may actually have been a Virgularza-like fossil. The specimens themselves show a wider varia- tion in size than do the Recent individuals thus far examined. They range in width of rhachis from about 3 mm to over 25 mm. The casts are hemicylindrical, usually straight or nearly so; on either side of a median longitudinal groove or suture, which represents the dorsal track or the ventral midline of Recent colonies, there are ob- lique transverse grooves which cut the half-cyl- inder into lappets representing the polyp-leaves. On some specimens the median track is wide, distinct, and grooved, and from the orientation of the leaves obviously represents the dorsal track; on others it is narrow or remains only as a junction line of the leaves of opposite sides and thus represents the ventral midline. The smaller specimens (under 15 mm in diameter) have 8-16 pairs of leaves in 3 cm of length, while the larger ones (17-30 mm in diameter) have only 5 or 6 pairs in the same length. Fig. 2 a-e shows the range of sizes among the fossil individuals, and compares them with casts of Recent specimens, Fig. 2 d-e. All are natural size. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Virgularia sp. In the collection of the Basel Museum is a large sandstone slab measuring about 26 x 22 cm, from | Great Kei Island, which is crossed by a cast of what appears to be a large Virgularia. The width of the cast itself is about 20 mm; there are ap- proximately 35 pairs of obliquely placed lappets roughly 1 cm apart; they converge proximad, in- dicating that it is the dorsal aspect of the colony that is exposed. Although the general configura- tion of the cast indicates a Virgularia, it is not at present possible to assign it to any of the known species. Horizon—Kocene or Oligocene? Locality. Near the village of Ohowait, east coast of the middle part of Great Kei Island, south eastern Moluccas. F. Weber, 1926. Basel Museum. Pteroeides argenteum (Ellis and Solander, 1786)? Fig. 2, f-g A smaller slab from Great Kei shows a cast probably represents a different pennatulid. From the jagged edges of the lappets, one concludes that the species was one with a stong armature of spic- ules in the polyp-leaves. In size and apparent pro- portions it agrees reasonably well with Ellis and Solander’s Pennatula argentea, a Recent species of she East Indies, that has such armature. The photographs, Fig. 2, f and g, show the en- tire slab, reduced, and a detail, natural size. It can be seen from Fig. 2, f, by the way several individ- uals lie on top of one another, that these are the casts of solid objects and not of trails in the mud. Horizon and locality—Same as for the fore- going. Basel Museum. REFERENCES ABEL, OTHENIO. Vorzeitliche Lebensspuren: xv +644 pp., 530 figs. Jena, 1935. Bayer, Frepprick M. New western Atlantic records of octocorals (Coelenterata:Anthozoa) , with descriptions of three new species. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 42(6): 183-189, 1 fig. 1952. Anthozoa: Alcyonaria. In: Galtsoff, P.S. (ed.) Gulf of Mexico; its origin, waters and marine life. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Fish. Bull. 89: 279-284. 1954. DrIcHMANN, EvisapetH. The Alcyonaria of the western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 58: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936. KtKenruant, Witty. Pennatularia. Das Tier- reich. Lief. 48: xv-+132 pp., 126 figs. Berlin, 1915. : Lucas, GasBrieL. Les Cancellophycus du Juras- sique sont des Alcyonaires. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 206(25): 1914-1916. 1938. Précisions sur les Cancellophyucus du Jurassique. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 230(13): 1297-1299, fig. 1. 1950. VoL. 45, No. 9 | Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PRASTOEN Ee Senne ielacie conic tierce ais MarGaret Pittman, National Institutes of Health BIC OSTIETEE-CLOCE So ice ooo eo Siew hs ciate oe < Raupy E. Grsson, Applied Physics Laboratory SEER ern acre a Hernz Spscut, National Institutes of Health Preasurer. oi... 5: Howarp S. Rappiere, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) RERGREOESE eis Ge oe oe ios oeiciecerse, sie ate Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Rewgper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society Of Washington scram stesso stele eteist sates Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington Ree CoRR Soe Frank M. SErzLer Biological Society of Washington....................0.-05: HERBERT G. DIEGNAN Ghemical Society of Washington... <2... 0.06 2.6. c ee cee ene ve Wiituram W. WALTON Entomological Society of Washington. ................ 00 cece eee eee F. W. Poos NatranslGeorraphic Society. . 2... co voces ease ce sinemies ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington....................eeee eee Epwin T. McKnicur Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. CoE Matimbla Historical Society. .....0. s¢.ce-ssseeamecesedse cece: GILBERT GROSVENOR Baranrcalisociety, Of Washington : 25: es. es mccc ance eee este S. L. EMswELier Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorceE F. Gravatt Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ IR, (SID yon; Helminthological Society ofaWashinztone eeeeeer eer cern eee JoHN S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... Lioyp A. BURKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houaex - Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsry District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Meee ane ESS Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals er Nee oe TOC C G. Diaars Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. STEPHAN Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: Thp diame OE are ei ieee ars rae eer rere M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER ie Jinan TC GY Gas ene ee aes ee Cr ener A. T. McPHerson, A. B. GuRNEY POWIANUATVLGOS.. ... ss ..s.e sos St momar SEHR ee W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwALLEN OMT AIOPPMIGRAGETS 52.05... 65.52 caves sone All the above officers plus the Senior Editor LETTE, DY? [BUGS © 0.5 EERE DOE III ir i Gero icices ere eee [See front cover] NG CECULEVELOOTIINULLEE «<0: =, istodii co oh scien OS acne os M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Gipson, H. Spscut, H. S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN Committee on Membership....Roger W. Curtis (chairman), Joun W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Haroxtp T. Cook, Josepu J. Fanny, Francors N, FRENKIEL, PETER Kina, Gorpon M. Kunz, Louis R. MaxwELu, Ftorence M. Mears, Curtis W. SaBRosky, BENJAMIN ScHWARTZ, Bancrort W. Sitrerty, WILLIE W. SmitH, HarRY WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scort (chairman), Harry S. BERNToNn, Harry R. Bortuwick, Hersert G. Deianan, Wayne C. Haut, ALtBert M. STONE Gonurticeion Monograpns..... 22.2025 0+)260 lense G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman) PROMMAR UAT Vs 1956)... 5 scisiss0 6 6 dee eaters wie «ens G. ArtHurR Coopsr, James I. Horrman MonIaMUAnyelOS( an <5 sce ac Hoc s eee ee Harawp A. Reaper, Wriuiam A. DayToNn phopanuary 1958 25 shies e1 ge wisig ode ale Dean B. Cowiz, Josepu P. E. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences.....SarA E. BrRanuHam (chairman), JoHn S. ANDREWS, ' James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Grores, Bernice G. Scuusert, W. R. WEDEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), Joseru M. CALDWELL, R.S. Ditt, T. J. Hickey, T. J. Kintian, Gorpon W. McBripz, E. R. Prore For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonp, Scorr E. Forsusu, Maraaret D. Foster, M. E. Freeman, J. K. Taytor For Teaching of Science....Monror H. Martin (chairman), Keitu C. JOHNSON, Lovurse H. MarsHaLi, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENs Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis O. Rice (chairman), HERMAN Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrrrrenpEn (chairman) orweanuany 1956) ss. cect eee os ene E. C. CritTENDEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE OPIANU Ary] 9518 Greiner ice audios ae seteonee oe JoHuN E. Grar, RayYMonpD J. SEEGER Iho denny WOH opecoonenoscsondens Francis M. Deranporr, FrRaNK M. SETZLER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARCHIBALD T. McPuErson (chairman) ito demuray IQR: os boeeeboconnc sawansomnndes Harrop FE. Fintey, J. H. McMiItien PRopanuarys 1 OS ee ko seiko eae ee hae L. Hwan Yocum, WiLiiam J. YOUDEN PROT ANUARY ODS eae een eth See nMe Os AL Etec A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education. ...RayMOND J. SrEGER (chairman), RoNaLD BAMFORD, . Percy BARNES, Watuace R. Bropt, LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Hueu L. DrypEn, REGINA FLANNERY, Raupu LE. GrBson, Firoyp W. Hoven, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Wruuras W. Rusey, WituaM H. SEBRELL, Waxpo L. Scumrrr, Van Evera, Witiram FE. WRATHER, Francis E. JoHNsTon Representative on Cone of PARMA AL Sie atreay TMT eet Evie ih: SHE chute cet Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRancts E. Jounston, (chairman), S. D. Couurns, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers. . -Raupx P. Tirrster (chairman), E. G. Hamper, J. G. THompson CONTENTS Metrorotocy.—Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in North America. EstHER Louise LARSEN BioLocy.—Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyphomyrmezx rimosus minutus Mayr. Neau A. WEBER in je) (ay 8) (2) 10s) Jel la} s| e| 1e\ (0 je) 0\- 0) 10) )0! lel felielioheiisiisiiellisieielta EntomMoLocy.—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States Na- tional Museum: I, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haema- gogus (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN Stonr and KENNETH L. KNIGHT. EntomoLocy.—New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera). Cart J. Drake and J. MALDONADO-CAPRILES ZooLtocy.—Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent coun- terparts. HREDERICK, Me BbAYER=o-e----c ace oe ee el eee Page 275 282 289 . 294° OcToBER 1955 No. 10 Vou. 45 JOURNAL (SI) OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS FENNER A. CHACE U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM R. K. Coox NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS BERNICE SCHUBERT J. I. HorrMan CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. CowiE PHILIP DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davin H. DUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount RoyraLt & GuILForD AVEs. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 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Monoarapu No. 1, ‘‘The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa,’”’? by Herbert Friedmann $4.50 INDEX to JOURNAL (vols. 1-40) and PROCEEDINGS...............ccseeeeeeees $7.50 PROCEEDINGS, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete.....................00000000- $25.00 Single-volumes; unbound....2: a.ca.0% «ceia5 acne esse oben ese a aoe eee 2.00 Singlenumbers'..0--secrten ese vant eee oan eraen ae ee rere Prices on request Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to the Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue. Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences’ and addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. Rappinys, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 45 October 1955 No. 10 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— Tritium in nature. W. F. Lipsy, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Communicated by R. K. Cook.) (Received July 29, 1955) I. INTRODUCTION Among the products of the collisions of the cosmic rays with the atmosphere which one might expect to find in detectable quantities in nature is tritium, radioactive hydrogen of mass 3, 12.5 half life, 18 years average life, which disintegrates to form the stable isotope of helium of mass 3. Tritium had been sought in natural waters prior to the discovery of its natural radioactivity. The methods used in this early search were inappropriate since they assumed that tritium would be a stable isotope and were not of sufficient sensitivity to detect natural tritium. It was fortunate, however, that the samples prepared for this original search of Lord Rutherford? and his colleagues at the Cavendish Laboratory were available for the search for radioactive tritium. It had been shown from earlier researches’ that the bom- bardment of nitrogen by fast neutrons of energies above 5 million volts produced tritium and the cross section for this reac- tion was such that the neutrons which had been observed by Korff* to be formed by the bombardment of the atmosphere by cosmic rays would produce tritium in suf- ficient yield to cause one to expect it to be observable.® It was speculated at the time that the amount of tritium produced in this manner could easily explain the extra- ordinary abundance of helium 3 in at- 1 The Twenty-fourth Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington, de- livered before the Society on March 25, 1955. *Lord RutTHERFORD, Nature 140: 303. 1937. 3 Cornog, R., and Lipsy, W. F., Phys. Rev. 59: 1046. 1941. 4 Rev. Mod. Phys. 11: 211. 1939. 5 Lippy, W. F., Phys. Rev. 69: 671. 1946. mospheric helium. Helium 3 in atmospheric helium is about | part per million of the total helium, whereas in well or terrestrial helium it is only one-tenth as abundant as in atmospheric. Therefore, we understand that the helium 3 in atmospheric helium is of cosmic ray origin, probably. There is reason to believe that tritium produced by the cosmic rays would be pro- duced in the high levels of the atmosphere, probably above the tropopause, between 30 and 50 thousand feet on the average. It, of course, could be produced at all levels to some extent though it would be most abundantly produced at the highest levels. We further expect that there would be op- portunity for most of the tritium atoms formed to burn to form water and conse- quently that the water of the atmosphere should be radioactive with tritium. An analogous research undertaken in Germany® at about the same time as our first work showed that the tritium might have some difficulty burning to form water by showing that atmospheric hydrogen is especially rich in tritium as compared to atmospheric water, it being about 10,000 times more concen- trated. However, it is still true that over 99 percent of the tritium burns to form water since the atmospheric hydrogen is so ex- tremely rare relative to the moisture of the atmosphere. The Rutherford sample was obtained by Dr. A. V. Grosse and was electrolyzed and converted into deuterium gas, after which the deuterium gas was placed inside a geiger counter. It is necessary to count tritium in 6 Fautines, V., and Harreck, P., Zeit. Natur- forsch. 5A: 438. 1950. 301 wov'7 1958 302 the internal volume of a geiger counter for the reason that its radiation 1s so extremely soft, 19 kilovolt energy upper limit to the beta spectrum. Because of this softness it will not penetrate with any reasonable ef- ficiency througha wall of any finite thickness nor emerge from a solid sample. The deuterium gas obtained by electrolysis and reaction of the heavy water produced with hot zine metal was mixed with a small pro- portion of ethylene gas (1 or 2 em of mercury pressure) and a small amount of argon (about 3 em mercury pressure). This count- ing gas 1s a good geiger counter mixture and performs very well. The counter was shielded by standard anticoincidence techniques and by a thick metal shield.’ The geiger counter had a natural background of about. five counts per minute when so shielded though the volume was nearly eight-tenths of a litre. The electrolyzed heavy water sample produced for Lord Rutherford at an extreme enrichment of any tritium present of nearly ten million fold showed a very appreciable radioactivity. In fact, the radioactivity was so strong that it was several weeks before the failure of the counter to operate in a reliable fashion was understood by diluting the deuterium samples with ordinary hydro- gen gas and observing that the cause of the troubles was the excessive radioactivity of the deuterium gas from the Rutherford sample. The sample had been prepared by the Norsk Hydro heavy water concern by electrolyzing heavy water to further concen- trate any tritium which might have been present in the original water used to make the heavy water. The original water used to make the heavy water in the Rutherford sample came from the Lake Mésvan, which lies on the mountain plateau just east of Bergen in Norway. It was therefore quite certain that the water electrolyzed to form the Rutherford sample was fresh snow water and therefore had not had an opportunity to lose its tritium by radioactive decay. Dr. Grosse, Dr. Wolfgang, Dr. Johnston, and I all worried that the excessive radioactivity found in Rutherford’s sample might be in- advertent in that in 1936 when the sample prepared for Lord Rutherford’s search for 7 ANDERSON, E. C., ARNoLD, J. R., and Lipsy, W. F., Rev. Sci. Instr. 22: 225. 1951. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. IC tritium in nature had been studied in the Cavendish Laboratory heavy water was quite a rare commodity and it might have been used in the deuteron accelerator. Tritium is produced in prolific quantities by the reaction between deuterons and _ this tritium would have easily explained our observations. We therefore asked the Norsk Hydro Company to prepare a duplicate of the Rutherford sample. This was done, and it completely confirmed the assay found in the Rutherford sample. The abundance of tritium® using modern values’ for the frac- tionation factor of the Norsk Hydro plant was 2.4 X 107" atoms of tritium per atom of ordinary hydrogen, a value close to that expected.> As a result of the discovery that rain and snow do, indeed, contain tritium im about the concentration expected, it was decided to pursue the assay of the natural waters of the earth for cosmic ray tritium and to study its possible practical useful applications. Il. METHOD OF MEASUREMENT The water sample to be assayed for tritium content is first distilled in a standard 2-gallon gas-fired still, then is mixed with sodium hydroxide to produce a 3-percent (by weight) solution, and finally is electrolyzed in an iron-nickel anode plant!® to a volume of about 1 ce or less and the deutertum and tritium content of the final product deter- mined. It has been observed that the ratio of the separation factors for tritium and deuterium can be taken as 2.0 within the experimental error of the data which is about 5 percent." This results in the very simple expression, a ne N X Vo T» No X V In this equation 7’ and Ty are the final and original concentration of tritium respec- 8 Grosse, A. V., Jonnston, W. H., Woireane, R. L., and Lipsy, W. F. Science 113: 1. 1951. Material in this article was presented at the First Research Day of Temple University’s Research Institute, September 14, 1950. 9 Harteck, P., private communication. 10 Brown, W. G., and Daaaert, A. F. Journ. Chem. Phys. 3: 216. 1935. 11 KAUFFMAN, S., and Lipsy, W. F. Phys. Rev. 93: 1337. 1954. OcTroBER 1955 LIBBY: tively in the water samples. N is the final concentration of deuterium and WN, is the ‘initial concentration of deuterium which is” 0.0156 percent for ocean water, Chicago rain, 0.0149 percent, Chicago snow, 0.0141 percent.’ If one takes the original volume of water to be 10-20 liters in the case of rains and rivers and 100 liters in the case of ocean water and the final volume to be 0.3 to 0.5 ees the resulting concentration of tritium, T, Is adequate to allow several counts per minute of observable count rate above the i background of about four counts per minute. With this arrangement it has been possible to complete a considerable number of as- says for natural tritium." The general result has been that the average tritium production rate by the cosmic rays 1s about 0.14 tritium atoms per cm? per second of the earth’s sur- face, with a probable error of about 20 per- cent of this number. This is a very large 2 Craig, Harmon, private communication. 13 Figures quoted in earlier publication were incorrect. Numbers given here are the correct numbers. 144 yvonBurtiar, H., and Lissy, W. F., Journ. Inorg. and Nuclear Chem. 1: 75. 1955. TRITIUM IN NATURE 303 yield considering that the intensity of the cosmic rays themselves is somewhere be- tween 0.5 and 1 primary particle per cm? per second. In other words, between one- third and one-seventh of all the primary radiations hitting the earth succeed in pro- ducing a tritium atom. These high yields are being confirmed in studies in progress with Lloyd Currie, Dr. R. L. Wolfgang, and Dr. M. L. Kalkstein in progress at the present time at the Brookhaven Cosmotron which furnishes 2.05 billion volt protons and at the Berkeley Bevatron which furnishes 5.7 bil- lion volt protons. The cross sections for the production of tritium for a wide range of targets encompassing the range of elements have been large. In fact, as an average result one finds that about one-tenth of all the col- lisions in this billion volt energy range produces tritium. This is a large yield con- sidering the small binding energy which tritium has and the essential instability of this particle. However, it does indicate that the cosmic-ray production rate given by the study of the tritium in the waters of the earth is essentially correct. The assay results are given in Table 1. Tie LAB TE al Sa Description of sample (T ean A. Chicago Rains and Snows 5 May 11, 1951. Collected from 1000 to 1200. Storm lasted from evening} 33 + +2 of 10th to afternoon of 11th. 3.81 in. rain. 14 October 14, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from) 20.4 + 0.7 1700 to 2400. 0.70 in. rain. 16 November 17, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from] 37 se 3} 0030 to 0100; 0600 to 0630. 0.31 in. rain. 17 November 18, 1952. Collected throughout storm. Storm lasted from 66.0 + 1.0 2100 of 17th to 1200 of 18th. 0.70 in. rain. 18 November 22-24-25, 1952. Collected throughout storms. Rained 19.3 4+ 1.5 afternoon of 22nd, evening of 24th, all day 25th. 1.13 in. rain. 19 December 2, 1952. Fell during night. 0.29 in. snow. 1352) 421.2 21 January 6, 1953. Fell during afternoon. 0.05 in. snow. 7.1 +4 0.5 22 January 23, 1953. Collected from 1515 to 1530. Storm lasted from 9.0 + 1.0 1200 to 1900. 0.32 in. rain. 30 February 11, 1953. Collected from 0930 to 1245. Light rain all morn- 50 es O.0 ing. 0.03 in. rain. 33 February 16, 1953. Collected 1030. Fell from 0300 to 1400. 0.19 in.| 10.8 + 1.0 snow. 34 February 20, 1953. Collected 1615. Storm lasted from 1530 to 1645. Bo) as (lea) 0.94 in. rain. 38 March 3, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Rain, sleet, and snow 9.4 + 1.0 fell from 1300 to 2000. 0.38 in. rain. 304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 1( TaBLE 1 (Continued) Sample | Description of sample (T PEC eons) 39 March 7, 1953. Collected 1200. Fell from 0800 to 1500. 0.18 in. snow. 9.6 + 0.8 40 March 12, 1953. Collected 1030. Storm lasted from 0900 to 1700. 0.98 4.75 + 0.20 in. rain. 45 March 14, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Rained from 1000 to 1.16 + 0.18 | 1600; 2000 to 2200. 1.05 in. rain. 46 | March 18, 1953. Collected throughout storm. Light rain from 1300 to 19 3208 | 1700. 0.13 in. rain. 48 March 21-22, 1953. Collected throughout storms. Rained night of 3.10 + 0.13 21st, night of 22nd. 0.06 in. rain. 50 | March 31, 1953. Collected from 1030 to 1100. Rained lightly from 9.5 + 0.4 1000 to 1200. 0.07 in. rain. Wtd. Ave. (December to March): 5.5 51 April 3, 1953. Collected from 1000 to 1200. 0.07 in. rain. Yell Ss (oe 56 | April 15, 1953. Collected from heavy rain 1130. 0.60 in. rain. 10.0 + 0.3 61 April 30, 1953. Rained heavily from 1830 to 1915 with thunder and 6.6 + 0.4 lightning. 0.87 in. rain. 67 May 22, 1953. Collected at 0945. Heavy thunderstorm. 0.82 in. rain. 6.7 + 0.3 74 June 5, 1953. Collected from 1530 to 1610. Thunderstorm. 0.43 in, rain. 6.2 + 0.2 76 June 25, 1953. Collected from intermittent rain between 2130 and 7.9 + 0.1 2400. 0.02 in. rain. 77 July 1-2, 1953. Collected between 2300 on July 1 and 0300 on July 2. 4.3 + 0.3 Trace rain on July 1, 0.06 in. on July 2. 79 July 5, 1953. Collected from July 3 to July 6. Storm occurred about CoO Se 16 2200 on July 5. 0.39 in. rain. 86 July 17-20, 1953. Collected from 0930 July 17 to 1600 July 20. Rain- 7.1 + 0.4 storms on morning of July 17, afternoon of July 17, night of July 18, and morning of July 20. Rainfalls were: 0.57 in. July 17; trace July 18; 0.10 in. July 20. 91 August 3, 1953. Collected 1930 to 1945. Trace rain. 3.60 + 0.4 92 August 4, 1953. Collected 1445 to 1455. 0.06 in. rain. 17.0 + 0.4 96 September 4, 1953. Collected 0400 to 1100. 0.50 in. rain. This was the 7.3 + 0.6 first rain after 38 weeks drought. 97 September 18, 1953. Rained very hard—thunderstorm. Collected at| 12.0 + 0.4 2145. 0.63 in. rain. 101 October 18, 1953. Trace rain. 9.8 + 0.9 102 October 26, 1953. First drops collected. Total rainfall was 0.31 in.,| 19.9 + 1.0 but this sample consisted of the first drops. Collected at 1530. 103 October 26, 1953. Same storm as sample No. 102 except water col-| 20.0 + 1.0 lected after three hours of continuous rain. Collected at 1800. 0.31 in. rain. 106 November 20, 1953, Collected 9000 to 1100 from the first part of the 7.8 + 0.9 rainstorm. 0.56 in. rain. 107 November 20, 1953. Collected 1600 at end of rainstorm. 13.5 + 1 109 November 27, 1953. Collected in the morning after an overnight| 34.5 + 0.6 snow. 132 December 2, 1953. Rain. Collected at 1500. 7.85 + 0.25 134 December 2, 1953. Rain. Collected at 1700. 8.3 + 0.3 135 December 3, 1953. Rain. Collected from 0925 to 0930. 5.8 + 0.4 142 December 12, 1953. Rain. 7.8 + 0.3 136 January 20, 1954. Rain. Collected from 0845 to 0855. 10.56 + 0.3 137 January 21, 1954. Snow. Collected at 1700. 18.7 + 0.4 138 January 26, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1000 to 1400. 19.4 + 0.5 139 February 5, 1954. Rain and Snow. Collected after 1700. 23.0 + 1.5 140 February 15, 1954. Heavy rain with thunder and lightning. Collected 9.5 + 0.4 from 1900 to 2200. 141 February 16, 1954. Snowy rain. Collected from 1500 to 1600. 15.6 + 0.7 147 March 2, 1954. Snow fell 1500 to 2400. Shoveled from the ground on} 20.8 + 0.5 March 3, 1954 at 1480. 151 February 20, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1230 to 1315. A ss (O52 166 March 19, 1954. Rain. Collected from 1430 to 1540. 385 + 5 JeTOBER 1955 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE 305 TABLE 1 (Continued) pample Description of sample (T cree cance 167 March 24-25, 1954. Rain. 283 = 168 March 29, 1954. Fresh snow. 196 sz 3 169 March 29, 1954. Collected March 31, 1954, after most of snow had| 145 ss 5) melted. 170 April 7, 1954. Heavy shower. Collected 1530. 248 ss 6 171 April 15, 1954. Short, heavy storm. Rain. Collected 1130-1145. 360 + 6 17. _ April 19, 1954. Collected at 1745. It had been raining since about| 425 + 20 | noon. 175 April 20, 1954. Collected at 0900 during rain on April 21, 1954. 260 + 4 181 | May 26-27, 1954. Collected during rainfall at night. 450 + 10 182. May 27, 1954. Collected at 1105-1110. Different rainstorm from sam-| 416 + 15 | ple No. 181. 183 | June 1, 1954. Collected 0930-0935. Rained previous night and all day.| 390 + $8 | Average tritium content from December 1, 1952 to December 1, 1953 8.2 | weighted according to the total rainfall for storm samples for 27 samples amounting to 12 inches out of the total rainfall of 26 inches. Unweighted average for the samples between December 1, 1952, and 7.8 | December 1, 1953. | Calculated average for rainfall over the past 18 years (Lake Michi- 7.4 |) gan). B. Rains and Snows from Other Areas 42 | Fayetteville, Arkansas, snow. January 23, 1953. 1.17 in. snow. 5.5 0.6 43 | Wilson Springs, Arkansas, rain. Collected on February 10, 1953 in a 2.25 0.8 heavy thunderstorm. 49 | Honolulu, Hawaii, rain. Collected on morning of March 26, 1953 at 0.61 _ Honolulu, 5329 Keikilani Cirele by Mrs. Terry Yoshida. 95 |-Hickham Field, Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected at Hickham Field, 0.59 | July 17, 1953. 98 | Manila, Philippine Islands, rain. Collected 5 June, 1953 at 0.90 the Bureau of Quarantine by Dr. R. Abriol. 110 | Tantalus, Koolau Range, Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected 13 Novem- 0.73 ber 1953. The rain was collected by residents of Tantalus. 120 | Oahu, Hawaii, rain. Collected by pooling the catches of several rain 0.67 gages located at: Lower Laukaka, Nuuahu Reservoir No. 4, Wil. Rise No. 4, Manoa Valley, Palolo Valley, Nuuahu Pali, Kalihi, U.S.G.S. Station, Kaliha, Tunnel No. 2, Kaliha Reservoir Site, Tantalus Peak, Bureau of Water Supply, City and County of tH Ht Ht H It i=) & Honolulu. 121 | Manoa Valley, Hawai, rain. December 1953. Single rain. 1.53 + 0.11 125 Wellington, New Zealand, rain. Collected October 1, 1953 on the Wii. 0.2 roof of the American Embassy at Wellington, New Zealand. The roof had recently been painted and consisted of galvanized iron. The meteorology: a vigorous depression was located at the Tas- man Sea west of Cook’s Strait. It moved ESE and came over Wellington in the early hours of October 2, 1953. Rainfall from the forward side of the depression began when the cloud base was at 3 kilometres. After it began to rain the cloud base moved down to 1 to 2 kilometres and the freezing level was at 2 kilometres. The clouds were alto stratus and nimbo stratus. 126 | Harwell, England, rain. Two gallons collected after a windless week 22.5 + 0.6 on October 24-25, 1953. Artificial tritium from Harwell may have been present in this sample. Sample sent by J. M. Fletcher. 127 Harwell, England, rain. Collected October 26 to 28, 1953. Artificial 25.5 + 0.4 tritium from Harwell may have been present in this sample. 128 Santa Barbara, California, rain. Rain fell on January 23 and Jan- 4.0 + 0.1 uary 24, 1954. Collected by Dr. V. L. Vanderhoof on January 24, 1954 from Mission Creek, Santa Barbara. Total rainfall was 3 | inches. 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10 TABLE 1 (Continued) Sample Hae Description of sample | eee Tae tons) 164 | iene Japan, rains. November, 1953 (4 or 5 storms). Sent by Prof. 6.5 + 0.4 Seishi Kikuchi, Osaka University. 165 Puerto Rico, rain. March 26, 1954. Drained off a tin roof at Ramez 65.6 + 1.2 | Air Force Base. Total rainfall 0.42 inches. 179 | Valparaiso, Chile, rain. April 4 or 5, 1954. After 3 months’ drought. a0) se (0).7 | Rained very heavily for about 36 hours. | Water from Lake Mésvan used to supply the Norsk-Hydro. The| 2.4 Lake Mosvan water probably was melted snow from the winter of 1946 and 1947. The water was taken from the lake at the end of January, 1948. (S) C. Mississippi River 23 Mississippi River, St. Louis, January 31, 1953. 5.6 + 0.6 24 Mississippi River, Rock Island, January 29, 1953. | yoo) se 0.8} 26 | Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 4, 1953. 4.5 + 0.6 27. | Mississippi River, Rock Island, February 6, 1953. | 3.7 + 0.4 28 | Mississippi River, Memphis, February 4,-1953. | 6.0 + 1.0 29 | Mississippi River, New Orleans, February 8, 1953. | 4.7 + 0.3 31 Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 10,-1953. G0 se OY 36 Mississippi River, St. Louis, February 20, 1953. 6.4 +. 0.5 37 Mississippi River, Rock Island, February 24, 1953. | 44 4+ 0.2 44 Mississippi River water from Rock Island. Collected March 16, 1953.) 32) ee OR2 47. Mississippi River water from St. Louis. Collected 0900 on March 17, 5.4 + 2.4 | 1953. 57 | pee River water from Rock Island. Collected 1315 on April] oa) es (0.3) | , 1953. 58 | NRskeiod River water from St. Louis. Collected 1300 on April 17, a0) se (od 1953. 80 | Mississippi River water from Rock Island. Collected on June 30,) 7.2 + 0.7 | 1953. 88 | Mississippi River water from St. Louis. Collected 1320 on July 22,) 7.3 + 0-4 1953. | Average for Rock Island | 4.7 Average for St. Louis 6.0 D. Other Rivers 10 Columbia University distilled water. Collected August 5, 1944. 24 = O01 | (4.5 + 0.2 as of 1953) 15 | Sangamon River, Decatur, August 6, 1952. 1.15 + 0.08 52 | Arkansas River, Conway, Arkansas, March 20, 1953. 3.12 + 0.10 104 Riber Elbe. Collected at Hamburg, Germany, on August 31, 1953. 2.57 + 0.12 105 River Weser. Collected at Bremen on September 1, 1953. 1.76 + 0.10 108 River Rhone. Collected near Lyon, France, on September 10, 1953.| 2.64 + 0.16 111 River Main near Wiirzburg, Germany. September 13, 1953. Collected 1.76 + 0.19 | by Dr. H. V. Buttlar, who collected all the European samples. 112. | River Loire. Collected at Digoin, France, on September 9, 1953. | 2.11 + 0.14 114 Iinglish stream near river Cam. Water taken about one mile from the} 1.25 + 0.10 source (a spring). Collected near Cambridge, England. 122. River Donau. Collected near Ulm, Germany, on September 12, 1953 | | 2.13 + 0.38 123 | River Mosel. Collected near Metz on Senrember 7, 1953. Pyealy ay (0514 124 | River Seine. Collected near Nogent, France, on September 8, 1953. 1.80 + 0.3 131 | River Fulda. Collected near Kassel on September 24, 1953. 2.35 + 0.1 132 | River Rhine. Collected between Geisenheim and Rtidesheim on 3.0 + 0.3 September 7, 1953. 133. | River Marne ae Joinville, collected September 8, 1953. 2.1 + 0.2 143 Shasta Dam, California. January 30, 1954. 2.7 + wil OcTOBER 1955 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE TABLE 1 (Continued) 30 Saraple Description of sample a A rea 144 El Rito de los Frijoles, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. Collected) 27.2 + 0.4 February 7, 1954, at Bandelier National Monument. Sample prob- ably represents average over the winter snowfall in the Jamez. Mountains. Sent by I. C. Anderson. 145 Rio Grande, northwest of Santa Fe, February 7, 1954. The spring @.6 se Os) thaw was beginning to raise the river level, but it had not yet) reached peak volume by any means. Sent by E. C. Anderson.| 146 Winsor Creek, taken February 22, 1954, at Cowles, New Mexico, just 9.9 == 0:2 above junction with Pecos River. Sent by E. C. Anderson. 152. | Rio Guajataca, Puerto Rico, at Lares, collected March 2, 1954. 0.7 3 0.2 153 Rio Arecibo, Puerto Rico, at Utuado, collected March 2, 1954. | eat 02 155 River Tomokoa, Florida, on Route 92 near Daytona Beach, collected) 45.4 + 0.6 March 19, 1954. | 156 Alafia River, Florida, on Route 60 about 20 miles east of Tampa,) @0) se 3 March 22, 1954. | E. Lake Michigan and Other Lakes 7 Distilled water from the Jones Chemical Laboratory at the Uni- Ag) vas Osi versity of Chicago. The intake for the water supply for the southern part of the city is two miles off the shore in southern) Lake Michigan. Collected on May 12, 1952. 8 Jones Laboratory, Tap water, July 7, 1952. 1.35 + 0.25 13 Oak Park tap, hot water heater, ca 12 years old. 0.62 + 0.06(1.2) 25 Jones Chemical Laboratory distilled water. Collected on February) 2.4 + 0.4 6, 1953. 32. ~~ Jones Laboratory, Tap water, February 13-16, 1953. 1.73 + 0.06 100 Jones Chemical Laboratory tap water. Collected on October 26, 1953. 1.59 + 0.10 _ Average for Lake Michigan 1.64 + 0.04 _ Calculated average rain from the depth and area of the lake and the | mean assay for tritium in the lake: 143 | Lake behind Shasta Dam, California, collected by Dr. L. R. Libby 2.7 + 0.15 | probably January 30 or 31, 1954, certainly not later than February | 15, 1954. 148 | Roundout Reservoir, south shore, collected February 6, 1954, by 7.2 + 0.3 | Seth Harris, Lamont Observatory, 500 yards in front of gate off New York 55. Ice cap over whole reservoir. 149 Shandakan Tunnel effluent from Schoharie Reservoir at Allaben, 8.4 + 0.3 | New York, right off route N.Y. 28. Collected February 6, 1954, | by Seth Harris. F. Hot Springs | 453. | Water from the main reservoir at Hot Springs, Arkansas. Collected 2.5 1.4 | on March 18, 1953. 93 Water from the Lardarello, Italy, hot springs near Pisa. These hot} —0.56 + 0.538 springs furnish about 1 of the electric power in the whole of Italy. The water actually was steam from the volcanic fumaroles. 157 Bowers Hot Springs, Bowers Mansion, Nevada, collected on March 10.8 + Il | 11, 1954. 158 | South Steamboat Well, Steamboat Springs, Nevada. Collected 6.2 + 0.4 | March 11, 1954. 159 ~~ Spring No. 24, Steamboat Springs, Nevada, collected March 11, 1954. 7.1 + 0.4 160 Spring No. 50, Steamboat Springs, Nevada, collected March 11,1954.) 47 se 9 161 | Wilbur Springs, Colusa County, California, collected probably on i5@) se Oa March 23, 1954, by Donald E. White, T = 127.2°F. This water is exceptionally high in alkali chlorides, bicarbonates, boron, sul- phide, iodine, and other compounds. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vol. 45, No. 104 308 TABLE 1 (Continued) Sample Description of sample (T FeO aerac) 162 Devil’s Kitchen and Range Spring, The Geysers, collected March 10.8 + 0.4 23, 1954, by D. E. White. T = 202°F. No surface discharge, but) probably slight sub-surface. Vigorous boiling, evaporation from) pool about 15 feet in area. Acid reaction. 163 Magnesia Spring, The Geysers, California, collected March 23, 1954, 11.8 + 0.6 by D. E. White. T = 122°F. Discharge estimated 2 gpm. 176 Hot Springs, Arkansas, main reservoir. Collected at Government 2).92, = 302 | free Bath House, April 29, 1954. | 177. ~~ ~Wilson Springs, Arkansas, drill hole No. 1, collected April 29, 1954.) 2.06 + 0.15 185 Morgan Spring, Lassen Park. Growler Spring. This is near neutral 0.57 + 0.88 alkali chloride-boron-bicarbonate-sulphate spring opposite in type from sample 186. T = 205.4°F; discharge about 8 gpm. Water, believed to be in part voleanic but dominantly of surface origin, circulating deeply and mixing. Collected June 8, 1954. | 186 Sulfur Works, Lassen Park. Big boiling spring. This is an acid spring) 54.2 + 1.2 | typical of most of the Lassen hot springs. T = 190°F, no dis- | charge. These springs appear to result from partial condensation of steam that is probably meteoric in origin. Some direct con-| | tribution of recently fallen snow. Collected June 5, 1954. | G. Well Water 41 | Drill core water from the Wilson uranium prospecting area in Wilson 0.17 + O.11 | Springs, Arkansas. Taken from the drill core on March 6, 1953.) 99 | Water from the 900 feet deep well at the McDonald Observatory at) —0.48 + 0.37 Fort Davis, Texas. Sample given by Dr. Gerard Kuiper of Yerkes (age greater than 50 was pumped in June of 1953. | years) 89 | Champaign-Urbana city well water. Water taken in July 1953 from) 0.18 + 0.05 and | well No. 51, located west of Champaign. This well is 296 feet deep) (age greater than 50 119 and is producing at a rate of 2,225 gallons per minute. The first) years) hundred feet of formation is Wisconsin glacial drift and the next! | 200 feet are Illinoisan and Kansan drift. The very bottom of the | well at 300 feet is at the top of the Pennsylvania system. No-| where in the entire log of the well is any clay formation which would prevent the downseepage of rain. It was therefore thought) that perhaps the well could contain some rainwater. It is gen- | erally thought that the well water which supplies the area is) | ancient and possibly of melted glacier origin. Sample furnished) | by T. E. Larson, Head, Chemistry Sub-division of State Water| | Survey. H. Vintage Wines 54 | Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1952, Naples, New York) 5.3 + 0.3 | | (5.6 + 0.3) 55 | Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1940, Naples, New York, 3.2 + 0.2 | | (6.6 + 0.4) 62 Widmer’s New York Riesling wine, Vintage 1946, Naples, New York 3.63 + 0.16 I" (5.4 + 0.3) 63. | Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1929, Tain, Droéme, France. 1.13 + 0.38 | | (4.8 + 1.4) 64 Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1942. Tain, Dréme, France | 2.15 + 0.21 (8.92 + 0.4) 65 Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1947, Tain, Dr6éme, France. | 2.15 + 0.28 | (3.0 + 0.3) 66 | Hermitage Rhone wine, Vintage 1951, Tain, Dréme, France. | 3.4 + 0.4 | | (3.8 + 0.5) 69 | Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1928, France. | 1.16 + 0.16 (4.6 + 0.7) OcroBER 1955 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE 309 TABLE 1 (Concluded) pample Description of Sample (T Saree 70 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1934, France. 1.16 + 0.30 (3.3 + 0.9) 71 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1939, France. 2.6 = 0.4 (5.6 + 0.9) 72 Chateau Laujac Bordeaux wine, Vintage 1945, France. 2.70 + 0.18 | (4.2 + 0.3) 83 Sherry, Vintage 1942, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. | 1.93 + 0.27 (8.55 + 0.5) S4 Sherry, Vintage 1947, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. | 1.99 + 0.55 (2.67 + 0.75) 85 Sherry, Vintage 1951, Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. 2.73 + 1.0 (3.0 + 1.0) K. Sea Water Samples 75 Sea water collected from the beach at Santa Moniea, California, on 0.54 + 0.02 June 8, 1953. 115 Sea water collected from the surface of the Gulf Stream on Septem- 0.19 + 0.05 ber 11, 1953, at 38° 5’ N, 69° 30’ W. The water temperature was 82°F. This was collected by the ship, Vena, by Mr. Bruce Heezen, Chief Scientist from the Geophysics Section of the Geology De- partment, Columbia University, the Lamont Laboratory. This is Lamont Sample No. T-32. 116 ~| Atlantic sea water taken in Sargasso Sea at 34° 00’ N, 62° 50’ W. 0.29 + 0.02 Temperature of the water was 81.5°F. Collected following a light’ drizzle. Lamont Sample No. T-28. 117 Atlantie sea water taken from 300 miles from New York on the con- 0.55 + 0.04 tinental slope at 30° 20’ N and 71° 30’ W. The water temperature was 75°F. Lamont Sample No. T-34. | 154 Atlantic sea water from the Sargasso Sea at 34° 00’ N. 52° 35’ W. IG se Ozil Temperature of the water was 81.5°F. Collected September 7, 1953, immediately following a light drizzle of 1 hour. Lamont) Sample No. T-25. L. Miscellaneous 9 | Cistern, Decatur, collected August 6, 1952. Covered loosely about 29 5.9 + 0.5 | years ago. 12 | Cistern, Sullivan, Illinois, collected August 6, 1952. Covered with 2.9 + 0.2 | tight iron lid about 14 years ago. (6.38 + 0.4) 20 | Fire extinguisher, Skokie, [llinois. Filled June 5, 1936. 12.5 + 0.5 | (82 + 1.2) 75 | Pacifie Ocean, Santa Monica, California. June 8, 1953. 0.54 + 0.02 IV. DISCUSSION Recently it has been shown that the tritium produced by the cosmic rays is pro- duced only in part by the neutron reaction mentioned earlier, a large fraction of the tritium being produced by the direct inter- action of the primary cosmic rays with the air.!° It would seem reasonable that whatever the mechanism be by which the cosmic rays produce tritium by bombarding the air, the 15 FIREMAN, E. L. Phys. Rev. 91: 922. 1953. production rate should vary with latitude in a manner not too dissimilar from that in which the secondary neutrons vary.!® Simp- son has published data for the variation in neutron intensity with latitude at 30,000 feet altitude. Using these data, we can calcu- late the expected ratio of the worldwide average production rate of tritium, Q (T atoms per cm? per second) to the local pro- duction rate, Q, for various localities. For 16 Simpson, J. A., Jr., Phys. Rev. 83: 1175. 1951; 84: 335. 1951. 310 example, at Lake Mésvan, Norway, the local Q should be multiplied by 0.58 to obtain Q. At the approximate center of the Mississippi Valley the factor would be 0.64, and at Chicago it would again be 0.58. In this way the data given in Table 1 can be treated and corrected for the expected varia- tion in latitude, though this variation has not yet been completely proved for natural tritium. The most striking new development in the nature of the results of the assay of natural tritium is included in section K of Table 1, the data on surface sea-water samples. Whereas we had originally supposed that the waves would certainly mix the sea to such an extent that the tritium would be undetect- able in surface sea water, we find that indeed this is not so and that surface sea water does contain tritium. Four results given in Table 1, the beach water at Santa Monica (sample 75), the continental shelf Atlantic water (sample 117), the Gulf Stream sample (sample 115), and the Sargasso Sea (sample 116) all strongly indicate that there is definitely measurable tritrum in the surface waters. In order to understand this we should know that uniform mixing to a depth of 113 meters would give an average T-value just equal to Q. This result is obtained if one assumes that all tritium finds its way into the sea eventually before decaying into helium 3—in other words, that the storage in ground water and in the atmosphere is negligible relative to the runoff and direct rain into the oceans. Since, as we will show later, there is little doubt that Q is between 0.1 and 0.2 T atoms per cm? per second, one observes that the results in Section K_ of Table 1 would correspond to a mixing depth of about 100 metres. This comment assumes that the two coastal water samples are high because of rains from the neighboring conti- nents, which are richer, and takes the samples from the Gulf Stream and the Sar- gasso Sea as being more typical of the open ocean. It seems likely that Q is probably less than 0.25, the average of the Gulf Stream and the Sargasso Sea samples, so we may expect that future measurements will show that the sea mixes to a depth of about 50 metres in the lifetime of tritium. This result is in agreement with the notion JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10 that some stratification exists in the sea below the surface at a depth of 50 to 100 meters. Measurements of the isotopic oxy- gen in air dissolved in Pacific Ocean water as a function of depth showed a point of inflection in the isotope ratio at a depth of about 100 meters,’ and the Baltic is known to behave as almost completely stratified — with the bottom of the surface layer lying at about forty meters.'® Though further measurements will be re- quired to establish the tritium content of the surface of the ocean, it is clear that this tritium content is low, and water vapor evaporated from the sea is essentially tritium-free. It probably would be well to calculate Q assuming sea-water vapor on the average to have about 0.25 T atoms per 10° H atoms. Using this we can set up an equation which expresses the balance be- tween the production and decay processes: 7, (T, — 0.25) = 4.70, (2) where r, is the average annual precipitation over the seas in meters, T, is the average tritium content of sea rain in T atoms per 108 H atoms, and Q is the cosmic-ray tritium production rate in T atoms per em? per second. The factor 4.7 is a numerical con- stant arising from the units. Equation (2) simply assumes that no appreciable storage of tritium in the atmosphere for times com- parable to the lifetime of trittuam—18 years, average life—occurs, and that essentially all the tritium forms water. The latter assump- tion is well justified by the measurements of the tritium contents of atmospheric hydro- gen that have been made, which indicate well less than 1 percent of the tritium is found in this form. The value of rf, used is 0.77 meter per year.!® Using the data in Table 1 and the latitudinal variation factor described above, we see that T, should lie between 0.9 and 1.0. This gives Q values of 0.11 and 0.12, respectively. This calculation involves the implicit assumption that the tritium made over the 17 RaKEsTRAW, N. M., Rupp, E. P., and Mr. Doug, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 73: 2976. 1951. 18 GUSTAFSON, T. and KULLENBERG, B. Svenska Hydrografisk-Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter Ny Serie: Hydrografi XIII. 19 RaANKAMA, K. and Sawama, Th. G., Geo- chemistry, Chicago, 1950. OcTroBER 1955 oceans is precipitated into the oceans. We know, however, that on the western coasts of the continents considerable tritium from the skies over the seas precipitates on land. Also, our measurements show that rains on the east coast of continents are much higher in tritium. Thus the sea rain just east of the eastern continental coasts must be much richer in tritium than T, as though land- born tritium were precipitating into the sea. In view of the prevailing westerly direc- tions of the winds in the regions measured, these results suggest that Q may be some- what higher than indicated by the ocean data. We can make similar calculation for the land areas by using the Mississippi Valley average of 6 multiplied by the latitudinal factor 0.6 as a worldwide average for land rain. It seems that the continental rains must be richer than sea and coastal rains, for two reasons. First, the length of time that the moisture is exposed to contamination by cosmic-ray tritium after leaving the ocean is greater, and secondly, there is less moisture in the air over the continents than over the oceans and coastal regions. This raises the specific activity, that is, the number of tritium atoms per hydrogen atom. We thus obtain pi(6 X 0.6 — T.) = 4.70 (3) where p; 1s the worldwide average runoff from the land, and the average composition of ocean rain is subtracted to correct for the tritium content of the sea-water vapor com- ing in over the western coasts and the Gulf of Mexico. The value of p; used is 0.28." The runoff must be used in equation (3) because re-evaporation allows a given tritium atom to be precipitated more than once over land. Only transport into the sea where wave ac- tion dilutes the tritium accomplishes the fixation on the surface, and even in this case as we have seen previously the fixation is not complete. The value of Q so derived is 0.16. Therefore we conclude Q is likely to be close to 0.14, probably to within 20 percent. Using this result, we calculate the ex- pected tritium contents for average ocean rain and surface-ocean waters on the as- sumption of uniform mixing to 50 meters. LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE dll These results are given in Table 2. It is pleasant to observe the agreement with the data given in Table 1. TABLE 2.—CaLcULATED LocaL Tritium Propuc- EXPECTED TION Rates, Q, AND OcEAN Rain AND SuRPACE WATER TriTIUM ConTENTS Be SS o * E “S ate Locality E 3e ES 3 | et] 6& 2 & | $s] 83 Sle Ie ie Chicae ona cea es eee 0.58'0.24 |2.0 |0.55 Norway and the North At- lantichOceanken sss eee en: 0.55|0.26 |2.2 |0.58 Mississippi Valley........... 0.60/0.23 |1.9 |0.58 Honolulu and the Hawaiian TS Va'cl Siete re te epee te setae a 1.90)0.073/0.65}0.17 New Orleans, San Francisco, Southern Italy, Southern SDAIN reer ret 1.00/0.14 |1.2 |0.32 IRUCTEORRICOMe en an eee 1.25)0.17 |0.96/0.26 Marshall Islands:...........- 2.40/0.058)/0.48/0.13 It is obvious that the data in Table 1 for samples collected later than March 15, 1954, are not germane to our principal point—the cosmic ray tritium. These high numbers were the consequence of the thermonuclear tests in the Pacific in the spring of 1954. Most of our considerations in this paper will ignore them, except in connection with the samples from the hot springs. In this case, the principal question, whether the springs run rain water or not, can be answered nearly as well with the contaminated rain as with the normal rain. In fact, the appearance of unusually radioactive water in the effluent water in several springs must indicate turn- over times of a few days or weeks, at most, since the test series began on about March 1. The one rain from Chile collected on April 4, 1954, showed no contamination, while all Northern Hemisphere rain and river waters tested showed it for March 15 onward. Ap- parently the mixing of water vapor across the equator is much slower than is the east- west mixing. The large fluctuations in the tritium con- tents of successive rains in the Chicago area, excluding the large rise in March 1954 due to the test activities in the Pacific, require special consideration in a meteorological 312 sense. Our basic equations (2) and (3) for the relations between the tritium content, T, and the cosmic-ray production rate, Q, are based on the assumption that tritium cannot stay in the air for years even if it is formed well above the tropopause—the stagnant layer at 30,000 to 50,000 feet between the strato- sphere and the troposphere in which the normal weather phenomena occur. Half of the tritium probably is produced on the average above the tropopause. We assume that it cannot stay up there for times com- parable to 18 years—the average life of tritium. This assumption does not mean, however, that it may not mix horizontally in an east and west and in a north and south direction rather well due to stratospheric winds before penetrating through the tropo- pause and being precipitated. Whatever evi- dence for latitudinal variation of Q is to be found in Tables 1 and 2 should be taken as indicating that the stratospheric storage time is less than the north and south horizon- tal mixing time. Assuming perfect vertical mixing, we can speak of the atmospheric moisture content, w, in meters of water per cm’, and the storage time, 7 in years, for the moisture in the air, counting total time elasped in the air after the moisture leaves the ocean and until it returns eventually to the sea as rain or snow or runoff river water. These quanti- ties then will be related to the tritium con- tent of rain, T,, and the production rate Q, for the open sea by _ 4.7Qr ee hil To ae w (4) where Ty is the tritium content of ocean- water vapour. For the continental areas this simple equation does not hold, because re- evaporation of precipitated moisture without dilution is an important phenomenon. The values of w are not well known, but it seems likely from available studies?®: 2! 20 Jacoss, W. C., The energy exchange between sea and atmosphere Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. 6(2): 22-122. 1951. 21 BenTON, G.S., Estoque, M. A., and Domrn- 11z, J.. Johns Hopkins Univ. Department of Civil Engineering Scientific Report no. 1, Contract AF 19(122)-365 of the Geophysics Research Division of Air Force Cambridge Research Center. 1953. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 10 that the range of values will be 0.01 to 0.03, with corresponding average +r values of 0.013 and 0.039 or 4.7 days and 14 days, respectively. At an average wind velocity of ten miles per hour these numbers corre- spond to transport distances of 1,100 and 3,300 miles respectively. It is clear that in general land rain should be richer in tritium than sea rain because the atmospheric residence time should be longer and because the mositure content, w, should in general be lower. However, it remains to apply the equa- tion to air masses of known w and with known trajectories so that the variation of Q with latitude can be introduced. It is to be hoped that careful coordination of meteorological data with tritium assays will yield results of importance to meteor- ology in general. An attempt has been made to understand the variations of the tritium activity in single rainstorms. Forty samples of indi- vidual storms were collected on the campus of the University of Chicago over a period of more than a year. These samples correspond to 16.23 inches of rain, or 46 percent of the total rainfall during this period. The T average of these rains, weighted by the amount of rainfall, gives 8.8 units, which compares reasonably well with the Lake Michigan assay of 7.4. (The Lake Michigan assay of 1.64 is used to calculate the com- position of the rain supplying the lake.) Approximate values for w were computed from radio sounding data for the period of December 2, 1952, to November 20, 1953: monthly means from the Weather Bureau Technical Paper no. 10 had to be employed for the period from November 20, 1953, to March 2, 1954. Values for w(T — To) are given in Table 3. While the measured values for T show a minimum in winter, it can be seen that this effect is over-compensated by multiplica- tion with the amount of precipitable water in the air, thus yielding the total tritium ac- cumulated in the air mass. One then ob- tains a maximum in summer. This is prob- ably due to the following causes: (1) In summer the wind velocities are lower, there- fore the air mass is exposed longer to the tritium production. (2) It is known that the OcTOBER 1955 continent is a water donor during the sum- mer-time. This means that the air mass | picks up tritiated water from the continent. In winter the large water sources for the atmosphere is the ocean, which is almost dead in tritium. TABLE 3.—RAINFALL DATA AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHiIcaGco Campus } | Monthly } nonin | exceantiat Date | Ds E—To} cfeme | Joliet, Il. |w (L — To) | | iegee | for win g/cm? | | 12-252 | 13.2 |12.95| 1.2 | 1.0 1505 mosey | 6.85 | 0.5 | 0.8 3.4 oO), | 8.75 | 1.8 a5 e7 2-11 EeOM 4.75: |. 2.0 | 9.5 irons 10.55 | 0.7 | 0.85 | 7.4 | 2-20 ese st05. |) 2.1 6.4 oa omens 9215; | 01.0 9.2 27 feotGn| 9.35 | 0.8 7.5 312 Aerio | 2.2) | 0.98 9.9 eigen | 7.65 | 2.1. | 16.1 BE /22)\) 3 DB |) = 3-31 9.5 | 9.25] 2.5 Dorel 4-3 Ouieelins85'|| 1.8 15.9 159) |) 1050) | 9.75 | 1.5 1.48 14.6 4-24 GLOMSL75 | 4.2 36.7 430 GRGMNIGS35 | 216). | 16.5 5-22 Ceion4 5) 8) 215, |) 30.9 6-5 Guignjseg) | 8.25 || 3h2 19.2 6-25 eon meee | 401 31.4 7D) 43 | 4.05) 4.5 See 7-5 7.6 708 | BO | BLES | BG TAT/20\" 71 Gia | = S28) 2G || Bowe CeO. A eis) 16.4 S-4 MOM Garb: | 2401 68.8 9-4 7.3 7.05 | 4.3 30.3 2:5 9-18 1OzOMa 753) 3-3 38.8 10-18 9.8 | O65) 10 1.8 13,9 10-26 | 19.9 | 19.65 | 2.6 51.1 11-20 es 70S |) 98 20.4 11-20) |) 1325: | 13.25 1,2 15.9 He Ovaeg4e5) || 34.25 41.2 10" 2/3027 .3 7.05 1.0 Gol 1-20-54 | 10.5 | 10.25 8.2 1-21 18.7 | 18.45 0.8 14.7 1-26 19.4 | 19.15 15.3 2-5 23.0 | 22.75 19.3 2-15 9.5 | 9.25 0.85 7.9 2-16 15.6 | 15.35 13.0 2-20 AD |) B08 3.4 3-2 20.8 | 20.55 0.03 || 20.0 LIBBY: TRITIUM IN NATURE 313 The argument that the vertical mixing may not be complete would yield a high value in summer also, since thunderstorms in summer are known to reach higher up than snowstorms in winter. But our measure- ments do not support this thesis, since thunderstorms do not average higher than rains, while snow in general seems to be quite active. The data given in Table 1, section H, on the tritium contents of vintage wines, to- gether with the comparison of the Lake Michigan average as shown in section E with the general average for the rainfall in the Chicago area, show that without doubt the tritium content of rain up to March 15, 1954, was essentially the same as it had been for the last eighteen years. It is clear, also, of course, that if the calculation can be made for Lake Michigan in which the hydrology is known, and if the checks are satisfactory, that in the case of an unknown lake the measurement of the tritium and a compari- son with the rainfall for the general region should give the hydrology, or at least some data on it. For example, the average depth might be calculated, or the average storage time for water in the lake. The application of natural tritium to the determination of the storage or holdup time for ground waters may be of consider- able importance. Some applications have been made and are given in sections F and G of Table 1. In section F data are given for natural hot springs. It seems likely that all] of the hot springs utilize surface water except the Lardarello (sample 93) near Pisa, which actually was steam from volcanic fumaroles, the Wilbur Springs at Colusa, Calif. (sam- ple 161), and the Morgan Spring at Lassen Park, Calif. (sample 185). The wells tested and reported in section G gave old water in agreement with ex- pectations. The lower limit of the age of these waters is 50 years. Thus we cannot distinguish water older than 50 years from very old or juvenile water. It is clear from an examination of the data in section H of Table 1 that tritium allows one to determine the age of wine. It is also clear that the water in the wines has essentially the same tritium content as the 314 rain of the general area. For example, the Widmer Winery near Rochester, N. Y., shows a general tritium assay of 5.8 + 0.3, in good agreement with what one might expect in view of the results for the Missis- sippi Valley as a whole. The French wines in the Rhéne Valley near Bordeaux run around 31% or 4 of our units; Spanish wines about 3, which within the experimental error agrees with the general rainfall average for the area which is shown by the river- water assay. Therefore it is relatively cer- tain that agricultural products can be dated and also that the presence of rainwater in the agricultural products can be determined. It would be interesting, of course, to test for pumped irrigation water which might possibly be ancient in character, just how effectively the water was incorporated into the crop. To balance the cosmic-ray production of tritium, there must be some mechanism for the product of the radioactive disintegra- tion of tritium, helium 3, to escape from the earth. Being helium, no chemical compounds can be formed, and being nonradioactive, no nuclear transformations. Therefore, every second for each square centimeter of the earth’s surface, 0.14 helium 3 atoms must escape on the average if the cosmic rays have been constant in intensity. A direct analysis of the air shows that there are 1.5 X 10" helium 3 atoms per em? of the earth’s surface. Therefore, we calculate that on the average a helium 3 atom must stay on the earth 34 million years. This escape time may well be about half this, since it 1s probable that the cosmic rays can also pro- duce helium 3 directly as well as through the tritium, but it seems unlikely that this JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10 | would do more than double the total rate of production of helium 3. Therefore we rather definitely can say that if the cos- mic rays have remained constant for the | past 50 or 100 millon years, the amount of helium 3 on earth is such as to indicate an escape time of between 20 and 40 million years. This is a rather reasonable magnitude considering the probable escape time for helium 4, as judged from other evidence. One finds in the acceptability of this result some evidence that the cosmic rays indeed have remained constant for this great pe- riod of time. It is by no means obvious that on a time- scale of 18 years the cosmic rays should re- main completely constant, if any appre- ciable portion of them are connected with the solar sunspot cycle of 11 years’ duration. The data given in this report so far, however, indicate that there is no real evidence that the present rate of cosmic-ray generation of tritium is any different from what it has been over the past 18 years. V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author and his colleagues, Drs. Grosse, Wolfgang, Johnston, Kauffman, vonButtlar, Begeman, and Martel, are all extremely indebted to the Office of Scientific Research of the Air Research and Develop- ment Command of the U. 8. Air Force for the support of this research. We wish to thank also the many individuals who fur- nished samples of water and other materials used. We are very grateful to Wiliam Tim- mons for extremely able and devoted opera- tion of the electrolytic plant for concentrat- ing the water samples. OcToBER 1955 C. LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 315 MATHEMATICS.—Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. C. Lanzcos,! Dublin In- stitute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, Eire. (Communicated by R. K. Cook.) In honor of Lyman J. Briggs on his eightieth birthday (Received May 20, 1955) A method is herein described which trans- forms the search for the real eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix into the search for hidden periodicities of a function com- posed of periodic components. The applica- tion of the Fourier transform displays the entire eigenvalue spectrum of the matrix in the form of sharp maxima of a Fourier spectrum, in analogy to the operation of a spectroscope. The method is well suited for the big electronic calculators and has the advantage of simple programming, com- bined with high precision. The same method yields an iterative solution of large-scale lmear algebraic systems. 1. The search for hidden periodicities. The spectroscope is a physical instrument con- structed for the purpose of resolving an arbitrary superposition of periodic functions into its components. Let f(t) be of the fol- lowing form: f@) = a cos mt + --- + Gy COS Vat (1.1) + by sin vyt + --- + 6, sin vy. Then the spectroscope transforms this func- tion of ¢ ito a new function F(v) of the frequency v, in the following manner. At certain definite values y = »; sharp lines ap- pear, the “spectral lines,’ whose intensity is proportional to ~/az + b2. In view of the finite resolving power of the instrument, however, the lines are not sharp but have a finite width. This means that the light intensity is not concentrated at the discrete frequencies vy = v; but falls off continuously according to the law sin (v — v,) rN (vy — v;) rN The larger the \, the greater is the resolving power of the spectroscope. The following method of analyzing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a symmetric 1 Former staff mathematician, National Bureau of Standards. matrix (or more generally of any matrix whose eigenvalues are all real) is called “spectroscopic”? because it imitates mathe- matically the operation of a spectroscope. The great accuracy of spectroscopic ob- servations is caused by the high resolving power (large N) of spectroscopic instru- ments. In our operations the value of V will remain within limits which are modest in comparison to the values encountered in physical spectroscopy. And yet the high precision of spectroscopic measurements will be realizable (order of magnitude 10°), because of the great accuracy with which the basie function f(¢) is available. Let us assume that f(é) is given at the equidistant values of ¢. (UA) b= 0, me Ber, 2° 5 Ae We introduce the notation . (GES) pe = and restrict all 6; to the range [0, 7]. More- over, for our present purposes the sine analysis will not be needed. Hence we assume that the following sequence of ordinates is at our disposal: Yr = a cos k6, + ae cos kd, + --- + a, cos ké, . (eS OF ly BH eee 5 IN) (1.4) The aim of the spectroscopic analysis (also called ‘“‘search for hidden periodicities’’) may be characterized as follows: Given the ordinates y, = Yo, Yi, °°: , Yn, find the hidden frequencies », (or the @, which are proportional to them), and the associated amplitudes a; . 2. Solution by Fourier analysis. The solu- tion of our problem can be given by the method of the Fourier transform (cf. [1], p. 99) suitably modified for the case of dis- crete data. The process of cntegration has thus to be changed to a process of swmma- 316 tion. We define the following function of the continuous variable é: F(E) = 14 yo + 1 COS a8 (Pall) + Yo COs mes a 888 Se Wy COS ae: This function is periodic with the period 2N. Moreover, it is an even function of £: JO(=(3) = IN Hence it suffices to reduce the range of & to [0, N]. We will restrict ourselves to integer values of £:& = k, which are of par- ticular interest. Hence we will put Pk) = ux = 14 Yo ar Oe cos a5; k + 16 yw cos N Sh. These u can be plotted as isolated ampli- tudes at the equidistant abscissas k = 0, 1, 2, --- , N. The sharp maxima of these amplitudes? will reveal the frequencies which are present in the original function f(t) and the strength with which they are represented. We shall first write down the Fourier transform F(£) of the specific function yx = a; cos k0;. However, for the purposes of mathematical operations it will be con- venient to replace the frequencies 6; by proportional quantities, to be denoted by Pi: (2.3) us 0, = Pin: Let us introduce the following function of x: 14 sin rx eos 55 (2.4) a g(x) = Then we obtain Cx) 1) = WO = 8) sr OW ar &) 2 For the sake of distinction we will refer to the y; (equidistant ordinates of the given function f(t)) as the ‘‘ordinates,’’ and the uz (equidistant ordinates of the Fourier transform) as the ‘‘ampli- tudes.” JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10 For all practical purposes the function (2.4) can be replaced by the simpler function . sin TL Wa (2.6) o(x) = An ideal situation exists when all the p; of | a given problem are integers. Then Tv 6; = is 2. + (2.7) N? where m; is an integer between 0 and JN. The Fourier transform u; of the function (2.8) T Ya = ean ay” is now reduced to a single line at the point The dis- tribution of the wu, consists now of isolated lines. The position and magnitude of these lines determine directly the 6; and the a; . In the general case we can put (2.9) p=m+., where m is an integer and ¢ a quantity be- tween 0 and 1. In this case we no longer ob- tain a single line for the Fourier transform of a cosine function, but a group of lines clustered around the maximum at k = m, with slowly decreasing amplitudes. We will write k = m;, with the amplitude ae ; (2.10) k=m+u (u = integer) and obtain as the transform of the function cos @a the amplitudes N sin ex (—1)* aT mS (Zz) om C= fp The sharp peak at u» = 0 is still there but the neighboring amplitudes are no longer zero. They fall off rather slowly (if € is near to 14), with alternating signs, and influence the position of other maxima, if these max- ima are not separated by large distances, e., If N is not excessively large. We can greatly reduce the mutual inter- ference of neighboring peaks if instead of operating with the amplitudes themselves we OcToOBER 1955 Ce investigate each combination of three neigh- boring amplitudes. The second difference of the function 1/(e — x) falls off with the third power of « — x and hence becomes quickly negligible. In view of the factor (—1)° in (2.11), the second difference has to be replaced by the second swm: (2.12) UR = U-1 — Qu. ~ Unk41 - The sign of the u;, generally alternates be- tween + and —, but this regular + pattern is occasionally disturbed by a + +, or — — sequence. This irregularity reveals the near- ness of a peak, regardless of the magnitude of the w.. We underline each + + or — — pair and draw all further conclusions from them and their neighbors. The order m of the amplitude w,,, belonging to the first member of the pair, constitutes the integer part of p. The fractional part ¢ is now deter- mined as follows. We can put (2.13) Vian = GD e— Then 2 1 ] fee e= ae) 26 214 = ——.,, ( ) e(1 — &) 2 Om1 = 28 e(1 — &)(2 — &) We now form the ratio 2 Vm 2 —= G (2.15) a Peas Tee, whence : 27 (2.16) e= eras The strength 8 of the peak is evaluated as follows: (ali) — el — 6) (Wim Uni) Finally, going back to the original frequency and amplitude of the cosine component of the function (1.1), we get LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 317 eT (2:18) SW GEE B and (2.19) 6, = (m+) = This method of resolving a function, given in equidistant ordinates, into its periodic components is more accurate than the customary numerical schemes pursued in the “search for hidden periodicities” (cf. [9], p. 349). It is shaped to the demands of a problem in which the basic ordinates ya are given with high accuracy; we need not rely on the assumption that the frequencies which are present in f(t) are necessarily widely separated. If N is sufficiently large (order of magnitude 1,000) and the func- tional ordinates given with an accuracy of 10 °, we can obtain an accuracy of 10 ° or higher, for the determination of the 6; . 3. The Chebyshev polynomials. Let x be an ordinary algebraic quantity, lmited to a real positive range between 0 and 1. We generate a succession of polynomials by the following recurrence relations (cf. [10], p. XI): = | — 2% by => (al = 2x)b; = bo 3 = AC = Zan = (oh by = 2(1 i 2x) by—1 = Dito The quantities thus generated have the fol- lowing significance: (3.2) b. = cos k6, where (3.3) sin’ 5 = 4p. We now replace x by the matrix A. If we assume that the eigenvalues of A are all real, positive, and lmited to the range (0, 1], we may construct the ‘operating matrix” 318 (3.4) C = 2] — 4A and generate a succession of vectors by the following iteration scheme; where bo is an arbitrary trial vector: b, = 146Cbo bo = Cb. =z bo b; = Ch. — by (SED) by = Coy wa by» : Let us analyze bo in the reference system of the principal axes of A. We will call these principal axes w,, We, °°* , Wn; (3.6) bo = Bw; +— Bows -= +>: + BrW . Then by. (B, cos k0;)wi + (2 cos kA.) we (B21) + --- + (8, cos k0,)w, where the 6; are in the following relation to the eigenvalues \; of the matrix A: ele COSC, bo] S ~S) (3.8) \; = sin’ We will now pick out one definite component b.—e.g., the first component of each suc- cessive vector b,—and consider this one- dimensional sequence of quantities as the yx.-sequence (1.4): (3.9) Us OS, One, OS”. wa ae Oe We subject this sequence to a Fourier analy- sis, obtaining the amplitudes (2.2). The isolated maxima of this sequence, evaluated according to sec. 2, will determine all the é—and thus also all the \;—with high precision. 4. Programming for the large electronic calculators. In contrast to the author’s earlier method of ‘‘minimized iterations” (cf. [4]; see also [2] and [8]), the present method is far less economical in the number of iterations employed. The total number of iterations N must exceed the order n of the matrix by a factor of 10 to 20, in order to guarantee the proper independence (and thus easy separability) of the peaks. On the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 10 other hand, the present method recommends | itself by the simplicity of the operations and the ease of its programming for the elec- tronic computer. Since the successive itera- | tions follow each other quite automatically without any disturbance, the generation of the b, vectors is a quick process, even in the case of large matrices. Moreover, in the previous method the eigenvalues )\; did not appear explicitly but had to be obtained as the roots of an algebraic equation. In the present procedure, the eigenvalues come directly in evidence by the position of the maxima of a set of Fourier amplitudes. Furthermore, the usual difficulty of properly protecting the small eigenvalues against the encroachment on the part of the large eigenvalues is here completely circumvented by the method of projecting them on a semicircle with the radius 14. On the circle the question of magnitude loses its meaning, and all eigenvalues come into play on an equal footing. In this manner, a_ single Fourier analysis is able to display the entire spectrum of a matrix. tL 2 1 =k $ cos 6 | The procedure consists of two phases: 1. The generation of the vectors b, . 2. The Fourier analysis of these vectors. The latter analysis need not be carried out with the entire vector but only with a single component of each of these vectors. In actual practice, it is advisable to isolate two sets of components. We can use the second set for checking purposes and also for the testing of multiple eigenvalues, as we will see later, in sec. 9. The symmetry of the matrix A is not required. It suffices to know that all the eigenvalues of A are real.’ However, the 3 The case of complex eigenvalue will be treated in a subsequent paper. OcToBER 1955 C. LANZCOS: symmetry of 4 has an important advantage. li A is symmetric, then the eigenvectors w; are orthogonal to each other. Since we de- fined the vectors }, by a process which never multiplies the eigenvectors by any- thing larger than 1, we know in advance that the absolute value of the vectors b;, (in the ease of a symmetric matrix) can never grow beyond that of the first vector bo . Hence we need not program for overflow. If the capacity of the machine is, let us say, 10 decimal digits, we can fill up the cells con- nected with bo with 9 decimal random num- bers. Since the magnification factor in any component cannot go beyond the factor —/n, the provision of one empty digit in front of the number suffices to take care of the overflow, no matter how far we extend the procedure. 5. Generation of the vectors b,. If the original matrix A is an arbitrary matrix, except for the fact that the reality of the eigenvalues is known in advance, we can estimate the absolutely largest eigenvalue by Gersgorin’s method. Taking the sum of the absolute values of each row (or column) and choosing the largest of these n positive numbers, we obtain an upper bound, s, on the eigenvalues of A. If we now put (5.1) C=-A |b we can be sure that the eigenvalues of this matrix will be limited by —2, +2. If, moreover, we know in advance that all the eigenvalues of A are positive, we put C= ek $s (5.2) Gersgorin’s method generally overestimates the largest eigenvalue of A. This has the disadvantage that the A-spectrum will be squeezed into a too small portion of the semicircle, leaving the remaining part un- used. It is advisable therefore to go through a preliminary Fourier analysis for a closer evaluation of the smallest and the largest eigenvalue of A, but with no demands of precision. For this purpose a relatively small value of N, e.g. 40, is sufficient, since we do not mind if the \-spectrum is crowded. We are interested only in the lower and the SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 319 upper limits \; and Ay (in rough approxima- tion). Then we put GS) @ ao Se ey aN eae and thus ascertain that the eigenvalues will spread over the entire semicircle. The generation of the vectors b, occurs with the help of the simple iteration scheme (3.5). 6. Fourier analysis of the b, . We isolate one component (or possibly two compo- nents) of each vector and subject this one- dimensional sequence of numbers y, to a Fourier analysis. The very first and the very last element, 1.e. the components belonging to bp and by , are immediately divided by 2. In our subsequent formulae we will assume that yo and yy refer to the halved ordinates. The Fourier analysis consists in multiplying the given sequence y; by the coefficients of a preassigned matrix I’, defined by (6.1) va = Cos tk e N U: = yy, Vka Yo a=0 We can generate the coefficients ya of Ye concurrently with the summation, on the basis of the following recurrence scheme: y= 1 VA ae Pk (6.3) v2 = 2p:71 — Yo vs = 2prv2 -— 11 Yn = 2pKyn-1 — Yn-2 where the keyvalues p, = cos ke can be taken from a trigonometric table. But it is still simpler to let the machine evaluate and store the p; , by taking only the single value pi = Cos = from the trigonometric table and then generate the remaining p, on the basis of the recurrence relation (6.3). 320 We have now obtained the amplitudes (6.4) Un, U1, Us, °°: , Un which will now be examined for peaks, fol- lowing the procedure of sec. 2. The presence of a peak is demonstrated by a + +, or — — sequence which interrupts the regular -+- sequences. Such pairs are underlined and the calculation of the eigenvalues is based on these pairs, augmented by one neighbor to the left and to the right: (6.5) Um—-1 ) Um ) Um-+1 ’ Um+42 . We form the ratio Um—1 SF 2m =P Um+1 (6.6) q a Um lia 2Um+1 ote Um-+2 and Dees — = q (6.7) Tear Then 1 — cos (m+ 6) (6.8) SoS 2 The corresponding eigenvalue of the original matrix A finally becomes (6.9) A= dy + Ag — do)A! Since the customary trigonometric tables divide the semicircle into 180°, it is conve- nient to choose for NV, the total number of iterations, some multiple of 180. If for example NV = 180, the angle 6; , determined by the integer m; plus the correction €e; , is directly given in degrees. If N = 1800, the circle becomes divided into tenths of degrees (i.e. 6’), and a gives 6; di- rectly in degrees. 7. The problem of noise. We would assume that an iterative scheme, if pushed too far, might lead to a dangerous accumulation of rounding errors. In actual fact the genera- tion of the vectors b, seems to be remarkably free of rounding errors. The rounding errors accumulate rather slowly and in the same ratio as the peaks increase in size. Hence the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 45, No. 10 | “signal to noise ratio” does not deteriorate with increasing V. Many hundreds, and even thousands of iterations can be performed without affecting the precision with which the 6; are obtainable. The detection of cer- tain very small eigenvalues demands oc- casionally a very large number of iterations. Our experience seems to indicate that the rounding errors have no vitiating influence on the result, even under such unfavorable conditions. The problem of noise can best be studied with the help of a matrix C’ which is so con- structed that all its eigenvalues are of the, form T \; = 2 cos m; — (710) v where m; is an integer between 0 and N (ef. (2.8)). In this case the field of the u;, should consist of n isolated amplitudes only, separated by completely blank spaces. Any- thing found in the blank spaces is due to noise. Experiments with matrices of low order have shown that even after hundreds of iterations the blank spaces remained blank with an accuracy of 10 *. Experiments with large matrices and thousands of iterations are not yet available. 8. Higenvectors. The effect of the Fourier analysis is that of isolating one particular periodic component out of a mixture of periodic components. This is precisely our alm when attempting to obtain the eigen- vectors w; of the matrix A. As the equation (3.7) shows, the vector b, is a superposition of periodic components with amplitudes which are proportional to w;. This makes it possible to extend the technique of the Fourier analysis from the determination of the eigenvalues to the determination of the eigenvectors. Let a peak be near to a certain k = m. Then the operation y T Un = 16 bois (cos m | by (8.1) aP (cos 2m a ly te oe +1% (cos Nm =) by OcTOBER 1955 will generate a vector which strongly empha- sizes the eigenvector w; . We may thus apply the process of (6.2), now extended over the entire vector and not merely over one ele- ment of the vector. The vectors b, must be preserved in their entirety for this computa- tion. In contrast to the previous Fourier ‘analysis, which demanded a_ systematic scanning for all values of k between 0 and _N, the present process has to be carried out only for those specific m-values which be- long to the eigenvalues. _ Again the purification can be enhanced if we operate with second differences which in actual fact become second swms. In addition to the w,,-value which is nearest to a peak, we also evaluate the wu; for the left and right neighbors k = m — 1 and k = m + 1 and then take the combination (8.2) Um = Um-1 = PAY i-s SF Um41 ‘This vector will be proportional to w; with smaller contamination on the part of the other w; than if w,, alone were taken. 9. Multiple eigenvalues. If we count the number of maxima of the Fourier analysis and find that their total number adds up to the order of the matrix, we may conclude that all the eigenvalues of our problem have become evident. If the total number is less than vn, then a further investigation is needed concerning the missing eigenvalues. One possible reason for the lacunae is that the trial vector bo possesses accidental ‘‘blind spots” in the direction of some of the eigen- vectors. This possibility is considerably diminished by the fact that the components of bo were chosen as 9-digit random numbers. At all events, if we have isolated a second set of b, components, it is advisable to repeat the Fourier analysis for this set and see whether more peaks can be recorded in the second analysis. If this is not the case, the question of the missing eigenvalues can be further clarified by repeating the entire procedure with a new random vector b,. If this analysis re- veals new peaks, this demonstrates that our original trial vector had accidental de- generacies which were removed in the new analysis. But if the deficiencies still exist, we may assume that some of the eigenvalues are C. LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 321 multiple eigenvalues or eigenvalues which fall too close together. In this case it becomes imperative to find out which of the eigenvalues can be trusted to be single and which cannot. The decision can be made by the following procedure. We assume that we possess the Fourier analysis of two elements of the original trial vector, and the same analysis of the corresponding elements of the new trial vector. We form the second sum in the neighborhood of a peak, for both elements in the original set and compute the ratio (4) 9,,()) d) Uses PH Se Veet (2) @y (2 Um—1 2Um ar Um+1 (9.1) — Now we do the same for the new trial vec- tor. If r turns out to be the same in both cases, we have demonstrated that the eigen- value in question is sengle. If the two ratios are not the same, we have demonstrated that the eigenvalue in question represents two (or more) collapsing eigenvalues, or at least. two (or possibly more) maxima which are very nearly the same and which have to be separated by further efforts. 10. Separation of two very close eigen- values. The separation of several excessively close eigenvalues is not an easy problem since two such eigenvalues operate also physically together and exceedingly refined observations (‘fine structure analysis’’) are demanded for their separation. However, two very close eigenvalues can still be sepa- rated with relatively simple tools. We start with w,, and u,,.41 knowing that a maximum exists between them. However, we have good reasons to suspect that not one but two peaks can be found between these two ampli- tudes. We will now operate with five succes- sive amplitudes, viz. (10.1) Um—2 ) Um-1 5) Um 5) Um+1 ) Um+2 and assume that two eigenvalues exist in this region. Hence we now have two p- values, namely p) = m+ aandp=m+e. We introduce €1é2 = p (10.2) at+e=oa 322 and obtain two linear equations for the de- termination of p and c. These two equations are as follows: Cp ap Bien ap Bie ap Wa) + (2Un—2 + 3Um—1 — Um41) + 4ttme 3Umo1 Uma) (Chm sp Sia ap Oli ae Ua) (10.3) = 0 ra (2Um+2 ar 3Um41 ay Um-1) =F (4tm4e ar 3Um44 ae Win) = 0. We solve these two equations for p and o and then find the roots of the quadratic equation (10.4) x —oxtp=0 which gives us e, and e . If the determinant of this linear set be- comes too small, this is an indication that the two peaks are too close together to be numerically separable (except by an increase of NV). In that case the two equations collapse into one but this one equation suffices for the localization of the double-peak since now we can put p = 0,0 = «e. This separation technique could be ex- tended to more than just two nearly equal peaks. The difficulty is, however, that the calculations become very sensitive to the contaminating influence on the part of the external peaks. For this reason we should first obtain the critical eigenvector by the Vm-method described in sec. 8. This vector is now a linear superposition of the two or more eigenvectors which belong to the closely bunched eigenvalues, without bemg contaminated by the external eigenvectors. If we use this vector as the trial vector bo of the recurrence scheme (3.5), the subse- quent Fourier analysis has a better chance of separating the closely spaced eigenvalues since the interference from the external peaks is removed. 11. Very small eigenvalues. In the case of positive definite matrices we are some- times interested in the determination of a few excessively small eigenvalues. For very small eigenvalues of A (largest eigenvalue not exceeding 1) the relation (3.8) becomes JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 10° (11.1) 2 i eeu Mie eo The appearance of N* in the denominator | makes even very small eigenvalues detect- | able. However, the case of very small eigen- values requires special attention, because of the following circumstance. The amplitudes u; belong to a circle and do not terminate at either end. The full period includes 2N terms. Every peak on the positive side has an ac- companying peak on the negative side, due to the relation (11.2) Uj}; = UU: The very small eigenvalues are thus dis- turbed by the presence of a near peak on the negative side. Beyond k = 5 the influence from the negative side becomes negligible but this is not the case in the realm of the smallest eigenvalues. In this realm a special numerical scheme comes into operation. It is of advantage to avoid eigenvalues in the range between k = 0 and k = 2 alto- gether since in this range it is difficult to keep down the interference from the larger eigenvalues. We can push out the spectrum of the matrix A by putting a properly chosen constant in the main diagonal. We assume that the eigenvalues of A are already nor- malized to the range [0, 1]. We now modify A to A’=A+ @ I This means that the matrix C will be defined by Tv g '=12 — == [ — 4, © | 1( vie 4A The effect of this modification is that the eigenvalues of the new problem become 2 ps 7 ye) This means—since A has no negative eigen- values—that the eigenvalues of the modified matrix cannot start below p = 2. After ob- taining the eigenvalues of the new matrix, we finally return to the original matrix by OR Es)) (11.4) (11.5) ~OcToBerR 1955 subtracting from all \; the same constant (3). We will now assume that the range be- tween p = 2 and p = 4 may contain two ,eigenvalues. The separation of these close eigenvalues occurs again in analogy to the procedure of sec. 10. Once more we introduce the sum and the product of the e-values, but -with the following modification. They now appear in squared form: (11.6) qe + 6&6 — «a Moreover, « and e& are not restricted to the range [0, 1] because the roots are measured _ from zero and we obtain for the associated eigenvalues directly 2 Ne N U S T a () _ The two linear equations which determine _@ and p have coefficients which are linear conbinations of the first five wu,-values: Up, U1, --- , us. The coefficients of the first equation are displayed in the following scheme: ne = : (11.7) p —o 1 Uo 10 Uy 15 15 15 (11.8) Us 6 24 96 = 0 Us il 9 81 U4 (This means that the factor of p is for example 10u) + 15m, + Ow + wu, and so on.) The coefficients of the second equation become similarly: p —o 1 Uo —105 Uy 0 Us 252 1008 4032 = 0 Us 192 1728 15552 Us 45 720 11520 If the two linear equations are not solvable due to the smallness of the determinant, we obtain only one eigenvalue but again we C. LANZCOS: SPECTROSCOPIC EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS 323 can put p = 0, ¢ = «, and the second equa- tion can be discarded. Beyond k = 4 the determination of « by the ratio of two second sums (cf. sec. 2) and the separation of two close eigenvalues according to sec. 10 be- comes applicable again. 12. Acknowledgments. The “‘spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis’? was developed in the winter 1953-54, during the author’s stay with North American Aviation, Los Angeles, Calif. The splendid support he received in his lecturing and research activities during this time will remain indelible in his memory. The almost daily discussion with Charles Davis and his staff was a constant source of inspiration. The access to the “701,” the electronic calculator of the I.B.M. Com- pany, made it possible to test the practical feasibility of the methods. The programming and coding for the 701 were planned and carried out by Owen Mock with great in- genuity. Although only matrices of low order (6 to 8) were employed, the generation of the b, vectors and the subsequent Fourier analysis could be studied in detail. Runs first of 180, then of 720, and finally of 1280, iterations were generated, and the non- accumulation of noise was demonstrated. Results were checked by applying another precision method for finding the eigenvalues of a matrix. Experiences with large-scale matrices and a statistical investigation of the noise prob- lem and its relation to the position of the Fourier peaks are not yet available. REFERENCES [1] Courant, R., and Hiupertr, D. Methods of mathematical physics 1. New York, 1953. [2] Hesrenss, M. R., and Stipren, H. Nat. Bur. Standards Journ. Res. 49: 409. 1952. [3] JAHNKE, E., and Empg, F. Tables of functions with formulae and curves. New York. [4] Lanczos, C. Nat. Bur. Standards Journ. Res. 45: 255. 1950. [5] Lanczos, C. Nat. Bur. Standards Journ. Res. 49: 33. 1952. [6] Lanczos, C. Proc. Assoc. Computing Mach.: 124. 1953. [7] Miunz, W. E. Numerical calculus. Princeton, 1949. [8] StrereL, E. Zeits. Ang. Math. Phys. 3: 1. 1952. [9] Wurrraker, E. T., and Rosrnson, G. Cal- culus of observations. London, 1924. [10] Tables of Chebyshev Polynomials, Applied Math. Series No. 9. 1952. NBS 324 BOTANY.—A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 10 Hare DermMeEN, Horticultural | Crops Research Branch, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. (Received August 3, 1955) In 1948, a large-fruited sport of var. ‘McIntosh’ apple, now known as ‘Kimball Giant McIntosh’, was reported as being a 2—4—4 chimera (Dermen and Darrow, 1948). This particular chimeral makeup was deter- mined by examination of a shoot tip of one of six one-year-old plants propagated from the sport portion of the mother tree. Two of the five remaining trees were potted and dis- budded to induce endogenous (adventitious!) shoot development (for the method to induce endogenous shoots in the apple see Dermen, 1948). Along with the tree that was examined cytologically, they were left in the green- house until fall when they were planted in the orchard. The other three trees were planted in the orchard when they were re- ceived. One of these was left intact but two were disbudded and died subsequently. The present report is based principally on the cytohistological study of the tree planted intact in the orchard. Some portions of this report, including illustrations of material in Fig. 1 have appeared previously (Dermen, 195la, b). They are given here to elucidate certain points in this report and to help to enable the reader to follow some pertinent discussions. On one of the two greenhouse disbudded trees, a single endogenous bud developed and a cluster of shoots grew from it. On cyto- histological examination, the shoots were found to be homogeneously diploid instead of tetraploid as expected (Dermen, 195la). On the other disbudded tree, four endog- enous buds (a, b, c, d) developed (Fig. 1-A). Buds a, b, and c were along a vertical line on the stem, whereas bud d was located at a point off the line from the other buds. Sub- sequently shoots developed from buds a and d only (Fig. 1-B). A cluster of shoots from bud a was found to be diploid like the cluster of shoots from the first disbudded tree. The shoot from bud 1 For the use of the term endogenous in place of or along with adventitious, see the article by the author (Dermen, 1955). d, however, was homogeneously tetraploid. These findings suggested that the young trees from which the endogenous shoots were _ obtained were chimerically either 2-4-2 or a modification of it (Dermen, 195la, b). They could not have been 2-4-4 chimeras since only homogeneously tetraploid shoots can develop endogenously from this type (Der- men, 1955). Cytohistological examination of a number of shoot tips from the tree grown intact in the orchard revealed the true condition. Some of these were found to have the 2-4-4 constitution, like that previously reported (Dermen and Darrow, 1948); but others were found to be of a 2-4-2 chimeral type. A shoot tip of one twig with the latter consti- tution is illustrated in Fig. 2-A, a longisection through the center of the growing point. Layers of cells in the growing point are marked L-I (first layer), L-II (second layer) and L-III (third layer). In this material, L-II appears as a wide band because of its being composed of larger cells as compared with the adjacent narrow layers with smaller cells. Nuclei in cells of L-II were definitely larger than those in cells of other layers. This was determined by the study of sec- tions under high magnification. It has been demonstrated on several occasions (Dermen, 1947, 1951b, 1953) that large nuclei in such meristematic tissues are associated with tetraploidy. Nevertheless adequate cyto- logical examinations were made and the exact ploid nature of each apical layer and tissues derived from them was determined. In Fig. 2-B, a transverse section of the stem about four millimeters back of the tip shown in Fig. 2-A, a solid ink line was drawn to indicate the boundary line between tetra- ploid and diploid regions in the cortical tis- sue (for method of determination of the boundary line see Dermen, 1947, 1951b, 1953). The tetraploid part of the cortex in this material extended from the epidermis to the solid ink line. The epidermis and the tissue inside the solid line were diploid. The ; OcToBER 1955 DERMEN: 2—4+-2 CHIMERA OF McINTOSH APPLE 325 SN ee Soy r € Fie. 1.—A, A disbudded one-year-old tree propagated from the large-fruited sport of a McIntosh apple tree, with four endogenous buds, a, b, c, and d; natural size. B, The same tree as in Fig. 1-A photographed a month later. A cluster of shoots developed from bud a, none from b and c, and one from bud d; shoots from a were diploid and the one shoot from d was tetraploid. X14. 326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 10 ro YY &, ae <0 coe ¥ AE) Socee eS sone SO-colaS care eatan eee, Gee. Bey Oe a = a, Via. 2.—A, Longisection of a shoot tip from a tree also from the McIntosh sport; L-II was tetra- ploid and L-I and L-III were diploid. 400. B, Transection of stem back of the tip shown in Fig. 9-A. Details are given in the text. 130. OcTOBER 1955 significance of the dotted line in this figure is pointed out in the discussion. DISCUSSION The chimeral nature of the Kamball Giant MelIntosh sport was first reported to be the 24-4 type (Dermen and Darrow, 1948). However, the development of both diploid and tetraploid shoots from a disbudded tree propagated from the sport tree suggested that its constitution must have been 2-4-2 and that the 2-44 chimera represented a form derived from the 2-4-2 chimeral con- dition (Dermen, 195la and b). It has been pointed out that endogenous buds on the stems of apple originated in the outer phloem (Dermen, 1948, 195la, 1955). In the stem section of the 2-4-2 chimeral twig (Fig. 2-B), the phloem, derived from diploid L-II1, is diploid. From such a twig, only diploid endogenous buds can arise. If a shoot is constituted as a 2-44 chimera, only tetraploid endogenous buds can arise from it (Dermen, 1955). When both diploid and tetraploid shoots develop from two separate buds on a stem situated at different points of the stem circumference as shown in Fig. 1 (buds a-and d), it would indicate that in one part of such a stem the phloem is tetraploid and in another part it is diploid. This is illus- trated diagrammatically in Fig. 2-B. The dotted line in this figure was drawn to indi- cate that often part of the stele in the stem may arise from L-IIJ. This was shown to occur in cranberry (fig. 16, 18, Dermen, 1947) and in peach (fig. 11, 12, Dermen, 1953). Similar developments were observed in apple stems but because of lack of good preparations for illustration, they are not shown. The development of diploid and tetraploid shoots from endogenous buds on the same plant is evidence that a condition similar to that in the cranberry and peach was present in the tree shown in Fig. 1. Such a cytochimeral makeup may have been DERMEN: 2—+-2 CHIMERA OF McINTOSH APPLE 327 similar to that indicated in Fig. 2-B in which case it is assumed that growth from L-II in the stem had extended in part to the solid ink line and in part to the dotted ink line. Thus a shoot developed from an endogenous bud originating in the phloem in the area bounded by the dotted line would have been tetraploid and one from a bud in the phloem in the rest of the stele would have been diploid. SUMMARY A large-fruited sport of var. ‘McIntosh’ apple, ‘Kimball Giant McIntosh’ was re- ported earher to have the 2-4-4 constitu- tion. This conclusion was based on a study of one tree propagated from the mother sport tree. When some sister trees propa- gated from the sport tree were used to produce endogenous shoots, some of the endogenous shoots were diploid and one shoot was tetraploid, indicating that origi- nally the sporting in the mother tree must have been to the 2-4-2 form. The present study shows this to be the case and that the 2-4-4 condition must have represented a de- rived form from the 2—4—2 type. LITERATURE CITED DerRMEN, Hara. Periclinal cytochimeras and histo- genesis in cranberry. Amer. Journ. Bot. 34: 32-43. 1947. ——. Chimeral apple sports and their propaga- tion through adventitious buds. Journ. Hered. 39: 235-242. 1948. ———. Tetraploid and diploid adventitious shoots from a giant sport of McIntosh apple. Journ. Hered. 42: 144-149. 195la. ——. Ontogeny of tissues in stem and leaf of cyto- chimeral apples. Amer. Journ. Bot. 38: 753- 760. 1951b. ——. Periclinal cytochimeras and origin of tissues in stem and leaf of peach. Amer. Journ. Bot. 40: 154-168. 1953. . Three additional endogenous tetraploids from giant apple sports. Amer. Journ. Bot. In press. ——— and Darrow, G. M. A tetraploid sport of McIntosh apple. Journ. Hered. 39: 17. 1948. 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 10 MAMMALOGY.—A new subspecies of wood rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with new name-combinations for the Neotoma mexicana group. KE. Raymonp Haut, Uni- versity of Kansas Museum of Natural History. (Received July 29, 1955) At lower elevations on the west coast of the Republic of Mexico the big, rich brown, dark-tailed rodent Neotoma (Hodomys) allent is the common wood rat. Nevertheless, Neotoma mexicana also occurs there in lesser numbers. At the lower elevations, indi- viduals of N. mexicana are small. Smallness may be a response to warmth; anyhow Neotoma mexicana tends to be smaller in southern than in northern localities. Speci- mens from the coast of Nayarit pertain to an unnamed subspecies, which may be named and described as follows: Neotoma mexicana eremita, n. subsp. Type—Female, adult, skin with skull and body-skeleton, no. 64532 KU; 1 mile south of San Francisco, 50 feet, Nayarit; January 27, 1955; obtained by J. R. Alcorn; original no. 17830. Range.—Known only from the type locality. Diagnosis.—Smallest-skulled of the subspe- cies of Neotoma mexicana; dark grayish to dull ochraceous above. Comparisons.—From N. m. parvidens, N. m. eremita differs in smaller average size, less ochra- ceous upper parts, and less whitish (more plum- beous) underparts. N. m. eremita is less ochra- ceous even than the larger, geographically adajcent, NV. m. tenuicauda. Remarks.—The holotype of this small, dull- colored, rat, judged by the height of the crowns of the upper molariform teeth, is slightly younger than the holotype (71586 USNM) of parvidens and slightly older than the holotype (33594/ 45629 USNM) of tenwicauda. All three are fe- males. Among named kinds of Neotoma, N. m. eremita resembles N. m. parvidens more closely than any other. Measurements—The holotypes of eremita, parvidens and tenuicauda, in that order, yield measurements (in millimeters) as _ follows: Occipitonasal length, 39.0, 41.5, 41.7; basilar length, 31.6, 32.3, 33.7; zygomatic breadth, 19.7, 20.6, ——; mastoid breadth, 15.0, 15.2, 15.8; interorbital breadth, 4.8, 5.3, 5.4; length of nasals, 15.6, 15.5, 15.4; length of incisive foramina, 8.5, 8.6, 8.9; length of palatal bridge, 7.0, 7.3, 7.6; alveolar length of upper molar series, 7.2, 7.9, 8.9; total length, 301, 295, 340; length of tail, 142, 141, 160; length of hind foot, 30, 31, 31. Specimens examined.—Two from the type lo- cality. With assistance from the National Science Foundation, the Kansas University Endow- ment Association, and Alford J. Robinson, the Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas has accumulated specimens of related kinds of wood rats, for example of the nominal species Neotoma distincta Bangs, Neotoma navus Merriam, and Neotoma torquata Ward as well as speci- mens of most subspecies of Neotoma fer- ruginea Tomes and Neotoma mexicana Baird. Examination of these specimens and also of those in the United States National Museum including those of Neotoma tropi- calis Goldman gives basis for arranging all those mentioned above in this paragraph as subspecies of one species for which the oldest available name is Neotoma mexicana Baird 1855. For example, specimen no. 63079 KU, here referred to parvidens, from 1 mile NNW of Soledad (approximately 30 km north of Punto Angel), 4,700 feet, Oaxaca, is structurally as well as geographically inter- mediate between N. parvidens and N. f. isthmica Goldman and is regarded as an intergrade. Of 11 specimens examined of N. navus from southeastern Coahuila some have tails as short as N. m. inornata Gold- man, the kind next adjacent to the north, and the expansion posteriorly of the frontals (not conspicuous in all specimens) occurs 1n some other subspecies of N. mexicana and leads to the conclusion that N. navus is only subspecifically different from Neotoma mexi- cana 40 = 40k lade | | Fic. 2.—Diagram (2, 6) of a three-component lightning stroke. Once the pilot leader or tip (men- tioned in the text) at the end of the streamer leader reaches ground the brilliant return stroke (light- ning stroke) returns to the cloud along the same path. In a multiple-component stroke the same tor- tuous path is renewed by one or more dart leaders with subsequent brilliant and noisy return strokes. the diameter of the sphere. Such an outline would lead to a further increase in gradient, say by a factor of two or three. In addition to this still another multiplying factor should be introduced because of the sharp outlines and edges of the leaves in lieu of the smooth spherical conducting surface that Kelvin postulated for his simple case of the smooth hemispherical boss. These three simple con- siderations lead us to an overall factor much larger than three. Whether the overall factor could be stretched say from 3 to the order of 20 or 30 and thus be large enough for multiplying Schonland’s measured gradi- ent value of 160 v/em at ground for an advancing thundercloud to obtain 3,400 v/em, the value measured in a cloud just prior to a stroke to a plane (3), or to obtain 5,000 v/em, the corresponding average breakdown gradient measured for a long laboratory spark gap (4), remains prob- lematical. Any such increase in voltage gradient near the leaves, however, should lead to en- hanced ionization and to electrification of dust that might be blown past leaves in the tree top by winds. The leaves with their high resistance, 1 to 5 megohms, would tend to share and to divide the current of the discharge into much smaller values. Thus the treetop presents the multiple electrode effect of many needles each with a resistor of several megohms in series. It would seem that discharges from a lone tree would be augmented and that a tree with its top glowing in the dark from discharge as a thundercloud advanced to- ward and over it should be reported more often. I have never seen such a sight at night, my only experience being limited to seeing in daylight a tall poplar tree with its top leaves agitated violently, as if by a vertical wind with no circular motion. This occurred early one afternoon when such a glow would not have been observable. Pre- sumably this was a case of a strong vertical electric wind because leaves on nearby lower trees were not in motion. It was otherwise very calm with thunderclouds about a half- mile distant. This effect persisted for several minutes then stopped. 336 STROKES TO A TREE According to Schonland the average ‘‘fine weather” vertical electrical gradient is 100 v/m and the average fine weather current is 2 X 107° amp/em?. These figures yield a virtual ‘‘volume resistivity”? for the atmos- phere of 5 X 10" ohm-em. For the trunks of several ‘‘green”’ trees, values of longitudinal resistivity ranged from 5,000 to 10,000 ohm-cm, approximately the same as the value for Washington, D. C., tap-water (5,000 ohm-cm). Roughly then green wood is normally 10% times as good a conductor as air. Little wonder that a live tree is the pre- ferred path for the current if the tree is within reach of the lightning stroke. Lightning strokes for the most part appear to have their beginnings as rather feeble discharges in or near ‘“‘thunderstorm cells” in cumulus clouds. At cloud heights of a kilometer or so thunderstorm-cell ac- tivity begins when a thickish white cloud (cumulo-nimbus) begins to well up in the middle and tower to greater heights. Mois- ture-laden air is forced in at the visible cloud base and loses part of its moisture through the condensing of additional small droplets that help form the cloud base. Their heat of condensation warms the moisture-depleted air causing it to rise even higher into cooler surroundings where addi- tional moisture is lost. Eventually, robbed of its moisture except for fine ice crystals or tiny droplets buoyed up by it, this air spreads the particles (charged and neutral) out to form the well-known anvil-shaped top of the cumulo-nimbus cloud at some 10 to 15 kilometers altitude. This process con- stitutes the basis for separating large quan- tities of electric charges—of separating electrons from ice particles or droplets that are left positively charged. Many of the electrons are undoubtedly captured by larger falling droplets and form negative ions. Without going into the rather well sub- stantiated explanations (2) of the intimate processes of charge separation we may look at the end results. It is well confirmed, by observations that generally, but not always, the lightning discharge transports negative charge from the cloud to ground. The usual arrangement then is a predominately nega- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 tively charged cloud base or region say of the order of one kilometer or so above the earth’s surface. Directly below on the con- ducting surface of the earth and its pro- tuberances a charge of opposite sign (positive) is induced that is equal to the net unbalanced negative space charge immedi- ately above. Compared to the gust-ruffled charge distribution above, the earth’s conducting surface, in spite of hills and trees, 1s relatively smooth and flat like a plane so that the charge distribution on the earth below is reasonably uniform. Indeed one might consider the undersurface of a thunder cloud as comprised of connected in- verted dome- and pinnacle-like surfaces that envelop volumes of differing negative (an occasionally positive) charge density. Such a picture would seem to help us to bridge the gap between the lightning of nature and laboratory surge discharges possible only on a dimensionally much smaller scale. Except for very suddenly applied high overvoltages (voltages considerably higher than normally required to complete electric breakdown for a voltage applied gradually) the initial discharges from negative points toward planes are of a long filamentary character. The filamentary beginnings of a lightning discharge should be thought of as originating (near the cloud) where the electric gradient is largest between rather highly charged pockets or regions of separated charges. At the expense of this electric field (born of the bulk mechanical separation of charges), some of the charges are accelerated to veloci- ties capable of producing copious ionization. Then a lower voltage gradient suffices to maintain ionization as well as to transport charge for a brief interval along the ‘‘con- ducting”’ channel or filament, until the re- combination of ions reduces conductivity. Thus for a brief interval the voltage gradient is augmented at either end of the filament and leads to an energetic momentary ex- tension of the conducting filament toward the centers of the charged regions or toward the induced charges at the surface of the earth. As recombination depletes the carriers the current or transport of charge decreases and the expanded channel requires a larger gradient throughout its length to restore the ionization. NOVEMBER 1955 Thus the chain of events leading to lightning striking a tree is a hit or miss affair in which the tree contributes very little if anything in the initial stages. High- speed photography of strokes (2) reveals the stepwise manner in which a faintly luminous discharge beginning at the cloud end of a stroke halts in its progress toward the induced charge on the earth’s surface. Fig. 2, derived from Schonland’s photographs, is a graphic illustration of a three-component stroke along the same path. Each luminous step of some 30 to 50 meters length formed at the tip end of the fainly luminous leader is formed rapidly in about one microsecond then fades until the accumulated path of the leader from the source brightens again as the tip again rushes forward for another microsecond or so revealing by its brilliance that considerable energy had been used in its formation. One interesting feature about these steps is their frequent change of direc- tion after a rest or pause of about 50 microseconds. This change is presumably indicative of the changing direction of the highest gradient or the most readily ionizable path. From what has been said earlier one should not expect, even under the most favorable situation, a streamer to project upward to any considerable height from a tree to meet an advancing stepped leader. Only if the last two or three steps lie in its direction may a tree be expected to con- tribute a slight directional effect because of the higher-than-average voltage gradient existing above the tree. THE “TREE” AS A LIGHTNING SHELTER Figure 1 that shows the synthesized elec- trical-resistance picture of a tree, has several features added to help visualize how dan- gerous It is to use a tree as a shelter from rain and lightning at the same time. We humans are better conductors of electricity than trees. Our skins offer poorer insulation than the bark of trees either wet or dry because of numerous pores and the saltiness of perspira- tion. Our resistance from one foot to the other?—omitting skin—is roughly 150 ohms, from both hands to both feet 370 ohms, 2 Private communication from F. Wenner and Irvin L. Cooter, of the National Bureau of Stand- ards. DEFANDORF: A TREE AND LIGHTNING 337 whereas our trunk section considered as a four-terminal resistor measured by using the hands and feet is only 25 ohms. This suggests two rather obvious reasons for not standing close to the trunk of a tree in an exposed location in a thunderstorm, i.e., close to a tree standing alone in a field, a tall tree that towers above its neighbors, or a tree on top of a hill or ridge: 1) In the case of a stroke to the tree one would be likely to receive a sideflash to his body and thus pro- vide a path for part of the stroke to earth. This is understandable because the median value of lightning currents is 20,000 amperes crest and even for an znitzal resistance of a tree trunk of 100 to 1,000 ohms per meter the voltage drop might attain 4 million volts or more in 6 feet, the height of a man, and 2) because the radial drop in resistance to ground is highest near the trunk. We must examine more closely the values of resistance to ‘‘ground”’ mentioned earlier in connection with Figure 1. These values on the right side of the ‘‘tree’’? have been replotted as a dashed curve on the left side. This curve is advantageous in showing how rapidly, r;, the radial resistance per meter drops with distance away from the tree trunk. The abscissae of this plot is the radius in meters and the ordinates the ohms per meter along radial current path. This curve of r; provides an index of the danger from this source of voltage that could send lethal current up one leg and down the other. The simple expression H# = I r; f cos 6 is indicative of this danger, where F/ is the voltage drop between the two feet at a dis- tance of f apart in meters; r; is the radial resistance per meter where the feet are located; J is the stroke current and @ is the angle between a line through the two con- tacts of the feet with ground and the radius line to the stroke terminus. Thus the voltage, HE, is available to puncture the shoes and the skin on the feet and to force current through the resistance offered by the rest of the by- stander’s body. There appears to be some substantiation of the theoretical cos @ relationship. Among others, an instance was reported about 15 years ago of a stroke to a lone tree in a pas- 338 ture at the Beltsville farm in which 6 cows that had taken shelter under the tree were killed. These cows were found dead with their fore and hind hooves pretty well aligned radially with the struck tree whereas several other cows under the tree were not killed by the stroke and presumably had been standing in a tangential position at the moment of the discharge. We humans are lucky because we have only two feet to worry about. It appears from the equation that if we were able to stand with our feet in line cireumferentially with the base of the stroke as a center, then 6 would be 90° and cos @ would be zero. Thus we should be relatively safe. One way to make the voltage FE between our feet a minimum would be to reduce f, the distance on the ground between our two feet. The simplest way to do this would appear to be to stand on one foot till it gets tired and then on the other! It is also more or less obvious that a bystander should not remain under low-lying branches that would provide a rather short air gap between the branches and his head because of the good conducting path his body provides to earth. We can do nothing about the current J. We have to accept it at its average value of 20,000 amperes crest if we have just average luck. We should probably ‘‘play safe” at this point and assume a stroke of 100,000 amperes. For this value of current a radial resistance per meter of 13 ohm would give a voltage drop of 30,000 V per meter. If our feet were 14 m apart the voltage drop be- tween them would correspond to 10,000 V. This value of voltage might produce un- comfortable results, but I rather doubt that it would prove lethal. From our measure- ments (Fig. 1) 14 ohm per meter corresponds to a distance out from the tree trunk of 12 meters. Undoubtedly the resistance per meter continues to fall beyond 12 meters, the most remote of the radial measurements made. Would we not be safer at a distance considerably farther away from the trunk? The instructions quoted earlier said ‘“‘keep away from isolated trees.”’ Fig. 1 and what has just been said clearly support the ad- visability of keeping at a safe distance. How far? Herein lies the paradox for there is another consideration—the shielding effect which tells us not to move too far away from JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. I1 a tall exposed tree. A well-grounded con- ducting mast (a tree is similar) of height h partially shields that space adjacent to the mast so that it is relatively immune from direct strokes of lightning. For a cone cen- tered on the mast of height h and having a base of diameter h, laboratory measure- ments indicate that out of 1,000 strokes, the mast would on the average receive 999 strokes for every single stroke received by a second conducting rod one-third as tall as the mast if located just within the base of the cone. The angle for this case where r = 0.5h would represent a ‘30° cone of protec- tion.’ This chance of 1 in 1000 of being struck is referred to as an exposure of 0.1 percent for the rod (or object) relative to its protecting mast. Actually the protected rod 8 m tall would be 4 times the height of a tall man. For a person 2 m (619 feet) tall the exposure to direct stroke under our synthesized tree 25 m tall appears from laboratory tests® to be almost nil within a 30° cone of protection. It is much less severe than 1 in 1200 out to the edge of a 45° cone of protection. The frequeney with which isolated masts less than 500 feet high are struck varies di- rectly with their height (6). From this it would appear that our synthesized tree 25 m tall, from height considerations alone, would be about 12 times more likely to be struck than a person 2 m tall under conditions of similar exposure. That is by moving just within the 45° cone of protection of the tree the bystander moves into the tree cone- subtended area which is 12 times more likely to be struck than is his own cone- subtended area if he remains in the open, but he gains by a factor (reciprocal of ex- posure) of well over 1,200 in being less likely to receive a direct stroke. His net gain from the shielding effect of the tree could thus be represented by an “improvement factor’ of at least 100 (1,200 divided by 12) although he takes chances on sharing more of the stroke current that may pass in one foot and out the other than if he were farther away. By moving out as far as the radius, r = 2h, for a 60° cone of protection, the exposure would still not become as high as 1 percent so that the improvement factor would surely not be reduced as low as 10. This NOVEMBER 1955 reduction in improvement factor from 100 to 10 dependent on whether the bystander remains just within the 45°—or moves out so as to be just within the 60° cone of pro- tection should make us aware that the reduction in susceptibility to ground current sought by increasing radial distance from a tree may be largely offset by increased ex- posure. By moving too far away from the tree the bystander may move closer to the base of those nearby strokes that miss both him and the tree and thus he would gain in the likelihood of sharing the ground current from other strokes. In conclusion then, from the viewpoint of lightning a tree initially offers a better path to earth. Lightning, however, is quite near- sighted and a good tree may be hard for lightning to find unless it stands in the open. In such a case a good way to hide from lightning is to ‘‘stand well out from under’’ the branches of a tree. It would appear that the Handbook 46 admonition: “Keep away FAN, TAUSSKY, AND TODD: ISOPERIMETRIC INEQUALITY FOR POLYGONS 339 from isolated trees in a thunderstorm,” has a rather good justification. Because of the paradox cited, if one has no other choice than remaining in the open and there is an isolated tree 50 feet or more tall one should not mind getting wet but should ‘‘stand well out from under’’, but not too far, say never closer than 50 feet to the trunk, so that he may be afforded some degree of protection from lightning by the tree. REFERENCES (1) PuumMer, Freep G. Lightning in relation to forest fires. U. S. Forest Service Bull. 111. 1912-13. (2) ScHONLAND, B. F. J. Atmospheric electricity. New York, 1953. (See also Flight of thunder- bolts. Oxford, 1950.) (3) Gunn, R. Journ. Appl. Phys. 19: 481. 1948. (4) HacencutH, Rouurs, and Drenan. AINE Proc. 71: 6. 1952, T2-104. (5) Waanemr, C. F., McCann, G. D., anp Lear, C.M. AIEE Trans. 61: 96. 1942. (6) Beck, Epwarp. Lightning protection for elec- tric systems. New York, 1954. MATHEMATICS—An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality for polygons.! Ky Fan? Onea Taussky,? and JoHNn Topp.’ (Received October 4, 1955) 1. The problem of determining among all plane polygons P with n sides and total perimeter L, that one which encloses the greatest area F, is a classical one. It is well known that the extremal polygon is the regular one. This result can be stated as the inequality: L? — 4n tan (x/n)-F > 0 with equality if and only if P is regular. The corresponding result for curves is ib = Lal SO; with equality if and only if the curve is a circle. We shall be concerned with the discrete problem only; modern accounts of the sub- ject have been given by L. Fejes Toéth [/] 1 This work was supported in part by the Office of Naval Research. 2 University of Notre Dame, American Uni- versity and National Bureau of Standards. 3 National Bureau of Standards. and T. Bonnesen and W. Fenchel [6]. Among the proofs of the isoperimetric inequality for polygons are some which are analytic (e.g. [2]) and some which are geometric (e.g. [3]). We present here an essentially algebraic proof, based on the extremal prop- erties of the characteristic values of Her- mitian matrices.’ This proof can be regarded as a variation on Blaschke’s proof ({2], p. 13), in so far as the Fourier apparatus he uses explicitly is used here implicitly. 2. For completeness’ sake we sketch the reduction of the general problem to the convex equilateral case. (Cf. Courant and Hilbert, [9, p. 160]; see also Polya and Szegé [8]). (a) First, a non-convex polygon cannot be extremal. For if there was a non-convex part such as --- ZABCD --- then we could obtain an isoperimetric polygon with a 4 We have recently [7] used this method to handle inequalities which are closely related to the iso- perimetric ones. 340 larger area by constructing --- ZAB’CD --- where B’ is the reflection of B in AC. (See Labi, Ie) Zz Fia. 1 Secondly, we show that a nonequilateral polygon cannot be extremal. Suppose P non- equilateral; then among the sides unequal to s = L/n, some will exceed s and some be exceeded by s. We shall show how to obtain an isoperimetric polygon with a larger area, and one more side equal to s. There are two cases: (b) Suppose two adjacent sides AB = c, BC = asatisfy c > s > a. In this case we can immediately replace the polygon P: --. ZABCD --- by the isoperimetric poly- gon P’:--- ZAB’CD -.-- where AB’ = sg, B’C =a+e-— s. The area of P’ exceeds that of P because the area of A B’C exceeds that of ABC. Indeed, if o is the common semiperimeter of ABC, AB’C we have V/\o(c — a)(o — b)(o — c)} KK WViie = (GeO = ING = DIG = 8)} for lo = @ ae 6 = Sie — 8) = (¢ — a)(o — c) + (ec — s)(s — a) and the last term is positive because c>s>a. This argument may fail if P’ is not con- vex: in this case reflections of type (a) will produce a new P” with a larger area, to which this argument can be applied. (c) The case when no two adjacent sides bracket the mean can be reduced to (a) by the following device. We can transpose two sides AB, BC of a polygon P: --- ZABCD JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 45, No. 11 - into the sides AB’ = BC, B’C = AB of the isoperimetric polygon P’: --- ZAB’ CD .--- by reflection in the perpendicular bisector 1, of AC. (See Fig. 2.) The areas of P’ and P coincide; if P’ is not convex we can obtain a new P” with an area greater than that of P’, and with the sides in the new order, by a reflection of type (a). A finite number of repetitions of this transposition will bring the sides which bracket the mean together, and then the transformation (b) . will apply. Bae B z D Fig. 2 After at most (m — 1) repetitions of (b), we obtain a convex equilateral polygon. It remains to show that among all such poly- gons there is one which has the greatest area and this is the regular polygon. 3. Theorem. If a, 2, -::, @n are any n(>3) complex numbers, and tf zn41 = 2, then > 2p apa [F 3 j=l (1) _ Sinn = >) Bean, i Fz with equality if and only af 2; = a exp (2nij/n) + 8, (l.-. O.—=1. 2) Corresponding to the Hermitian form nm nm 25 2 ti = 1 DY (BB — Ben); 7! j—" consider the Hermitian matrix of order n: Peon 0 0 5 OO ‘|| | wa —2. Os 0 “OY 20 ea ieee 0. .0.--- 2.0 = POO 0° +--+.) Or 4 40 If we introduce the Hermitian matrix ew Ae tans - B n andv = {za (3) (Hd, v) , 2n}, then (1) becomes > 0. ZA eee 9 25 The matrices A,6,H are circulant matri- ces, i.e. they are of the form D = (dj) where dj = 6j;-%4: and where subscripts on 6 are to be understood mod n. The matrix D has characteristic values A; = > b. exp (—2mijk/n), k=1 J rs Is 2, 22 5M with corresponding characteristic vectors faa He exp (—2n1yj/n), exp (—4n1j/n), , exp (—2m1(n — 1)j/n)}. These facts can be established (ef. [4], [4]) by observing that D is a polynomial in the matrix One 0 OF0 R80 OPO sale) OR ORO (OF ; OO © © Ole Orel i @ © © 0) OW FAN, TAUSSKY, AND TODD: ISOPERIMETRIC INEQUALITY FOR POLYGONS 341 which represents the cyclic permutation of order n. In fact Di Noe. k=. In the case of H the elements 6, are 2,—-1l+itanz/n,0,--- ,0, —1—7tanz/n and the characteristic value \; of H corre- sponding to the characteristic vector wu; is Ae = 2(1 — cos 25m + tan = sin —) n n n (WS ASO) A brief verification shows that ws O Tice Sp <= and Noon =A = 0 It follows that (8) holds for any vector v = {a , 72, --: ,2n} in the unitary n-space. The equality sign in (3) holds if and only if v is a linear combination of the two char- acteristic vectors u,-1 and wu,, 1e., the z;’s are of the form (2). 4. The isoperimetric property for equl- lateral polygons is an immediate conse- quence of the theorem. For if the (complex) numbers 2, , 22, °°: , 2n are the vertices of a polygon then is its area; if then the polygon is equilateral n n Qo \2 me Ze i is the square of its perimeter. Our theorem shows that L’ > 4n tan : F unless (2) holds and this is equivalent to saying that the polygon is a regular one inscribed in the circle with centre 6 and radius | a |. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Torn, L. Frsus. Lagerwngen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum. Berlin-Géottingen- Heidelberg, 1953. [2] BuascHKr, W. Kreis und Kugel. New York, 1949. 342 JOURNAL OF THE 3] Bot, G. Hinfache Isoperimetrie beweise fiir Kreis und Kugel. Abh. Math. Seminar Hans. Univ. 15: 27-36. 1943. 4] Hampurecer, H. L., and Grimsuaw, M. E. Linear transformations in n-dimensional vector space. Cambridge, 1951. [5] RurnHerrorp, D. E. Determinants arising in physics and chemistry, II. Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh 638A: 232-241. 1952. WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 6] Bonnesen, T., and FencHet, W. Theorie der | konvexen Kérper. Berlin, 1934. 7| Fan, Ky, Taussxy, O., and Topp, J. Discrete analogs of inequalities of Wirtinger. Monats- hefte fiir Math. 59: 73-90. 1955. 8] Pétya, G. and Szead, G. Isoperimetric in- equalities in mathematical physics. Ann. Math. Studies, no. 27. Princeton, 1951. 9} Courant, R., and Hitpert, D. Methods of mathematical physics 1. New York, 1953. PALEONTOLOGY .—AStacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from the British Upper Paleozoic. Ropmrt H. Cummines, University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Com- municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) (Received August 26, 1955) Within the foraminiferal assemblages of the Carboniferous there occur a large num- ber of forms adapted to a fixed mode of life. Indeed, it would seem that the proportion of such forms is greater in Upper Paleozoic microfaunas than it is in those of other geological periods, and in modern as- semblages. This is particularly true in the calcareous facies of the British Lower Carboniferous, where ecological conditions in the Upper Avonian appear to have been conducive both to the attainment and development of the sessile mode of life. Representatives of such genera as Nubecularia Detrance, 1825, Stacheia Brady, 1876, Apterrinella Cushman and Waters, 1928, Calcitornella Cushman and Waters, 1928, and Fourstonella Cum- mings, 1955, are widespread and abundant in such British Carboniferous deposits. There are some indications that the at- tached mode of life should be regarded as original in the more primitive foraminiferal groups, such as the Astrorhizidae. In the more highly developed groups, however, the sessile habit is usually a secondary develop- ment from a free-living, benthonic mode of existence. This is illustrated by several of the British Carboniferous genera, where the relationships of these attached forms have been determined by morphological and phylogenetic study. The change from free, benthonic activity . to a static mode of existence leads to rapid, and often extensive, alteration of form, during the evolution of the stock. The re- sulting morphological dissimilarity, between the final expression of attached growth and the ancestral condition, frequently creates difficulties in classification. This is illustrated in the development of Fourstonella Cum- mings, 1955, from Valvulinella Schubert, 1907, where the apparent morphological dissimilarity is so great that it all but masks the phylogenetic link. Morphological classification of attached forms is also rendered difficult, in many instances, by the fact that the stringencies and demands of the fixed mode frequently lead to a high degree of isomorphism. In this way derivatives of vastly different ancestral stocks achieve a remarkable simi- larity of form within the same biome. An illustration of such analogous homeomorphy is seen in Calcitornella Cushman and Waters, 1928, and Nubeculinella Cushman, 1929. A further difficulty in the classification of attached, Upper Paleozoic Foraminifera lies in the similarity of form, and symbiotic relationships, that existed between these Foraminifera and certain calcareous algae. Johnson (1950) makes mention of this in his description of a Permian algal-foramini- feral consortium. In the original description of the Foramini- fera of the British Carboniferous and Permian, Brady (1876) grouped most of the forms having an attached mode of life within one genus, Stacheza. Current revision of these faunas shows that such forms are referable to several genera, including one hitherto undescribed. NOVEMBER 1955 CUMMINGS: The writer would like to acknowledge the continued support of Prof. Neville George in this research and the valued co-operation and assistance from Dr. Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr., Dr. Helen Tappan, and other American experts and friends. Family Opthalmidiidae Subfamily Nubeculariinae Stacheoides, n. gen. Stachera (pars) Brady, 1876, et alios. Type species (here designated): Stachera poly- trematoides Brady, 1876. Description: Test usually attached but free in rare cases, relatively large, of irregular form de- pendent upon the nature of host; irregular, and often reticulate, growth developing on a tubular pattern with numerous chamberlets; partitions separating chamberlets of differing thickness to those of roofs and floors; wall composed of gran- ules of calcite bound by calcareous cement, but with varying, though small, proportion of adven- titious material, usually quartz grains; small, cir- cular apertures present on the apices of the irregu- larly scattered protuberances. In thin section, representatives of Stacheoides may be identified by their characteristic form and habit, the differing thicknesses of chamberlet partition and floor, etc. (see Fig. 1). Comparison and affinities: There seems little doubt that this new genus should be referred to the Ophthalmidiidae on the grounds of its close morphological similarity to many genera of that family. The presence of adventitious material, within the wall structure, might indicate an af- finity to the Trochamminidae, or to the Milioli- dae. Stacheoides, however, possesses neither the trochoid form or apertural characters of the former nor the basic wall structure that typifies the latter. The correctness of its inclusion within the Ophthalmididae is emphasized by its mor- phological similarity to Nubecularia of the Nube- cularlnae, with which it is included. Nubecularia and Stacheoides, as well as being structurally alike, are contemporaneous and have been found occurring together in British Lower Carboniferous deposits. The new genus is distin- guished by its chamberal form, ramifying and acervuline mode of growth, and its distinct, aper- tural features. It may represent an aberrant spe- cialization from Nubecularia in the Lower Car- NEW FORAMINIFERAL GENUS 343 boniferous, along morphogenetic lines similar to those on which Sinzowella Cushman, 1933, de- veloped from Nubecularia in the Tertiary. In his original description of Stacheta poly- trematoides Brady (1876) noted that the form dif- fered in many respects from the other species which he included in the genus Stacheia. The type species of the latter was designated by Cushman (1927) as Stacheia marginulinoides Brady. Hence the fundamental differences of Stacheta and Stacheoides are reflected in those of the two spe- cies, Stacheia marginulinoides Brady and Stache- oides polytrematoides (Brady). Stacheta s.s. is characterized by a wall composed only of granules of calcite bound by calcareous cement, whereas : “N LAY ‘, s Ss ¢ 4 6 ’ g q a b B so v ' Fia. 1.—Stacheoides sp. Diagram based on actual specimen to show typical appearance in thin section. X 20. Stacheoides has a varying but small amount of incorporated, adventitious material, in addition to the same basic structure. In Stacheia s.s. the walls, roofs, and floors of the chamberlets have a constant thickness, which contrasts with the vari- ation in the thickness of the structural elements of Stacheoides. The latter possesses a tubular mode of growth which is distinct from the sheet- like formation of chamberlets in Stacheia. While the aperture of Stacheva s.s. is hidden, single, ter- minal, and basal, Stacheoides has numerous, small apertures, each at the apex of a protuberance. The distinction of Stacheoides and Fourstonella Cummings, 1955, is based on the sheetlike habit of growth of the latter. 344 Preservation and matrix: The normal mode of preservation in argillaceous sediments shows a slight degree of recrystallization of the wall structure. More rarely specimens have been noted which have undergone partial, or complete, silici- fication. In the limestone facies the degree of alteration is small. While the protuberances are partly damaged in many specimens, there is little doubt of the dis- tinct character of the apertures when these are examined in well-preserved material. Horizon and facies: This genus has been re- corded throughout the greater part of the British Lower Carboniferous and is also present in Na- murian sediments. It is particularly common in the encrinital facies of the Upper Visean of the Midland Valley of Scotland, where it appears to exhibit a commensal habit with the extensive crinoid populations. While this commensalism is well-marked in Stacheoides, the genus does not exhibit in any way the symbiotic relationship to calcareous algae that is so common in the case of Nubecularia. Indeed, it would seem that Stache- oides did not coexist with such algae. Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady), 1876 Figs. 2, 3, 7, 8. Stacheia polytrematoides (pars) Brady, 1876, et alios. Description: Test adherent, fusiform outline when attached to spines or polyzoans, irregularly spreading and encrustating on crinoid ossicles; growth characterized by irregular, tubular habit, with numerous, small, uniserial chamberlets forming in rows which ramify over one another and build up mto hummocky protuberances at irregularly spaced intervals; chamberlets roughly subcylindrical in form, and subrectangular to square in section; sutures absent but infrequent growth ridges visible; surface often rough and mammillated; wall composed of granular calcite with calcareous cement and a small amount of adventitious material, often forming a thin and incomplete external layer; distinct, small, circu- lar apertures, often in depressions, at the apices of the irregularly scattered protuberances. Depository, etc.: Lectotype (slide P.35405) in the Brady Collection of Carboniferous and Per- mian Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), from the Hosie Limestone, Hairmyres, Lanarkshire, in the Lower Limestone Group of the Scottish Lower Carboniferous. Figured para- types (slides P.1015/6/7) in the Protozoa Collec- tion of the Geology Department, University of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 Glasgow; and slide P.11307 in the Reserve and Study Collection, H.M. Geological Survey, Scot- tish Office, Edinburgh. Dimensions: Dependent on the host and hence not confined to type material: maximum length on crinoid ossicle 6.5 mm; maximum length on spine 2.8 mm; maximum breadth on spine 0.67 mm; average width of protuberance 0.17 mm. Comparison and affinities: This species is read- ily distinguished from Stacheia congesta Brady by the form of growth and apertural characters. It differs from Stacheoides papillata, n. sp., in gen- eral form and the number, and shape, of the protuberances. Horizon and facies: Occurring throughout the greater part of the British Lower Carboniferous, this species is also particularly common in the Namurian of the Scottish Midland Valley, in both argillaceous and encrinital facies. Stacheoides papillata, n. sp. Figs. 4-6 Description: Test usually attached, rarely free; form dependent upon shape of host, usually fusi- form, but may be cylindrical or spherical; surface characterized by numerous, lobiferate, conical to subconical, relatively small protuberances; in- ternally composed of tubular lines of chamberlets, irregularly laid on top of one another and sur- rounding host, with partitions thinner than roofs or floors; sutures absent but growth ridges and overfolding present; surface smooth; wall com- posed largely of calcareous grains bound by eal- careous cement, but with a small amount of ad- ventitious material included; small, circular, apertural openings within depressions at apices of protuberances. Depository, etc.: Holotype (slide 9965) and paratype thin section (slide 11306) in the Reserve and Study Collection, H.M. Geological Survey, Scottish Office, Edinburgh, from limestone near the top of the Calciferous Sandstone Series, Lower Carboniferous, of Penton Linn, Dumfrieshire, Scotland. Figured specimen (slide 11305) in the Reserve and Study Collection, etc., from a limestone near the top of the Calciferous Sandstone Series, Lower Carboniferous, on the left bank of the Liddel Water, Dumfrieshire, Scotland. Dimensions: Largely dependent on _ host: Holotype: length 1.34 mm, breadth 0.7 mm. Para- type: average internal length of chamberlet 0.05 mm. Comparison and affinities: Though similar to Fie. 2.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1015). Lateral view of specimen on crinoid ossicle. X 20. Fie. 3.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1016). Lateral view of specimen on crinoid ossicle. X 11. Fig. 4.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Figured specimen (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 11805). Lateral view of specimen on spine. X 30. Fic. 5.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Holotype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 9965). Lateral view meee apertures. X 33. Fic. 6.—Stacheoides papillata, n. sp.: Paratype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & 8. C. 11306). Thin section about equatorial plane. X 32. Fig. 7.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady) : Paratype (Glas. Univ. Geol. Dept. P. 1017). Thin sec- tion of specimen on crinoid fragment. X 23. Fig. 8.—Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady): Paratype (Geol. Surv. Sctld. R. & S. C. 11807). Thin section of specimen on spine. X 27. 345 346 Stacheia congesta Brady, with which it has been confused in the past, this form is distinguished by differences in the composition of the wall, in the position of the apertures, the relatively larger size of the chamberlets, and the variation in thick- ness of the structural elements. It is distinguished from Stacheoides polytrematoides (Brady) by a general difference in form, and in having a rela- tively larger number of protuberances. Preservation and matrix: The usual mode of preservation shows the test wall to be preserved in a yellowish, slightly recrystallized calcite, with clear calcite infilling the voids of the chamberlets. Rare specimens have been noted where the original wall-structure has been replaced com- pletely by silica, now preserved as crystalline quartz. Horizon and facies: This species appears to be confined to the upper part of the British Visean and occurs in a wide variety of facies. It is espe- cially common in the uppermost part of the Cal- ciferous Sandstone Series, and the lower part of the Lower Limestone Group, of the Scottish Lower Carboniferous. REFERENCES Brapvy, H. B. Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 excepted): 1-166. Palaeontographical Society, London, 1876. Cummines, R. H. New genera of foraminifera from the British Lower Carboniferous. Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 45 (1) 1-8. 1955. CusHMAN, J. A. The designation of some genotypes in the Foraminifera. Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 3 (4) 188-190. 1927. ———. Note sur quelques foraminiferes Jurassique d Auberville (Calvados). Bull. Soe. Linn. Normandie (8) 2 132-135. 1929. . Some new foraminiferal genera. Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 9: 132-138. 1933. Foraminifera—their classification economic use. Cambridge, Mass., 1948. —— and Waters, J. A. Upper Paleozoic For- aminifera from Sutton County, Texas. Journ. Pal. 2 (4) 358-371. 1928. Derrance, J. L. M. Article on Foraminifera in “Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles’’. Strasburg, 1825. Dervitue, H. Maniere d’étre des Algues dans les calcaires a Nubéculaires. Bull. Soc. Geol. France (5) 6: 487-493. 1936. Jounson, J. H. Nubecularia from the Pennsyl- vanian and Permian of Kansas. Journ. Pal. 21: (1) 41-45. 1947. ——. A Permian algal-foraminiferal consortium from West Texas. Journ. Pal. 24 (1) 61-62. 1950. and WASHINGTON SCIENTIFIC NEWS ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS PROMOTE SCIENCE EDUCATION The Washington Academy of Sciences and the District of Columbia Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies announce the formation of a Joint Board on Science Education for the Greater Washington Area. The Board will cooper- ate with the local schools and laboratories in their common objective of training future scientists. There is at present a serious shortage of qualified engineers and scientists which may well impede the social, health, and technological progress in the United States. Chairman Joseph H. Broome of the Council and President Margaret Pittman of the Academy have appointed as Board members the following persons: Raymond J. Seeger, chair- man, National Science Foundation; Henry H. Armsby, Higher Education Division, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; James F. Fox, Bureau of Ordnance, Department of Navy; W.S. Higginson, Geological Survey; Keith C. Johnson, D. C. Public Schools; Walter H. McCartha, General Services Administration; Martin A. Mason, School of Engineering, George Washing- ton University; W. T. Reed, Department of De- fense; and Arnold H. Scott and John K. Taylor, National Bureau of Standards. SCIENCE TEACHERS SCHEDULE FOURTH NATIONAL CONVENTION The Fourth National Convention for teachers of science being planned by the National Science Teachers Association (NEA) will be held March 14-17, 1956, at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington. With sessions designed for elementary schools, junior and senior high schools, and colleges, it is expected that 1,500 teachers will attend the con- vention. Features will include the annual exposi- tion of science-teaching aids and “interview visits’? to several of the research centers in and around Washington, including the National Bu- reau of Standards and the National Institutes of Health. Nationally known scientists and educators, as well as experienced and successful classroom teachers, will give talks, serve as panel members, and take part as leaders in work discussion groups. he program is being planned especially to give practical helps for classroom teaching situations and problems. The first day’s activities will center about the problem of ‘‘Learning How to Find Out.”’ This will be followed by the laboratory visits and talks by scientists dealing with ‘‘Find- ing Out What Nobody Knows.’’ The third day of the convention will deal specifically with ‘“‘Finding Out What We Have Learned.’”? Teacher demon- strations will feature the final day’s activities. NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.: NEW ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS 347 PALEONTOLOGY— New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE, Bartles- ville, Okla., et al. I. THREE NEW GENERA By Harrewtt L. STRIMPLE and Witiram T. WATKINS The latest comprehensive classification of erinoids is that of Moore and Laudon (1943). Considering their definitions of the various subclasses, one has some difficulty in de- termining the proper placement for one form considered below as Anthracocrinus, n. gen. Under Camerata, p. 76, it is stated, “Crinoids in which all plates of the calyx are united by rigid suture are included in the Camerata.’’ We do not believe the junc- tion of plates in Anthracocrinus could be termed “‘by rigid suture.” Under Flexibilia, pp. 64-65, it is stated, “The Flexibilia comprise dicyclic crinoids having the lower brachials incorporated in the dorsal cup but not rigidly.” Such struc- ture is certainly typical of Anthracocrinus, which form, however, is not acceptable to the subclass through possession of pinnule bearing arms and five IBB. The arm of the Flexibilia are nonpinnular and there are only three IBB. Under Inadunata, p. 21, it is stated, “The Inadunata comprises crinoids that have the plates of the calyx joined firmly together, typically by syzygial suture.” If our understanding of the terms ‘joined firmly together” and ‘“‘syzygial suture’’ is correct, the definition of the Inadunata requires modification. There are several known forms assigned to the subclass wherein the cup plates were held in place, at least in part, by ligaments. Dr. Moore (1939, pp. 207-208), recognized this condi- tion when he recorded the existence of pits or depressions in the suture edges of the IBB and BB plates of Plummericrinus mcguirei (Moore). His explanation of these pits was: “".. evidently for reception of ligament fibres.”’ Another example may be obtained by reference to the unretouched illustration of Allosocrinus bronaughi Strimple (1949, pl. 4, fig. 4). The right suture edge of a radial plate is exposed therein, and shows a sharp depression in midportion that must have held ligament fibres. The term syzygial or syzygium in crinoid terminology is usually used in reference to close union of adjacent arm segments or adjacent arms, to the point of almost ob- literating the suture. As applied to cup plates, we presume the definition to mean union of cup ossicles by calcified fibers. In Pennsylvanian stratum, thousands upon thousands of isolated crinoid ossicles, as compared to the relatively few dorsal cups, amply demonstrate the absence of syzygial suture much less the firm union of plates. The plates of Anthracocrinus have depres- sions along the suture edges as found in some inadunates and flexibles and as we presume might be found in some camerates. We are assigning the genus to the Camerata and propose Anthracocrinidae, new family, for its reception. NOTES ON THE ARCHAEOCRINIDS The genus Archaeocrinus was proposed by Wachsmuth and Springer (1881), with Glyptocrinus lacunosus Billings (1857) as the genotype species. The forms involved are rather well known, but some confusion still exists In interpretations of the genus over rather fundamental characteristics. In their description Wachsmuth and Springer state that two plates of the second series are pres- ent in all interradial areas with those of the posterior probably a little wider. In the genotype species, three plates follow anal X, and the same is known to occur in several other species. Wachsmuth and Springer (1885) corrected their earlier remarks, con- cerning the number of plates in the posterior interradius, to three plates in the second series. They gave reference to a communica- tion from W. R. Billings wherein he advised that all the species referred to Archaeocrinus by Wachsmuth and Springer (1881), possess a special anal piece placed between the interradials (interbrachials) of the second (first) series. This would include A. lacwnosus (Billings), A. marginatus (Billings), A. microbasilis (Billings), and A. pyriformis (Billings). One assumes that Billings had material to support such an observation for all the species involved. 348 It has been noted that a median-ray ridge marks the brachials in the cup and may pass on to the radial plates. The base of the dorsal cup is concave and the infrabasals are confined to the basal concavity with the notable exception of the form originally described as Thysanocrinus pyriformis Billings (1857). In an effort to resolve the status of T. pyriformis, the senior author requested Dr. Alice E. Wilson, Geological Survey of Canada (retired), to examine the holotype of the species. She was kind enough to do so, and also to provide a photograph of the specimen, which is numbered 1446b. The proximal portion of the BB are curved slightly inwardly, which has not been shown by Billings or by Wachsmuth and Springer in their illustrations. The specimen figured by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl. 10, fig. 3b), is 1446b; however, it is considerably brightened up and they do not note that it is the holotype. The specimen figured by those authors (pl. 10, fig. 3a), as ‘“‘the type speci- men” is numbered 1446ce, and is a paratype. Both specimens demonstrate upflared infra- basal plates that are readily visible in side view of the dorsal cup; therefore, the species is not a bona fide representative of the genus Archaeocrinus. This is of particular interest because Moore and Laudon (1943, text-fig. 13), have obviously used the paratype of Thysanocrinus pyriformis as the basis for their diagram of the genus Archaeocrinus, the type of the family Archaeocrinidae Moore and Laudon. It has been amply demonstrated else- where that forms with decidedly upflared IBB are either primitive, or have advanced through stages wherein the base has become concave, with IBB restricted to the con- cavity, and thence to a stage where the IBB are again upflared. A long evolutionary process could hardly have transpired in these primitive forms and therefore 7. pyriformis must be considered to be more primitive than Archaeocrinus. We consider it desirable to remove the species from Archaeocrinus, and since no other genus is suitable for its reception we propose it as the genotype of Neoarchaeocrinus, n. gen. On the basis of the existence of upflared IBB, we refer Archaeo- crinus obconicus Slocum (1924) to Neo- archaeocrinus. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 11 We have yet another form to be considered. wherein the dorsal cup has the general ap- pearance of Archaeocrinus, as restricted, but: does not have the characteristic arrangement of plates in the interradius areas. As’ dis- cussed above, there are two plates in the second series of the interradius areas in all except the posterior interradius, which typically has three. There is at hand a dis- tinctive species from the Bromide of Okla- homa, which has three plates in the second series of all interradius areas with the excep- tion of the posterior which may have either two or three plates in the second series (first interbrachial series). For this form we pro- pose the name Pararchaeocrinus decoratus, n. sp., genotype of Pararchaeocrinus, n. gen. Subclass Camerata Wachsmuth and Springer Anthracocrinidae Strimple and Watkins, n. fam. Dicyclic; cup high; IBB small, elongate, pro- jecting far into the body cavity; RR separated all around; median rays prominent; IBrBr regu- lar, mildly depressed; anal area small, though broader than other interradial areas, median ray absent; proximal brachials and pinnules (ram- ules?) incorporated into the cup though not al- ways in complete contact; suture edges have de- pressions, apparently for reception of ligament fibres; lumen large, pentalobate; arms uniserial; tegmen unknown. Range—Ordovician, North America. Anthracocrinus Strimple and Watkins, n. gen. The definition of family given above is of course also applicable to the genus. It is noted here that the first interradial plates, including anal X, are in full contact with the basal plates. The bifurcation of arms is significant, PBrBr» are axillary in all rays and a second branching is present in some half rays, but never in both pri- mary divisions of any one ray. The arms and pin- nules do not become free before the second bi- fureation. The most nearly comparable form known to us is Deocrinus Hudson (1907). It is readily sepa- rable from Anthracocrinus in that it does not have a median ridge over the brachials; the large interradial plates are separated from the basals, adjacent radials, and brachials by a series of small plates; and the lumen is round. The meet- ing of first pinnules of each arm over the inter- brachials and the structure of the pinnules and NOVEMBER 1955 brachials are remarkably similar for the two genera. Genotype species——Anthracocrinus primitivus Strimple and Watkins, n. sp. Anthracocrinus primitivus Strimple and Watkins, n. sp. la—c, 2a, 4-6 Dorsal cup high with very deep basal con- cavity. Five elongate IBB and more than half the length of the five BB form a tubular chamber extending far into the body cavity. The proximal columnals are usually in place so that it is neces- sary to examine this structure from within the cup. A sharp ridge on the BB forms a pentagonal rim about the invaginated base. Five RR are moderately large, pentagonal plates. Five large interradials are in full contact with BB below, RR and BrBr to the lateral sides and with two small interbrachials above. The posterior IR (anal X) is smaller than other interradials and the succeeding plates are larger than found in the other four interrays. There are typically 3 arms to a ray. First bi- furcation takes place with PBrBr» in all rays. Second bifurcation is usually found on SBrBr. but in one observed instance occurred on SBri. Only one-half ray in any one arm will branch more than once. Usually the second brachial above the second bifurcation in a ray will bear a pinnule. In some instances, dependent upon the presence or absence of IBrBr plates, the third or fourth succeeding brachial bears a pinnule, and the next brachial. The succeeding brachial will normally be nonpinnular, and the next brachial will have a pinnule on the side opposite the first Figs. STRIMPLE ET AL.: NEW ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS 349 pinnule. Succeeding brachials have one pinnule on opposite sides. The first few plates of the lower pinnules are very large and meet over the two plates of the interrays. There is a loose union be- tween lower segments of the pmnules and bra- chials that in effect make them part of the dorsal cup and would certainly have prevented any pro- nounced movement of these elements. The proximal portion of the stem is large and composed of alternatingly expanded, round seg- ments which do not appear to bear cirri. Very wide, relatively thick columnals are followed by very thin, narrow columnals. Small nodes girdle the mid-section of the thicker columnals. The lumen is large, pentalobate in outline. The tegmen has not been observed. Measurements.—As follows: Holotype WidthroficuplatpeDrBrameeceerinecmeeccienies 10.5 mm, HeightioficuplavBrBromenceensae eee 3.5 mm Wadthvof basalicavitysess-sosemcne scene 3.2 mm. Discussion.—This form was discovered by the junior author several years ago at the Spring Creek exposure in the Criner Hills that has also produced Myeinocystites natus Strimple (1953a) Archaeocrinus subovalis Strimple (1953b) and nu- merous other unusual forms. Subsequent field work by Allen Graffham and the authors has provided enough material to compile the descrip- tion given above. One of the main difficulties en- countered at the onset was the determination of the nature of and the plates contained in the basal invagination. This difficulty was sur- mounted when Mr. Graffham stripped off the side of a crown. This is shown in Fig. lc. Figs. la-e.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n. sp.: Diagrammatic drawings showing (a) the posterior in- terradius, (b) normal interradius, and (c) placement of infrabasal plates high in the dorsal cup. 350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 WSs CNRS Swe NGA SS ey, SG) = NZ ARM NW ae RAMULE ? DORA RIDGE = i COLUMN Fig. 2a.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n. sp.: Camera-lucida drawing of arms near their termina- tion. Fres. 2b-f—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus, n. sp.: Camera-lucida drawings showing (b) a cross section offa brachial plate; (c) tegment of arm; (d) segment of arm in side view to show pinnular attachment; (e) base of cup showing strong crenulation on basal plates and the proximal columnal in place at the bottom of the basal concavity; and (f) side view of dorsal cup showing normal interradius and ray ridges (marked by broken lines). NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.: Anthracocrinus primitivus is considerably smaller than associated Archaeocrinus and Parar- chagocrinus. Specimens are consistently black in color when first found. Washing and _ brushing will in some instances remove the black coloring. Under mild magnification the plates of the crown are very porous, and it is our thought that a thin skinlike membraneous or leathery covering might have existed in life that is preserved as a black pigment. The only described species that appears to be closely similar to Anthracocrinus primitivus 1s Deocrinus asperatus (Billings) and readily appar- ent differences have already been given under the comparison of the two genera. Occurrence.—Lower Bromide formation, Ordo- vician; east bank of Spring Creek, a tributary of Hickory Creek, Criner Hills, southeast of Ard- more, Okla. Types—Holotype and four paratypes to be deposited in the U. S. National Museum. Family ARCHAEOCRINIDAE Moore and Laudon, 1943 Neoarchaeocrinus Strimple and Watkins, n. gen. Dorsal cup rather elongated, obconical in shape. Five IBB upflared and readily visible in side view of cup. Five large RR separated all around. Five large BB. Five IR, regular one in each interray with that of the posterior desig- nated as anal X. Two IBrBr; im all interrays ex- cept the posterior which has three, designated as anal plates. Faint median ridges mark the bra- chials that are incorporated into the dorsal cup for a considerable distance. Arms are cuneiform and relatively small, especially when compared to the size of the dorsal cup. An excellent diagram of Neoarchaeocrinus 1s given by Moore and Laudon (1943, text-fig. 13) as representative of Archaeocrinus. It seems likely that Neoarchaeocrinus evolved directly out of the Reteocrinidae. It is closely related to and may be directly ancestrial to Archaeocrinus from which it differs in having a more primitive (erect) base. Genotype species—Thysanocrinus pyriformis Billings. Range.—Ordovician to lower Silurian. Pararchaeocrinus Strimple and Watkins, - n. gen. Dorsal cup rather short, subglobular shaped. Five IBB confined to basal concavity. Five large NEW ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS 351 RR separated all around. Five large BB. Each B is followed by a single IR which is in turn fol- lowed by three IBrBr with the exception of pos- terior B. In the posterior interradius there may be two or three anal plates in direct contact with post. B. The posterior interradius is protruded. Each R is followed by a single PBr which is in turn followed by an axillary PBro. A small series of IBrBr occur after the bifurcation of the fixed brachials, usually in the arrangement 1-2-3. Strong median ridges mark the brachials. The BB are joined by a confluent ridge that forms a pentagon about the basal concavity. A division of this ridge passes from each B to the adjoining RR so that a stellate shape is formed at their junction at midsection of the RR from whence they join with the ridge marking the brachial plates. This genus is closely related to Archaeocrinus from which it differs mainly in the structure of the plates of the interrays as has been discussed above. Genotype species.—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus Strimple and Watkins, n. sp. Range.—Ordovician, North America. Pararchaeocrinus decoratus Strimple and Watkins, n. sp. Dorsal cup globular, with small basal con- cavity formed by the proximal edges of the five BB. Five IBB are confined to the base of the concavity. Proximal columnals entirely fill the basal concavity and thereby cover the IBB. Each B is in contact with seven plates with the excep- tion of posterior B, and have raised ridges that pass to adjacent BB forming a pentagonal shaped rim about the basal concavity. Divergent ridges also pass from each B to adjoming RR and con- verge in midsection of each R thus forming a stellate shaped rim in the lower part of the cup. Post. B is larger and more elongate than other BB and has 8 or 9 facets. A large IR follows each B and is in turn followed by three plates in the second series (IBrBr), except in the posterior in- terradius. The proximal portion of the posterior interradius is narrower than other interrays, which is partially compensated for through strong protrusion of the cup in this area. The exact num- ber of plates varies, as well as the arrangement of the plates. In the holotype, post. B is followed directly above by a single anal plate (anal X?), 352 to the right by another anal, and to the right side by yet another anal plate. In the figured para- type, post. B is followed directly above by a sin- gle anal plate (anal X?) and to the right side by another anal plate. The only difference in these two specimens is the existence of an extra anal piece above the right anal plate in the holotype that is absent in the figured paratype. The anal plate to the right is followed to the right above by a plate bearing a strong ridge that originates on the right posterior R. The plate is situated too low to be considered in the third series yet is not, sensu stricto, part of the second series. It is fol- lowed by a series of hexagonal plates that divide the posterior interray into two parts and carries the raised ridge to the distal termination of the cup. From study of existing material it is difficult to visualize the purpose of this ridge, and series of plates, because the pressure of the gut is ap- parent in the left portion of the interradius; how- ever, as the raised ridge curves slightly to the left, and the pressure of the gut veers slightly to the right, they become confluent at about mid- length of the ridge. The arms become free on or about the fourth secundibrach and thereafter are narrow, elon- gated, cuneiform, and bifurcate isotomously at least. twice. Each brachial is thin and carries a very thin, extremely elongated pinnule on its thickest lateral side. A special pocketlike ar- rangement for the reception of the pinnule is shown by text-fig. 2d. Owing to the thinness of the brachial plates, the pinnules are closely spaced. Axillary brachials in the free arms are small and triangular shaped. The RR are normally seven sided and are fol- lowed directly above by six sided, non-axillary first brachials. First bifurcation of rays is with the second pribibrachials, which plates are five sided. The arrangement of intersecundibrachials is 1-2-3. A significant division of the raised ray ridges takes place with the SBrBr2 wherein a thin ridge passes onto adjoining interbrachials of the large interradius area, and continues to the upper ex- tremity of the cup. There are thus two of these ridges to each interray that continue to the upper edge of the cup where they are only one plate apart. Such a ridge could serve a pinnule and in fact these plates are of course fixed pinnules, but one would expect a ridge on each succeeding fixed pinnule which is not the case. It is more likely that the ridge marks a ramule. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 All plates are marked with fine ridges that radiate from the center of each plate and are usually conjunct with those of adjoming ridges. Unusually heavy and erratically shaped, short ridges are found in conjunction with the raised arm rays in the upper portion of the cup. Proximal columnals are thin, broad ossicles. They are mildly pentagonal in outline and are alternatingly expanded. Text-fig. 2e, shows the proximal columnal in place and the nature of the large lumen. Heavy crenulations are present in the walls of the basal concavity and pass onto the flattened base as illustrated by Fig. 2e, and demonstrates the reason all proximal columnals are usually in place. This arrangement is no doubt matched by similar ridges and depressions on the outer edges of the proximal columnals. The column is rather small considering the size of the crown and the form probably devised this inter- locking arrangement to prevent the shock of sud- den movement from breaking the crown loose at its proximal extremity where the newer colum- nals are present. As the columnals became more mature their interlocking crenulations between segments probably sufficed to hold them together. Measurements.—As follows: Figured Holotype, paratype, Paratype, mm. mm. mm. Width of dorsal cup (approx.) 28.2 22.4 20.0 Height of dorsal cup (approx.) 19.6 15.7 16.0 Width of basal concavity 4.0 4.0 Width of proximal columnals 4.0 4.0 Length of free arms as preserved 39.5 Remarks—This form was discovered by the junior author several years ago at the Spring Creek exposure of the Bromide formation in the Criner Hills of southern Oklahoma. A colony was excavated by the authors on an expedition to the outcrop in 1948. All specimens were firmly em- bedded on the underside of slabs and presented a serious problem of preparation for adequate ob- servation. Fortunately another small colony was discovered by Allen Graffham and the senior au- thor several feet from the original colony where the zone approached the surface and the matrix was somewhat disintegrated. Two specimens from the later colony are figured as the holotype and a paratype, and several complete crowns from the first colony are designated as paratypes. One specimen from the Hickory Creek exposure (Rock Crossing) of the Bromide formation, showing the crenulations of the basal concavity and the proxi- mal columnal in place (Fig. 2e), is designated as a paratype. NOVEMBER 1955 STRIMPLE ET AL.: The relatively common species described as Archaeocrinus subovalis Strimple seldom occurs in the same zone with Pararchaeocrinus decoratus. One specimen of the former was found on the edge of a slab from the original colony of the latter where the colony was pinching out. Con- versely, one specimen of Pararchaeocrinus deco- ratus was found in the large colony of Archaeocri- nus subovalis that was excavated by us. The next lower zone, and higher zones, carry Archaeocrinus subovalis is profusion. The two forms are readily separable on the basis of the arrangement of plates in the interradius areas and due to the un- ornamented surface of A. subovalis. Types —Figured holotype, paratype and nu- merous paratypes are to be deposited in the U.S. National Museum. One slab with several para- types exposed is to be deposited in the collections of the University of Oklahoma. REFERENCES All cited references may be found in Bassler and Moodey, Bibliographic and Faunal Index of Paleozoic Pelmatozoan Echinoderms. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 45, 1943, with the following ex- ceptions: Moors, R. C. Journ. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ. 34: 1939. and Laupon, L. R. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 46: 1943. Srrmpie, Harrevy L. Bull. Amer. Pal. Soc. 32: 265-270, pl. 36, fig. 4. 1949. . Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 43: 105-106. 1953a. . Journ. Pal. 27: 6-4-606. 1953b. Il. A NEW SPECIES OF CYATHOCYSTIS By Harreti L. Srrimpte and A. ALLEN GRAFFHAM The discovery of a representative of the rare genus Cyathocystis Schmidt (1879) in the lower Bromide formation (Ordovician) of Oklahoma by the junior author warrants considerable attention. Only three species of this edrioasteroid are known. They are C. plautinae Schmidt (1880), the genotype, C. rhizophora Schmidt (1880), and C. ameri- canus Bassler (1936). The first two species are from the Ordovician of Estonia, the later from the Ordovician of Tennessee. The Oklahoma species is described below as C’. oklahomae, n. sp. NEW ORDOVICIAN ECHINODERMS 353 1900 1880 Family CyatHocystipar Bather, Genus Cyathocystis Schmidt, Cyathocystis oklahomae Strimple and Graffham, n. sp. Figs. 3, 7, 8 Four specimens of the species are available for study, the larger and most perfectly preserved specimen is taken as the holotype. One paratype is perfectly preserved except for the covering plates of the anal opening which are missing in this specimen. The holotype has fine ridges mark- ing the ambulacrals and interambulacrals, and the center sutures between the interlocking am- bulacral plates are marked by a well-defined ridge. The smaller specimen does not show this ornamentation so well. There is also evidence of division of the large plates covering the mouth in the holotype that has not been observed in the smaller paratype. Upper ambulacral surface is bordered by a sub- pentagonal frame of 31 marginals, excluding the 5 small plates that border the anus. Interambu- lacrals are five solid plates that are much wider than long. Ambulacra are broad, straight rays with a single series of interlocking covering plates. Five large plates cover the mouth. The anus is situated between a deltoid and the marginal frame, and is covered by a mosaic of small, ir- regular plates. There is a small shelf on the del- toid bordering the inner edge of the anus. Fie. 3.—Cyathocystis oklahomae, n. sp.: Camera- lucida drawing of the oral surface of the holotype. 304 Aboral portion of the theea is a fused mass of stereom with no visible longitudinal sutures. An encrusting root type of base indicates permanent attachment to a foreign object. Measurements.—As follows: Holotype Width of theea 7.0 mm. Height of theca 5.5 mm. Length of ambulacra 2.8 mm. Width of deltoid 3.1mm. Length of deltoid 0.9 mm. Greatest width of anus! 1.5 mm. 1 Excluding five plates in line with the marginal plates. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 Remarks.—In the genus Cyathocystis, the in- terambulacrals are fused to form five large plates designated as deltoids. The aboral portion of the theca is also fused; however, European species are reported to sometimes disclose obscure longi- tudinal sutures, irregular in number and position, but never more than five. The anus has five cover- ing plates. There are 40 marginals forming the pentagonal frame bordering the upper ambula- cral surface. C. americanus differs from the European spe- cies in having more narrow and elongated ambu- lacra. The covering plates of the anus are not pre- 4-6.—Anthracocrinus primitivus, n. A paratype, X.2; 5, the holotype, X 3; a paratype, X 2. I ( g : Unretouched photographs of the holotype, X 5.3; oral view of theca with anus to the right; side view Fies. of theca with anus to the left. sp.: Unretouched photographs of crowns in side view: 4, Fries. 7, 8.—Cyathocystis oklahomae, n. sp.: Fras. 9, 10.—Pararchaeocrinus decoratus, n. sp.: Side view of a para- type, X 3; the holotype viewed from below, X 2. NOVEMBER 1955 served in the holotype, and only known specimen, though the opening is present according to a communication received by the senior author from Dr. Bassler. The deltoids are rather elon- gated and there appears to be about 40 marginal plates. The theca is elongated and is subpentago- nal in outline according to the description of the form. C. oklahomae differs from C. americanus in having a short, rounded theca, short deltoids, short broad ambulacra, and a reduced number of marginal plates. C. oklahomae differs from European species in having elongated ambulacral covering plates, re- WIRTH: THREE NEW SPECIES OF CULICOIDES 355 duced number of marginals, shorter deltoids and more than five covering plates for the anus. Occurrence —Lower Bromide formation, Ordo- vician; exposure in the east bank of Spring Creek a tributary of Hickory Creek, Criner Hills, some 7 miles southwest of Ardmore, Okla. Types.—Holotype and one paratype to be de- posited in the U.S. National Museum. REFERENCES All references are listed in Bassler and Moodey, Bibliographic and faunal index of Paleozoic Pel- matozoan echinoderms, Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 45, p. 199. 1943. ENTOMOLOGY .— Three new species of Culicoides from Texas (Diptera: Heleidae). Wiis W. Wirtx, Entomology Research Branch, U.S. Department of Agri- eulture. (Received July 12, 1955) In early 1953 it was definitely established that the virus disease of sheep known as bluetongue is present and is occasionally epi- zootic in the southwestern United States. In South Africa, where bluetongue has caused severe losses to sheep raisers and has been studied intensively for several decades, the only proved vectors are biting midges of the genus Culicoides. Drs. D. A. Price and W. T. Hardy, veterinarians of the Texas Agri- cultural Experiment Station at Sonora, have produced bluetongue infections in sheep ex- perimentally by injections of macerated Culicoides variipennis (Coquillett) caught in a light trap on the station where an outbreak of the disease was in course (Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 124: 255-258. 1954). In preparation for anticipated further studies on the epidemiology of bluetongue — in America, including the determination of the vector species and studies on their bi- ology and control, a survey was begun in May 1953 to determine the distribution of the species of Culicoides in the bluetongue area of Texas. Descriptions of three new species taken on the surveys are presented here, in order to make their names avail- able to other workers. The types are de- posited in the U. 8. National Museum in Washington. I am greatly indebted to the personnel of the Kerrville laboratory of the Agricultural Research Service for their assistance in the survey. Culicoides neopulicaris, n.sp. iol 2. Length 1.25 mm, wing 1.13 by 0.5 mm. Head dark brown, eyes contiguous, bare. An- tennae with flagellar segments in proportion of 20:18:18:18:18:18:18:18:20:22:25:28:45, dis- tal sensory tufts on segments 3, 11-15. Palpal segments (Fig. 1, b) in proportion of 10:22:34: 13:10 third segment moderately swollen in middle with numerous spoon-shaped sensillae borne on _ extensive concavity distal to middle of segment. Mesonotum dark brown, the dorsal surface with yellowish gray pruinosity, with more or less of an indication of a broad median paler gray band from humeral pits to prescutellar sensory depression, the long hairs mixed yellowish and dark brown. Scutellum dark brown, with four strong blackish bristles; pleura very dark brown. Legs uniformly dark brown, becoming somewhat paler on tarsi; hind tibial comb of six long sub- equal bristles. Wing (Fig. 1, a) with anterior radial cells com- plete; costa 0.6 as long as wing. Macrotrichia fairly numerous on distal half of wing and in cell M4 and anal cell. Wing predominantly whitish, the dark markings quite limited, forming essen- tially three broken transverse bands of spots as figured. The first dark costal spot halfway be- tween wing base and crossvein r-m and extending from costa only across base of media; second costal spot covering distal half of first radial cell, not extending into cell R5; third costal spot just past apex of costa, hourglass-shaped, the 356 anterior part wider, the posterior part extending only to the fold above vein M1. Small, but quite distinct dark spots also at bases of medial and mediocubital forks, at apices of veins M1, M2, M3-4 and Cul, the latter two extending on veins M3-4 and Cul to their bases, the spot at end of M3-4 extending forward nearly across cell M2 just before tip, and a separate dark spot near apex of cell M1 at level of spot in cell M2. An isolated dark spot in middle of pale area in cell M4 and a dark spot at half the length of anal vein extending back and widening distad into a Jarge dark area along caudal margin extending nearly to vein Cul. Halteres whitish. Abdomen dull blackish; spermathecae two, subequal, ovoid, slightly tapered to the ducts. Male genitalia (Fig. 1, c-d). Ninth sternum with shallow mesal excavation, the posterior membrane bare; ninth tergum distally rounded, with well-developed median lobe, the apico- lateral processes practically absent. Basistyles with mesal margins straight, each bearing a dense patch of strong spines towards base, dorsal roots well developed, ventral roots very small; dististyles slender, apices not expanded, slightly incurved. Aedeagus with basal arch rounded, ex- tending to a littie more than half of total length, the distal half broad and tapering to a broadly rounded tip. Parameres bent at basal third, the mesal margins approximated on middle third, the apices narrowed to slender, pubescent tips. Holotype female (type no. 62363, U.S.N.M.), allotype, Kerrville, Tex., June 15, 1953, L. J. Bottimer (light trap). Paratypes: 9 males, 69 females, same data except dates June 13 to October 20, 1953. Other material: 4 females, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, De- cember 1, 1944, B. Brookman (light trap). This species is closely related to yukonensis Hoffman from Alaska and the Yukon, as well as to the Palearctic species pulicaris (Linnaeus) and punctatus (Meigen), all having, in addition to the pale apex of the second radial cell, a small isolated dark spot in the mediocubital fork. C. neopulicaris can be readily separated from the related species, however, by its smaller size, less hairy wings invariably with small but very def- inite dark spots, and lack of the dark area in cell R5 behind the dark spot over the first radial cell. C. punctatus and yukonensis differ in having the apices of veins M1 and M2 pale and punctatus has a well-developed mesonotal pattern. The obsolete apicolateral processes of the ninth tergite, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 11 and the broad apex of the aedeagus will separate the males of neopulicarus from those of the other species. Several males of this species have been re-| ceived from Dr. Luis Vargas, of the Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales in Mexico City. They were taken at Chilpancingo in Guerrero, and Dr. Vargas informs me that the | species is very abundant in the basin of the River | Balsas. Culicoides bottimeri, n.sp. Fig. 2 Female—Length 0.9 mm, wing 0.85 by 0.43 mm. Head dark brown; eyes bare, slightly separated. Antennae with flagellar segments in proportion of 16:11:11:12:12:12:13:13:20:20:20:22:30, dis- tal sensory tufts on segments three to ten in- clusive. Palpi (Fig. 2, a) short, segments in pro- portion of 8:15:35:12:12, third segment mark- edly swollen, with a broad, shallow, sensory pit. Mesonotum uniformly subshining dark brown, without trace of pruinose spots or vittae, the long and rather numerous brown hairs not re- stricted to rows. Scutellum dark brown, with two long, submedian, and a few very small, brown hairs. Pleura concolorous with mesonotum. Legs uniformly brownish, slightly paler than thorax, hind tibiae each with five long yellow bristles in apical comb. Wing uniformly gray, without trace of light or dark spots. Costa ending at 0.53 of wing length; anterior radial cells short and broad, the adja- cent radial veins considerably swollen. Wing ap- pearing very hairy, the long macrotrichia dense and extending to wing base behind the anterior media. Abdomen brownish; spermathecae two, slightly unequal, oval, bases of the ducts not sclerotized. Male genitalia (Fig. 2, b-c)—Ninth sternum with very shallow, broad, mesal excavation, the posterior membrane spiculate; ninth tergum markedly tapered, with long triangular apico- lateral processes, the posterior margin between them semicircular. Basistyles moderately slender and tapering, the dorsal roots short and broad, the ventral roots long and sinuate with broad bases, their apices joined mesad; dististyles slightly incurved and tapering to very slender, pointed tips. Aedeagus with very narrow an- | terior arms forming a broad and deep, trapezoidal, CULICOIDES e WIRTH: THREE NEW SPECIES OF NOVEMBER 1955 eS Ste : Sa. Tapas l 3 pecosensis Fig. 1—Culicoides neopulicaris: a, Female wing; b. female palpus; c, male parameres; d, male genitalia, parameres removed. Fig. 2.—Culicoides bottimeri: a, Female palpus; b, male parameres; c, male genitalia, parameres removed. Fig. 3.—Culicoides pecosensis: a, Female wing; b, mesonotal pattern; c, female palpus; d, male parameres; e, male genitalia. Drawings by Arthur D. Cushman. 358 JOURNAL OF THE basal arch, the distal point short and truncate in ventral view but with a small triangular apex turned ventrocephalad. Parameres with bases not knoblike, the stout stems obtusely bent midway, the distal half of each paramere abruptly recurved ventrocephalad in the form of a curved, heavily sclerotized saberform blade with the pointed apex faintly serrate on the outer margin. Holotype female (type no. 62364, U.S.N.M.), Kerrville, Tex., June 15, 1953, L. J. Bottimer (light trap). Allotype, same data except July 11, 1953. Paratypes: 12 males, 73 females, same data except dates June 13 to September 27, 1953. I take pleasure in naming this species for Law- rence J. Bottimer, of Kerrville, whose enthusias- tic and careful assistance made this study pos- sible. This species is very closely related to the European species, cunctans (Winnertz) and pumilus (Winnertz), both of which also have the plain, hairy wings and undecorated, subshining, brown mesonotum. The male genitalia of bot- timeri are most nearly like those of cwnctans, but according to Edwards (British Bloodsucking Flies, p. 141, 1939) that species has the apico- lateral processes slenderer, the ventral roots slenderer and not joined mesad, the aedeagus with the anterior arch not so broad caudad and the parameres with the recurved blades much shorter and not serrate. This species superficially resembles the North American species stonei James and brookmani Wirth in its plain brown mesonotum and unmarked hairy wings, but the other two species have a duller mesonotum with very faintly indicated vittae and their female spermathecae and male genitalia indicate that they belong to entirely unrelated groups. Culicoides pecosensis, n.sp. Fig. 3 Female.—Length 1.2 mm, wing 1.25 by 0.52 mm. Head and its appendages dark brown; eyes slightly separated, bare. Antennae with flagellar segments in proportion of 20:18:18:18:18:18: 18:18:30:32:32:32:44, distal sensory tufts on segments 3-5, 7-9, 11-14. Palpal segments (Fig. 3, ¢) in proportion of 12:36:36:15:15, third seg- ment moderately swollen with a moderately deep, broadly open, sensory pit. Mesonotum (Fig. 3, b) dark brown with a prominent pattern of pruinose gray spots placed WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 11 much as in arboricola Root and Hoffman, but never so prominent. These spots consist essen- tially of six pairs of rounded spots in two series of three pairs each, the submedian pair of each series larger and more elongate, the anterior pair extending forward between the humeral pits, the posterior pair covering the broad flat- tened prescutellar area, the two lateral pairs of each series small and rounded. Scutellum dark brown with gray pruinosity, with four long brown bristles. Pleura dark brown. Legs dark brown, with broad subapical bands on all femora and broad subbasal bands on all tibiae and broad apical band on hind tibia, pale yellowish; 5 or 6 long bristles in hind tibial comb. Wing (Fig. 3, a) with anterior radial cells com- plete, costa to 0.55 of wing length; macrotrichia long and dense, covering nearly entire wing. Anterior wing margin with “three intensely dark areas the second including apex of first and all of second radial cell. Wing with prominent pale spots as follows: Four spots on costal margin, the first just beyond humeral crossvein and ex- tending beyond base of anterior media, the third beyond tip of second radial cell covering half the breadth of cell R5 and the fourth more or less chevron-shaped with point basad about halfway between the preceding spot and wing tip and extending to the fold before vein M1. A pale spot straddling vein M1 at level of end of costa and a similar one straddling vein M2 a little nearer its apex; a small pale round spot at about its own length from wing margin in cell M1 and another larger one very near wing margin in cell M2; a small oval spot in cell M2 just anterior to base of mediocubital fork. Cell M4 with a broad pale band across its middle half; apices of veins M1, M2 and M3-4 broadly pale margined but no trace of pale area on vein Cul. Two distinct pale spots in apex of anal cell and a larger pale area on basal half of its posterior margin. Haltere pale. Abdomen blackish; cerci pale; spermathecae two, slightly unequal, ovoid, very slightly tapered to the ducts. Male genitalia (Fig. 3, d-e).—Ninth sternite with broad shallow excavation, the posterior membrane bare; ninth tergite with large, tri- angular apicolateral processes. Basistyles with dorsal and ventral roots subequal, simple and pointed; dististyles with apices slender and in- curved. Aedeagus with basal arms nearly straight, NOVEMBER 1955 heavily sclerotized, about half of total length, _the distal portion broad, slightly expanded in ' middle, with broadly truncated apex. Parameres with prominent basal knobs, the stems slightly swollen and slightly sinuate, gradually tapered to simple distal pomts which are abruptly bent laterad, then ventrad and then mesad at their apices. Holotype @ (type no. 62365, U.S.N.M.), allotype, + male and 20 female paratypes, San- derson, Terrell County, Tex., August 29, 1953, H. Brundrett (light trap). Culicoides arboricola Root and Hoffman is closely related but can be readily separated from pecosensis by the presence of the pale spot CORLISS: LIMITATIONS ON RAPID SIGNAL ANALYSIS 309 on the apex of wing vein Cul, the pale band in cell M4 is narrower, the gray pruinose mesonotal pattern is more prominent and the male genitalia have the aedeagus with a rounded basal arch and longer, very slender distal point and the parameres are more swollen in the middle por- tion. C. owrsairani Khalaf lacks the mesonotal pattern, the pale wing spots are more reduced in size and the male aedeagus has a low rounded basal arch and slender distal point, the apico- lateral processes of the ninth tergite of the male are slenderer and the parameres are much stouter and more sinuate. C. guttipennis (Coquillett) and villosipennis Root and Hoffman are also related but have much different male genitalia. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR LIMITATIONS ON Rapip SigNau ANALYSIS There are determinable limits to the reso- lution that can be achieved when a frequency analysis of a signal is made over a brief time interval. The limiting resolution is a func- tion of the least power increment or decre- ment that can be indicated by the analyzer. The analyzer should be able to change its indication by at least the smallest detect- able power increment during a_ specified time after sudden onset or removal of the input signal. Thus the rate at which the indication builds up or decays in the ana- lyzer must exceed a limiting value. It is useful to describe this rate by reference to the response time of the analyzer, 1.e., the time required to reach substantially steady- state indication after an abrupt change in signal. Because the frequency resolution of an analyzer is directly proportional to the response time, discrimination is sacrificed in the interest of fast response. The limitations discussed here can be illustrated by reference to a three-dimen- sional space (see Fig. 1) in which the Car- tesian coordinates are frequency, time, and either power or a function of power. The particular problem dealt with here then becomes calculation of a least volume in this space, within which no information about the signal can be found. The limitations can be illustrated by the familiar properties of a linear series-resonant system, used as a tuned filter to indicate how a particular component of a complex signal fluctuates with time. Let the observation interval, Ar, be suffi- ciently large compared with 7), the un- damped natural period of the filter so that phase characteristics can be ignored. Let fo be the undamped resonance frequency of the filter. Denote a times the reciprocal of the decrement-per-cycle of the system as ( the “figure of merit.” The smallest discernible change of indi- cated power is taken as AW. Defining a time-attenuation constant a@ such that, after interruption of the signal, the initial power indication Wy must decay by AW > f(w) POWER FREQUENCY TIME Fia. 1.—Three-dimensional space 360 W, — W; = (1 — e€ *)W, before the change 9 0 =O) = is discerned, then e “7/47/70 < e * and 2rAr QafoAr OS a = (1) al 0 Qa if the filter is to indicate the occurrence of a change in signal during the interval Ar. Next, consider the relative transmission characteristic of a filter having its Q given by Equation (1) (see Fig. 2). Over a range of frequencies, Af = f, — fi, the change in filter response does not exceed the smallest detectable power change. The precise result of solving for the discrimination limits in terms of f, and f; is fo a a? aaa oa 1 IR ES ~ af Ar 4/ Vian 167°f% Ar? but if @ is relatively small, 1.e. fine power discrimination can be made, then: 3/2 NIN: SS (3) 2a An especially interesting expression results from considering the least power change observable to be limited by the noise present with the signal. If S is the signal power and N is the noise power, we take as a limit for detection: ASSN (4) Considered as a fractional power change: AS eal osech Was ak gee ages 2 N SIREN: Wo S + N When S/N > 1, a — N/S and: —3/2 = =) (5) and, correspondingly: 2rAr (S S Q <7 (F) = antar(S) ©) A higher Q can thus be used when there is a good signal-to-noise ratio. Equation (5) has a provocative resemblance to the Heis- enberg uncertainty principle. The resem- Afdr > JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 11 | Wo WwW —a e Wo f Fia. 2—Limits of frequency discrimination in filter blance is real: both are derived by related mathematics, and both are based on the idea of a least discernible power change. A special case of practical importance is the detection of a sinusoidal signal in the presence of ‘“‘white noise.”’ (Noise energy per unit band-width in cycles/sec. is constant.) For the filter calibrated at its peak response by means of a sinusoidal signal of power W,, the same indication will be obtained with a ‘white noise’ of H; units per cycle/sec., given by This expression is obtained by integrating over the filter response. Detection of a sinusoidal signal of power So (at the center frequency to which the filter is tuned) in the presence of a noise distribution of ny units per cycle/sec. proves to require a least time interval Az» which is independent of Q. T Ng Ato = 5) S (8) Narrowing the filter does decrease the amount of noise passed, but it lengthens the response time by a proportionate amount. Epitu L. R. Coruiss National Bureau of Standards (Received October 3, 1955) Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences TENANT CS RE ERS eae Mara@aret Pitrman, National Institutes of Health PPGSUGTE-CLECES 5 ooo nic nis isan ele See siete Raupy E. Gisson, Applied Physics Laboratory AIST Rt ICI OO Eet a Cy eee Hernz Spscut, National Institutes of Health regSUurern... 4. - Howarp S. Rappneyrs, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) BPREREUES ECE tN core cele Oeican Seieos cial ay Joun A. STsevEensSON, Plant Industry Station Cusiodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haratp A. Renper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidenis Representing the Affiliated Societies: hilosophical Society of Washington......................... Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington Sea A ARGO secant, Cee Eee FRANK M. SETZLER Biological Society of Washington..............---...+ ++: HERBERT G. DIEGNAN @hemical Society of Washington...............0-- gee eee Witiiam W. Watton Entomological Society of Washington. ................0...02 2.00 eee F. W. Poos National: Geographic Societynscsc: «davsacscces ose sees te ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington.........................5. Epwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. Con Moalnmbia Historical Society. 1.650. cc cis ee dees cele wiheas GILBERT GROSVENOR Botanical Society of Washington... ... 2.2.26. cee eee ee he ees S. L. EMsweLurr Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Grorce F. Gravattr Washington Society of Engineers....................... HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. 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B. Gurney 1S) Jigen IG ae eon Reeve eee tC eee W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaALLEN PIOULOOPPUANAGENS:.2 5c te -- ccs es eee tans All the above officers plus the Senior Editor LETTE GG? DE OIRD soos, ecb DES OURS E DG Le he AEP Orne ee OE ence [See front cover] PICECULIVE IOOMINULEE. «.. 5 ook ee ce ee eee os M. Prrrman (chairman), R. HE. Gisson, H. Specut, H. S. Rappieye, J. R. SwALLEN Committee on Membership....Roger W. Curtis (chairman), Joun W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Harotp T. Coox, JosppH J. Fanny, Francors N. FRENKIEL, PETER Kina, Gorpon M. Kunz, Lours R. Maxwet1, Ftorence M. Mrars, Curtis W. SABROSKY, BENJAMIN ScHwaRTz, BancRorT W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. SmitH, Harry WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNoLpD H. Scott (chairman), Harry 8. Bernton, Harry BortHwick, Herpert G. Dreianan, Wayne C. Haut, Ausert M. STone MOMNETICELON MMLONOGTADNS: 6 slene ees sss ee eee G. ArtHur Cooper (chairman) PROM aT VM O5G 2 ask cis vockete Asc) Graces G. ArtHuR Coorpsr, James I. Horrman PRGRIMMUAT YOST. oc -c Sar woh sls cede ns Haratp A. Reaper, Witit1aAM A. DayToNn AROVPANUBTY MODS 62. sais cc tstecwans Dean B. Cowin, JosepH P. E. Morrison Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara E. BRANHAM (chairman), JoHN S. ANDREWS, James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Grorce, Bernice G. ScouBpert, W. R. WEDEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL, R.S. Drut, T. J. Hickiey, T. J. Kittran, Gorpon W. McBripz, E. R. Prore For Physical Sciences...... BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonp, Scott E. ForsusH, Margaret D. Fostmer, M. HE. Freeman, J. K. TAYLOR For Teaching of Science....Monroz H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. JoHNSON, Lovrse H. MarsHatu, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENs Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francs 0. Rice (chairman), HERMAN Branson, CuHartzs K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning...................... E. C. CrR1tteNDEN (chairman) sLonanuanyelObG secre eee E. C. CrittenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE Moranuary LOS (ha cc ne occu hea. Joun E. Grar, RayMonp J. SEEGER To January 1958...... re dest Seeeesy Francis M. Deranporr, FRANK M. S2TzLer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..Ancu1BaALD T. McPuHErson (chairman) ROVMANU AT VMI GHG Nas nae elect ena ay toll Harrop BH. Finuey, J. H. McMrituen om anUaryelOD Tyne eee ee L. Epwin Yocum, Wiuuram J. YOUDEN MoV Faniary 19D Sites yes lc een. etek ae alata areata A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Hducation.... RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), RoNALD Bamrorp, R. Percy Barnes, Watuace R. Brope, Lronarp CarmicHarL, Hueu L. Drypsn, REGINA FLANNERY, Rawupu E. Greson, Fioyp W. Hove, Martin A. Mason, Georcae D. Rock, Wrnram W. RuBEY, Writram H. SEBRELL, WaLpo L. Scumrrr, D. Van Evera, Wiiuram E. WRATHER, Francis E. JOHNSTON Representative on Council of ADAYA LE Sere NE al Rian hk SO am: Se AI Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRANcts E. JoHNSTON, (chairman), S. D. Coxutns, W. C. Hxss Committee of Tellers... Raupn P. Tivrs.ER (chairman), E. G. Hamep, J. G. THompson CONTENTS Page Puysics.—A tree from the viewpoint of lightning. Francis M. Deran- Maruematics.—An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality for polygons. Ky Fan, Otea Taussxy, and JoHN Topp............ 339 PALEONTOLOGY.—Stacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from the Brit- ish Upper Paleozoic. Ropert H. CUMMINGS................... 342 PAaLEONTOLOGY.—New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE ENTOMOLOGY.—Three new species of Culicoides from Texas (Dip- tera: Heleidae). Wuituis W. WIRTH........................00-. 355 LETTERS TO THE Eprror.—Limitations on rapid signal analysis (EpDITH Te BRI CORLISS) S. ducts « . Beetles aloe ore Seine Pee 359 Washington Scientifics Newss... s4-seieee ok ee eee eee ee 346 Vou. 45 December 1955 No. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS R. K. Coox FENNER A. CHACE NATIONAL BUREAU U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF STANDARDS ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. I, HorFMAN BERNICE SCHUBERT CHEMISTRY BOTANY Dean B. Cowle PuHitir DRUCKER PHYSICS ANTHROPOLOGY ALAN STONE Davip H. DuUNKLE ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Rorat & GuiLrorp AVEs. BatLtmmore, MaryLAND Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afhiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JoURNAL is issued monthly. Volumes correspond to calendar years. 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Rappieye, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C. Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vout. 45 December 1955 No. 12 GENERAL SCIENCE .—On the liberal sciences.. RAYMOND J. SEEGER, National Science Foundation. Wiroc0¢ia Biov xvBepvnrns, the Phi Beta Kappa motto, is sometimes interpreted, “Philosophy, the guide (or helmsman) of life.” Do you believe this? Have you ever practiced it? Do you hope to do so? We must admit certain latent questions as to the modern meaning of the motto. In the first place, is philosophy to be re- garded in this instance as the guide or as a guide? In view of the existence of a definite article in the Greek language and its omis- sion in the Phi Beta Kappa motto, one might argue in favor of the indefinite article. As in English titles, however, articles may be omitted for brevity. Moreover, the Eng- lish statement probably existed prior to the Greek translation. Regardless of these fine grammatical points, I prefer the indefinite article in view of my own interpretation of the whole phrase. Let us consider what is meant by a guide in this connection. Is a guide a person who takes you by the hand and leads you step by step all the way? Or is 1t a guide rail, which controls the actual path? Is one to understand merely a guide post, that indicates the general direction? I would use the word guide here in the sense that if you choose a certain goal philosophy will direct you along the way toward that goal, but that philosophy itself is unable to assist you in selecting the particular goal that you may need for life. What is meant by the term philosophy? Whatever the word might have meant in 1776, when the secret, social, and literary club called Phi Beta Kappa was _ first founded, it undoubtedly connotes something different today. The question is how this 1 Based upon Phi Beta Kappa Addresses given at the University of Kentucky and at Kenyon College. 361 motto was related to college education then and how it may be related now. Ordinarily we would start by reviewing the records of the specific courses given in 1776 at the College of Wiliam and Mary (founded in 1693 under the aegis of the Church of England). Unfortunately one of the fires there has left no trace. We do know, however, that prior to the American Revo- lution, there were three schools in the college: a grammar school, a philosophy school (moral, mental, and natural philosophy), and a divinity school—in addition to an In- dian school endowed by the amateur scien- tist Robert Boyle. The Reverend James Madison, later to be the first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia, became professor of natural philosophy in 1773 and president in 1777. Cousin of James Madison, President of the United States, he was apparently the only professor of philosophy at the school during the Revolu- tion. It will be recalled that he succeeded Dr. William Small of Scotland, of whom Thomas Jefferson spoke so gratefully in his autobiography as the one who had intro- duced him in his senior year to his ‘“‘first views of the expansion of science and the system of things in which we are placed.” His appointment, said Jefferson, ‘was my great good fortune and what probably fixed the destinies of my life.’”” Hence we see that natural philosophy was highly significant for the group founding Phi Beta Kappa. Whatever change in philosophy, moreover, has taken place since those Colonial days has been primarily in natural philosophy— owing largely, of course, to the rise and growth of science. Philosophy itself has been colored by the scientific environment. like Aesop’s. chameleon. In this connection, JAN 1 2 1956 362 therefore, let us view in outline form the three great historic relationships of western philosophy and science, all of which are ex- tant im modern culture like the stars of the time-integrated sky. First, there was the age of speculative sci- ence beginning in the sixth century, B. C. We recall Thales of Miletos, who has been called by some the father of philosophy and by others the father of physics (the Greek vow, “‘physis,” meaning nature). Philoso- phy itself has been called ‘‘the mother of the sciences.”” Thales sought the nature of things (rerum natura) in material causes; he speculated about nature—what we might properly designate in later terminology natural philosophy. He was, indeed, the only one of the seven Greek sages (such as Solon) interested in natural philosophy. In the Raphael rooms of the Vatican Palace of Nicholas V, the celebrated mural “School of Athens,’’ shows at its center old Plato look- ing heavenward and young Aristotle point- ing earthward, but symbolic philosophy, with First Motion (astronomy) on the ceil- ing, 1s dressed in the colors of the four ele- ments—suggestive of natural philosophy. The fifth century Athens of Plato and of his teacher Socrates, however, placed its em- phasis upon moral and spiritual values, rather than upon natural philosophy. It is ironic that Socrates in particular was later indicted for not paying attention to the gods and for corrupting the Athenian youth. Socrates’ crime consisted in his attempt to make people think logically. In the ‘“‘Clouds”’ of Aristophanes, Socrates 1s supposed to make the worse cause appear the better for a small fee in his phronistertum (thinking laboratory). Whereas this was made a popu- lar joke by the comic poets in 422 B. C., it cost Socrates his lifein 399 B. C. During this period philosophy became associated with knowledge of the good (summum bonum) and the life of a philosopher with that of the good life so that Plato identified the best of philosophers with the king. In the Republic (VII) Plato asks what subjects should be taught young men pre- paring for government service. Astronomy is one answer! Why? Because of its use in agriculture? Because of its use in naviga- tion? By no means, rather because astronomy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 deals with celestial matters, which are quite different from terrestrial ones: for example, planets were regarded as being moved by divine beings. Such spiritual contemplation, therefore, will assist in making a good citi- zen. In Xenophon’s Memorabilia of Socrates the latter is reported as saying that he saw no practical profit in the study of astronomy. The emphasis of Plato was on ideas beyond material representation, or forms in material things. A gap existed between the theoretical (viewing) and the practical (doing). Poetry, indeed, was regarded as being closer to the truth than history insofar as it deals more with the universal rather than with the par- ticular. In the Republic, however, poetry was admitted only through a paralyzing censorship. Art, too, being primarily a copy in those days was regarded as imperfect, that is, less real. It is not surprising that the gap was first recognized later in popular as- tronomy where observations first became significant. Aristotle, however, was concerned both with direct knowledge and with intelligible concepts (.e., both phenomena and noum- ena). In his ‘‘Physica”’ he sought to interpret movements (including some factual mis- takes) in terms of four so-called causes: ma- terial, formal, initiating (efficient), final. The physics of Aristotle might be regarded today as similar to modern philosophy of physics, namely, an attempt to integrate our knowledge of physical phenomena. In this sense J. Maritain is correct in claiming that “Aristotle was the true founder of physics.” His ‘‘Metaphysica” or ‘‘first philosophy” was concerned primarily with form as the intelligible aspect of a thing. All in all, both science and philosophy in the Greek period were essentially speculative and indistin- guishable. The second period of the relationship of philosophy and science may be labeled the age of rational science. We recall that in St. Thomas Aquinas’ scholasticism science 1s actually regarded as being more inclusive than philosophy inasmuch as it involves not only reason (natural theology) but also reve- lation (sacred theology). Hence the picture opposite the School of Athens (philosophy) is appropriately the Apothesis of the Sacra- ment (theology )—the two murals combining DECEMBER 1955 to symbolize all the true. Even seventeenth century scientists such as Galileo and New- ton, regarded their scientific investigations as part of their philosophical studies. As P. Frank notes, however, it was I. Kant who actually caused the unnatural divorce be- tween philosophy and science in postulating transcendental knowledge acquired a priorz so that many nowadays use the term meta- physics only for those statements that can- not be checked by the methods of modern science proper (cf. Critique of practical rea- son, 1788). In this connection, one is re- minded of Milton’s conversation between Adam and the Archangel Raphael as to whether the Ptolemaic or Copernican hy- pothesis is correct. Said Raphael, ‘‘Only God can know this and human beings should not even ask.”’ In general the Greek gap between the practical and the theoretical was further extended to separate science and philosophy. In modern times, the attitude of scholastics is preserved in the viewpoints of neo-Thom- ists followmg Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Aeterni Patris and of individuals such as A. N. Whitehead. This scholastic distinction between the metaphysical and the scientific, however, is not in the spirit of the Dewey criticism of ‘‘two spheres, not hemispheres,” but rather in the sense of a single metaphysi- cal sphere enclosing a scientific core. The important problem has always been the nature and location of the boundary of the inner sphere. A third age in the development of philoso- phy and science may be called the age of experiential science. If we consider science to be the whole of that systematized knowl- edge tested by logic with observations in order to check consistently with natural phenomena, then we may think of philoso- phy as the integrator of that knowledge. On this basis, then, one can speak properly of a philosophy of physics. In modern times it has been proposed that science itself may be the integrator. Thus positivism claims “physical science has no other foundation than the measurements on which the struc- ture is erected,’ so that modern science is here regarded per se as a philosophy of na- ture (cf. instrumentalism, where ideas are regarded, not as an end in themselves, but rather as a means for obtaining a specific SEEGER: ON THE LIBERAL SCIENCES 363 answer to a given problem). From this view- point an attempt at integration by any other method may be spoken of derogatorily as metaphysics. For example, J. Dewey insists that ‘“‘metaphysies is a rationalization of the aspirations of human groups.” In his Recon- struction of philosophy (1920, 1948), he claims ‘‘the reconstruction ...1s to carry over into any inquiry into human and moral subjects the kind of method by which under- standing of physical nature has been brought. to its present pitch.” In this sense, therefore, we have science without metaphysics, or if you prefer, the two spheres have merged into a single sphere of science in contrast with the single sphere of philosophy and science in the: speculative age. Having reviewed these historical relation- ships between philosophy and science, let us now consider the possible role of modern science in education. Very properly we should begin with the liberal arts, those arts which in the Roman sense were worthy of a free man, or which in an idealized sense today enable a man to be intellectually free, but strictly distinguished even now from the: fine arts and from the practical arts. In. medieval times liberal arts took the form of the knowledge common to the cross. roads, i.e., the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic—or, in modern terms, reading, writing, thinking) in the grammar schools of the Cathedrals, and then the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and as- tronomy). Beyond these studies higher education consisted of ethics, metaphysics, and theology. It is interesting that one sci- ence was sufficiently highly developed to be included in these original liberal arts, namely, astronomy, dedicated to the muse Urania, daughter of Mnemosyne (memory), although this platonic astronomy is hardly to be considered science in the present-day usage of that term. It is noteworthy that music also connoted essentially the arithme- tic of Pythagorean acoustics so that the quadrivium was fundamentally mathemat- ics. J. J. Walsh stressed in his ‘“‘Education of the Founding Fathers of the Republic” (1935): “‘scholasticism constituted the prin- cipal part of the curriculum in the culminat- ing years of the college course... their education was not taken up with the idea 364 JOURNAL OF THE that it would help them through the world, but that it would broaden and deepen their intellectual lives and give them an interest for ever afterward in the things of the mind”’. “Their thorough-going conviction was that the all-important function of the college was to make men better and above all better citizens.”’ Science (pure) is strictly a liberal art and is so regarded in modern dictionaries along with language, philosophy, and _ history. Nevertheless, the average college person, I believe, regards literature as being more liberal than mathematics or science. Fre- quently, indeed, the liberal arts today are sharply differentiated from the sciences. Thus in the Saturday Review for May 9, 1953, in an article on ‘Liberal Arts at Mid- Century,’ President A. W. Griswold of Yale University complains ‘‘the liberal arts are in trouble... the lberal arts are in retreat before the sciences.’? In the Handbook of Phi Beta Kappa, moreover, one finds the phrase, ‘‘the liberal arts and sciences.” I wrote to the Phi Beta Kappa headquarters in Wilhamsburg some time ago to ascertain if a distinction is being made here between the liberal arts and the sciences. On the con- trary, | was assured, the addition of the word sciences was ‘‘to make sure the inclusion of the sciences is understood.” It is not obvious to me that a phrase like ‘‘boys and girls”’ indicates that girls are strictly to be consid- ered boys. We find the journal The American Scholar (Phi Beta Kappa) having to be sup- plemented by a journal called The American Scientist (Sigma Xi). Moreover, in the book edited by M. Curtis on American scholarship in the 20th century, we note the omission of all science. My own (limited) experience in attempting to convince faculty teachers of the humanities that physics can be genu- inely regarded as a liberal art has discour- aged me from carrying on this missionary propaganda against wide ignorance and deep prejudice. Apparently tradition has covered the phrase “‘liberal arts’? with an ivory-tower moss, and modern technology has covered the word ‘‘science”’ with a factual haze. Accordingly, I believe it may be preferable to employ a phrase which is new and distine- tive. In this connection, I should like to suggest the term ‘‘liberal sciences’’ (used WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 first by Francis Bacon), which I will define in my own way. As Humpty Dumpty said to Alice, ‘‘When I use a word, it means just what I choose it to mean, neither more or less.”’ The liberal sciences in my terminology are to be understood as being worthy of a man intellectually free in our modern scien- tific world. They are to be so regarded in the spirit of Bacon, who warned against the spider spinning webs of pure reason and of the ant collecting facts from pure empiricism, and who recommended the bee uncovering treasures from modified experiences. Let us now consider the possible role of the liberal sciences in modern education. Science has often been regarded as merely common sense. Insofar as this is true, 1t must be remembered that the common sense about nature today is largely the residue of the uncommon science of yesterday. The star- tling character of science is the challenge of what has been regarded as commonplace. We shall note here a few instances, several of which are cited by P. Frank in his essay “What Teachers of General-Education Courses in the Sciences Should Know about Philosophy.” In the first place, it is evident to everyone that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Hence the Ptolemaic theory of the sun moving about the earth was long regarded as being naturally true whereas the Coper- nican concept of the earth moving around the sun was difficult to imagine and was actually rejected by Bacon as being con- trary to common sense. Still harder to con- ceive is the later understanding that both bodies move around each other. Secondly, the idea of inertia, which seems natural to our children today, was not re- garded as common sense by even adult Greeks. To them everything had its place; a force was required to change things moving naturally to their places. Hence motion along a trajectory was regarded as being initiated and continued by the action of a force. Gali- leo’s idea that a ball rolling in a horizontal plane will continue so to move unless a force stops it was a startling innovation. Everyday observation indicates that such a ball will naturally stop. Again, most of us believe that we know when two things happen at the same time, DECEMBER 1955 SEEGER: that is, when events are simultaneous. Let us consider a thoughtful Einstein experi- ment. Imagine a trailer with a candle exactly at its center. A girl lights the candle. Will the candle light reach the front end of the trailer before it reaches the back, or vice versa? Well, if the distances are exactly the same and if light always travels in vacuo with the same speed (an experimental fact), it is obvious to the girl inside the trailer that the candle hight will strike the two walls simultaneously. I forgot to mention, how- ever, that the trailer is moving. A person standing on the road notices the girl lighting the candle. It is equally obvious to him that the ight will take longer to reach the front end of the trailer than the back end because the former is moving away from the spot where the candle was lighted whereas the latter is moving toward it. Here we have a phenomenon which observers under different conditions will regard in different ways, in one case as simultaneous and in the other case as not simultaneous. Relativity, which is based partly upon the experimental fact that light always travels at the same speed regardless of the motion of the observer, has many such paradoxes in the interrelatedness of observed space and time. Let us consider now the so-called uncer- tainty principle. Ordinarily, we think of something as being somewhere and as hay- ing a definite velocity. Can we determine precisely the position and velocity simulta- neously? Of course, we know the limitation of material instruments, but we are consider- ing the question purely as one of principle. Now if I wish to locate anything, I use some kind of light. The more precise the location, the shorter the wavelength of the light needed! It turns out, however, that decreas- ing the wavelength of light increases the momentum of the impinging light corpuscle and renders the precise determination of the object’s velocity more difficult. Accordingly, one can either determine the position pre- cisely and the velocity approximately, or vice versa. One cannot determine simultaneously both the position and the velocity with ever increasing precision. The seriousness of this fact is that it hmits our knowledge of mate- rial particles so that a physically causal ON THE LIBERAL SCIENCES 365 rr description of mechanical phenomena is no longer possible. Thus we see in these few examples the inadequacy of common sense for our under- standing of phenomena. As R. W. Emerson advised in 1837: ‘The scholar, followmeg the ancient precept ‘Know Thyself’? and the modern precept ‘Study Nature,’ must inter- pret the distinctive new culture, for each age must write its own books yet he must act as well as think and write’’—what O. W. Holmes called our intellectual Declaration of Independence. It is quite impotrant that students in a world of science should be made aware of traditionally superstitious and superficial attitudes toward their own en- vironment. Free men nowadays must be free from scientific prejudices and intellectual narrowness; they must be free to appreciate uncommon observations of the old world of phenomena and strange concepts of the new world of science. In addition, it is necessary to introduce an integrator of knowledge in any educa- tional pattern whether this integrator be rational metaphysics or empirical science itself. It has been suggested by P. Frank, to whom I am indebted for so many searching insights, that the philosophy of science may well be a bridge linking scientific concepts to the general system of human concepts. He stresses that ‘‘social environment has its bearing upon the formulation of principles of science.’ Thus in considering the valida- tion of scientific theories, one must include also the philosophical, political, and socio- logical factors as well as the technical ones— what has been called the sociology of science. Finally, J. B. Conant, formerly President of Harvard University in his Education and liberty states: ‘‘What was called liberal edu- cation and is now knownas general education —education for citizenship.” In the entire general-education movement of today, as well as in the hberal-arts movement of yes- terday,—not to mention the uncertainties of the social age with its atomic power—we have become increasingly aware of the need for a faith to live. The Greeks unfortunately were more interested in understanding the world than in changing it, as some modern educationalists are more concerned about 366 JOURNAL OF THE static adjustment to life rather than dy- namie adjustment of life. Plato, indeed, recognized ‘‘the sad but inescapable fact that while you can teach an ignorant slave the beautiful but apparently useless science of geometry, Pericles himself could not teach his own sons how to live the good life.’’? As I. Kant has reminded us, ‘‘Man is not only an animal that knows, but one that acts and knows.” It has been well stated, however, by J. H. Randall and G. Buchler in their Philosophy: An introduction that ‘‘philoso- phy cannot cultivate a faith, only experience can do that... It can clarify the faith that WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 45, No. 12 is already in him.” By the term faith, of course, I do not mean belief in spite of evi- dence, nor the will to believe in absence of evidence, but rather expectation resulting from evidence. It is my personal conviction that the lberal sciences can deepen one’s spiritual faith and thus contribute to educa- tion for world citizenship. The liberal sciences are important in edu- cation not only because of their contribution to the inadequacy of common sense, not only because they make possible a bridge to the humanities, but most of all because they exhibit a faithfulness of nature. PALEONTOLOGY .—The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe and the Near Hast. Raymonp Casey,! Geological Survey of Great Britain. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) (Received October 14, 1955) The family Corbiculidae, formerly called Cyrenidae, is an important element of the recent pelecypod fauna, its members being widely distributed in the rivers and estuar- ies of the world. Its fossil representatives are well known in the Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous, but when we recede to earlier Mesozoic time the record of the family be- comes obscure. Although the literature on the fresh-water and brackish-water deposits of the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic con- tains many references to Cyrena (= Corbi- cula), most of these on subsequent investiga- tion have proved to relate to genera outside the scope of the Corbiculidae. Nevertheless, in the Far East true Corbiculidae, differing but little from Tertiary and Recent members of the family, were in existence already in the Lower Jurassic (Suzuki and Oyama, 19438). If these Lower Jurassic Corbiculidae are regarded as the ancestors of subsequent members of the family there arises the prob- lem that has always faced the evolutionist when dealing with fresh- or brackish-water organisms, namely, that of explaining the ‘Published by permission of the Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain. perpetuation and migration of genera denied the relative freedom of movement of marine stocks. As a solution to this problem, the possibility of the Corbiculidae being a poly- phyletic group which was from time to time replenished from independent marine sources should not be lightly dismissed. The purpose of the present paper is to draw attention to some Corbiculidae in the Lower Cretaceous of Europe and the Near East that show un- mistakable evidence of derivation from a ma- rine genus, Hocallista, of the Upper Jurassic. Since these forms can have no connection with earlier Corbiculid developments, they afford strong support for the hypothesis of polyphyletice origin of the Corbiculidae. This paper was prepared in connection with a study of Mesozoic Corbiculidae for the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, and IT am indebted to Dr. L. R. Cox of the British Museum (Natural History) and to Dr. F. W. Anderson of the Geological Survey of Great. Britain for access to specimens in their charge.’ 2 Repositories of cited specimens are indicated by the symbols G.S.G.B. (Geological Survey of Great Britain) and B.M. (British Museum (Nat- ural History)). DECEMBER 1955 SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS Family CorBICULIDAE (correction of Corbiculadae) Gray, 1847 (= Cyrenidae Gray, 1840) Genus Eocallista H. Douvillé, 1921 Type species —V enus brongniartti Roemer, Upper Jurassic (Portland beds), Europe; by original des- ignation (H. Douvillé, 1921: 124). Generic characters—Of small to medium size (rarely exceeding 30 mm in length), trigonal-ovate or cuneiform, posterior slope evenly rounded or flattened, a feeble umbonal ridge in the young; umbones moderately prominent, situated sub- central to well forward; beaks small, prosogyrous; no definite lunule or escutcheon; surface smooth or with subdued concentric ornament; pallial line truncated below the posterior adductor scar but not sinuate. Hinge of early cyrenoid type, formula: AI (I) 3a 13b PI. All 2a2b4bPI ’° 3a strongly prosocline; | triangular, slightly proso- cline, the apex rounded, directed toward the beak but removed from the cardinal margin; 3b acutely triangular, strongly opisthocline, obscurely bifid; 2a formed by a thin, tapering, bent-up and slightly projecting portion of the lateral A IJ, strongly prosocline; 2b triangular, orthocline, situated di- rectly below the beak, the apex curved forwards to to contact 2a; 4b slender, gently curved or straight, strongly opisthocline; anterior laterals more or less straight; P I well removed from the cardinals, elongate; P II formed by a thickening of the hinge plate below the projected shell margin. Remarks.—There has been some uncertainty as to the systematic position of Hocallista. Most authors have followed H. Douvillé in regarding it as a primitive member of the Veneridae, though Cox (1947: 142) has included it in the Arcticidae (= Cyprinidae), from which family, via Jsocy- prina, it may well have been derived. The lack of a pallial sinus is against its association with the Ve- neridae, despite a strong resemblance to the Lower Cretaceous venerid Resatrix. It is now allocated to the Corbiculidae because of its obvious connec- tions with the brackish-water genus described below as Filosina. Subgenus Eocallista s.s. Subgeneric characters—Hinge with the cardinal teeth entire, except for an obscurely bifid 3b; an- terior laterals short, no A III. Remarks.—Eocallista s.s. first appears in the Middle Jurassic (Bathonian) but is best known CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE 367 lod from its occurrence in the Portland beds of the Upper Jurassic. A number of Corallian and Kim- meridgian species, such as “Cyprina” tancredifor- mis Blake and Hudleston and “Cyprina” implicata de Loriol, formerly referred to Kocallista, have since been assigned to Procyprina and Isocyprina (Casey, 1952: 136, 144). The aksence of Hocallista from these strictly marie, ammonite-bearing strata in Britain and its occurrence in beds (e.g., Sharp’s Hill beds, Upper Estuarine series, Forest Marble, Chert bed at top of Portland Roach and Portland Basal Shell Bed) where ammonites are either absent or very rare suggest that the genus may, while still marine, have preferred waters of less than normal salinity. Hemicorbicula, n. subg. Type species.—Cyclas parva J. de C. Sowerby, Upper Jurassic (Purbeck beds), Europe (= Astarte socialis VOrbigny). Subgeneric characters.—Small Eocallista (usually less than 10 mm in length); hinge with tooth 1 bifid or concave, 2a entire or feebly grooved at the base, 2b bifid, 4b grooved along the crest; anterior lat- erals long, with development of a rudimentary A II. Designation of a neotype for Cyclas parva J. de C. Sowerby.—Sowerby’s species was founded on ma- terial from the Purbeck beds of the Vale of War- dour, Wiltshire, submitted to him by W. H. Fitton, whose collection, formerly in the Geological Society of London, is now in the Geological Survey of Great Britam. The specimen figured by Sowerby (in Fitton, 1836: pl. xxi, fig. 7) does not appear to have survived, but there is abundant topotype material available from which the characters of the species may be determined. It is proposed to make application to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature for recognition of the specimen indicated in Figs. 4 and 5 as neotype of Cyclas parva. This specimen is part of a small limestone block which is composed largely of molds of this little pelecypod. It was obtained by Fitton from the Purbeck Beds of Ladydown, Vale of Wardour, and is registered in the Geological Survey of Great Britain as Geol. Soc. Coll. 2698. Remarks.—Hemicorbicula is well represented in the brackish-water beds of the Middle Purbeck of southern England, especially in the Upper Building Stones and Corbula beds, where it is often suffi- ciently abundant to be a rock builder. Its usual faunal associates are Neomitodon, Corbula, and Modiolus. It has not been found either in the 368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 marine intercalations of the Purbeck or in the — part of the ‘‘Porltandien” of the Bas Boulonnais, purely fresh-water facies of that formation. Under northern France, where it occurs in myriads, asso- the synonymous name Astarte socialis d’Orbigny, ciated with ostracods, just as in the Vale of War- FE. (H.) parva has been described from the topmost dour. The internal characters of Cyclas parva have Fries. 1-5.—Mrsozotc CorBICULIDAE 1-3, Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp., Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds), southern England: 1, Side view of holotype, Wealden shales (12 feet below Perna bed), Atherfield Point, Isle of Wight (G.8.G.B. no. 86446) & 1; 2, dorsal view of immature paratype showing ligament, Wealden Shales, Sandown, Isle of Wight (G.S.G.B. no. Zm 1825) X 2; 3, paratype slab showing typical field occurrence, Weald Clay, Sevenoaks, Kent (B.M. no. L 47044) x 1. 4-5, Hocallista (Hemicorbicula) parva (J. de C. Sowerby), Upper Jurassic (Middle Purbeck beds), Ladydown, Vale of Wardour, Wiltshire: 4, Slab showing typical field occurrence. The specimen in the bottom righthand corner, indicated by the arrow, is here designated neotype (G.S.G.B. no. Geol. Soe. Coll. 2698) X 1; 5, outline drawing of neotype, X 2. DECEMBER 1955 not been investigated previously and its relation- ship to the marine genus Zocallista has therefore passed unnoticed, as also its identity with d’Or- bigny’s Astarte socialis. To Hemicorbicula I would also refer Anisocardia intermedia de Loriol, another French “Portlandien”’ species which is also found in the English Middle Purbeck (e.g., G.S.G.B. $6640). Morphologically, Hemicorbicula is intermediate between ocallista s.s. and Filosina and could with equal propriety have been classified as a sub- genus of the latter. Filosina, n. gen. Type species —F’. gregaria, n. sp., Lower Creta- ceous (Wealden Shales and Weald Clay), southern England. Generic characters—Trigonal-ovate or subrec- tangular, rounded in front, more or less truncated behind; umbones subcentral or anterior, moder- ately prominent; beaks small, prosogyrous; evenly inflated or with weak posterior angulation; no lunule or escutcheon; surface smooth or with con- centric riblets; nymphs finely rugose; pallial line truncated below the posterior adductor scar but not sinuate. Hinge cyrenoid with long, subequal laterals, faintly cross-striated; formula: AGIgeILE saruil 3bysPeL « All 2a 2 4b PII ’ cardinal teeth similar to those of Hemicorbicula in the young, but in the adult less widely splayed, with 2a and 1 separated from the laterals and with a tendency to become entire. Remarks—Species from the Upper Wealden (Wealden Shales and Weald Clay) of southern England hitherto referred to Cyrena, Cyclas or Neo- miodon belong properly to Filosina. In these beds F. gregaria and F.. membranacea (J. de C. Sowerby) are the principal members of a recurrent brackish- water assemblage in which Paraglauconia, Ostrea, Corbula, and Nemocardium are also represented. This assemblage dominates the topmost beds of the Wealden and presumably foreshadows the marine transgression of the Aptian which put an end to Wealden conditions. In the Aptian of the Lebanon Filosina is represented by Corbicula (Ba- tissa?) hamlini Whitfield. Here it is associated with a rich, predominately marine, fauna, though the presence of both Filosina and EHomiodon in this fauna indicates waters of decreased salinity. It is interesting to note that Whitfield’s species was assigned doubtfully to Hocallista by Vokes (1946: 193). CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE 369 Filosina differs from Corbicula and Batissa and most other members of the Corbiculidae in its relatively weak posterior lateral dentition; the tooth P II is merged into the margin and P III is absent altogether. This alone provides contrast with such Cretaceous corbiculids as Fulpia Ste- phenson and Dentonia Stephenson of the Ceno- manian of North America. The genus or subgenus Veloritina Meek, based on Cyrena durkeer Meek of the Bear River Cretaceous of Wyoming, has a sim- ilar hinge but is a gibbous-trigonal form with deeply depressed lunular and ligamentary areas; it appears to be congeneric with the species from the Middle Jurassic of Japan (Tetori series) for which Suzuki and Oyama have proposed the name Mesocorbicula. A subelliptical or subcircular out- line and deep ascending pallial sinus distinguish Tetoria Kobayashi and Suzuki of the same horizon. The Japanese “Wealden” forms which these last authors have assigned to Paracorbicula and Isodo- mella are also distinct from Filosina; the former is obliquely ovate to subcircular and has crenulated posterior lateral teeth and a sinuated palhal line; the latter is distinguished chiefly by its subtrape- zoidal shape and long, wedge-shaped cardinal teeth. The Japanese Lower Cretaceous Cyrena radiostriatus Yabe and Nagao, for which Matsu- moto has introduced the subgeneric name Costocy- rena, is incompletely known but its combination of concentric and radial ornament claims taxonomic separation from typical Polymesoda and the other corbiculid genera here discussed. The genus Neo- miodon, with which Filosina has been generally confused, belongs to a different family and is dis- tinguished mainly by possessing only two cardinal teeth in each valve and duplicate posterior laterals in the right valve. Filosina gregaria, n. sp. Figs. 1-3; 6 c—p Type material—Holotype G.S.G.B. 86446, Wealden shales (12 feet below Perna bed), Ather- field Point, Isle of Wight; paratypes G.S.G.B. 86445, 86447, Wealden Shales, Atherfield Point, Isle of Wight; G.S.G.B. Lm 1825, Wealden Shales, Sandown, Isle of Wight; G.S.G.B. 86441-86448, Weald Clay, Staplehurst, Kent; G.S.G.B. 86444, Weald Clay, Tonbridge, Kent; G.S.G.B. FD 1760-1762, Weald Clay, Marden, Kent; G.S.G.B. L 1892, Weald Clay, Railway Cut, South of Red- hill Station, Surrey; B.M. 47044, Weald Clay, Sevenoaks, Kent. 370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12) Specific characters —Trigonal-ovate Filosina of | media, and under that name or as Cyrena media or moderate and even inflation, up to 30 mm in Neomiodon medius it has been frequently cited in length; umbo placed at anterior three-quarters of — the literature. Sowerby’s species, the type of Neo- length; anterodorsal area only feebly excavated; miodon, is a Purbeck shell, smaller, relatively anterior margin strongly convex, forming a con- elongate, and with a steep, flattened posterior tinuous curve with the moderately convex ventral slope. Limestones composed of the compacted margin; posterodorsal margin gently arched, valves of Filosina gregaria form pavements along. steeply sloped to meet the low, truncated, or the foreshore at Atherfield Point and at Sandown, feebly rounded posterior extremity. Isle of Wight, where the Wealden shales are Dimensions of holotype—Leneth 28 mm, height washed by the sea. The species occurs similarly in 25 mm, thickness (single valve) 6 mm. myriads on various horizons in the Weald Clay of Remarks.—For a century and a quarter this Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. Cyclas membranacea J. species has been confused with Sowerby’s Cyclas de C. Sowerby, also referable to Filosina, is a. Fic. 6.—Hinesrs or Hocallista s.s., Hemicorbicula, N. SUBGEN., AND Filosina, N. GEN. A. Eocallista (Eocallista) pulchella (de Loriol), Upper Jurassic (Portland beds; chert bed at top of Portland Roach), Portland, Dorset, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. no. Y 1261; R.V., G.S.G.B. no. Y 1271; both enlarged X 4.5. B. Eocallista (Hemicorbicula) parva (J. de C. Sowerby), Upper Jurassic (Middle Purbeck beds), be- tween depths of 678 feet and 678 feet 4 inches in D’Arecy Exploration Company’s no. 1 Ashdown Well, Crowborough, Sussex, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. no. 86428; R.V., G.S.G.B. no. 86428; both enlarged X 5. i C. Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp. Immature paratypes. Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds; Weald Clay), Marden, Kent, southern England. L.V., G.S.G.B. ne. FD 1760; R.V., G.S.G.B. no. FD 1761; both enlarged X 5. D. Filosina gregaria, n. gen., n. sp. Adult paratypes. Lower Cretaceous (Upper Wealden beds), southern England. L.V. Weald Clay, Staplehurst, Kent, G.S.G.B. no. 86441; R.V. Wealden Shales, Isle of Wight, B.M. no. L 63055; both slightly restored from other specimens and enlarged X 1.5. DECEMBER 1955 smaller species with strongly convex ventral mar- gin and more distinctly truncated posterior end. FP. hamlini (Whitfield) is easily distinguished by its subrectangular outline and stronger inflation. Hinge preparations have been made in a series of specimens of this species showing growth stages of 6 mm upward. These have revealed important ontogenetic changes in dentition. Between 6 and 12 mm length the dentition of F. gregaria differs from that of Hemicorbicula only in the following fea- tures: the anterior laterals are longer, there is a well developed A III, and the tooth 2a is invariably grooved, albeit feebly. With increase in growth, the cardinal teeth become less widely splayed, and in the adult the teeth 2a and 1 become distinctly separated from the parent laterals. Different speci- mens show varying degrees of loss of the grooves on the cardinals; in general those of 4b and 2a are the first to disappear; 1 and 3b usually retain some vestige of a sulcus or concavity; 2b remains bifid throughout ontogeny. Nemetia, n. gen. Type species—Platopis triangularis Whitfield, Lower Cretaceous (Aptian), Syria. Generic characters—Subtrigonal, moderately inflated- shells, without lunule or escutcheon; umbones fairly prominent, beaks small and pro- sogyrous; a sharp angulation of the shell demar- cates a flattened posterior area; surface smooth or concentrically ornamented; hinge similar to that of immature Filosina but with entire cardinals. Remarks——The discovery by Vokes that his designation of P. plicata Whitfield as the type species of Platopis was invalid (Vokes 1952) leaves the taxon centered around P. plicata and P. triangularis in need of a name. The name Nemetia is here proposed for this taxon, to which is referred Platopis triangularis Whitfield, P. plicata Whit- field, P. whitfieldi Vokes, and EKocallista betha Vokes, all from the Aptian of the Lebanon. The close relationship of Nemetia and Kocallista has been recognised by Vokes (1946, 1952). The prin- cipal features distinguishing Nemetia from Hocal- lista are the more trigonal outline and strong posterior angulation of the valves in the former genus; it also possesses longer anterior laterals and a distinet A IIT, and the tooth | is implanted in the centre of the hinge with its apex close to the cardi- nal margin. Externally, there is great resemblance to the carinated forms of the genus Pronoella (Arcticidae). CASEY: THE PELECYPOD FAMILY CORBICULIDAE 371 THE EVOLUTION OF FILOSINA AND NEMETIA Since the three taxa Hocallista s.s., Hemi- corbicula, and Filosina appear on successive geologic horizons and show progressive modi- fications in dentition, they are considered to form an evolutionary series. This series is regarded as part of a lineage converging toward the brackish-water Corbicula from an origin in the Arcticidae, a purely marine family. It shows a gradual elongation and strengthening of the anterior lateral denti- tion, while the cardinal teeth progress from the early cyrenoid to the fully cyrenoid po- sition and acquire the grooving characteris- tic of the Corbiculidae. Only minor features of dentition distinguish the end term of this series—Filosina—from Corbicula _ itself, whose recorded range extends from the Mid- dle Jurassic to Recent (Suzuki and Oyama, 1943: 140). The arcticid affinities of Hocal- lista have been acknowledged (Cox, 1947: 142; Casey, 1952: 1384) and it is significant that a member of the Arcticidae, [socyprina, gave rise in Lower Cretaceous times to the venerid Resatrix—a homoeomorph of Hocal- lista. When describing this genus Resatrix, I pointed out how its evolution from Jsocy- prina, via the Upper Jurassic subgenus Venericyprina, was achieved by deepening of the pallial sinus and by movement of the cardinal teeth from the cyprinoid to the cyrenoid position. In the process of transi- tion the anterior part of the tooth 2b (2b) was atrophied and eventually eliminated, though its remnants are still discernible in the early forms of Resatrix. Turning to Eocallista, we find that already in the Middle Jurassic it possessed an early cyrenoid hinge with no trace of a separate structure 2by. The pallial line remained unchanged, ex- hibiting a posterior truncation but no defi- nite sinus. These facts demonstrate the independent origin of Hocallista and Resatrix, but there are so many similarities in the evolution of Resatrix and that of the Hocal- lista-Filosina series that a common ancestry of both stocks in /socyprina seems probable. The same range of variation of external form is found in both stocks; in each case the pos- terior end of the shell becomes broadly truncated in the latest known members of the lineage (compare F’. hamlini Whitfield sp., as figured by Vokes, 1946, pl. 8, fig. 20, and Resatrix (Dosiniopsella) cantiana Casey, 1952, pl. 8, fig. 3). The movements of the cardinal teeth into the fully eyrenoid position are precisely analogous in both cases. The hinge of the young Fvlosina (Fig. 6 C) shows many points of similarity with that of Barremian-Aptian species of Resatrix s.s.— the widely splayed cardinals, grooved 4b, partially bifid 2a, and the attachment of 2a and 1 to the laterals (see Casey, 1952, fig. 76). The adult Filosina (Fig. 6 pd) on the other hand, shows a stage of hinge develop- ment attained by a Lower Albian subgenus of Resatrix, Dosiniopsella (see Casey, 1952, fig. 75); the angle of radiation of the cardinal teeth is perceptibly narrowed; 2a and 1 are severed from the laterals, and the tooth 4b is entire. In both Filosina and Resatrix the laterals are cross-striated, but in the former genus these striations, like the nymphal rugosities, have been observed only in a few specimens of unusually good preservation, and it is not known at what stage they were introduced into the lineage. In the case of the Aptian genus Nemetia evidence of derivation is less satisfactory owing to lack of record during Purbeck and Wealden times. Its similarity in hinge char- acters to both Hocallista and Filosina sug- gests that it formed part of the same evolu- tionary plexus. The importance of the areticid genus [so- cyprina, which is represented in the marine faunas from the Upper Triassic to Lower Cretaceous, has been the subject of previous comment (Casey, 1952: 134). It appears to have played the role of a slowly evolving parent stock from which diverged successive offshoots with more advanced hinge struc- tures. Hocallista and Resatrix are believed to be two such offshoots which pursued a more or less parallel course. The former, first recognized in the Middle Jurassic, was adaptable to waters of decreased salinity and in the Lower Cretaceous, now modified to Filosina, successtully colonized the brackish- water swamps of the Upper Wealden and left its record in the quasi-marine Aptian deposits of Syria. Nemetia is conceived of as JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 12 a divergence from fF losina; it probably lived under rather more saline conditions than did the Wealden species of Filosina, approximating to those favored by Kocal- lista s.S., as 1s suggested by the preponder- ance of marine genera among its faunal associates. Resatrix appears at the base of the Cretaceous; it is the earliest known rep- resentative of the Veneridae and is strictly marine. The subsequent history of Fzloszma and Nemetia and their relationship to later members of the Corbiculidae is not known. But if the views here expressed on their phylogeny are correct, two facts of great importance in the study of pelecypod evo- lution are indicated—(1) a correlation be- tween hinge structures and ecologic station and (2) the polyphyletic origin of the family Corbiculidae. Thus, despite the fact that the order of appearance of the two families is the reverse of that formerly supposed, the generalization that the Corbiculidae was “derived, in different degrees of removal, from the exclusively marine Veneridae”’ (Cooke, 1895: 15) may not be wholly incor- rect. It is probable that venerid genera like Resatrix, Calva and Dosiniopsis represent a morphologic type which throughout Creta- ceous and Tertiary times was a potential source of Corbiculidae. REFERENCES Casgy, R. Some genera and subgenera, mainly new, of Mesozoic heterodont lamellibranchs. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 29: 121-176. 1952. Cooke, A. H., in Cooke, Shipley, A. E., and Reid, F.R.C. The Cambridge natural history. Mol- luscs and brachiopods. London. 1895. Cox, L. R. The lamellibranch family Cyprinidae in the Lower Oolites of England. Proc. Malac. Soc. London 27: 141-184. 1947. Douvittb, H. La charniere dans les lamelli- branches hétérodontes et son é€volution. Bull. Soe. Géol. France (4) 21: 116-124. 1921. Suzuki, K., and Oyama, K. Uberblick tiber die Corbiculiden Ostasiens. Venus 12: 138-149. 1943. Vokes, H. E. Contributions to the paleontology of the Lebanon Mountains, Republic of Lebanon. Pt. 3. The pelecypod fauna of the ‘“‘Olive Local- ity” (Aptian) at Abeth. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 87 (3). 1946. DECEMBER 1955 VON BRAND: ANAEROBIOSIS IN AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS 373 PHYSIOLOGY —A naerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus: Temperature effects and tissue hydration. THEODOR VON BraANpD,!: ? National Microbiological Institute ,* National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. (Received November 3, 1955) The relations between temperature and anaerobic survival of invertebrates have never been studied in detail. The few iso- lated data indicate, as expected, a lengthen- ing of survival by lowering the temperature (for summary of these data see von Brand, 1946). Insofar as snails are concerned, only qualitative observations are available. Al- sterberg (1930) found that Lymnaea stagnalis survived less than 2.5 days at 20°C, but longer than 7 days at 8-10 and at 0°C. In the present paper quantitative studies of the influence of temperature on the anae- robie tolerance are presented, using the pulmonate snail Awstralorbis glabratus, the most important vector of schistosomiasis in the Western Hemisphere. Included are ob- servations on changes in water content during anaerobiosis and during recovery therefrom. These latter studies were done because recent observations on chironomid larvae (Harnisch, 1954, a, b) had indicated that relatively large shifts in water content occur during anaerobiosis. It seemed there- fore of interest to investigate the possible occurrence of a similar phenomenon in a representative of another phylum. MATERIAL AND METHODS A Venezuelan strain of Australorbis gla- bratus was used. The snails were laboratory reared and weighed between 200 and 400 mg each. The snails were freed of excess water as described previously (Newton and von Brand, 1955) and weighed to the nearest mg. They were then placed in Warburg vessels of about 16 ml capacity containing 2 ml dechlorinated tap water. Anaerobiosis was 1 With the technical assistance of David P. McCarthy. 27 am indebted to Mrs. M. O. Nolan for the contribution of all the snails used, to Dr. J. Buck for stimulating discussions of the topic, and to S. W. Greenhouse for the method of calculating and utilizing the slopes of the death curves to reflect the death rates. ’ Laboratory of Tropical Diseases. established by flushing the manometers for 15 to 20 minutes with 99.99 percent Linde nitrogen further purified by passing over heated copper. At the end of the anaerobic period, the snails still alive were weighed and transferred to fresh dechlorinated tap water, the gaseous atmosphere now being air. When the preceding anaerobic temperature had been 35, 30, or 20°C, the snails were allowed to recover, usually for 7 hours, at the same temperature. Snails exposed to anaerobiosis at 10°C were kept postanaero- bically at 20°C, because it is sometimes diffi- cult at 10°C to recognize whether a snail is actually dead or only quiescent. At the higher temperatures dead snails could be recognized without difficulty: They were always more or less retracted into the shell and had freely hemorrhaged. At the end of the recovery period, the surviving snails were again weighed and then dried at 110°C until constant weight was reached. The water content was calculated by sub- tracting the dry weight from the initial, anaerobic, and postanaerobic fresh weights. It is evident that only the figures for the final water content are entirely correct. The initial water content and the water content after anaerobiosis are both slightly too high (the former more so than the latter), because the metabolized organic matter has been neglected. The error introduced is small, however, as indicated by previous metabolic experiments (von Brand, Baernstein, and Mehlman, 1950); it probably does not sur- pass 0.5 percent of the fresh weight. RESULTS Australorbis glabratus is a tropical snail and as such is not exposed to very low tem- peratures in nature. Previous respiration experiments (von Brand, Nolan, and Mann, 1948) have shown that it will tolerate short periods of exposure (2 hours) to 5.0° and 37.0C, while 0.3° and 41.0C were definitely harmful. In the present series of experiments 374 TABLE 1.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON ANAEROBIC TOLERANCE AND ON ANAEROBIC AND PosTANAEROBIC WATER CONTENT OF Australorbis glabratus JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 Bercent des | Water content after Anaer- | Postan- P t | Tnidialiwe tet Temp. sobie, aerobic Snails A Bll pacer See ine | percent of Anaerobic | Postanaerobic s* Dene PIAS) ais sta | fresh weight period in per- | cx period in per- o ied BehOole cent of initial = cent of initial aa poaod water content water content C Hours Hours |Number | 35 > 16 a4) 7 26 67 65.2 + 2.2 117 + 1.6 6.9 102 + 1.6 0.9 35 16 uf 49 | 61 29 10 64.0 + 2.2 | 123 + 3.7 Veli 113 + 3.2 12 30. | «16 7 52) | 4 8 88 62.840.5 | 115+ 1.5 10.0 100 + 1.7 0.0 30 len: u lien OD ame bee 29) 13 | 5S 60.8 + 0.6 | 121 + 2.2 | 9.6 103 + 1.8 0.9 30 | 40 rh 42 88 10 2 — = = = = 20 48 | df 42 5 5 90 64.6 + 0.2 116 + 1.2 LARD 98 + 1.1 1.8 20 | 64 | 7 42 19 12 69 63.6 + 0.6 18+1.8 | 5.5 102 + 1.4 1.4 20 | 88 7 42 64 2 34 63.3 + 1.2 118+ 3.4 | 1.6 104 + 2.6 0.6 10 72 (hte 42 5 5 90 66.8 + 0.2 103 + 1.3 tho 93 + 1.1 5.4 10 (| 120 ee 42 48 26 26 64.0 + 1.0 106 + 3.1 0.6 101 + 2.8 0.1 10 144 | Ue 42 59 29 12 63.2 + 1.6 108 + 6.4 0.2 97 + 4.8 0.1 ater Mi — M2 E * Significance: VEE . If the resulting figure is greater than 2, the water increase is significant. 1 2 ** Temperature of postanaerobic period: 20°C. it was necessary to keep snails for much longer periods at various temperatures. To establish a base line for the anaerobic experi- ments, series of snails were exposed aerobi- cally for 16 hours to 35°C and 144 hours to 10°C. None of the former died (35 speci- mens), while 3 out of 42 kept at 10°C suc- cumbed. It is probable that within these temperature limits the anaerobic resistance could be tested without danger that “‘heat death” or ‘‘cold death” proper might ob- secure the results, although 10°C is probably close to the lower temperature limit toler- ated. This point will be discussed below. Table 1 shows that under all conditions investigated snails died during the actual anaerobic period and that a variable addi- tional percentage was so damaged by lack of oxygen that death ensued during the subse- quent aerobic “‘recovery”’ period. To assess the harmful effects of anoxia both death percentages were added and all further dis- cussion is based on this total death figure. Fig. 1 indicates that after an initial lag period the anaerobic deaths at each tempera- ture followed a straight line. The length of the lag period increased with decreasing temperature. It is entirely possible that the straight line relationship does not hold for the last surviving snails; that is, it is possible that the curves may flatten out, thus leading to the frequently encountered sigmoid curves. This possibility, however, could not be tested experimentally without an imprac- ticable wastage of experimental animals. As indicated by the ‘“‘recovery deaths,” the exact death point of all the snails under actual anaerobiosis cannot be determined with sufficient precision. However, an indi- cation that a flattening out of the curves may occur can be seen in the location of the last two points of the 10° curve. The data presented in Fig. 1 allow one to calculate the hours of anaerobiosis required to kill 50 percent of the snails. If the 50 per- cent death points are plotted, they scatter closely around a straight line (Fig. 2), a rather unexpected result. This relation 80 a fo} b to} n fe} PERCENT DEATHS 140 ° 20 40 60 HOURS OF ANAEROBIOSIS Fre. 1.—Death curves of Australorbis glabratus due to lack of oxygen at various temperatures. 80 DECEMBER 1955 VON BRAND: ; 40 | | 30 4 } oO | 220 e + > i < fiok = = | a | = wW Et | aE Als =. ! I te) 20 40 60 80 100 120 HOURS OF ANAEROBIOSIS Fie. 2.—Influence of temperature on the time required to kill 50 percent of Awstralorbis glabratus specimens exposed to lack of oxygen. means that a given decrease in temperature increases the time required to achieve a 50 percent kill by an equal length of time throughout the temperature range tested. Fig. 2 shows, for example, that each 5° de- crease In temperature increases the time necessary to reach the 50 percent death point by about 20 hours. Linear relations between temperature and velocity occur in biological processes. Rather numerous literature quo- tations to this effect can be found in Beleh- radek’s monograph (1935). The present case is no direct parallel, however. The time re- quired to achieve 50 percent kill cannot be considered to give a rate in the strict sense (such as heart beat frequency would be) since it includes both the initial lag period during which no animal dies and also part of the linear death curves. The slope of the linear portions of each death curve (Fig. 1) reflects the rate of death at the specified temperature. Death rates, expressed as percent death per hour, were computed from these lines by a graphical procedure and yielded-the figures summar- ized in Table 2. Upon plotting these figures according to Arrhenius’ equation two lines TaBLE 2.—ANAEROBIC DEATH RatE oF AUSTRAL- ORBIS GLABRATUS IN PERCENT DEATHS PER Hour Temperature | Death rate Gg 10 IL PA 20 1235 30 3.58 35 6.71 ANAEROBIOSIS IN AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS BYES) result (Fig. 3), but the slopes of these lines can be considered as only approximate be- cause of the few points available. It is, nevertheless, obvious that the temperature characteristics of asphyxiation death are quite different at low and higher tempera- tures. The temperature relationships of the aerobic respiration of Awstralorbis, on the contrary, gives only one straight line over an even greater range of temperatures (von Brand, Nolan, and Mann, 1948), with a u value of approximately 17,400. Intersecting lines upon application of Arrhenius’ equation are of course quite common (Crozier, 1924), but in most cases, the u values are higher in the lower temperature range. (}CX@), — 0.80 F at 060 - ss) ans Ne = a nN = OG® |= tal] a5 q \ w 560.20 al [= 1,800 oO ° Jt 000 | ! | 32.0 330 340 350 ! 4 =xIl0 T Fig. 3.—Anaerobiec death rates of Australorbis glabratus expressed according to Arrhenius’ equa- tion. The water content of anaerobically main- tained snails (Table 1) increased rather markedly when the snails were subjected to anoxia at 35, 30, or 20°C. In all series where more than about 10 snails survived, the difference between initial water content and that found at the end of the anaerobic period was statistically significant. In most cases the surviving snails returned during the re- covery period quite closely to their initial water content; that is, the surplus water was largely eliminated. The figures given are of course only of significance insofar as the state of hydration of the tissues 1s concerned ; they are not indicative of the total amount of water exchange. The latter presumably would be greater as indicated by the fact that a portion of the anaerobic end products is actually excreted during the anaerobic period and also during a subsequent recoy- 376 ery period (von Brand, McMahon, and Nolan, 1955). While the data of Table 1 definitely prove a significant anaerobic hydration of the tissues at the higher temperatures, the anaerobic water increase at 10°C was very small and not statistically significant in any case. Enough snails survived at 10°C in at least two series out of the three done that a significant water increase would undoubtedly have been detected. It appears then that temperature has a definite influence on the anaerobic water regulation of the snail. DISCUSSION The ultimate mechanism of death by as- phyxiation is not known. Lack of oxygen induces in any aerobic organism a chain of events, various links of which could be in themselves harmful. In anaerobically kept specimens of Australorbis specifically the following facts have been established (aside, of course, from a cessation of the oxidative processes connected with the aerobic oxygen consumption): A somewhat higher rate of carbohydrate consumption than observed in. aerobic controls (von Brand, Baernstein, and Mehlman, 1950), excretion of carbon dioxide, the rate depending to some extent on the available polysaccharide stores (New- ton and von Brand, 1955), excretion and accumulation in the tissues of small amounts of lactic acid and larger amounts of acetic and propionic acids (Mehlman and von Brand, 1951; von Brand, McMahon, and Nolan, 1955) and hydration of the tissues at temperatures above 10°C (present study). The present investigation suggests that asphyxiation death may not always be due to one mechanism alone. If the concept of the ‘‘master reaction’ is correct, the rela- tions between anaerobic death and tempera- ture discussed in the preceding section indi- cate that one ‘‘master reaction” 1s operative at 10°C and another above 20°C. It should be kept in mind that Australorbis is a tropi- cal snail and that apparently 10°C is close to the lower temperature limit tolerated. It seems possible that cold itself puts a con- siderable stress on the organism which aggra- vates the stress due to lack of oxygen. A change in physiological response to anaero- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 biosis 1s indicated by the observations re- ported above in hydration differences at various temperatures. It would then seem possible that two competing mechanisms are involved in bringing about the relatively rapid death at 10°C: On the one hand, the lowering of the temperature to this level will undoubtedly lower the anaerobic metabolic rate and thus tend to prolong life endan- gered by whatever phase of anaerobic metabolism is involved in ° asphyxiation death. On the other hand, the presumed “cold stress” would tend to shorten life. What mechanism may be involved here is not known. Actually, we are confronted by the riddle why some cold-blooded animals are confined to tropical and others to arctic environments. While some metabolic adap- tations have been described (Scholander, Flagg, Walters, and Irving, 1953), it does not seem likely that they explain tempera- ture segregation fully. It seems more prob- able that other factors, perhaps of a physico- chemical nature, are of greater importance. Coming back to the immediate problem, we see that the concept of a relative agera- vation instead of an alleviation of anaerobic stress by low temperature ina tropical animal finds some support in the admittedly sketchy information available concerning the anae- robic temperature relationships of a cold- water snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. At 30°C 100 percent survived 6 hours, but only 9 percent 16 hours (von Brand, Baernstein, and Mehlman, 1950). At 20°C, the snails were dead before 60 hours had passed, while at 8-10, and at 0°C, they were still alive after 168 hours (Alsterberg, 1930). In other words, at 30 and 20°C the cold water snail was less resistant to lack of oxygen than the warm water snail, while the reverse held true at lower temperatures. ‘The point was not checked experimentally be- cause of technical difficulties. The most easily determined anaerobic process, carbon dioxide pro- duction, cannot be determined accurately in snails, especially not at various temperatures, be- cause of the presence of the caleareous shell. The lactic acid production, another excellent yard- stick in many cases, is not a practical approach in Australorbis because lactic acid is only a minor anaerobic end product. The polysaccharide con- sumption also does not lend itself to accurate determinations (unless very long series are done) because of marked fluctuations in the initial level. DECEMBER 1955 VON BRAND: ANAEROBIOSIS SUMMARY 1. Anaerobic death curves were established at 35, 30, 20, and 10°C. At all temperatures there is an initial lag period, after which the death rate follows a straight line. 2. Upon application of Arrhenius’ equa- tion two lines result. The temperature in- fluence is characterized by a very low u value at 10°C, the lowest temperature tested, and a much higher one in the higher temperature range (20 to 35°C). 3. Between 35 and 20°C anaerobiosis in- duces a rather marked hydration of the tis- sues, while at 10°C only an insignificant increase occurs. The surplus water is rapidly excreted during a postanaerobic_ recovery period. 4. The idea is expressed that the relatively rapid anaerobic death at 10°C is due to an additive effect of anaerobic and cold stress. REFERENCES ALSTERBERG, G. Waichtige Zuece in der Biologie der Swesswassergastropoden. Lund, 1930. BELEHRADEK, J. J'emperature and living matter. Protoplasma Monographien no. 8. Berlin, 1935. von Branp, T. Anaerobiosis in invertebrates. Biodynamica Monographs No. 4. Normandy, Mo., 1946. IN AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS BY Ml von Branp, T., BAmRNsTEIN, H. D., and Mrut- MAN, B. Studies on the anaerobic metabolism and the aerobic carbohydrate consumption of some fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 98: 266. 1950. VON BraAnp, T., Notan, M. O., and Mann, E. R. Observations on the respiration of Australorbis glabratus and some other aquatic snails. Biol. Bull. 95: 199. 1948. vON Branp, T., McMaunon, P., and Nouan, M. O. Observations on the postanaerobic metabolism of some fresh-water snails. Physiol. Zool. 28: 35. 1955. Crozier, W. J. On biological oxidations as func- tion of temperature. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 7: 189. 1924. Harniscu, O. Die physiologische Bedeutung der praeanalen Tubuli der Larve von Chironomus thummi. Zool. Anz. 153: 204. 1954a. Der Trockensubstanz-(Wasser)-Gehalt von Chironomidenlarven und seine oekologische Bedeutung. Zool. Jahrb. (Abt. Allg. Zool. und Physiol.) 65: 171. 1954b. MeuiumMan, B.,and von Brann, T. Further studies on the anaerobic metabolism of some fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 100: 199. 1951. Newton, W.L., and von Brann, T. Comparative physiological studies on two geographical strains of Australorbis globratus. Exp. Para- sitol. 4: 244, 1955. ScHOLANDER, P. F., Fuace, W., Watters, V., and Irvine, I. Climatic adaptation in arctic and tropical poikilotherms. Physiol. Zool. 26: 67. 1953. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1365TH MEETING, OCTOBER 10, 1952 C. R. SmncLetTerry, of the Naval Research Laboratory, spoke on Particle size from fluorescence depolarization. The general understanding of col- loid science has been hampered by too-ready extrapolation phenomena. Well-recognized ad- vances have been made recently in the study of organic high polymers and proteins, but under- standing of the soap colloids has proved more diffi- cult because of the weakness of the forces of asso- ciation. Spurred by the necessity for investigation of the emulsifying action of soaps in connection with the synthetic rubber program of World War II, McBain, Debye, and Harkins each contributed important techniques to the study of soaps and the structure of the “micelles” they form. These are groups of molecules with hydrocarbon ends as far reznoved from the water molecules as possible while their polar ends are in intimate contact with the water. Oil-soluble soaps like petroleum naphthenates and sulfonates, when added to engine oil in small amounts prevent rusting of parts and reduce wear. Fundamental research at the Naval Research Laboratory has mcluded work on oleic acid deriva- tives of known structure. Water, even in extremely small quantities, has a very large effect on the viscosity and other properties of these materials. Harkins and Corrin noted a change in color of a dye when micelles are formed. Further investiga- tion at the Naval Research Laboratory showed that Rhodamine B becomes fluorescent when ad- sorbed on soap micelles. When polarized light is used, the fluorescent light is found to be only 20 to 30 per cent polarized and the size of the micelles may be determined from the depolarization of the fluorescence. This depolarization results from Brownian rotation of the dye-containing micelle during the interval (2-4 x 107° see) between light absorption and fluorescence emission. Micelles having a molecular weight of about 20,000 have been studied. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1366TH MEETING, OCTOBER 24, 1955 EK. Brigur Wixtson, professor of chemistry at Harvard University, spoke on Some famous scien- tific blunders. His aim was not to pillory indi- viduals, who were famous scientists in many cases, but rather to pomt out how we might profit by their mistakes. No names were mentioned by the speaker. There are no scientific laws telling how to make discoveries, but there are criteria for knowing when there has been self-deception. Six illustrative cases of blunders were described in some detail, all of them in the period from about 1900 to 1935. The treatment of the common cold by the inhalation of small amounts of chlorine was never tested by any control experiments. N-rays, supposedly discovered in France about 1900, were the subject of a great many scientific papers. They were detected visually by the dimming of the fluorescence of a screen. Absorption, refraction, diffraction, and similar effects were reported in spite of the fact that the N-rays finally turned out to be non-existent. The phenomena were asso- ciated with defects of vision under low illumina- tions. Another erroneous theory ascribed certain chemical reactions to the absorption of the infrared blackbody radiation and led to dozens of papers before it succumbed to a few critical experiments and calculations. The bacterial origin of yellow fever and “mitogenetic rays,’’ supposedly emitted by all growing cells, were other celebrated blun- ders—the latter leading to over 700 published papers. The sixth case considered was the magneto- optical method of chemical analysis supposedly based on the time lag of the Faraday effect. Ap- parently this was based on somewhat the same optical illusion as the N-ray studies. All these episodes seem to have a common pat- tern. A supposed discovery is quickly announced, “confirmed” by others, and followed by a great rush to get into the field to exploit it. Next the theoretical scientists demonstrate that it could have been predicted. Later some observers hesi- tantly report negative results and doubt develops usually with disputation. The effect itself is not usually killed with a single blow but gradually fades away. Several serious lessons should be learned from these occurrences. Scientists should recognize the fact that they find it very difficult to be really objective about something of their own creation. Control experiments should always be set up, con- trols and subjects should be carefully matched, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, NO. 12 and the experiments should be randomized under conditions of real ‘“blindfoldedness.” Statistical design should be planned and no observations or facts discarded. Finally, theories should be re- quired to be quantitative. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1367TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 7, 1952 Wayne W. Scanton, ot the Naval Ordnance Laboratory spoke, on Semiconductors. These sub- stances, intermediate in electrical conductivity between the metals and imsulators, are nowadays defined in terms of an energy band structure differmg from those of metals and insulators. Typi- cal semiconductors are the elements selenium, germanium, silicon, and tellurium, as well as lead sulfides, copper oxide, and many other sulfides, oxides, and selenides. The earliest extensive use of semiconductors was in point-contact “‘cat’s whisker” detectors for radio receivers. These were displaced by the vacuum tube but came back into some use in World War II, for radar, because their upper limit of frequency (30,000 megacycles) was much higher than that of the vacuum tube. They have been used as recti- fiers, photocells, transistors, and for many other purposes in recent years. Semiconductors are of three types known as intrinsic, n-type, and p-type. In an intrinsic semi- conductor there are vacant energy bands close enough to the filled bands to permit conduction by electrons with normal thermal energy. In the other types there are impurity atoms with bands close to the filled bands. In n-type semiconductors conduc- tion is by the motion of electrons from the filled bands with energies corresponding to the impurity band, while in the p-type it is simpler mathemat- ically and physically to consider the motion of the “hole” from which the electron originated. Mr. Scanlon presented a series of demonstrations of phenomena associated with semiconductors. These included the Hall effect, rectification, pho- toconductivity, photovoltaic effect, high thermo- electric power of a germanium-copper junction, transistor amplifier, transistor oscillator, and elec- troluminescence. In the last phenomenon fluores- cent radiation is produced directly by an alter- nating current field. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1368TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 21, 1952 J.C. Suater, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, spoke on The nature of the chemical bond. The dividing line between history and devel- opment on the nature of the chemical bond dates DECEMBER 1955 back to the papers on wave mechanics by Schré- dinger m 1926. These ideas, however, were not completely new, for Hamilton a hundred years earlier had thought along similar lines in his devel- opment of the optics of inhomogeneous media, and the spectra of atoms had long suggested the exis- tence of definite energy levels. Astronomers had trouble also with the three-body problem, and classical mechanics even from the beginning had regarded the exact solution of the many body problem as impossible. Indeed this problem is the most difficult problem which the mathematicians have ever been called upon to solve. With the appearance of Schrédinger’s equations it became possible for the first time to solve some of the simpler problems. Heitler and London deter- mined the approximate form for the curve de- scribing the internuclear distance for the hydrogen molecule and predicted the existence of ortho and para hydrogen. This paper had a far reaching effect on molecular physics, and many authors tried to extend these ideas to other molecules but found the calculations too complex because of the lack of orthogonality between the various wave functions. Because of these complexities a new method suggested by Hund and Mulhkan and known as the “Method of Molecular Orbitals” has gradually superseded that of Heitler and London. This method also uses Schrédinger’s general ideas but in addition permits each particle to precess about the direction of the magnetic field. The “\Method of Molecular Orbitals” is more exact and the calculations much simpler. The hydrogen molecule has now been solved in detail by this method. Many workers in England are extending these calculations to other diatomic molecules and to ammonia and benzene. In this country Hertz- feld, Mayer, Crawford, and Mullikan are domg similar calculations. Slater and his students are carrying out the calculations for water. One of the chief difficulties with this problem is that of convincing the chemists that the problem is really as complex as it is. If Schroédinger’s methods are applied with sufficient rigor and approximations and other empirical relations are avoided, there is every indication that Schro- dinger’s methods will yield correct results. MicHarL GoupperG, of the Navy Department, presented an informal communication on a class of geometrical figures that he designated as rotors. These are three-dimensional bodies which have the property that they are everywhere of constant width and can be rotated inside a cube, tetra- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 379 hedron, and octahedron. This communication was an extension of Mr. Goldberg’s earlier ideas pre- sented before this Society in which he showed some of the simpler rotors. The rotor described in this communication was designated as “the most uni- versal lop-sided rotor we know of” and differed only slightly from a sphere. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1369TH MEETING, DECEMBER 5, 1952 At the close of the business session of the Annual Meeting, Ronaup $8. Rivurn, of the Naval Re- search Laboratory, gave a talk on Some recent developments in continuum mechanics. Classical elasticity theory is built on the assumption that the deformations to which elastic bodies are sub- jected are sufficiently small. The classical hydro- dynamics of viscous fluids likewise is built on the assumption that the velocity gradients are small. In both cases linear theories result from these assumptions. The nonlinear theories resulting when these assumptions are not made predict results different from those of the classical theories. Mr. Rivlin discussed the experimental verification of a number of these results. These experiments in a number of instances, dealt with the deformation of rubber, in which appreciable strains are readily obtained. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1370TH MEETING, DECEMBER 19, 1952 Watuace R. Brops, of the National Bureau of Standards, spoke on Color and chemical constitution, demonstrating with the use of an American Optical Co. scanning spectrophotometer. Calibration and operation of the equipment were explained. The principal chromophores, or color-producing groupings, in organic substances are the conjugated CC, CO, NN, and NO pairs. Of these, the NN azo group is the most important in dyes. The order of color deepening, ordered in the sense of increasing chemical complexity and decreasing stability, is: white, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, green. The difficulty of dyeing the new synthetic fibers often leads to the use of unstable dyes; this was demon- strated by a piece of red orlon which turned blue under a hot flatiron, but fortunately recovered. This color change was explained as a reversible transformation between the “trans” and “cis” tautomeric forms of the dye. The corresponding transformation in thioindigo is induced by light; the dye turns red on exposure to red light, and blue on exposure to blue. The normal color is due to an equilibrium mixture of the two forms. 380 The different physical dimensions of the tauto- meric forms of a dye make it a useful research tool. For example, some dyes will attach themselves to cotton when in the cis form, but not when in the trans form. This leads to conclusions about the molecular structure and dimensions of cotton cel- lulose. The lecture ended on a light note with a colori- metric analysis of the components of a ham sand- wich placed in the scanning spectrophotometer. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1371ST MEETING, JANUARY 16, 1953 Otiver G. Haywoop, Jr., of the Ar Research and Development Command, spoke on Military decision and the mathematical theory of games. The fist theory of games applied only to games of pure chance; the von Neumann theory applies to games requiring rational action on the part of players. The concepts were introduced by a discussion of the old French card game called “Her.” The stra- tegic problem involved is in deciding to keep the card dealt or to trade it in for another. A particular strategy is to hold the card if it is better than a seven, otherwise to trade. For any given strategies of the player and the dealer, the player’s expect- aney can be computed by the probability calculus. The expectancies for all combinations of player- dealer strategies can be displayed in a matrix, with each row corresponding to a single player strategy and each column to a single dealer strategy. If the player is conservative, he chooses the strategy row in which he suffers the least if the dealer happens to have the best opposing strategy, that is, he chooses the row that has the largest minimum expectancy. This is called the minorant game. If, on the other hand, he knows the dealer’s strategy, he can choose the row that maximizes his expect- ancy against that known strategy. This is the “majorant” game. In a game of perfect information, like tic-tac-toe or chess, where all previous moves are known and chance does not enter, the outcome is determined if both players are infinitely intelligent. The military doctrine known as the “estimate of the situation” calls for the following: 1. Define the mission 2. Consider the situation and courses of action (a) Considerations of weather, terrain, etc. (b) Consideration of strategies available to the enemy. (c) Consideration of strategies available to us. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 3. Analysis of possible enemy strategies. 4. Results of our own strategies in each case. 5. Decision as to the best strategy for us. The standard military doctrine is to choose the strategy that guarantees the least damage to us, Le., the conservative maximin or minorant solu- tion. If a commander has good intelligence informa- tion, i.e., knowledge of enemy strategy, his evalua- tion matrix shows him which row is best, since the column is known or assumed. Of course, in either war or poker, the enemy may be bluffing, or he may be trying to make us think he is bluffing. In a single major encounter, the safe minorant strategy is best; in a long series of minor encoun- ters, a set of mixed strategies can be used to maxi- mize the long run expectancy. In the discussion that followed, it was brought out that concealment and security can be inter- preted as attempts to make the enemy draw up a false evaluation matrix by omitting facts; feints and camouflage tend to give him a false matrix because he includes falsities. The majorant and minorant approaches can be summarized as: Ma- jorant—We guess what the enemy’s evaluation matrix is, and assume his strategy. Minorant—We use our own evaluation matrix and play safe. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1372D MEETING, JANUARY 30, 1953 The Society was addressed by the retiring presi- dent, A. G. McNisu, on the subject The effects of the moon on the earth’s outer atmosphere. The subject of tides was introduced by a review of the familiar ocean tides. The solar and lunar components were discussed, and the usual situa- tion at Tahiti mentioned. At Tahiti there is a solar tide only, occurrmg at the same time each day. This is convenient for people that like to swim at high tide. The tidal force exerted by the moon is 2.4 times as great as that of the sun. In ocean tides this ratio is apparent, but m atmospheric tides, it is found that the lunar component is the weaker, in the ratio of 15 to 1. This is explained by the fact that the tidal mode of oscillation of the atmosphere has a natural period of approximately 12 hours, hence is roughly in resonance with the sun’s periodic motion. This effect increases the difficulty of an experimental study of the lunar component of the atmospheric tides. It has been found that the lunar air tide has the DECEMBER 1955 same phase, relative to local time, all over the earth, and that this phase has a significant seasonal variation. The lunar tide has its greatest lag at the December solstice. On the assumption that the lunar tide involves adiabatic compression, a corresponding component of average temperature is expected. A statistical extraction of this effect from 62 years of data at Batavia yields a periodic temperature variation of 0.007 degree Celsius. The apparent probable error of this result is small enough to make the result sig- nificant, and large enough to include the expected temperature variation computed from the lunar semidiurnal barometric pressure variation at the same station. The lunar tides cause systematic wind currents with speeds of the order of 1 cm/sec; the corre- sponding solar winds have speeds of 30 cm/sec. Such systematic air currents at 100 kilometer alti- tude, where there is appreciable conductivity due to ionization, could explain diurnal variations in the earth’s magnetic field, except that the effect is several orders of magnitude larger than the ex- planation. The seasonal phase shift of the lunar tide, however, fits the corresponding behavior of the geomagnetic field. Radio reflection studies of the outer layer of the ionosphere, the F2 layer, show lunar effects. The critical frequency at noon shows minima 3 or 4 days after full moon and new moon at the De- cember solstice; this effect is less pronounced and has a different phase at the equinoxes, and still less at the June solstice. These effects are like those of the lunar tide. The National Bureau of Standards system of examining the virtual heights of the ionosphere layers was described, and motion pictures of iono- spheric behavior at Huancayo, Peru, were shown. It was seen that during the day there comes a time when the F2 layer gets wanderlust, and suddenly takes off toward outer space with a speed of about 1000 em/sec. The positive and negative charges must both be domg this, or the otherwise resulting charge separation would halt the migration. Such a joint motion implies crossed electric and magnetic fields of the order of E equals 300 microvolts/me- ter, H equals 0.3 oersted. The lunar tide air speed of 1 cm/sec would give rise to a motional electro- motive force of only 0.3 microvolt/meter. Thus this so-called lunar layer behavior implies an upper atmosphere tidal oscillation roughly 1000 times greater than the lower altitude oscillation. This PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 381 has been explained by the presence of temperature inversion layers acting as reflectors to keep the major oscillation m the upper atmosphere. A rough computation of the oscillatory energy stored in the lunar tide yields 102° joules, or a million times as much energy as is released by an A-bomb. Hence it is not practical to attempt to modify the tides experimentally. (Secretary's ab- stract.) 1373D MEETING, FEBRUARY 13, 1953 J. SAMUEL Smart, of the Naval Ordnance Lab- oratory, addressed the Society on the topic Ant?- ferromagnetism. This phenomenon was predicted in 1932 and discovered in 1938. Langevin’s classical theory of paramagnetism was reviewed. He assumed that each atom has a permanent magnetic moment, uw; that an applied field H tends to align the moments while thermal agitation tends to destroy the alignment. Neglect- ing interaction, this problem is readily solved by statistical mechanics, yieldmg the magnetization as a function of wH/kKT. The susceptibility, or ratio of induced magnetization to applied field, is much less than unity. Now there are a few chemical elements for which the susceptibility is much greater than unity, and for which the magnetization does not vanish with the applied field. These also saturate easily, that is, the magnetization reaches a limiting value. Such elements are called ferromagnetic. For these elements the susceptibility depends on the tem- perature, and on previous mechanical and thermal treatment, but the saturation magnetization is independent of these environmental conditions. Hence the saturation magnetization has more physical significance and is the property normally studied. An interesting property of ferromagnetic materi- als is that each has a critical temperature, its Curie temperature, above which the material is paramag- netic. Below the Curie point there are strong inherent alignment forces that are stimulated by the applied field. Are these forces the interactions that were neglected by Langevin? In 1907, Weiss attempted to account for the interaction by adding to the applied field a term proportional to the magnetization; the resulting total. field was then substituted in Langevin’s equation for the magnetization. The resulting rela- tion predicts spontaneous magnetization that be- haves with temperature like the observed satura- 382 tion. Unfortunately, observed Curie temperatures require a proportionality constant m H total of around 10,000; Weiss could not rationalize a con- stant greater than 4 7. In 1929, Heisenberg suggested that quantum mechanical exchange forces might supply the answer. He proposed that in crystals, the effect of exchange forces might be to align nearest neighbor spins, to make their magnetic moments parallel. This leads to an appropriate value of the constant in the Weiss theory. In 1932, Neel suggested that in some crystals, the exchange forces might align nearest neighbors in the antiparallel sense. In the case of a body- centered cubic lattice, this can be visualized as two interpenetrating simple cubic lattices, each of which has all its spins parallel, but each sublattice being oriented anti-parallel to the other. This assumption treated by the Weiss procedure pre- dicts a total magnetization of zero, composed of equal and opposite sublattice components each of which varies with temperature like the saturation of a ferromagnetic. The theory also predicts a susceptibility vs. temperature curve exhibiting a cusp at the Curie pomt. This phenomenon was found in manganous oxide in 1988. Recently, neutron scattering experiments have been made on antiferromagnetic crystals. In this analog of the famous Bragg experiment, the mag- netic interaction of the neutron with the lattice is of the same order of magnitude as the nuclear force interaction. Neutron scattering from manganous oxide below the Curie temperature gives reflections that do not correspond to any crystal plane, but can be explained by planes of a structure having twice the cell size of the crystallographer’s unit cell. This is interpreted as a magnetic cell structure of the manganese atoms, the oxygen atoms being magnetically ignorable. At the Curie point, these reflections show that there is a violent change of cell dimensions, and a change in the thermal expansion coefficient along one axis. Another interesting effect is found in the be- havior of resonance absorption. In antiferromag- netic materials, the strength of the absorption in- creases slowly as the temperature is reduced to the Curie point, while the substance is paramagnetic, but below this point, the absorption practically vanishes. Actually, the resonance absorption is still present, but the frequency of resonance has suddenly increased to beyond the range of the usual equipment. (Secretary’s abstract.) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 1374TH MENTING, FEBRUARY 27, 1953 The Society was addressed by Joun A. OSBoRN, of the Office of Naval Research. Mr. Osborn started with a brief history of government-spon- sored research in this country and then entered upon his main topic, the ONR program of spon- sored research in magnetism. A brief discussion of domain structure in ferro- magnetic materials was given. The growth effects in domains were exhibited by slides showing photo- graphs taken by polarized light. The Kerr phe- nomenon of rotation of polarization delineates the domain structure very strikingly. The ferromagnetic properties of small particles were explained in terms of domain theory. Data were presented showing the high coercive forces that can be obtained with powdered materials, particularly when the particle shape can be con- trolled. Techniques for forming needle-shaped particles are being developed under contract at Franklin Institute and Lehigh University. Photographs of L. R. Maxwell’s magnetic re- search equipment at the Naval Ordnance Labora- tory were shown, and explained with an assist from Mr. Maxwell, who was in the audience. Photographs and drawings of some University of Chicago equipment, used under ONR contracts, were shown. Some of their results on the resonance absorption of potassium in liquid ammonia were presented. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1375TH MEBTING, MARCH 15, 1953 The Society was addressed by Maurice M. SHapiro, of the Naval Research Laboratory, on the subject New unstable particles in the cosmic radiation. By ‘new’ particles is meant those dis- covered in the last four or five years. The old mesons were reviewed. These are the positive and negative mu mesons, or muons, and the positive, negative, and neutral pi mesons, or pions. The muons decay with a two-microsecond half-life into positive or negative electrons, de- pending on the muon charge, and two neutral par- ticles, assumed to be neutrinos. When first dis- covered, the muon was thought to be the “nuclear glue” predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but it was later found that the muon-nucleon interaction was a million times too small for this. The charged pion, with a mass just under 300 electron masses, decays in 10-8 second toa muon of like sign, and a neutrino. This charged pion is probably the particle predicted hy Yukawa. The DECEMBER 1955 neutral pion, slightly lighter, decays into two gamma rays of about 70 mev energy each, or alternatively into one gamma ray and an electron- positron pair. The half-life of the neutral pion is only 107 or 10~ second; it lives hardly long enough to exist as an entity. In fact, it requires careful interpretation of experiments to conclude that it exists at all. With the large particle accelerators now in use, the behavior of muons and pions is fairly well known. For the sake of completeness, the neutron should be added to the list of familiar unstable particles. It decays into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino, with a half-life of 12 minutes. The new heavy mesons, V, K, tau, and zeta, are born in violent nuclear collisions—usually when a proton of more than ten billion electron volts energy strikes another nucleon. These mesons are observed only in cosmic radiation, and then not often. The V mesons are neutral, and consist of two groups V°; and V°s. Since neutral particles leave no tracks, and since the parents of the neutral V particles are also neutral, it is difficult to obtain quantitative information. Studies of the disinte- gration of V mesons, including energy and mo- menta of its two charged offspring and the energy release of the decay, indicates that V°; decays into a negative pion plus a positive particle which may be a proton, but seems to be less massive. The V% group releases more energy and decays into a positive-negative pion pair, with a half-life of about 3 X 101° second. Several hundred V disin- tegrations have been observed. Best estimates of mass are that V% is about 2200 electron masses; V® about 800. In contrast, the tau meson, which has been ob- served only about ten times, is fairly well known quantitatively, smce both it and its decay particles are charged. Furthermore, it has three offspring, and the triple coplanar tracks yield considerable information. The positive and negative tau mesons have about 975 electron masses, and decay into three charged pions; two of the same sign as the parent tau, one of opposite sign. These offspring are readily identifiable from the subsequent decay into muons. The last group, the A particles, comprises four charged subgroups, Chi (plus and mimus), Kappa (plus and minus), S (plus and minus), and V (plus and minus), although it is thought that Chi and $ are the same; the Chi’s have been observed in emulsion tracks and the 8 mesons in cloud cham- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 383 bers. All the KK particles have masses in the range 1000-1500. The Chi and Kappa particles have been ob- served in emulsions; the Chi, Kappa, and § par- ticles decay from rest. The Kappa meson apparently yields a muon and two neutrinos; the two unobservable particles are assumed to make it a three body decay, as indicated by the lack of unique momentum of the muon. The Chi decays into a like-charged pion and a neutral particle of SO0-900 electron masses. This may be a neutral tau. The Zeta particle is a hypothetical child of a Kappa, of about 530 elec- tron masses, and itself decaying with only one charged product. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1376TH MEETING, MARCH 27, 1953 The Society was addressed by Wituram R. Duryes, of the National Cancer Institute, on the subject Some new aspects of the cancer cell. Mr. Duryee’s work has been with amphibian cancer, rather than human cancer. Cancer is a form of abnormal cell growth, a bizarre form of a natural process, rather than a disease ike mumps or measles. Every plant and animal has its spec- trum of abnormalities, and almost all body tissues are subject to cancer. The nerves and the middle intestine are exceptions. Growth is defined as an merease in mass, in- volving the synthesis of new material. In cell growth, the surface/volume ratio decreases, and the cell must divide or die. Thus cell division must be incorporated in the concept of growth. The size of an organism is more dependent on the number of cells than on the size of those cells. For example, the red blood cells of the human and of the ele- phant are approximately the same size. Growth processes exhibit a spectrum with gradual change from normaley to malignancy. Normal growth starts with organism growth, and shades through replacement growth (as in the starfish, salamander, and the flatworm) to unusual cell divisions as in callus and athlete’s tendon. But these are all controlled growths, within the limits of profit to the organism. Next we find the benign neoplasms, small tu- mors such as warts and moles, that stay “in hand”; these blend over into malignant neo- plasms. The malignant growths are characterized by (1) being uncontrolled—the cells have deserted the general economy of the body and are com- peting with normal cells, (2) increasing virulence, 384 JOURNAL OF THE the invasion of neighboring cells, and (3) metasta- sis, or spreading to new locations. After this orientation, an interesting series of slides was shown showing the results of experi- ments on adenocarcinoma in frogs, and a benign papilloma on a Japanese salamander. This interesting animal with his rare affliction was present at the meeting, and examined by many of the audience. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1377TH MEETING, APRIL 10, 1953 Ray Pepinsky, of the Pennsylvania State College, addressed the Society on the topic X-ray analysis as a tool in biochemistry. Many of the problems of biochemistry are associated with organic crystal structure, which is still in a primitive state. Inorganic crystal chemistry had its groundwork well laid by 1927, and since then many compounds have been studied. Organic crystal chemistry comprises many more compounds that are more complt- cated than inorganic substances, and fewer crystal structures have been determined. Inorganic crystals are usually atomic crystals with both heavy and light atoms arranged with a high degree of symmetry. X-ray methods readily pick out the heavy atoms and show the structure. Organic crystals are strongly dependent upon molecular configurations, and the atoms of principal interest (N, C, O), have similar X-ray scattering power. Hence only carefully chosen problems of organic chemistry yield to X-ray methods. In fact, X-ray methods turn out either to be very powerful, yielding the whole story, or else to be practically useless. Compounds that have been successfully studied are alkaloids, antibiotics, and antihistamines of less than 500 molecular weight, i.e., molecules of not more than forty atoms. X-ray analysis has given information on molecular weight, accurate to a few tenths of a percent, and has been an important means of identification; the sterols were first classified by means of single-crystal X-ray studies. If the arrangement of atoms in a crystal is WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 45, No. 12 known, its x-ray scattering pattern is readily com- puted by Fourier methods. The converse problem, however, is not easy, for experimentally the magnitude of the scattering is observable, but the phase angle is not. Thus only simple structures can be analyzed, i.e., those having simple special phase relations. For example, if the crystal has a center of symmetry, the phases are unknown only as to algebraic sign. Again, if projection of the crystal’s electron density onto a plane has two-dimensional symmetry about a center, a similar simplification occurs. If a relatively heavy atom is in the molecule, or can be placed in it without changing the crystal structure, it domi- nates the phase of the scattermg and gives a base to work on. ; There have been some interesting successes of x-ray technique. Sodium benzyl pencillin was analyzed by using three planar density projec- tions, and combining these into a three-dimen- sional space pattern. Every bond angle and distance determined. The structure of strychnine was determined, by using its sulfate, selenate, and hydrobromide as crystals with heavy atoms for phase control. The structure of sucrose (cane sugar) was determined without using any a priori chemical knowledge. Additional complexes with alkali halides were used, without knowing where the halides were added. The long standing problem of the structure of colchicine was resolved completely, and the re- lated mitotic poisons, podophyllotoxin and picropodophyllin, are being worked on. An especially interesting example is furnished by isomycomycin, whose structure was com- pletely determined before standard chemical methods had yielded any information. (Secretary’s abstract.) was 1378TH MEETING, APRIL 24, 1953 This meeting of the Society was the occasion of the twenty-second Joseph Henry Lecture on Mesons and nuclear forces, by Hans A. Brerun, of Cornell University. The lecture has been pub- lished in this JourNAL 44: 97-105. 1954. INDEX TO VOLUME 45 An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Anthropological Society of Washington. 231. Philosophical Society of Washington. 131, 377. Washington Academy of Sciences. 86. AUTHOR INDEX Anprews, E. A. Some work of the periodical cicada. 20. Bayer, FrepericK M. Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent counterparts 294. BiaNncH, GERTRUDE, and Ruopes, Ipa.~ Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation for large values of the parameter. 166. Bowman, THomas E. The isopod genus Chiridotea Harger, with a description of a new species from brackish waters. 224. Brope, WaLiace R.* Color and chemical con- stitution. 379. Casry, Raymonp. The pelecypod family Cor- biculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe and the Near East. 366. CuHaBaNaub, Paun. Flatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Ex- pedition to the Philippines, 1907-1910. 30. Cuune, In-Cuo. New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated before pub- lication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. 210. Criark, R.B.,and Jones, Merepiray L. Twonew Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Francisco Bay. 148. Corutss, Epirn L. R. Limitations on rapid sig- nal analysis. 359. Cummines, Ropert H. Stacheoides, a new fora- miniferal genus from the British Upper Paleo- zoic. 342. New genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Carboniferous. 1. Curtis, H. L. Development in Washington of a subspecies of the genus Homo, sapiens scien- tifica, the members of which no longer adorn themselves by wearing ‘“‘tatls.’”’ 131. DeranporF, Francis M. A tree from the view- point of lightning. 333. DerMEN, Hare. A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple. 324. Drake, Cart J., and Manponapo-CapRILEs, J. New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera). 289. DrReEcHSLER, CHARLES. A small Conidiobolus with globose and with elongated secondary cinidia. 114. A southern Basidiobolus forming many sporangia from globose and from elongated adhesive conidia. 49. DuryYee, Wrii1am R.* Some new aspects of the eancer cell. 383. Exvuiotr, Francis E., Myrmrs, Wriuram H., and TressLeR, Wiis L. A comparison of the environmental characteristics of some shelf areas of eastern United States. 248. Bricksen, J. L. A consequence of inequalities proposed by Baker and Ericksen. 268. Note concerning the number of direc- tions which, in a given motion, suffer no in- stantaneous rotation. 65. Fan, Ky, Taussky, Ouea, and Topp, JoHn. An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric inequality for polygons. 339. Faust, Gkorce T. Thermal analysis and X-ray studies of griffithite. 66. Ferun, H.J. See Karasrnos, J. V. 103. Fitcu, Joun BE. Pontinus clemensi, a new scor- paenoid fish from the tropical eastern Pacific. 61. Fraser, 1anM. See Hapexost, RopertC. 101. GREENSPAN, Martin. The electrometer at high frequencies. 229. Hasexkost, Ropert C., Fraser, [an M., and HaustEap, Bruck W. Observations on toxic marine algae. 101. Hau, E. Raymonp. A new subspecies of wood rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with new name- combinations for the Neotoma mexicana group. 328. HaxtstTeap, Bruce W. See Hasexkost, Roper C. 101. Hanpiey, Cuaries O., Jr. A new Pleistocene bat (Corynorhinus) from Mexico. 48. New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. 147. Haywoop, Ottver G., Jr.* Military decision and the mathematical theory of games. 380. Henrict, Perer. Application of two methods of numerical analysis to the computation of the reflected radiation of a point source. 38. Hess, W. C., and SuHarrran, I. P. The influence of intramuscular and oral cortisone and hydrocortisone on liver glycogen formation by DL alanine. 134. HorrMetIstER, Donaup F. Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) from northeastern Arizona. 126. Iuue, Paut L. A new species of Pararchinoto- delphys (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) with re- marks on its systematic position. 216. James, Maurice T. See Newuoussn, VERNE F. 15. 385 386 Jones, Merepita L. See Cruark, R. B. 1438. KaraBinos,J.V.,andFrrun,H.J. Bactericidal activity of ozonized olefins. 103. Knigut, Kennetu L. See Stoner, ALAN. 282. Lanzcos, C. Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. 315. Larsen, Esraer Loursp. Pehr Kalm’s mete- orological observations in North America. 269. Lisspy, W. F. Tritium in nature. 301. LorpeEe.io, Luiz Gonzaca E. A new nematode, Rotylenchus melancholicus, n. sp., found asso- ciated with grass roots, and its sexual di- morphism. 81. ManpoNapo-CaPRILEs, J. 289. McKenna, Matcoum C. A new species of myla- gaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna, Montana. 107. MecNtsu, A. G.* The effects of the moon on the earth’s outer atmosphere. 380. Mercautr, Z. P. New names in the Homoptera. 262. Morrison, J. P. E. Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. 32. Notes on American cyclophoroid land snails, with two new names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family Amphicy- clotidae, separated on animal characters. 149. Myers, Witutiam H. See Exniorr, Francis E. 248. Newuousr. VERNE F., WaLker, Davin W., and James, Maurice T. The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooleyt, S. bullata, and S. sher- mani (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). 15. NewMan, WautTer B. Desmognathus planiceps, a new salamander from Virginia. 83. OBERHOLSER, Harry C. Description of a new chipping sparrow from Canada. 59. OBERLING, JoHN J. Shell structure of West American Pelecypoda. 128. Ossporn, Joun A.* ONR program of sponsored research in magnetism. 382. Pacr, Curster H. Message from the Editor- See Drake, Cart J. elect. 165. Prpinsky, Ray.* X-ray analysis as a tool in biochemistry. 384. Prerrrpons, Marian H. New species of poly- chaete worms of the family Polynoidae from the east coast of North America. 118. Prrrman, MarcGarer. Announcement of elec- tion of Editor. 165. RernuarpD, Epwarp G. Some Rhizocephala found on brachyuran crabs in the West Indian region. 75. Ruopes, Ina. See Buancu, GERTRUDE. 166. Rivirn, Ronaup 8.* Some recent developnients in continuum mechanics. 379. Sarp, Rusnpr. Foraminifera from some cene”’ rocks of Egypt. 8. ““Phio- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 <) ScaNnLton, WaynE W.* Semiconductors. 378. ScHuBERT, Bernice G. See SmirH, Lyman B 110. SEEGER, RaymMonp J. On the liberal sciences. 361 SHAFFRAN, I. P. See Huss, W.C. 1384. Suartrro, Maurice M.* New unstable particles in the cosmic radiation. 382. SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Notes on the amphi- pod crustacean Maeroides thompsoni Walker. 59. SINGLETERRY, C. R.* Particle size from fluores- cence depolarization. 377. Starer, J. C.* The nature of the chemical bond. 378. Smart, J. Samuny.* Antiferromagnetism. 381. Smith, Lyman B. Notes on Brazilian phanero- gams. 197. — and ScuuBEeRT, Bernice G. Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV. 110. Smout, AuAN H. Reclassification of the Rotali- dea (Foraminifera) and two new Cretaceous forms resembling Elphidiwm. 201. Souns, Ernest R. Cenchrus and Pennisetum: Fascicle morphology. 135. Srenui, Francrs G. Notes on Permian rhyncho- nellids. 70. Srong, ALAN, and Knicut, KennetH L. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: I, The genera Armzgeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus (Diptera, Culi- cidae). 282. Srrauss, Jerome. High-strength cast iron: Ap- praisal and forecast. 233. SrrimpLe, Harrevyt L. A new species of Cym- biocrinus from the Pitkin. 14. pt aL. New Ordovician echinoderms. 347. Taussky, Onca. See Fan, Ky. 339. Topp, JoHN. See Fan, Ky. 339. Tresster, Wits L. See Exurorr, Francis E. 248. Voxes, H. E. Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. 260. Von Branp, THeopor. Anaerobiosis in Austral- orbis glabratus: Temperature effects and tis- sue hydration. 373. Waker, Davin H. See Newnousr, VeRNE H. 15. Weper, Neat A. Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr. 275. Wexier, H. Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather. 46. Wiuriams, Austin B. The genus Ogyrides (Crus- tacea: Caridea) in North Carolina. 56. Wiuuramson, A. A. The unitary principle. 33. Wiuson, E. Bricur.* Some famous scientific blunders. 378. Wirt, Wruurs W. Three new species of Culi- coides from Texas (Diptera: Heleidae). 355. DECEMBER 1955 INDEX 387 SUBJECT INDEX Biochemistry. Bactericidal activity of ozonized ole fins. J. V. Karaprnos and H. J. Frr- Lin. 103. The influence of intramuscular and oral eortisone and hydrocortisone on _ liver glycogen formation by DL alanine. W. C. Hess and J. P. SHAFFRAN. 134. *X-ray analysis as a tool in biochemistry. Ray Peprinsxy. 384. Biology. The unitary principle. A. A. Wrriram- son. 33. Fungus-growing ants and their fungi: Cyph- omyrmex rimosus minutus Mayr. NEAL A. WEBER. 275. Botany. A 2-4-2 chimera of McIntosh apple. Hare DERMEN. 324. Cenchrus and Pennisetum: Fascicle morphol- ogy. Ernest R. Souns. 135. New Korean grasses and new names of grasses to be validated before publication of a manual of the grasses of Korea. IN-CHo CuwtnG. 210. Notes on Brazilian phanerogams. Lyman B. Sait. 197. Studies in the Begoniaceae, IV. Lyman B. SmitH and Bernice G. ScHouBert. 110. Chemistry. *Color and chemical constitution. Wattack R. Brope. 379. Editorials. 133, 165. Entomology. New apterous Aradidae from Puerto Rico (Hemiptera). Cart J. Drake and J. Matponapo-CaPRILEs. 289. New names in the Homoptera. Z. P. Mrer- CALF. 262. Some work of the periodical cicada. E. A. ANDREWS. 20. The immature stages of Sarcophaga cooley, S. bullata, and S. shermani (Diptera: Sar- cophagidae). VERNE F. NewHouseE, Davip W. Waker, and Maurice T. Jams. 15. Three new species of Culicoides from Texas (Diptera: Heleidae). Winurs W. Wrrtu. 355. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: I, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN StoNnE and KEN- NETH L. KNIGHT. 282. General science. On the liberal sciences. RayMonp J. Spencer. 361. * Some famous scientific blunders. E. BrrGut Witson. 378. ; Herpelotogy. Desmognathus planiceps, a new salamander from Virginia. Wa.ttrEer B. NEWMAN. 83. History of science. The development in Washing- ton of a subspecies of the genus Homo, sapiens scientifica, the members of which no longer adorn themselves by wearing ‘‘tails.”’ H. L. Curtis. 131. Hydrography. A comparison of the environmental characteristics of some shelf areas of eastern United States. Francis E. Evuiorr, Wit- LIAM H. Myers, and Wiuurs L. TrREesSLER. 248. Ichthyology. Fiatfishes of the genus Symphurus from the U.S.S. Albatross Expedition to the Philippines. 1907-1910. Paun CHABANAUD. 30. Pontinus clemensi, a new scorpaenoid fish from the tropical eastern Pacific. Jonn E. Frren. 61. Letters to the Editor. 229, 268, 359. Malacology. Conus eldredi, new name for one of the poison cones. J. P. E. Morrison. 32. Notes on American eyclophoroid land snails, with two new names, eight new species, three new genera, and the family Amphicy- clotidae, separated on animai characters. J.P. E. Morrison, 149. Shell structure of West American Pelecypoda. JoHN J. OBERLING. 128. Mammalegy. A new subspecies of wood rat from Nayarit, Mexico, with new name-combina- tions for the Neotoma mexicana group. E. Raymonp Hat. 328. Descriptions of pocket gophers (Thomomy: bottae) from northeastern Arizona. DoNALD F. HorrMerster. 126. New bats of the genus Corynorhinus. CHARLES O. HanpDLey, JR. 147. Mathematics. A consequence of inequalities pro posed by Baker and Ericksen. J. L. Ericx- SEN. 268. An algebraic proof of the isoperimetric ine- quality for polygons. Ky Fan, OuGa Taus- sky, and JoHN Topp. 339. Application of two methods of numerical analysis to the computation of the re- flected radiation of a point source. PETER HeEnrIctr. 38. *Military decision and the mathematical theory of games. OLttver G. Haywoopn, JR. 380. Note concerning the number of directions which, in a given motion, suffer no instan- taneous rotation. J. L. ErrcKsen. 65. Spectroscopic eigenvalue analysis. C. Lanz- cos. 315. Table of characteristic values of Mathieu’s equation for large values of the parameter. GERTRUDE Buancu and Ipa Ruopes. 166. Medicine. *Some new aspects of the cancer cell. WiuiramM R. DuyRer. 383. Metallurgy. High-strength cast iron: Appraisal and forecast. JEROME STRAUSS. 233. Meteorology. Dynamic linkages between westerly waves and weather. H. WExuErR. 46. Pehr Kalm’s meteorological observations in North America. EstHpr Lourse Larsen. 269. Mineralogy. Thermal analysis and X-ray studies of grifithite. GzrorGn T. Faust. 66. Mycology. A small Conidicbolus with globose and with elongated secondary conidia. CHARLES DReEscHLER. 114. A southern Basidiobolus forming many spo- rangia from globose and from elongated adhesive conidia. CHARLES DRESCHLER. 49. 388 Nematology. A new nematode, Rotylenchus melan- cholicus, n. sp., found associated with grass roots, and its sexual dimorphism. Lurz GonzaGa E. LorpELLo. 81. New members of the Academy. 97. Ornithology. Description of a new chipping spar row from Canada. Harry C. OBBRHOLSER. 59. Paleontology. A new Pleistocene bat (Coryno- rhinus) from Mexico. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, Jr. 48. A new species of Cymbiocrinus from the Pit- kin. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 14. A new species of mylagaulid from the Chalk Cliffs local fauna, Montana. Matcom C. McKenna. 107. Cenozoic pearls from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. H. E. Voxes. 260. Foraminifera from some ‘‘Pliocene” rocks of Egypt. Rusupi Sarp. 8. | New genera of Foraminifera from the British Lower Carboniferous. Roperr H. Cum- MINGS. l. New Ordovician echinoderms. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE ET AL. 347. Notes on Permian rhynchonellids. Francis G. STEHLTI. 70. Reclassification of the Rotaliidea (Foraminif- era) and two new Cretaceous forms re- sembling EHlphidium. ALAN H. Smout. 201. Stacheoides, a new foraminiferal genus from the British Upper Paleozoic. Roprertr H. CumMMINGS. 342. The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe and the Near Hast. Raymonp Casey. 366. Physical chemistry. Tritium in nature. W. F. Lipsy. 301. Physics. *Antiferromagnetism. J. SAMUEL SMART. 381. A tree from the standpoint of lightning. Francis M. DEranporF. 333. Limitations on rapid signal analysis. Epirn L. R. Corutss. 359. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 45, No. 12 *New unstable particles in the cosmic radia tion. Maurice M. SHaprro. 382. *Particle size from fluorescence depolariza- tion. C. R. SINGLETERRY. 377. *Semiconductors. WAYNE W. SCANLON. 378. *Some recent developments in continuum mechanics. Ronaup 8. Rivuin. 379. *The effects of the moon on the earth’s outer atmosphere. A. G. McNisu. 380. The electrometer at high frequencies. Mar- TIN GREENSPAN. 229. *The nature of the chemical bond. J. C. SLATER. 378. *The ONR program of sponsored research in magnetism. JoHN A. OSBORN. 382. Physiology. Anaerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus : Temperature effects and tissue hydration. THEODOR VON BRAND. 373. Toxicology. Observations on toxic marine algae. Ropert C. Hapexost, [an M. FRAsmr, and Brucr W. Haustwap. 101. Washington scientific news. 162, 200, 232, 346. Zoology. A new species of Pararchinotodelphys (Copepoda: Cyeclopoida) with remarks on its systematic position. Pauu L. Inua. 216. New species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from the east coast of North America. Marian H. Perripone. 118. Notes on the amphipod crustacean Maeroides thompsoni Walker. CLARENCE R. SHOE- MAKER. 99. Remarkably preserved fossil sea-pens and their Recent counterparts. FrepERICK M. Bayer. 294. Some Rhizocephala found on brachyuran crabs in the West Indian region. Epwarp G. REINHARD. 75. The genus Ogyrides (Crustacea: Caridea) in North Carolina. Austin B. WiLLiAMs. 56. The isopod genus Chiridotea Harger, with a description of a new species from brackish waters. THomas E. Bowman. 224. Two new Nephtys (Annelida, Polychaeta) from San Francisco Bay. R. B. Ciark and Merepiti L. Jonss. 143. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences JERE TET Ser MarGarket Pittman, National Institutes of Health [PRASAD 2a On ee Oe Eee Raupy E. Grsson, Applied Physics Laboratory Necvetarueenicn. pe iscce te itear oe seis HeE1nz Specut, National Institutes of Health BTERSUTET «<6 ..5 6. oss Howarp 8S. Rappheys, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) BEECHEUESE MR COe Oot elas Aa ys inser ee Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington......................... LawrRENcE A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington................../.... Frank M. Serzier Biolopical Society of Washington .......................--. HersBert G. DIEGNAN WhemicaliSociety of Washington: -. 0.3. 0-2. 222.66. - oee ese Wiuuiam W. Watton Entomological Society of Washington. ..............-..2 2-2 e cee eee F. W. Poos Neational\Geovraphic Society... 26-5020... 2 eee es ots: ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington...................0500008- Epwin T. McKnicuar Medical Society of the District of Columbia................... FREDERICK O. CoE Molumbia: Historical: Socieby .cc00 5.646 ne coe oa a ahs See aren § GILBERT GROSVENOR Barsinical society of Washington. ss... fscscde< oe os Sens cee sce S. L. EMsw5LureRr Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... GrorGeE F. Gravatr Washington Society of Engineers. ...................... HERBERT GROVE DorsEY Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers........ R. 8. Dini Helminthological Society of Washington....................... JOHN S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists....... LLoyp A. BuRKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers . eer Fioyrp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers................ H. G. Dorsny District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. .D. E. Parsons District of Columbia Section, Society Experimental Biology and Medicine W. C. Hess Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. Diecss Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. SterHan Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: awicirtranyal O50 acer rins essen van sole cules sats neta M. A. Mason, R. J. SzeGrerR Powbaruanya | 95i 5 ee os ein. rh niece nie cee eels A. T. McPHmrson, A. B. Gurney im James Ok ogee GS Sop on nao Onan rmann cae W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaLLen OMMMAOIMUIONGGETS. .. ace cee ce ie eee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor SUTERE GF LACUS SSG ood oe site DOE A RCN ce a ea or are {See front cover] PCP CULTURE CONLTUULLEE 128s tents 5 is otsisinve ss nes M. Pirrman (chairman), R. E. Gipson, H. Spscut, H. S. Rappieye, J. R. SwaLLen Committee on Membership....Roamr W. Curtis (chairman), Joan W. Aupricu, GEORGE Anastos, Haroxp T. Cook, JosepH J. Fanny, Francois N. FRENKIEL, PererR Kina, Gorpon M. KLINE, Louts R. MaxwELL, FLorence M. MbraRrs, Curtis W. SABROSEY, BENJAMIN ScHWARTz, Bancrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. Smrvx, Harry WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ARNOLD H. Scorr (chairman), Harry 8. BERNTON, Harry Bortuwick, Herpert G. DEIGNAN, WAYNE C. Hau, ALBERT M. Stone QUT CR MORO GRD an osospboooosnednoesoseeasnee G. ArtHuR Cooper (chairman) PRomvamnuaryeal Q5G ra sac. feck s Peteic a oes crete G. ArtHur Coopsr, James I. HorrmMan LO UGTA Ae SY (ie eee ee Harawp A. RewpeR, Wrtiuiam A. DayTon MOR aARU arya! OSE on Mele y eee el Ate ts or Dzan B. Cowiz, JosprH P. E. Morrisor Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement . .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sarna E. BRANHAM (chairman), Joun S. ANDREWS, James M. Hunotey, R. A. St. Gzorce, Bernice G. ScHUBERT, W. R. Weve For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. TRENT (chairman), Josepu M. CALDWELL, R.S. Diuu, T. J. Hicxtny, T. J. Kinu1an, Gorpon W. McBripe, E. R. Prore For Physical Sciences ates BENJAMIN L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn, Scorr EH. Forsusu, Marcaret D. Foster, M. E. FREEMAN, J. K. TAYLOR For Teaching of Science.... Monroe H. Martin (chairman), Kerra C. JOHNSON, Lourse H. Marswaty, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. OwENns Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. Francis 0. Rice (chairman), HRMAN Branson, CHARLES K. TRUEBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning.....................-. E. C. CritrenDEN (chairman) ROR AnUaATV19 50h eee er reeeee E. C. CritrenpEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE Mo wanuaryelOsieee eer ee ee JOHN E. Grar, Raymond J. SEEGER Iho dernnmypay WOH. soscoosacauoncsuone Francis M. DEFANDORF, Frank M. SETzLER Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent.. ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman) Moweanuanyal (56a abe see ke Haro.tp FE. Finury, J. H. McMrItuen owanutiary 105 (8 -eaaeee ee a L. Epwin Yocum, WiuL1am J. YOUDEN MORIADUALY: VOSS cing demon teeta sya, Meera A. T. McPuurson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education....RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman), Ronatp BAMFORD, R. Percy Barnes, Wauuace R. Brope, LEonarp CarMIcHAEL, Hueu L. DRYDEN, REGINA FLANNERY, Rawpew FB. Greson, Fioyp W. Hoveu, Martin A. Mason, GrorceE D. Rock, Witiiam W. RusBEy, Wriiram H. SEBRELL, eee Mag Scumrrr, B. D. Van Evera, WILuraM E. WRaATHER, Francis E JOHNSTON hepresentatweonsCounciopvAAvAuSe. sn) neni... sees a Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRancts E. JouNston, (chairman), S. D. Contrns, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers.. RALPH P. TirTsLeR (chairman), EK. ich Hampep, J. G. THOMPSON CONTENTS Page GENERAL SciENCcE.—On the liberal sciences. RAymMonp J. SEEGER... 361 PaLEONTOLOGY—The pelecypod family Corbiculidae in the Mesozoic of Europe and the Near East. RaymMonp CASEY............... 366 Puystotocy.—Anaerobiosis in Australorbis glabratus: Temperature ef- fects and tissue hydration. THEODOR VON BRAND.............. 373 PRocEEDINGS:; “ehilosophical Society >... . >... ..-...-: ee eee 377 INDEX TO? VOUUMBOAD..... cre. cscs tino oo a oo eS he tO 385 Bee a Aap i ent ), we mi abel Hl oe mH Me TAL AN Dawe fer hek beh, bie’ boy oh aps we a ‘ne chr eibaed ! Miah AA -OEG HL NK ae W ee har APSE Ds ie wt VW eM AIRS toma IT Ken Gal by Th KoAeh Ott AA MLL Kh yp aD AA Se ON Pig oe Ho aa) Vee ee Ae fh Se Oh eet wet ' CUE RC ULE i a Ie) (ie witha BeBe dh Nth & “4 » ITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES Daim Aah JCAL CV A Py WADSY DARL UA PMO ae Sy ah 4 Ak AL EMR eH TPL ER IBA Mie E ‘ ile ptee Wea ee : se Waldansaaymiunay in oe le wy fae WAS CEH ESOL UR De oh Eb! 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